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= Adolf Hitler 's 50th birthday =
The 50th birthday of Adolf Hitler on 20 April 1939 was celebrated as a national holiday throughout Nazi Germany and other parts of the world . Gifts and telegrams of congratulations were received from all over Germany and allied countries , although the Western Allies ignored the event diplomatically . The birthday celebration saw , amongst other events , the largest military parade in the history of the Third Reich , with army , air force , navy and SS units , numbering almost 50 @,@ 000 in total , marching through the streets of Berlin in Hitler 's honor .
= = Celebrations = =
On 18 April 1939 , the government of Nazi Germany declared that their Führer Adolf Hitler 's birthday ( 20 April ) to be a national holiday . Festivities took place in all municipalities throughout the country , as well as in the Free City of Danzig . The British historian Ian Kershaw comments that the events organised in Berlin by the Nazi minister of propaganda Joseph Goebbels were " an astonishing extravaganza of the Führer cult . The lavish outpourings of adulation and sycophancy surpassed those of any previous Führer Birthdays . "
Festivities began in the afternoon on the day before his birthday , when Hitler rode in the lead car of a motorcade of fifty white limousines along architect Albert Speer 's newly completed East @-@ West Axis , the planned central boulevard for Welthauptstadt Germania , which was to be the new capital after the planned victory in World War II . Hitler , anticipating that Speer would give a speech , was amused when he evaded this by briefly announcing that the work should speak for itself . The next event was a torchlit procession of appointments from all over Germany , which Hitler reviewed from a balcony in the Reich Chancellery . Then , at midnight , Hitler 's courtiers congratulated him and presented him with gifts , including , " Statues , bronze casts , Meissen porcelain , oil @-@ paintings , tapestries , rare coins , antique weapons , and a mass of other presents , many of them kitsch . Hitler admired some , made fun of others , and ignored most . "
Speer presented Hitler with a scale model of the gigantic triumphal arch planned for the rebuilding of Berlin , and Hitler 's pilot , Hans Baur , gave him a model of the " Führer Machine " , a four @-@ engined Focke @-@ Wulf 200 which was to go into service later that year as Hitler 's official airplane .
= = Military parade = =
A key part of the birthday celebrations was the large demonstration of Nazi Germany 's military capabilities . The display was intended in part as a warning to the Western powers . The parade , which lasted about five hours , included 12 companies of the Luftwaffe , 12 companies of the army , and 12 companies of the navy , as well as units of the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) . In total , 40 @,@ 000 to 50 @,@ 000 German troops took part . 162 warplanes flew over Berlin . The grandstand comprised 20 @,@ 000 official guests , and the parade was watched by several hundred thousand spectators . Features of the parade were large long range air defence artillery guns , emphasis on motorized artillery and development of air defense units . Joseph Goebbels , the event 's organizer , declared in a broadcast address to the German people :
The Reich stands in the shadow of the German sword . Trade and industry , and cultural and national life flourish under the guarantee of the military forces . The name of Herr Hitler is our political programme . Imagination and realism are harmoniously combined in the Führer .
Military leaders throughout the country gave addresses to their troops to celebrate the occasion . Some , such as Major General ( later Generalfeldmarschall ) Erich von Manstein , were especially effusive in their praise for their supreme commander . Official guests representing 23 countries took part in the celebrations . Papal envoy Cesare Orsenigo , the President of the Slovak Republic Jozef Tiso , the heads of the branches of Nazi Germany 's armed forces , and mayors of German cities offered birthday congratulations at the chancellery . Hitler and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini exchanged telegrams assuring each other that the friendship between Germany and the Kingdom of Italy ( both ruled by fascist regimes at the time ) could not be disturbed by their enemies . The ambassadors of the United Kingdom , France and the United States were not present at the parade , having been withdrawn after Hitler 's march into Czechoslovakia in 1938 . The U.S. was represented at the troop review by chargé d 'affaires Raymond H. Geist . U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt did not congratulate Hitler on his birthday , in accordance with his practice of not sending birthday greetings to anyone but ruling monarchs . King George VI of the United Kingdom dispatched a message of congratulation to Hitler ; but due to the strained relations between the two countries , his advisors had considered whether the King should ignore the birthday altogether . There was no Polish representation at the parade .
= = Commemoration = =
A luxury edition of Hitler 's political manifesto and autobiography Mein Kampf published in 1939 in honor of his 50th birthday was known as the Jubiläumsausgabe ( " Anniversary Issue " ) . It came in both dark blue and sharp red boards with a gold sword on the cover . The German author and photographer Heinrich Hoffmann wrote a book about Hitler 's 50th birthday , entitled Ein Volk ehrt seinen Führer ( " A Nation Honors its Leader " ) . Composer Hans Rehberg wrote a hymn for the occasion . A film of the birthday celebration , Hitlers 50 . Geburtstag ( " Hitler 's 50th Birthday " ) , is regarded as an important example of Nazi propaganda ; it was subsequently shown to packed audiences at Youth Film Hours , which were held on Sundays .
= = Birthday gifts = =
The Free City of Danzig made Hitler an honorary citizen of the city as a birthday gift . Hitler received the citizenship papers from the hands of Albert Forster , the city 's Nazi leader . Political and military tension between Germany and Poland was heightened at the time , and Time Magazine reported the possibility of Danzig being returned to Germany . Martin Bormann , Hitler 's private secretary , had the Eagle 's Nest constructed as the Nazi Party 's birthday gift . Hitler , however , did not like the location , as he had a fear of heights . Because of his indigestion , Hitler did not drink alcohol , so a Munich brewery created a special batch of low alcohol beer for his birthday . The brew became a regular order .
On the occasion of his birthday , families with small incomes received a birthday gift of 15 German Reichsmarks , plus 5 Reichsmarks for every dependent , an expenditure totalling 13 million Reichsmarks .
= = = Printed = = =
Hoffmann , Hilmar ( 1997 ) . The Triumph of Propaganda : Film and National Socialism , 1933 – 1945 . Berghahn Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 57181 @-@ 122 @-@ 6 .
Kershaw , Ian ( 2000 ) . Hitler : 1936 – 1945 : Nemesis . Norton Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 393 @-@ 32252 @-@ 1 .
Speer , Albert ( 1970 ) . Inside the Third Reich . Orion Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84212 @-@ 735 @-@ 3 .
Stein , Marcel ( 2007 ) . Field Marshal Von Manstein : The Janushead – A Portrait . Helion & Company . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 906033 @-@ 02 @-@ 6 .
Sterling , Christopher ( 2008 ) . Military Communications : From Ancient Times to the 21st Century . ABC @-@ CLIO . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 85109 @-@ 732 @-@ 6 .
= = = Online = = =
" 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 Watch Parade As Nazis Celebrate " . Pittsburgh Press . 20 April 1939 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" Adolf Hitler " . Life . 25 September 1939 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" Foreign News : Birthday Present ? " . Time . 24 April 1939 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" George VI Sends Hitler Congratulatory Message " . Pittsburgh Press . 20 April 1939 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" Hitler 's Commemorative Timepiece : Rare Limited Edition Watch Created For Dictator 's 47th Birthday Is Discovered By Polish Customs Officials " . Daily Mail . 7 March 2011 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" Hitler , Duce Repledge Aid " . The Prescott Evening Courier . 21 April 1939 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" Hitler Holds Great Display of Militarism " . San Jose Evening News . 20 April 1941 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" Hitler Proudly Parades Big Guns At Celebration " . The Miami Daily News . 20 April 1939 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" How Hitler 's 50th Birthday Party Sparked World War II " . Daily Mail . 17 April 2009 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" Luxury Edition of Mein Kampf Honors Hitler " . Evening Independent . 21 April 1939 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" Nazi Play Revived " . The Jerusalem Post . 18 November 2003 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" Roosevelt Will Not Congratulate Hitler " . The Norwalk Hour . 20 April 1939 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" Wo Hitler Schwindlig Wurde [ Where Hitler Was Dizzy ] " ( in German ) . Der Tagesspiegel . 21 October 1939 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" Worship of Hitler " . The Age . 21 April 1939 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
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= Sheffield Rules =
The Sheffield Rules were a code of football devised and played in the English city of Sheffield between 1857 and 1877 . They were devised by Nathaniel Creswick and William Prest for use by the newly founded Sheffield Football Club . The rules were subsequently adopted as the official rules of Sheffield Football Association upon its creation in 1867 . They spread beyond the city boundaries to other clubs and associations in the north and midlands of England making them one of the most popular forms of football during the 1860s and 70s .
Six years after the creation of the Sheffield Rules the Football Association rules were created . These were influenced by the Sheffield game but ongoing disputes meant that the Sheffield rules continued to be used . During this time many of the elements of the rules were incorporated into the association game . Regular games were played between Sheffield and London using both sets of rules . This led to an agreement on a single set of laws administered by the Football Association in 1877 .
The rules had a major influence on how the modern game of football developed . Among other things they introduced into the laws of the game the concepts of corners , throw @-@ ins , and free kicks for fouls . The abolition of the fair catch also led to their teams to be the first to head the ball . Games played under the rules are also credited with the development of heading and the origins of the goalkeeper and forward positions . The first inter @-@ club football match and competitive tournament were both played using Sheffield Rules .
= = Background = =
The oldest recorded football match in Sheffield occurred in 1794 when a game of mob football was played between Sheffield and Norton ( at the time a Derbyshire village ) that took place at Bents Green . The game lasted three days , which was not unusual for matches at the time . It was noted that although there were some injuries no @-@ one was killed during the match . The Clarkehouse Road Fencing Club had been playing football since 1852 . The city was home to a number of sports clubs and the popularity of cricket had led to the chairman of Sheffield Cricket Club to suggest the construction of Bramall Lane .
By the 1850s there were several versions of football played in public schools and clubs throughout England . Each school played by their own code despite an attempt by Cambridge University to unify them in 1848 . Their rules were generally inaccessible outside of the schools . There the football tended to be unorganised and fairly lawless games known as mob football . Although there are matches between small , equal numbered teams it remained a minority sport until the 1860s .
During the winter months in 1855 the players of Sheffield Cricket Club organised informal football matches in order to retain fitness until the start of the new season . Two of the players were Nathaniel Creswick ( 1826 – 1917 ) and William Prest ( 1832 – 1885 ) , both of whom were born in Yorkshire . Creswick came from a Sheffield family of silver plate manufacturers that dated back several centuries . After being educated at the city 's Collegiate School he became a solicitor . Prest 's family had moved from York while he was a child . His father bought a wine merchants that William subsequently took over . Both men were keen sportsmen . Creswick enjoyed a number of sports including cricket and running . Prest played cricket for the All England XI and also captained Yorkshire on several occasions . The inaugural meeting of Sheffield F.C. took place on 24 October 1857 at Parkfield House in the suburb of Highfield . The original headquarters would become a greenhouse on East Bank Road . The adjacent field was used as their first playing ground .
= = Rules of 1858 = =
The first written set of laws were produced at the club 's first annual general meeting on 21 October 1858 . The original draft was amended at the same meeting to produce the following set of rules for the 1858 – 59 season .
The kick off from the middle must be a place kick .
Kick out must not be more than 25 yards [ 23 m ] out of goal .
A fair catch is a catch from any player provided the ball has not touched the ground or has not been thrown from touch and is entitled to a free @-@ kick .
Charging is fair in case of a place kick ( with the exception of a kick off as soon as a player offers to kick ) but he may always draw back unless he has actually touched the ball with his foot .
Pushing with the hands is allowed but no hacking or tripping up is fair under any circumstances whatever .
No player may be held or pulled over .
It is not lawful to take the ball off the ground ( except in touch ) for any purpose whatever .
The ball may be pushed or hit with the hand , but holding the ball except in the case of a free kick is altogether disallowed .
A goal must be kicked but not from touch nor by a free kick from a catch .
A ball in touch is dead , consequently the side that touches it down must bring it to the edge of the touch and throw it straight out from touch .
Each player must provide himself with a red and dark blue flannel cap , one colour to be worn by each side .
= = Overview = =
= = = Conception = = =
The rules had been in use since the establishment of the club . Although a selection of rules from public schools were seen there , the 1858 rules show little evidence of their influence . Many of the original members were from the local Collegiate School , which favoured the kicking style of the game , rather than handling the ball . The kicking game was also prevalent in the local villages of Penistone and Thurlstone . The rules were the first to penalise foul play with a free kick , introduce the throw @-@ in and eliminate the offside rule . They also had the unique feature of preventing a goal being scored directly from a free kick or throw @-@ in .
Significant changes were also noted in the minutes book . The original draft prevented all handling of the ball except in the case of a fair catch . It also prevented all hacking and tripping . Despite the relaxation of these rules the first rules clearly leaned towards the kicking version of the game and away from handling of the ball . The season would start on 1 November and run until Easter Saturday . The numbers on each side were not fixed . The club rules also dictated that any disputes on the field would be resolved by any committee members present — the first reference to a position now occupied by the referee .
= = = Early years = = =
Initially the code was only played among Sheffield F.C. members . Games initially teamed players with surnames in the first half of the alphabet against players with surnames in the latter half of the alphabet . They , however , discovered that the most talented players all had surnames in the first half . Various other permutations were tried with professionals versus merchants and manufacturers becoming one of the favourites . In December 1858 they played their first outside opposition , a team from the local 58th Army Regiment . In 1859 the club produced the first printed rule book . Despite this the rules were not entirely fixed with changes experimented with throughout the season .
Two major events took place in 1860 . On 31 January a meeting was held where it was resolved that Law 8 should be expunged and replaced with Holding the ball ( except in the case of a free kick ) or knocking or pushing it on is altogether disallowed . On the pitch the world ’ s first inter @-@ club match between Sheffield and the newly formed Hallam F.C. took place on 26 December 1860 . The match took place at Hallam 's ground , Sandygate Road . It was reported that " The Sheffielders turned in their usual Scarlet and White " which suggests that club colours were already in use . Despite playing with inferior numbers Sheffield F.C. beat Hallam 2 – 0 .
In 1861 rouges were introduced into the code . The idea was borrowed from Eton and involved a 4 yards ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) goal ( as opposed to 8 yards ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) used previously ) . There were also rouge flags placed an additional 4 yards ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) each side of the goal . If the ball was kicked between the rouge flags and subsequently touched down the team scored a rouge . If the score was tied at the end of the game then rouges could be used to decide the winner . A version of the arrangement remains in Australian Rules Football .
When the club published its second rule book in 1862 the number of laws had grown to 17 . The game of the time could still be a violent one . A match on 29 December between Sheffield and Hallam became known as the Battle of Bramall Lane . An incident occurred when Nathaniel Creswick was being held by Shaw and Waterfall . Accounts differ over subsequent events . The original report stated that Creswick was accidentally punched by Waterfall . This was contested in a letter from the Hallam players that claimed that it was in retaliation for a blow thrown by Nathaniel Creswick . Whatever the cause the result was a general riot , which also involved a number of spectators , after which Waterfall was sent to guard the goal as punishment .
= = = Sheffield and London = = =
The Football Association ( FA ) was formed at a meeting in the Freemason 's Tavern in Great Queen Street , London on 26 October 1863 . Sheffield F.C. sent four representatives who acted as observers . The club joined the new organisation a month later in a letter sent by William Chesterman . In it he also enclosed a copy of the Sheffield Rules and expressed the club 's opposition to hacking and running with the ball , describing them as " directly opposed to football " . This letter was read out at an FA meeting on 1 December 1863 . The rules allowing hacking and running with the ball were reversed at the same meeting . The new code became known as Association Football .
The offside rule was introduced to Sheffield Rules in 1863 . Their version only required one member of the opposition between a player and the opposing goal to remain on side . Despite this the rule was only used sporadically in actual play . The FA version , which required a player to remain behind the ball at all times , was introduced during the 1865 – 66 season but was disliked due to the lack of goal scoring opportunities it caused . The one man offside was finally used a regular basis from 1867 until the adoption of FA rules in 1877 .
The FA had remained largely dormant after the creation of its rules but in 1866 Sheffield F.C. suggested a match between it and a FA club . This was misunderstood and they ended up playing a combined FA team on 31 March 1866 under FA rules . The game was the first ever to limit the match to 90 minutes and Sheffield F.C. adopted it as its preferred length of match . The rule would make it to the FA rule book in 1877 . A second match was suggested by the London FA in a letter sent in November or the same year but never took place , the reason being disputes of which rules should be used . The FA introduced an 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) cross bar used by Sheffield in the same year only for Sheffield to then decide to raise it to 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) . The fair catch was also dropped by Sheffield . This completed the transition to a purely kicking game .
By 1867 the Sheffield Rules was the dominant code in England . The FA had still not achieved the national dominance it enjoys today . Its membership had shrunk to just 10 clubs and at a meeting of the FA it was reported that only three clubs ( No Names Club , Barnes and Crystal Palace ) were playing by the FA code . At the same meeting the secretary of Sheffield Club suggested three rule changes at an FA meeting : the adoption of rouges , the one man offside and introduction of a free kick for handling the ball . None of the motions were successful . Later in the same year , they abolished handling and touchdowns . It was stated that this was to bring them closer to non @-@ handling games .
= = = Birth of competition = = =
In 1867 the world 's first football tournament , the Youdan Cup , was played under the rules . The tournament involved 12 local sides and was played during February and March . The tournament committee decided on the use of an off @-@ field referee to award free kicks for infringements . The final took place on 5 March and was only the second football match to take place at Bramall Lane . A crowd of 3 @,@ 000 , a world record attendance , watched Hallam F.C. claim the cup by scoring two rouges in the last five minutes to win two rouges to one . The Sheffield Football Association was founded following the tournament . The 12 teams involved in the tournament were joined by Sheffield F.C. to become the founding members . The association adopted the Sheffield Rules without any changes . They were the first of several regional Football Associations that sprung up over the following decade .
A second tournament , the Cromwell Cup was played a year later . This time it was only open to teams under two years old . Out of the four teams that competed The Wednesday emerged victorious . The final was a goalless draw after 90 minutes so the teams played on until a goal was scored . This was the first instance where a match involved extra time . This would be the last tournament to be played in Sheffield for nine years until the formation of the Sheffield Football Association Challenge Cup in 1876 .
Rouges were abandoned in 1868 to be replaced by the goal and corner kicks . Sheffield FA limited handling to within 3 yards ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) of the goal in 1871 . The FA , however , introduced a designated goalkeeper who was allowed to handle the ball anywhere on the pitch . In an effort to prevent the Sheffield game looking boring in comparison the Sheffield FA expanded the limit to the halfway line .
In 1870 , 16 teams of the Sheffield FA were admitted to the FA but were allowed to continue to play by Sheffield Rules against FA clubs . A year later the Sheffield FA itself became affiliated with the Football Association and matches between the two associations began .
Between 1871 and 1876 a total of 16 matches were played between the Sheffield and London associations . As well as playing under both Sheffield and London rules , additional matches were played at Bramall Lane using a mixture of both sets . Aspects of the Sheffield game were also incorporated into the FA rules . The matches being played between Sheffield and London led to the two sets of rules becoming ever more similar . The corner kick was proposed by the Sheffield Association and adopted by the FA on 17 February 1872 . They also followed Sheffield 's lead in restricting handling of the ball by the goalkeeper to his own half . The Sheffield game reverted to using an 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) crossbar in line with the FA .
= = = Demise = = =
The FA Cup was inaugurated in 1871 , but Sheffield clubs declined to enter the competition as it was being played under FA rules . The first team to enter was Sheffield F.C. in the 1873 – 74 season . This was after an attempt to enter a Sheffield FA team was refused by the organisers . They reached the quarter @-@ finals before being knocked out by Clapham Rovers . The Sheffield FA instituted their own Challenge Cup in 1876 . The cup was open to all the members of the SFA that now included many clubs outside the local area . The first final attracted a crowd of 8 @,@ 000 , twice as much as the FA Cup final in the same season . It was a record crowd for a cup match that would be held until the FA Cup of 1883 . The match was between Heeley and Wednesday and resulted in a 2 – 0 win for the latter .
By 1877 it was clear that the situation had become impractical . After letters were published in The Field deriding the state of affairs it was decided to unite the kicking game under one set of laws . By this time the FA Cup had helped the FA gain a dominant position within the game . The FA accepted the Sheffield rule allowing throw @-@ ins to be thrown in any direction , as opposed to right angles only as prevails in rugby lineouts . In return the FA 's use of a three @-@ man offside was adopted .
By the 1880s the influence of the Sheffield FA started to wane . Internal troubles began to surface with disputes between the SFA and a new rival association , Hallamshire F.A. The former , led by Charles Clegg , also fought a losing battle against the onset of professionalism . By the middle of the decade several local clubs , including Sheffield and Hallam F.C. , were in financial trouble .
The four national associations of the UK met in 1882 with a view to creating a common set of laws . They created of the International Football Association Board ( IFAB ) , which first met in 1886 . The IFAB 's role was further affirmed when Fédération Internationale de Football Association adopted their laws upon its formation in 1904 . They have remained in sole charge of the rules ever since .
= = Innovations = =
Sheffield teams created the first goals with solid crossbars . Heading , throw @-@ ins , corner kicks and awarding free kicks for fouls were also conceived in Sheffield games . One of the most enduring rules of the Sheffield game prevented a goal from being scored directly from a free kick or throw in / kick in . This was present in every version of the Sheffield Rules and was later adopted within the FA rules . It was later refined by the International Football Association Board into the modern @-@ day indirect free kick .
The aerial game was also developed within the Sheffield game . While causing much amusement when the side visited London in 1866 , the header would become an important feature of the national game . This was linked to the abolition of the fair catch in the same year that prevented all use of the hands by outfield players .
The 1862 rules also introduced a half @-@ time at which the teams would swap ends . Initially this was only if the game was scoreless as the teams would also swap ends if a goal was scored . The rule was changed to a swap at half @-@ time only in 1876 .
Early games did not use any on @-@ field officials but disputes between the players would be referred to a committee member . Umpires were introduced by the end of 1862 . Two umpires were used ; one from each club . The off @-@ field referee was introduced for the Youdan Cup in 1867 and entered the rulebook by 1871 . The umpires would then appeal to the referee on behalf of their team . The concept was later introduced to the FA game and persisted until 1891 when the referee moved onto the pitch and the umpires became linesmen . The umpire 's flag was first suggested by Charles Clegg at a Sheffield FA meeting in 1874 .
The innovative streak within Sheffield remained after the demise of their own rules . On 15 October 1878 a crowd of 20 @,@ 000 watched the first floodlit match at Bramall Lane . The exhibition match was set up to test the use of the lights and was played between specially selected teams captained by the brothers William and Charles Clegg . William Clegg 's team won 2 – 0 . The experiment was repeated a month later at the Oval .
The concept of a penalty goal for fouls within 2 yards ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) of the goal was suggested at a Sheffield FA meeting in 1879 . The penalty would eventually make it into the rules by 1892 . Sheffield players developed the ' screw shot ' in the late 1870s . This gave players the ability to bend the shot into the net , a technique now common in the game .
The Sheffield rules instigated the throw in of the ball at right angles by the opposite side to the one that played it into touch
= = Influence = =
Many of the rules in the Sheffield game were adopted by and are still featured in today ’ s association game . Twelve changes were made to the FA code between 1863 and 1870 , of which eight were taken from Sheffield Rules . During this period the Sheffield FA had significant influence over the FA and encouraged it to continue when it was close to collapse in 1867 . The corner kick was adopted by the FA in 1872 and they restricted handling of the ball to the goalkeeper 's own half in 1873 . In the final negotiations between Sheffield and London the latter agreed to allow throw @-@ ins in any direction in exchange .
During the 1860s Sheffield and London were the dominant football cultures in England . However , while London was fragmented by the different codes used , by 1862 the rules of Sheffield F.C. had become the dominant code in Sheffield . Nottingham Forest adopted the Sheffield code in 1867 and the Birmingham and Derbyshire FAs became affiliated with Sheffield , adopting its code , in 1876 . Most clubs in the north and midlands were playing by the Sheffield Rules while FA Rules dominated south of Birmingham .
There is circumstantial evidence that the rules also influenced Australian rules football conceived a couple of years later . The two codes shared the unique feature of lacking the offside rule . There are also similarities in the laws for kicking off , kick outs , throw @-@ ins and the fair catch . Henry Creswick ( possibly a relative of Nathaniel Creswick ) was born in Sheffield but emigrated to Australia with his brother in 1840 ( the town of Creswick is named after them ) . He moved to Melbourne in 1854 and became involved in the local cricket scene . He played first class cricket for Victoria during the 57 – 58 season alongside three of the founders of Melbourne Football Club including Tom Wills , the man credited with creating the original rules .
Despite the loss of their own rules Sheffield remained the centre of the footballing world until the onset of professionalism . The association matches versus London were considered only equalled in importance to the England v Scotland international and FA Cup Final . Sheffield born Charles Clegg became chairman of the Football Association in 1890 leading it until his death in 1937 . In the process he became the longest serving FA chairman and earned the nickname The Napoleon of Football .
= = Formations , positioning and passing = =
Early games involved varying numbers of players . Games could also be played with uneven numbers on each side either because some failed to show or one side offered a handicap . The first match between Sheffield and Hallam involved 16 players versus 20 . Games predominantly involved larger numbers than used in the modern games . In October 1863 , Sheffield declared that it would only play 11 a side matches . Despite this it continued to do so on occasions . By 1867 the vast majority of matches in Sheffield involved teams of between 11 and 14 .
One of the first positions to develop within the code was referred to as the kick through . The position was unique to the Sheffield game and developed because of the lack of an offside rule . The job of the man playing in the kick through position was to remain near to the opposition 's goal and wait for a through ball , a tactic today called cherry picking or goal hanging . By 1871 this position had become modern @-@ day forwards . Cover goals developed in opposition of kick throughs . Despite their name their job was to man mark the kick through .
According to CW Alcock , Sheffield provided the first evidence of the modern passing style In October 1863 , Sheffield declared that it would only play 11 a side matches. known as the Combination Game . As early as January 1865 Sheffield FC was associated with scoring a goal through " scientific movements " against Nottingham A contemporary match report of November 1865 notes " We cannot help recording the really scientific play with which the Sheffield men backed each other up " Combination play by Sheffield players is also suggest in 1868 : " a remarkably neat and quick piece of play on the part of K Smith , Denton and J Knowles resulted in a goal for Sheffield , the final kick being given by J. Knowles " Contemporary proof of passing occurs from at least January 1872 . In January 1872 the following account is given against Derby : " W. Orton , by a specimen of careful play , running the ball up in close proximity to the goal , from which it was returned to J. Marsh , who by a fine straight shot kicked it through " This play taking place " in close proximity to the goal " suggests a short pass and the " return " of the ball to Marsh suggests that this was the second of two passes . This account also goes onto describe other interesting early tactics : " This goal was supplemented by one of T. Butler 's most successful expositions of the art of corkscrew play and deceptive tactics which had the effect of exciting the risibility of the spectators " Similarly the following contemporary account of passing comes from January 1872 : " the only goal scored in the match was obtained by Sheffield , owing to a good run up the field by Steel , who passed it judiciously to Matthews , and the latter , by a good straight kick , landed it through the goal out of reach of the custodian " . This match ( against Notts ) also provided contemporary evidence of " good dribbling and kicking " particularly by W.E. Clegg . The condition of the ground , however , " militated against a really scientific exhibition " , suggesting that at other times their play was even more " scientific " . Their play in March 1872 was described as " speed , pluck and science of no mean order "
Before the introduction of the crossbar , teams could play without a goalkeeper . The first reference to a goalkeeper appears in the report of the Battle of Bramall Lane in 1862 . The position , however , was used as an alternative to sending off a player . Although a recognised position goalkeeper sometimes was also referred to in the rules as the player nearest their own goal ( allowing him the luxury of handling the ball ) . Unlike its FA counterpart Sheffield Rules never restricted handling to one designated player . Despite this by the 1870s teams usually featured a single player in the position .
The match between the Sheffield FA and the FA that took place in December 1871 is notable for evidence of the development of several new positions . As well as the first mention of forwards , sides ( now called wingers ) were also mentioned . The rest of the team made up the midfield . The Half backs ( referred to as centre backs in the modern game ) were mentioned a year later . By the mid @-@ 1870s it was common to use one goalkeeper assisted by two cover goals and two half backs . The attack was made up of five midfielders and one forward . This produced the 2 – 2 – 5 – 1 formation .
= = Key figures = =
Nathaniel Creswick and William Prest are considered both founders of Sheffield F.C. and creators of the code they adhered to . They continued to have a strong presence at the club , both being members of the committee . It was Creswick , however , who exerted more influence over the rules in his position of Honorary Secretary and Treasurer .
John Shaw was originally a member of Sheffield Club . However another member , Thomas Vickers , also founded their main rivals , Hallam F.C. He also became the vice @-@ president of the Sheffield FA upon its formation and president from 1869 to 1885 . In this role he organised many of its first inter @-@ association matches and was involved in the eventual merger of the Sheffield Rule into the national game .
John Charles Clegg ( better known as just Charles ) became a massive influence on the national as well as the local game . As a player he was involved in the first inter @-@ association match and became the first Sheffield @-@ based player to be capped ( gaining his only cap in the first international ) . He went on to become president of both the city 's professional sides ( playing a large part in the creation of Sheffield United ) and held the same position at Sheffield and Hallamshire FA having overseen the merger of the two rival local FAs . He then moved on to national prominence when he became chairman of the FA in 1890 and president in 1923 . He held both positions until his death in 1937 .
Although not directly involved with Sheffield football , Charles Alcock had a major role in relations between the local and London associations . He acted as a go between encouraging the FA to accept rules from the Sheffield Rules . When the FA declined an inter @-@ association match in Sheffield on the grounds that they could not play under Sheffield Rules it fell to Alcock to organise a team of London players to fulfil the fixture . The success of the match led to it becoming a regular event in the following years .
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= Thin Man ( nuclear bomb ) =
" Thin Man " was the codename for a proposed plutonium gun @-@ type nuclear bomb using plutonium @-@ 239 which the United States was developing during the Manhattan Project . Its development was aborted when it was discovered that the spontaneous fission rate of their nuclear @-@ reactor @-@ bred plutonium was too high for use in a gun @-@ type design , due to the too high concentration of the isotope plutonium @-@ 240 .
= = Early decisions = =
In 1942 , prior to the Army taking over wartime atomic research , Robert Oppenheimer held conferences in Chicago in June and Berkeley , California , in July at which various engineers and physicists discussed nuclear bomb design issues . A gun @-@ type design was chosen , in which two sub @-@ critical masses would be brought together by firing a " bullet " into a " target " . The idea of an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon was suggested by Richard Tolman but attracted scant consideration .
Oppenheimer , reviewing his options in early 1943 , gave priority to the gun @-@ type weapon , but as a hedge against the threat of pre @-@ detonation , he created the E @-@ 5 Group at the Los Alamos Laboratory under Seth Neddermeyer to investigate implosion . Implosion @-@ type bombs were determined to be significantly more efficient in terms of explosive yield per unit mass of fissile material in the bomb , because compressed fissile materials react more rapidly and therefore more completely . It was decided that the plutonium gun would receive the bulk of the research effort , since it was the project with the least amount of uncertainty involved . It was assumed that the uranium gun @-@ type bomb could be more easily adapted from it .
The gun @-@ type and implosion @-@ type designs were codenamed " Thin Man " and " Fat Man " projects respectively . These code names were created by Robert Serber , a former student of Oppenheimer 's who worked on the Manhattan Project . He chose them based on their design shapes ; the " Thin Man " would be a very long device , and the name came from the Dashiell Hammett detective novel The Thin Man and series of movies by the same name . The " Fat Man " bomb would be round and fat and was named after Sydney Greenstreet 's character in The Maltese Falcon . " Little Boy " would come last and be named only to contrast to the " Thin Man " bomb .
= = Development = =
Oppenheimer assembled a team at the Los Alamos Laboratory to work on plutonium gun design that included senior engineer Edwin McMillan and senior physicists Charles Critchfield and Joseph Hirschfelder . Critchfield had been working with sabots , which Oppenheimer believed would be required by the Thin Man to achieve the high muzzle velocities that critical assembly would require . Hirschfelder had been working on internal ballistics . Oppenheimer led the design effort himself until June 1943 , when Navy Captain William Sterling Parsons arrived and took over the Ordnance and Engineering Division and direct management of the " Thin Man " project .
These four created and tested all the elements of the Thin Man design between April 1943 and August 1944 . Parsons , who had developed the proximity fuze for the Navy , ran the division , and handled liaison with other agencies . As the head of the E @-@ 6 Projectile , Target , and Source Group , Critchfield calculated critical masses , and instituted a system of live testing with scale models using 20 mm cannon and 3 @-@ inch guns . While full @-@ scale Thin Man tubes took months to produce , these were readily and easily obtained . It was not possible to conduct tests with plutonium , as it was not yet available . Indeed , the actual physical characteristics of the metal were little more than educated guesses at this time .
Hirschfelder headed the E @-@ 8 Interior Ballistics Group . His group performed mathematical calculations , but he also had to identify a suitable powder , igniter , and primer . His group conducted full @-@ scale tests with their selections . Fixing the physical size of the bomb proved important when it came to selecting a suitable aircraft to carry it . The E @-@ 8 group estimated the muzzle velocity of the gun at around 3 @,@ 000 feet per second ( 910 m / s ) , close to the maximum achievable in 1944 , and calculated that the pressure in the barrel would be up to 75 @,@ 000 pounds per square inch ( 520 @,@ 000 kPa ) .
Although the weapon 's designers thought that simply bringing a critical mass together would be sufficient , Serber suggested that the design should also include an initiator . A polonium @-@ 210 @-@ beryllium initiator was chosen because polonium 210 has a 140 @-@ day half life , which allowed it to be stockpiled , and it could be obtained from naturally @-@ occurring ores from Port Hope , Ontario . Oppenheimer requested that it also be manufactured in the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge , Tennessee or , when they became available , the reactors at the Hanford Site .
= = Specifications = =
The " Thin Man " design was an early nuclear weapon design proposed before plutonium had been successfully bred in a nuclear reactor from the irradiation of uranium @-@ 238 . It was assumed that plutonium , like uranium @-@ 235 , could be assembled into a critical mass by a gun @-@ type method , which simply involved shooting one sub @-@ critical piece into another . To avoid pre @-@ detonation or " fizzle " , the plutonium " bullet " would need to be accelerated to a speed of at least 3 @,@ 000 feet per second ( 910 m / s ) — or else the fission reaction would begin before the assembly was complete , blowing the device apart prematurely .
Thin Man was 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) long , with a 38 @-@ inch ( 97 cm ) wide tail and nose assemblies , and a 23 @-@ inch ( 58 cm ) midsection . The length was necessary for the plutonium " bullet " to pick up adequate speed before reaching the " target " . Weight was around 8 @,@ 000 pounds ( 3 @,@ 600 kg ) for the final weapon model . There was only one aircraft in the Allied inventory that could carry a Thin Man unmodified : the British Avro Lancaster . However , the American Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress could be modified to carry it by removing part of the main wing spar and some oxygen tanks located between its two bomb bays .
= = Design issues = =
= = = Aerodynamics = = =
The great length of the " Thin Man " bomb led to aerodynamic instabilities . Subscale models of the bomb were dropped from a Grumman TBF Avenger at the US Navy test range at Dahlgren , Virginia starting in August , 1943 . The bombs would spin sideways after being dropped , and broke up when they hit the ground .
Twenty @-@ four drops were carried out in March 1944 before tests were discontinued so that improvements could be made to Thin Man . The bombs failed to release immediately , frustrating calibration tests . In what turned out to be the last test flight of the series on 16 March , a Thin Man was prematurely released while the B @-@ 29 was still en route to the test range and fell onto the bomb bay doors , severely damaging the test aircraft . The modified glider mechanisms used to suspend the bomb in the bomb bay had caused all four malfunctions , due to the great weight of the bombs . They were replaced with British Type G single @-@ point attachments and Type F releases as used on the Lancaster to carry the 12 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 5 @,@ 400 kg ) Tallboy bomb .
= = = Predetonation = = =
The feasibility of a plutonium bomb had been questioned in 1942 . James Conant heard on 14 November from Wallace Akers , the director of the British Tube Alloys project , that James Chadwick had " concluded that plutonium might not be a practical fissionable material for weapons because of impurities . " Conant consulted Ernest Lawrence and Arthur Compton , who acknowledged that their scientists at Berkeley and Chicago respectively knew about the problem , but could offer no ready solution . Conant informed the director of the Manhattan Project , Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , who in turn assembled a special committee consisting of Lawrence , Compton , Oppenheimer , and McMillan to examine the issue . The committee concluded that any problems could be overcome by requiring higher purity .
In April 1944 , experiments by Emilio G. Segrè and his P @-@ 5 Group at Los Alamos on the newly reactor @-@ produced plutonium from Oak Ridge and the Hanford site showed that it contained impurities in the form of the isotope plutonium @-@ 240 . This has a far higher spontaneous fission rate than plutonium @-@ 239 . The cyclotron @-@ produced material on which the original measurements had been made had much lower traces of plutonium @-@ 240 . Its inclusion in reactor @-@ bred plutonium appeared unavoidable . This meant that the spontaneous fission rate of the reactor plutonium was so high that it would be highly likely that it would predetonate and blow itself apart during the initial formation of a critical mass . The distance required to accelerate the plutonium to speeds where predetonation would be less likely would need a gun barrel too long for any existing or planned bomber . The only way to use plutonium in a workable bomb was thus implosion — a far more difficult engineering task .
The impracticability of a gun @-@ type bomb using plutonium was agreed at a meeting in Los Alamos on July 17 , 1944 . All gun @-@ type work in the Manhattan Project was directed at the Little Boy enriched uranium gun design , and almost all of the research at the Los Alamos Laboratory was re @-@ oriented around the problems of implosion for the Fat Man bomb .
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= Code of Vengeance =
Code of Vengeance is the umbrella title for a series of American television programs , produced by Universal Television , that aired on NBC in 1985 and 1986 . Charles Taylor stars as David Dalton , a Vietnam veteran who has become a drifter , travelling across the United States in a camper van with only his dog for company . Dalton gets involved in the personal lives of the people he meets and uses his fighting skills to help them win justice .
The Dalton character was created for All That Glitters , a planned spin @-@ off series from Knight Rider , and a backdoor pilot aired as a second @-@ season episode of that series in 1984 . The character , originally a suave government agent , was retooled as a lone drifter for a new pilot , which aired as the television movie Code of Vengeance , to surprise ratings success in June 1985 . A subsequent series , to be called Dalton , was ordered by NBC for midseason , then production was cancelled after just four episodes were completed . These aired in the summer of 1986 as a television movie titled Dalton : Code of Vengeance II and as a part of a fill @-@ in series called Dalton 's Code of Vengeance .
= = Origins = =
The David Dalton character was originally created by writer Robert Foster and executive producer Glen A. Larson for a proposed series titled All That Glitters . The show 's two @-@ hour backdoor pilot aired on April 8 , 1984 , as a special double @-@ length episode of Knight Rider titled " Mouth of the Snake " . The production featured Charles Taylor as David Dalton , an action @-@ oriented government agent , and Joanna Pettet as Joanna St. John , the widow of a murdered lawyer , fighting crime and accepting secret missions from Archibald Hendley ( played by George Murdock ) on behalf of the United States Department of Justice . In this pilot episode , Dalton and St. John work with Knight Rider stars Michael Knight ( David Hasselhoff ) and KITT ( voice of William Daniels ) to locate Eduardo O 'Brien ( Pedro Armendáriz , Jr . ) , a master criminal who has stolen a prototype rocket launcher .
This backdoor pilot was written by Robert Gilmer and Robert Foster , directed by Winrich Kolbe , and produced by Robert Gilmer , Gian Grimaldi , and Tom Greene . Cinematography was handled by H. John Penner with art direction by Russell Smith and music by Don Peake . Both Glen A. Larson and Robert Foster were credited as executive producers on the project .
Noting the limited roles of Michael and KITT in the episode , the authors of Knight Rider Legacy state that " [ m ] any fans consider this to be one of the worst episodes of Knight Rider ever produced during its four @-@ year run " and that it posted a season @-@ low in the Nielsen ratings . Feeling the format was too similar to Cover Up , a show Larson had created for CBS that began airing in September 1984 , NBC declined to pick up All That Glitters as a series .
= = Second pilot = =
NBC commissioned a second pilot starring Charles Taylor , Code of Vengeance , for the 1985 pilot season . The new pilot reimagined David Dalton as a flashback @-@ prone Vietnam veteran who drifts across the country , encountering people in trouble , and helping them to find justice with his unique fighting skills . The physical agility , acrobatic skill , and martial arts expertise that Dalton displayed in " Mouth of the Snake " was toned down to a simpler , more violent fighting style . The reviewer for the Associated Press described Dalton as " a modern version of Shane " that 's also " like Highway to Heaven " but with Dalton using " his fists rather than good deeds " to solve problems . Dalton travels from place to place in a camper van with only his German Shepherd named " Wichita " for company .
In this second pilot , Dalton is a " mysterious stranger " who arrives in a small town in Arizona where he meets Nadine Flowers , a young mother ( played by Erin Gray ) , her son A.J. ( Chad Allen ) , and her mother Ione ( Lenka Peterson ) . Nadine hires Dalton to complete an addition to her house left undone after her brother disappeared while hunting . When the brother turns up dead under suspicious circumstances , Dalton investigates then sets out to avenge the brother 's murder . This act of justice entangles him in a conflict between warring rival drug smugglers and gun runners along the border between Arizona and Mexico . Other prominent cast members included Charles Haid as " Jim Blanton " , Keenan Wynn as " Willis " , Randall " Tex " Cobb as " Willard Singleton " , and Joe Dorsey as " Chief Milford Carsworth " . In a nod to the show 's origins , Keenan Wynn 's character is shown watching a Knight Rider episode , with KITT 's voice clearly audible , as armed thugs surround his home . The teleplay was written by Robert Foster with Duke Callaghan and Thomas Del Ruth splitting cinematography duties under director Rick Rosenthal . Robert Foster served as executive producer and the pilot was produced by Universal Television .
NBC also declined to pick up this pilot as a series and shelved the film to be burned off during the summer of 1985 . The pilot was eventually aired on June 30 , 1985 , as the NBC Sunday Night Movie , opposite a new two @-@ hour special episode of Call to Glory starring Craig T. Nelson .
= = Series = =
= = = Ordered for mid @-@ season = = =
Promoted as being " in the tradition of Rambo " and airing just weeks after Rambo : First Blood Part II was released to theaters , the Code of Vengeance telemovie was a surprise ratings success . Code of Vengeance tied an episode of the popular sitcom Family Ties as the second @-@ highest rated show of the week . Swayed by these numbers , NBC ordered six one @-@ hour episodes as a midseason replacement series . The October 1985 announcement noted that the new series was to be titled Dalton .
The series , described by its lead actor as having " two stars — the landscape and Dalton " , began filming in several locations across the United States . While the plan was to film two episodes in each location , the production was troubled by weather as flash flooding delayed filming in Houston and a hurricane hit while filming in New Orleans .
= = = Shut down = = =
Originally slated for a January 1986 debut , Dalton struggled with script and production issues that delayed its debut indefinitely . Unhappy with what they had seen so far , NBC ordered a suspension of production in December 1985 after just four episodes had been filmed . Scheduled to resume filming in Los Angeles in January 1986 after a holiday break , the network instead ended production on Dalton entirely and in early February ordered Universal Television to re @-@ edit these four completed episodes into two feature @-@ length movies . These " movie of the week " presentations were to be called Code of Vengeance II and Code of Vengeance III .
= = = Movie of the week = = =
The first of these two @-@ hour presentations , now titled Dalton : Code of Vengeance II , aired as the NBC Sunday Night Movie on Sunday , May 11 , 1986 . Combining episodes written by Luther Murdock and Aiken Woodruff , Dalton : Code of Vengeance II found Dalton travelling first to Houston , Texas , to help friend Jeanne Bennett ( played by Karen Landry ) locate her husband — his former commanding officer , Major Monty Bennett ( Donnelly Rhodes ) . When he discovers that Major Bennett is now aiding the New Patriots , a conservative paramilitary group of Vietnam veterans bent on overthrowing the United States government , he sets off for the Florida Everglades to stop them . The New Patriots ' plan is to commit acts of domestic terrorism while framing an Arab group for the atrocities in the belief that this will allow them to seize control of the government they feel betrayed them in Vietnam . Ultimately , Dalton confronts his former commander in the swamp and , after a long and unexplained flashback sequence of combat in Vietnam , Dalton stops both his commander and the group 's plans .
This Universal Television movie was produced by Herman Miller , edited by Lawrence J. Vallario , scored by Don Peake , and Jack Priestley was the cinematographer . Gary A. Lee handled art direction and , with creator Robert Foster no longer involved , Lou Shaw was the only credited executive producer . Direction of the combined feature edit of these two episodes , filmed on location in Houston , Texas , and Jacksonville , Florida , is credited pseudonymously to Alan Smithee . Other prominent roles in the movie included Ed Bruce as " Sheriff Johnson " , Alex Harvey as " Sheriff Willoughby " , Mitch Pileggi as " Verbeck " , Shannon Stein as " Tip Bennett " , Belinda J. Montgomery as " Libby Holland " , and William Sanderson as " Bobby Fuller " .
Critical reaction to this iteration of the Dalton saga was sharp . Drew Fetherston , reviewing the movie for Newsday , called it " claptrap " and that " action [ ... ] is all that this NBC stinker has to offer " . Faye Zuckerman of the Gainesville Sun called Dalton : Code of Vengeance II a " plodder " , complaining that " this film insults its predecessor " . Chicago Sun @-@ Times reviewer Daniel Ruth gave Dalton : Code of Vengeance II a half @-@ star review calling it " revisionist " , " distasteful " , and " terrible television " . Deriding the film as " poorly written , badly acted , sloppily directed and choppily edited " , he called it " another slap in the face of the men and women who went to Southeast Asia to do a dirty job and came home to even dirtier exploitation " . Ruth concluded , " The viewer 's best " Code of Vengeance " would be to reject these films . "
Dalton : Code of Vengeance II also failed to deliver the high ratings of its predecessor . Against stiff competition from the final installment of ABC 's top @-@ rated North and South , Book II miniseries , the movie failed to crack the top 20 in that week 's Nielsen ratings . Faced with critical and commercial failure , NBC scrapped plans to air Code of Vengeance III and the fate of the unseen episodes became uncertain .
= = = Replacement series = = =
In the summer of 1986 , NBC was doing quite well in the ratings with its Thursday night lineup but was still experimenting on other nights . One such experiment was the anthology series The New Alfred Hitchcock Presents featuring new stories introduced by colorized vintage footage of Alfred Hitchcock . After just one season on the network , the show was cancelled abruptly after the July 20 , 1986 , airing of two repeat episodes placed 55th for the week in the Nielsen ratings against 5th @-@ rated Murder , She Wrote on CBS . Needing an inexpensive replacement on short notice as a fill @-@ in until the 1986 @-@ 87 television season started in September , NBC began airing one @-@ hour episodes of Dalton , re @-@ titled Dalton 's Code of Vengeance , in a four @-@ episode limited run beginning on July 27 , 1986 .
The first one @-@ hour episode of Dalton 's Code of Vengeance to air was " Rustler 's Moon " , one of the two previously @-@ unaired hours . Dalton is on his way to Houston when he meets a " feisty rancher " named Rhonda Jo ( played by Susan Walden ) and is forced to deal out his unique brand of justice against cattle rustlers trying to steal her prize bull and do her harm . Other prominent roles included Larry Drake as " Jack Ferguson " , Paul Carr as " Elliot " , Chris Douridas as " Willy " , and a special appearance by country music star Mickey Gilley as himself . As with the previous presentation , this episode 's direction was credited to Alan Smithee .
With little notice or promotion , advance critical reaction was scant . One reviewer noted that star Charles Taylor " has the bod for " an adventure hero while another opined that he thought " Knight Rider or The A @-@ Team or Jonathan of Highway to Heaven took care of these baddies on their series " . The debut episode placed 51st for the week , just behind a rerun of Airwolf , with 7 @.@ 3 ratings points in the Nielsen ratings . The following week , the timeslot was filled by the special Motown Returns to the Apollo hosted by Bill Cosby .
The original two @-@ hour Code of Vengeance television movie was split into two one @-@ hour segments and repeated in two parts as episodes of Dalton 's Code of Vengeance . Part one aired on August 10 , 1986 , and part two aired on August 17 , 1986 . The first part placed 48th for the week , rated just behind a rerun of The A @-@ Team . The second part also placed 48th for the week with 8 @.@ 1 ratings points and was seen in an estimated 7 million homes , just one @-@ fifth of the 35 million that tuned in for this film 's 1985 debut .
The final airing of Dalton 's Code of Vengeance was the final previously @-@ unaired hour , an episode titled " The Last Hold Out " , which aired on August 24 , 1986 . Dalton arrives in New Orleans and finds himself the only hope for produce wholesaler Ray Bechet ( played by Wandy Ward ) and his wife Rose Bechet ( Maureen Kedes ) being pressured to sell their property by powerful real estate developer Johnson Lee ( Jeff Jensen ) . Prominent guest roles included Barry Settels as " Fante " . This final episode placed 43rd for the week with 10 @.@ 0 ratings points and a 19 ratings share . This rating was good enough to tie pre @-@ season National Football League games on both CBS and ABC but not enough to make NBC consider reviving the Dalton character yet again .
= = Video release = =
The double @-@ length second @-@ season Knight Rider episode " Mouth of the Snake " , the All That Glitters backdoor pilot , was released on DVD in April 2005 by Universal Home Video as part of the Knight Rider : Season Two set . This episode had been previously released on VHS by Columbia House Home Video . As of March 2010 , no plans have been announced to release Code of Vengeance in any format on DVD or Blu @-@ ray .
= = In other media = =
The novel Knight Rider : The 24 @-@ Carat Assassin , published in September 1984 by Target Books and credited to Glen A. Larson & Roger Hill , was an adaptation of the " Mouth of the Snake " episode . The back cover of the book names the adapted episode as " All That Glitters " , the working title for the episode and the name of the proposed series that would have featured the David Dalton character . As in the episode , Dalton and St. John are the principal characters with Michael Knight and KITT making only token appearances . Of the five official English language Knight Rider tie @-@ in novels , The 24 @-@ Carat Assassin was one of two released in the United Kingdom that was never released in the United States . The novel was translated into German by Carla Blesgen and published by Bertelsmann in Germany in 1988 as Ein Hochkarätiger Killer .
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= Betty Shabazz =
Betty Shabazz ( May 28 , 1934 – June 23 , 1997 ) , born Betty Dean Sanders and also known as Betty X , was an American educator and civil rights advocate . She was the wife of Malcolm X.
Shabazz grew up in Detroit , Michigan , where her foster parents largely sheltered her from racism . She attended the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama , where she had her first encounters with racism . Unhappy with the situation in Alabama , she moved to New York City , where she became a nurse . It was in New York that she met Malcolm X and , in 1956 , joined the Nation of Islam . The couple married in 1958 .
Along with her husband , Shabazz left the Nation of Islam in 1964 . She witnessed his assassination the following year . Left with the responsibility of raising six daughters as a single mother , Shabazz pursued a higher education , and went to work at Medgar Evers College in Brooklyn , New York .
Following the arrest of her daughter Qubilah for allegedly conspiring to murder Louis Farrakhan , Shabazz took in her young grandson Malcolm . He set a fire in her apartment that caused severe burns to Shabazz . Shabazz died three weeks later as a result of her injuries .
= = Early years = =
Betty Dean Sanders was born on May 28 , 1934 , to Ollie Mae Sanders and Shelman Sandlin . Sandlin was 21 years old and Ollie Mae Sanders was a teenager ; the couple was unmarried . Throughout her life , Betty Sanders maintained that she had been born in Detroit , Michigan , but early records — such as her high @-@ school and college transcripts — show Pinehurst , Georgia , as her place of birth . Authorities in Georgia and Michigan have not been able to locate her birth certificate .
By most accounts , Ollie Mae Sanders abused Betty Sanders , whom she was raising in Detroit . When Betty was about 11 years old , she was taken in by Lorenzo and Helen Malloy , a prominent businessman and his wife . Helen Malloy was a founding member of the Housewives League of Detroit , a group of African @-@ American women who organized campaigns to support black @-@ owned businesses and boycott stores that refused to hire black employees . She was also a member of the National Council of Negro Women and the NAACP . The Malloys were both active members of their local Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church .
Despite their lessons on black self @-@ reliance , the Malloys never spoke with Sanders about racism . Looking back in 1995 , Shabazz wrote : " Race relations were not discussed and it was hoped that by denying the existence of race problems , the problems would go away . Anyone who openly discussed race relations was quickly viewed as a ' troublemaker . ' " Still , two race riots during her childhood — in 1942 when the Sojourner Truth housing project was desegregated , and one the following year on Belle Isle — made up what Shabazz later called the " psychological background for my formative years " .
= = Young adult years = =
After she graduated from high school , Sanders left her foster parents ' home in Detroit to study at the Tuskegee Institute ( now Tuskegee University ) , a historically black college in Alabama that was Lorenzo Malloy 's alma mater . She intended to earn a degree in education and become a teacher . When she left Detroit to go to Alabama , her foster mother stood at the train station crying . Shabazz later recalled that Malloy was trying to mumble something , but the words would not come out . By the time she arrived in Alabama , she felt she knew what her stepmother was saying . " The minute I got off that train , I knew what she was trying to say . She was trying to tell me in ten words or less about racism . "
Nothing had prepared Sanders for Southern racism . So long as she stayed on campus , she could avoid interacting with white people , but weekend trips into Montgomery , the nearest city , would try her patience . Black students had to wait until every white person in a store had been helped before the staff would serve them — if they received any service at all . When she complained to the Malloys , they refused to discuss the issue ; in a 1989 interview , Shabazz summarized their attitude as " if you 're just quiet it will go away . "
Sanders ' studies suffered as a result of her growing frustration . She decided to change her field of study from education to nursing . The dean of nursing , Lillian Harvey , encouraged Sanders to consider studying in a Tuskegee @-@ affiliated program at the Brooklyn State College School of Nursing in New York City . Against her foster parents ' wishes , Sanders left Alabama for New York in 1953 .
In New York , Sanders encountered a different form of racism . At Montefiore Hospital , where she performed her clinical training , black nurses were given worse assignments than white nurses . White patients sometimes were abusive toward black nurses . While the racial climate in New York was better than the situation in Alabama , Sanders frequently wondered whether she had merely exchanged Jim Crow racism for a more genteel prejudice .
= = = Nation of Islam = = =
During her second year of nursing school , Sanders was invited by an older nurse 's aide to a Friday @-@ night dinner party at the Nation of Islam temple in Harlem . " The food was delicious , " Shabazz recalled in 1992 , " I 'd never tasted food like that . " After dinner , the woman asked Sanders to come to the Muslims ' lecture . Sanders agreed . After the speech , the nurse 's aide invited Sanders to join the Nation of Islam ; Sanders politely declined . When the woman asked her why she chose not to join the Nation of Islam after visiting , Sanders replied that she did not know she had been brought there to join . " Besides , my mother would kill me , and additionally I don ’ t even understand the philosophy . " The Malloys were Methodists , and when she was 13 , Sanders had decided she would remain a Methodist for the rest of her life .
The nurse 's aide told Sanders about her minister , who was not at the temple that night : " Just wait until you hear my minister talk . He 's very disciplined , he 's good @-@ looking , and all the sisters want him . " Sanders enjoyed the food so much , she agreed to come back and meet the woman 's minister . At the second dinner , the nurse 's aide told her the minister was present and Sanders thought to herself , " Big deal . " In 1992 she recalled how her demeanor changed when she caught a glimpse of Malcolm X :
Then , I looked over and saw this man on the extreme right aisle sort of galloping to the podium . He was tall , he was thin , and the way he was galloping it looked as though he was going someplace much more important than the podium . ... He got to the podium — and I sat up straight . I was impressed with him .
Sanders met Malcolm X again at a dinner party . The two had a long conversation about Sanders 's life : her childhood in Detroit , the racial hostility she had encountered in Alabama , and her studies in New York . He spoke to her about the condition of African Americans and the causes of racism . Sanders began to see things from a different perspective . " I really had a lot of pent @-@ up anxiety about my experience in the South , " Shabazz recalled in a 1990 interview , " and Malcolm reassured me that it was understandable how I felt . "
Soon Sanders was attending all of Malcolm X 's lectures at Temple Number Seven in Harlem . He always sought her out afterwards , and he would ask her a lot of questions . Sanders was impressed with Malcolm X 's leadership and work ethic . She felt he was selfless when it came to helping others , but he had no one to lean on when he needed help . She thought maybe she could be that person . He also began to pressure her to join the Nation of Islam . In mid 1956 , Sanders converted . Like many members of the Nation of Islam , she changed her surname to " X " , which represented the family name of her African ancestors that she could never know .
= = Marriage and family = =
Betty X and Malcolm X did not have a conventional courtship . One @-@ on @-@ one dates were contrary to the teachings of the Nation of Islam . Instead , the couple shared their " dates " with dozens , or even hundreds of other members . Malcolm X frequently took groups to visit New York 's museums and libraries , and he always invited Betty X.
Although they had never discussed the subject , Betty X suspected that Malcolm X was interested in marriage . One day he called and asked her to marry him , and they were married on January 14 , 1958 , in Lansing , Michigan . By coincidence , Betty X became a licensed nurse on the same day .
At first , their relationship followed the Nation of Islam 's strictures concerning marriage ; Malcolm X set the rules and Betty X obediently followed them . In 1969 , Shabazz wrote that " his indoctrination was so thorough , even to me , that it has become a pattern for our [ family 's ] lives . " Over time , the family dynamic changed , as Malcolm X made small concessions to Betty X 's demands for more independence . In 1969 , Shabazz recalled :
We would have little family talks . They began at first with Malcolm telling me what he expected of a wife . But the first time I told him what I expected of him as a husband it came as a shock . After dinner one night he said , " Boy , Betty , something you said hit me like a ton of bricks . Here I 've been going along having our little workshops with me doing all the talking and you doing all the listening . " He concluded our marriage should be a mutual exchange .
The couple had six daughters . Their names were Attallah , born in 1958 and named after Attila the Hun ; Qubilah , born in 1960 and named after Kublai Khan ; Ilyasah , born in 1962 and named after Elijah Muhammad ; Gamilah Lumumba , born in 1964 and named after Patrice Lumumba ; and twins , Malikah and Malaak , born in 1965 after their father 's assassination and named for him .
= = = Leaving the Nation of Islam = = =
On March 8 , 1964 , Malcolm X announced that he was leaving the Nation of Islam . He and Betty X , now known as Betty Shabazz , became Sunni Muslims .
= = = Assassination of Malcolm X = = =
On February 21 , 1965 , in Manhattan 's Audubon Ballroom , Malcolm X began to speak to a meeting of the Organization of Afro @-@ American Unity when a disturbance broke out in the crowd of 400 . As Malcolm X and his bodyguards moved to quiet the disturbance , a man rushed forward and shot Malcolm in the chest with a sawed @-@ off shotgun . Two other men charged the stage and fired handguns , hitting him 16 times .
Shabazz was in the audience near the stage with her daughters . When she heard the gunfire , she grabbed the children and pushed them to the floor beneath the bench , where she shielded them with her body . When the shooting stopped , Shabazz ran toward her husband and tried to perform CPR . Police officers and Malcolm X 's associates carried him to a stretcher , and brought him to Columbia Presbyterian Hospital , where he was pronounced dead .
Angry onlookers caught and beat one of the assassins , who was arrested on the scene . Eyewitnesses identified two more suspects . All three men , who were members of the Nation of Islam , were convicted and sentenced to life in prison .
= = After Malcolm 's assassination = =
= = = Immediately afterward = = =
Shabazz had difficulty sleeping for weeks after Malcolm X 's assassination . She suffered from nightmares in which she relived the death of her husband . She also worried about how she would support herself and her family . The publication of The Autobiography of Malcolm X helped , because Shabazz received half of the royalties . ( Alex Haley , who assisted Malcolm X in writing the book , got the other half . After the publication of his best @-@ seller Roots , Haley signed over his portion of the royalties to Shabazz . )
Actor and activist Ruby Dee and Juanita Poitier ( wife of Sidney Poitier ) established the Committee of Concerned Mothers , to raise funds to buy a house , and pay educational expenses for the Shabazz family . The Committee held a series of benefit concerts at which they raised $ 17 @,@ 000 . They bought a large two @-@ family home in Mount Vernon , New York , from Congressmember Bella Abzug .
Looking back , Shabazz said she initially made an " unrealistic decision " to isolate herself because of the injustice of her husband 's assassination . She realized , however , that giving up because of her husband ’ s death would not help the world . " It is impossible to create an environment for children to grow in and develop in isolation . It is imperative that one mix in society on some level and at some time . "
= = = Pilgrimage to Mecca = = =
In late March 1965 , Shabazz made the pilgrimage to Mecca ( Hajj ) , as her husband had the year before . Recalling the experience in 1992 , Shabazz wrote :
I really don 't know where I 'd be today if I had not gone to Mecca to make Hajj shortly after Malcolm was assassinated . ... That is what helped put me back on track . ... Going to Mecca , making Hajj , was very good for me because it made me think of all the people in the world who loved me and were for me , who prayed that I would get my life back together . I stopped focusing on the people who were trying to tear me and my family apart .
Shabazz returned from Mecca with a new name that a fellow pilgrim had bestowed upon her , Bahiyah ( meaning " beautiful and radiant " ) .
= = = Raising her family = = =
Raising six children by herself exhausted Shabazz . Providing for them was difficult as well . Shabazz 's share of the royalties from The Autobiography of Malcolm X was equivalent to an annual salary . In 1966 , she sold the movie rights to the Autobiography to film @-@ maker Marvin Worth . She began to authorize the publication of Malcolm X 's speeches , which provided another source of income .
When her daughters were enrolled in day care , Shabazz became an active member of the day care center 's parents organization . In time , she became the parents ' representative on the school board . Several years later , she became president of the Westchester Day Care Council .
Shabazz began to accept speaking engagements at colleges and universities . She often spoke about the black nationalist philosophy of Malcolm X , but she also spoke about her role as a wife and mother . Shabazz felt that some of the images of her husband projected by the media were misrepresentations . " They attempted to promote him as a violent person , a hater of whites , " she explained . " He was a sensitive man , a very understanding person and yes , he disliked the behavior of some whites .... He had a reality @-@ based agenda . "
As her daughters grew older , Shabazz sent them to private schools and summer camps . They joined Jack and Jill , a social club for the children of well @-@ off African Americans .
= = = Advanced education = = =
In late 1969 , Shabazz enrolled at Jersey City State College ( now New Jersey City University ) to complete the degree in education she left behind when she became a nurse . She completed her undergraduate studies in one year , and decided to earn a master 's degree in health administration . In 1972 , Shabazz enrolled at the University of Massachusetts Amherst to pursue an Ed.D. in higher education administration and curriculum development . For the next three years , she drove from Mount Vernon to Amherst , Massachusetts , every Monday morning , and returned home Wednesday night . In July 1975 , she defended her dissertation and earned her doctorate .
Shabazz joined Delta Sigma Theta in April 1974 .
= = = Medgar Evers College = = =
In January 1976 , Shabazz became associate professor of health sciences with a concentration in nursing at New York 's Medgar Evers College . The student body at Medgar Evers was 90 percent black and predominantly working @-@ class , with an average age of 26 . Black women made up most of the faculty , and 75 percent of the students were female , two @-@ thirds of them mothers . These were all qualities that made Medgar Evers College attractive to Shabazz .
By 1980 , Shabazz was overseeing the health sciences department , and the college president decided she could be more effective in a purely administrative position than she was in the classroom . She was promoted to Director of Institutional Advancement . In her new position , she became a booster and fund @-@ raiser for the college . A year later , she was given tenure . In 1984 , Shabazz was given a new title , Director of Institutional Advancement and Public Affairs ; she held that position at the college until her death .
= = = Volunteerism = = =
During the 1970s and 1980s , Shabazz continued her volunteer activities . In 1975 , President Ford invited her to serve on the American Revolution Bicentennial Council . Shabazz served on an advisory committee on family planning for the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services . In 1984 , she hosted the New York convention of the National Council of Negro Women . Shabazz became active in the NAACP and the National Urban League . When Nelson and Winnie Mandela visited Harlem during 1990 , Shabazz was asked to introduce Winnie Mandela .
Shabazz befriended Myrlie Evers @-@ Williams , the widow of Medgar Evers , and Coretta Scott King , the widow of Martin Luther King , Jr . They had the common experience of losing their activist husbands at a young age and raising their children as single mothers . The press came to refer to the three , who made numerous joint public appearances , as the " Movement widows " . Evers @-@ Williams and King were frequent guests at Medgar Evers College , and Shabazz occasionally visited the King Center in Atlanta . Writing about Shabazz , Evers @-@ Williams described her as a " free spirit , in the best sense of the word . When she laughed , she had this beauty ; when she smiled , it lit up the whole room . "
= = Louis Farrakhan = =
For many years , Shabazz harbored resentment toward the Nation of Islam — and Louis Farrakhan in particular — for what she felt was their role in the assassination of her husband . Farrakhan seemed to boast of the assassination in a 1993 speech :
Was Malcolm your traitor or ours ? And if we dealt with him like a nation deals with a traitor , what the hell business is it of yours ? A nation has to be able to deal with traitors and cutthroats and turncoats .
In a 1994 interview , Gabe Pressman asked Shabazz whether Farrakhan " had anything to do " with Malcolm X 's death . She replied : " Of course , yes . Nobody kept it a secret . It was a badge of honor . Everybody talked about it , yes . " Farrakhan denied the allegations , stating " I never had anything to do with Malcolm 's death " , although he said he had " created an atmosphere that allowed Malcolm to be assassinated . "
In January 1995 , Qubilah Shabazz was charged with trying to hire an assassin to kill Farrakhan in retaliation for the murder of her father . Farrakhan surprised the Shabazz family when he defended Qubilah , saying he did not think she was guilty and that he hoped she would not be convicted . That May , Betty Shabazz and Farrakhan shook hands on the stage of the Apollo Theater during a public event intended to raise money for Qubilah 's legal defense . Some heralded the evening as a reconciliation between the two , but others thought Shabazz was doing whatever she had to in order to protect her daughter . Regardless , nearly $ 250 @,@ 000 was raised that evening . In the aftermath , Shabazz maintained a cool relationship with Farrakhan , although she agreed to speak at his Million Man March that October .
Qubilah accepted a plea agreement with respect to the charges , in which she maintained her innocence but accepted responsibility for her actions . Under the terms of the agreement , she was required to undergo psychological counseling and treatment for drug and alcohol abuse for a two @-@ year period in order to avoid a prison sentence . For the duration of her treatment , Qubilah 's ten @-@ year @-@ old son , Malcolm , was sent to live with Shabazz at her apartment in Yonkers , New York .
= = Death = =
On June 1 , 1997 , young grandson Malcolm set a fire in Shabazz 's apartment . Shabazz suffered burns over 80 percent of her body , and remained in intensive care for three weeks , at Jacobi Medical Center in the Bronx , New York . She underwent five skin @-@ replacement operations as doctors struggled to replace damaged skin and save her life . Shabazz died of her injuries on June 23 , 1997 . Malcolm Shabazz was sentenced to 18 months in juvenile detention for manslaughter and arson .
More than 2 @,@ 000 mourners attended a memorial service for Shabazz , at New York 's Riverside Church . Many prominent leaders were present , including Coretta Scott King and Myrlie Evers @-@ Williams , poet Maya Angelou , actor @-@ activists Ossie Davis and Ruby Dee , New York Governor George Pataki , and four New York City mayors — Abraham Beame , Ed Koch , David Dinkins , and Rudy Giuliani . U.S. Secretary of Labor Alexis Herman delivered a tribute from President Bill Clinton . In a statement released after Shabazz 's death , civil rights leader Jesse Jackson said , " She never stopped giving and she never became cynical . She leaves today the legacy of one who epitomized hope and healing . "
Shabazz 's funeral service was held at the Islamic Cultural Center in New York City . Her public viewing was at the Unity Funeral Home in Harlem , the same place where Malcolm X 's viewing had taken place 32 years earlier . Shabazz was buried next to her husband , El @-@ Hajj Malik El @-@ Shabazz ( Malcolm X ) , at Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale , New York .
= = = Memorials = = =
In late 1997 , the Community Healthcare Network renamed one of its Brooklyn , New York , clinics the Dr. Betty Shabazz Health Center , in honor of Shabazz . The Betty Shabazz International Charter School was founded in Chicago , Illinois , in 1998 and named in her honor . In 2005 , Columbia University announced the opening of the Malcolm X and Dr. Betty Shabazz Memorial and Educational Center . The memorial is located in the Audubon Ballroom , where Malcolm X was assassinated . In March 2012 , New York City co @-@ named Broadway at the corner of West 165th Street , the corner in front of the Audubon Ballroom , Betty Shabazz Way .
= = Portrayals in film = =
Shabazz was the subject of the 2013 television movie Betty and Coretta , in which she was played by Mary J. Blige . She was portrayed by Angela Bassett in the 1992 film Malcolm X. Bassett also played the part of Shabazz in the 1995 film Panther . Yolanda King , the daughter of Martin Luther King , Jr . , and Coretta Scott King , played Shabazz in the 1981 television movie Death of a Prophet , and Shabazz was portrayed by Victoria Dillard in the 2001 film Ali .
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= Paul E. Patton =
Paul Edward Patton ( born May 26 , 1937 ) is an American politician . He was the 59th Governor of Kentucky , serving from 1995 to 2003 . Because of a 1992 amendment to the Kentucky Constitution , he was the first governor eligible to succeed himself in office since James Garrard in 1800 . Since 2013 , he has been the chancellor of the University of Pikeville in Pikeville , Kentucky after serving as its president from 2010 to 2013 . He also served as chairman of the Kentucky Council on Postsecondary Education from 2009 to 2011 .
After graduating from the University of Kentucky in 1959 , Patton became wealthy operating coal mines for 20 years . He sold most of his coal interests in the late 1970s and entered politics , serving briefly in the cabinet of Governor John Y. Brown , Jr. and chairing the state Democratic Party . In 1981 , he was elected judge / executive of Pike County . He made an unsuccessful bid for lieutenant governor in 1987 , but was elected in 1991 , serving concurrently as lieutenant governor and secretary of economic development under Governor Brereton Jones .
Four years later , Patton was elected Governor over Republican Larry Forgy . The major achievement of his first term was overhauling higher education , including making the state 's community colleges and technical schools independent of the University of Kentucky and organizing them into the Kentucky Community and Technical College System . Shortly after Patton turned back a weak challenge to his re @-@ election in 1999 , two Democratic state senators defected to the Republican Party , giving Republicans a majority in that legislative house for the first time ever . The economic prosperity that fueled Patton 's first term success faded into a recession in the early 2000s . Faced with a hostile legislature and a dire economic forecast , Patton was unable to enact much significant legislation in his second term , and his situation was exacerbated in 2002 when news of an extramarital affair and allegations of a sex @-@ for @-@ favors scandal broke . After initially denying the affair , Patton later admitted to it , but continued to deny using his office to benefit his mistress . Later in his term , Patton was attacked for pardoning four of his political advisers who were indicted for violating Kentucky 's campaign finance laws and for allegedly abusing his patronage powers . These successive scandals derailed any further political aspirations .
= = Early life = =
Patton was born in Fallsburg , Kentucky on May 26 , 1937 , in a retrofitted silo with no indoor plumbing , electricity , or telephone . He was the only son of the three children born to Ward and Irene Patton . The family moved often because Ward Patton , a teacher , was assigned to a different school every year . When he was hired by a railroad in Pike County , he and his wife agreed that she would remain in Fallsburg with the children until they finished school . Patton attended Fallsburg Elementary School , a four @-@ room schoolhouse in his hometown . He was active in the 4 @-@ H club , where he began to develop his public speaking ability . In 1951 , he enrolled at Louisa High School in Louisa , Kentucky . He was an honor student , a member of the drama club , a football and baseball player , and class president during his senior year . In 1955 , he graduated with the third @-@ highest grade point average in his class of 73 .
After high school , Patton matriculated to the University of Kentucky and unsuccessfully sought a seat in its Student Government Association in 1956 . Following his sophomore year , he married Carol Cooley , daughter of a Floyd County , Kentucky , coal mine operator . They had two children together – Nikki and Christopher . Patton borrowed money from his father @-@ in @-@ law to finish his education , and in 1959 earned a Bachelor of Science degree in mechanical engineering . He was later awarded an honorary Doctor of Public Service degree from the University of Louisville .
= = Coal industry career = =
After graduation , Patton worked as a day laborer for his father @-@ in @-@ law . In 1961 , he moved to Virgie and founded a coal company with his brother @-@ in @-@ law . In 1972 , he purchased Chapperal Coal Company and became extremely wealthy during the coal boom that resulted from the 1973 oil crisis . He became a leader in the coal industry , serving on the board of directors of the Kentucky Coal Association , chairing the Board of the National Independent Coal Operators Association , and becoming a member of the Kentucky Deep Mine Safety Commission . He denounced the Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969 as " right in its diagnosis of the problem , but wrong in prescription for the cure " . By 1976 , he had become president of the National Independent Coal Operators Association . He railed against a federal regulation that would prohibit strip mining on slopes of greater than 20 degrees , which would have effectively ended that method of mining in the Eastern Mountain Coal Fields , and lamented the economic disadvantage imposed on Kentucky coal miners by the state 's coal severance tax .
Patton was regarded as more moderate than most coal operators in his relationship to labor unions . Most of his mine workers were not unionized , and those who were generally belonged to the Southern Labor Union rather than the more confrontational United Mine Workers of America ( UMWA ) . Members of the UMWA local at Shelby Gap maintained that Patton was arrested for clipping a striking miner on a picket line with his pickup truck in the late 1970s . Local law enforcement officials claim no recollection of the incident , and there is no record of an arrest warrant against Patton or an actual arrest .
On October 18 , 1976 , Patton filed for divorce from Carol Cooley , saying only that their marriage was irretrievably broken . The divorce was final on February 25 , 1977 . Later that year , Patton married Judi Jane Conway of Pikeville , a secretary at his Kentucky Elkhorn mine . In 1973 , Conway had divorced her first husband , Bill Harvey Johnson , with whom she had two children .
= = Political career = =
Patton was introduced to politics by State Senator Kelsey Friend , who arranged for Patton to be a delegate to the 1972 Democratic National Convention . Friend also convinced Patton to help raise money for Walter " Dee " Huddleston 's congressional campaign .
As the coal boom began to wane , Patton sold most of his coal interests in 1978 . After a meeting with allies of his friend , First District Congressman Carroll Hubbard , in Madisonville on September 20 , 1978 , Patton considered running for governor in 1979 . However , he subsequently decided that he lacked the time to organize a campaign before the May primary election ; a letter leaked to the Paducah Sun showed that he believed he was losing Hubbard 's support . He joined Terry McBrayer 's campaign during the primary , and after McBrayer lost , he worked to elect John Y. Brown , Jr . , the Democratic nominee . Brown won the election , and Patton was appointed deputy secretary of transportation . He served only three months before resigning to protest Brown 's proposal for a coal severance tax .
In late 1981 , Brown asked Patton to become vice @-@ chair of the Kentucky Democratic Party . He would serve under Dale Sights of Henderson . Brown then informed Patton that there had been a change of plans : he had decided to appoint his father , former U.S. Representative John Y. Brown , Sr. to the chair , instead of Sights . Brown 's advisers convinced him that this would be politically damaging ; finally , Brown appointed Patton chair , with June Taylor , daughter of former governor Ruby Laffoon , as vice @-@ chair . The announcement was a surprise to most political observers , as Sights had been the odds @-@ on favorite for the chairmanship . Patton served as chairman until 1983 . During his tenure , he learned much about politics from Taylor and was introduced to Andrew " Skipper " Martin of Louisville , who would later become an important adviser and ally .
= = = Pike County judge / executive = = =
In 1981 , Patton ran for county judge / executive of Pike County , Kentucky . On the way to a victory in the Democratic primary , he outspent incumbent Wayne Rutherford $ 191 @,@ 252 to $ 49 @,@ 000 . In the general election , he garnered more than 75 percent of the vote against Republican challenger Jim Polley .
Within six months of his election , Patton instituted the state 's first mandatory , county @-@ wide garbage collection program , to combat illegal garbage dumping , which was rampant in the county . The program won Patton statewide acclaim . When Patton sought re @-@ election in 1985 , he again faced Rutherford in the Democratic primary . Rutherford campaigned against the garbage @-@ collection program , promising to repeal it if elected . This stance may have hurt him , because although some county residents resented the mandatory fee for garbage pick @-@ up , many more recognized the benefits , as illegal dump sites became less common . Patton won the primary again , and went on to re @-@ election . However , he won both races by much smaller margins than in 1981 ( 2 @,@ 524 votes in the primary and 3 @,@ 916 votes in the general election ) .
In his second term , Patton initiated an oil recycling program and established a work program for welfare mothers in day care centers . He oversaw construction of a new jail and a $ 5 million renovation to the county courthouse . He brought the county its first manufacturing company and stopped the practice of giving away gravel , drains , and bridge lumber from district warehouses to private citizens . Among his other priorities as judge / executive were the construction of rural roads and recreation facilities .
In 1987 , Patton ran for Lieutenant Governor of Kentucky . In a crowded primary , his 130 @,@ 713 votes placed him third behind Brereton Jones ( 189 @,@ 058 votes ) and Attorney General David L. Armstrong ( 147 @,@ 718 votes ) , but ahead of state senator David Boswell and Superintendent of Public Instruction Alice McDonald . In the most expensive primary in Kentucky history to that point , Patton spent more than $ 2 million of his personal fortune , but was outspent by Jones , who committed more than $ 3 million to the campaign . By comparison , Martha Layne Collins had spent $ 140 @,@ 000 to win the office in 1979 and Steve Beshear $ 250 @,@ 000 to win it in 1983 .
Following his defeat , Patton returned to Pike County . In 1989 he was re @-@ elected for a third term as judge / executive , receiving over 70 percent of the vote in a three @-@ way Democratic primary and subsequently winning the general election by nearly a three @-@ to @-@ one margin . He immediately began preparing for another run for lieutenant governor in 1991 . In the earlier campaign , the UMWA had been vociferously opposed to Patton because employees in his coal mines had been affiliated with the Southern Labor Union . Skipper Martin introduced him to Teamsters leaders , and Patton worked with them to unionize Pike County employees . He also worked with Kelsey Friend to pass the Kentucky Rural Economic Development Act , a measure giving financial incentives to companies that located in economically depressed rural counties .
= = = Lieutenant governor = = =
Patton sought the office of lieutenant governor again in 1991 . In a crowded seven @-@ candidate field in the Democratic primary , the front runner was Attorney General Fred Cowan of Louisville . Other candidates included Steve Collins , son of former governor Martha Layne Collins , and former Speaker of the Kentucky House of Representatives Bobby H. Richardson . Just days before the primary , it was reported that Cowan 's campaign had sought funds from a company that his office was investigating for criminal conduct . Patton beat Cowan by a margin of 146 @,@ 102 votes to 104 @,@ 337 .
In the general election , Patton faced Republican Eugene Goss . Goss criticized Patton for announcing that , if elected , he would seek the governor 's office at the expiration of his term . Goss insisted that he would not seek the governorship if elected , and maintained that using the lieutenant governor 's post as a stepping stone to the governor 's office was a betrayal of the office and its authority . Goss ran an unorthodox campaign , limiting individual contributions to his campaign to $ 300 and refusing to run television commercials . Patton went on to a lopsided victory in the general election , winning 514 @,@ 023 votes to Goss 's 250 @,@ 857 .
Upon his election as lieutenant governor , Patton resigned his office as Pike County judge @-@ executive . While presiding over the Senate in the 1991 legislative session , Patton voted against a mandatory seat belt law , breaking a 19 – 19 tie . He was the last Kentucky lieutenant governor to preside over the Kentucky Senate ; a 1992 amendment to the state constitution created a new position , President of the Kentucky Senate , and relieved the lieutenant governor of his duties in that body .
In November 1991 , Governor Brereton Jones appointed Patton as secretary of economic development , making Patton the first lieutenant governor to serve as an appointed cabinet secretary . In this capacity , he encouraged the use of tax incentives to bring new industry to the state . Bill Bishop , a journalist for the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader , criticized these incentives , saying that Patton too often used them to attract low @-@ wage jobs . In response , Patton wrote a series of essays ; while he never published them in the newspaper , he later compiled them into a book entitled Kentucky 's Approach to Economic Development . He also reorganized Kentucky economic development efforts , securing the adoption of four new development incentive programs and establishing the Kentucky Economic Development Partnership .
= = = Gubernatorial election in 1995 = = =
At the expiration of his term as lieutenant governor in 1995 , Patton announced his candidacy for governor . The 1995 gubernatorial election was novel in several ways , following a 1992 constitutional amendment . It was the first election in Kentucky history in which the governor and lieutenant governor were elected as a ticket . Another new provision stated that if no candidate received at least 40 percent of the vote in his or her party 's primary , a runoff election would occur between the top two candidates . Most significantly , for the first time in Kentucky history the winners of each race would be allowed to succeed themselves in office and serve another term . Also , as a result of campaign finance reform passed under Governor Jones , candidates would receive public campaign financing and would have their campaign spending capped , negating the advantage of wealthy candidates .
Patton chose Steve Henry , a surgeon and county commissioner from Louisville , as his running mate . His major opposition in the Democratic primary came from secretary of state Bob Babbage and President Pro Tempore of the Kentucky Senate John " Eck " Rose . Although sitting governor Brereton Jones did not officially endorse Patton , Rose referred to Jones as Patton 's " mentor " . Rose charged that , like Jones , Patton would not take a hard stand on the issues ; referring to a nickname given to Jones in the 1991 campaign , Rose remarked " If you have liked Jell @-@ O Jones , then you are going to be in a position to love Puddin ' Paul Patton . " Particularly odious to Rose was that Patton had publicly supported collective wage bargaining for public employees , but had declared that he would not fight for it in the upcoming 1996 legislative session . Though Babbage and Rose were political veterans and solid campaigners , Patton won 152 @,@ 203 votes in the primary , well over the 40 percent needed to avoid a runoff . Babbage ran second with 81 @,@ 352 votes and Rose was third with 71 @,@ 740 votes . Two other candidates split the remaining 33 @,@ 344 votes .
Patton entered the general election as a perceived underdog . The previous year , Republicans had taken over both the U.S. Senate and House of Representatives , and for the first time in decades a majority of Kentucky 's congressional delegation was Republican . State Democrats were also tainted by the Operation Boptrot investigation that sent many of their legislators , including House Speaker Don Blandford , to prison for political corruption . With Democrats in charge of state government for the previous 24 years , Patton feared that the " time for a change " argument would resonate with voters .
Patton 's opponent , Republican Larry Forgy , hurt his campaign by aligning himself with the Christian right , alienating moderates in both parties , particularly in Louisville . He also openly opposed the Kentucky Education Reform Act ( KERA ) , passed in 1990 during the administration of Wallace G. Wilkinson . Republican supporters of education reform deserted his campaign and helped form a bi @-@ partisan coalition supporting KERA . Traditional Democratic voting blocs such as organized labor and African @-@ Americans turned out in force for Patton . To further undermine Forgy , Patton reminded voters of the budget cuts by Congressional Republicans to programs affecting the elderly . These issues ultimately delivered a Patton victory of 500 @,@ 787 votes to 479 @,@ 227 . It was the closest Kentucky gubernatorial election in 32 years , and marked the first time an eastern Kentuckian had won the governorship since Bert T. Combs in 1959 .
= = = First term as governor ( 1995 – 1999 ) = = =
Though Patton had ambitions to enact education reform early in his administration , his financial adviser , James R. Ramsey , convinced him to propose a conservative budget in the first legislative session . The two developed a plan to modernize the state government , making it more efficient . State employees were leery of increased efficiency , believing it was a code word for cutting state jobs . Patton dispelled this notion by promising no involuntary layoffs . Patton also anticipated difficulty persuading legislators to invest an estimated $ 100 million in equipment and processes to realize improved efficiency . However , when economists projected a budget surplus for 1996 , Patton agreed to invest half of it in capital projects in exchange for using the other half for measures to improve government efficiency . Patton formed an Office for Technology and made improvements in the compatibility and interoperability of the state 's computer systems that were recommended by his son , Chris . Investments of $ 23 @.@ 3 million yielded a return of $ 300 million in state revenue . By the time Patton 's efficiency program was fully implemented , the state was realizing an annual return of 75 cents for every dollar initially invested .
In December 1996 , Patton called a special legislative session to consider the issue of worker 's compensation reform . Both Patton and the state 's legislators believed that the generous benefits provided under Kentucky state law created an unfavorable business climate in the state . The reform measures adopted in the special session included a substantial reduction in benefits , including those to coal miners who developed black lung disease . Patton 's support of this measure alienated labor leaders , especially in eastern Kentucky 's coal mining communities – which had previously been among his strongest supporters . As the law began to take effect , Patton himself agreed that it had gone too far , and his Secretary of Labor worked with representatives from organized labor to draft changes in the law . Those changes were eventually made in the 2002 legislative session .
= = = = Education reform = = = =
In the 1997 legislature , Patton began his mission of reforming the state 's system of higher education . Noting that the state 's community colleges , under the control of the University of Kentucky , and technical schools , under the control of the state government , were too often competing with each other in the same community , he proposed removing the community colleges from the university 's control . Part of the plan was upgrading the technical schools to colleges , allowing them to award associate 's degrees , not just diplomas and certificates . Control of the community and technical colleges would be invested in a new entity , the Kentucky Community and Technical College System . Patton believed that severing the community colleges from the University of Kentucky would allow the university to reallocate resources toward becoming a " Top 20 " research university in the nation . The plan also charged the University of Louisville with becoming a nationally @-@ recognized urban university . The state 's Council on Postsecondary Education ( CPE ) would help eliminate duplication of programs among the colleges and oversee the improvements in the state 's two major universities . In addition , the CPE was to oversee the formation of a " Commonwealth Virtual University " that would serve as a clearinghouse for all the distance learning opportunities offered by the colleges and universities of Kentucky . The new CPE president , Gordon K. Davies , appointed former University of Kentucky engineering faculty and then Databeam Corp. co @-@ founder Lee T. Todd to chair the new Distance Learning Task Force which created the Kentucky Virtual University ( now the Kentucky Virtual Campus ) and the Kentucky Virtual Library , and worked with the Kentucky Department of Education to create the Kentucky Vitual High School ( now the Kentucky Virtual Schools ) . Patton 's plan was outlined in the Kentucky Postsecondary Education Improvement Act of 1997 , nicknamed House Bill 1 .
While supported by the state 's smaller , regional universities , House Bill 1 immediately drew the ire of University of Kentucky president Charles T. Wethington , Jr . Before becoming university president , Wethington had administered the community @-@ college system . Most of the community colleges and the constituencies in their communities also opposed the plan . The university and the community colleges ran advertisements encouraging opposition to the plan ; Patton characterized these ads as " mean " . Patton was disappointed when Greg Stumbo , a leader in the Kentucky House of Representatives and former advocate of an independent community @-@ college system , announced his opposition the plan . Stumbo represented the community of Prestonsburg , an eastern Kentucky coal mining town , and Patton surmised that he was still angry about the worker 's compensation bill . Prestonsburg was also the home of Prestonsburg Community College ( now Big Sandy Community and Technical College ) . In the face of this opposition , Patton negotiated with individual legislators until he was convinced that he had a majority in both houses of the Kentucky General Assembly . He then pushed forward and was able to get the legislation passed .
In addition to this victory , Patton also secured passage of other higher education measures . In the 1998 legislative session , he proposed a $ 100 million bond issue to fund the Research Challenge Trust Fund , a fund that the state 's universities could tap to hire researchers for special projects . The program , later nicknamed " Bucks for Brains " , required the universities to match any resources leveraged from the fund dollar @-@ for @-@ dollar . The 1998 legislature also approved funding for the Kentucky Educational Excellence Scholarship ( KEES ) program , which channeled money from the Kentucky Lottery into a special fund for scholarships . To qualify for a KEES scholarship , students have to score at least a 2 @.@ 5 grade point average in high school , and attend a college or university in Kentucky . Awards are made on a sliding scale , with factors such as high school grades , scores on college entrance exams , and continued academic success in college affecting the amount of the award , which is renewable for up to eight college terms .
Patton 's education reforms were not confined to higher education . He also sought to make changes to the Kentucky Education Reform Act that would mollify its critics without gutting the law itself . One of the major complaints regarding KERA was the inability to compare the scores to those from other states to determine progress relative to the rest of the nation . Opponents of KERA in the Senate passed a bill to eliminate the testing until something better could be implemented . In the House , a more moderate measure was advanced , that added a component to the testing system that would allow students to be compared to national norms . Patton supported the House version of the bill , which ultimately emerged from the conference committee and was enacted into law . The administration 's strong support of KERA kept the legislation from being seriously challenged again during Patton 's term . One notable exception occurred in 2000 when legislators tried to repeal the anti @-@ nepotism provision regarding school hiring . The measure passed both houses of the legislature , but Patton vetoed it .
The passage of his higher education reforms led to Patton becoming the chairman of the Southern Regional Education Board from 1997 to 1998 . In 1999 he was chosen chairman of the Education Commission of the States . Other educational organizations then sought Patton 's leadership ; he chaired the National Education Goals Panel and was chosen by the U.S. Secretary of Education to lead a commission to study the high @-@ school senior year .
In the 1998 legislative session , the state enjoyed a $ 200 million budget surplus . Patton was able to distribute this surplus to legislative allies , giving him substantial leverage for his proposals . As one legislative leader opined , " Money buys a lot of silence . " Legislators were also reluctant to oppose the administration for fear that Patton would be re @-@ elected in 1999 . Consequently , Patton was able to gain approval of a very ambitious legislative agenda in 1998 , including tougher criminal laws , improved economic development , reform for Medicaid , and further reform of the higher @-@ education system . Patton also used some of the budget surplus to provide computers for public classrooms ; because of Patton 's commitment to education , Kentucky was the first state in the nation to have every public school classroom wired to the Internet . Once this was accomplished , Patton charged his education secretary , Ed Ford , with developing the Kentucky Virtual High School , a system of distance education that would allow students in smaller high schools in Kentucky to have access to courses in foreign languages and other subjects offered only at larger high schools . The virtual high school was brought online in January 2000 .
The last plank in Patton 's education platform was the improvement of adult education . This issue allowed him to work with a political foe , Republican senator David L. Williams , who had been pushing for additional resources for adult education since 1997 . In 1998 , Patton personally chaired a task force on adult education , and 18 months later , the task force 's recommendations were incorporated into a bill sponsored by Williams . The bill , which increased and equalized funding and tied continuing funds to successful performance by individual adult @-@ education programs , passed both houses of the General Assembly unanimously . By 2003 , the number of adults completing their GED rose by 17 percent , and the number of GED recipients who matriculated to college rose from 13 percent to 18 percent .
= = = = Criminal justice reform = = = =
Also on Patton 's agenda was a reformation of Kentucky 's juvenile justice system . Under Brereton Jones , because of its system of housing and treating juvenile offenders , Kentucky had been one of only two states unable to qualify for federal grants . Among the problems cited by the Department of Justice were abuse of juveniles by state employees , and failure to hold juvenile and adult offenders separately from each other . Governor Jones entered into a consent decree to ameliorate the situation , but his term expired before he could meaningfully address the terms of the decree . Patton went beyond the terms of the decree by implementing mandatory training for state employees who dealt with juvenile offenders , and by setting up a hotline for juveniles to report abuse anonymously . He shifted the responsibility for housing juveniles from local communities to the state , constructing nine new juvenile detention centers . In January 2001 , Attorney General Janet Reno proclaimed Kentucky 's juvenile justice system a model for the nation .
Patton did not stop with the juvenile justice system , however . He encouraged passage of a bill that required that violent offenders serve at least 85 percent of their sentences ( up from the 50 percent previously mandated ) , while requiring that judges consider home incarceration for first @-@ time , non @-@ violent offenders . The bill also allowed judges to sentence criminals to life without parole ; previously , life without parole for 25 years had been the harshest non @-@ capital sentence . The bill passed the legislature in 1999 .
= = = Gubernatorial election , 1999 = = =
Due to the constitutional amendment enacted under previous governor Brereton Jones , Patton became the first governor in more than 200 years eligible to succeed himself in office . James Garrard had served consecutive terms in 1796 and 1800 , but the Kentucky Constitution of 1799 barred any future governor from being elected to consecutive terms . In 1796 , Garrard was chosen as governor by electors , not by popular vote , and thus Patton was the first Kentucky governor to be popularly elected for consecutive terms .
Patton was unopposed in the Democratic primary . Republicans nominated Peppy Martin , who many considered a weak candidate . In fact , Patton 's old Republican foe , David Williams , announced he would vote for Patton over Martin . In the general election Patton garnered 352 @,@ 099 votes , 60 @.@ 6 percent of the total . Martin finished with 128 @,@ 788 votes , with 88 @,@ 930 votes going to third @-@ party candidate Gatewood Galbraith . When asked why the Republicans had chosen such a weak challenger , Patton opined " They mistakenly believed I could not be beaten . They made a mistake . "
= = = Second term as governor ( 1999 – 2003 ) = = =
After the gubernatorial election in 1999 , Louisville senator Dan Seum announced he would change his party affiliation from Democrat to Republican , citing his conservative voting history , including opposition to the state lottery , KERA , and abortion . This switch , which Patton learned of too late to intervene , equalized the number of Democrats and Republicans in the Senate . Six weeks later , Paducah senator Bob Leeper announced he would also change his party affiliation . Patton traveled to Paducah and met with Leeper , but was unable to convince him to remain a Democrat . Leeper had a history of conflict with Democratic Senate President Larry Saunders , but he insisted his party switch , like Seum 's , was based on political philosophy . Leeper 's switch gave Republicans a majority in the Senate for the first time in the state 's history . David Williams was elected President of the Senate , and held the Republican majority together effectively . Consequently , Patton faced a difficult task in maneuvering his agenda through a divided General Assembly .
The rift between Williams and Patton became permanent during negotiations over the state budget in 1999 . Patton proposed to Williams a 7 @-@ cent @-@ per @-@ gallon gasoline tax , with 1 cent of every 7 dedicated to counties with the most unpaved roads – usually heavily Republican counties ignored by past Democratic governors . Patton claimed Williams told him he had 10 votes in the Senate for the increase . But gas prices spiked before the measure came to a vote in the Senate , and Williams failed to deliver his votes after the House passed the tax . The administration and key Republican senators reached a compromise that saved Patton 's budget with tax changes that were mostly revenue @-@ neutral . Patton believed Williams had deliberately misled him , however , and the two never reconciled .
Another issue confronting both Patton and the legislature was how to spend federal funds from the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement . Kentucky 's share of the settlement totaled $ 3 @.@ 5 billion over 25 years . Because tobacco was a major cash crop in Kentucky , Patton proposed that half of the settlement be used to diversify the state 's farmers ' crops . One @-@ fourth of the money would support health care and anti @-@ smoking efforts . The remaining one @-@ fourth would address early @-@ childhood care and education , a cause important to Patton 's daughter , Nicki , an early @-@ childhood educator .
In November 2000 , Kentucky voters approved a constitutional amendment providing a shorter legislative session in odd @-@ numbered years with longer sessions in even @-@ numbered years . Most of Patton 's proposals failed in the 2000 and 2001 legislative sessions . The economic boom that had provided ample funds for his programs during the first term slowed in 2001 , and by 2002 the state was $ 800 million short of meeting its budget . In 2002 , Republicans in the General Assembly called for an end to public campaign finance , as an economy measure . Calling it " welfare for politicians " , Republicans estimated that abolishing public campaign finance could save the state $ 30 million . Ultimately , the issue derailed the biennial budget during the regular legislative session . In April 2002 , Patton called a special legislative session to approve the budget , but legislators were still unable to agree . For the first time in the state 's history , the fiscal year began without a budget . This left Patton to run the state government for a year without a budget in place .
Besides the budget , another measure that failed to pass in the 2002 session was a bill to eliminate the death penalty for juveniles . The precedent for the juvenile death penalty had been set in the 1989 Supreme Court case of Stanford v. Kentucky , wherein the court ruled that Kevin Stanford could be executed for the 1981 rape , sodomy , and murder of a gas station attendant in Jefferson County , Kentucky , even though Stanford was only 17 at the time of the crime . In 2003 , Patton announced he would commute Stanford 's sentence . Patton did oversee the execution of two adult prisoners in 1997 and 1999 , making him the first Kentucky governor to do so since 1962 .
= = = = Tina Conner sex scandal = = = =
Already plagued by an uncooperative legislature , Patton 's situation was exacerbated in 2002 when it was revealed that , during his first term in office , he had engaged in an extramarital affair with a woman named Tina Conner . According to Connor , the operator of Birchtree Healthcare nursing home in Clinton , Kentucky , the relationship ended in 1999 , but Patton continued to call her until she completely broke off the affair in October 2001 . After initially denying the affair , Patton tearfully admitted to it during a televised press conference at the Kentucky History Center on September 20 , 2002 . The story made Patton the object of state and national ridicule , the subject of jokes by Jay Leno on The Tonight Show . The Louisville Courier @-@ Journal called for Patton 's resignation , stating that he was " too damaged as a moral authority to lead ... [ and ] too powerless as a politician to compel . "
Connor alleged that Patton arranged regulatory favors for the nursing home while the affair was ongoing . Two months after Connor said she ended the affair , Birchtree Healthcare was cited by state regulators for numerous violations of health and safety rules . By July 2002 , the state had pulled all Medicare and Medicaid payments from the facility , which soon went bankrupt . Connor further alleged that the state investigation of Birchtree was retaliation by Patton for her ending of the affair . In a separate incident , Conner claimed that Patton helped a construction company she owned obtain certification as a disadvantaged business , which gave the company special preference when bidding for state contracts .
The affair appeared to take a toll on Patton 's marriage ; his wife Judi was reported to be living in separate quarters in the governor 's mansion and was rarely seen in public with him . Key members of his cabinet also began to resign . Financial adviser James Ramsey left to become the president of the University of Louisville . Attorney General Jack Conway resigned to challenge incumbent congresswoman Anne Northup in the 2002 congressional elections . In January 2003 , Executive Cabinet Secretary Crit Luallen also resigned .
Patton had risen to national prominence , successively chairing the Southern Governors Association , the Democratic Governors Association , and the National Governors Association ( NGA ) . He was serving as NGA chair at the time the Tina Conner scandal broke , and planned to resign his chairmanship in November 2002 . Nevertheless , the other governors rallied around him , convincing him to remain in the position . Together with his Republican vice @-@ chair , Idaho 's Dirk Kempthorne , Patton led the NGA effectively , securing federal funding to shore up state budgets and keeping the caucus from a partisan split in a vote over Medicaid .
Conner filed suit against Patton in September 2002 . By late 2003 , all but one of her charges against Patton had been dismissed ; the remaining charge alleged " outrageous " conduct . In March 2003 , the state 's Executive Branch Ethics Commission investigated Conner 's claims and accused Patton of four ethics violations , charging that he " used or attempted to use his official position " to provide favors for Conner . The favors included contacting the state transportation secretary with regard to Conner 's disadvantaged business application , recommending a promotion for an officer who allegedly helped Conner avoid paying a traffic ticket , appointing Conner to the board of directors for the Kentucky Lottery , and appointing Conner 's then @-@ husband to the Agricultural Development Board . Patton claimed that the favors he requested for Conner were the same kind of favors that he had requested for dozens of influential constituents . He also claimed he had not profited financially from any of the requested favors . He maintained that his attitude toward constituent services was " If you can do so legally and ethically , help them . "
= = = = Other scandals and loss of legislative influence = = = =
Because of the deteriorating national economic situation , Kentucky faced a severe budget shortfall in 2003 . Patton proposed an overhaul of the state tax system , whereby tax revenue would keep pace with the state 's eventual economic recovery . However , such reform would necessarily have meant tax increases , and with the 2003 gubernatorial election looming , legislators from both parties stuck strictly to a pledge not to raise taxes . Consequently , in the 2003 legislative session , members of the General Assembly crafted a budget that completely disregarded any input from Patton . The budget included repealing the campaign finance reform bill passed a decade earlier . Patton conceded " I have lost any ability to influence the legislature . "
During his final months in office , Patton drew criticism for abusing his patronage power . Critics charged that he had appointed several of his family and friends who were in non @-@ merit system jobs to merit system positions , increasing their chances of being retained when a new administration took over . These charges were particularly damaging because , earlier in the year , the General Assembly had ordered Patton to cut 800 non @-@ merit positions to help balance the budget . The Lexington Herald @-@ Leader opined that these charges were more serious than those of the Conner affair . Patton maintained that his friends had followed proper personnel protocol in applying for and securing merit positions .
In June 2003 , Patton issued pardons to four men who were under indictment for violating campaign finance laws during the 1995 gubernatorial race . The indictments stemmed from charges by then @-@ candidate Larry Forgy that Patton had skirted campaign finance laws by coordinating expenditures with the Teamsters and the state Democratic Party . A Franklin County grand jury returned the indictments in 1998 , but a circuit court judge dismissed them in 1999 on grounds that the campaign finance law was too vague . An appeals court reversed that decision the following year , and in 2003 , the Kentucky Supreme Court upheld the indictments by a vote of 5 – 1 . The Supreme Court of the United States refused to hear an appeal on June 13 , 2003 . Two days later , Patton issued pardons for all four men . State attorney general Ben Chandler lamented that the pardons would eliminate the possibility of determining whether Patton won the 1995 contest " honestly and openly " .
= = Later life = =
Patton had publicly stated that he was planning a run against Republican U.S. Senator Jim Bunning in 2004 , but the scandals that plagued him near the end of his administration derailed those plans . He retired to Pikeville , Kentucky , after the election of his successor , Republican Ernie Fletcher . He became a member of the First Presbyterian Church of Pikeville , the Big Sandy Regional Economic Development Board and chairman of the Pikeville / Pike County Industrial and Economic Authority . Tina Conner 's final claim against Patton – for " outrage " – was dismissed by a judge in May 2006 . In October 2006 , Conner filed a second lawsuit against Patton alleging misconduct by a public official and government oppression ; a Franklin County judge dismissed the suit , claiming it was an attempt by Conner to re @-@ litigate the claims from her first suit .
Governor Ernie Fletcher renamed a section of U.S. Route 119 in eastern Kentucky as the Paul E. Patton Highway at a ceremony on October 30 , 2008 . On February 1 , 2009 , Patton was chosen chairman of the Kentucky Council on Postsecondary Education ( CPE ) . On August 12 , 2009 , he was announced as the next president of Pikeville College ( now the University of Pikeville ) . In September 2009 , the Executive Branch Ethics Commission issued an advisory opinion that Patton could serve in both roles without a significant conflict of interest because the CPE wields very little oversight of Kentucky 's private colleges . Patton was advised to allow someone other than himself to be the official liaison between the University of Pikeville and the CPE and to recuse himself from CPE discussions on matters " that directly involve his private institution or that would affect his institution differently than any other similarly situated private postsecondary institution . "
= = = Tenure at University of Pikeville = = =
Patton was formally installed as president of the University of Pikeville on February 16 , 2010 . He also serves as a Distinguished Visiting Lecturer in Public Policy and Leadership . As president , Patton oversaw the construction of the Expo Center , a new facility to house the university 's indoor sports ; in 2011 , the Center 's basketball court was named Paul E. Patton Court .
In late 2011 , Patton announced that he and Speaker of the Kentucky House of Representatives Greg Stumbo would ask the General Assembly to consider adding the University of Pikeville as the ninth state @-@ supported university in the Kentucky university system . On December 30 , 2011 , he announced his resignation from the Council on Postsecondary Education to avoid any potential accusations of a conflict of interest regarding the proposal in the 2012 General Assembly .
In 2013 , Patton announced he would step down as president of the university and instead serve as chancellor . Because of his longstanding support of the university 's athletics programs , he was inducted into the university 's Athletics Hall of Fame in 2014 . In January 2015 , the university announced it would move its teacher training program out of the College of Arts and Sciences , creating the new Patton College of Education . The College was scheduled to open for the fall 2015 semester .
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= Ice Hockey Hair =
Ice Hockey Hair is an EP by the Welsh alternative rock band Super Furry Animals , released in 1998 . The record contains four songs which the band felt did not fit in with either their previous album , 1997 's Radiator , or its follow @-@ up Guerrilla . The title track refers to an alternative name for the mullet hairstyle . The EP 's opening song , " Smokin ' " , was commissioned by British television station Channel 4 for a programme about sloth presented by Howard Marks . " Ice Hockey Hair " was later included on ' greatest hits ' compilation Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 , issued in 2004 , while " Smokin ' " appeared on 1998 's B @-@ side and rarities compilation Out Spaced .
The EP received mostly positive reviews , being awarded ' single of the week ' by the NME , and appearing at number two in the magazine 's Single of the Year list for 1998 . The record also appeared in the 1998 single of the year lists issued by both the Melody Maker and Select . Promotional music videos were issued for both " Ice Hockey Hair " and " Smokin ' " and are included on the DVD version of Songbook .... The former was directed by Daf Palfrey while the latter was directed by Peter Gray .
= = Recording and themes = =
The first track on the EP , " Smokin ' " , was commissioned by British television station Channel 4 for a programme about sloth presented by Howard Marks as part of a series on the seven deadly sins . The band went into Grassroots , a community recording studio in Cardiff , in June 1997 and looped a sample of the Black Uhuru track " I Love King Selassie " , playing along and writing " Smokin ' " " completely spontaneously " . According to singer Gruff Rhys the song is " really light and up " as a result of being recorded in the summer . The track 's lyrics refer to smoking cannabis , with Rhys stating that it " seems ridiculous that you can 't do what you want with a plant that grows naturally " in reference to the drug 's illegal status in many countries . Rhys has claimed that he does not consider the track to be subversive , however — it is about the band 's own drug use and he doesn 't " expect everyone who buys the record to do the same . They 'd be quite sad if they did " .
Chief lyric writer Rhys has stated that , whereas he might " empty parts of [ his ] emotional state " into some songs , Ice Hockey Hair 's title track was written in the " instant pop music " tradition . The track was originally called " The Naff Song " as the band felt it " had so many naff , cheesy things about it " before being renamed " Ice Hockey Hair " following a conversation with a Swedish football player who said that having ' ice hockey hair ' , an alternative name for the mullet hairstyle , was a really naff thing to do in his home country . Rhys has described the song as a " Badfinger @-@ style power ballad " and claimed that it is about " someone who 's sunk so low they 're asking advice off a woman with ice hockey hair " . The track was recorded at Orinonco Studios , London .
The band felt that " Ice Hockey Hair " and " Smokin ' " were " light relief " and needed to be released so that they could concentrate on their next album , Guerrilla , with Rhys stating that the " EP was a good chance to do something in isolation , because the tracks on it won 't fit in with the new album , and they didn 't fit in with the old one " . The EP is completed by " Let 's Quit Smoking " , a remix of " Smokin ' " , and " Mu @-@ Tron " , a largely instrumental track named after the Mu @-@ Tron guitar effects pedal and written by keyboardist Cian Ciaran .
= = Release and reception = =
Ice Hockey Hair was released on CD , 7 " and cassette on 25 May 1998 and reached number 12 on the UK Singles Chart . The CD version of the EP has four tracks while the 7 " and cassette feature only " Ice Hockey Hair " and " Smokin ' " . A 12 " vinyl release of Ice Hockey Hair was issued in June 1998 and includes all four songs from the CD version albeit in a different track order . The proverb " Decadence may not be seen as a wholly negative process neither should it be viewed as a terminal state . It 's a stage in the process of regeneration and renewal " was to have been featured on Ice Hockey Hair 's sleeve but the band eventually decided against the idea as they felt the phrase was too long . " Ice Hockey Hair " was included on the band 's ' greatest hits ' compilation Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 , issued in 2004 , while " Smokin ' " was included on 1998 's B @-@ side and rarities compilation Out Spaced . The Wildhearts recorded a cover of " Ice Hockey Hair " for their 2008 album Stop Us If You 've Heard This One Before , Vol 1 .
The Melody Maker called the Ice Hockey Hair EP " brilliant , predictably freakish weirdness " and described it as a cross between The Beach Boys and techno while guest reviewers Therapy ? claimed to like " Smokin ' " better than " Ice Hockey Hair " which they thought was " full @-@ on smoker music " . Vox stated that Ice Hockey Hair proved the band 's " placid casual grasp of the concept of genius " , describing the title track as a " gooey , melted mix of Queen , ELO , Pavement and [ ... ] Techno Animal " and " Smokin ' " , which they felt was the EP 's stand @-@ out song , as " deranged disco delirium " . The NME felt that the EP showed the Super Furry Animals had fulfilled their early promise and was the result of the band having " ideas like most people have cups of tea " , awarding Ice Hockey Hair ' single of the week ' in their 23 May 1998 issue . The magazine called " Smokin ' " " compact disco " and stated that " Mu @-@ Tron " was an " ugly name for a beautiful song " . " Ice Hockey Hair " was described as a combination of Queen , ELO , Wings , and " mad techno squalling " which sounds like " Elton John 's glitter @-@ coated grand piano " falling from the sky . AllMusic described the Ice Hockey Hair EP as " another fun , cool group of songs from a band that can seemingly do no wrong " which bridges the gap between the " spaced @-@ out rock " of 1997 's Radiator and the " pop / rock electronic experimentation " of 1999 's Guerrilla . The website did take issue with the short length of the record however , suggesting that the Super Furry Animals ' music works best " in large doses of pop / rock gem upon pop / rock gem " .
In their review of Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 , Drowned in Sound claimed that " Ice Hockey Hair " " could be the most perfect thing you 'll ever set ears upon " while the BBC viewed the " sublime " track as one of the record 's highlights . Also reviewing Songbook ... , Pitchfork Media called the song a " non @-@ album gem " , The Washington Post called it " gorgeous " and AllMusic referred to it as a masterpiece . Reviewing Outspaced , the Melody Maker described the " filthily funky " " Smokin ' " as brilliant and Select called it one of the " joyous pinnacles " of the album , suggesting that the track was inspired by P @-@ Funk . The NME however , called " Smokin ' " " sludgy " and suggested that it was Outspaced 's " fairly naff nadir " .
Stylus Magazine named Ice Hockey Hair in a list of " Ten essential singles / EPs " released by Creation Records in a 2003 article about the label . " Ice Hockey Hair " was included in The Pitchfork 500 , a list of the greatest songs released from 1977 to 2006 , published by Pitchfork Media in 2008 .
= = = Accolades = = =
* denotes an unordered list
= = Music videos = =
= = = " Ice Hockey Hair " = = =
The promotional music video for " Ice Hockey Hair " was directed by Daf Palfrey and appears on the DVD version of the band 's ' greatest hits ' album Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 . The video begins with silent footage of five characters , who appear in a small white rectangle in the centre of the screen against a black background . The text " I am like a film strip ... and like a child ... in a thousand lunar parks ... someone is always ... cranking the handle " appears as the video cuts between shots of each person . " Ice Hockey Hair " begins playing approximately 17 seconds into the video . Each character is again seen in a white rectangle in the centre of the screen followed by a shot of a pair of hands holding a strip of photos of that particular person during which red text is displayed showing the character 's name . A woman with short blonde hair and a red top , seen holding her head in her hands is introduced as " The wife " ; a bald man with blood on his head is " The husband " ; a woman in a white jacket with a blonde mullet hairstyle is " The mistress " ; a man with thick @-@ rimmed glasses , a white jacket , and red polo neck sweater is " The voyeur " ; and a man in a red and black tracksuit top with a large scar running from his left eye to right cheek is " The stalker " . The five characters are all seen singing along to the track individually , again framed in a white rectangle in the centre of the screen . " The wife " is twice shown ripping a photograph of her and " The husband " , while " The mistress " is seen sitting on the lap of " The husband " in two shots . After 1 minute and 6 seconds the Super Furry Animals are shown playing along to the track on a rotating dancefloor surrounded by photo booths and several dancers in dark clothes . During an instrumental break in the song , at 1 minute 38 seconds , two masked men are shown playing table tennis on another rotating dancefloor with two large fluorescent purple circles in the background . The five characters are then seen walking around the band and stepping into the photo booths that surround them . The text " Act 1 : The kiss " is shown , after which footage of the Super Furry Animals playing along to the track is intercut with shots of the characters . " The husband " and " The mistress " kiss while a strip of photos is seen being passed through a pair of hands and " The voyeur " is shown using a video camera . The characters move to different photo booths and the title " Act 2 : The stalking " is displayed . Shots of " The stalker " and " The wife " are then intercut with shots of the band . The characters again change booths and the title " Act 3 : The murder " is shown . After quick jump cuts between shots of the band , the masked men playing table tennis and the five characters , " The voyeur " is shown pointing his video camera at the motionless body of " The mistress " which is laid in a bathtub covered in film stock . More footage of the band follows before " The husband " is shown motionless of the floor , surrounded by a white tape outline . The video ends with more jump cuts between the band , the masked table tennis players and the five named characters .
= = = " Smokin ' " = = =
The music video for " Smokin ' " was directed by Peter Gray and also appears on the DVD version of Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 . The video begins with a shot of the Super Furry Animals ' ' SFA ' logo which appears on the cover of the Ice Hockey Hair EP . The logo fades out and the camera pans through a crowd of dark figures wearing berets towards a woman standing behind a long , black table . The woman is wearing a short sleeved black dress and has a blonde bob haircut . Her arms and face are illuminated in the otherwise dark room and she is shown walking backwards down the table , giving coloured cards to each of the figures wearing berets . The woman walks up and down the table observing the crowd as they each use the piece of card they were given to make an origami animal . As each person completes a model animal the woman gives them a new piece of coloured card . Approximately two minutes into the video the woman returns to a central position behind the table and looks down at one of the beret wearers . The camera cuts to show him screwing up a piece of green card into a ball which turns into an origami crane and flies away as he opens his hands . The rest of the figures in berets are shown from behind , bowing their heads before the camera cuts to a close up view of several origami animals on the table . These animals also begin to move , and interact with each other until a large red animal arrives . The camera cuts to a close @-@ up of the red animal 's head with smoke shown coming from its nose . The next shot shows the origami animals stationary on the table as the camera pans up to the beret wearers who are looking straight ahead while smoke moves across from the right . The woman walks up and down the table giving the beret wearers new pieces of card as they complete more and more origami animals . As the video draws to an end she rapidly piles up the origami animals into a heap in the middle of the table . When all the animals have been collected into the pile the beret wearers bow their heads and the woman puts her arms around the pile and smiles at the camera . In the final shot the woman places her hands on the table and stares at the camera as the video fades out to show the same Super Furry Animals ' ' SFA ' logo which appeared at the very beginning .
= = Track listing = =
All songs by Super Furry Animals unless otherwise stated .
7 " ( CRE 288 ) , MC ( CRECS 288 )
" Ice Hockey Hair " – 6 : 57
" Smokin ' " ( Super Furry Animals / Rose / Simpson ) – 5 : 05
= = Personnel = =
Band
Gruff Rhys – vocals
Huw Bunford – guitar , backing vocals
Guto Pryce – bass guitar
Cian Ciaran – keyboards , backing vocals
Dafydd Ieuan – drums , backing vocals
Artwork
Pete Fowler – illustration
Simon Corkin – design
= = Singles chart position = =
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= 1st Parachute Brigade ( United Kingdom ) =
The 1st Parachute Brigade was an airborne forces brigade formed by the British Army during the Second World War . As its name indicates , the unit was the first parachute infantry brigade formation in the British Army .
Formed from three parachute battalions as well as support units and assigned to the 1st Airborne Division , the brigade first saw action in Operation Biting – a raid on a German radar site at Bruneval on the French coast . They were then deployed in the Torch landings in Algeria , and the following Tunisia Campaign , where it fought as an independent unit . In North Africa each of the brigade 's three parachute battalions took part in separate parachute assaults . The brigade then fought in the front line as normal infantry until the end of the campaign , during which they earned the nickname the " Red Devils " . Following the Axis surrender in North Africa , when 1st Airborne Division arrived in Tunisia the brigade once more came under its command . The brigade 's next mission was Operation Fustian , part of the Allied invasion of Sicily . This was also the British Army 's first brigade @-@ sized combat parachute jump . Because of casualties sustained in Sicily , the brigade was held in reserve for the division 's next action , Operation Slapstick , an amphibious landing at Taranto in Italy .
At the end of 1943 , the brigade returned to England , in preparation for the invasion of North @-@ West Europe . Not required during the Normandy landings , the brigade was next in action at the Battle of Arnhem , part of Operation Market Garden . Landing on the first day of the battle , the brigade objective was to seize the crossings over the River Rhine and hold them for forty @-@ eight hours until relieved by the advancing XXX Corps , coming 60 miles ( 97 km ) from the south . In the face of strong resistance elements , the brigade managed to secure the north end of the Arnhem road bridge . After holding out for four days , with their casualties growing and supplies exhausted they were forced to surrender . By this time the remainder of the brigade trying to fight through to the bridge had been almost destroyed and was no longer a viable fighting force .
Reformed after the battle , the brigade took part in operations in Denmark at the end of the war and then in 1946 joined the 6th Airborne Division on internal security duties in Palestine . Post @-@ war downsizing of the British Army reduced their airborne forces to a single brigade and led to the 1948 dissolution of 1st Parachute Brigade .
= = Formation history = =
= = = Background = = =
Impressed by the success of German airborne operations during the Battle of France , the British Prime Minister , Winston Churchill directed the War Office to investigate the possibility of creating a corps of 5 @,@ 000 parachute troops . On 22 June 1940 , No. 2 Commando was redeployed to parachute duties and on 21 November re @-@ designated the 11th Special Air Service Battalion ( later the 1st Parachute Battalion ) , with both a parachute and glider wing , the men of which took part in the first British airborne operation , Operation Colossus , on 10 February 1941 . The success of the raid prompted the War Office to expand the airborne forces , setting up the Airborne Forces Depot and Battle School in Derbyshire in April 1942 , and creating the Parachute Regiment as well as converting several infantry battalions into airborne battalions in August 1942 . This resulted in the formation of the 1st Airborne Division with the 1st Parachute Brigade and the 1st Airlanding Brigade . Its commander Major @-@ General Frederick Arthur Montague Boy Browning , expressed his opinion that the fledgling force must not be sacrificed in " penny packets " and urged the formation of further brigades .
All parachute forces had to undergo a twelve @-@ day parachute training course at No. 1 Parachute Training School , RAF Ringway . Initial parachute jumps were from a converted barrage balloon and finished with five jumps from an aircraft . Anyone failing to complete a descent was returned to his old unit . Those men who successfully completed the parachute course were presented with their maroon beret and parachute wings .
Airborne soldiers were expected to fight against superior numbers of the enemy armed with heavy weapons , including artillery and tanks . Training was as a result designed to encourage a spirit of self @-@ discipline , self @-@ reliance and aggressiveness . Emphasis was given to physical fitness , marksmanship and fieldcraft . A large part of the training regime consisted of assault courses and route marching while military exercises included capturing and holding airborne bridgeheads , road or rail bridges and coastal fortifications . At the end of most exercises , the battalions would march back to their barracks . An ability to cover long distances at speed was also expected : airborne platoons were required to cover a distance of 50 miles ( 80 km ) in twenty @-@ four hours , and battalions 32 miles ( 51 km ) . This ability was demonstrated in April 1945 . When the 3rd Parachute Brigade advanced 15 miles ( 24 km ) in twenty @-@ four hours , which included eighteen hours of close @-@ quarters fighting . In the same month the 5th Parachute Brigade marched 50 miles ( 80 km ) in seventy @-@ two hours , during which they also carried out two night time assaults .
= = = Formation = = =
Brigadier Richard N. Gale , who would later command the 6th Airborne Division , took command of the 1st Parachute Brigade on its formation in September 1941 . A triangular brigade formation with three battalions , Gale decided that rather than dividing the 11th Special Air Service Battalion among the brigade 's battalions , he would keep the already trained unit together . On 15 September it was renamed the 1st Parachute Battalion , which , together with the newly raised 2nd and 3rd Parachute Battalions , now formed the 1st Parachute Brigade . These battalions were formed from volunteers aged between twenty @-@ two and thirty @-@ two years of age . Only men in infantry units were selected and only ten men from any one unit were allowed to leave . Early in 1942 the brigade was joined by the 4th Parachute Battalion , the 16th ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance , and the 1st ( Parachute ) Squadron , Royal Engineers ( RE ) . The 4th Parachute Battalion left the brigade in July to become the first battalion in the 2nd Parachute Brigade .
By 1944 the brigade had increased in size and now comprised the 1st , 2nd , 3rd Parachute battalions , the 16th ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance and the 1st ( Parachute ) Squadron Royal Engineers ( RE ) as well as the 3rd ( Airlanding ) Light Battery Royal Artillery ( RA ) with 75 mm howitzers , 1st ( Airlanding ) Anti @-@ Tank Battery RA with 6 pounder and 17 pounder guns along with a Royal Army Service Corps ( RASC ) detachment .
After the war the brigade comprised the 1st , 2nd , 17th Parachute Battalions and the 16th ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance . The 3rd Parachute Battalion had left to join the 3rd Parachute Brigade , replacing the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion , who had returned to Canada at the cessation of hostilities . The 1st Airborne Division was disbanded in November 1945 , and the brigade assigned to the 6th Airborne Division in Palestine . In 1946 the 17th Parachute Battalion amalgamated with the 7th ( Light Infantry ) Parachute Battalion retaining the number of the senior unit . The brigade formation changed again in 1948 . Further amalgamations and the general reduction in the post war British Army resulted in the brigade being formed from the 1st Parachute Battalion , the amalgamated 2nd / 3rd Parachute Battalion and the amalgamated 8th / 9th Parachute Battalion . By July 1948 the 6th Airborne Division had been withdrawn to England and disbanded , leaving the 2nd Parachute Brigade as the only regular British Army parachute formation .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Bruneval = = =
The Bruneval raid or Operation Biting in February 1942 was one of the first missions planned by Combined Operations Headquarters that used all three of the British Armed Forces . An attacking force from ' C ' Company , 2nd Parachute Battalion would be parachuted into France by the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) and later evacuated by the Royal Navy . Their objective was a German Würzburg radar station on the coast of France , which British scientists wanted to examine .
On 27 February , in ideal tide and weather conditions , the raid was commanded by Major John D. Frost . A group of forty men would attack machine @-@ guns on the cliffs overlooking the evacuation beach and then advance to Bruneval village . Another fifty @-@ five men in an assault group would attack the radar station and forty men would set up a blocking position to prevent German reinforcements reaching the radar site . The parachute drop was mostly successful with half of the first group missing the drop zone ( DZ ) by 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) . After capturing the radar and other installations , the assault group dismantled the equipment then withdrew towards the beach . They were intercepted en route by the cliff machine guns which had not yet been cleared and suffered some casualties . When the delayed first group arrived , they managed to neutralize the enemy machine guns and by 02 : 15 the company had mustered on the beach to wait for the navy . Despite some initial problems caused by a lack of experience in combined operations , the troops were successfully evacuated with losses of three men killed and seven wounded .
The success of the Bruneval raid was reported in the British media for several weeks while Winston Churchill , who had taken a personal interest in the raid , assembled the War Cabinet on 3 March to hear from Major Frost and several other officers who had taken part . On 15 May 1942 a special supplement to the London Gazette carried the announcement of nineteen decorations for the mission , including a Military Cross for Frost .
= = = North Africa = = =
In November 1942 , the brigade now commanded by Brigadier Edwin Flavell , was detached from 1st Airborne Division , to take part in Operation Torch , the Allied landings in French North Africa .
On 11 November , the first major British parachute landing was made by the 3rd Parachute Battalion , which without its ' A ' Company , flew from England via Gibraltar in a fleet of American piloted Douglas Dakotas . Their objective , the airfield at Bone , turned out to be deserted and was secured with no opposition . No. 6 Commando and a flight of RAF Spitfires reinforced the battalion later the same day . The following day the rest of the brigade who had travelled by sea arrived at Algiers . During the next airborne mission on 16 November , the 1st Parachute Battalion secured an important road junction near Souk el Arba , 90 miles ( 140 km ) west of Tunis then the next day ambushed a German convoy and were involved in several small battles . The Commanding Officer ( CO ) Lieutenant Colonel James Hill was wounded attacking an Italian position and replaced by his second @-@ in @-@ command , Alastair Pearson .
On 29 November the 2nd Parachute Battalion , now commanded by John Frost , parachuted onto an airfield at Depienne , 30 miles ( 48 km ) south of Tunis . The airfield was deserted so Frost marched the battalion 10 miles ( 16 km ) to a second airfield at Oudna . Due to postponement of their advance , the First Army did not relieve the battalion as planned and instead it became trapped 50 miles ( 80 km ) behind the German lines , where Frost was informed by radio that they had been written off . After ambushing an advancing German formation , the battalion were attacked by a second German unit and surrounded . On 1 December the Germans attacked with infantry , armour and artillery , almost wiping out ' C ' Company and causing heavy casualties in the rest of the battalion . Frost ordered the battalion to disperse into company groups and head for the Allied lines . On 3 December , the surviving 180 men reached safety at Majaz al Bab . With no more opportunities for parachute operations , the brigade fought in the front line as normal infantry . In February they held the right flank of the Allied line at Bou Arada and on the night of 2 / 3 February , the 1st Battalion , along with a French Foreign Legion unit , captured the Jebel Mansour heights and were then subjected to constant shelling and infantry attacks . After three days without relief , their almost ammunition expended , and having suffered 200 casualties , they were forced to withdraw . This was followed by the brigade fighting two fierce engagements at Tamera and checking the German offensive of Operation Ochsenkopf . When the Allied advance began again after the winter rains , the brigade was assigned to the force tasked with capturing Bizerta on 17 March . The remaining Axis forces surrendered on 13 May 1943 bringing the Tunisian campaign to an end with a cost to the 1st Parachute Brigade of 1 @,@ 700 killed , wounded or missing . They had nevertheless proved themselves in combat and been nicknamed the Red Devils by the German forces they had fought against .
= = = Sicily = = =
Immediately before the Axis surrender in April 1943 , the 1st Airborne Division , now commanded by Major @-@ General George F. Hopkinson , arrived in North Africa , and the 1st Parachute Brigade once again came under their command for further operations in Sicily . The invasion of Sicily was to be carried out by General Bernard Montgomery 's Eighth Army landing in the east and Lieutenant General George S. Patton 's U.S. Seventh Army coming ashore in the west . These seaborne landings were to be supported by airborne assaults whereby the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division would support the Americans and the 1st Airborne Division the British . The British airborne assault was divided into brigade @-@ sized operations : Operation Ladbroke by the 1st Airlanding Brigade took place on the night of 9 / 10 July , and Operation Fustian by the 1st Parachute Brigade on the night of 13 / 14 July . A third operation to drop 2nd Parachute Brigade beside Augusta on the night of 10 / 11 July ( Operation Glutton ) was cancelled .
Now under the command of Brigadier Gerald Lathbury , 1st Parachute Brigade 's objective in Sicily was the Primosole bridge across the Simeto River , south of Catania , the only crossing point that gave the Eighth Army access to the Catania plain . Once they had captured the bridge , the brigade were to hold out until relieved by Major @-@ General Sidney C. Kirkman 's 50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division , reinforced by the 4th Armoured Brigade advancing from the landing beaches . Paratroops of the brigade would land on four DZs and the gliders at two landing zones ( LZ ) . The 1st Parachute Battalion was divided into two groups that would land at DZs on both sides of the river and thereafter attack the bridge from both sides simultaneously – 3rd Parachute Battalion would land on their own DZ north of the bridge and secure the high ground , while the 2nd Parachute Battalion did the same in the south .
At 19 : 30 on 12 July 1943 the brigade took off from North Africa Consisting of 105 Dakotas , eight of them towing Waco gliders and 11 Albemarles towing Horsa gliders , the gliders amongst other things transported the twelve anti @-@ tank guns of the 1st ( Airlanding ) Anti @-@ Tank Battery .
The brigade 's first casualties occurred while they were still en route , when two Dakotas were shot down flying over an Allied convoy with another nine damaged and forced to turn back . When they reached the Sicilian coast , Axis anti @-@ aircraft fire shot down thirty @-@ seven and a further ten were damaged and forced to abort their mission . Of the surviving aircraft , only thirty @-@ nine managed to drop their paratroops within .5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) of the correct DZ . Only four gliders arrived intact and those not shot down en route were destroyed while attempting to land . Despite these setbacks , the 250 surviving men of the 1st Parachute Battalion captured the bridge intact . The battalion commander , 28 @-@ year old Lieutenant Colonel Pearson , ordered his men to dig in on the north side of the river . Their only support weapons were three anti @-@ tank guns , two 3 inch mortars and a Vickers machine gun . As they dug in , the men removed the demolition charges from the bridge such that even if they were forced off the bridge it could not be immediately destroyed .
Unknown to the brigade , units of the German 1st Parachute Division had parachuted onto Catania airfield to reinforce the Italians guarding the bridge and quickly moved to regain the crossing . The German paratroops attacked at dawn . The defenders at the bridge held out all day against infantry , armour and attacks by aircraft . South of the bridge , the 2nd Parachute Battalion also under attack , were able to call on naval gunfire support from the 6 inch guns of the British cruiser HMS Mauritius , which stopped an assault that was about to overrun their position . The men from the 1st and 3rd Battalions , although initially forced across the river , still held the southern bank until dark when they withdrew to the 2nd Battalion 's position .
To the south , the 50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division , in the face of strong German resistance , had stopped for the night 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of the 2nd Battalion . Gunfire was heard just south of the brigade position on the following morning whereupon Brigadier Lathbury sent out a patrol to investigate and they discovered it was from British guns . The leading elements of the 50th Division had finally made contact with the brigade . After two days fighting , the brigade 's 4th Armoured and the 9th Battalion , Durham Light Infantry recaptured the bridge . Operations Ladbroke and Fustian had cost the British 1st Airborne Division 454 dead , 240 wounded and 102 missing .
= = = England = = =
The brigade returned to England in late 1943 and trained for operations in North @-@ West Europe under the supervision of I Airborne Corps , commanded by Lieutenant @-@ General Frederick Browning . Although they were not scheduled to take part in the Normandy landings , Operation Wastage was a contingency plan drawn up whereby all the 1st Airborne Division would be parachuted in to support any of the five invasion beaches if delays were experienced .
In early September the brigade prepared for Operation Comet , during which the 1st Airborne Division 's three brigades were to land in the Netherlands and capture three river crossings . The first of these was the bridge over the River Waal at Nijmegen , the second the bridge over the River Maas at Grave and finally the bridge over the River Rhine at Arnhem . The objective of the British 1st Parachute Brigade would be the bridge at Arnhem . Planning for Comet was well advanced when on 10 September the mission was cancelled . Instead , a new operation was proposed with the same objectives as Comet but to be carried out by three divisions of the First Allied Airborne Army , the British 1st and U.S. 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions .
= = = Arnhem = = =
Landings by the 1st Allied Airborne Army 's three divisions began in the Netherlands on 17 September 1944 . Although the allocation of aircraft for each division was roughly similar , the 101st Airborne Division landing at Nijmegen would use only one lift . The 82nd Airborne Division at Grave required two lifts while the 1st Airborne Division at Arnhem would need three lifts . Whereas the two American divisions delivered at least three quarters of their infantry in their first lift , the 1st Airborne 's similar drop used only half its capacity for infantry and the remainder to deliver vehicles and artillery .
The 1st Airborne Division had the required airlift capacity to deliver all three parachute brigades with their glider @-@ borne anti @-@ tank weapons or two of the parachute brigades and the airlanding brigade on day one . Instead however , the vast majority of the division 's vehicles and heavy equipment , plus the 1st Parachute Brigade , most of the 1st Airlanding Brigade and divisional troops were to be on the first lift , with the rest to follow the next day . Following the first lift , the airlanding brigade would remain at the landing grounds to defend them for the following day 's lifts , while the parachute brigade set out alone to capture the bridges and ferry crossing on the River Rhine .
Planes carrying the brigade left England at around 09 : 45 and arrived over DZ ' X ' at 13 : 00 . After an uneventful landing the brigade , once organised , set off for Arnhem . The 2nd Parachute Battalion followed a southern route along the river Rhine , to the north 3rd Parachute Battalion took the Heelsum @-@ Arnhem road through Oosterbeek , while the 1st Parachute Battalion initially remained in reserve at brigade headquarters . The 2nd Battalion , with ' A ' Company leading , came under sporadic fire from pockets of German troops . ' C ' Company were directed to capture the Arnhem railway bridge , but it was blown up just as they arrived . Pushing ahead , ' A ' Company came under fire from German armoured cars and discovered that the central span of the pontoon bridge was missing . Entering Arnhem as night fell , the leading battalion elements reached the main road bridge at 21 : 00 . Having secured the northern end of the bridge , attempts to capture the southern end were repulsed and the battalion started to fortify the houses and dig in . Following behind , other units of the brigade started to arrive , including a troop of guns from 1st ( Airlanding ) Anti @-@ Tank Battery , brigade headquarters without the brigadier , part of the 1st Airborne Reconnaissance Squadron , and detachments of Royal Engineers and Royal Army Service Corps men . In total about 500 men were now at the bridge .
A lucky break allowed 3rd Battalion to ambush the staff car carrying Generalmajor Friedrich Kussin , the German commandant of Arnhem , and kill him and his driver . Nevertheless , most of the battalion had been stopped by the Germans in Oosterbeek while ' C ' Company had entered Arnhem but were halted on the road leading to the bridge . At 15 : 30 the 1st Parachute Battalion were released from the reserve and directed along the Ede @-@ Arnhem road . Here they first encountered German armoured vehicles and a column of five tanks and fifteen half @-@ tracks , which were engaged by the battalion . They continued fighting their way forward , and by morning had reached the outskirts of Arnhem . By this time around a quarter of the battalion had been killed , wounded or were missing . Before this , at nightfall , Brigadier Lathbury had contacted Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Frost in command at the bridge and informed him the brigade would stay put during the night and attempt to reach him in the morning .
At dawn on the second day , the defenders on the bridge saw a small convoy of trucks approaching at some speed from the south , which at first they misidentified as the British XXX Corps . That they were enemy trucks did not become apparent until they were on the bridge whereupon the defenders opened fire and destroyed the convoy . Soon afterwards , German infantry and armour approached the bridge from the east . One tank reached the space under the bridge before it was destroyed by one of the 6 pounder anti @-@ tank guns . At 09 : 00 , thirty armoured cars , half @-@ tracks and trucks from the 9th SS Panzer Division attempted to rush the bridge from the south . The first five armoured cars , using the wrecks of the dawn convoy as cover and with the element of surprise , managed to cross unscathed . The rest of the force was engaged and twelve of their vehicles destroyed with the survivors returning to the southern bank . All day long , the force at the bridge came under fire from mortars and anti @-@ aircraft guns positioned south of the river and were subject to probing infantry and armour attacks .
On the outskirts of Arnhem , 1st Battalion , which had been joined by Headquarters Company , 3rd Battalion , unsuccessfully attempted to fight through to the bridge then moved south in an attempt to flank the German line . They eventually ended up beside the river , whereafter 3rd Battalion advanced 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) along the bank until daylight revealed their position to the Germans . Divisional commander Major @-@ General Roy Urquhart and Brigadier Lathbury accompanied 3rd Battalion until Lathbury was shot and wounded . Due to his injuries , they were unable to move him and he was left in the care of a Dutch family . The 1st and 3rd Battalions spent all day trying to force a way through to the bridge . By nightfall they had failed and the strength of both battalions was reduced to around 100 men .
Another attempt to reach the bridge began at 03 : 45 on the third day , 19 September when the 1st and 3rd Battalions were joined by the 11th Parachute Battalion and the 2nd Battalion , South Staffordshire Regiment . By dawn , under intense fire from the German defenders , the attack had faltered whereupon the 11th Parachute Battalion , until then held in reserve , was ordered to carry out a left flanking assault on the German line . This last attempt to reach the defenders at the bridge was subsequently stopped on the orders of General Urquhart when he realised the futility of the battle . By this time the 1st Parachute Battalion had been reduced to forty men and the 3rd Parachute Battalion to around the same number .
With no word from the division or brigade Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Frost assumed command of the brigade units at the bridge . With their casualties mounting and supplies of food and ammunition running low , a request for the force to surrender was rejected by Frost , who decided they would fight on .
By day four , 20 September , the brigade still holding out at the bridge had been split into two groups during the night by the Germans who had managed to infiltrate close enough to separate them into positions east and west of the bridge road . Any movement was subjected to machine @-@ gun and sniper fire and they were under almost constant mortar and artillery attack . Added to this were probes by tanks and self propelled guns , which approached the defenders ' buildings and opened fire at point blank range . The brigade , out of anti @-@ tank ammunition , could do nothing to stop them in the east , but the 6 pounders in the west still proved an effective deterrent . During the day , Lieutenant John Grayburn of the 2nd Battalion was killed and later posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross for his bravery during the fighting at the bridge . That morning , communications with 1st Airborne Division were established and Frost , on asking for reinforcements and supplies , was informed that the division was surrounded at Oosterbeek and the brigade was on their own . Frost was later wounded and command of the brigade assumed by Major Frederick Gough of the reconnaissance squadron . By midday the brigade position was untenable and the last defenders were withdrawn into what had been the Headquarters Company , 2nd Battalion 's position . By nightfall they were still holding out , and in the darkness some men tried unsuccessfully to break out . At dawn on day five , what was left of the brigade was forced to surrender .
= = = Post war = = =
By early May 1945 , the 1st Parachute Brigade had been brought up to strength , albeit mainly with inexperienced replacements and the survivors of the 4th Parachute Brigade , which had been disbanded . On 4 May , the brigade was detached from 1st Airborne Division and 1st Parachute Battalion transported to Denmark for occupation duties while the rest of the brigade remained in Britain as a reserve formation . Without the brigade , the 1st Airborne Division deployed to Norway , but on their return were disbanded on 15 November 1945 . The remaining airborne division , the 6th , went to serve in Palestine . On 8 April 1946 , the brigade , now under command of Brigadier Hugh Bellamy , arrived in Palestine where it deployed in an internal security role . They replaced the 6th Airlanding Brigade , which was reformed as a normal infantry formation . Disbandment of the last brigade was overseen by its final commander Brigadier James Hill . Except for the three battalions of the 2nd Parachute Brigade in England , the remainder of the British airborne forces were disbanded . Between March and May 1948 , the 6th Airborne Division was dismantled , with the men leaving for England to be demobbed . The 1st Parachute Battalion , along with divisional headquarters , were the last airborne units to leave Palestine , three days after the British mandate ended on 18 May .
After the brigade had been disbanded in June 1948 , its battalions were reformed , by renumbering those in the 2nd Parachute Brigade . The 5th ( Scottish ) Parachute Battalion became the 2nd Parachute Battalion , the 4th / 6th Parachute Battalion the 1st Parachute Battalion , and the 7th ( Light Infantry ) Parachute Battalion the 3rd Parachute Battalion . Finally , in July 1948 , the 2nd Parachute Brigade was renumbered the 16th Parachute Brigade Group , taking its one and six numbers from the two wartime divisions .
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= Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' =
" Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' " ( or " The Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' " ) is a song first recorded by American jazz and rhythm and blues musician Tiny Bradshaw in 1951 . Originally performed in the style of a jump blues , Bradshaw borrowed lyrics from an earlier song and set them to an upbeat shuffle arrangement that inspired other musicians to perform and record it . Johnny Burnette and the Rock and Roll Trio made an important contribution in 1956 – they reworked it as a guitar riff @-@ driven song , which features an early use of intentionally distorted guitar in rock music .
In 1965 , the Yardbirds popularized the song as an early psychedelic blues rock song , due largely to Jeff Beck 's fuzz @-@ toned guitar work . Theirs soon became the most copied arrangement with recordings by a variety of musicians . After guitarist Jimmy Page joined the group , the Yardbirds recorded an updated version with new lyrics as " Stroll On " for the film Blowup in 1966 . With a highly charged rhythm section and a dual lead guitar attack by Beck and Page , it is seen as a forerunner to heavy metal .
When the Yardbirds broke up in 1968 , " Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' " was adopted as a concert opener by Page 's new band , Led Zeppelin , during its early ( and again later ) touring years . The song also became an important part of Aerosmith 's early live repertoire and in 1974 , they recorded it for their second album . Their version is actually a two @-@ part song – the first has a slower , groove @-@ oriented arrangement , while the second uses that of the Yardbirds . Aerosmith turned it into a hard rock standard and a staple of classic rock radio ; it remains one of their most popular tunes . " Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' " has been performed and recorded by numerous other artists .
= = Original song = =
Tiny Bradshaw and his band first recorded " The Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' " in 1951 . They performed the song as a mid @-@ tempo jump blues , which uses a boogie @-@ woogie bass line and a shuffle rhythm . The introductory section features scat singing by Bradshaw answered by a chorus . The verses are delivered in a lively vocal style , followed by an instrumental break with a raucous , honking @-@ style tenor saxophone solo by Red Prysock and backed by drummer Philip Paul 's a heavy backbeat . Bradshaw 's lyrics use early jazz hipster references :
The lyrics are based on " Cow @-@ Cow Boogie " , a 1942 song about a singing cowboy . Bradshaw rewrote lines , such as " a ditty he learned in the city " and " get along , get hip little doggies , and he trucked ' em on down the old fairway " , to meet his new scenario . Although the King Records single lists " Bradshaw @-@ Mann " as the songwriters , reissues and subsequent recordings of " The Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' " credit Tiny Bradshaw , Lois Mann ( a pseudonym of King Records ' owner Syd Nathan ) , and Howard Kay . BMI , the performing rights organization , lists the songwriters / composers as " Myron C. Bradshaw , Sydney Nathan , and Howard Kay " . According to music historian Larry Birnbaum , " Mann 's name was plainly added to allow Syd Nathan to siphon off a share of the publishing royalties , as label owners routinely did in those days ; as for Kay , his identity remains a mystery " .
The recording session took place on October 6 , 1951 , in Cincinnati , Ohio . Besides Brashaw , Prysock , and Paul , the other participants were : Leslie Ayers and Lester Bass on trumpets ; Andrew Penn on trombone ; Ted " Snooky " Holbert on alto and baritone sax ; Rufus Gore on tenor saxes ; Jimmy Robinson on piano ; and Clarence Mack on bass . King Records issued the song on both ten @-@ inch 78 rpm and seven @-@ inch 45 rpm records in late 1951 . Billboard magazine reviewed the release and commented using jump parlance : " The singer comes thru [ sic ] with a great vocal on a rockin ' novelty , with some solid chorus and ork [ orchestra a.k.a. swing band ] backing . Tune builds all the way . Platter could catch a lot of change . " However , it did not appear on the charts of the nation 's most popular R & B songs , such as those compiled by Billboard . Although Bradshaw had five other records that reached the R & B top ten , " The Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' " remains his best @-@ known recording and continues to be popular with Shag dancers ( a type of swing dance ) on the U.S. Eastern Seaboard .
= = Johnny Burnette rendition = =
In 1956 , Johnny Burnette and the Rock and Roll Trio reworked Bradshaw 's song using a rockabilly / early rock and roll arrangement . The Trio 's version features guitar lines in what many historians consider to be the first recorded example of intentionally distorted guitar in rock music , although blues guitarists , such as Willie Johnson and Pat Hare , had recorded with the same effect years earlier .
The Trio 's guitarist , Paul Burlison , explained that he noticed the sound after accidentally dropping his amplifier , which dislodged a power tube and later , " whenever I wanted to get that sound , I 'd just reach back and loosen that tube " . He utilized this effect with the song 's main instrumental feature , a three @-@ note minor key guitar line repeated throughout . Burlison recounted how he came up with the signature guitar riff :
[ I was ] in the dressing room with the loose tube . Johnny [ Burnett ] was playing an E chord and I was playing in a G position but I 'd take my fingers off and play in octaves [ using the thumb and middle or index finger ] . He wasn 't singing ' The Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' ' , it was another song , and I got to doing doom diddle doom daddle doom daddle ... [ Later ] I told Owen Bradley about it at the Barn , where we cut the stuff , and he said , ' let me hear it ' . So I started doing it and he said , ' Well , let 's do it ' .
The day after recording " The Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' , the trio recorded a version of Big Joe Turner 's " Honey Hush " , which features a more extensive use of the riff . Coral Records released both songs on a single in September 1956 .
Later , authors Vince Gordon and Peter DijkemaIt argue that the guitar sound on " The Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' " could be created with distortion commonly achievable with a highly @-@ overdriven early 1950s guitar amplifier . They point out that in the recording , the higher treble strings sound relatively clean , with the low E string having the most distortion ; with a tube malfunction , all strings would be distorted more or less to an equal degree . The authors add that this difference in sound could be achieved with the pole piece for the low E string raised higher than the rest , thereby allowing it to overload the amplifier more than the treble strings . They also argue that Nashville session guitarist Grady Martin provided the guitar parts for the Trio 's recording ; they base this on stylistic and technical qualities , since , at the time , Martin was a more accomplished player than Burlison , and these qualities are apparent in his work on other recordings .
= = The Yardbirds versions = =
English rock group the Yardbirds recorded " The Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' " during their first American tour in 1965 . It is based on Johnny Burnette 's adaptation , but Beck biographer Annette Carson comments their " propulsive , power @-@ driven version , however , deviated radically from the original ... [ their ] recording plucked the old Rock & Roll Trio number from obscurity and turned it into a classic among classics " . The Yardbirds ' lead guitarist Jeff Beck , who is a fan of early rockabilly , said that he introduced the song to the group : " They just heard me play the riff , and they loved it and made up their version of it " . Giorgio Gomelsky , the group ' first producer , states that Sonny Boy Williamson II 's use of blues harp to imitate train sounds during his 1963 UK tour with the Yardbirds also inspired the band 's adaptation of the song .
The song opens with Beck using volume swells on an overdriven guitar to simulate a train whistle and the band launches into the song with rhythm guitarist Chris Dreja , bassist Paul Samwell @-@ Smith , and Beck following the riff from the Rock and Roll Trio 's song . Two combined takes of Keith Relf 's vocal , with some differences in the lyrics , come in after twelve bars . Following the vocal section , the rhythm changes to a shuffle and a 12 @-@ bar harmonica and guitar bridge sets the stage for Beck 's first solo . After returning to the original rhythm for another double @-@ tracked vocal section , a brief " rave up " -style section precedes Beck 's second solo . A rave up is used to describe a middle instrumental section of a song , when the beat shifts into double @-@ time and the instrumental improvisation gradually builds to a climax . It was part of the Yardbirds ' signature sound and " represent [ s ] some of the earliest psychedelic blues @-@ rock , antedating Jimi Hendrix and Cream " , according to Birnbaum . Beck 's second guitar solo , which extends for two 12 @-@ bar sections , features an early use of a fuzz @-@ tone distortion effects pedal . Birnbaum describes his work as " incendiary " and " riveting , relatively complex solos " . The Yardbirds ' rendition became the new standard that subsequent musicians would follow .
The song was recorded by Sam Phillips at his Phillips Recording studio in Memphis , Tennessee , on September 12 , 1965 , with further recording by Roy Halee at Columbia Recording Studio in New York City on September 21 and 22 , 1965 . " The Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' " was included on studio side of the Yardbirds ' second American album Having a Rave Up , which was issued on November 15 , 1965 . The song , along with another American studio recording , " I 'm a Man " , was not released in the UK until the mid @-@ 1970s , well after the group had disbanded . The song was a staple of the band 's concerts and they recorded several live versions with Beck , which appear on albums such as BBC Sessions and Glimpses 1963 – 1968 .
In June 1966 , bassist Samwell @-@ Smith left the Yardbirds to become a record producer . His initial replacement , well @-@ known studio guitarist Jimmy Page , soon switched to guitar with second guitarist Dreja taking over on bass . With both Beck and Page on board , the Yardbirds had one of the first dual lead guitar teams in popular rock . Movie director Michelangelo Antonioni saw the group 's September 23 , 1966 , performance at the Royal Albert Hall in London and , being impressed with their version of the song , requested that they perform " Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' " for his upcoming film , Blowup . Less than two weeks later , the group entered the Sound Techniques studios in London , where they recorded on October 3 – 5 , 1966 . Unable to secure the movie performance rights from the song 's publisher , singer Keith Relf wrote new lyrics , renamed it " Stroll On " , and included credits to the five band members . The Yardbirds also introduced an updated arrangement to go with the new lyrics . Led Zeppelin biographer Keith Shadwick describes the new version as " brutal , menacing , and teetering on all @-@ out violence " , which foreshadows heavy @-@ metal . It opens with a new drum part by Jim McCarty and harmonized guitar feedback , before Beck 's train whistle simulation . Unlike their earlier song , Relf 's vocal is not double tracked nor does he play harmonica and the rhythm remains on the riff throughout the song . The guitar work , with both Beck and Page contributing lead @-@ guitar parts , has been called " revolutionary " , from the opening " wall of feedback " , the use of " jarringly dissonant chords " , and the " twining guitar duet " by Birnbaum . During October 12 – 14 , the Yardbirds were filmed lip syncing the song for Blowup . Their scene was staged on a set at Elstree Studios designed to resemble the Ricky @-@ Tick , a popular London club and , at Antonioni 's direction , Beck smashes his guitar , in the manner of the Who 's Pete Townshend . The song as performed in the film is edited ( doubled ) to increase its length for the story line . " Stroll On " was later included on the Blow @-@ Up soundtrack album in 1967 and appears on the Yardbirds compilation albums Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' / The Yardbirds Story and Ultimate ! .
After Jeff Beck 's departure in late 1966 , the Yardbirds continued to regularly perform the " The Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' " . The original lyrics were used , but the " Stroll On " arrangement was followed with Jimmy Page playing all the guitar parts . Live performances with Page were later released on Live Yardbirds : Featuring Jimmy Page , Glimpses 1963 – 1968 , and Last Rave @-@ Up in L.A.
= = Led Zeppelin performances = =
Shortly after Keith Relf and Jim McCarty left the Yardbirds in mid @-@ 1968 , Jimmy Page searched for new musicians for a successor band . When the future members of Led Zeppelin rehearsed together for the first time in 1968 , the first song they played was " Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' " . In When Giants Walked the Earth , biographer Mick Wall quotes Page :
[ W ] e did ' Train ' ... It was there immediately . It was so powerful that I don 't remember what we played after that . For me it was just like , ' Crikey ! ' I mean , I 'd had moments of elation with groups before , but nothing as intense as that . It was like a thunderbolt , a lightning flash – boosh ! Everyone sort of went ' Wow ' .
The song was included in their early performances as " the New Yardbirds " and was featured as their opening number in Led Zeppelin 's 1968 and 1969 tours , and was included on several bootleg albums . In an interview , early MTV video host J.J. Jackson , who pointed out that he does not characterize Led Zeppelin 's music as heavy metal , described a bootleg recording from their first American tour , " if this were the only recording somebody ever heard of them , it doesn 't get much more ' heavy metal ' sounding than this , does it ? " They later revived it for their final tour " Over Europe " in 1980 . Though a studio version was never recorded by Led Zeppelin , as a solo artist Page recorded , during his Outrider sessions in 1988 , a version similar to the Led Zeppelin 1980 version .
= = Aerosmith version = =
In 1974 , Aerosmith brought " Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' " into the hard @-@ rock mainstream . Steven Tyler , Joe Perry , and Tom Hamilton had performed the song prior to joining Aerosmith . Perry recalled , " ' Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' ' was the only song we had in common when we first got together . Steven 's band had played ' Train ' and Tom and I played it in our band ... It 's a blues song , if you follow its roots all the way back ... I always thought if I could just play one song , it would be that one because of what it does to me " . Perry 's band began performing the song regularly after he had been moved by the performance of " Stroll On " in Blowup ; Tyler recalled his band opened for the Yardbirds in 1966 :
I had seen the Yardbirds play somewhere the previous summer with both Jeff Beck and Jimmy Page in the band ... In Westport [ at their supporting gig on October 22 , 1966 ] we found out that Jeff had left the band and Jimmy was playing lead guitar by himself . I watched him from the edge of the stage and all I can say is that he knocked my tits off . They did ' Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' ' and it was just so heavy . They were just an un @-@ fuckin ' -believable band .
The song was an early feature of Aerosmith 's concerts and a frequent show closer , including for their first gig in 1970 . They wanted to record a live version of the song , but producer Jack Douglas persuaded them to record a studio version , which actually consisted of two different versions of the song . The first part was slower , " more groove @-@ oriented " , while the second was a spirited rocker . To give the second part more of a live sound , Douglas overdubbed crowd noise from The Concert for Bangladesh , the 1971 benefit organized by George Harrison . Steve Hunter and Dick Wagner , who worked with Lou Reed and Alice Cooper , were brought in to record the guitar parts . According to Hunter , " We [ Wagner and I ] wanted to keep the solos equal so we 'd sit down ... and go through the material so it was totally even ... We didn 't want it to look like there was a rhythm guitar player and a lead guitar player , because that 's what we both did " . Hunter later elaborated :
Aerosmith was in Studio C of The Record Plant and I was doing work with Bob Ezrin in Studio A. I had a long wait between dubs and was waiting in the lobby . Jack Douglas popped his head out of Studio C and asked ' Hey , do you feel like playing ? ' I said sure , so I grabbed my guitar and went in ... I had two run thru ’ s [ sic ] , then Jack said ' great that 's it ! ' That turned out to be the opening solos on ' Train Kept A Rollin ' " .
In 1974 , " Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' " was included on Aerosmith 's second album Get Your Wings . A 3 : 15 edited version of the song without the added audience noises was released as a single , but it did not appear on the record charts . The song continues to be a highlight of the group 's shows and the album version has become a staple of album @-@ oriented rock and classic rock radio . It has become so identified with Aerosmith , that when Jeff Beck ( whose 1965 and 1966 recordings with the Yardbirds inspired Tyler and Perry ) occasionally performs it , he often hears comments like " Hey , I like your angle on the Aerosmith tune " .
The song is featured on three Aerosmith live compilations : Live ! Bootleg ( 1978 ) , Classics Live ( 1986 ) , and Rockin ' the Joint ( 2005 ) . On the Rockin ' the Joint version , Perry and Brad Whitford can be heard doing a little bit of " The Star Spangled Banner " towards the end . Additionally , the band is known to play two different versions of the song , the regular version of the song , as well as a slowed @-@ down version often called " Slow Train " in the setlists . On at least two occasions , Tyler and Perry have performed the song with other artists ; in 1992 with Guns N ' Roses and in 1995 with Page and Plant . In 2002 , the whole band performed the song live with the Japanese hard rock duo B 'z . It also appears in the music video game Rock Band , and the master track appears in Guitar Hero : Aerosmith as the final encore in the game . In 2012 , Aerosmith performed the song with Johnny Depp , which is included as an extra track on the Music from Another Dimension ! DVD .
= = Recognition and legacy = =
The Johnny Burnette Rock and Roll Trio rendition of " Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' " is included in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's exhibit of the " 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll " . Birnbaum notes the song 's lasting appeal and discusses renditions by Jeff Beck , Dread Zeppelin , Tav Falco 's Panther Burns , Foghat , Guana Batz , Haymarket Square , Colin James and the Little Big Band , Riot , Métal Urbain , Motörhead , Nazz , Shakin ' Stevens and the Sunsets , Skid Row , Screaming Lord Sutch , Sugarloaf , The Tragically Hip , Twisted Sister , and the Up . He sums up the various influences and versions :
As it evolved from ragtime through jazz , boogie @-@ woogie , big @-@ band swing , small combo rhythm @-@ and @-@ blues , rockabilly , blues @-@ rock , acid rock , heavy metal , punk , thrash , psychobilly , and points beyond , ' Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' ' became increasingly wild and dissonant , as if each performer were trying to surpass the intensity of the previous one . Through all the transformations , the essence of Bradshaw 's original survives — a semblance of the melody , a smattering of the lyrics , and the immortal refrain ' The train kept a rollin ' all night long ' , a cogent sexual metaphor for power and endurance .
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= Yellow Submarine ( album ) =
Yellow Submarine is the tenth studio album by the English rock band the Beatles , released on 13 January 1969 in the United States and on 17 January 1969 in the United Kingdom . It was issued as the soundtrack to the animated film of the same name , which premiered in London in July 1968 . The album contains six songs by the Beatles , of which " Yellow Submarine " and " All You Need Is Love " had both been previously released . The remainder of the album was a re @-@ recording of the film 's orchestral soundtrack by the band 's producer , George Martin .
The project was regarded as a contractual obligation by the Beatles , who were asked to supply four new songs for the film . Some songs were written and recorded specifically for the soundtrack , while others were unreleased tracks from other projects . The album was issued two months after the band 's self @-@ titled double LP ( also known as the " White Album " ) and was therefore not viewed by the band as a significant release . Yellow Submarine has since been afforded a mixed reception from music critics , some of whom consider that it falls short of the high standard generally associated with the Beatles ' work . It reached the top 5 in the UK and the US , and has been reissued on compact disc several times .
= = Background and recording = =
The album arose from contractual obligations for the Beatles to supply new songs to the soundtrack to United Artists ' animated film Yellow Submarine . Having recently completed their album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band in April 1967 , the group showed minimal enthusiasm for the project . Along with the music for their Magical Mystery Tour TV film , the Yellow Submarine soundtrack was part of a period that author Ian MacDonald later described as the band 's " regime of continuous low @-@ intensity recording ... it had a workaday quality about it – an intrinsic lack of tension which was bound to colour the resulting material . "
= = = Soundtrack songs = = =
Only one side of the album contains songs performed by the Beatles ; of the six , four were previously unreleased . " Yellow Submarine " had been issued in August 1966 as a single , topping the UK chart for four weeks , and had also been released on the album Revolver . Following the Beatles ' performance of the song on the Our World international television broadcast , " All You Need Is Love " had also been issued as a single , in July 1967 .
Of the unreleased tracks , the first to be recorded was George Harrison 's " Only a Northern Song " , taped in February 1967 but rejected for inclusion on Sgt. Pepper . The group performed overdubs on this basic track in April , immediately after completing the stereo mixes for that album . Among the sounds added during what Beatles historian Mark Lewisohn describes as " a curious session " , were trumpet , glockenspiel and spoken voices . Harrison 's lyrics reflect his displeasure at being merely a contracted songwriter to the Beatles ' publishing company , Northern Songs .
" All Together Now " was recorded in a single session on 12 May 1967 , specifically for the film project . The title came from a phrase Paul McCartney had heard as a child , to encourage everyone to sing music hall songs . He later described the song as " a throwaway " .
The band recorded Harrison 's " It 's All Too Much " in late May 1967 at De Lane Lea Studios in central London . Inspired by its author 's experimentation with the drug LSD , and originally running to over eight minutes in length , the song reflects the Summer of Love philosophy of 1967 and makes extensive use of guitar feedback . As with the later recorded " All You Need Is Love " , the track includes musical and lyrical quotations from other works – in this case , a trumpet passage from Jeremiah Clarke 's " Prince of Denmark 's March " and a lyric from the Merseys ' 1966 hit " Sorrow " .
John Lennon 's " Hey Bulldog " was recorded on 11 February 1968 and evolved from an initial intent to shoot a promotional film for the single " Lady Madonna " . Like " All Together Now " , it was specifically recorded with the film soundtrack in mind . The track 's ending featured a jam session after the point where a fade @-@ out was intended in the final mix , which was kept in the finished version . Lennon later described the song as " a good @-@ sounding record that means nothing " .
= = = George Martin orchestrations = = =
Side two features a re @-@ recording of the symphonic film score composed by the Beatles ' producer , George Martin , specifically for the album . The recording took place with a 41 @-@ piece orchestra over two three @-@ hour sessions on 22 and 23 October 1968 in Abbey Road , and edited down to the length on the LP on 22 November .
In some of his arrangements , Martin referenced his past work with the Beatles ; for example , " Sea of Time " includes what MacDonald terms " an affectionate quotation " from the Indian @-@ styled " Within You Without You " , from Sgt. Pepper , and " Yellow Submarine in Pepperland " reprises the film 's title track . In " Sea of Monsters " , Martin adapted part of Bach 's Air on the G String , while in other selections he parodies works by Stravinsky .
= = Release = =
The film received its worldwide premiere in London in July 1968 , by which time the Beatles were busy working on their eponymous double album , The Beatles , commonly called " the White Album " . Ultimately , the Beatles were enthusiastic about the finished film , and did more to associate themselves with it after release . Having been delayed so that it would not clash with the release of The Beatles , and to allow for the re @-@ recording of Martin 's contributions , Yellow Submarine was issued by Apple Records on 13 January 1969 in the US and on 17 January in the UK . The album was issued in stereo only in the US , while the UK album was available in both stereo and mono , although the mono version is simply a fold @-@ down ( a combination of two stereo channels into one mono ) rather than a specific mix . Since " All You Need Is Love " had been rush @-@ released a single , it did not have an official stereo mix . Although the track was released on the US LP Magical Mystery Tour , an official stereo mix of the track was not made until 29 October 1968 for the album . In the US , 8 @-@ track tape versions featured " Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds " as an extra song on side two .
= = = Artwork = = =
The artwork on the sleeve contains a drawing of the Beatles as featured on trailer posters , created by Heinz Edelman . The same basic design was used for the UK and US covers , though the UK jacket contains the words " Nothing is Real " ( taken from " Strawberry Fields Forever " ) just below the album 's title , while the US version did not .
On the back of the cover , the UK album contained a review of the White Album written for The Observer by Tony Palmer . The review was introduced by a few liner notes by Apple press officer Derek Taylor . The US cover contained a fictitious illustrated biography by Dan Davis of the Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , in which the ensemble 's battle with the Blue Meanies was compared to three other epic struggles in the history of the English @-@ speaking world : Beowulf 's struggle to save the Heorot mead hall , King John 's signing of the Magna Carta and Thomas Jefferson 's writing of the Declaration of Independence .
= = = Unreleased EP = = =
An EP containing the new songs had been considered for release in September 1968 , but any plan to issue the soundtrack music from Yellow Submarine was then postponed to allow for the White Album 's unveiling . Following the delayed release of the soundtrack album , however , Lewisohn writes that the Beatles were " mildly criticised " for having ceded a full LP side to Martin 's music and thereby failing to provide their customary " excellent value @-@ for @-@ money " . As a result , the band considered issuing Yellow Submarine as a five @-@ track mono EP , without the film score but including the then @-@ unreleased " Across the Universe " as a bonus track . This EP was mastered in March 1969 but never issued . The original running order for the EP was " Only a Northern Song " , " Hey Bulldog " and " Across the Universe " on side one , with " All Together Now " and " It 's All Too Much " on side two .
Lennon later dismissed Martin 's contributions as " all this terrible shit " and blamed Brian Epstein , the Beatles ' manager , for allowing Martin to participate in the project . According to author and music journalist Peter Doggett , neither the proposed EP format nor an expanded soundtrack album ( containing other previously issued Beatles songs that appear in the 1968 film ) was possible at the time , since " both options would have denied George Martin his contractual right to appear alongside The Beatles – and robbed him of potentially the largest royalty payment of his career . "
= = = Reissues = = =
The first compact disc release appeared in August 1987 . It is consistent with the English version of the LP . The running order is the same , with " Sea of Time " and " Sea of Holes " as separate tracks ; the " Nothing Is Real " subtitle remains intact , and the review of the White Album with Taylor 's introduction is included inside the CD insert .
The album appeared in a revised version on 13 September 1999 , coinciding with the remastered re @-@ release of the film . Titled Yellow Submarine Songtrack , it dispenses with the George Martin orchestrations , and includes the six Beatles songs from the original album , along with an additional nine songs , all completely remixed for this disc .
The original album was remastered and reissued , along with the rest of the Beatles ' catalogue , on 9 September 2009 . This release included both the UK and US sleeve notes . The mono mixes of the four songs that were intended for the unreleased EP ( along with " Across the Universe " ) were released for the first time on the Mono Masters collection as part of the box set The Beatles in Mono .
= = Reception = =
In contrast to the animated film , Yellow Submarine was not generally considered to be a significant release . Issued two months after The Beatles , it was one of the few Beatles releases that failed to top the charts in either the United Kingdom or the United States , peaking instead at number 3 and number 2 , respectively . In Canada , Yellow Submarine topped the RPM national albums chart for two weeks , ending the White Album 's 12 @-@ week run at number 1 . On America 's Billboard Top LPs chart , it was kept from the top by the same album .
Recalling the release in a special @-@ edition issue of Mojo magazine , Peter Doggett writes that " The papers got all trippy for Yellow Submarine " . Beat Instrumental bemoaned the paucity of new material by the band , but added : " be not of bad cheer . The George Martin score to the film is really very nice , and two tracks by George Harrison redeem the first side . Both [ songs ] are superb pieces , considerably more enthralling than the most draggy All Together Now , a rather wet track . " In a review for International Times , Barry Miles considered Martin 's score " superbly produced " and , of the songs , wrote only of " It 's All Too Much " , which he described as , variously , " Endless , mantric , a round , interwoven , trellised , tessellated , filigreed , gidouiled , spiralling " and " Happy singalong music " . Writing in their book The Beatles : An Illustrated Record ( 1975 ) , NME critics Roy Carr and Tony Tyler bemoaned the commercial considerations that resulted in a full soundtrack album , saying that the four new songs " would have made a superb EP " .
More recently , AllMusic critic Richie Unterberger has written of Yellow Submarine : " The album would have been far better value if it had been released as a four @-@ song EP ... with the addition of a bonus track in " Across the Universe " ... No one would argue that there 's a huge amount more than meets the eye ( or ear ) there , but listening to the original album anew 40 years on , one is still struck by how mostly second @-@ rate , and recycled and rejected Beatles material still sounds so good . " Writing for Pitchfork Media , Mark Richardson opines that " the Yellow Submarine soundtrack is like the work of a supremely talented band that couldn 't really be bothered " and describes " Hey Bulldog " as " a tough and funky piano @-@ driven rocker , [ and ] by a good margin the best song here " . Richardson concludes : " But as an album it 's ultimately forgettable , which is something the Beatles so rarely were otherwise . "
PopMatters ' David Gassman views Martin 's selections as " kind of twee and inconsequential " and the four new songs on side one as " fascinating " , adding that " The material 's tossed @-@ off origins give it a character unlike any other Beatles album . " While noting that the soundtrack was superseded with the 1999 release of Yellow Submarine Songtrack , Gassman writes : " No matter how you get them , though , the otherwise unavailable songs on this album ought to be part of any thinking Beatles fan 's collection . " Alex Young of Consequence of Sound writes : " as a whole , Yellow Submarine is a delightful album , even if it 's still a less @-@ than @-@ acceptable inclusion in the Beatles canon " , though he criticised the inclusion of Martin 's score , which he felt should have been sold as a separate release .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Lennon @-@ McCartney , except " Only a Northern Song " and " It 's All Too Much " , by George Harrison .
All songs written and composed by George Martin , except " Yellow Submarine in Pepperland " , by Lennon @-@ McCartney .
= = Personnel = =
The Beatles ( side one )
John Lennon – lead and backing vocals , rhythm and lead guitars , piano , ukulele , banjo , harpsichord , handclaps
Paul McCartney – lead and backing vocals , bass and acoustic guitars , double bass , trumpet , handclaps , percussion
George Harrison – lead and backing vocals , lead and acoustic guitars , Hammond organ , percussion and handclaps , violin
Ringo Starr – drums , percussion and handclaps , backing vocals , lead vocals ( on track 1 )
= = Certifications = =
BPI certification awarded only for sales since 1994 .
= = Charts = =
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= Srinivasa Ramanujan =
Srinivasa Ramanujan FRS ( pronunciation : / ʃriːnivɑːsə rɑːmɑːnʊdʒən / ) ( 22 December 1887 – 26 April 1920 ) was an Indian mathematician and autodidact . Though he had almost no formal training in pure mathematics , he made extraordinary contributions to mathematical analysis , number theory , infinite series , and continued fractions . Ramanujan initially developed his own mathematical research in isolation ; it was quickly recognized by Indian mathematicians . When his skills became obvious and known to the wider mathematical community , centered in Europe at the time , he began a famous partnership with the English mathematician G. H. Hardy . The Cambridge professor realized that Ramanujan had rediscovered previously known theorems in addition to producing new ones .
During his short life , Ramanujan independently compiled nearly 3 @,@ 900 results ( mostly identities and equations ) . Nearly all his claims have now been proven correct , although some were already known . His original and highly unconventional results , such as the Ramanujan prime and the Ramanujan theta function , have inspired a vast amount of further research . The Ramanujan Journal , an international publication , was launched to publish work in all areas of mathematics influenced by his work .
Of notably deep religious conviction , Ramanujan credited his substantial mathematical capacities to divinity : ' " An equation for me has no meaning , " he once said , " unless it expresses a thought of God . " '
= = Early life = =
Ramanujan was born on 22 December 1887 into a Tamil Brahmin family in Erode , Madras Presidency ( now Tamil Nadu ) , at the residence of his maternal grandparents . His father , K. Srinivasa Iyengar , worked as a clerk in a sari shop and hailed from Thanjavur district . His mother , Komalatammal , was a housewife and also sang at a local temple . They lived in Sarangapani Street in a traditional home in the town of Kumbakonam . The family home is now a museum . When Ramanujan was a year and a half old , his mother gave birth to a son , Sadagopan , who died less than three months later . In December 1889 , Ramanujan contracted smallpox , but unlike the thousands in the Thanjavur district who died of the disease that year , he recovered . He moved with his mother to her parents ' house in Kanchipuram , near Madras ( now Chennai ) . In 1891 and 1894 , his mother gave birth to two more children , but both died in infancy .
On 1 October 1892 , Ramanujan was enrolled at the local school . After his maternal grandfather lost his job as a court official in Kanchipuram , Ramanujan and his mother moved back to Kumbakonam and he was enrolled in the Kangayan Primary School . When his paternal grandfather died , he was sent back to his maternal grandparents , then living in Madras . He did not like school in Madras , and tried to avoid attending . His family enlisted a local constable to make sure the boy attended school . Within six months , Ramanujan was back in Kumbakonam .
Since Ramanujan 's father was at work most of the day , his mother took care of the boy as a child . He had a close relationship with her . From her , he learned about tradition and puranas . He learned to sing religious songs , to attend pujas at the temple , and to maintain particular eating habits – all of which are part of Brahmin culture . At the Kangayan Primary School , Ramanujan performed well . Just before turning 10 , in November 1897 , he passed his primary examinations in English , Tamil , geography and arithmetic with the best scores in the district . That year , Ramanujan entered Town Higher Secondary School , where he encountered formal mathematics for the first time .
By age 11 , he had exhausted the mathematical knowledge of two college students who were lodgers at his home . He was later lent a book by S. L. Loney on advanced trigonometry . He mastered this by the age of 13 while discovering sophisticated theorems on his own . By 14 , he was receiving merit certificates and academic awards that continued throughout his school career , and he assisted the school in the logistics of assigning its 1200 students ( each with differing needs ) to its 35 @-@ odd teachers . He completed mathematical exams in half the allotted time , and showed a familiarity with geometry and infinite series . Ramanujan was shown how to solve cubic equations in 1902 ; he developed his own method to solve the quartic . The following year , not knowing that the quintic could not be solved by radicals , he tried to do so .
In 1903 , when he was 16 , Ramanujan obtained from a friend a library copy of a A Synopsis of Elementary Results in Pure and Applied Mathematics , G. S. Carr 's collection of 5 @,@ 000 theorems . Ramanujan reportedly studied the contents of the book in detail . The book is generally acknowledged as a key element in awakening his genius . The next year , Ramanujan independently developed and investigated the Bernoulli numbers and calculated the Euler – Mascheroni constant up to 15 decimal places . His peers at the time commented that they " rarely understood him " and " stood in respectful awe " of him .
When he graduated from Town Higher Secondary School in 1904 , Ramanujan was awarded the K. Ranganatha Rao prize for mathematics by the school 's headmaster , Krishnaswami Iyer . Iyer introduced Ramanujan as an outstanding student who deserved scores higher than the maximum . He received a scholarship to study at Government Arts College , Kumbakonam , but was so intent on mathematics that he could not focus on any other subjects and failed most of them , losing his scholarship in the process . In August 1905 , Ramanujan ran away from home , heading towards Visakhapatnam , and stayed in Rajahmundry for about a month . He later enrolled at Pachaiyappa 's College in Madras . There he again excelled in mathematics but performed poorly in other subjects , such as physiology . Ramanujan failed his Fellow of Arts exam in December 1906 and again a year later . Without a degree , he left college and continued to pursue independent research in mathematics , living in extreme poverty and often on the brink of starvation .
= = Adulthood in India = =
On 14 July 1909 , Ramanujan married a ten @-@ year @-@ old girl , Srimathi Janaki ( Janakiammal ) ( 21 March 1899 – 13 April 1994 ) . It was not unusual for marriages to be arranged with young girls . Some sources claim Janaki was nine years old when they married . She came from Rajendram , a village close to Marudur ( Karur district ) Railway Station . Ramanujan 's father did not participate in the marriage ceremony .
After the marriage , Ramanujan developed a hydrocele testis . The condition could be treated with a routine surgical operation that would release the blocked fluid in the scrotal sac , but his family did not have the money for the operation . In January 1910 , a doctor volunteered to do the surgery for free .
After his successful surgery , Ramanujan searched for a job . He stayed at friends ' houses while he went door to door around Madras looking for a clerical position . To make money , he tutored students at Presidency College who were preparing for their F.A. exam .
In late 1910 , Ramanujan was sick again . He feared for his health , and told his friend R. Radakrishna Iyer to " hand these [ Ramanujan 's mathematical notebooks ] over to Professor Singaravelu Mudaliar [ the mathematics professor at Pachaiyappa 's College ] or to the British professor Edward B. Ross , of the Madras Christian College . " After Ramanujan recovered and retrieved his notebooks from Iyer , he took a train from Kumbakonam to Villupuram , a coastal city under French control .
= = = Attention towards mathematics = = =
Ramanujan met deputy collector V. Ramaswamy Aiyer , who had recently founded the Indian Mathematical Society . Wishing for a job at the revenue department where Aiyer worked , Ramanujan showed him his mathematics notebooks . As Aiyer later recalled :
I was struck by the extraordinary mathematical results contained in it [ the notebooks ] . I had no mind to smother his genius by an appointment in the lowest rungs of the revenue department .
Aiyer sent Ramanujan , with letters of introduction , to his mathematician friends in Madras . Some of them looked at his work and gave him letters of introduction to R. Ramachandra Rao , the district collector for Nellore and the secretary of the Indian Mathematical Society . Rao was impressed by Ramanujan 's research but doubted that it was his own work . Ramanujan mentioned a correspondence he had with Professor Saldhana , a notable Bombay mathematician , in which Saldhana expressed a lack of understanding of his work but concluded that he was not a phony . Ramanujan 's friend C. V. Rajagopalachari tried to quell Rao 's doubts about Ramanujan 's academic integrity . Rao agreed to give him another chance , and listened as Ramanujan discussed elliptic integrals , hypergeometric series , and his theory of divergent series , which Rao said ultimately converted him to a belief in Ramanujan 's brilliance . When Rao asked him what he wanted , Ramanujan replied that he needed work and financial support . Rao consented and sent him to Madras . He continued his research , with Rao 's financial aid taking care of his daily needs . With Aiyer 's help , Ramanujan had his work published in the Journal of the Indian Mathematical Society .
One of the first problems he posed in the journal was :
<formula>
He waited for a solution to be offered in three issues , over six months , but failed to receive any . At the end , Ramanujan supplied the solution to the problem himself . On page 105 of his first notebook , he formulated an equation that could be used to solve the infinitely nested radicals problem .
<formula>
Using this equation , the answer to the question posed in the Journal was simply 3 , obtained by setting x |
= 2 , n =
1 , and a = 0 . Ramanujan wrote his first formal paper for the Journal on the properties of Bernoulli numbers . One property he discovered was that the denominators ( sequence A027642 in the OEIS ) of the fractions of Bernoulli numbers were always divisible by six . He also devised a method of calculating Bn based on previous Bernoulli numbers . One of these methods follows :
It will be observed that if n is even but not equal to zero ,
( i ) Bn is a fraction and the numerator of <formula> in its lowest terms is a prime number ,
( ii ) the denominator of Bn contains each of the factors 2 and 3 once and only once ,
( iii ) <formula> is an integer and <formula> consequently is an odd integer .
In his 17 @-@ page paper , " Some Properties of Bernoulli 's Numbers " , Ramanujan gave three proofs , two corollaries and three conjectures . Ramanujan 's writing initially had many flaws . As Journal editor M. T. Narayana Iyengar noted :
Mr. Ramanujan 's methods were so terse and novel and his presentation so lacking in clearness and precision , that the ordinary [ mathematical reader ] , unaccustomed to such intellectual gymnastics , could hardly follow him .
Ramanujan later wrote another paper and also continued to provide problems in the Journal . In early 1912 , he got a temporary job in the Madras Accountant General 's office , with a salary of 20 rupees per month . He lasted only a few weeks . Toward the end of that assignment , he applied for a position under the Chief Accountant of the Madras Port Trust .
In a letter dated 9 February 1912 , Ramanujan wrote :
Sir ,
I understand there is a clerkship vacant in your office , and I beg to apply for the same . I have passed the Matriculation Examination and studied up to the F.A. but was prevented from pursuing my studies further owing to several untoward circumstances . I have , however , been devoting all my time to Mathematics and developing the subject . I can say I am quite confident I can do justice to my work if I am appointed to the post . I therefore beg to request that you will be good enough to confer the appointment on me .
Attached to his application was a recommendation from E. W. Middlemast , a mathematics professor at the Presidency College , who wrote that Ramanujan was " a young man of quite exceptional capacity in Mathematics " . Three weeks after he had applied , on 1 March , Ramanujan learned that he had been accepted as a Class III , Grade IV accounting clerk , making 30 rupees per month . At his office , Ramanujan easily and quickly completed the work he was given , so he spent his spare time doing mathematical research . Ramanujan 's boss , Sir Francis Spring , and S. Narayana Iyer , a colleague who was also treasurer of the Indian Mathematical Society , encouraged Ramanujan in his mathematical pursuits .
= = = Contacting British mathematicians = = =
In the spring of 1913 , Narayana Iyer , Ramachandra Rao and E. W. Middlemast tried to present Ramanujan 's work to British mathematicians . M. J. M. Hill of University College London commented that Ramanujan 's papers were riddled with holes . He said that although Ramanujan had " a taste for mathematics , and some ability , " he lacked the educational background and foundation needed to be accepted by mathematicians . Although Hill did not offer to take Ramanujan on as a student , he did give thorough and serious professional advice on his work . With the help of friends , Ramanujan drafted letters to leading mathematicians at Cambridge University .
The first two professors , H. F. Baker and E. W. Hobson , returned Ramanujan 's papers without comment . On 16 January 1913 , Ramanujan wrote to G. H. Hardy . Coming from an unknown mathematician , the nine pages of mathematics made Hardy initially view Ramanujan 's manuscripts as a possible fraud . Hardy recognised some of Ramanujan 's formulae but others " seemed scarcely possible to believe " . One of the theorems Hardy found amazing was on the bottom of page three ( valid for 0 < a < b + 1 / 2 ) :
<formula>
Hardy was also impressed by some of Ramanujan 's other work relating to infinite series :
<formula>
<formula>
The first result had already been determined by a mathematician named Bauer . The second was new to Hardy , and was derived from a class of functions called hypergeometric series , which had first been researched by Leonhard Euler and Carl Friedrich Gauss . Hardy found these results " much more intriguing " than Ramanujan 's work on integrals . After seeing Ramanujan 's theorems on continued fractions on the last page of the manuscripts , Hardy commented that " they [ theorems ] defeated me completely ; I had never seen anything in the least like them before " . He figured that Ramanujan 's theorems " must be true , because , if they were not true , no one would have the imagination to invent them " . Hardy asked a colleague , J. E. Littlewood , to take a look at the papers . Littlewood was amazed by Ramanujan 's genius . After discussing the papers with Littlewood , Hardy concluded that the letters were " certainly the most remarkable I have received " and said that Ramanujan was " a mathematician of the highest quality , a man of altogether exceptional originality and power " . One colleague , E. H. Neville , later remarked that " not one [ theorem ] could have been set in the most advanced mathematical examination in the world " .
On 8 February 1913 , Hardy wrote Ramanujan a letter expressing his interest in his work , adding that it was " essential that I should see proofs of some of your assertions " . Before his letter arrived in Madras during the third week of February , Hardy contacted the Indian Office to plan for Ramanujan 's trip to Cambridge . Secretary Arthur Davies of the Advisory Committee for Indian Students met with Ramanujan to discuss the overseas trip . In accordance with his Brahmin upbringing , Ramanujan refused to leave his country to " go to a foreign land " . Meanwhile , he sent Hardy a letter packed with theorems , writing , " I have found a friend in you who views my labour sympathetically . "
To supplement Hardy 's endorsement , Gilbert Walker , a former mathematical lecturer at Trinity College , Cambridge , looked at Ramanujan 's work and expressed amazement , urging the young man to spend time at Cambridge . As a result of Walker 's endorsement , B. Hanumantha Rao , a mathematics professor at an engineering college , invited Ramanujan 's colleague Narayana Iyer to a meeting of the Board of Studies in Mathematics to discuss " what we can do for S. Ramanujan " . The board agreed to grant Ramanujan a research scholarship of 75 rupees per month for the next two years at the University of Madras . While he was engaged as a research student , Ramanujan continued to submit papers to the Journal of the Indian Mathematical Society . In one instance , Narayana Iyer submitted some of Ramanujan 's theorems on summation of series to the journal , adding , " The following theorem is due to S. Ramanujan , the mathematics student of Madras University . " Later in November , British Professor Edward B. Ross of Madras Christian College , whom Ramanujan had met a few years before , stormed into his class one day with his eyes glowing , asking his students , " Does Ramanujan know Polish ? " The reason was that in one paper , Ramanujan had anticipated the work of a Polish mathematician whose paper had just arrived in the day 's mail . In his quarterly papers , Ramanujan drew up theorems to make definite integrals more easily solvable . Working off Giuliano Frullani 's 1821 integral theorem , Ramanujan formulated generalisations that could be made to evaluate formerly unyielding integrals .
Hardy 's correspondence with Ramanujan soured after Ramanujan refused to come to England . Hardy enlisted a colleague lecturing in Madras , E. H. Neville , to mentor and bring Ramanujan to England . Neville asked Ramanujan why he would not go to Cambridge . Ramanujan apparently had now accepted the proposal ; as Neville put it , " Ramanujan needed no converting and that his parents ' opposition had been withdrawn " . Apparently , Ramanujan 's mother had a vivid dream in which the family goddess , the deity of Namagiri , commanded her " to stand no longer between her son and the fulfilment of his life 's purpose " . Ramanujan voyaged to England by ship , leaving his wife to stay with his parents in India .
= = Life in England = =
Ramanujan departed from Madras aboard the S.S. Nevasa on 17 March 1914 . When he disembarked in London on 14 April , Neville was waiting for him with a car . Four days later , Neville took him to his house on Chesterton Road in Cambridge . Ramanujan immediately began his work with Littlewood and Hardy . After six weeks , Ramanujan moved out of Neville 's house and took up residence on Whewell 's Court , a five @-@ minute walk from Hardy 's room . Hardy and Littlewood began to look at Ramanujan 's notebooks . Hardy had already received 120 theorems from Ramanujan in the first two letters , but there were many more results and theorems in the notebooks . Hardy saw that some were wrong , others had already been discovered , and the rest were new breakthroughs . Ramanujan left a deep impression on Hardy and Littlewood . Littlewood commented , " I can believe that he 's at least a Jacobi " , while Hardy said he " can compare him only with [ Leonhard ] Euler or Jacobi . "
Ramanujan spent nearly five years in Cambridge collaborating with Hardy and Littlewood , and published part of his findings there . Hardy and Ramanujan had highly contrasting personalities . Their collaboration was a clash of different cultures , beliefs , and working styles . Hardy was an atheist and an apostle of proof and mathematical rigour , whereas Ramanujan was a deeply religious man who relied very strongly on his intuition . While in England , Hardy tried his best to fill the gaps in Ramanujan 's education without interrupting his inspiration .
Ramanujan was awarded a Bachelor of Science degree by research ( this degree was later renamed PhD ) in March 1916 for his work on highly composite numbers , the first part of which was published as a paper in the Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society . The paper was more than 50 pages and proved various properties of such numbers . Hardy remarked that it was one of the most unusual papers seen in mathematical research at that time and that Ramanujan showed extraordinary ingenuity in handling it . On 6 December 1917 , he was elected to the London Mathematical Society . In 1918 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society , the second Indian to be , following Ardaseer Cursetjee in 1841 . At age 31 Ramanujan was one of the youngest Fellows in the history of the Royal Society . He was elected " for his investigation in Elliptic functions and the Theory of Numbers . " On 13 October 1918 , he was the first Indian to be elected a Fellow of Trinity College , Cambridge .
= = = Illness and death = = =
Throughout his life , Ramanujan was plagued by health problems . His health worsened in England . He was diagnosed with tuberculosis and a severe vitamin deficiency , and was confined to a sanatorium . In 1919 he returned to Kumbakonam , Madras Presidency , and soon thereafter , in 1920 , died at the age of 32 . His widow , S. Janaki Ammal , moved to Bombay ; in 1950 she returned to Chennai ( formerly Madras ) , where she lived until her death in 1994 at age 95 .
A 1994 analysis of Ramanujan 's medical records and symptoms by Dr. D. A. B. Young concluded that it was much more likely he had hepatic amoebiasis , an illness then widespread in Madras , rather than TB . He had two episodes of dysentery before he left India . When not properly treated , dysentery can lie dormant for years and lead to hepatic amoebiasis . Amoebiasis was a treatable and often curable disease at the time .
= = = Personality and spiritual life = = =
Ramanujan has been described as a person of a somewhat shy and quiet disposition , a dignified man with pleasant manners . He lived a rather spartan life at Cambridge . Ramanujan 's first Indian biographers describe him as a rigorously orthodox Hindu . He credited his acumen to his family goddess , Mahalakshmi of Namakkal . He looked to her for inspiration in his work and claimed to dream of blood drops that symbolised her male consort , Narasimha . Afterward he would receive visions of scrolls of complex mathematical content unfolding before his eyes . He often said , " An equation for me has no meaning unless it represents a thought of God . "
Hardy cites Ramanujan as remarking that all religions seemed equally true to him . Hardy further argued that Ramanujan 's religious belief had been romanticised by Westerners and overstated — in reference to his belief , not practice — by Indian biographers . At the same time , he remarked on Ramanujan 's strict vegetarianism .
= = Mathematical achievements = =
In mathematics , there is a distinction between having an insight and having a proof . Ramanujan proposed a plethora of formulae that could be investigated later in depth . G. H. Hardy said that Ramanujan 's discoveries are unusually rich and that there is often more to them than initially meets the eye . As a byproduct of his work , new directions of research were opened up . Examples of the most interesting of these formulae include the intriguing infinite series for π , one of which is given below :
<formula>
This result is based on the negative fundamental discriminant d |
= − 4 × 58 =
− 232 with class number h ( d ) |
= 2 ( note that 5 × 7 × 13 × 58 =
26390 and that 9801 |
= 99 × 99 ; 396 =
4 × 99 ) and is related to the fact that
<formula>
This might be compared to Heegner numbers , which have class number 1 and yield similar formulae .
Ramanujan 's series for π converges extraordinarily rapidly ( exponentially ) and forms the basis of some of the fastest algorithms currently used to calculate π . Truncating the sum to the first term also gives the approximation 9801 √ 2 / 4412 for π , which is correct to six decimal places . See also the more general Ramanujan – Sato series .
One of Ramanujan 's remarkable capabilities was the rapid solution of problems . Once , a roommate of his , P. C. Mahalanobis , posed the following problem :
" Imagine that you are on a street with houses marked 1 through n . There is a house in between ( x ) such that the sum of the house numbers to the left of it equals the sum of the house numbers to its right . If n is between 50 and 500 , what are n and x ? " This is a bivariate problem with multiple solutions . Ramanujan thought about it and gave the answer with a twist : He gave a continued fraction . The unusual part was that it was the solution to the whole class of problems . Mahalanobis was astounded and asked how he did it . “ It is simple . The minute I heard the problem , I knew that the answer was a continued fraction . Which continued fraction , I asked myself . Then the answer came to my mind ” , Ramanujan replied .
His intuition also led him to derive some previously unknown identities , such as
<formula>
for all θ , where Γ ( z ) is the gamma function , and related to a special value of the Dedekind eta function . Expanding into series of powers and equating coefficients of θ0 , θ4 , and θ8 gives some deep identities for the hyperbolic secant .
In 1918 Hardy and Ramanujan studied the partition function P ( n ) extensively . They gave a non @-@ convergent asymptotic series that permits exact computation of the number of partitions of an integer . Hans Rademacher , in 1937 , was able to refine their formula to find an exact convergent series solution to this problem . Ramanujan and Hardy 's work in this area gave rise to a powerful new method for finding asymptotic formulae called the circle method .
In the last year of his life , Ramanujan discovered mock theta functions . For many years these functions were a mystery , but they are now known to be the holomorphic parts of harmonic weak Maass forms .
= = = The Ramanujan conjecture = = =
Although there are numerous statements that could have borne the name Ramanujan conjecture , there is one that was very influential on later work . In particular , the connection of this conjecture with conjectures of André Weil in algebraic geometry opened up new areas of research . That Ramanujan conjecture is an assertion on the size of the tau @-@ function , which has as generating function the discriminant modular form Δ ( q ) , a typical cusp form in the theory of modular forms . It was finally proven in 1973 , as a consequence of Pierre Deligne 's proof of the Weil conjectures . The reduction step involved is complicated . Deligne won a Fields Medal in 1978 for that work .
In his paper On certain arithmetical functions , Ramanujan defined the so @-@ called Delta @-@ function whose coefficients are called τ ( n ) ( the Ramanujan tau function ) . He proved many congruences for these numbers such as τ ( p ) ≡ 1 + p11 mod 691 for primes p . This congruence ( and others like it that Ramanujan proved ) inspired Jean @-@ Pierre Serre ( 1954 Fields Medalist ) to conjecture that there is a theory of Galois representations which " explains " these congruences and more generally all modular forms . Delta ( z ) is the first example of a modular form to be studied in this way . Pierre Deligne ( in his Fields Medal winning work ) proved Serre 's conjecture . The proof of Fermat 's Last Theorem proceeds by first reinterpreting elliptic curves and modular forms in terms of these Galois representations . Without this theory there would be no proof of Fermat 's Last Theorem .
= = = Ramanujan 's notebooks = = =
While still in Madras , Ramanujan recorded the bulk of his results in four notebooks of loose @-@ leaf paper . They were mostly written up without any derivations . This is probably the origin of the misperception that Ramanujan was unable to prove his results and simply thought up the final result directly . Mathematician Bruce C. Berndt , in his review of these notebooks and Ramanujan 's work , says that Ramanujan most certainly was able to prove most of his results , but chose not to .
That may have been for several reasons . Since paper was very expensive , Ramanujan would do most of his work and perhaps his proofs on slate , and then transfer just the results to paper . Using a slate was common for mathematics students in the Madras Presidency at the time . He was also quite likely to have been influenced by the style of G. S. Carr 's book , which stated results without proofs . Finally , it is possible that Ramanujan considered his workings to be for his personal interest alone and therefore recorded only the results .
The first notebook has 351 pages with 16 somewhat organised chapters and some unorganised material . The second notebook has 256 pages in 21 chapters and 100 unorganised pages , with the third notebook containing 33 unorganised pages . The results in his notebooks inspired numerous papers by later mathematicians trying to prove what he had found . Hardy himself created papers exploring material from Ramanujan 's work , as did G. N. Watson , B. M. Wilson , and Bruce Berndt . A fourth notebook with 87 unorganised pages , the so @-@ called " lost notebook " , was rediscovered in 1976 by George Andrews .
Notebooks 1 , 2 and 3 were published as a two @-@ volume set in 1957 by the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research ( TIFR ) , Mumbai , India . This was a photocopy edition of the original manuscripts , in his own handwriting .
In December 2011 , as part of the celebrations of the 125th anniversary of Ramanujan 's birth , TIFR republished the notebooks in a coloured two @-@ volume collector 's edition . These were produced from scanned and microfilmed images of the original manuscripts by expert archivists of Raja Muthiah Research Library , Chennai .
= = Hardy – Ramanujan number 1729 = =
The number 1729 is known as the Hardy – Ramanujan number after a famous visit by Hardy to see Ramanujan at a hospital . In Hardy 's words :
I remember once going to see him when he was ill at Putney . I had ridden in taxi cab number 1729 and remarked that the number seemed to me rather a dull one , and that I hoped it was not an unfavorable omen . ' No ' , he replied , ' it is a very interesting number ; it is the smallest number expressible as the sum of two cubes in two different ways.'
Immediately before this anecdote , Hardy quoted Littlewood as saying , " Every positive integer was one of [ Ramanujan 's ] personal friends . "
The two different ways are
1729 |
= 13 + 123 =
93 + 103 .
Generalizations of this idea have created the notion of " taxicab numbers " .
= = Other mathematicians ' views of Ramanujan = =
Hardy said : " He combined a power of generalization , a feeling for form , and a capacity for rapid modification of his hypotheses , that were often really startling , and made him , in his own peculiar field , without a rival in his day . The limitations of his knowledge were as startling as its profundity . Here was a man who could work out modular equations and theorems ... to orders unheard of , whose mastery of continued fractions was ... beyond that of any mathematician in the world , who had found for himself the functional equation of the zeta function and the dominant terms of many of the most famous problems in the analytic theory of numbers ; and yet he had never heard of a doubly periodic function or of Cauchy 's theorem , and had indeed but the vaguest idea of what a function of a complex variable was ... " . When asked about the methods Ramanujan employed to arrive at his solutions , Hardy said that they were " arrived at by a process of mingled argument , intuition , and induction , of which he was entirely unable to give any coherent account . " He also stated that he had " never met his equal , and can compare him only with Euler or Jacobi . "
K. Srinivasa Rao has said , " As for his place in the world of Mathematics , we quote Bruce C. Berndt : ' Paul Erdős has passed on to us Hardy 's personal ratings of mathematicians . Suppose that we rate mathematicians on the basis of pure talent on a scale from 0 to 100 , Hardy gave himself a score of 25 , J.E. Littlewood 30 , David Hilbert 80 and Ramanujan 100 . ' "
During a lecture at IIT Madras in May 2011 , Berndt stated that over the last 40 years , as nearly all of Ramanujan 's theorems have been proven right , there had been greater appreciation of Ramanujan 's work and brilliance , and that Ramanujan 's work was now pervading many areas of modern mathematics and physics .
In his book Scientific Edge , the physicist Jayant Narlikar spoke of " Srinivasa Ramanujan , discovered by the Cambridge mathematician Hardy , whose great mathematical findings were beginning to be appreciated from 1915 to 1919 . His achievements were to be fully understood much later , well after his untimely death in 1920 . For example , his work on the highly composite numbers ( numbers with a large number of factors ) started a whole new line of investigations in the theory of such numbers . "
During his lifelong mission in educating and propagating mathematics among the school children in India , Nigeria and elsewhere , P.K. Srinivasan has continually introduced Ramanujan 's mathematical works .
= = Posthumous recognition = =
Ramanujan 's home state of Tamil Nadu celebrates 22 December ( Ramanujan 's birthday ) as ' State IT Day ' . A stamp picturing Ramanujan was released by the Government of India in 1962 – the 75th anniversary of Ramanujan 's birth – commemorating his achievements in the field of number theory , and a new design was issued on 26 December 2011 , by the India Post .
Since Ramanujan 's centennial year , his birthday , 22 December , has been annually celebrated as Ramanujan Day by the Government Arts College , Kumbakonam where he studied and at the IIT Madras in Chennai . A prize for young mathematicians from developing countries has been created in Ramanujan 's name by the International Centre for Theoretical Physics ( ICTP ) in cooperation with the International Mathematical Union , which nominate members of the prize committee . The SASTRA University , based in the state of Tamil Nadu in South India , has instituted the SASTRA Ramanujan Prize of $ 10 @,@ 000 to be given annually to a mathematician not exceeding the age of 32 for outstanding contributions in an area of mathematics influenced by Ramanujan . Vasavi College of Engineering named its Department of Computer Science and Information Technology " Ramanujan Block " .
In 2011 , on the 125th anniversary of his birth , the Indian Government declared that 22 December will be celebrated every year as National Mathematics Day . Then Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh also declared that the year 2012 would be celebrated as the National Mathematics Year .
= = In media = =
The thriller novel The Steradian Trail by M N Krish weaves Ramanujan and his accidental discovery into its plot connecting religion , mathematics , finance and economics .
Ramanujan , an Indo @-@ British collaboration film , chronicling the life of Ramanujan , was released in 2014 by the independent film company Camphor Cinema . The cast and crew include director Gnana Rajasekaran , cinematographer Sunny Joseph and editor B. Lenin . Popular Indian and English stars Abhinay Vaddi , Suhasini Maniratnam , Bhama , Kevin McGowan and Michael Lieber star in pivotal roles .
The Man Who Knew Infinity is a film based on the book The Man Who Knew Infinity : A Life of the Genius Ramanujan by Robert Kanigel . In the film , Ramanujan is portrayed by British actor Dev Patel .
A play , First Class Man by Alter Ego Productions , was based on David Freeman 's First Class Man . The play is centred around Ramanujan and his complex and dysfunctional relationship with Hardy . On 16 October 2011 , it was announced that Roger Spottiswoode , best known for his James Bond film Tomorrow Never Dies , is working on the film version , starring actor Siddharth . Like the book and play it is also titled The First Class Man .
A Disappearing Number is a recent British stage production by the company Complicite that explores the relationship between Hardy and Ramanujan .
The novel The Indian Clerk by David Leavitt explores in fiction the events following Ramanujan 's letter to Hardy .
Google honoured him on his 125th birth anniversary by replacing its logo with a doodle on its home page .
Ramanujan was mentioned in the 1997 film Good Will Hunting , in a scene where professor Gerald Lambeau ( Stellan Skarsgard ) explains to Sean Maguire ( Robin Williams ) the genius of Will Hunting ( Matt Damon ) by comparing him to Ramanujan .
On 22 March 1988 , the PBS Series Nova aired a documentary about Ramanujan , " The Man Who Loved Numbers " ( Season 15 , Episode 19 ) .
= = Selected publications by Ramanujan = =
= = Selected publications about Ramanujan and his work = =
= = = Media links = = =
Biswas , Soutik ( 16 March 2006 ) . " Film to celebrate mathematics genius " . BBC . Retrieved 24 August 2006 .
Feature Film on Mathematics Genius Ramanujan by Dev Benegal and Stephen Fry
BBC radio programme about Ramanujan – episode 5
A biographical song about Ramanujan 's life
= = = Biographical links = = =
Srinivasa Ramanujan at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
O 'Connor , John J. ; Robertson , Edmund F. , " Srinivasa Ramanujan " , MacTutor History of Mathematics archive , University of St Andrews .
Weisstein , Eric W. , Ramanujan , Srinivasa ( 1887 – 1920 ) from ScienceWorld .
Srinivasa Aiyangar Ramanujan
A short biography of Ramanujan
" Our Devoted Site for Great Mathematical Genius "
= = = Other links = = =
Who Was Ramanujan ?
A Study Group For Mathematics : Srinivasa Ramanujan Iyengar
The Ramanujan Journal – An international journal devoted to Ramanujan
International Math Union Prizes , including a Ramanujan Prize .
Hindu.com : Norwegian and Indian mathematical geniuses , RAMANUJAN – Essays and Surveys , Ramanujan 's growing influence , Ramanujan 's mentor
Hindu.com : The sponsor of Ramanujan
Bruce C. Berndt ; Robert A. Rankin ( 2000 ) . " The Books Studied by Ramanujan in India " . American Mathematical Monthly ( Mathematical Association of America ) 107 ( 7 ) : 595 – 601 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2589114 . JSTOR 2589114 . MR 1786233 .
" Ramanujan 's mock theta function puzzle solved "
Ramanujan 's papers and notebooks
Sample page from the second notebook
Ramanujan on Fried Eye
Clark , Alex . " 163 and Ramanujan Constant " . Numberphile . Brady Haran .
|
= 1919 Polish coup d 'état attempt in Lithuania =
The Polish coup d 'état attempt in Lithuania refers to a failed attempt by Polish statesman Józef Piłsudski to overthrow the existing Lithuanian government of Prime Minister Mykolas Sleževičius , and install a pro @-@ Polish cabinet that would agree to a union with Poland . The Polish intelligence agency , the Polish Military Organization ( PMO ) was to carry out the coup d 'etat , planned to be implemented in August 1919 . The coup was designed to seem to be an initiative by local Lithuanians aiming to free their government of German influence . The PMO hoped to rely on the assistance of sympathetic Lithuanian activists . They were thwarted by the lack of cooperation and the unwillingness of sufficient number of Lithuanians to support the Polish cause .
After the Sejny Uprising , a Polish revolt against the Lithuanian authorities in one of the disputed border regions , Lithuanian intelligence intensified its investigation of the Polish minority and sympathizers in Lithuania , and uncovered the planned coup . The Lithuanians , not knowing the membership of the PMO , arrested numerous Polish activists and destabilized the PMO network enough to prevent the coup attempt . Later the full membership list was obtained and the PMO in Lithuania was dissolved . The coup further strained Polish – Lithuanian relations .
= = Background = =
Poland and Lithuania formed one state , the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , from the Union of Lublin in 1569 to the Third Partition in 1795 . Both Poland and Lithuania regained their independence in the aftermath of World War I , but both soon became engaged in territorial disputes over the Suwałki and Vilnius Regions . During the Polish – Soviet War , Poland launched an offensive against the Soviet Union and captured Vilnius ( Wilno ) during the Vilna offensive in April 1919 . Lithuanians described Vilnius as their historical capital and an integral part of the ethnographic Lithuania , while to the Poles , because of its large Polish population , it was a Polish city . Poland 's Chief of State Józef Piłsudski sought a union with Lithuania in hopes of reviving the old Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth ( see Międzymorze federation ) . The Lithuanians believed they would lose their sovereignty under the proposed federation and wanted their own national state . Although Polish – Lithuanian relations were not immediately hostile , they grew worse as each side refused to compromise .
As tensions rose , Lithuania asked the Allied Supreme Council to intervene , and it proposed two demarcation lines to prevent open hostilities , drawn in June and July 1919 ( the second one was known as the Foch Line ) . However , Poland ignored both lines and advanced deeper into the Lithuanian @-@ controlled territory . Faced with pressure from the Entente , Polish Chief of State Józef Piłsudski , who was significantly involved in planning of the coup , did not want open Polish – Lithuanian hostilities , which could led to much bloodshed and even greater tensions between Poland and Lithuania . Instead , since he thought there were enough Polish sympathizers in Lithuania to stage a coup d 'etat , he decided to plan one to topple the Lithuanian government .
= = Preparations = =
The planning began mid @-@ July , 1919 . At the time Poland signed a ceasefire in the Polish – Ukrainian War ; Lithuania was invaded by the Bermontians from the north and the Saxon Volunteers were leaving the Lithuanian Army . Piłsudski was planning to use a network of the Polish Military Organization ( PMO ) , an underground organization he created during World War I for diversionary and intelligence operations @-@ like purposes . On July 31 , Piłsudski and Polish diplomat Leon Wasilewski arrived at Vilnius , then controlled by Poland . Piłsudski 's visit had no clear explanation . He later said that he arrived to negotiate with Lithuanians , led by Augustinas Voldemaras , while Lithuanian historian Vytautas Lesčius suggests he was holding talks with pro @-@ Polish estate owners from the Vilnius Region . On August 3 , Wasilewski arrived at Kaunas , the temporary capital of Lithuania , to negotiate with Prime Minister Mykolas Sleževičius . The Polish mission declared that Poland had no plans to annex Lithuania and proposed a plebiscite in the contested territories , allowing local inhabitants to determine their future . The Lithuanians replied that the disputed territories were an integral part of Lithuania and rejected the idea of a plebiscite . Negotiations broke down and Wasilewski left Kaunas on August 7 . The negotiations were then used to evaluate viability of the coup , the preparedness of the PMO , and the attitude of Lithuanian diplomats towards a union with Poland .
After the failure Wasilewski 's diplomatic mission , Polish newspapers increased their anti @-@ Lithuanian propaganda . They said that the Council of Lithuania was a pro @-@ German puppet , ignoring popular wishes for a union with Poland as such union would break German influence in the state . The Polish media further reported on growing anti @-@ government sentiment among the Lithuanians . This information was in line with the Polish plans to present the coup as an initiative by the local population to free Lithuania from German domination . While the plotters counted on military intervention by regular Polish troops , the Polish government maintained it had not inspired the coup . The official goal of the Polish plan was to " 1 ) create an independent Lithuania , powerful , truly democratic , connected voluntarily with Poland in a union , with as much internal autonomy as possible and 2 ) acceptance of the Polish minority in Lithuania as a partner in the Lithuanian government and recognition of the Polish language as equal to the Lithuanian language in Lithuania . "
The PMO recruited Lithuanian activists Stanisław Narutowicz , Juozas Gabrys , Jurgis Aukštuolaitis , and Klemensas Vaitiekūnas . On August 20 – 22 , 1919 , Wasilewski and Tadeusz Kasprzycki together with Narutowicz and Aukštuolaitis planned out the coup details . During the coup , scheduled for the night from August 28 to 29 , the rebels were to capture Kaunas and hold it until the arrival of the Polish regular units invited to protect the city . The Council of Lithuania and the Lithuanian government was to be deposed and replaced by a pro @-@ Polish cabinet . General Silvestras Žukauskas was to be installed as a military dictator of the new Lithuanian government , with Aukštuolaitis as his second @-@ in @-@ command and Narutowicz as the head of the civilian government . General Žukauskas , then chief commander of the Lithuanian forces , was not aware of the coup , but was known for his generally friendly attitude towards Poland and was expected to support the aftermath . Other posts were reserved for Mykolas Biržiška , Jonas Vileišis , Steponas Kairys , Juozas Tūbelis and others , similarly unaware of the coup . Aukštuolaitis was given 800 @,@ 000 and promised another 300 @,@ 000 German marks to finance the coup .
= = Coup discovered = =
Eventually , the uprising was doomed by poor communication and the overeagerness of some of the PMO activists . Piłsudski failed to discourage local PMO activists from carrying out the Sejny Uprising in the Suwałki Region . The local PMO disregarded his recommendations and launched the uprising , which while locally successful , led to the failure of the nationwide coup . PMO members in Lithuania stated that the Sejny uprising had damaged their reputation , and many of its former supporters rejected calls by PMO recruiters .
The initial coup was postponed to September 1 , 1919 . However , some PMO units began their actions ( cutting telegraph wires , damaging railways , etc . ) as scheduled previously – on the night of August 27 to 28 . The Lithuanian intelligence intercepted and decoded the order to delay the coup . They had known before that Poles were plotting , but did not know who and when . The Lithuanian government was informed about the cut telegraph wires and intercepted order in the morning of August 28 . However , the government did not consider the threat real and did not take appropriate action .
A group of 18 Lithuanian Army officers , with tacit approval from Sleževičius , took the initiative . Afraid that PMO members infiltrated the military , they secretly decided to begin mass arrests of Polish supporters on the night from August 28 to 29 . Since they did not know who exactly was behind the conspiracy , the Lithuanians arrested more prominent Polish activists in Kaunas . Several dozen Poles were arrested the first night , including Aukštuolaitis and 23 Polish officers serving in the Lithuanian Army . By the second night the number of arrested Poles grew to 200 . Kaunas was declared under a state of siege . The Polish press noted mass arrests of Polish activists " to whom no charge can be ascribed other than being Poles " and concluded that this was proof of the systematic anti @-@ Polish policies of the German @-@ ridden Lithuanian government .
Because the Lithuanians did not have a list of PMO members , they did not arrest the main leaders . Also , provincial PMO branches remained intact . Therefore , on September 17 , 1919 , new orders were issued scheduling the second coup attempt for the end of September . This attempt was also discovered . A Lithuanian woman succeeded in convincing Petras Vrubliauskas , PMO deputy commander in Vilnius , to transfer the PMO document archive to the Lithuanians . On September 21 , the Lithuanians obtained a full list of PMO members and supporters and arrested them in the following days . The PMO branch in Lithuania ceased to function and was liquidated .
= = Aftermath and evaluation = =
The Lithuanians charged 117 persons during a military trial on December 11 – 24 , 1920 . Six leaders received life sentences . Other sentences ranged from 15 years to 8 months in prison . At least 15 individuals were acquitted . By 1928 there were no PMO members in Lithuanian prisons : some were exchanged for Lithuanian prisoners or released early . General Žukauskas was removed from his post as the commander of the Lithuanian Army and had to battle the perceived friendliness to Poland for much of his further career . The Polish government initially denied that there was any coup ; later it admitted that locals planned an uprising , but claimed it had no part in it . The coup further strained the Polish – Lithuanian relations , making Lithuanians even more uncompromising and afraid of Polish annexation .
The planned coup was criticized by historians as unrealistic for the following reasons . Piłsudski 's plan was based on false assumptions and faulty intelligence , which incorrectly indicated that the Sleževičius government was deeply unpopular , and that the general Lithuanian population was relatively friendly to Poland . No notable ethnic Lithuanian politicians declared support for the plan ; the plan relied on support from General Žukauskas , but his support was never confirmed ; Narutowicz , who was to head the civilian government , was a Pole ; the PMO was weak and incapable of taking control if the coup met any significant resistance ; and intervention of the Polish army would have led to bloodshed and undermined the idea of a voluntary union or alliance with Poland . The only group that supported the coup was the Polish minority in Lithuania , increasingly alienated by Lithuanian government policies . However , according to the Lithuanian census of 1923 , the minority constituted 3 @.@ 2 % of the population outside the Vilnius Region . On the ground , the uprising was doomed by poor communication and the overeagerness of some of the PMO activists .
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= Todd Packer ( The Office ) =
" Todd Packer " is the eighteenth episode of the seventh season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 144th episode overall . It originally aired on NBC on February 24 , 2011 . The episode was written by Amelie Gillette and directed by Randall Einhorn .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , traveling salesman Todd Packer ( David Koechner ) comes to Dunder Mifflin looking for a desk job in the office . However , the office is unsure if they want him to work there due to his previous behavior . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) eventually team up and develop a scheme that rids the office of Packer . Meanwhile , after dealing with computer problems , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) confronts Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) about getting a new computer .
The episode was the first entry in the series to be written by Gillette , who had written for the online entertainment newspaper and website The A.V. Club . The episode received mixed reviews from critics ; while many did not enjoy the character of Todd Packer , others praised the temporary alliance between Jim and Dwight . " Todd Packer " was viewed by 6 @.@ 121 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 2 rating among adults between the age of 18 and 49 , making it the season 's lowest @-@ rated episode . Despite this , the episode was the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the week that it aired .
= = Plot = =
Traveling salesman Todd Packer ( David Koechner ) comes to Dunder Mifflin looking for a desk job in the office . However , most of the office don 't want him to work there due to his previous behavior , and Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) in particular is horrified at the idea . Holly Flax ( Amy Ryan ) gives him a job as a salesman , forcing Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) to leave his desk and move to the annex . Todd repeatedly offends everybody with his jokes , especially Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) , although Kevin pretends to play along . Only Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) , Packer 's longtime friend , is not offended by Todd . Holly , who was at first excited to have Todd in the office per Michael 's recommendations , discovers how insensitive Todd is and asks Michael to get him under control . Michael and Todd have coffee in the lobby , where Todd says he wants to be a better person . Michael gets Todd to apologize , but everyone can tell that the apologies are insincere . Dwight and Jim scheme to get rid of Todd . They call him , pretending to be corporate offering him a job in Tallahassee , Florida , a job which Todd readily accepts . Michael overhears the call and goes to tell Todd that Dwight and Jim have tricked him . Before he has a chance , however , Todd insults Holly , and Michael decides to keep Dwight and Jim 's scheme a secret and allow Todd to take the " job " in Florida . As Michael and Holly witness Todd drive away from the view in his office , Michael admits that Packer is " an ass " before they embrace .
Meanwhile , when office administrator Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) gets a new computer for the receptionist 's desk to replace the older model , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) wants a new computer , too . Pam points out that if she were to get a new computer for one sales rep , she would have to get one for every sales rep . Unwilling to let it go , Andy pressures Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) into trading computers with him . Pam is angry when she finds out , and forces him to switch the computers back . When Andy continues to harass Pam about getting him a new computer , she tells him that the only way he can get a new computer is if his breaks . To accomplish this , he accepts all cookies , intentionally opens pop @-@ up ads , and places food in the disc drive . Pam then buys Andy a new computer , but they scratch it up to make it not look brand new . When they pretend to argue about it in front of the office , Pam claims that she found it in the warehouse . Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) confronts Pam later regarding finding the computer in the warehouse . As he knows everything that is in the warehouse and where it is stored , he leverages Pam into giving him more sick days . Pam gleefully tells the interviewers that she is now " full @-@ on corrupt " .
= = Production = =
This episode was written by Amelie Gillette , her first writing credit of the series . She was a writer for The A.V. Club before being hired for The Office . The episode was directed by longtime series director Randall Einhorn , and was his second credit for the season after " The Sting " . The cold open , which featured Jim and Dwight arguing about canned foods , was actually filmed for the previous season and is featured in the blooper reel on the sixth season DVD and Blu @-@ ray sets .
The Season Seven DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . The cut scenes include a sequence of Erin being excited after receiving her new computer , Michael expressing his desire for Holly and Packer to become friends , Packer telling Holly that Scranton is his hometown , Kevin hinting that he would like some of Dwight 's leftover pizza , Andy telling Pam about his high school " back seat " adventures , Michael and Holly arguing about Packer , and Jim trying to not let Dwight move back into his old desk .
= = Cultural references = =
Packer pretends to mistake Holly for actress Jennifer Aniston . Dwight angrily throws out Holly 's miniature zen gardens and remarks , " What do you grow in this , bullcrap ? " Packer calls Kevin , Holly , and Dwight , the " three muske @-@ queers " , a homophobic slur referencing the 1844 novel The Three Musketeers . Dwight notes that , had Kevin grown up in Sumo culture , he would be considered a " promising up @-@ and @-@ comer " . Holly makes a list of humorous individuals , ranging from most humorous to less : " Bill Cosby , Steve Martin , ' Charlie Bit My Finger , ' Michael Scott [ … ] Todd Packer " . When asked if he would like chocolate milk , Packer notes that the only chocolate he likes is Vivica A. Fox . Jim mentions Justin Bieber , and Dwight says " Who is Justice Beaver ? " This leads Jim to say sardonically , " A crime @-@ fighting beaver " . Following the episode 's air date , the term " Justice Beaver " became popular a trend on Twitter , and led to a website in honor of the quote . When prank @-@ calling Packer , Dwight continuously makes references to the The Wizarding World of Harry Potter in Orlando , Florida .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Todd Packer " was viewed by an estimated 6 @.@ 121 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 2 rating / 9 % share . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 2 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 9 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked the lowest number of viewers for the series since the second season episode " Boys and Girls " , which was viewed by 5 @.@ 42 million viewers , as well as the lowest Nielsen rating for the series since the first season . Despite this , the episode became the highest @-@ rated NBC program for the original week it aired and also became the sixteenth most @-@ watched show for the week of broadcast among adults aged 18 – 49 .
Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club , Gillette 's former employer , awarded the episode a " B – " and noted that he did not like Todd Packer , nor the episode 's where his character is intentionally supposed to be vile . He did , however , enjoy the fact that Packer 's antics caused Jim and Dwight to unite in the face of a common enemy , a plot that McNutt said " had a scrappy feel to it " . McNutt also called Kevin being " slowly broken by Packer 's cruelty " an effective way to show how terrible Packer was to the morale of the office . He was , however , more critical about the fact that Holly seemed unaware that " Michael may not be the best judge of whether or not someone is funny " . At the end of his review , McNutt reminded readers that The A.V. Club specifically selected him as their new reviewer for the show because he did not know Gillette , thus avoiding a conflict of interest .
IGN writer Cindy White enjoyed the episode , but criticized the ending for being too similar to a scene in the series finale of the original version of The Office in which David Brent , after a successful blind date , tries to jump into a conversation with traveling salesman Chris Finch at a Christmas party . Finch makes a rude comment about his date which makes David stand up to him and tell him to " fuck off " . Despite this , she spoke highly of Jim and Dwight 's storyline , writing that " I wish their final ruse had been a bit more original , but it served the purpose of getting rid of Packer " . She ultimately gave the episode a 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 rating , denoting a " good " episode .
Matt Richenthal of TV Fanatic awarded the episode four out of five stars and praised it for its temporary teaming up of Jim and Dwight . Alan Sepinwall was critical of the episode ; although he enjoyed the continued exploration of Michael 's maturation , but felt that , because Packer was so infrequently seen on the show , he was stuck as " the American version of Finchy " from the original British series , and as such , did not fit into the show 's dynamics . Sepinwall was further critical of the main story , calling it " flat and uncomfortable " . However , he enjoyed the later part of Pam and Andy 's storyline , as well as Jim and Dwight teaming up to beat Packer .
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= Work It Out ( Beyoncé song ) =
" Work It Out " is a song by American R & B singer Beyoncé . It was released on June 11 , 2002 , by Columbia Records as her debut single and the lead single from the soundtrack album of the film Austin Powers in Goldmember , in which Knowles stars as Foxxy Cleopatra . It was later included on the international editions of Knowles ' debut album , Dangerously in Love ( 2003 ) . Composed by Knowles , Pharrell Williams , and Chad Hugo , " Work It Out " is an R & B song which incorporates elements of 1960s and 1970s funk and post @-@ disco .
The song was generally well received by music critics , many of whom complimented its retro style and various influences . It has been credited as the beginning of Knowles ' career as a successful solo artist , after finding success as the lead singer of Destiny 's Child . " Work It Out " was nominated in the category of Best Original or Adapted Song at the 2003 Black Reel Awards . Commercially , the song failed to make an impact on the US Billboard Hot 100 but managed to find success on a few Billboard component charts , topping the Billboard 's Hot Dance Club Play chart . " Work It Out " also reached the top ten in Norway and the UK .
The song 's accompanying music video was shot and directed by Matthew Rolston . The video features Knowles playing Foxxy Cleopatra , and draws inspiration from several 1960 's and 1970s motifs . The video was nominated at the MTV Video Music Awards Japan in the category Best Video from a Film . " Work It Out " has been parodied and covered on several live television programs , including American Idol and America 's Best Dance Crew . Since its release , the song has been regularly included on several of Knowles ' tours and concerts .
= = Context and release = =
In the 2002 film Austin Powers in Goldmember , Knowles portrays Foxxy Cleopatra , the female protagonist alongside the film 's lead character , Austin Powers , portrayed by Canadian film actor and comedian Mike Myers . Cleopatra is a parody to the characters in blaxploitation films such as Foxy Brown and Cleopatra Jones , both of which are used in her name . Her clothing style is reminiscent of the disco era and her hair is in the afro style of the time . Taking inspiration from her portrayal , Knowles adopted in the song a persona similar to that of Cleopatra . Cleopatra and police officer Get Christie Love ! use the slang term " sugar " , which Knowles ad @-@ libs and incorporates into the song . Many similarities are seen as she performs under her Cleopatra persona in the music video of " Work It Out " . Due to the characters ' sassy nature , Knowles performs the song very confidently and assertively . Powers meets Cleopatra at the villain 's discothèque in 1975 , which attributes to Cleopatra 's disco @-@ type fashion and the heavily inspired disco @-@ era music video for " Work It Out " .
" Work It Out " was written by Knowles , Pharrell Williams and Chad Hugo , with The Neptunes helming its production . Critically , the song was credited with marking Knowles transition into the music scene as a solo artist , after fulfilling a career as the lead female vocalist of Destiny 's Child . Knowles premiered the song on May 23 , 2002 , via AOL . The song served as the first single from the soundtrack album , Austin Powers : Goldmember , with Britney Spears ' " Boys " following as the soundtrack 's second single . Additionally , it serves as the album 's opening track , and was released on June 11 , 2002 . " Work It Out " was also intended to serve as the lead single from Knowles ' debut album , Dangerously in Love . However , it was eventually replaced by " Crazy in Love " , while it was used as a bonus song on the album 's international versions .
= = Musical style = =
According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Hal Leonard Corporation , " Work It Out " is a moderately paced R & B , soul , and funk song . Written in the key of G major , it has a moderately slow tempo of 84 beats per minute and incorporates elements of post @-@ disco . The song has been viewed as reminiscent of 1960s and 1970s funk and soul music , with Craig Seymour of Entertainment Weekly describing the tune as a " retro @-@ thumper " . Rob Fitzpatrick of New Musical Express commented that the song features " super @-@ heavy funk " , and is " an absolutely faultless attempt to re @-@ create on classics by The J.B. ' s and Lynn Anderson " , while Nick Duerden of Spin magazine described the song as a " stunning ' [ 19 ] 60s soul vamp . " Duerden and John Mulvey of New Musical Express recognized that The Netunes paid tribute to James Brown within the song . While making a reference to the fact that the song contains various elements of 1960s and 1970s musical styles , Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine stated that " Work It Out " positioned Knowles as " an MTV generation Tina Turner " . Spin echoed Cinquemani 's sentiments by describing Knowles as " gritty and sultry " , referencing Tina Turner . Knowles has additionally been described as " a ' Rock Steady ' -era Aretha Franklin " because of the way she " ambitiously grunts , wails , and moans " in " Work It Out " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Work It Out " garnered generally positive reviews from critics , most of whom complemented the 1960s and 1970s funk tone featured on the song . While reviewing the Austin Powers in Goldmember 's soundtrack album , Josh Tyrangiel , writing for Entertainment Weekly , gave the song a negative review stating that it was " all shimmy and innuendo " . However , while reviewing the single , Craig Seymour of the same publication awarded the song a grade of an A- , calling the track a " funky debut solo tune " and further stating that the song also proves that Knowles , best known " for riding poppy staccato beats , can get deep into a groove " . Mark Anthony Neal of PopMatters recognized the success of Destiny 's Child and credited it to Knowles , stating , " [ Beyoncé Knowles ] , first stepped out on the solo trip in support of her role as Foxxy Cleopatra in Austin Powers : Gold Member . ' Work It Out ' indicated to Neal that Knowles was ready to shed the ' but I 'm still not yet a woman ' vibe that 's earned Destiny 's Child multi @-@ platinum status . "
The song was considered a " good moment " on the film 's soundtrack album by Allmusic 's writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine . Erlewine called it " excellent " and favored it over the tracks of Survivor ( 2001 ) , Destiny 's Child 's previous album . Although considered a great transition for Knowles , Vibe disagreed , stating that the song debuted a tepid beginning for Knowles , who had high anticipations for a solo @-@ career . Contactmusic.com named the contributions by Knowles on the movie 's soundtrack as a highlight of the album . Rob Boss of Walmart called Knowles " alluring " while reviewing her performance on the soundtrack and comparing it to her performance in the movie itself . Dismissing Knowles ' acting by stating " she should stick to singing and leave the acting to the actors , " Boss called her performance on the song intense and stated that the opening track " Work It Out " was a reason enough to include Knowles in the film . Rob Fitzpatrick of New Musical Express gave the song a mixed to positive review , writing that it sounds not only like a perfect imitation or replication of classic funk , but also like a derivation of various other sources and motifs . John Mulvey , writing for the same magazine , considered " Work It Out " to be the best tune Knowles had recorded since " Say My Name " ( 2000 ) , and he further commented , " it 's Beyoncé yowling , testifying and wigging out in only slightly @-@ studied retro fashion that 's most striking . "
Spin magazine included the song on two separate lists of admiration . The first was a playlist of songs that " you need to know " , and " Work It Out " was placed at number five for songs to download . The other list included the song on a list of " must @-@ have Beyoncé Knowles songs " . In addition to being included on lists , Vibe magazine included the song on a " Vibraters " list which named a number of songs that were on Vibe @-@ staff 's current playlists and stated the song was " her true destiny " . Yancey Strickler of Flak Magazine wrote that in " Work It Out " , Knowles sounds like Pam Grier " taking five from the revolution to let her afro down . Loose and funky ( apologies for the overused terminology there , but ' Work It Out ' practically defines it ) , the tune was Beyoncé declaring , ' I am woman , hear you drool . ' Self @-@ assured and immune to any of that tired old guff , she 's out @-@ of @-@ Huey @-@ Newton 's @-@ league untouchable . " Following the song 's 2002 release , it was included during many post @-@ 2003 award ceremonies . During the 2003 Black Reel Awards , the song was nominated in the category Best Original or Adapted Song . However , the song lost to Erykah Badu and Common 's " Love of My Life ( Ode to Hip @-@ Hop ) " from the film Brown Sugar .
= = Chart performance = =
" Work It Out " failed to make the United States Billboard Hot 100 . Although it did not appear on the main US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , it peaked at number four on the US Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . " Work It Out " became a club hit in the US , peaking at number one on the Hot Dance Club Songs , and enjoyed moderate commercial success in European territories . It debuted and peaked at number seven in the United Kingdom on July 27 , 2002 , charting for a total of 11 weeks . The song managed to peak inside the top 30 of multiple European charts , peaking at number three in Norway , number 12 in Ireland , number 14 in Denmark , number 23 in Sweden , and number 26 in the Netherlands . In Oceania , the single peaked at number 36 in New Zealand on September 8 , 2002 , while reaching number 23 for two consecutive weeks in late September 2002 in Australia .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for the song was directed by Matthew Rolston . Shot in New York in early June 2002 , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage of the shooting of the music video was released on June 7 , and the main video officially posted on MTV on June 17 . In the video , Jeremiah Alexis takes on the role of the bassist in the background and Knowles singing up @-@ front , with the overall feel inspired by 1970s glamor and the introduction of pop and funk . On the concept of the video , Knowles said , " I wanted it to look different from what we 've done . I wanted it to be raw . The look of it is like an old 1970 's show . " Rolston stated that the video was inspired by shows like Sonny & Cher and The Midnight Special with James Brown , which took place around the beginning of the disco era and the end of the hippy era .
The video begins with Knowles ( as Cleopatra ) sitting with Powers in a movie theater , a credit to the ending of Austin Powers in Goldmember . As the " movie " starts , Knowles is seen on stage performing with a band playing instruments to the song . After performing a simple choreography , Knowles begins her verse by singing into a microphone that has her name written on it with sparkles , with the scenery of the shot being a stage with a colorful background , and scenes from Goldmember pieced throughout the video . Knowles performs in a cube with disco @-@ scenery shown on the walls , ceiling , and projected onto Knowles , who plays with hula hoops while wearing " Virgo " bedazzled jeans throughout the video . As the video ends , Knowles is seen back on the beginning stage performing a dance @-@ routine with three backup dancers ; the video ending with the movie theater cheering for the video , while Cleopatra and Powers smile at each other .
Cynthia Fuchs of PopMatters reviewed the music video , stating : " The video offers up a standard @-@ seeming series of body parts — eye , navel , huge hair — but at the same time emphasizes Beyoncé 's frankly awesome power , recalling Aretha and especially Tina Turner as she snuggles up to the mic stand , her ferocious thighs revealed beneath a sequined miniskirt . In her first solo effort , Beyoncé declares herself a singular personality , a body , and a performer . Not to mention a sensation with a hula @-@ hoop . " Fuchs added to her comment about Knowles ' hoola @-@ hooping skills , referring to them as " sensational " and stated that it gave the video " a giddy , gorgeous turn " . Tamar Anitai of MTV News negatively reviewed Knowles ' choice in hair @-@ style as " two @-@ tone , too @-@ tight curls " . In 2003 , the music video was nominated at the MTV Video Music Awards Japan in the category Best Video from a Film . It eventually lost to Eminem 's " Lose Yourself " from the movie 8 Mile .
= = Live performances = =
Knowles performed the song on multiple occasions , including the song as part of her set list on the Dangerously in Love Tour , where the performance of the song was recorded and distributed at the Wembley Arena in London , United Kingdom for the Beyoncé : Live at Wembley DVD / CD . The song was also performed live at the Wynn Theatre , in Las Vegas on August 2 , 2009 , at the I Am ... Yours concert , the performance was later recorded as well as distributed in a DVD / CD package entitled I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas on November 23 , 2009 . During the I Am ... Tour , the song was performed in a medley with " Crazy in Love " , " I Just Wanna Love U ( Give It 2 Me ) " , " Let Me Clear My Throat " , and " Pass the Peas " .
Knowles additionally performed the song on many televised appearances . The first televised performance of the song was on New Year 's Eve at Nikki Beach , St. Barth . Other televised performances included Rove , 2003 's Party in the Park , and Top of the Pops . Reviewing concert performances of the song , Mimi ValdésVibe called Knowles possessed , stating : " Tossing her head around , jerking her body , twirling the microphone stand , she 's a new @-@ millennium version of Tina Turner . As human and humble as she is off stage , watching her perform is a quick reminder of why she 's a star . She 's magnetic . "
= = Cover versions = =
The Los Angeles based band Vitamin String Quartet , paid tribute to Knowles by doing their own version of " Work It Out " and adding it to their 2003 album , The String Quartet Tribute to Beyoncé . According to Tim Sendra of Allmusic , their version has more than four instruments on it as do most of the tracks , making it " more of a symphonic tribute to Beyoncé " . The song has been performed by many reality television shows , which later led to the group or person winning that current challenge . On the fifth season of American Idol , contestant Paris Ana 'is Bennett performed the song on March 28 , 2006 , in which the theme was to perform songs from the past six years . The song later allowed Bennett to pass through to the next round , with judge Randy Jackson stating it was the best of the night , Paula Abdul calling the performance " awesome " , and Cowell naming the performance " overly precocious " .
During the second week of the fourth season of America 's Best Dance Crew , the Massive Monkees were asked to perform the song with the challenge to " dance with hula hoops without accidentally dropping them " . The performance later allowed the group to move on to the next round , with judges Lil Mama stating that the group performed with a lot of " charisma " , however , JC Chasez negatively reviewed the performance as " elementary " . While searching for an all @-@ female band to accompany her on The Beyoncé Experience , Knowles had the candidates perform the single " Work It Out " as a test . An author called Skyy additionally referenced the song in a book of collected short @-@ stories titled " Choices " .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are taken from Dangerously in Love liner notes .
Beyoncé Knowles – composer , vocals , writing , vocal production
The Neptunes ( Pharrell Williams and Chad Hugo ) – composer , writing , producer
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Earth Song =
" Earth Song " is the third single from Michael Jackson 's album HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I. It is the fifth song on the second disc of the album . It is a ballad that incorporates elements of blues , gospel and opera . Jackson had a long @-@ standing history of releasing socially conscious material such as " We Are the World " , " Man in the Mirror " and " Heal the World " . However , " Earth Song " was the first that overtly dealt with the environment and animal welfare . " Earth Song " was made for the Dangerous album but it failed to make the final cut . The song was written and composed by Jackson ; the task of production was split between Jackson , David Foster and Bill Bottrell .
" Earth Song " was accompanied by a lavish music video shot in four geographical regions . It centered on the destruction and rebirth of Earth and went on to receive a Grammy nomination in 1997 . The song was a top five hit in most European countries . It remains Jackson 's best @-@ selling single in the United Kingdom , and was the country 's number @-@ one Christmas single in 1995 . " Earth Song " was not released as a single in the United States . Jackson went on to receive recognition from various animal and environmental organizations .
In 2011 the song was paired @-@ up with the poem " Planet Earth " ( previously released on Michael Jackson 's This Is It , in 2009 ) and released as a song in the remix album Immortal . The song was the last song to be rehearsed by Jackson , shortly after midnight on June 25 , 2009 , making it the final song ever performed by Michael Jackson .
= = Background = =
Jackson already had a long @-@ standing history of writing charitable or socially conscious material . As a child , he had recorded the song " In Our Small Way " for his first album Got to Be There . As an adult , Jackson used his fame and wealth to promote various causes . In 1985 , he co @-@ wrote the charity single " We Are the World " with Lionel Richie , which was released worldwide to aid the poor in Africa and the US . The single became one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time , with nearly 20 million copies sold and millions of dollars donated to famine relief . It was also the first time Jackson was seen as a humanitarian . All of the profits from his single " Man in the Mirror " went to charity . Jackson founded the " Heal the World Foundation " in 1992 , inspired by his charity single of the same name .
Following the illness and death of Ryan White , Jackson helped draw public attention to HIV / AIDS , something that was still controversial at the time . He publicly pleaded with the Clinton Administration at Bill Clinton 's Inaugural Gala to give more money to HIV / AIDS charities and research . He would go on to perform the song " Gone Too Soon " for White and other victims of the illness .
= = Production = =
" Earth Song " was originally written and composed by Jackson in the Hotel Imperial in Vienna , Austria under the title " What About Us " . A demo , which featured Jackson singing the ending in falsetto , was to be released as part of a bonus disc for the remastered Dangerous album in 2001 but the release was cancelled ; the song along with other tracks were leaked on the internet .
Production of the song was a collaborative effort between Jackson , David Foster and Bill Bottrell . Andrae Crouch 's Choir and Jackson engage in a back and forth chant as the song reaches its climactic finale . Jackson 's intent was to create a song that was lyrically deep yet melodically simple , so the whole world , particularly non @-@ English @-@ speaking fans , could sing along . He conceptualized a song that had an emotional message .
= = = Composition = = =
" Earth Song " is a ballad that incorporates elements of blues , gospel and opera . In the socially conscious track , Jackson issues a wakeup @-@ call about the dire situations that mankind has caused and is facing , ranging from war to devastation to animals and earth itself . The song reveals itself to be highly spiritual at the end where Jackson calls on people to remember the earth is their inheritance from God via their ancestor Abraham . " What about death again " reminds all to think about eternal death , asking people to check their heart for repentance , or to see if they really cared at all . Having disfellowshipped himself from Jehovah 's Witnesses , Jackson simplified his faith to focus on the Biblical Jesus Christ until his death . The song is written in the key of Ab melodic minor .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Earth Song " received mixed reviews from music critics . James Hunter of Rolling Stone stated , " The slow blues @-@ operatic ' Earth Song ' for all its noble sentiments , sounds primarily like a showpiece " . A San Jose Mercury News review called it " flat " and " whiny " , believing Jackson had already experimented with these concepts earlier in his career .
The Philadelphia Inquirer described the track as " a healing , rhythmic ballad that evokes religious imagery " . A review in The Sacramento Bee was favorable , describing Jackson 's vocal performance as " cool " . Michael Mehle of Rocky Mountain News described the finale as " anthemic " and a " powerful gospel opus " . A Ledger @-@ Enquirer review observed of " Earth Song " , " [ it ] enjoys the same kind of subtlety , building to a dramatic call @-@ and @-@ response finish with the Andrae Crouch Choir " . Contra Costa Times 's review called it " a bit sappy and overblown " but also acknowledged that it was " epic " and destined to be a " massive smash hit " .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" Earth Song " remains Jackson 's best @-@ selling single in the United Kingdom , where it sold 1 @.@ 16 million copies as of November 2012 . It debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart , where it remained for six weeks throughout December 1995 — beating the U2 / Brian Eno project Passengers in competition to win the Christmas number one spot — and into early @-@ 1996 . During its stay at number one , " Earth Song " kept the first single released by The Beatles in 25 years , " Free as a Bird " , off the number one position . In early December , bookmakers correctly predicted that Jackson would keep The Beatles off the top position and go on to attain the Christmas number @-@ one single .
The song also took the number one position in Spain , Italy , Sweden and Switzerland , peaking within the top five in almost every European state . In Germany , it was Jackson 's first single to reach No. 1 on the German Singles Chart and by staying on the pole position for 5 consecutive weeks , it 's also his most successful single there .
The song was only released to radio in the U.S. , appearing on the Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart . In 2006 , " Earth Song " reached number 55 on the European Hot 100 Singles chart , following the Visionary : The Video Singles campaign , whereby 20 of Jackson 's hit singles from the 1980s to the 1990s were reissued in several European countries .
= = = Environmental recognition = = =
Jackson received the Genesis Award : 1995 Doris Day Music Award , given each year for animal sensitivity . In 2008 , a writer for the Nigeria Exchange noted , " ' Earth Song ' drew the world 's attention to the degradation and bastardization of the earth as a fall out of various human activities " .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Earth Song " , directed by fine art photographer Nick Brandt , was expensive and well @-@ received ; it gained a Le Film Fantastique : Best Video Award in 1996 , the 1995 Doris Day Music Award at the Genesis Awards and a Grammy nomination for Best Music Video , Short Form in 1997 . The production had an environmental theme , showing images of animal cruelty , deforestation , pollution , poverty and war . Jackson and the world 's people unite in a spiritual chant — " Earth Song " — which summons a force that heals the world . Using special effects , time is reversed so that life returns , war ends and the forests regrow . The video closes with a request for donations to Jackson 's Heal the World Foundation . The clip was shown infrequently in the United States .
The video was filmed in four geographic regions ( Americas , Europe and Africa ) . The first location was the Amazon Rainforest , where a large part was destroyed a week after the video 's completion . Natives of the region appeared in the video and were not actors . The second scene was a war zone in Karlovac , Croatia , with famous Croatian actor Slobodan Dimitrijević and the residents of the area . The third location was Tanzania , which incorporated scenes of illegal poaching and hunting into the video . No animals were harmed in the making of the " Earth Song " , as the footage came from documentary archives . The final location was in Warwick , New York , where a safe forest fire was simulated in a corn field .
The video was also included on the video albums : HIStory on Film , Volume II , Number Ones and Michael Jackson 's Vision .
= = Brit Awards = =
In 1996 , Jackson performed " Earth Song " at the Brit Awards in the United Kingdom ; he was there to collect a special " Artist of a Generation " award . Jackson sang while dangling off the edge of a high rise crane lift , which he had used the year before while performing it on the German TV show Wetten Dass . Below , a chorus of backing performers joined in and many of them began to physically embrace Jackson upon his descent . In response to the performance , Jarvis Cocker ran onto the stage without permission , lifted his shirt and pretended to break wind , before giving Jackson the insulting V @-@ sign . The Pulp frontman had been there with his band , who had been nominated for three Brit awards . Cocker was subsequently questioned by police over claims he had assaulted some of the child performers , but he was later released without charge . The singer explained that he found the performance offensive , claiming that Jackson had portrayed himself as Christ @-@ like and could do as he pleased because of his immense wealth and power . Jackson condemned Cocker 's behavior as " disgusting and cowardly " . The incident is referred to in the book Politics and Popular Culture by John Street , Professor of Politics at the University of East Anglia . He says :
" But to read popular culture as a straight @-@ forward – or at least typical – political text is to take a very narrow view of its meaning , and hence of its political message ( s ) . As we have noted , the text 's meaning will depend on how it is heard and read . Michael Jackson may have intended his ' Earth Song ' as an exercise in compassion ; others – like Jarvis Cocker – saw it quite differently . One reason these alternative readings emerge is because of the way the performance of popular culture engages more than a literal text , it employs gestures and symbols , tones of voice , looks and glances , all of which might tell a different story " .
= = 2010 Grammy Awards performance = =
The song , along with a 3 @-@ D short film that was to be featured in Jackson 's series of comeback concerts This Is It , was performed as a tribute to Jackson . Jennifer Hudson , Carrie Underwood , Smokey Robinson , Celine Dion and Usher all sang the song together , while the video played in the background . The film was shown in its original 3 @-@ D format during the broadcast .
Target provided free 3 @-@ D glasses to customers a week before the Grammy Awards . Paris and Prince Jackson , Jackson 's oldest children , appeared shortly after the performance to accept Jackson 's Lifetime Achievement Award , where they both gave a short speech . This was the first time the children had spoken publicly since the memorial service that was held for Jackson on July 7 , 2009 .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Written , composed and lead and background vocals by Michael Jackson
Produced by Michael Jackson and David Foster
Co @-@ Produced by Bill Bottrell
Choir performance by the Andrae Crouch Choir
Keyboards : David Paich
Bass guitar : Guy Pratt
Drums : Steve Ferrone
Synthesizer programming : Steve Porcaro
Co @-@ performance by London Philharmonic Orchestra ( Orchestral Mix only )
Orchestral arrangement by James Horner ( Orchestral Mix only )
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= Scandinavian Scotland =
Scandinavian Scotland refers to the period from the 8th to the 15th centuries during which Vikings and Norse settlers , mainly Norwegians and to a smaller extent other Scandinavians , and their descendents colonised parts of what is now the periphery of modern Scotland . Viking influence in the area commenced in the late 8th century , and hostility between the Scandinavian Earls of Orkney and the emerging thalassocracy of the Kingdom of the Isles , the rulers of Ireland , Dál Riata and Alba , and intervention by the crown of Norway were recurring themes .
Scandinavian @-@ held territories included the Northern Isles of Orkney and Shetland , the Hebrides , the islands of the Firth of Clyde and associated mainland territories including Caithness and Sutherland . The historical record from Scottish sources is weak , with the Irish annals and the later Norse sagas , of which the Orkneyinga Saga is the principal source of information , sometimes contradictory although modern archaeology is beginning to provide a broader picture of life during this period .
There are various competing theories that have addressed the early colonisation process although it is clear that the Northern Isles were the first to be conquered by Vikings and the last to be relinquished by the Norwegian crown . Thorfinn Sigurdsson 's rule in the 11th century included expansion well into north mainland Scotland and this may have been the zenith of Scandinavian influence . The obliteration of pre @-@ Norse names in the Hebrides and their replacement with Norse ones was almost total although the emergence of alliances with the native Gaelic speakers produced a powerful Norse @-@ Gael culture that had wide influence in Argyll , Galloway and beyond .
Scottish influence increased from the 13th century on . In 1231 an unbroken line of Norse earls of Orkney ended and the title was henceforward held by Scots nobles . An ill @-@ fated expedition by Haakon Haakonarson later in that century led to the relinquishing of the islands of the west to the Scottish Crown and in the mid @-@ 15th century Orkney and Shetland were also transferred to Scottish rule . The negative view of Viking activities held in popular imagination notwithstanding , Norse expansion may have been a factor in the emergence of the Gaelic kingdom of Alba , the forerunner of modern Scotland , and the trading , political , cultural and religious achievements of the later periods of Norse rule were significant .
= = Geography = =
The Northern Isles , known to the Norse as the Norðreyjar , are the closest parts of the United Kingdom to Norway and these islands experienced the first and most long @-@ lasting Norse influence of any part of Scotland . Shetland is some 300 kilometres ( 190 mi ) due west of Norway and in favourable conditions could be reached in 24 hours from Hordaland in a Viking longship . Orkney is 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) further to the south west .
Some 16 kilometres ( 10 mi ) due south of Orkney is the Scottish mainland . The two most northerly provinces of mainland Scotland , Caithness and Sutherland , fell under Norse control at an early date . South of there the entire western seaboard of mainland Scotland from Wester Ross to Kintyre was also subject to significant Scandinavian influence .
The Suðreyjar , or " Southern Isles " include :
The Hebrides or Western Isles comprising : The Outer Hebrides , aka the " Long Island " to the west , separated from the northern Inner Hebrides by the waters of the Minch . These islands are some 180 kilometres ( 110 mi ) west of Orkney .
The Inner Hebrides including Skye , Islay , Jura , Mull and Iona .
The islands of the Firth of Clyde some 140 kilometres ( 87 mi ) to the south , the largest of which are Bute and Arran .
The Isle of Man , located in the Irish Sea equidistantly from modern England , Ireland , Scotland and Wales
The total distance from the southern tip of the Isle of Man to the Butt of Lewis , the northern extremity of the Outer Hebrides , is approximately 515 kilometres ( 320 mi ) . This entire region became dominated by Norse culture for much of the period under consideration . For example , it is likely that the Norse language became as dominant throughout the Inner Hebrides as it did on Lewis during the 10th and 11th centuries .
There was also significant direct Norse influence exerted in Galloway in south west Scotland and for much of the period , up until the 1266 Treaty of Perth , Norwegian and Danish foreign policy and the activities of independent or semi @-@ independent Norse rulers of the above parts of Scandinavian @-@ dominated Scotland had a powerful influence on the affairs of Scotland as a whole .
= = Colonisation process = =
Scholarly interpretations of the period " have led to widely divergent reconstructions of Viking Age Scotland " especially in the early period and Barrett ( 2008 ) has identified four competing theories , none of which he regards as proven .
The traditional explanation is the earldom hypothesis . This assumes a period of Norse expansion into the Northern Isles and the creation of an aristocratic dynasty that lasted well into the Medieval period , which exerted considerable influence in western Scotland and Mann into the 11th century . This version of events is essentially as told by the Norse sagas and is supported by some archaeological evidence although it has been criticised for exaggerating Orcadian influence in the Suðreyar .
The second of these theories is the genocide hypothesis , which asserts that the aboriginal populations of the Northern and Western Isles were eradicated and replaced wholesale with settlers of Scandinavian stock . The strength of this argument is the almost total replacement of pre @-@ existing place names by those of Norse origin throughout much of the region . Its weakness is that the place name evidence is from a relatively late date and the nature of this transition remains controversial . Genetic studies show that Shetlanders have almost identical proportions of Scandinavian matrilineal and patrilineal ancestry , suggesting that the islands were settled by both men and women in equal measure .
The pagan reaction hypothesis proposed by Bjorn Mhyre suggests a long tradition of mobility amongst the various populations of the North Atlantic seaboard and that the expansion of Christian missions resulted in ethnic tensions that led to or exacerbated Viking expansion . There is some evidence of such mobility , such as Irish missionary activities in Iceland and The Faroes in the 8th century , but little that is conclusive .
The fourth suggestion is the Laithlind or Lochlann hypothesis . This word appears in various forms in the early Irish literature and is usually assumed to refer to Norway itself , although some have preferred to locate it in the Norse @-@ dominated parts of Scotland . Donnchadh Ó Corráin is a proponent of this view and claims that that a substantial part of Scotland — the Northern and Western Isles and large areas of the coastal mainland — were conquered by the Vikings in the first quarter of the 9th century and that a Viking kingdom was set up there earlier than the middle of the century . Essentially a variant of the earldom hypothesis , there is little archaeological evidence in its favour , although it is clear that extensive Viking incursions on the Irish coasts were supported by a presence of some kind in the Hebrides , even if the date the latter became prominent is far from certain . As Ó Corráin himself admits " when and how the Vikings conquered and occupied the Isles is unknown , perhaps unknowable " .
= = Early Viking incursions = =
Norse contacts with Scotland certainly predate the first written records in the 8th century , although their nature and frequency are unknown . Excavations at Norwick on the island of Unst in Shetland indicate that Scandinavian settlers had reached there , perhaps as early as the mid 7th century , consistent with dates produced for Viking levels at Old Scatness .
From 793 onwards repeated raids by Vikings on the British Isles are recorded . " All the islands of Britain " were devastated in 794 with Iona being sacked in 802 and 806 . ( These attacks on Christian settlements in the islands of the west were not new . In the 6th century Tiree was raided by Pictish forces , Tory Island was attacked in the early 7th century by a " marine fleet " and Donnán of Eigg and 52 companions were murdered by Picts on Eigg in 617 . ) Various named Viking leaders , who were probably based in Scotland , appear in the Irish annals : Soxulfr in 837 , Turges in 845 and Hákon in 847 . The king of Fortriu Eógan mac Óengusa and the king of Dál Riata Áed mac Boanta were among the dead in a major defeat to the Vikings in 839 . Another early reference to the Norse presence in the Irish records is that there was a king of " Viking Scotland " whose heir , Thórir , brought an army to Ireland in 848 . Caittil Find was a reported leader of the Gallgáedil fighting in Ireland in 857 .
The Frankish Annales Bertiniani may record the conquest of the Inner Hebrides by Vikings in 847 . Amlaíb Conung , who died in 874 , is described as the " son of the king of Lochlainn " in the Fragmentary Annals of Ireland also suggesting an early date for an organised kingdom of Viking Scotland . In the same source Amlaíb is also recorded as having gone to the aid of his father Gofraidh who was under assault from Vikings in Lochlainn , circa 872 . Gofraidh died in 873 and may have been succeeded by his son Ímar who also died that year . A lament for Áed mac Cináeda , a Pictish king who died in 878 , suggests Kintyre may have been lost to his kingdom at that time . The Isle of Man may also have been taken by the Norse in 877 and was certainly held by them by 900 .
= = Norðreyjar = =
The Northern Isles were " Pictish in culture and speech " prior to the Norse incursions , and although it is recorded that Orkney was " destroyed " by King Bridei in 682 it is not likely that the Pictish kings exerted a significant degree of ongoing control over island affairs . According to the Orkneyinga Saga , about 872 Harald Fairhair became King of a united Norway and many of his opponents fled to the islands of Scotland . Harald pursued his enemies and incorporated the Northern Isles into his kingdom in 875 and then , perhaps a little over a decade later , the Hebrides as well . The following year the local Viking chieftains of the Hebrides rebelled . Harald then sent Ketill Flatnose to subdue them . Ketill achieved this quickly but then declared himself an independent " King of the Isles " , a title he retained for the rest of his life . Hunter ( 2000 ) states that Ketill was " in charge of an extensive island realm and , as a result , sufficiently prestigious to contemplate the making of agreements and alliances with other princelings " . According to the Landnámabók Kettil became ruler of a region already settled by Scandinavians . Some scholars believe that this entire story is apocryphal and based on the later voyages of Magnus Barelegs . For example , Woolf ( 2007 ) suggests that his appearance in the sagas " looks very much like a story created in later days to legitimise Norwegian claims to sovereignty in the region " and suggests an early 11th @-@ century creation of the earldom of Orkney , prior to which local warlords competed for influence with one another and local populations of farmers .
Nonetheless , the Norse tradition states that Rognvald Eysteinsson received Orkney and Shetland from Harald as an earldom as reparation for the death of his son in battle in Scotland , and then passed the earldom on to his brother Sigurd the Mighty . Sigurd 's line barely survived him and it was Torf @-@ Einarr , Rognvald 's son by a slave , who founded a dynasty that controlled the Northern Isles for centuries after his death . He was succeeded by his son Thorfinn Turf @-@ Einarsson and during this time the deposed Norwegian King Eric Bloodaxe often used Orkney as a raiding base before being killed in 954 . Thorfinn 's death and presumed burial at the broch of Hoxa , on South Ronaldsay , then led to a long period of dynastic strife . Whatever the historical details , it seems likely that Orkney and Shetland were being rapidly absorbed into Norse culture by this time .
The evidence of toponymy and language is unequivocal . Placenames in Orkney with a Celtic derivation are few in number and it is clear that Norn , a local version of Old Norse , was widely spoken by the inhabitants into historic times . Norn was also spoken in Shetland and evidence for Pictish elements in placenames is virtually non @-@ existent , the three island names of Fetlar , Unst and Yell excepted .
Jarlshof in Shetland contains the most extensive remains of a Viking site visible anywhere in Britain and it is believed that the Norse inhabited the site continuously from the 9th to the 14th centuries . Amongst the many important finds are drawings scratched on slate of dragon @-@ prowed ships and a bronze @-@ gilt harness mounting made in Ireland in the 8th or 9th centuries . Brough of Birsay in Orkney is another important archaeological site , which like Jarlshof has a continuity of settlement spanning the Pictish and Norse periods . There is a remarkable collection of 12th @-@ century runic inscriptions inside Maeshowe .
= = Caithness and Sutherland = =
In early Irish literature Shetland is referred to as Inse Catt — " the Isles of Cats " , which may have been the pre @-@ Norse inhabitants ' name for these islands . The Cat tribe certainly occupied parts of the northern Scottish mainland and their name can be found in Caithness , and in the Gaelic name for Sutherland ( Cataibh , meaning " among the Cats " ) . There is limited evidence that Caithness may have had an intermediate phase of Gaelic @-@ speaking control between the Pictish era and the Norse takeover , but if it existed it is likely to have been short @-@ lived .
Sigurd Eysteinsson and Thorstein the Red moved on northern Scotland , conquering large areas variously described in the sagas as constituting all of Caithness and Sutherland and possibly including territory in Ross and even Moray during the last decade of the 9th century . The Orkneyinga Saga relates how the former defeated the Pict Máel Brigte Tusk but died from an unusual post @-@ battle injury .
Thorfinn Torf @-@ Einarsson married into the native aristocracy and his son , Skuli Thorfinnsson , is recorded as having sought the support of the King of Scots in the 10th century in pursuing his claim as Mormaer of Caithness . Njáls saga relates that Sigurd the Stout was the ruler of " Ross and Moray , Sutherland and the Dales " of Caithness and it is possible that in the late 10th century the Scots kings were in alliance with the Earl of Orkney against the Mormaer of Moray .
Thorfinn Sigurdsson expanded his father 's realm south beyond Sutherland and by the 11th century the Norwegian crown had come to accept that Caithness was held by the Earls of Orkney as a fiefdom from the Kings of Scotland although its Norse character was retained throughout the 13th century . Raghnall mac Gofraidh was granted Caithness after assisting the Scots king in a conflict with Harald Maddadson , an earl of Orkney in the early 13th century . This joint earldom ceased after 1375 and the Pentland Firth became the border between Scotland and Norway .
No Norse place names have been found on the northern Scottish mainland south of Beauly and so far no archaeological evidence of Norse activity has been found in the north @-@ west mainland .
= = Suðreyjar = =
Like the Northern Isles , the Outer Hebrides and the northern Inner Hebrides were predominantly Pictish in the early 9th century . By contrast , the southern Inner Hebrides formed part of the Gaelic kingdom of Dál Riata .
The obliteration of pre @-@ Norse names in the Outer Hebrides and in Coll , Tiree and Islay in the Inner Hebrides is almost total and there is little continuity of style between Pictish pottery in the north and that of the Viking period . The similarities that do exist suggests the later pots may have been made by Norse who had settled in Ireland , or Irish slaves . There are frequent references in early Icelandic history to slaves from Ireland and the Hebrides , but none from Orkney . Gaelic certainly continued to exist as a spoken language in the southern Hebrides throughout the settlement period , but place name evidence suggests it had a lowly status and Norse may have survived as a spoken language until the 16th century in the Outer Hebrides .
There is no evidence of any direct Norwegian rule in the area other than a few brief occupations although the written record is weak and no contemporary records of the Norse period from the Outer Hebrides exist . It is however known that Hebrides were taxed using the Ounceland system and evidence from Bornais suggests that settlers there may have been more prosperous than families of a similar status in the Northern Isles , possibly due to a more relaxed political regime . Latterly , the Hebrides sent eight representatives from Lewis and Harris and Skye and another eight from the southern Hebrides to the Tynwald parliament on Man .
Colonsay and Oronsay have produced important pagan Norse burial grounds . An 11th @-@ century cross slab decorated with Irish and Ringerike Viking art on Islay was found in 1838 . Rubha an Dùnain , today an uninhabited peninsula to the south of the Cuillin hills on Skye , contains the small Loch na h @-@ Airde , which is connected to the sea by a short artificial canal . This loch was an important site for maritime activity for many centuries , spanning the Viking and later periods of Scottish clan rule . There is a stone @-@ built quay and a system to maintain constant water levels . Boat timbers discovered there have been dated to the 12th century . Only three rune stones are known from the west coast of Scotland , on Christian memorials found on Barra , Inchmarnock and Iona .
In the Firth of Clyde , Norse burials have been found on Arran , although not Bute and place name evidence suggests a settlement pattern that was much less well @-@ developed than in the Hebrides . On the mainland coast there is cluster of Norse place names around Largs and an ornate silver brooch was found on a hillside near Hunterston that is of likely 7th @-@ century Irish origin but with a 10th @-@ century runic inscription . Five Hogback monuments found in Govan hint at Scandinavian enclaves inland .
The Isle of Man ( which was absorbed into Scotland from 1266 until the 14th century ) was dominated by the Norse @-@ Gaels from an early date and from 1079 onwards by the Crovan dynasty as attested by the Chronicles of Mann and evidenced by the numerous Manx Runestones and Norse place names . The modern @-@ day Diocese of Sodor and Man retains the centuries @-@ old name .
= = Coastland of the Gael = =
South of Sutherland there is considerable place name evidence of Norse settlement along the entire western coast , although unlike on the islands the settlement in the south seems to have been less prolonged and undertaken in tandem with pre @-@ existing settlement rather than replacing it entirely . The distinction between the Innse Gall ( islands of the foreigners ) and the Airer Goidel ( coastland of the Gael ) is further suggestive of a distinction between island and mainland at an early date . In Wester Ross most of the Gaelic names that exist on the coastline today are of likely Medieval rather than pre @-@ Norse origin and a now @-@ lost charter refers to the mainland village of Glenelg opposite Skye as having been in the possession of the king of Man . As in Orkney and Shetland , Pictish seems to have been entirely replaced wherever the Norse encountered it .
In the 9th century the first references to the Gallgáedil ( i.e. " foreign Gaels " ) appear . This term was variously used in succeeding centuries to refer to individuals of mixed Scandinavian @-@ Celtic descent and / or culture who became dominant in west and south @-@ west Scotland , parts of northern England and the isles . This alliance between the two cultures , which also took place in Ireland , may have been instrumental in saving the Gaels of Dál Riata from the fate of the Picts in the north and west . Evidence for Norse settlement in mainland Argyll is limited although the Port an Eilean Mhòir ship burial in Ardnamurchan is the first boat burial site to be discovered on the mainland of Britain .
= = South west Scotland = =
By the mid 10th century Amlaíb Cuarán controlled The Rhinns and the region gets the modern name of Galloway from the mixture of Viking and Gaelic Irish settlement that produced the Gall @-@ Gaidel . Magnus Barelegs is said to have " subdued the people of Galloway " in the 11th century and Whithorn seems to have been a centre of Hiberno @-@ Norse artisans who traded around the Irish Sea by the end of the first millennium . However , the place name , written and archaeological evidence of extensive Norse ( as opposed to Norse @-@ Gael ) settlement in the area is not convincing .
The ounceland system seems to have become widespread down the west coast including much of Argyll and this is just as true of most of the south west apart from land adjacent to the inner Solway Firth . In Dumfries and Galloway the place name evidence is complex and of mixed Gaelic , Norse and Danish influence , the last most likely stemming from contact with the extensive Danish holdings in northern England . One feature of the area is the number of names with a " kirk " prefix followed by a saint 's name such as Kirkoswald . Interpretation of this is not certain but it is also indicative of a mixed Gaelic / Norse population .
= = Eastern Scotland = =
There is no evidence of permanent Viking settlement on the east coast south of the Moray Firth , or of Norse burials , although raids and even invasions certainly occurred . Dunnottar was taken during the reign of Domnall mac Causantín and the Orkneyinga saga records an attack on the Isle of May , by Sweyn Asleifsson and Margad Grimsson :
They sailed south off Scotland until they came to Máeyar . There was a monastery , the head of which was an abbot , by name , Baldwin . Swein and his men were detained there seven nights by stress of bad weather . They said they had been sent by Earl Rögnvald to the King of Scots . The monks suspected their tale , and thinking they were pirates , sent to the mainland for men . When Swein and his comrades became aware of this , they went hastily aboard their ship , after having plundered much treasure from the monastery .
Place name evidence of Scandinavian settlement is very limited on the east coast and in the south @-@ east Anglian was the predominant influence during this period of history .
= = Internal politics = =
The first phase of Norse expansion was that of war bands seeking plunder and the creation of new settlements . The second phase involved the integration of these settlers into organised political structures of which the most prominent in the early part were the Earls of Orkney in the north and the Uí Ímair in the south .
Even if the commencement of a formal earldom of Orkney is a matter of discussion ( see above ) there is little doubt that the institution experienced continuity thereafter . Until the mid to late 11th century the Earls of Orkney and Kings of the Western Isles were probably independent rulers . The imposition of direct Norwegian rule at the end of this century brought this to a close in the north and unusually , from c . 1100 onwards the Norse jarls of the Northern Isles owed allegiance both to Norway for Orkney and to the Scottish crown through their holdings as Earls of Caithness . In 1231 the line of Norse earls , unbroken since Rognvald Eysteinsson , ended with Jon Haraldsson 's murder in Thurso . The Earldom of Caithness was granted to Magnus , second son of the Earl of Angus , whom Haakon IV of Norway confirmed as Earl of Orkney in 1236 . In 1379 the earldom passed to the Sinclair family , who were also barons of Roslin near Edinburgh although Orkney and Shetland remained part of Norway for a century more .
The situation in the Suðreyar was more complex . Different kings may have ruled over very different areas and few of them can be seen as exerting any kind of close control over this " far @-@ flung sea kingdom " . The Uí Ímair were certainly a powerful force from the late 9th to the early 11th century with dynasts such as Amlaíb Cuarán and Gofraid mac Arailt claiming kingship of the Isles . Norse sources also list various rulers such as jarls Gilli , Sigurd the Stout , Håkon Eiriksson and Thorfinn the Mighty as rulers over the Hebrides who were vassals of the Kings of Norway or Denmark . The dates from the Irish and Norse sources do not significantly overlap , but it is not clear if these are records of competing empires , or reflect Uí Ímar influence in the south and direct Norse rule in the north , or both . Furthermore , two records in the Annals of Innisfallen may suggest that the Western Isles were not " organised into a kingdom or earldom " at this time but rather that they were " ruled by assemblies of freeholders who regularly elected lawmen to preside over their public affairs " . The Annals of the Four Masters entries for 962 and 974 hint at a similar arrangement . Crawford ( 1987 ) suggests that influence from the south rather than the north was " usually predominant " whilst admitting that the islands probably formed " groups of more or less independent communities " .
Godred Crovan became the ruler of Dublin and Mann from 1079 and from the early years of the 12th century the Crovan dynasty asserted themselves and ruled as " Kings of Mann and the Isles " for the next half century . The kingdom was than sundered due to the actions of Somerled whose sons inherited the southern Hebrides whilst the Manx rulers held on to the " north isles " for another century . The origins of both Godred Crovan and Somerled are obscure — the former may have been an Uí Ímair dynast from Islay , the latter married a Crovan heiress .
Thus it is clear that although there were competing factions in play , the Hebrides and islands of the Clyde were essentially under the control of rulers of Scandinavian origin from " at least the late tenth century " until the emergence of the kingdom of Scotland and its 13th century expansion into the west .
= = Relations with Pictland , Strathclyde and Alba = =
The early Viking threats may have speeded a long term process of gaelicisation of the Pictish kingdoms , which adopted Gaelic language and customs . There was a merger of the Gaelic and Pictish crowns , although historians continue to debate whether it was a Pictish takeover of Dál Riata , or the other way around . This culminated in the rise of Cínaed mac Ailpín in the 840s , who brought to power the House of Alpin who were leaders of a combined Gaelic @-@ Pictish kingdom for almost two centuries .
In 870 Dumbarton was besieged by Amlaíb Conung and Ímar , " the two kings of the Northmen " , who " returned to Dublin from Britain " the following year with numerous captives . Dumbarton was the capital of the Kingdom of Strathclyde and this was clearly a major assault which may have brought the whole of mainland Scotland under temporary Ui Imair control . Three years earlier Vikings had seized Northumbria , forming the Kingdom of York and subsequently conquered much of England except for a reduced Kingdom of Wessex , leaving the new combined Pictish and Gaelic kingdom almost encircled . Amlaíb and his brother Auisle " ravaged the whole of Pictland and took their hostages " and later occupied this territory for a protracted period . The 875 Battle of Dollar was another major setback for the Picts / Scots .
In 902 the Norse suffered a serious reverse in Ireland losing control of Dublin and this seems to have intensified attacks on the emerging kingdom of Alba . A year later Dunkeld was attacked and Ímar , the " grandson of Ímar " was killed in battle with the forces of Constantine II in mainland Scotland . In the late tenth century the battle of " Innisibsolian " was won by Alban forces over Vikings . Yet these events were setbacks for the Norse rather than a definitive moment . Of more significance were their defeats at the Battle of Brunanburh in 937 and at the Battle of Tara in 980 .
In 962 Ildulb mac Causantín , King of Scots , was killed ( according to the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba ) fighting the Norse near Cullen , at the Battle of Bauds but the line of the House of Alpin held firm and the threat posed by the Scandinavian presence to the emergent Kingdom of Scotland lessened . Perhaps to counter growing Irish influence in the Western Isles Magnus Barelegs re @-@ established direct Norwegian overlordship there by 1098 . He first took Orkney , the northern Scottish mainland and the Hebrides , where he " dyed his sword red in blood " in the Uists . In that year , Edgar of Scotland signed a treaty with Magnus which settled much of the boundary between the Scots and Norwegian claims in the islands . Edgar formally acknowledged the existing situation by giving up his claims to the Hebrides and Kintyre .
Following the intervention of Somerled and his death at the Battle of Renfrew the Kings of the Isles were weakened relative to the Scottish state , but more than 150 years later Norway intervened again , this time unsuccessfully . Following Haakon Haakonarson 's ill @-@ fated invasion and the stalemate of the Battle of Largs the Hebrides and Mann and all rights that the Norwegian crown " had of old therein " were yielded to the Kingdom of Scotland as a result of the 1266 Treaty of Perth .
In 1468 Orkney was pledged by Christian I , in his capacity as king of Norway , as security against the payment of the dowry of his daughter Margaret , betrothed to James III of Scotland . As the money was never paid , the connection with the crown of Scotland has become perpetual .
= = Religion , culture and economy = =
Although there is evidence of varying burial rites practised by Norse settlers in Scotland , such as grave goods found on Colonsay and Westray , there is little that enables a confirmation that the Norse gods were venerated prior to the reintroduction of Christianity . The Odin Stone has been used as evidence of Odinic beliefs and practices but the derivation may well be from " oathing stone " . A few Scandinavian poetic references suggest that Orcadian audiences understood elements of the Norse pantheon , although this is hardly conclusive proof of active beliefs . Nonetheless , it is likely that pagan practices existed in early Scandinavian Scotland .
According to the sagas , the Northern Isles were Christianised by Olav Tryggvasson in 995 when he stopped at South Walls on his way from Ireland to Norway . The King summoned the jarl Sigurd the Stout and said " I order you and all your subjects to be baptised . If you refuse , I 'll have you killed on the spot and I swear I will ravage every island with fire and steel . " Unsurprisingly , Sigurd agreed and the islands became Christian at a stroke , receiving their own bishop , Henry of Lund ( also known as " the Fat " ) , who was appointed sometime prior to 1035 . The greatest source of Scottish influence after the appointment of the Scottish earls in the 13th century was probably through the church , although it is clear that Scots influence on the culture of Orkney and Shetland was fairly limited until the close of the 14th century or later . An influx of Scottish entrepreneurs helped to create a diverse and independent community that included farmers , fishermen and merchants that called themselves Communitas Orchadensis and who proved themselves increasingly able to defend their rights against their feudal overlords , be they Norwegian or Scots . This independence of mind may have been fostered by the influence of Norwegian government which was essentially communal and federal by contrast with Scotland . It was not until the mid 16th century that the Norse institutions were replaced by Scottish systems following large @-@ scale immigration from the south and the islanders were probably bi @-@ lingual until the 17th century .
Once again , the situation in the Hebrides is much less clear . There was a Bishop of Iona until the late 10th century and there is then a gap of more than a century , possibly filled by the Bishops of Orkney , before the appointment of the first Bishop of Mann in 1079 . The conversion of Scandinavian Scotland and the resultant end to slavery and integration of Viking society into mainstream European culture was a significant event . It took place at an early date , although the popular image of marauding berserkers and of the Norse as " enemies of social progress " remains despite considerable evidence that in their latter phase the Norse @-@ speaking populations were rather " enlightened practitioners of maritime commercial principles " . Þings were open @-@ air governmental assemblies that met in the presence of the jarl and the meetings were open to virtually all free men . At these sessions decisions were made , laws passed and complaints adjudicated . Examples include Tingwall and Law Ting Holm in Shetland , Dingwall in Easter Ross , and Tynwald on the Isle of Man .
Women enjoyed a relatively high status during the Viking Age , possibly due to the high degree of mobility in society . There is little knowledge of their role in the Scandinavian colonies of Scotland although the indirect evidence of graves during the pagan and Christian periods suggests roles similar to those held elsewhere . Amongst the best known figures are Gormflaith ingen Murchada , Gunnhild Gormsdóttir , Aud the Deep @-@ Minded and Ingibjörg , the daughter of Earl Hakon Paulsson and wife of King Olaf Godredsson .
The Norse legacy of art and architecture is limited . The Christchurch at Brough of Birsay , now reduced , was the early seat of the Bishop 's of Orkney . St. Magnus Cathedral , Kirkwall is peerless as an example of Norse @-@ era construction in Scotland and St. Magnus Church , on Egilsay retains its round tower . The iconic Lewis chessmen are the best known treasure trove and numerous finds of grave goods including brooches and weaponry such as the Scar boat burial are well @-@ documented .
There is growing evidence of the importance of trade and commerce . Data from the Outer Hebrides suggests that pigs were a more important aspect of Viking farming than prior to that time , that red deer numbers may have been controlled rather than the species simply being subject to hunting , that herring fishing became an important commercial consideration and that trade with centres to the south such as Dublin and Bristol may have been important . Coins found at Bornais and Cille Pheadair were produced in Norway , Westphalia , and England , although there were none from Scotland . Ivory from Greenland was also found there .
= = Present day influence = =
Norse and Viking colonisations and settlements have made an impression on peripheral Scotland , the evidence for which can be found in place names , language , genetics and other aspects of cultural heritage .
The Scandinavian influence in Scotland was probably at its height in the mid 11th century during the time of Thorfinn Sigurdsson , who attempted to create a single political and ecclesiastical domain stretching from Shetland to Man . The Suðreyjar have a total land area of approximately 8 @,@ 374 square kilometres ( 3 @,@ 233 sq mi ) . Caithness and Sutherland have a combined area of 7 @,@ 051 square kilometres ( 2 @,@ 722 sq mi ) and the permanent Scandinavian holdings in Scotland at that time must therefore have been at minimum between a fifth and a quarter of the land area of modern Scotland .
The Viking invasions may have inadvertently played a role in the creation of modern Scotland . Their destructive raids initially weakened Pictland , Strathclyde and Dal Riata , but these " harassed remnants " eventually became a united front and Norse aggression thus played a significant role in the creation of the kingdom of Alba , the nucleus from which the Scottish kingdom expanded as the Viking influence waned , just as in the south Wessex expanded to become the kingdom of England .
Some Scots take pride in their Scandinavian ancestry . For example , Clan MacLeod of Lewis claims its descent from Leod , who according to tradition was a younger son of Olaf the Black . Clan MacNeacail of Skye also claim Norse ancestry , and occasional references are made to the idea of Scotland joining " the Nordic circle of nations " in modern political debate . Yet , unlike the Danelaw in England , the Scandinavian occupation of Scotland has no single common name . This may be a reflection of the less well documented nature of the various invasions involved , but it also hints at a relative lack of popular understanding of the history . By comparison to the Roman occupations of Scotland the Norse kingdoms were much longer lived , more recent and had a significantly more dramatic influence on spoken language and by extension culture and lifestyles generally . They were however confined to areas that are relatively remote from the main centres of modern population . Furthermore , regardless of the actual impact of Scandinavian culture , the hereditary leaders of the Scots nation are generally descended from Pictish and Gaelic stock . The Vikings are thus often seen in a negative light and as a foreign invasion rather than as a key part of a multi @-@ cultural polity .
Nonetheless , in the Northern Isles the Scandinavian connection is still celebrated , one of the best @-@ known such events being the Lerwick fire @-@ festival Up Helly Aa . In particular , Shetland 's connection with Norway has proven to be enduring . When Norway became independent again in 1905 the Shetland authorities sent a letter to King Haakon VII in which they stated : " Today no ' foreign ' flag is more familiar or more welcome in our voes and havens than that of Norway , and Shetlanders continue to look upon Norway as their mother @-@ land , and recall with pride and affection the time when their forefathers were under the rule of the Kings of Norway . " At the 2013 Viking Congress held in Shetland the Scottish Government announced plans to strengthen Scotland ’ s historic links with Scandinavia .
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= Dragon Quest ( video game ) =
Dragon Quest ( Japanese : ドラゴンクエスト , Hepburn : Doragon Kuesuto ) , also released as Dragon Warrior , is the first role @-@ playing video game ( RPG ) in the Dragon Quest media franchise . It was developed by Chunsoft for the Family Computer ( or Famicom for short ) and published by Enix in Japan in 1986 as Dragon Quest and by Nintendo in 1989 in North America for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( or NES ) as Dragon Warrior . Dragon Quest has been ported and remade for several video game platforms , including the MSX , PC @-@ 9801 , X68000 , Super Famicom , Game Boy Color , and mobile phones . In play , players control a hero character who is charged with saving the Kingdom of Alefgard and rescuing its princess from the evil Dragonlord . Dragon Warrior 's story became the second part in a trilogy . Several more anime and manga games , which revolved around this overarching plot were created .
Dragon Quest was created by Yuji Horii , who took inspiration from previous role @-@ playing games such as Wizardry , Ultima , and his own 1983 title The Portopia Serial Murder Case . Horii wanted to create an RPG which would appeal to a wide audience of people who were unfamiliar with the genre of video games in general . He tried to place a greater emphasis on storytelling and emotional involvement , as well as simplify the interface and expose the mostly Western computer genre to the Japanese console market . Manga artist and Dragon Ball creator Akira Toriyama produced the game 's artwork and Koichi Sugiyama composed its music . The North American version featured numerous changes , including battery @-@ backed RAM save games ( rather than using a password save system ) , modified character sprites and pseudo @-@ Elizabethan English style dialog .
Dragon Quest was commercially successful in Japan , with more than 2 million copies sold . Its release as Dragon Warrior in North America , and other Western countries , was less favorably received . Later , Western critics noted the game 's shortcomings but acknowledged its importance to the genre . Its original pseudo @-@ Elizabethan English script has been praised in many of these reviews . Fan @-@ made ROM hacks were released with substantial changes to the game . The game 's sound effects have also been orchestrated , and its music has been performed at numerous concerts . As a whole , Dragon Warrior has been credited with establishing the basic template for the Japanese console RPGs that followed .
= = Gameplay = =
Dragon Warrior is a role @-@ playing video game . Its gameplay mechanics have been described , years after its release , as simplistic and spartan . Players control a young hero who sets out to defeat a being known as the Dragonlord . Before starting the game , players are presented with a menu which allows them to begin a new quest ( a game ) , continue a previous quest , or change the speed in which messages appear on the screen . In the Japanese version , continuing a quest requires players to enter a password ; in the North American Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) English version , the quest is saved onto the game cartridge 's battery @-@ backup ( known in the game as an " Adventure Log " in the " Imperial Scrolls of Honor " ) . The English version also has options to delete or duplicate a saved quest . If players choose to start a new quest , they may give the hero any name they wish in either Japanese kana or English letters depending on the version . The hero 's name has an effect on his initial ability scores and their statistical growth over the course of the game . Each stat falls into one of two categories , one with faster growth than the other , and the game determines which path each stat uses with a formula based on the kana or letters in the character 's name .
Dragon Warrior presents players with a clear objective from the start and uses a series of smaller scenarios to increase the hero 's strength in order to achieve the objective . The game begins in King Lorik 's chamber in Tantegel Castle , where the hero receives information about the Dragonlord , whom he must defeat , and the stolen Balls of Light , which he must retrieve . After receiving some items and gold , the hero sets out on his quest . Much of Dragon Warrior is spent talking to townspeople and gathering information from them that leads to additional places , events , and secrets . Players are advised to take notes of these hints for future reference . Towns contain shops that sell improved weapons and armor ; general stores where the player may buy other goods ; inns that allow the hero to recover his health and magic , and shops that offer keys for purchase . Players may sell items at half price to shops that provide weapons , armor , or general goods . The hero 's status window is shown whenever he stops moving , displaying his current experience level ( LV ) and the amount of hit points ( HP ) , magic points ( MP ) , gold ( G ) , and experience points ( E ) .
To safely progress to the next areas in the game , players need to accumulate experience points and gold by defeating enemies outside of towns – in the overworld and in dungeons . Apart from the Dragonlord 's castle , there are no physical restrictions on where players can roam . Instead , monsters increase in difficulty as players venture further from Tantegel castle . As the hero 's level increases , players can explore further afield with less risk . Enemies appear in random encounters and the hero fights one opponent at a time . The encounter rate is lowest on fields and increases in forests and hills . Battles are turn @-@ based and fought from a first @-@ person perspective while the hero remains off @-@ screen . In combat , players must defeat the enemy by reducing its HP to zero . During combat , players have four commands : " fight " , " run " , " spell " , and " item " . The " fight " command causes the hero to attack the enemy with a weapon , or with his bare fists if no weapon is available , in an attempt to inflict damage . With the " run " command , the hero attempts to escape from a battle , which is recommended if his HP is low . The " spell " command casts magic that can , for example , heal the hero or damage the enemy . The " item " command uses herbs that replenish the hero 's HP .
During combat , the hero loses HP when he takes damage , and the display turns red when his HP is low . If his HP falls to zero , he dies and is taken back to King Lorik to be resurrected , and loses half his gold as punishment . If the hero succeeds in defeating an enemy , he gains experience points and gold ; if he gains enough experience points , his experience level increases , giving him greater strength , agility , speed , and the ability to use magic spells . Every time a spell is used , the hero 's MP decreases , with different spells costing different amounts of MP . Both HP and MP can be restored by resting at an inn . Additionally , a non @-@ player character can replenish the hero 's MP in Tantegel Castle . As the hero earns more gold , he can purchase better weapons , armor , and items . However , players have limited inventory space to hold items , so they must manage their item collection conservatively . The caves which the hero explores are dark and require the use of a torch or the " RADIANT " spell to display a temporary field of vision around the character . In the English version , players can return to King Lorik at any point to save the quest . Because the Japanese version does not have a battery backup , players receive a password to return to a quest at a later time .
The control pad may be used to move the hero in any direction and to move the flashing cursor in menu displays . Additional buttons confirm and cancel commands . In the English version , players use menu commands to talk to people , check their status , search beneath their feet , use items , take treasure chests , open doors , and go up or down stairs . However , in some of the game 's later remakes , certain commands were assigned to buttons , navigating stairs became automatic , and the hero 's speed was increased . In the Japanese version , characters always face forward , so players must choose a command and then a direction in which to perform that action . In the North American version , the hero turns to face the direction he is moving , making direction selection unnecessary .
= = Plot = =
Dragon Warrior 's plot is a simplistic medieval " rescue the princess , slay the dragonking , and get the orb of light " story .
= = = Backstory = = =
Dragon Warrior , its sequel , Dragon Quest II , and its prequel , Dragon Quest III , comprise a trilogy with a shared timeline . The story 's background begins when the kingdom of Alefgard was shrouded in permanent darkness . The brave warrior Erdrick ( known as " Loto " in the Game Boy Color ( GBC ) remake of the game ) defeated an evil creature and restored light to the land . In Erdrick 's possession was the Ball of Light , which he used to drive away enemies who threatened the kingdom . Erdrick handed the Ball of Light to King Lorik , and Alefgard remained peaceful for a long time . The Ball of Light kept winters short in Alefgard and helped maintain peace and prosperity for the region .
However , there is one man who shunned the Ball of Light 's radiance and secluded himself in a mountain cave . One day , while exploring the cave 's extensive network of tunnels , the man encountered a sleeping dragon who awoke upon his entrance . He feared the dragon would incinerate him with its fiery breath , but the dragon instead knelt before him and obeyed his commands . This man , who is later discovered to be a dragon , became known as the Dragonlord . One day , after his soul became corrupted by learning magic , the Dragonlord attacked Tantegel Castle and the nearby town of Breconnary with his fleet of dragons and set the town on fire . Riding a large red dragon , the Dragonlord descended upon Tantegel Castle and stole the Ball of Light . Soon , monsters began to appear throughout the entire land , destroying everything in their paths . Much of the land became poisonous marshes , and at least one destroyed town ( Hauksness , whose name is erroneously transposed with that of Rimuldar in the " Adventurer 's Handbook " walkthrough ) never recovered and remains in ruins even as of the time of gameplay .
The following day , Erdrick arrived at Tantegel Castle to speak with King Lorik and offered his help to defeat the Dragonlord . After searching the land for clues to the Dragonlord 's whereabouts , Erdrick found that the Dragonlord lived on an island that could be accessed only via a magical bridge that only a " Rainbow Drop " could generate . After venturing to the island , Erdrick was never heard from again . Many years later , during King Lorik XVI 's reign , the Dragonlord attacked the kingdom again and captured Princess Gwaelin . Many heroes tried to rescue the princess and recover the Ball of Light from the Dragonlord 's castle , called Charlock , but none succeeded . The prophet Mahetta predicted that " One day , a descendant of the valiant Erdrick shall come forth to defeat the Dragonlord . " However , when the descendant ( the game 's hero ) arrives , many of the people of Alefgard have forgotten the story of Erdrick , and those few who do remember consider it a myth and do not believe in Mahetta 's prophecy . King Lorik starts to mourn the decline of his kingdom .
= = = Main story = = =
The game begins when the player assumes the role of a stranger who arrives at Tantegel Castle . A castle guard tells him that a dragon has captured the princess and is holding her captive in a distant cave . Determined to rescue the princess and defeat the Dragonlord , he discovers an ancient tablet hidden inside a desert cave ; carved on the tablet is a message from Erdrick that outlines what the hero needs to do to follow in Erdrick 's footsteps and defeat the Dragonlord . The hero eventually rescues Princess Gwaelin , but realizes that in order to restore light to Alefgard , he must defeat the Dragonlord at Charlock Castle . After the hero collects a series of relics , he creates a bridge to reach Charlock and fights his way through the castle before finally confronting the Dragonlord . At this point the hero is given a dialogue choice – to side with the Dragonlord or to challenge him . If players choose the former , the game ends , the hero is put to sleep , and the game freezes ( and , in the battery @-@ operated North American NES version , deletes the player 's saved game and possibly one or both others on the cartridge ) ; however , in the GBC remake , the hero instead wakes up from a bad dream . If players choose to fight , a final battle between the hero and the Dragonlord commences .
Once the hero defeats the Dragonlord , he triumphantly returns to Tantegel Castle where King Lorik offers his kingdom as a reward . The hero turns down the offer and instead wishes to find his own kingdom . Accompanied by Princess Gwaelin , the hero then sets off in search of a new land ; this sets the stage for the events in Dragon Warrior II , which take place many years later and tells the story of three of the hero 's descendants .
= = = Characters = = =
In Dragon Warrior the hero and the Dragonlord are the two main characters . Other major supporting characters are King Lorik ( King Lars in the GBC remake ) ; his daughter Princess Gwaelin ( Lady Lora ) , and two sages the hero meets during his journey .
The hero , who comes from a land beyond Alefgard , is a descendant of the legendary Erdrick . When the hero arrives , he does not appear to be a warrior – he arrives without weapons or armor – and is ignorant of the situation . The populace thinks his claim of the ability to defeat the Dragonlord are preposterous ; however , King Lorik sees this ability , which give him hope and he aids the hero on his quest .
The Dragonlord is a dragon who rules from Charlock Castle , which is visible from Tantegel Castle , the game 's starting point . His soul became evil by learning magic . Rumors say that , through a spy network , he knows everything that happens in Alefgard . He seeks " unlimited power and destruction " , which results in a rising tide of evil throughout Alefgard . The Dragonlord wants to enslave the world with his army of monsters that he controls with his will .
= = Development and release = =
Yuji Horii and his team at Chunsoft began developing Dragon Quest in 1985 . It was released in Japan in 1986 for the Famicom , the MSX , and the PC @-@ 9801 . Dragon Quest has been released on multiple platforms since its initial release , including the X68000 in 1992 in Japan , and for mobile phones in 2004 with updated graphics similar to those of Dragon Quest VI .
= = = Historical backdrop = = =
When Eidansha Boshu Service Center was founded in 1975 it published tabloid magazines that advertised real estate . In 1982 , after failing to establish a chain of stores , the company 's founder Yasuhiro Fukushima transformed it into a software company devoted to gaming and renamed it Enix . To find talent for the company , Fukushima held the " Enix Game Hobby Program Contest " . The competition was styled after manga competitions , was advertised in computer and manga magazines , and had a ¥ 1 million prize for the winners . The winners were Kazuro Morita ( 森田和郎 ) , Koichi Nakamura , and manga magazine Shōnen Jump editor Yuji Horii , who was the top winner . Horii designed a tennis game , Love Match Tennis , which became Enix 's first release . While he did not believe he would win , he was motivated by his editor , who enjoyed the games and published Horii 's articles on them . Later , when Enix began creating games for the NES , Fukushima held another contest . This time , Nakamura won with his " cartoonish and creative contest entry " Door Door , which became Enix 's first release for the NES .
Horii 's earliest inspiration for Dragon Quest is his own 1983 PC visual novel The Portopia Serial Murder Case – a murder mystery adventure game that bears similarities to games such as Mystery House , Zork , King 's Quest , and particularly Déjà Vu . Horii wanted to advance the game 's storyline by using dialogue . Portopia was originally released for Japan 's NEC PC @-@ 6001 and was later ported to the NES in 1985 . The port is Enix 's second release for the system and the first game which Horii and Nakamura worked on together . Horii redesigned the interface for the port to accommodate the console 's limited controls , and added areas to the game in which the detective battles monsters . While Portopia did not directly result in Dragon Quest 's creation , it was , according to 1UP.com , " a proving ground " for the RPG . The menu @-@ based command system of Portopia would later be used in Dragon Quest .
The original idea for Dragon Quest came during the development of Portopia . Horii and Nakamura came across the RPG Wizardry at a Macworld Conference & Expo . While it had some influence on Portopia 's dungeon crawl segments , Horii liked the game 's depth and visuals . He wanted to create a game similar to Wizardry , to expose the mainly Western @-@ exclusive RPG genre to Japan and to expand the genre past computer enthusiasts . Horii also cited Ultima as an inspiration for Dragon Quest 's gameplay , specifically the first @-@ person random battles in Wizardry and the overhead perspective of Ultima . While the RPG genre was predominantly Western and limited to PCs , Japanese gamers enjoyed home @-@ grown games such as the The Black Onyx and the Dragon Slayer series alongside Western RPG ports . However , while Horii and Nakamura enjoyed the dungeon crawling and statistical nature of Wizardry , they realized most people would not . This had not originally been a concern , but the success of Super Mario Bros. greatly increased the potential audience of any new Famicom / NES game . To create Dragon Quest , the gameplay needed to be simplified . According to Horii : " There was no keyboard , and the system was much simpler , using just a [ game ] controller . But I still thought that it would be really exciting for the player to play as their alter ego in the game . I personally was playing Wizardry and Ultima at the time , and I really enjoyed seeing my own self in the game . "
In order to create an RPG that would appeal to a wide audience unfamiliar with the genre , and video games in general , Horii wanted to create a new kind of RPG that did not rely on previous experience with the Dungeons & Dragons tabletop RPG , did not require hundreds of hours of rote fighting , and could appeal to any kind of gamer . To accomplish this he needed to simplify the system and have players associate themselves with the hero . Thus as the game progressed , the hero would become stronger , in contrast to games like Super Mario Bros. where the character Mario did not become progressively more powerful during the game . He wanted to build on Portopia and place a greater emphasis on storytelling and emotional involvement . He developed a coming @-@ of @-@ age tale that audiences could relate to and made use of RPG level @-@ building gameplay as a way to represent this .
= = = Japanese development = = =
Horii believed that the Famicom was the ideal platform for Dragon Quest , because unlike arcade games , players would not worry about spending money if they got a game over , and they could continue playing from where they left off . Whenever the player loses a battle , they would immediately be restored to a previous save point rather than the game ending and returned to the main menu , making the game more accessible . He also wanted to include multiple player characters but was forced to use only one due to memory constraints . Horii knew that RPGs had a steeper learning curve than other video games of the time , and to compensate for this he implemented quick level @-@ ups at the start of the game and gave players a clear final goal that is visible from the world map 's starting point : the Dragonlord 's castle . He also provided a series of smaller scenarios in order to build up the player 's strength to achieve the final objective . He created an open world which is not blocked physically in any way except by monsters that can easily kill unprepared players ; Gamasutra described this as one of the earliest examples of nonlinear gameplay . Horii used bridges to signify changes in difficulty and implemented a level progression with a high starting growth rate that decelerates over time , which contrasted to the random initial stats and constant growth rates of the early editions of Dungeons & Dragons . To make the game appeal to a larger audience , manga artist and creator of Dragon Ball , Akira Toriyama , was hired to produce the artwork . As with Dragon Ball , Toriyama 's artwork features characters " whose strength and cunning transcend generations " , but also includes humorous elements such as a chibi style .
Koichi Sugiyama , the game 's music composer , sought Enix out . Sugiyama sent a PC game 's feedback questionnaire to Enix . He was already a well @-@ known television composer , and , upon seeing Sugiyama 's feedback , Fukushima contacted him to confirm that " he was the Sugiyama from television . " Upon confirmation , Fukushima asked Sugiyama to compose a score for Dragon Quest . The game 's classical score was Sugiyama 's second video game composition after Wingman 2 . Sugiyama said it took him five minutes to compose the original opening theme , and noted the difficulty in adding a personal touch to the short jingles , but that his past experience with creating music for television commercials helped . According to Sugiyama , the composer has between three and five seconds to catch the audience 's attention through music . The theme and his other jingles for Dragon Quest have remained relatively intact in its sequels .
= = = North American localization = = =
Coverage of Dragon Quest 's North American localization first appeared in Nintendo Fun Club News 's winter 1988 issue – where the title changed to Dragon Warrior . The title was changed to avoid infringing on the trademark on wargame publisher Simulations Publications 's pen @-@ and @-@ paper RPG DragonQuest . The article about the game featured images from the game 's Japanese version , Erdrick 's original name ( " Roto " ) , the Dragonlord 's original name ( " Dragon King " ) , and the original name of the game 's starting location ( Radatome Castle ) . It briefly explained the backstory and basic gameplay elements , comparing the game to The Legend of Zelda . The game was later mentioned in Nintendo Power 's " Pak Watch " preview section in March 1989 , mentioning Dragon Quest III 's Japanese release in the magazine 's premiere July 1988 issue . It again mentioned the change of name from Dragon Quest to Dragon Warrior , its inspiration of two Japanese sequels , and that its release was still distant in time .
Dragon Warrior was released in North America by Nintendo of America under the direction of Satoru Iwata with help from Horii in August 1989 – months before the Japanese release of Dragon Quest IV . Because the game was released in North America nearly three years after the original release in Japan , the graphics were improved . Instead of lengthy passwords with kana characters , the North American version features a battery @-@ backed RAM savegame . Akira Toriyama 's artwork in the instruction booklets was also changed to reflect more of a traditional tone as found in popular American based RPGs such as the Ultima series . The game 's character sprites were changed so that they face their direction of travel ; in the Japanese versions , the sprites are smaller and face only forwards , requiring players to choose a direction for actions from a menu . Spells were given self @-@ explanatory one @-@ word titles instead of the made @-@ up words of the Japanese version . Locations were renamed , and dialogue was rewritten from its whimiscal style comparable to Dragon Ball to a style inspired by Elizabethan English , with sentences such as " Thy hit points have decreased by 1 . " Nintendo also removed salacious humor and religious connotations from the English @-@ language version . For example , in the Japanese version , in the town where the hero first buys keys , a woman offers to sell puff @-@ puff – a Japanese onomatopoeia for a girl rubbing her breasts in someone 's face , or juggling her own breasts . In the North American version , the same woman sells tomatoes . The term has been included in the game 's sequels as well as in Toriyama 's Dragon Ball series .
Katsuya Terada created some of the artwork for the early Dragon Warrior articles in Nintendo Power . Neither Terada nor those editing the artwork for the instruction booklet followed Toriyama 's work ; they instead used the settings and character poses to create alternate artwork in an American style . While the Japanese hero was drawn in a super deformed manga style , the English version 's appearance is based on " the West 's template of a medieval hero " .
In June 1989 , Electronic Gaming Monthly 's " Quartermann " speculated that Dragon Warrior would be Nintendo 's " big release " in North America that Christmas . He based this on the series 's immense popularity in Japan especially after Dragon Quest III 's sales . Nintendo Power provided three feature articles on Dragon Warrior for issues between May and October 1989 and the November – December 1989 issue includes a strategy guide . The March – April 1990 issue of Nintendo Power has a map of the game world , with a poster of Super Contra on the other side , and also features a Dragon Warrior text adventure .
In late 1990 , Nintendo Power gave free copies of Dragon Warrior to subscribers , including a 64 @-@ page " Explorer 's Handbook " that has a full walkthrough of the game and additional backstory not mentioned in the original instruction booklet . Nintendo was reportedly interested in getting rid of unsold copies of the game , so it gave them away to subscribers . At the time , the game cost approximately US $ 50 at retail and the magazine 's subscription fee was only US $ 20 ( $ 95 and $ 38 respectively , adjusted for inflation ) . The giveaway attracted nearly 500 @,@ 000 new magazine subscribers , and many more renewed their subscription just to get the game . This ultimately led to the success of the series in the Western market .
= = = Re @-@ releases and remakes = = =
Enix remade Dragon Quest and Dragon Quest II for a one @-@ cartridge compilation known as Dragon Quest I + II for the Super Famicom on December 18 , 1993 . The remake sold over 1 @.@ 2 million copies in Japan . In 1998 , Enix released BS Dragon Quest for the Super Famicom Satellaview extension exclusively in Japan . The latter consisted of four one @-@ hour scenarios which players would download on a weekly schedule . Players were tasked with leveling their character , collecting medals and completing scenario @-@ specific conditions with special events designed to occur under specific conditions in real @-@ time .
Dragon Warrior and Dragon Warrior II were re @-@ released as part of a similar compilation for the GBC , titled Dragon Warrior I & II . It was developed by Tose and released by Enix on September 23 , 1999 in Japan and September 27 , 2000 , in North America . It uses an entirely new translation , discards the pseudo @-@ Elizabethan English style and uses names closer to those in the Japanese version . In this remake , " Dragonlord " is changed to " DracoLord " , and " Erdrick " is changed to " Loto " . Several additional features were added . For example , players can quicksave their game anytime outside a battle ; the quicksave is deleted after it or a standard saved game is loaded . Players can store some of their gold for future use in a bank in case they die . The menu was streamlined and monsters yield more experience and gold to reduce the amount of time needed to increase levels and to make saving up for in @-@ game purchases faster .
In 2004 , the game , along with its sequel , were remade for mobile phones in Japan . This version is graphically based on the Super Famicom remake of Dragon Quest III .
Both the Famicom and Super Famicom versions of the game , together with Dragon Quest II and Dragon Quest III , were re @-@ released on the Dragon Quest 25th Anniversary Collection compilation for the Wii in Japan on September 15 , 2011 . The compilation includes original copies of the games ' strategy guides , original artwork and material on the games ' development . In October 2013 , Square Enix announced that they were re @-@ releasing Dragon Quest I – VIII for both Android and iOS . In November 2013 , the game was released for the iOS & Android mobile platforms in Japan . This release is based on the 2004 mobile remake of the game . The United States and Europe mobile versions were released on September 11 , 2014 .
= = Related media = =
Dragon Warrior has inspired related media in the form of a manga series , which has been adapted to anime , and a symphonic video game soundtrack .
= = = Anime and manga = = =
The manga series , Dragon Quest Retsuden : Roto no Monshō ( ドラゴンクエスト列伝 ロトの紋章 ? , Dragon Quest Saga : Emblem of Roto ) , was written by Chiaki Kawamata and Junji Koyanagi , with artwork by Kamui Fujiwara , and was published between 1991 and 1997 by Monthly Shōnen Gangan . Enix compiled the series into 21 volumes , which were later released on compact disc in 1994 . It was released on December 11 , 2009 for the PlayStation Store as part of the initial launch of Sony 's digital comic distribution . In 1996 , an anime movie based on the manga was released on videocassette . Square Enix started publishing a sequel series , Dragon Quest Retsuden : Roto no Monshō ~ Monshō o Tsugumono @-@ tachi e ~ ( ドラゴンクエスト列伝 ロトの紋章 ～ 紋章を継ぐ者達へ ～ ? , Dragon Quest Retsuden : Emblem of Roto – To the Children Who Inherit the Emblem ) , in 2005 . Jun Eishima wrote the first four volumes , and Takashi Umemura wrote the last five ; Yuji Horii supervised the manga , while Kamui Fujiwara contributed the artwork .
Dragon Quest Saga : Emblem of Roto takes place between Dragon Warrior III and Dragon Warrior . After monsters possessed Carmen 's king for seven years , the kingdom fell to the hordes of evil . The only survivors were Prince Arus and an army General 's daughter , Lunafrea . Meanwhile , in the Kingdom of Loran , a child is born and is named Jagan in accordance with the demon lord Imagine 's orders . Arus and Lunafrea set out to defeat the monsters and restore peace to the world . The sequel , To the Children Who Inherit the Emblem , takes place five years after the events in Dragon Quest Saga : Emblem of Roto . The world is again in chaos and a young boy , Arosu ( アロス ) , sets out to gather companions to help him save the world from evil .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
Koichi Sugiyama composed and directed the music for Dragon Warrior . The soundtrack included eight tracks , which RPGFan said was " the foundation for Sugiyama 's career " . The pieces were arranged and incorporated into later Dragon Warrior games ' soundtracks . The music has been released in a variety of formats . The first is as a Drama CD , released by Enix on July 19 , 1991 , which incorporated a narrated story . Super Famicom Edition Symphonic Suite Dragon Quest I , published by Sony Records on January 12 , 1994 , followed ; the soundtrack featured orchestral versions of the tracks played by the London Philharmonic Orchestra and the original versions of the tunes . The game 's classical score was considered revolutionary for console game music . The soundtrack 's " eight melodies " approach set the template for most RPG soundtracks released since then , hundreds of which have been organized in a similar manner .
The orchestral albums for Dragon Warrior I and II were combined in Symphonic Suite Dragon Quest I • II , released by SME Visual Works on August 23 , 2000 , King Records reprinted it on October 7 , 2009 . The orchestral tracks were again released in the Symphonic Suite Dragon Quest I album , including orchestral versions of the game 's sound effects . Numerous live concerts have featured performances of the game 's music ; many performances were later released as albums such as Dragon Quest in Concert and Suite Dragon Quest I • II .
= = Reception and sales = =
= = = NES version = = =
Initial sales of the game were so low , Enix was going to lose money , but several Shonen Jump articles by Horii helped increase its sales substantially . People liked Toriyama 's artwork and Sugiyama 's music , which the book Power @-@ Up : How Japanese Video Games Gave the World an Extra Life said " was richer and more exciting than any game music had ever sounded " . The game was extremely popular in Japan and became the first in a series that in 2016 includes eleven games with several spin @-@ off series and stand @-@ alone titles . More than 2 million copies were sold of the Japanese version . The Dragon Quest I & II remake for the SNES yielded 1 @.@ 2 million copies sold in Japan . The 1989 " All Soft Catalog " issue of Famicom Tsūshin ( now Famitsu ) included Dragon Quest in its list of the best games of all time , receiving the Best RPG and Best Character Design awards , but losing to Dragon Quest III for the overall Grand Prize for best game of all time .
Several years after its Japanese release , the first English @-@ language version of Dragon Warrior garnered average reviews overall . Nintendo Power ranked it as third out of five upon its original release . It debuted at No. 7 on the magazine 's bimonthly " Top 30 " top NES games list in November 1989 . It climbed to No. 5 in January 1990 and remained there for 4 months ; it then dropped to No. 11 in May , No. 14 in July , and No. 16 in September 1990 before it dropped off the list . In the " Nintendo Power Awards 1989 " , the game was nominated for " Best Theme , Fun " and " Best Overall " ; it failed to win in either category . In response to Japanese youths ' arrests while waiting for Dragon Quest III 's release , Electronic Gaming Monthly 's Quartermann said that the game was not " that special at all " , compared it to the NES version of Ultima III : Exodus and recommended that others play that game instead . While the English version has been seen as a commercial failure , according to Chris Kohler , the Nintendo Power subscription was a success and allowed Enix to bring the next three games over . He said Nintendo profited immensely from the Dragon Warrior subscription giveaway because " Nintendo Power was essentially a hundred @-@ page monthly ad for Nintendo products " , and it was now in thousands of households .
The game 's release has been regarded as important in the history of the console RPG . Kohler noted that Toriyama 's and Sugiyama 's contributions to the game " made Dragon Quest as visually and aurally exciting as the game play was unique and sophisticated . " GameSpot named it as one of the fifteen most influential titles in video game history . IGN listed it as the eighth best all @-@ time NES game . In 2005 , it listed it as the 92nd @-@ best all @-@ time video game , and in 2007 it listed the game as the 29th best . Nintendo Power rated Dragon Warrior as the 140th @-@ best game made for the Nintendo System in its Top 200 Games list in 2006 . IGN reviewed the game years later and gave it a 7 @.@ 8 out of 10 , and RPGamer 's Bill Johnson gave it a 4 out of 5 overall score . The NES ' localization received considerable praise for adding extra characters and depth to the story . The removal of the stylized dialogue in the GBC remake has similarly been lamented .
Seemingly primitive by today 's standards , Dragon Warrior features one @-@ on @-@ one combat , a limited item and equipment array , ten spells , five towns , and five dungeons . While noting its importance to the development of the RPG genre , Allgame reviewer Kyle Knight states that " taken on its own merits , it 's just not an enjoyable game to play . " 1UP.com explained why the series was not immensely popular at first in North America ; American console gamers were not used to the idea of RPGs , and they said that it would take a decade for the genre to be " flashy enough to distract from all of those words they made you read " . GameCritics ' Chi Kong Lui wrote that the game added realism to video games , and added , " If a player perished in Dragon Warrior , he or she had to suffer the dire consequences of losing progress and precious gold . That element of death evoked a sense of instinctive fear and tension for survival . " This , he said , allowed players to identify with the main character on a much larger scale . IGN writer Mark Nix compared the game 's seemingly archaic plot to more modern RPGs ; he said : " Noble blood means nothing when the society is capitalist , aristocratic , or militaristic . Damsels don 't need rescuing – they need a battle axe and some magic tutoring in the field . " While reviewing Dragon Quest VIII : Journey of the Cursed King , GameSpy staff wrote that , for many gamers , Dragon Warrior is their first exposure to the console RPG . Recalling their past , a staff member commented :
It opened my eyes to a fun new type of gameplay . Suddenly strategy ( or at least pressing the " A " button ) was more important than reflex , and the story was slightly ( slightly ! ) more complex than the ' rescue the princess ' stuff I 'd seen up ' till then . After all , Dragon Warrior was only half @-@ over when you rescued its princess .
Bill Johnson compared Dragon Warrior to modern RPGs and noted the game 's complete lack of replay value , which is due as much to the requirement that almost everything in the game must be done to beat it as to its difficulty . Johnson noted the game 's historical importance ; he said : " [ Playing Dragon Warrior is ] a tough road to walk , but reaching its end will instill a new appreciation of what today 's RPG 's are all about . " The 2009 book Vintage Games contrasted Dragon Warrior to the 1986 NES title The Legend of Zelda ; it said , while both titles share common RPG elements , Zelda features a fantasy setting and magic but no level or turn @-@ based combat system , and Dragon Warrior features both . Nintendo Power said the game 's historical significance is its greatest aspect , and noted that " playing Dragon Warrior these days can be a bit of a chore " . GamePro wrote that their favorite aspect of the game was the Elizabethan @-@ English dialogue , and that they were disappointed by its removal in the GBC remake .
= = = Remakes = = =
Famitsu gave the SNES compilation remake Dragon Quest I + II a rating of 35 out of 40 . The Satellaview remake was given a mixed , but overall positive review by Microgroup . The touches such as the real @-@ time event and voicing were appreciated , but their implementation left much to be desired . However , the medal collection is a nice way to compete with friends and the reviewer enjoyed the game . Dragon Warrior 's English remake , as part of the dual GBC cartridge Dragon Warrior I & II , received better reviews than the original , garnering praise . IGN and Nintendo Power gave it an 8 out of 10 . IGN 's Marc Nix noted that while " it 's one of the only interesting RPGs on the Game Boy Color to actually make American shores " , players will feel frustrated ; those who played the original will lament the changes , while new players will feel that the game is too linear and simple . GameSpot gave it a 9 @.@ 6 out of 10 , citing the great improvements to sound quality and the appeal of playing both games in succession , and GameRankings reports an 83 @.@ 46 % overall score . It received RPGamer 's Game Boy Color Award of the Year for 2000 . Comparing it to its NES counterpart , RPGamer 's Derek Cavin awarded it 3 out of 5 , and wrote that the game is above average in all aspects , and particularly praised the visual elements . He criticized the game 's repetitiveness , and said that it is short enough that most players should finish the game before repetition becomes an issue . Combined , both the SNES and GBC remakes saw more than 1 @.@ 94 million copies sold worldwide . With the remakes ' good sales performances , Enix released Dragon Warrior III for the GBC in 2001 , which was based on a previously unreleased SNES update of Dragon Quest III ' English version .
= = = Related media = = =
Square Enix Music Online 's Juan2Darien reviewed the game 's symphonic scores : Dragon Quest Suite ; Dragon Quest I Remix Symphonic Suite ( London Philharmonic Orchestra ) ; Dragon Quest I & II Symphonic Suite ( London Philharmonic Orchestra Remastered ) ; and Dragon Quest I Symphonic Suite ( Tokyo Metropolitan Symphony Orchestra ) . Comparing each of the suites , he gave all ratings ranging 7 through 9 out of 10 , and found the Tokyo Strings Ensemble recording superior to the aforementioned symphonic suites . While the music is somewhat flat , Juan2Darien acknowledged this is due to the source material and praised Koichi Sugiyama 's and the orchestras ' efforts to compose an above @-@ average piece despite the limitation . Gamasutra 's Kurt Kalata also praised the symphonies ' melody , commenting that " the overworld theme ... is pretty simplistic and grating , but actually sounds pretty beautiful when played by a live orchestra " .
Dragon Quest Retsuden : Roto no Monshō – To the Children Who Inherit the Emblem sold well in Japan . For the week of August 26 to September 1 , 2008 , volume 7 was ranked 9th in Japan , selling 59 @,@ 540 copies . For the week of February 24 to March 2 , 2009 , volume 8 was ranked 19th in Japan , selling 76 @,@ 801 copies . For the week of October 26 to November 1 , 2009 , volume 9 was ranked 16th in Japan , selling 40 @,@ 492 copies for a total of 60 @,@ 467 .
= = Legacy = =
Dragon Warrior 's release has been noted as a notable turning point in video game history . The game has been listed as a genre builder for RPGs . Its popularity in Japan is synonymous with RPGs . While the game 's elements had been present in previous RPG titles , Dragon Warrior set the template for others ; almost all of its elements became the foundation for nearly every later game of the genre , from gameplay to narrative , replacing D & D as the model to follow . According to Shigeru Miyamoto , the success of Dragon Warrior changed the nature of video game development by making scenario writers far more important .
When Dragon Warrior was released , many of the development techniques used were intended to compensate for hardware limitations , but contemporary RPG developers continue to use these techniques despite technological advances that made them unnecessary . Dragon Warrior introduced the damsel @-@ in @-@ distress storyline that many RPGs follow , and a fresh plot twist to the " saving the princess " formula , where the game 's true objective is not revealed until the princess is rescued . The game also introduced an element of romance , where the player character is given a dialogue choice to respond to the princess 's question of whether he loves her ; romance has since become a commonplace feature the genre . The game 's 2D graphic style was used by most RPGs until the advent of 3D graphics . Dragon Warrior 's top @-@ down perspective has become " a dead giveaway to an RPG " . The game featured elements still found in most RPGs , such as the ability to obtain better equipment , major quests that intertwine with minor subquests , an incremental spell system , use of hit points and experience points , and a medieval theme . Reviewers said that , while Final Fantasy has been considered more important due to its popularity and attention in North America , Dragon Warrior laid the fundamentals on which Final Fantasy was based . Dragon Quest is also credited with affecting Dungeons & Dragons ' leveling system to even out its randomness by giving more bonuses early on and giving players maximum hit points on the first level .
In the Nintendo Power 's November 2010 issue , in celebration of the NES ' 25th anniversary in North America , Horii recalled the making of Dragon Warrior . Horiii was a fan of basic RPG mechanics , and wanted to simplify the interfaces ; he said that many other RPGs ' interfaces at the time " were so complicated that they intimidated new users " . He said that Dragon Warrior 's simplified gameplay made the game appealing to people and made the franchise successful. he had been told that the NES lacked sufficient capacity for RPGs , which further motivated him to make one .
Dragon Quest became a national phenomenon in Japan , inspiring spinoff media and figurines . The video game industry has called it as Japan 's national game . Horii , who was linked through his Shonen Jump articles , increased in celebrity status , and become a household name in Japan , as well known in Japan as Steven Spielberg is in the US ; in contrast Miyamoto , creator of Super Mario Bros. and The Legend of Zelda , is not nearly as well @-@ known . In a Famitsu poll , the Japanese public voted Dragon Quest as the seventh favorite game for the NES . Several clones such as Glory of Heracles , Legend of the Ghost Lion and Mother were inspired by the Japanese version 's success . For Mother , Shigesato Itoi , a fan of Dragon Warrior , and Miyamoto , a detractor of RPGs , created an RPG that would subvert the Dragon Warrior RPG template by changing the setting and themes from the Middle Ages to the US . Dragon Warrior , along with other NES titles , has spawned many ROM hacks in recent years . One notable hack includes Super Mario Remix II , which features a new plot and revised character sprites to reflect the Mario series , while the gameplay and layout remain the same . Dragon Warrior became so popular in Japan that , if asked to draw ' slime ' , a Japanese person is likely to draw a shape similar to that of the game 's interpretation of slime .
Many aspects of pop culture still reference Dragon Warrior . The video game music band Descendants of Erdrick , based in Austin , Texas , is named after the game 's main character . On April Fools Day 2012 , Google added a Dragon Warrior @-@ inspired 8 @-@ bit option to Google Maps .
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= The Holocaust in Lithuania =
The Holocaust in Nazi @-@ occupied Lithuania resulted in the near total destruction of Lithuanian Jews living in the Nazi @-@ controlled Lithuanian and Polish territories ( Generalbezirk Litauen of Reichskommissariat Ostland ) . Out of approximately 208 @,@ 000 @-@ 210 @,@ 000 Jews , an estimated 190 @,@ 000 – 195 @,@ 000 were murdered before the end of World War II ( wider estimates are sometimes published ) , most between June and December 1941 . More than 95 % of Lithuania 's Jewish population was massacred over the three @-@ year German occupation — a more complete destruction than befell any other country affected by the Holocaust . Historians attribute this to the massive collaboration in the genocide by the Christian locals , though the reasons for this collaboration are still debated . The Holocaust resulted in the largest @-@ ever loss of life in so short a period of time in the history of Lithuania .
The events that took place in the western regions of the USSR occupied by Nazi Germany in the first weeks after the German invasion , including Lithuania , marked the sharp intensification of the Holocaust .
An important component to the Holocaust in Lithuania was that the occupying Nazi German administration fanned antisemitism by blaming the Soviet regime 's recent annexation of Lithuania , a year earlier , on the Jewish community . Another significant factor was the large extent to which the Nazis ' design drew upon the physical organization , preparation and execution of their orders by local Lithuanian auxiliaries of the Nazi occupation regime .
= = Background = =
The Soviet Union invaded and occupied and subsequently annexed Lithuania in 1940 . The German invasion of the Soviet Union , on 22 June 1941 , came after a year of Soviet occupation which had culminated in mass deportations across the Baltics only a week before the invasion . The Germans were welcomed as liberators and received support from Lithuania 's irregular militia against retreating Soviet forces . Many Lithuanians believed Germany would allow the re @-@ establishment of the country 's independence . In order to appease the Germans , some people expressed significant antisemitic sentiments . Nazi Germany , which had seized the Lithuanian territories in the first week of the offensive , used this situation to its advantage and indeed in the first days permitted a Lithuanian Provisional Government of the Lithuanian Activist Front to be established . For a brief period it appeared that the Germans were about to grant Lithuania significant autonomy , comparable with that given to Slovak Republic . However , after about a month , the more independently minded Lithuanian organizations were disbanded around August and September 1941 , as the Germans seized more control .
= = The destruction of Lithuanian Jewry = =
= = = Estimated number of victims = = =
Prior to the German invasion , the population of Jews was estimated to be about 210 @,@ 000 , although according to data from the Lithuanian statistics department , as of 1 January 1941 there were 208 @,@ 000 Jews . This estimate , based on the officially accounted for prewar emigration within the USSR ( approx . 8 @,@ 500 ) , the number of escapees from Kaunas and Vilnius Ghettos , ( 1 @,@ 500 @-@ 2 @,@ 000 ) , as well as the number of the survivors in the concentration camps when they were liberated by the Red Army , ( 2 @,@ 000 @-@ 3 @,@ 000 ) , puts the number of Lithuanian Jews murdered in the Holocaust at 195 @,@ 000 to 196 @,@ 000 . It is difficult to estimate the exact number of casualties of the Holocaust and the latter number cannot be final or indisputable . The numbers given by historians differ significantly ranging from 165 @,@ 000 to 254 @,@ 000 , the higher number probably including non @-@ Lithuanian Jews among other Reich ( empirical ) dissenters labeled as Jewish killed in Lithuania .
= = = The Holocaust events = = =
Chronologically , the genocide in Lithuania can be divided into three phases : phase 1 ) summer to the end of 1941 ; phase 2 ) December 1941 – March 1943 ; phase 3 ) April 1943 – mid @-@ July 1944 .
The Lithuanian port city of Klaipėda ( Memel in German ) had historically been a member of the German Hanseatic League , and had belonged to Germany and East Prussia prior to 1918 . The city was semi @-@ autonomous during the period of Lithuanian independence , and under League of Nations supervision . Approximately 8 @,@ 000 Jews lived in Memel when it was absorbed into the Reich on March 15 , 1939 . Its Jewish residents were expelled , and most fled into Lithuania proper . In 1941 , German killing squads , the Einsatzgruppen , followed the advance of the German army units and immediately began organizing the murder of Jews . Most Lithuanian Jews perished in the first phase during the first months of the occupation and before the end of 1941 . The first recorded action of the Einsatzgruppen ( Einsatzgruppe A ) took place on June 22 , 1941 , in the border town of Gargzdai ( called Gorzdt in Yiddish and Garsden in German ) , which was one of the oldest Jewish settlements in the country and only eleven miles from German @-@ annexed Memel . Approximately 800 Jews were shot that day in what is known as the Garsden Massacre . Approximately 100 non @-@ Jewish Lithuanians were also executed , many for trying to aid their Jewish neighbors . About 80 @,@ 000 Jews were killed by October and about 175 @,@ 000 by the end of the year . The majority of Jews in Lithuania were not required to live in ghettos nor sent to the Nazi concentration camps which at that time were just in the preliminary stages of operation . Instead they were shot in pits near their places of residence with the most infamous mass murders taking place in the Ninth Fort near Kaunas and the Ponary Forest near Vilnius . By 1942 about 45 @,@ 000 Jews survived , largely those who had been sent to ghettos and camps . In the second phase , the Holocaust slowed , as Germans decided to use the Jews as forced labor to fuel the German war economy . In the third phase , the destruction of Jews was again given a high priority ; it was in that phase that the remaining ghettos and camps were liquidated .
Two factors contributed to the rapid destruction of Lithuanian Jewry . The first was the significant support for the " de @-@ Jewification " of Lithuania coming from the Lithuanian populace . The second was the German plan for early colonization of Lithuania – which shared a border with German East Prussia – in accordance with their Generalplan Ost ; hence the high priority given to the extermination of the relatively small Lithuanian Jewish community .
= = = Participation of local collaborators = = =
The Nazi German administration directed and supported the organized killing of Lithuanian Jews . Local Lithuanian auxiliaries of the Nazi occupation regime carried out logistics for the preparation and execution of the murders under Nazi direction . Nazi SS Brigadeführer Franz Walter Stahlecker arrived in Kaunas on 25 June 1941 and gave agitation speeches in the city to instigate the murder of Jews . Initially this was in the former State Security Department building , but officials there refused to take any action . Later , he gave speeches in the city . In a report of October 15 , Stahlecker wrote that they had succeeded in covering up their vanguard unit ( Vorkommando ) actions , and it was made to look like it was the initiative of the local population . Groups of partisans , civil units of nationalist @-@ rightist anti @-@ Soviet affiliation , initiated contact with the Germans as soon as they entered the Lithuanian territories . A rogue unit of insurgents headed by Algirdas Klimaitis and encouraged by Germans from the Sicherheitspolizei and Sicherheitsdienst , started anti @-@ Jewish pogroms in Kaunas ( Kovno ) on the night of 25 – 26 June 1941 . Over a thousand Jews perished over the next few days in what was the first pogrom in Nazi @-@ occupied Lithuania . Different sources give different figures , one being 1 @,@ 500 and another 3 @,@ 800 , with additional victims in other towns of the region .
On 24 June 1941 , the Lithuanian Security Police ( Lietuvos saugumo policija ) , subordinate to Nazi Germany 's Security Police and Nazi Germany 's Criminal Police , was created . It would be involved in various actions against the Jews and other enemies of the Nazi regime . Nazi commanders filed reports purporting the " zeal " of the Lithuanian police battalions surpassed their own . The most notorious Lithuanian unit participating in the Holocaust was the Lithuanian Sonderkommando Squad ( Ypatingasis būrys ) from the Vilnius ( Vilna , Wilno ) area which killed tens of thousands of Jews , Poles and others in the Ponary massacre . Another Lithuanian organization involved in the Holocaust was the Lithuanian Labor Guard . Many Lithuanian supporters of the Nazi policies came from the fascist Iron Wolf organization . Overall , the nationalistic Lithuanian administration was interested in the liquidation of the Jews as a perceived enemy and potential rivals of ethnic Lithuanians and thus not only did not oppose Nazi Holocaust policy but in effect adopted it as their own .
A combination of factors serves as an explanation for participation of some Lithuanians in genocide against Jews . Those factors include national traditions and values , including antisemitism , common throughout contemporary Central Europe , and a more Lithuanian @-@ specific desire for a " pure " Lithuanian nation @-@ state with which the Jewish population was believed to be incompatible . There were a number of additional factors , such as severe economic problems which led to the killing of Jews over personal property . Finally the Jews were seen as having supported the Soviet regime in Lithuania during 1940 – 1941 . During the period leading up to the German invasion , the Jews were blamed by some for virtually every misfortune that had befallen Lithuania .
The involvement of the local population and institutions , in relatively high numbers , in the destruction of Lithuanian Jewry became a defining factor of the Holocaust in Lithuania .
Not all of the Lithuanian populace supported the killings . Out of a population of close to 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( 80 % of it ethnic Lithuanians ) , a few thousands took an active part in the killings while many hundreds risked their lives sheltering the Jews . Israel has recognized 723 Lithuanians as Righteous Among the Nations for risking their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust . In addition , many members of the Polish minority in Lithuania also helped to shelter the Jews . Lithuanians and Poles who risked their lives saving Jews were persecuted and often executed by the Nazis .
= = Comprehension and remembrance = =
The genocide in Lithuania is seen by some historians as one of the earliest large @-@ scale implementations of the Final Solution , leading some scholars to express an opinion that the Holocaust began in Lithuania in the summer of 1941 . ^ Other scholars say the Holocaust started in September 1939 with the onset of the Second World War , or even earlier , on Kristallnacht in 1938 , or , according to the Jewish Virtual Library , when Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in 1933 .
The Soviet government , for political reasons , tried to minimize the unique suffering of the Jews . In Lithuania and throughout the Soviet Union , memorials did not mention Jews in particular ; instead they were built to commemorate the suffering of " local inhabitants " . People guilty of Nazi collaboration and crimes against Jews were not punished severely .
Since Lithuania regained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991 , the debate over Lithuanian participation in the Holocaust has been fraught with difficulty . Modern Lithuanian nationalists stress anti @-@ Soviet resistance , but some Lithuanian partisans , seen in Lithuania as heroes in the struggle against Soviet occupation , were also Nazi collaborators who had cooperated in the murder of Lithuanian Jewry . The post @-@ Soviet Lithuanian government has on a number of occasions stated a commitment to commemorating the Holocaust , combating antisemitism , and bringing Nazi @-@ era war criminals to justice . The National Coalition Supporting Soviet Jewry have said " Lithuania has made slow but significant progress in the prosecution of suspected Lithuanian collaborators in the Nazi genocide " . Lithuania was the first of the newly independent post @-@ Soviet states to legislate for the protection and marking of Holocaust @-@ related sites . In 1995 , president of Lithuania Algirdas Brazauskas speaking before the Israeli Knesset , offered a public apology to the Jewish people for the Lithuanian participation in the Holocaust . On 20 September 2001 , to mark the 60th anniversary of the Holocaust in Lithuania , the Seimas ( Lithuanian parliament ) held a session during which Alfonsas Eidintas , the historian nominated as the Republic 's next ambassador to Israel , delivered an address accounting for the annihilation of Lithuania 's Jews .
There has been criticism that Lithuania is dragging its feet on the issue ; in 2001 Dr. Efraim Zuroff , Director of the Simon Wiesenthal Center , criticized the Lithuanian government for its unwillingness to prosecute Lithuanians involved in the Holocaust . In 2002 the Simon Wiesenthal Center declared its dissatisfaction with the Lithuanian government ’ s efforts and launched a controversial " Operation Last Chance " offering monetary rewards for evidence that leads to the prosecution of war criminals ; this campaign has encountered much resistance in Lithuania and the other former Soviet bloc countries . More recently , in 2008 , the Simon Weisenthal Center which had initially ranked Lithuania high during on @-@ going trials to bring Lithuanian war criminals to justice , noted , in its annual report , no progress and the lack of any real punishment by Lithuanian justice organs for Holocaust perpetrators .
There has been limited debate on the place of the Holocaust in Lithuanian national memory ; historically Lithuanians have denied national participation in the Holocaust or labeled the Lithuanian participants in genocide as fringe extreme elements . The memories of that time and the discussion of those events in Jewish and Lithuanian historiographies are quite different , although Lithuanian historiography in the past two decades has improved , compared to the Soviet historiography , with the works of scholars such as Alfonsas Eidintas , Valentinas Brandišauskas and Arūnas Bubnys , among others , being positively reviewed by the Western and Jewish historians . The issue remains controversial to this day . According to Lithuanian historians , the contentious issues involve the role of the Lithuanian Activist Front , the Lithuanian Provisional Government and participation of Lithuanian civilians and volunteers in the Holocaust .
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= Christopher Greenup =
Christopher Greenup ( c . 1750 – April 27 , 1818 ) was an American politician who served as a U.S. Representative and the third Governor of Kentucky . Little is known about his early life ; the first reliable records about him are documents recording his service in the Revolutionary War where he served as a lieutenant in the Continental Army and a colonel in the Virginia militia .
After his service in the war , Greenup helped settle the trans @-@ Appalachian regions of Virginia . He became involved in politics , and played an active role in three of the ten statehood conventions that secured the separation of Kentucky from Virginia in 1792 . He became one of the state 's first representatives , and served in the Kentucky General Assembly before being elected governor in a race where , due to his immense popularity , he ran unopposed .
Greenup 's term in office was marred by accusations that he had participated in the Burr Conspiracy to align Kentucky with Spain prior to the former 's separation from Virginia , but he vigorously and successfully rebutted these charges . Following his term as governor , he became less active in the political arena . He died on April 27 , 1818 . Greenup County , Kentucky and its county seat were both named in his honor .
= = Early life in Virginia = =
Christopher Greenup was most likely born in Fairfax County , Virginia around 1750 . [ a ] His parents were John and Elizabeth ( Witten ) Greenup . His early education was attained at the local schools of the area . He learned surveying and studied law under Colonel Charles Binns at Charles City County , Virginia . During the Revolutionary War , he first served as a lieutenant on the Continental Line and later attained the rank of colonel in the Virginia militia .
In 1781 , Greenup helped settle the area now known as Lincoln County , Kentucky where he spent time as a surveyor and a land speculator . He was admitted to practice law in the county court in 1782 . Following Virginia 's creation of Kentucky County in 1783 , he was admitted to the bar of the district court of Harrodsburg and served as clerk from 1785 to 1792 . In 1783 , he became one of the original trustees of Transylvania Seminary ( later to become Transylvania University . ) He purchased two lots of land in Lexington and served as the clerk of the town 's trustees .
In 1785 , Greenup was elected to represent Fayette County for a single term in the Virginia House of Delegates . During his service , he was appointed to a committee with Benjamin Logan and James Garrard to make recommendations on ways to further divide the area that would become Kentucky . The committee was also responsible for revising acts and surveys related to land and water surveys in the area . The committee ultimately recommended the creation of three new counties – Bourbon , Madison , and Mercer . When Mercer County was created later that year , Greenup was appointed a justice there .
During this time , Greenup continued to practice law in Fayette County and pursued various other interests . He was a founding member of the Danville Political Club and in 1787 , he joined the Kentucky Society for Promoting Useful Knowledge . Future Kentucky Governors Isaac Shelby and James Garrard , as well as future Supreme Court justice Thomas Todd were also members of the Society . In 1789 , he helped organize the Kentucky Manufacturing Society . Later , he was appointed to the Kentucky River Company , a group dedicated to improving infrastructure on the Kentucky River .
On July 9 , 1787 , during a brief return to Virginia , Greenup married Mary Catherine ( " Cathy " ) Pope of Hanover County , Virginia ; the couple had two children – Nancy and William . [ b ]
= = Political career in Kentucky = =
Greenup served as clerk of the first Kentucky statehood convention in Danville in 1784 . He was elected as a delegate to the second and sixth statehood conventions in 1785 and 1788 , respectively , and was a trustee of the city of Danville in 1787 . H.E. Everman , biographer of fellow delegate James Garrard , noted that despite Greenup 's excellent legal background and legislative experience , his lack of oratorical skills prevented him from taking more of a leadership role in the conventions .
When Kentucky was admitted to the Union in 1792 , Greenup moved to Frankfort where he was rewarded for his efforts on behalf of the state by being chosen as an elector for the state 's senators and governor . He also served in the first Kentucky Senate . Following this , he was appointed to the court of oyer and terminer , but resigned immediately to accept a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives . He was one of Kentucky 's first two representatives in the House , and was elected to three successive terms , serving from November 9 , 1792 to March 3 , 1797 . In 1798 , he was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives , representing Mercer County . He also served as clerk of the state senate from 1799 to 1802 .
Greenup was a candidate for governor of Kentucky in 1800 , but was runner @-@ up to James Garrard in a four @-@ man race that also included Benjamin Logan and Thomas Todd . Greenup garnered a majority of the vote in fifteen counties , just one fewer than Garrard , but Garrard enjoyed strong support in the populous central Kentucky counties and received 8 @,@ 390 votes , compared with 6 @,@ 746 for Greenup , 3 @,@ 996 for Logan , and 2 @,@ 166 for Todd . Garrard appointed Greenup judge of the circuit court in 1802 . After the Kentucky Senate refused to confirm Garrard 's Secretary of State , Harry Toulmin , as registrar of the land office , Garrard nominated Greenup . Greenup , however , intended to make another run at the governorship , and at his request , Garrard withdrew the nomination days later .
Greenup resigned his circuit judgeship on June 5 , 1804 , to make another run for governor . Immensely popular , he ran unopposed , and served as governor from September 4 , 1804 to September 1 , 1808 . During Greenup 's administration , the state chartered the Bank of Kentucky and the Ohio Canal Company ; Greenup became a director of the former in 1807 . Despite his popularity , however , he was unable to pass much of his proposed agenda , which included provision of public education and reforms to the militia , courts , revenue system , and penal system .
A partisan Frankfort newspaper implicated Greenup in the Burr conspiracy , but he successfully defended himself and preserved his reputation . He deployed the Kentucky militia along the Ohio River to defend the state from any threat that might result from the Burr conspiracy , but that threat had largely dissipated by 1807 .
On October 22 , 1807 , Greenup 's wife Mary died in the Governor 's Mansion . According to legend , her ghostly image has appeared in clock faces and mirrors inside the mansion .
Following his term as governor , Greenup was chosen as a presidential elector for the ticket of James Madison and George Clinton . In 1812 , he became a justice of the peace in Franklin County . In August 1812 , Kentucky Secretary of State Martin D. Hardin recommended to Governor Isaac Shelby that Greenup be appointed Assistant Secretary of State . Shelby made the appointment , and when Hardin , resigned December 15 , 1812 , Shelby nominated Greenup as his replacement . The Kentucky Senate approved the nomination on February 3 , 1813 , and Greenup served until his resignation on March 13 , 1813 .
Greenup died April 27 , 1818 , at Blue Lick Springs Resort , where he had traveled seeking relief from his rheumatism . He is buried in the Frankfort Cemetery . Greenup County , Kentucky was named in his honor , as was its county seat of Greenup , Kentucky .
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= The Pasha 's Daughter =
The Pasha 's Daughter is a 1911 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film focuses on an American named Jack who is traveling in Turkey . He befriends an aged Turk and is arrested as a conspirator against the government . His first attempt to flee the jail failed , but the second succeeds . Jack flees into the courtyard of the Pasha and is hidden from the guards by the Pasha 's daughter . Disguised as a woman , Jack makes his escape with her aid , but she refuses his offer to flee with him . A year later , the Pasha 's daughter is ushered in and announces that she wants to be his bride .
The only known cast credits are for William Garwood and William Russell and the production credits are unknown . The film was released on January 3 , 1911 and was met with positive reviews . The film survives in The Museum of Modern Art and it has been released on DVD as part of the Thanhouser Collection .
= = Plot = =
The film begins with Jack Sparks , a young American , who is traveling in Turkey . He befriends an aged Turk during a carriage ride and the Turk invites Jack into his home . The man smokes from a hookah and several of other men arrive and speak with the Turk whilst Jack wanders about the house . Soon afterwards , the men are all arrested for conspiracy against the government and Jack is imprisoned as one of the conspirators . In jail , Jack tries to make his escape and throws the guard to the ground , no sooner has he left the cell is he forced back by two more guards . He struggles in vain , but is once again locked in his cell . Jack gets an idea to escape when he sees the bed sheet and the cell window . Using his pocket knife , he digs out the bar of the cell window and drops to freedom . He struggles and overpowers a guard before climbing over the wall and into the courtyard of the Pasha 's palace .
The Pasha 'a daughter , Murana , finds him hiding and orders her servant to assist in Jack 's escape . Guards appear and announce that they are looking for the escaped prisoner , but they are turned away . Dressed up as a woman , Jack tries to have Murana flee with him . She says that one day she cannot marry him now , but she may come to his country one day . Jack trades a flower for his business card and departs . A year later , Jack and his mother have a visitor ushered and they stand in confusion at the beautiful young woman . Jack does not recognize her until she covers her face with her veil and she announces her intention to be his bride .
= = Cast = =
William Garwood as Jack Sparks
William Russell
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil or Lucius J. Henderson . Cameramen employed by the company during this era included Blair Smith , Carl Louis Gregory , and Alfred H. Moses , Jr. though none are specifically credited . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The other cast credits are unknown , but many Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . In late 1910 , the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films . The list includes G.W. Abbe , Justus D. Barnes , Frank H. Crane , Irene Crane , Marie Eline , Violet Heming , Martin J. Faust , Thomas Fortune , George Middleton , Grace Moore , John W. Noble , Anna Rosemond , Mrs. George Walters .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on January 3 , 1911 . The film had a wide national release , advertising theaters include those in Indiana , Kansas , Utah , Wisconsin , North Carolina , South Dakota , Pennsylvania , New Hampshire , Illinois , Missouri , and Ohio . The Billboard reviewed the film and offered praise for the production , " This picture presents a story that is decidedly original and away from beaten paths . The settings in Turkey are elaborate and faithful to Turkish customs . All the players portray their respective parts in an excellent manner . The photography is very good . " The New York Dramatic Mirror provided a summary of the film and concluded that the film " was well enacted and the sets were fully adequate , creating a fair illusion of the Oriental land depicted . " The Moving Picture World was also provided a positive review , stating " The scenic effects are interesting and the story is lively enough to keep the audience wondering what the end will be . " One advertisement for the film erroneously claimed that the film was shot in the Orient , unaware that the film was shot in Thanhouser 's studio .
A print of the film survives in the archives of the Museum of Modern Art . The complete film as intended for its release is 13 minutes and 39 seconds long . As the original film did not have official musical accompaniment , a new original music score was composed and performed by Ben Model . The film was exhibited by The Museum of Modern Art on October 29 , 2009 , it was organized by Charles Silver and film historians Ben Model and Steve Massa . The film was released in Volume 10 of the Thanhouser Collection .
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= Arrested Development ( TV series ) =
Arrested Development is an American television sitcom created by Mitchell Hurwitz , which originally aired on Fox for three seasons from November 2 , 2003 to February 10 , 2006 . A fourth season of 15 episodes was released on Netflix on May 26 , 2013 . The show follows the fictitious Bluth family , a formerly wealthy and habitually dysfunctional family . It is presented in a continuous format , incorporating handheld camera work and voice @-@ over narration , as well as the use of occasional archival photos and historical footage . The show also utilizes several long @-@ running " easter egg " jokes throughout each season . Ron Howard serves as both an executive producer and the series ' uncredited narrator . Set in Newport Beach , California , Arrested Development was filmed primarily in Culver City and Marina del Rey .
After its debut in 2003 , the series received widespread critical acclaim , six Primetime Emmy Awards , and one Golden Globe Award , and has attracted a cult following , including several fan @-@ based websites . In 2007 , Time listed the show among its " All @-@ TIME 100 TV Shows " ; in 2008 , it was ranked 16th on Entertainment Weekly 's " New TV Classics " list . In 2011 , IGN named Arrested Development the " funniest show of all time " . Its humor has been cited as a key influence on later single @-@ camera sitcoms such as 30 Rock and Community .
Despite critical acclaim , Arrested Development received low ratings and viewership on Fox , which canceled the series in 2006 . Rumors of an additional season and a feature film persisted until 2011 , when Netflix agreed to license new episodes and distribute them exclusively on its video streaming service . These episodes were later released in 2013 . Netflix has also commissioned a fifth season of Arrested Development , which is expected to premiere in 2016 . A script for an Arrested Development film has also been in development , with the main cast reported to reprise their original roles in both the fifth season and the film .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Discussion that led to the creation of the series began in the summer of 2002 . Ron Howard had the original idea to create a comedy series in the style of handheld cameras and reality television , but with an elaborate , highly comical script resulting from repeated rewritings and rehearsals . Howard met with David Nevins , the President of Imagine Television , Katie O 'Connell , a senior vice president , and two writers , including Mitchell Hurwitz . In light of recent corporate accounting scandals , such as Enron and Adelphia , Hurwitz suggested a story about a " riches to rags " family . Howard and Imagine were immediately interested in using this idea , and signed Hurwitz to write the show . The idea was pitched and sold in the fall of 2002 . There was a bidding war for the show between Fox and NBC , with the show ultimately selling to Fox as a put pilot with a six @-@ figure penalty .
Over the next few months , Hurwitz developed the characters and plot for the series . The script of the pilot episode was submitted in January 2003 and filmed in March 2003 . It was submitted in late April to Fox and was added to the network 's fall schedule that May .
= = = Casting = = =
Alia Shawkat was the first cast in the series . Michael Cera , Tony Hale , and Jessica Walter were cast from video tapes and flown in to audition for Fox . Jason Bateman and Portia de Rossi both read and auditioned for the network and were immediately chosen . The character of Gob was apparently the most challenging to cast . When Will Arnett auditioned , he played the character " like a guy who thought of himself as the chosen son , even though it was obvious to everyone else that he was the least favorite " ; he was chosen immediately for his unique portrayal . The characters of Tobias and George Sr. were originally going to have minor roles , but David Cross and Jeffrey Tambor 's portrayals mixed well with the rest of the characters , and they were given more significant parts . Howard provided the narration for the initial pilot , and his narrating meshed so well with the tone of the program that the decision was made to keep his voice . Howard also aided in the casting of " Lucille 2 " ; the producers told him that their dream actress for the role was Liza Minnelli but assumed no one of her stature would take the part . She agreed when Ron Howard asked her himself , because they were old friends ; she had been his babysitter when he was a teenager .
= = = Production design = = =
Arrested Development uses several elements rare for American live @-@ action sitcoms . It was shot on location and on videotape with multiple cameras , parodying tactics often employed in documentary film and reality television , straying from the " fixed @-@ set , studio audience , laugh track " style long dominant in comedy production . The show also makes heavy use of cutaway gags , supplementing the narrative with visual punchlines like security camera footage , Bluth family photos , website screenshots , archive films , and flashbacks . An omniscient third @-@ person narrator ( producer Ron Howard ) ties together the multiple plot threads running through each episode , while humorously undercutting and commenting on the characters . Arrested Development also developed a unique self @-@ referentiality through use of in @-@ jokes that evolved over multiple episodes , which rewarded longtime viewership ( and in turn may have discouraged new viewers and contributed to the show 's ratings issues ) .
= = = Lawsuit = = =
In November 2003 , the producers of the show were sued by the hip hop group Arrested Development over the alleged use of their name . Rapper " Speech " from the group said " The use of our name by Fox is not only confusing to the public , but also has the potential to significantly dilute what the ' Arrested Development ' name means to our fans " . The lawsuit was quietly settled for an undisclosed sum .
This incident was referenced in the episode " Motherboy XXX " . The narration refers to a band called " Motherboy " , which the narration claims the show is " legally required to make a distinction " from , with respect to the " Motherboy " event happening in the episode .
= = = Cancellation and revival = = =
During the series ' third season in 2006 , despite months @-@ long rumors of Arrested Development having been picked up by the cable television network Showtime , creator Hurwitz declined to move the show to another network . As Hurwitz explained , " I had taken it as far as I felt I could as a series . I told the story I wanted to tell , and we were getting to a point where I think a lot of the actors were ready to move on . " He said that he was " more worried about letting down the fans in terms of the quality of the show dropping " than he was about disappointing fans by not giving them more episodes . He also said , " If there 's a way to continue this in a form that 's not weekly episodic series television , I 'd be up for it " .
On October 2 , 2011 , the entire cast of Arrested Development reunited for a panel at The New Yorker Festival in New York . At the panel , Hurwitz declared his intention of producing a truncated fourth season as a lead @-@ in to a film adaptation .
Six years after the series had been canceled by Fox , filming for a revived fourth season began on August 7 , 2012 . Fifteen episodes of the show 's revival season were released simultaneously on Netflix on May 26 , 2013 .
= = = = Future = = = =
Rumors of a possible full @-@ length Arrested Development film circulated after the possibility was referenced in season 3 's final episode , " Development Arrested " . In 2008 , Howard was slated to direct the film , though it is not clear if he still is . Reportedly , all original members of the main cast are expected to reprise their original roles . As of July 11 , 2013 , Netflix was in discussions for a fifth season . In August 2013 , Hurwitz commented " I 'm working on the movie right now " and his plan is to do another season after the movie is completed . In August 2014 , Netflix chief content officer Ted Sarandos stated in an interview with USA Today that there is a strong possibility of a fifth season . " It 's just a matter of when . " In April 2015 , executive producer Brian Grazer confirmed that a fifth season is in development and will consist of 17 episodes . However , in February 2016 , Jason Bateman said regarding a fifth season , " There is no plan . I haven 't heard of anything solid going forward . " On June 9 , 2016 , Tony Hale posted a photo on his Instagram account of him and Alia Shawkat , saying , " Arrested Season 5 . Been a few changes . "
= = Characters = =
= = = Main characters = = =
The plot of Arrested Development revolves around the members of the Bluth family , who lead extravagant lifestyles , and are also often drawn into interactions with incestuous undertones . At the center of the show is Michael Bluth ( Jason Bateman ) , the show 's straight man , who strives to do the right thing and keep his family together , despite their materialism , selfishness , and manipulative natures . Michael is a widowed single father . His teenage son , George Michael ( Michael Cera ) , has the same qualities of decency but feels a constant pressure to live up to his father 's expectations and is often reluctant to follow his father 's plans .
Michael 's father , George Bluth Sr. ( Jeffrey Tambor ) , is the patriarch of the family , who often goes to considerable lengths to manipulate and control his family . His wife , and Michael 's mother , Lucille ( Jessica Walter ) , is equally manipulative , materialistic , and hypercritical of every member of her family , as well as being a perpetual drunk . In particular , she has a tight grip on her youngest son , Byron " Buster " Bluth ( Tony Hale ) , who , as a result of her over @-@ mothering , is socially inept and prone to panic attacks .
Michael 's older brother is George Oscar Bluth ( " GOB " ) ( Will Arnett ) , an unsuccessful professional magician whose business and personal schemes usually fail or become tiresome and are quickly abandoned . His name is an acronym for George Oscar Bluth II , pronounced / dʒoʊb / , like the Biblical figure Job . Michael 's twin sister Lindsay ( Portia de Rossi ) is spoiled and materialistic , continually desiring to be the center of attention and attracted to various social causes . She is married to Tobias Fünke ( David Cross ) , a discredited psychiatrist @-@ turned @-@ aspiring actor . Tobias is a self @-@ diagnosed " never @-@ nude " ( a disorder comparable to gymnophobia ) , whose language and behavior have heavily homosexual overtones to which he seems completely oblivious and which are the center of much tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek comedy throughout the series . Their daughter is Mae " Maeby " Fünke ( Alia Shawkat ) , a rebellious teen , whose chief motivation is defying her parents , in an effort to get their attention .
= = = Recurring characters = = =
Several other characters regularly appear in recurring roles . George Sr. ' s identical twin brother , Oscar ( also played by Jeffrey Tambor ) , is a lethargic ex @-@ hippie seeking the affection of George 's wife , Lucille . The family 's lawyer , Barry Zuckerkorn ( Henry Winkler ) , is an incompetent sexual deviant who often hinders the family 's legal battles rather than helping them . He is eventually replaced by Bob Loblaw ( Scott Baio ) . Lucille Austero , or " Lucille 2 " , played by Liza Minnelli , is Lucille 's " best friend and chief social rival " as well as a sometimes @-@ love interest of Buster and , later , Gob . Steve Holt ( Justin Grant Wade ) is a high school senior and football star at the high school George Michael and Maeby attend , and is later discovered to be Gob 's son . Carl Weathers plays a parodied version of himself as Tobias ' acting coach .
Beginning in the second season , Mae Whitman plays Ann Veal , George Michael 's sternly Christian girlfriend , often forgotten or disparaged by Michael . Ann was also played by Alessandra Torresani , and first appeared in the season 1 episode " Let ' Em Eat Cake " . Marta Estrella was originally played by Leonor Varela and later by Patricia Velasquez , and appears as Gob 's girlfriend , which causes conflict between him and Michael . J. Walter Weatherman ( Steve Ryan ) , a one @-@ armed amputee , is an old employee of George Sr. Weatherman appears in flashbacks in many episodes where , as hired by George Sr. , he would teach George Sr. ' s children lessons .
A British mentally handicapped woman named Rita Leeds ( Charlize Theron ) appears in five episodes in the third season as Michael 's female companion . Judy Greer plays George Bluth Senior 's assistant and lover ( and partner @-@ in @-@ crime ) , Kitty Sanchez , for 10 episodes of the series . Ed Begley , Jr. plays Stan Sitwell , the owner of Sitwell Enterprises , a rival company to the Bluth Company . Christine Taylor plays Sally Sitwell , Stan Sitwell 's daughter and a consistent love interest for Michael . Justin Lee plays Annyong , the adopted Korean son of Lucille and George Sr. Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus plays Maggie Lizer , an attorney and compulsive liar who has a recurring relationship with Michael . Rob Corddry plays Moses Taylor , the star of the fictional TV show " Frank Wrench " and a noted gun rights activist . Ben Stiller plays magician and Gob 's chief rival Tony Wonder , well known for baking himself into a loaf of bread to feed the troops . Amy Poehler plays Gob 's unnamed and frequently forgotten wife who married Gob as the final in a long line of escalating dares . Jane Lynch plays Cindi Lightballoon , a government mole who tries to gather incriminating information from an incarcerated George Sr. but ends up falling in love with him instead .
= = Episodes = =
= = = Season one ( 2003 – 04 ) = = =
George Bluth Sr. , patriarch of the Bluth family , is the founder and former CEO of the Bluth Company which markets and builds mini @-@ mansions among many other activities . His son Michael serves as manager of the company , and , after being passed over for a promotion , decides to leave both the company and his family . Just as he makes this decision , however , George Sr. is arrested by the Securities and Exchange Commission for defrauding investors and gross spending of the company 's money for " personal expenses " . His wife Lucille becomes CEO , and immediately names as the new president her extremely sheltered youngest son Buster , who proves ill @-@ equipped , as his only experience with business is a class he took concerning 18th century agrarian business . Furious at being passed over again , Michael secures another job with a rival company and plans on leaving his family behind for good . Realizing that they need Michael , the family asks him to come back and run the company , which Michael scoffs at until he sees how much the family means to his teenaged son George Michael . To keep the family together , Michael asks his self @-@ centered twin sister Lindsay , her husband Tobias and their daughter Maeby to live together in the Bluth model home with him and George Michael .
Throughout the first season , different characters struggle to change their identities . Buster works to escape from his mother 's control by bonding with brothers Michael and Gob as well as with love interest Lucille Austero , Lucille Bluth 's neighbor and chief social rival . George Michael nurses a forbidden crush on his cousin Maeby , while continually trying to meet his father 's expectations . Lindsay 's husband Tobias searches for work as an actor , with the aid of Carl Weathers . Michael falls in love with his screw @-@ up older brother Gob 's neglected girlfriend Marta , and is torn between being with her and putting " family first " . After seeing Michael physically fight with Gob , Marta realizes that they do not share the same family values and she leaves them both . To spite Buster , Lucille adopts a Korean son whom she calls " Annyong " after she mistakes the Korean word for " hello " as his name . Through an escalating series of dares , Gob gets married to a woman he just met , played by Will Arnett 's real @-@ life then @-@ wife Amy Poehler , but cannot get an annulment because he refuses to admit that he did not consummate the marriage . Kitty , George Sr. ' s former assistant and mistress , tries to blackmail the company . She is caught in the Bluth family yacht 's explosion , as used in one of Gob 's magic acts , but survives with a cooler full of damning evidence labeled " H Maddas " . After previous failed attempts , and a brief religious stint in Judaism , George Sr. finally escapes from prison by faking a heart attack . It is also revealed that George Sr. committed " light treason " by using the company to build mini @-@ palaces for Saddam Hussein in Iraq .
= = = Season two ( 2004 – 05 ) = = =
Because of his father 's latest prison break deception ( a faked heart attack ) , Michael decides to leave his family and move to Phoenix , Arizona with George Michael , but discovers that he cannot leave the state , due to the Bluth Company being under investigation and him having to go jail as a replacement for his father . Lucille appoints Gob the new Bluth Company president , but since Gob proves utterly incompetent , the position 's real duties revert to Michael . During the rest of the season Gob serves as figurehead president ; Michael is still under scrutiny for George Sr. ' s illegal activity .
George Sr. is not , in fact , gone . After faking his death in Mexico by paying off the cops , George Sr. returns to the family model home , where George Michael discovers him and hides him in the attic . To protect his son from legal implications , Michael hides George Sr. in Gob 's Aztec Tomb , orchestrates a diversion , and tells the family that George Sr. has escaped once more . Throughout the rest of the season , Michael sneaks George Sr. provisions , and George Sr. keeps tabs on the Bluth family through the ventilation system . George Sr. also faces onslaught from the outside world ; the press begins looking for him in Iraq , fumigators surround the house while he 's still in the attic , and Kitty returns to steal a sample of his semen to make her own Bluth baby .
Buster meanwhile joins the army , but escapes serving in Iraq when his hand is bitten off by a loose seal ( a play on " Lucille " ) Gob mistakenly gave a taste for mammal flesh . Buster is refitted with a sharp hook , which he is known to brandish dangerously near his relatives ' faces . During Buster 's long psychological recovery , he bonds with George Sr. ' s stoner twin brother Oscar , who moves in with Lucille in an attempt to rekindle a past love affair . Uncle Oscar slowly reveals himself as Buster 's presumptive biological father . Eventually , George Sr. takes revenge on the adulterous Oscar and Lucille by kidnapping Oscar , knocking him unconscious , exchanging appearances with him , and sending him to prison in his place .
Lindsay and Tobias continue their disastrous open relationship . Lindsay tries — but fails — to secure a lover , while Tobias paints himself blue each night in a futile attempt to join the Blue Man Group . When Lindsay kicks him out of the house , Tobias disguises himself as a singing British nanny named " Mrs. Featherbottom " ( an idea he gets from the film Mrs. Doubtfire ) so he can watch over his daughter Maeby . The family sees right through this incompetent disguise , but they humor Tobias since — in the guise of Mrs. Featherbottom — he does their chores .
George Michael begins dating a deeply religious girl , Ann Veal , who encourages him to smash pop music CDs and to run for student body president against perennial favorite Steve Holt . Michael dislikes her and tries to disrupt the kids ' relationship , most notably by breaking up Ann and George Michael 's pre @-@ engagement . Meanwhile , Maeby cons her way into an after school job as a film studio executive . When Maeby 's studio remakes " Les Cousins Dangereux " , George Michael abandons Ann to pursue his crush on Maeby . George Michael and Maeby kiss while the living room of the model home collapses .
= = = Season three ( 2005 – 06 ) = = =
Michael again searches for his runaway father , George Sr. Gob receives an invitation to a father / son reunion outing , and believes it to be George Sr. trying to contact him . In reality , the invitation was meant to reunite Gob with Steve Holt , son of Eve Holt , a girl Gob slept with in high school . Meanwhile , George Michael and Maeby deal with their previous kiss by avoiding each other .
In an attempt to remain in disguise , George Sr. joins the Blue Man Group . Michael discovers this and arranges to have his father placed under house arrest . George Sr. claims that he was set up by an underground British group . Michael goes to Wee Britain , a fictional British @-@ themed city district , to investigate , and in the process meets a new love interest , Rita Leeds ( Charlize Theron ) . Michael and the audience are led to believe that Rita is a mole for the underground British group , working for a man named " Mr. F " . However , love @-@ struck Michael proposes to her , and the couple run off to wed . Finally , it is revealed that Rita is actually an " MRF " , or " mentally retarded female " . Despite Rita 's " condition " , the family pushes him to go forward with the marriage because Rita is wealthy and they want her money . Michael is not persuaded and gently ends the relationship just as he and Rita are about to walk down the aisle . Meanwhile , Tobias and Lindsay seek legal help from Bob Loblaw ( Scott Baio ) concerning their troubled marriage .
With the family 's retainer used up because of Lindsay 's and Tobias 's advances , Bob Loblaw chooses to no longer represent the Bluth family . Attorney Jan Eagleman offers to represent the family , on the condition that they participate in a mock trial in a new reality courtroom show called " Mock Trial with J. Reinhold " . Musical accompaniment for the show 's theme song and perceived jokes from testifying witnesses is provided by " William Hung And His Hung Jury " . Michael uses an illegal threat from prosecutor Wayne Jarvis to have the mock case " dismissed " . Gob and Franklin briefly appear in another courtroom show presided over by Bud Cort . Meanwhile , Maeby and George Michael perform a mock wedding for Alzheimer 's patients that is accidentally conducted by a real priest ; the two become legally married .
The family members are afraid to testify at the mock trial and at the real deposition ; Buster fakes a coma , Lindsay and Lucille fake entering rehab , and Gob flees the country to perform in a USO Tour in Iraq . The deceptions are all uncovered by the prosecution , and in Iraq Gob is arrested for inadvertently inciting an anti @-@ US riot . Buster and Michael travel to Iraq to rescue Gob , and while there , uncover evidence that the mini @-@ palaces George Sr. built in Iraq were actually ordered and paid for by the CIA for wiretapping purposes . After this discovery , the US government drops all of the charges against George Sr. In the general confusion , everyone except George Michael forgets Maeby 's sixteenth birthday .
To celebrate their victory in Iraq , the Bluths throw a shareholders ' party on the RMS Queen Mary . During preparation for the party , it is revealed that Lindsay was adopted , meaning that George Michael and Maeby are not blood relatives . At the party , the Bluth 's other adopted child , Annyong , reappears . He reveals that he is there to avenge the Bluth family 's theft of his grandfather 's frozen banana idea and the cause of his subsequent deportation , an event orchestrated many years earlier by Lucille Bluth . Annyong has turned over evidence implicating Lucille in the Bluth Company 's accounting scandals . Before the police arrive , Michael and George Michael flee on Gob 's yacht , the C @-@ Word , and depart to Cabo with half a million dollars in cashier 's checks , finally leaving the family to fend for themselves . However , it is revealed in the epilogue that George Sr. is also on the yacht , having lured his brother Oscar into taking his place once again . Also in the epilogue , Maeby tries to sell the television rights to the story of the Bluth family to Ron Howard , who tells her that he sees it as a movie rather than a series .
= = = Season four ( 2013 ) = = =
Filming for a revived fourth season began on August 7 , 2012 , seven years after the series had been canceled by Fox . The season consists of 15 new episodes , all debuting at the same time on Netflix on May 26 , 2013 in the United States , Canada , the United Kingdom , Ireland , Latin America , and the Nordic countries . Several actors who had recurring roles in the original series returned to reprise their roles , including Carl Weathers as himself , Henry Winkler as Barry Zuckerkorn , Ben Stiller as Tony Wonder , Mae Whitman as Ann Veal , Scott Baio as Bob Loblaw , Judy Greer as Kitty Sanchez , and Liza Minnelli as Lucille Austero ; while new characters are played by Debra Mooney , John Slattery , Tommy Tune , Terry Crews , Isla Fisher and John Krasinski . Kristen Wiig and Seth Rogen appear as Lucille and George Sr. , respectively , in flashbacks .
Each episode of the season occurs over approximately the same stretch of time , but focuses on a different character . Information on events depicted in a given episode is often partial and filled in a later episode .
= = Reception = =
= = = Television ratings = = =
The show , while critically acclaimed , did not gain a sizable audience . According to the Nielsen ratings system , the show 's first season was the 120th most popular show among households and the 88th among viewers aged 18 to 49 , averaging 6 @.@ 2 million viewers .
U.S. ratings in the second season averaged about six million viewers , while the third season averaged about four million viewers . Fox announced that it would halt the production of the second season at eighteen episodes — four episodes short of the planned season .
For the third season , Fox positioned the show on Mondays at 8 : 00 p.m. ET . Ratings dropped further than previous seasons . On November 9 , 2005 , Fox announced that the show would not be airing in November sweeps , and that they had cut the episode order for the third season from 22 to 13 . Fox ended up showing the last four episodes in a two @-@ hour timeslot — directly opposite the opening ceremonies of the 2006 Winter Olympics . The series finale episode received 3 @.@ 43 million viewers .
= = = Critical response = = =
Throughout its original run , Arrested Development received overwhelming critical acclaim . It is widely regarded as one of the defining comedies of the 2000s and has been praised by many critics as one of the greatest comedies of all time . In 2007 , the show was listed as one of Time magazine 's " 100 Best TV Shows of All @-@ TIME " .
Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly praised the series , saying " Is it beating a dead horse to once again state that this underappreciated gem is the best sitcom on TV ? Too bad . Arrested Development is the best sitcom on TV ! "
David Bianculli from the New York Daily News stated " If you 're not watching this series on Fox , the least you can do is buy it on DVD . You 'll love it , and it 's such a dense show ( in the best sense of the word ) that it rewards repeated viewing . Like Scrubs and the British version of The Office , it is the sort of show that truly deserves to be seen uninterrupted , several episodes at a time , for maximum enjoyment . The laughs @-@ per @-@ minute quotient here is insanely high , making it great value as a home library purchase . "
Alison Powell of The Guardian said " As Hollywood agents worry about the demise of the town 's lowing cash cow , the multi @-@ camera , staged sitcom , here to save the day is Arrested Development , a farce of such blazing wit and originality , that it must surely usher in a new era in comedy . "
Gillian Flynn of Entertainment Weekly named Arrested Development the best television show of 2005 and said in her review that " As oddball as Arrested is , it 's also humane . A flawless cast — from Will Arnett 's breathy , bombastic Gob to Jessica Walter 's boozy Lucille — grounds it , aided by Ron Howard 's affable narration . Of course , the center of sensibility is good son Michael ( Jason Bateman ) and his even better son , George Michael ( Michael Cera ) . Bateman and Cera give the best reacts around — the former all weary exasperation , the latter adorably bunny @-@ stunned . Together , they 're the sweetest , awkwardest straight men on the smartest , most shockingly funny series on TV ... which is likely canceled , despite six Emmy wins . It 's a perversion not even the Bluths deserve . " In 2012 , Entertainment Weekly listed the show at No. 2 in the " 25 Best Cult TV Shows from the Past 25 Years " , praising its " fast , delirious , interlocking jokes that don 't pander to the masses ; winky gags ( e.g. fake preview scenes for the following week 's episode ) ; and a cast of absurd characters " .
= = = Accolades = = =
In 2004 , the first season received seven Emmy Award nominations with five wins . It won for Outstanding Comedy Series , Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series , Outstanding Casting for a Comedy Series , Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series and Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series , for the pilot episode written by Mitchell Hurwitz and directed by brothers Anthony and Joe Russo . Jeffrey Tambor was nominated that year for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series .
In 2005 , the second season received eleven Emmy nominations in seven categories with one win . Notable nominations included Outstanding Comedy Series , Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series ( Jason Bateman ) , Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series ( Jeffrey Tambor ) , Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series ( Jessica Walter ) as well as three nominations for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series , in which it won for " Righteous Brothers " , written by Mitchell Hurwitz and Jim Vallely .
In 2006 , the third season received four Emmy nominations , for Outstanding Comedy Series , Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series ( Will Arnett ) , Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series and Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series for the series finale " Development Arrested " .
In 2013 , the fourth season received three Emmy nominations , for Outstanding Actor in a Comedy Series ( Jason Bateman ) , Outstanding Music Composition for a Series ( Original Dramatic Score ) and Outstanding Single @-@ camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series .
Other awards include :
The 2004 TV Land Award for " Future Classic " , the first recognition the series received . The award presentation is included on the season one DVD release .
The 2004 Television Critics Association Awards for Outstanding Comedy and Outstanding New Program , and the 2005 award for Outstanding Achievement in Comedy .
The 2005 Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Television Series – Musical or Comedy for Jason Bateman .
The 2004 Writers Guild of America Award for Episodic Comedy , for the episode " Pier Pressure " , written by Mitchell Hurwitz and Jim Vallely .
The 2004 Satellite Award for Best Television Series – Comedy or Musical , along with Jeffrey Tambor and Jessica Walter for Best Performance by an Actor and Actress in a Supporting Role in a Series – Comedy or Musical . In 2005 , Jason Bateman and Portia de Rossi won for Best Actor and Actress in a Series – Comedy or Musical . Jason Bateman also won the same award the following ceremony .
The 2005 Young Artist Award for Best Performance in a TV Series ( Comedy or Drama ) – Supporting Young Actress for Alia Shawkat .
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= San Sebastian Church ( Manila ) =
The Basílica Menor de San Sebastián , better known as San Sebastian Church , is a Roman Catholic minor basilica in Manila , Philippines and the seat of the Parish of San Sebastian .
Completed in 1891 , San Sebastian Church is noted for its architectural features. an example of the revival of Gothic architecture in the Philippines , it is the only all @-@ steel temple in the Philippines , and is the only prefabricated steel church in the world . In 2006 , San Sebastian Church was included in the Tentative List for possible designation as a World Heritage Site . It was designated as a National Historical Landmark by the Philippine government in 1973 .
San Sebastian Church is under the care of The Order of the Augustinian Recollects , who also operate a college adjacent to the basilica . It is located at Plaza del Carmen , at the eastern end of Recto Avenue , in Quiapo , Manila .
= = History = =
In 1621 , Bernardino Castillo , a generous patron and a devotee of the 3rd @-@ century Roman martyr Saint Sebastian , donated the land upon which the church stands . The original structure , made of wood , burned in 1651 during a Chinese uprising . Succeeding structures , which were built of brick , were destroyed by fire and earthquakes in 1859 , 1863 , and 1880 .
In the 1880s , Esteban Martínez , the parish priest of the ruined church , approached the Spanish architect Genaro Palacios , with a plan to build a fire and earthquake @-@ resistant structure made entirely of steel . Palacios completed a design that fused Earthquake Baroque with the Neo @-@ Gothic style . His final design was said to have been inspired by the famed Gothic Burgos Cathedral in Burgos , Spain .
= = = Construction = = =
The prefabricated steel sections that would compose the church were manufactured in Binche , Belgium . According to the historian Ambeth Ocampo , the knockdown steel parts were ordered from the Societe anonyme des Enterprises de Travaux Publiques in Brussels . In all , 52 tonnes ( 51 long tons ; 57 short tons ) of prefabricated steel sections were transported in eight separate shipments from Belgium to the Philippines , the first shipment arriving in 1888 . Belgian engineers supervised the assembly of the church , the first column of which was erected on September 11 , 1890 . The walls were filled with mixed sand , gravel , and cement . The stained glass windows were imported from the Heinrich Oidtmann Company , a German stained glass firm , while local artisans assisted in applying the finishing touches .
The church was raised to the status of a minor basilica by Pope Leo XIII on June 24 , 1890 . Upon its completion the following year , on August 16 , 1891 , the Basílica Menor de San Sebastián was consecrated by Bernardino Nozaleda y Villa OP , the 25th Archbishop of Manila .
According to Jesús Pastor Paloma , an Agustinian Recollect priest , the structure was also supposed to have a prefabricated retablo ( reredos ) altar , which was lost at sea when the ship carrying it from Belgium capsized in a storm ; a wooden altar was made locally in its stead . Paloma also noted that the bottom part of the church was designed to resemble a ship 's hull , so that it would sway during an earthquake .
= = = Gustave Eiffel = = =
It has long been reputed that Gustave Eiffel , the French engineer behind the Eiffel Tower and the steel structure within the Statue of Liberty , was involved in the design and construction of San Sebastián , but this was never confirmed .
= = Features = =
San Sebastian Church has two openwork towers and steel vaulting . From its floor , the basilica 's nave rises 12 meters ( 39 ft ) to the dome , and 32 meters ( 105 ft ) to the tip of the twin spires .
The faux finished interior of the church incorporates groined vaults in the Gothic architecture style permitting very ample illumination from lateral windows . The steel columns , walls and ceiling were painted by Lorenzo Rocha , Isabelo Tampingco and Félix Martínez to give the appearance of marble and jasper . Trompe l 'oeil paintings of saints and martyrs by Rocha were used to decorate the interiors of the church . True to the Gothic revival spirit of the church are its confessionals , pulpit , altars and five retablos designed by Lorenzo Guerrero and Rocha . The sculptor Eusebio Garcia carved the statues of holy men and women . Six holy water fonts were constructed for the church , each crafted from marble obtained from Romblon .
Above the main altar is an image of Our Lady of Mount Carmel , given to the church by Carmelite sisters from Mexico City in 1617 . The image withstood all the earthquakes and fires which had destroyed previous incarnations of San Sebastian Church , but its ivory head was stolen in 1975 .
= = Cultural and historical declarations = =
San Sebastian Church was a declared National Historical Landmark by President Ferdinand Marcos through Presidential Decree No. 260 in 1973 . State funding was accorded to the church through the National Historical Institute which undertook restoration in 1982 . The Recollect community has likewise expended funds for the church 's maintenance and restoration .
On May 16 , 2006 , San Sebastian Church was included in the Tentative List for possible designation as a World Heritage Site , on account of its architectural and historical heritage .
The church was declared a National Cultural Treasure by the National Museum of the Philippines on August 15 , 2011 and unveiling of the marker on January 20 , 2012 .
= = Preservation = =
In recent years , San Sebastian Church has encountered threats to its structural integrity . The steel structure has been beset by rust and corrosion due to sea breezes from nearby Manila Bay . In 1998 , it was placed on the biennial watchlist of the 100 Most Endangered Sites by the World Monuments Fund , though it was not retained in the subsequent watchlists .
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= Waterfalls in Ricketts Glen State Park =
There are 24 named waterfalls in Ricketts Glen State Park in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania along Kitchen Creek as it flows in three steep , narrow valleys , or glens . They range in height from 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) to the 94 @-@ foot ( 29 m ) Ganoga Falls . Ricketts Glen State Park is named for R. Bruce Ricketts , a colonel in the American Civil War who owned over 80 @,@ 000 acres ( 32 @,@ 000 ha ) in the area in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , but spared the old @-@ growth forests in the glens from clearcutting . The park , which opened in 1944 , is administered by the Bureau of State Parks of the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources ( DCNR ) . Nearly all of the waterfalls are visible from the Falls Trail , which Ricketts had built from 1889 to 1893 and which the state park rebuilt in the 1940s and late 1990s . The Falls Trail has been called " the most magnificent hike in the state " and one of " the top hikes in the East " .
The waterfalls are on the section of Kitchen Creek that flows down the Allegheny Front , a steep escarpment between the Allegheny Plateau to the north and the Ridge @-@ and @-@ Valley Appalachians to the south . The glens are made of sedimentary rocks from the Huntley Mountain and Catskill Formations that formed up to 370 million years ago in the Devonian and Carboniferous periods . The waterfalls are the result of increased flow in Kitchen Creek from glaciers enlarging its drainage basin during the last Ice Age .
Ricketts named 21 of the waterfalls , mostly for Native American tribes and places , and his family and friends . There are ten named falls in Ganoga Glen , eight named falls in Glen Leigh , and between four and six named waterfalls in Ricketts Glen . The DCNR names 22 falls , the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) Geographic Names Information System ( GNIS ) names 23 falls , and Scott E. Brown 's 2004 book Pennsylvania waterfalls : a guide for hikers and photographers names 24 . The falls are described in order going upstream along the creek for each of the three glens .
= = Geology = =
The waterfalls in Ricketts Glen State Park are on the Allegheny Front , which is the boundary between the Allegheny Plateau to the north and the Ridge @-@ and @-@ Valley Appalachians to the south . The headwaters of Kitchen Creek are on the dissected plateau , from which the stream drops approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) in 2 @.@ 25 miles ( 3 @.@ 62 km ) as it flows down the steep escarpment of the Allegheny Front . Much of this drop occurs in Glen Leigh and Ganoga Glen , two narrow valleys carved by branches of Kitchen Creek , which come together at Waters Meet . The branch in Glen Leigh has eight named waterfalls and lies north of the confluence , while the branch in Ganoga Glen has ten named waterfalls and lies to the northwest . Ricketts Glen lies south of and downstream from Waters Meet ; here the terrain becomes less steep , and there are fewer named waterfalls . The DCNR names only four in Ricketts Glen , all on Kitchen Creek ; the USGS GNIS names these and one more on the creek , and Brown 's book on Pennsylvania waterfalls adds a sixth named falls on a tributary .
The rocks exposed in the park were formed between 370 and 340 million years ago , when the land was part of the coastline of a shallow sea that covered a great portion of what is now North America . The high mountains to the east of the sea gradually eroded , causing a build @-@ up of sediment made up primarily of clay , sand and gravel . Tremendous pressure on the sediment caused the formation of the rocks that are found in the park and in the Kitchen Creek drainage basin : sandstone , shale , siltstone , and conglomerates .
About 300 to 250 million years ago , the Allegheny Plateau , Allegheny Front , and Appalachian Mountains all formed in the Alleghanian orogeny . This happened long after the sedimentary rocks in the park were deposited , when the part of Gondwana that became Africa collided with what became North America , forming Pangaea . In the years since , up to 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) of rock has been eroded away by streams and weather . At least three major glaciations in the past million years have been the final factor in shaping the land that makes up the park today .
The effects of glaciation have made Kitchen Creek " unique compared to all other nearby streams that flow down the Allegheny Front " , as it is the only one with an " almost continuous series of waterfalls " . Prior to the last ice age , Kitchen Creek and Phillips Creek to the east had drainage basins of similar area and slope , and both watersheds were confined to the Allegheny Front . This changed when receding glaciers formed temporary dams on two of Kitchen Creek 's neighboring streams on the Allegheny Plateau , South Branch Bowman Creek to the northeast and Big Run , a tributary of Fishing Creek to the northwest . The headwaters of South Branch Bowman Creek were very close to those for the Glen Leigh branch of Kitchen Creek , and the headwaters for Big Run were very close to those for the Ganoga Glen branch .
As the glaciers retreated to the northeast about 20 @,@ 000 years ago , glacial lakes formed . Drainage from the melting glacier and lakes cut a sluiceway , or channel , that diverted the headwaters of South Branch Bowman Creek into the Glen Leigh branch of Kitchen Creek . The retreating glaciers also left deposits of debris 20 to 30 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 to 9 @.@ 1 m ) thick , which formed a dam blocking water from draining into Big Run . Instead water from Ganoga Lake and the area that later became Lake Jean was diverted into the Ganoga Glen branch of Kitchen Creek . These diversions added about 7 square miles ( 18 km ² ) to the Kitchen Creek drainage basin , increasing it by just over 50 percent to 20 @.@ 1 square miles ( 52 km ² ) .
The result was increased water flow in Kitchen Creek , which has been cutting the falls in the glens since . The gradient or slope of Kitchen Creek was fairly stable for its flow when it had a much smaller drainage basin , as Phillips Creek still does . The increased basin size means that Kitchen Creek in the glens is too steep for its present amount of water flow . As Kitchen Creek continues to cut into the rock and erode it up the Allegheny Front , the creek 's slope will decrease and become less steep . In the future , the creek 's flow and slope are predicted to become similar to those of other nearby creeks with similar size drainage basins . This process could take so long that a new glacial period might occur before the transformation is complete .
= = = Formations and falls = = =
The park 's waterfalls expose two distinct rock formations from the Devonian and Carboniferous periods . The higher and more recent of these is the Huntley Mountain Formation , from the late Devonian and early Mississippian . This is made of layers of olive green to gray sandstone and gray to red shale . The lower and older layer is the Catskill Formation , which is composed of red shale and siltstone up to 370 million years old . The harder Huntley Mountain Formation caps the Allegheny Front and has kept it from eroding as much as the softer Catskill Formation to the south . The portions of the Allegheny Front within the park are named North Mountain and Red Rock Mountain , with the latter name coming from an exposed band of Huntley Formation red shale and sandstone visible along Pennsylvania Route 487 .
Geologists classify the falls at Ricketts Glen State Park into two types . Wedding @-@ cake falls descend in a series of small steps , forming waterfalls that are said to resemble a wedding cake . Within the park , this type of falls usually flows over thin layers of Huntley Mountain Formation sandstone . In bridal @-@ veil falls , the second type , water falls over a ledge and drops vertically into a plunge pool in the stream bed below . Within the park , this type of falls flows over Catskill Formation rocks or the red shale and sandstone of the Huntley Formation . In the park , the harder caprock which forms the ledge from which the bridal @-@ veil falls drops is grey sandstone . The softer red shale below is eroded away by water , sand and gravel to form the plunge pool .
While the official Ricketts Glen State Park web page also classifies waterfalls as either the bridal @-@ veil or wedding @-@ cake type , Brown 's Pennsylvania waterfalls : a guide for hikers and photographers uses four types for classification : falls , cascade , slide , and chute . The first , falls , is the same as the DCNR 's bridal @-@ veil type , with water that falls freely from a ledge . Brown divides the wedding @-@ cake class into three types : cascade , where water falls down a " vertical to nearly vertical " surface that has terraces ; slide , where water falls down a " near vertical to less than vertical " wide surface that is smoother than a cascade ; and chute , where the water is confined by rock as it falls down " a narrow slide or cataractlike feature " .
= = History = =
Ricketts Glen State Park is in the Susquehanna River drainage basin , the earliest recorded inhabitants of which were the Iroquoian @-@ speaking Susquehannocks . Their numbers were greatly reduced by disease and warfare with the Five Nations of the Iroquois , and by 1675 they had died out , moved away , or been assimilated into other tribes . After this , the lands of the Susquehanna valley were under the nominal control of the Iroquois , who encouraged displaced tribes from the east to settle there , including the Shawnee and Lenape ( or Delaware ) .
On November 5 , 1768 , the British acquired land , known in Pennsylvania as the New Purchase , from the Iroquois in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix ; this included what is now Ricketts Glen State Park . After the American Revolutionary War , Native Americans almost entirely left Pennsylvania . Luzerne County was formed in 1786 from part of Northumberland County , and Fairmount Township , where the waterfalls are , was settled in 1792 and incorporated in 1834 . About 1890 a Native American pot , decorated in the style of " the peoples of the Susquehanna region " , was found under a rock ledge on Kitchen Creek by Murray Reynolds , for whom a waterfall is named .
The Ricketts family began acquiring land in and around what became the park in 1851 , when Elijah Ricketts and his brother Clemuel bought about 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 000 ha ) on North Mountain around what is now known as Ganoga Lake . By 1852 they had built a stone house on the lake shore , which they ran " as a lodge and tavern " . Elijah 's son Robert Bruce Ricketts , for whom the park is named , joined the Union Army as a private at the outbreak of the American Civil War and rose through the ranks to become a colonel . After the war , R. B. Ricketts returned to Pennsylvania and began purchasing the land around the lake from his father in 1869 ; eventually he controlled or owned more than 80 @,@ 000 acres ( 32 @,@ 000 ha ) , including the glens and waterfalls .
Ricketts and the other settlers living in the area were not aware of the glens and their waterfalls until about 1865 , when they were discovered by two of the Ricketts ' guests who went fishing and wandered down Kitchen Creek . In 1872 Ricketts built a three @-@ story wooden addition to the stone house ; this opened as the North Mountain House hotel in 1873 , and was run by Ricketts ' brother Frank until 1898 .
Ricketts named 21 of the waterfalls ; most have Native American names , and others are named for relatives and friends . In 1879 Ricketts started the North Mountain Fishing Club , and he renamed Long Pond as Ganoga Lake in 1881 , based on a suggestion by Pennsylvania senator Charles R. Buckalew . Ricketts also used the name Ganoga for the tallest waterfall and the glen it flows through . In 1889 Ricketts hired Matt Hirlinger and five other men to build the trails along Kitchen Creek . It took them four years to complete the trails and stone steps through the glens . The wooden addition to the stone house was torn down in 1897 , and the hotel and fishing club closed in 1903 ; the stone house remained the Ricketts ' summer home .
Ricketts was a lumberman who made his fortune clearcutting nearly all his land , but the glens were " saved from the lumberman 's axe through the foresight of the Ricketts family " . Ricketts died in 1918 ; between 1920 and 1924 the Pennsylvania Game Commission bought 48 @,@ 000 acres ( 19 @,@ 000 ha ) from his heirs , via the Central Pennsylvania Lumber Company . This became most of Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 13 , west of the park in Sullivan County . These sales left the Ricketts heirs with over 12 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 900 ha ) surrounding Ganoga Lake , Lake Jean and the glens . The area was approved as a national park site in the 1930s , and the National Park Service planned a Civilian Conservation Corps camp at " Ricketts Glynn " ( sic ) . Budget problems and World War II brought an end to national plans for development .
In 1942 the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania bought 1 @,@ 261 acres ( 510 ha ) , including the glens and their waterfalls , from the heirs for $ 82 @,@ 000 . Ricketts Glen State Park opened in 1944 . The state bought a total of 16 @,@ 000 acres ( 6 @,@ 500 ha ) more from the heirs in 1945 and 1950 for $ 68 @,@ 000 ; the park today has about 10 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 000 ha ) from the Ricketts family and about 3 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 ha ) acquired from others . A 1947 newspaper article estimated that the new park would have 50 @,@ 000 visitors that year , and detailed the work the state had done since acquiring the land . The Falls Trail through the glens was rebuilt , all the stone steps were replaced , and signs were added . Out of concern for greater safety , footbridges with handrails replaced those made from hewn logs , overhanging rock ledges were removed in places , and the trail was rerouted near some falls . The Evergreen Trail past Adams Falls was built at this time .
In 1969 the Glens Natural Area was named a National Natural Landmark , and it became a Pennsylvania State Park Natural Area in 1993 , which guarantees it " will be protected and maintained in a natural state " . In 1996 heavy rains washed out two bridges on the Falls Trail ; because of the difficulty of transporting materials on the trail , an Army National Guard helicopter dropped 36 @-@ foot ( 11 m ) poles into the glens to rebuild the bridges in early 1997 . In the winter of 1997 ice climbing was allowed in the Ganoga Glen section of the park for the first time . That same year local fire companies trained to rescue people injured in the park when icy conditions make reaching and transporting them treacherous . In 1998 a four @-@ year project to " repair and improve the Falls Trail " began , with three park employees carrying materials in on foot to stabilize the trail , fix steps , reduce erosion , and repair some bridges . In 2001 , John Young in Hike Pennsylvania : An Atlas of Pennsylvania 's Greatest Hiking Adventures wrote of the Falls Trail : " This is not only the most magnificent hike in the state , but it ranks up there with the top hikes in the East . " The readers of Backpacker magazine chose the Falls Trail as the best hike in Pennsylvania in 2009 , and as one of the best hikes in the Northeast in 2010 .
= = Overview = =
Kitchen Creek flows through the park 's three glens , which the descriptions of the waterfalls are organized by : Ricketts Glen , Glen Leigh , and Ganoga Glen . The falls are listed in order going upstream along Kitchen Creek , starting with the southernmost and ending at the northernmost in each glen . This is also the order in which a hiker would encounter the falls while traveling north along the creek on the Falls Trail .
The Falls Trail is a 7 @.@ 1 @-@ mile ( 11 @.@ 4 km ) loop hike . Starting at PA 118 , it is 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) north along the creek through Ricketts Glen to Waters Meet , where the trail divides . Following the Glen Leigh branch , it is 1 @.@ 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) north through the glen to the Highland Trail , then 1 @.@ 0 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west along the Highland Trail to Ganoga Glen . Turning southeast , it is 1 @.@ 3 miles ( 2 @.@ 1 km ) through Ganoga Glen back to Waters Meet , then the 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) through Ricketts Glen is retraced , but heading south back to PA 118 .
The description of each waterfall starts with the name . While the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources ( DCNR ) Bureau of State Parks names 22 waterfalls in Ricketts Glen State Park ( all but Kitchen Creek and Shingle Cabin ) , the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) Geographic Names Information System ( GNIS ) names 23 ( all but Shingle Cabin ) , and Scott E. Brown 's 2004 book Pennsylvania waterfalls : a guide for hikers and photographers names 24 . There are also several unnamed waterfalls in the park , with the total number of falls given as 33 or 34 . For each waterfall the height is given next , followed by the elevation above sea level , and the latitude and longitude . Each waterfall in the table is classified according to the four types used in Brown 's book ( falls , cascade , slide , and chute ) , with some classified as combinations of types . For each waterfall there are notes , which can give more information on the waterfall , the etymology of the name , and the location on the Falls Trail , followed by a photograph .
= = Ricketts Glen = =
Ricketts Glen is the name given to the Kitchen Creek valley south and downstream of Waters Meet . It is 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) between Pennsylvania Route 118 and Waters Meet on the Falls Trail , making this the longest glen . The three northernmost waterfalls are all within 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) of Waters Meet , and are only a short hike from the bottom of Ganoga Glen or Glen Leigh . The southern part of this glen has large areas of old @-@ growth forest , chiefly hemlocks . Ricketts Glen is entirely in the Catskill Formation and all of the falls on this section of Kitchen Creek have plunge pools .
Ricketts Glen is the only glen where sources differ on the number of named waterfalls . Only Brown 's book names Shingle Cabin Falls , which is the sole named falls in the park on a tributary of Kitchen Creek . The names of the waterfalls at the southern end of Ricketts Glen , under and just south of PA 118 , are the most disputed . The USGS GNIS names Kitchen Creek Falls ( with coordinates very near the PA 118 bridge ) and Adams Falls ( with coordinates further south of PA 118 ) . Brown 's book also names both as separate falls and gives the height of Kitchen Creek Falls as 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) . A 1947 newspaper article on the new state park notes the unnamed falls under the highway bridge and refers to " Adam 's Falls a short distance away " . The official park map only names Adams Falls , shows it a short distance south of the bridge , and notes it is 36 feet ( 11 m ) tall . However , the DCNR Pennsylvania Trail of Geology guide to the park says Kitchen Creek Falls is just another name for Adams Falls , and notes that " At the bridge on Pa . Route 118 , Kitchen Creek plunges over three picturesque cascades ( 18 , 25 and 10 feet high ) " ( 5 @.@ 5 , 7 @.@ 6 , and 3 @.@ 0 m high ) .
= = Glen Leigh = =
Marcia Bonta in Outbound Journeys in Pennsylvania : A Guide to Natural Places for Individual and Group Outings calls this " the loveliest part of the entire trail — rugged , steep Glen Leigh " . Bonta goes on to note that Glen Leigh " resembles a remote wilderness , hemmed in on one side by rock and on the other by surging water , and it has some of the most spectacular waterfalls in the park " .
Glen Leigh was named for Lake Leigh , which R. B. Ricketts named for his second daughter Frances Leigh ( 1881 – 1970 ) . She married William S. McLean , Jr . , a judge , in 1921 . Leigh was also the middle name of R.B. Ricketts ' mother , Margaret Leigh Lockart Ricketts ( 1810 – 1891 ) . In 1907 , R. B. Ricketts built a dam upstream of the waterfalls on the Glen Leigh branch of Kitchen Creek , hoping to use the resulting Lake Leigh for hydroelectric power generation . The dam was " poorly constructed " and could not be used to generate power ; it was condemned by the state and the lake drained in 1956 . Almost all of Glen Leigh is in the Huntley Mountain Formation , but a small region at the southern end , including Waters Meet , is in the Catskill Formation .
Glen Leigh has eight named waterfalls in 0 @.@ 64 miles ( 1 @.@ 03 km ) . It is 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) from PA 118 in the south to Waters Meet and the southern end of Glen Leigh . The glen is also accessible from the north ; it is 1 @.@ 04 miles ( 1 @.@ 67 km ) from the Lake Leigh trailhead parking lot by Lake Jean to Onondaga , the northernmost waterfall . The Highland Trail is the 1 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) path between the northern ends of Glen Leigh and Ganoga Glen . It meets the Falls Trail just north of Onondaga Falls and has a short connector to F. L. Ricketts , the next waterfall south . The Falls Trail by both of these northernmost waterfalls had to be rebuilt in the early 2000s .
= = Ganoga Glen = =
By 1875 Ricketts had named the tallest waterfall on Kitchen Creek Ganoga Falls , and in 1881 , he renamed Long Pond as Ganoga Lake . Pennsylvania senator Charles R. Buckalew suggested the name Ganoga , an Iroquoian word which he said meant " water on the mountain " in the Seneca language . Donehoo 's A History of the Indian Villages and Place Names in Pennsylvania identifies it as a Cayuga language word meaning " place of floating oil " and the name of a Cayuga village in New York . Whatever the meaning , Ganoga Lake is the source of the branch of Kitchen Creek that flows through Ganoga Glen , which has the tallest waterfall .
A dam was built upstream of the waterfalls on the Ganoga Glen branch of Kitchen Creek in 1842 . Ricketts strengthened the dam circa 1905 as part of a hydroelectric power generation scheme , and renamed the body of water Lake Rose ( Rose is a Ricketts family name ) . However , both the Lake Rose and Lake Leigh dams were " poorly constructed " and could not be used to generate power ; both dams were condemned by the state and Lake Rose was drained in 1969 . Ganoga Glen is not as steep as Glen Leigh ; both glens are almost entirely in the Huntley Mountain Formation , with a small region at the southern end , including Waters Meet , in the Catskill Formation . Ganoga Glen has ten named waterfalls in 1 @.@ 1 miles ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) . It is 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) from PA 118 in the south to Waters Meet and the southern end of Ganoga Glen . From the north , it is 0 @.@ 3 miles ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) from the Lake Rose trailhead parking lot by Lake Jean to Mohawk , the northernmost waterfall . There is also the 2 @.@ 8 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 5 km ) Ganoga View Trail , which leads from Pennsylvania Route 487 in the west to Ganoga Falls . The Highland Trail , which meets the Falls Trail a short distance north of Mohawk Falls , is the 1 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) connector between the northern ends of Ganoga Glen and Glen Leigh .
Jeff Mitchell writes in Hiking the Endless Mountains : Exploring the Wilderness of Northeast Pennsylvania that Ganoga Glen has his " favorite place " in the park : " Here the trail wraps around ledges and underneath overhanging rocks , right next to the waterfalls . The roar of the falls reverberates against their rocky confines . The state park trail map says that Seneca , Delaware , and Mohican Falls are here , but it is hard to discern which falls are which because they explode from everywhere and are continuous . "
= = Note = =
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= 2003 Football League Cup Final =
The 2003 Football League Cup Final was a football match played between Liverpool and Manchester United on 2 March 2003 at the Millennium Stadium , Cardiff . It was the final match of the 2002 – 03 Football League Cup , the 43rd season of the Football League Cup , a football competition for the 92 teams in the Premier League and The Football League . Liverpool were appearing in their ninth final ; they had previously won six and lost two , while Manchester United were appearing in the final for the fifth time . They had previously won once and lost three times .
As both teams were in the Premier League , they entered the competition in the third round . Liverpool 's matches were generally close affairs , with only two victories secured by two goals or more . They beat Southampton 3 – 1 in the third round , while their match in the next round against Ipswich Town went to a penalty @-@ shootout , which they won 5 – 4 . Manchester United 's matches were also close affairs , their biggest margin of victory of was by two goals . A 2 – 0 win over Burnley in the fourth round was followed by a 1 – 0 victory over Chelsea in the fifth round .
Watched by a crowd of 74 @,@ 500 , the first half was goalless until Liverpool took the lead in the 39th minute when midfielder Steven Gerrard scored . The score remained the same until the 86th minute when striker Michael Owen scored to make the score 2 – 0 to Liverpool . No further goals were scored and Liverpool won to secure their seventh League Cup victory .
Liverpool goalkeeper Jerzy Dudek was awarded the Alan Hardaker Trophy as man of the match . Liverpool manager Gérard Houllier praised Dudek 's performance and claimed that he had a premonition that Dudek would perform well in the match . Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson also praised Dudek 's performance , stating , " Their goalkeeper has won them the game . "
= = Route to the final = =
= = = Liverpool = = =
As Liverpool were competing in the Premier League , they entered the competition in the third round and were drawn against fellow Premier League side Southampton . Despite resting a number of first @-@ team players , Liverpool won 3 – 1 courtesy of goals from Patrik Berger , El @-@ Hadji Diouf and Milan Baroš at their home ground Anfield . Their opposition in the fourth round were Ipswich Town . They took the lead in the 14th minute , in the match held at Anfield , when Tommy Miller scored . Diouf equalised in the 54th minute , but the score remained the same through full @-@ time and extra @-@ time to take the match to a penalty shootout . Liverpool won 5 – 4 to progress to the fifth round .
Fellow Premier League side Aston Villa were the opposition in the match at their home ground , Villa Park . They took the lead in the 20th minute when striker Darius Vassell scored a penalty . Midfielder Danny Murphy levelled the score seven minutes later . Liverpool took the lead in the second half when Baros scored and extended it when Steven Gerrard scored in the 67th minute . Two goals for Villa courtesy of midfielder Thomas Hitzlsperger and an own goal by defender Stéphane Henchoz levelled the score at 3 – 3 late in the match . However , a Murphy goal in the 90th minute of the match meant Liverpool won 4 – 3 to progress to the semi @-@ finals .
Their opposition were Sheffield United of the First Division in the semi @-@ final , which was held over two @-@ legs . The first leg at United 's home ground Bramall Lane saw Liverpool take the lead in the 36th minute when striker Neil Mellor scored . However , two goals in the second half from United midfielder Michael Tonge meant they won the match 2 – 1 . The second leg was held at Liverpool 's home ground , Anfield . Liverpool took the lead in the ninth minute when Diouf scored . This levelled the tie at 2 – 2 and as no further goals were scored upon reaching full @-@ time , the match went into extra @-@ time . Liverpool extended their lead in the 107th minute when striker Michael Owen scored . No further goals were scored in the remaining minutes of extra @-@ time and Liverpool progressed to the final courtesy of a 3 – 2 aggregate victory .
= = = Manchester United = = =
First Division side Leicester City were the opposition as United entered the competition in the third round , due to being in the Premier League . The match , held at United 's home ground Old Trafford , was goalless until the 80th minute when midfielder David Beckham scored from a penalty . They extended their lead in the 90th minute when Kieran Richardson scored to win the match 2 – 0 .
United were drawn against First Division side Burnley in the fourth round . The match held at Burnley 's home ground , Turf Moor , saw United take the lead in the 35th minute when striker Diego Forlán scored . They extended their lead in the 65th minute when striker Ole Gunnar Solskjær scored to secure a 2 – 0 victory for United . Fellow Premier League side Chelsea were the opposition in the quarter @-@ final . A goal in the 80th minute by striker Forlán was enough to secure a 1 – 0 victory and progression to the semi @-@ final .
United were drawn against fellow Premier League side Blackburn Rovers in the semi @-@ final . The first leg at Old Trafford was goalless in the first half , but United took the lead in the 58th minute when midfielder Paul Scholes scored . However , three minutes later Blackburn equalised when David Thompson scored . The match finished at 1 – 1 . The second leg held at Blackburn 's home ground , Ewood Park , saw them take the lead when striker Andy Cole scored early in the match . However , United responded and two goals from Scholes in the remainder of the first half gave United the lead . They scored a third in the second half when striker Ruud van Nistelrooy converted a penalty . United won the match 3 – 1 and progressed to the final after winning the tie 4 – 2 .
= = Match = =
= = = Background = = =
Liverpool were appearing in their ninth final they had won six ( 1981 , 1982 , 1983 , 1984 , 1995 , 2001 ) and lost two ( 1978 , 1987 ) . This was Manchester United 's fifth appearance in the final . They had won once in 1992 and lost three times in 1983 , 1991 and 1994 . The teams had met once before in the 1983 final , a match which Liverpool won 2 – 1 . The last match between the two sides before the final was on 1 December 2002 , which United won 2 – 1 courtesy of goals from striker Diego Forlán . Both sides last match before the final was in European competition . Liverpool beat French team Auxerre 2 – 0 in the second leg of their 2002 – 03 UEFA Cup fourth round tie , while United beat Italian team Juventus 3 – 0 in the second group stage of the 2002 – 03 UEFA Champions League .
Liverpool midfielder Vladimír Šmicer was looking forward to playing a part in the final : " Everyone wants to play in the final , I 'm no different . I was just happy to be on the pitch against Auxerre because I didn 't know even the day before whether I 'd be fit enough after my injury problem . I 'm still not 100 % fit , I just wanted to train well this week and be fit for the final . " Šmicer was hopeful that victory in the final would rescue Liverpool 's season : " I hope that this re @-@ ignites our season . Our season is not good , we know , but there is still plenty to play for . We have not said this is a bad season , let 's forget about it and concentrate on the next one , we have been criticised and we are intent on responding on the pitch . " Liverpool midfielder Danny Murphy was eager to win the match : " Winning in Cardiff would be a massive result for us , we have to be honest , we haven 't been as good as Manchester United over the last 10 years . And winning would bring European football next year , which isn 't guaranteed at the moment . "
Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson revealed that captain Roy Keane would return to his midfield role after playing in central defence in their win over Juventus . " It took Roy about 15 minutes to settle into Tuesday 's game but once he started to make sure he could see his opponent , he grasped the role very quickly , in the end , he could have played with a bowler hat and white gloves on it was so easy for him . He is a marvellous player and choosing him in defence is certainly an option but Mikaël Silvestre and John O 'Shea should be fit and I have a back four in my mind . " The final was United 's first since the 1999 UEFA Champions League Final and Ferguson was determined to win : That is too long for us , and we are delighted . We have always looked at the League Cup as an extra to blood young players , but the format now has encouraged teams to have a go . We 've played Liverpool once in Cardiff – in the Charity Shield – and lost so I hope this time it will be a different result . "
Both sides had injury concerns heading into the final . Liverpool defender Stéphane Henchoz was a doubt after he suffered a thigh injury in Liverpool 's win over Auxerre . However , Liverpool midfielder Šmicer had recovered from an ankle problem and would be available for selection . United had a number of injury concerns . Wes Brown , Scholes and Ryan Giggs were all doubts for the final , after they had picked up knocks in the week before the final . They would also be without striker Diego Forlán , who had injured his ankle against Juventus , however , defender Mikaël Silvestre was declared fit to start .
= = = First half = = =
Liverpool kicked @-@ off the match and they had first chance of the match in the 4th minute , but the free @-@ kick by midfielder Murphy was caught by United goalkeeper Fabien Barthez . Defender Henchoz was shown a yellow card in the 12th minute and United midfielder Giggs had the first shot of the match , which was saved by Liverpool goalkeeper Jerzy Dudek . Twice in the next few minutes Liverpool had chances from moves down the right @-@ hand side of the pitch . However , on both occasions the pass into the penalty area was intercepted . United had a chance to score in the 20th minute . Keane passed to Scholes , who found Giggs on the left @-@ hand side of the pitch . His cross into the penalty area found striker Ruud van Nistelrooy , but his shot went wide of the Liverpool goal .
Liverpool began to get a foothold in the match after 30 minutes , their best chance came in the 36th minute when a shot by Murphy went over the crossbar . Three minutes later their approach paid off as they scored . A long @-@ range shot from Steven Gerrard deflected off United midfielder David Beckham and into the United goal to give Liverpool a 1 – 0 lead . Three minutes after the goal , United had a chance to equalise . A shot by midfielder Juan Sebastian Verón was saved by Dudek , but the ball rebounded to Scholes , his subsequent shot was blocked by Henchoz . After a free @-@ kick by Beckham just before half @-@ time was saved by Dudek , Liverpool counter @-@ attacked through midfielder El Hadji Diouf down the right @-@ hand side of the pitchHowever , his subsequent cross into the penalty area was intercepted by Keane .
= = = Second half = = =
Almost immediately after the restart , Liverpool had the first attack . Striker Michael Owen went past United defender Brown , but he was unable to shoot when the ball got stuck in between his feet . A minute later , Liverpool had an appeal for a penalty after striker Emile Heskey went down in the United penalty area , but referee Paul Durkin did not award a penalty . They had another chance in the 52nd minute after an exchange of passes between Murphy and Heskey , but Murphy 's shot went over the bar . United began to exert more pressure on Liverpool after this . A minute later a shot by Keane was blocked by Liverpool defender Sami Hyypiä . The ball went out for a United , which resulted in a throw @-@ in , that was headed into the arms of Dudek . Five minutes van Nistelrooy had a chance to score as he turned and shot at the Liverpool goal , but it was saved by Dudek . Heskey was replaced by striker Milan Baroš following an injury .
United had another chance in the 66th minute when Verón crossed from the right @-@ hand side of the pitch to Scholes , but his shot was saved by Dudek . A Liverpool attack in the 72nd minute ended after Baros put the ball out for a goal @-@ kick . From the subsequent kick , Barthez found Giggs , who ran through the middle of the pitch , but his pass to Beckham was intercepted by Liverpool . United subsequently replaced Brown with striker Ole Gunnar Solskjær . United had an appeal for a penalty in the 77th minute when Scholes went down near Liverpool midfielder Dietmar Hamann , but Durkin turned down the appeal . Minutes later van Nistelrooy had another chance to score , but his shot from inside the Liverpool penalty area was saved by Dudek . Five minutes later Liverpool scored through Owen . A pass by Silvestre was intercepted by Liverpool , Hamann passed to Owen , who beat Barthez to give Liverpool a 2 – 0 lead . Four minutes later Liverpool had a chance to extend their lead . However Šmicer , who had replaced Baros , missed the target . No further goals were scored and Liverpool won 2 – 0 to win the League Cup for the seventh time .
= = = Details = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
Following the match Liverpool manager Gérard Houllier claimed he had a premonition that goalkeeper Dudek would be the hero of the final : " I told Jerzy three days ago ' I can feel you will be the hero . You were too unlucky when we played them , today he was man of the match . But football can be like that . Sometimes you can be at the bottom and then be a hero again . I just had a feeling . I 'm a great believer that when you have the right attitude everything else follows . He had a good run after the World Cup but then he made some mistakes and we had to support him . The squad get on very well . There was no finger @-@ pointing after that game . He has saved us before in games and we had to keep faith in him . " Houllier also praised Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson : " I wished him the best in the Champions League because he represents the best in English football , he congratulated every Liverpool player after the final whistle and that shows that he is not just a great manager but a great man . "
United manager Ferguson also praised Dudek 's performance in the match : " Their goalkeeper has won them the game , sometimes you just have to put your hands up on these occasions . Dudek has won them the cup . He deserved to be man of the match . We didn 't get a break . Dudek 's performance encouraged them to stay near their penalty box . In tough games like that the first goal is very important . It 's a test for us . We can either accept defeat or we can fight back . " Captain Keane was disappointed with the defeat : " The players , managers , staff are all upset but I suppose nowhere near as bad as the fans , if you don 't win a match in football you feel as though you have let the fans down . " His focus turned to United 's participation in the UEFA Champions League , as they looked to end the season with a trophy : " It would have been nice to get a piece of silverware in the cabinet , especially with the opposition being Liverpool , we 've just got to lick our wounds . We 've got a game against Leeds on Wednesday and we 'll get on with training for Wednesday . The players know we 'll have to get together , get ready and try to keep the pressure on Arsenal . But we are eight points behind them , which puts them in a very strong position and again we are pinning our hopes on the European Cup , which is a dangerous game to play as we saw last season . "
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= The Number Devil =
The Number Devil : A Mathematical Adventure ( German : Der Zahlenteufel . Ein Kopfkissenbuch für alle , die Angst vor der Mathematik haben ) is a book for children and young adults that explores mathematics . It was originally written in 1997 in German by Hans Magnus Enzensberger and illustrated by Rotraut Susanne Berner . The book follows a young boy named Robert , who is taught mathematics by a sly " number devil " called Teplotaxl over the course of twelve dreams .
The book was met with mostly positive reviews from critics , approving its description of math while praising its simplicity . Its colorful use of fictional mathematical terms and its creative descriptions of concepts have made it a suggested book for both children and adults troubled with math . The Number Devil was a bestseller in Europe , and has been translated into English by Michael Henry Heim .
= = Plot = =
Robert is a young boy who suffers from mathematical anxiety due to his boredom in school . His mother is Mrs. Wilson . He also experiences recurring dreams — including falling down an endless slide or being eaten by a giant fish — but is interrupted from this sleep habit one night by a small devilesque creature who introduces himself as the Number Devil . Although there are many Number Devils ( from Number Heaven ) , Robert only knows him as the Number Devil before learning of his actual name , Teplotaxl , later in the story .
Over the course of twelve dreams , the Number Devil teaches Robert mathematical principles . On the first night , the Number Devil appears to Robert in an oversized world and introduces the number one . The next night , the Number Devil emerges in a forest of trees shaped like " ones " and explains the necessity of the number zero , negative numbers , and introduces hopping , a fictional term to describe exponentiation . On the third night , the Number Devil brings Robert to a cave and reveals how prima @-@ donna numbers ( prime numbers ) can only be divided by themselves and one without a remainder . Later , on the fourth night , the Number Devil teaches Robert about rutabagas , another fictional term to depict square roots , at a beach .
For a time after the fourth night , Robert cannot find the Number Devil in his dreams ; later , however , on the fifth night , Robert finds himself at a desert where the Number Devil teaches him about triangular numbers through the use of coconuts . On the sixth night , the Number Devil teaches Robert about the natural occurrence of Fibonacci numbers , which the Number Devil shortens to Bonacci numbers , by counting brown and white rabbits as they reproduce multiple times . By this dream , Robert 's mother has noticed a visible change in Robert 's mathematical interest , and Robert begins going to sleep earlier to encounter the Number Devil . The seventh night brings Robert to a bare , white room , where the Number Devil presents Pascal 's triangle and the patterns that the triangular array displays . On the eighth night , Robert is brought to his classroom at school . The Number Devil arranges Robert 's classmates in multiple ways , teaches him about permutations , and what the Number Devil calls vroom numbers ( factorials ) .
On the ninth night , Robert dreams he is in bed , suffering from the flu , when the Number Devil appears next to him . The Number Devil teaches Robert about natural numbers , which the Number Devil calls garden @-@ variety numbers , the unusual characteristics of infinite , and infinite series . Robert finds himself at the North Pole , where the Number Devil introduces irrational numbers ( unreasonable numbers ) , as well as aspects of Euclidean geometry , such as vertices ( dots ) and edges ( lines ) . By the eleventh night , Robert has shown considerable increased interest in mathematics , but questions its validity , to which the Number Devil introduces the concept of mathematical proofs , ending with the Number Devil showing Robert a complicated proof of basic arithmetic . On the twelfth night , Robert and the Number Devil receive an invitation ( which names the Number Devil as Teplotaxl ) to Number Heaven , as Robert 's time with the Number Devil has finished . At Number Heaven , Robert learns of imaginary numbers , which Teplotaxl describes as imaginative numbers , as well as the Klein bottle . Walking through Number Heaven , Teplotaxl introduces Robert to various famous mathematicians , such as Fibonacci , whom Teplotaxl calls Bonacci , and George Cantor , or Professor Singer . The book ends with Robert in class using his newfound mathematical knowledge .
= = History = =
Enzensberger fostered a passion for mathematics and numbers , although he was not a mathematician by trade . In 1998 , he delivered a speech at the International Congress of Mathematicians criticizing the isolation of mathematics from popular culture . The Number Devil was ultimately written on suggestion from Enzensberger 's eleven @-@ year @-@ old daughter Theresia . Because he was displeased with the way mathematics was taught to students at school , the German author decided to pen a book that teaches mathematics in an innovative way . German illustrator Rotraut Susanne Berner provided many full @-@ page illustrations , as well as smaller drawings , for the book . The Number Devil was first published in German in 1997 . The Number Devil has been noted for its unorthodox abandonment of standard notation ; instead , Enzensberger created a variety of fictional terms to help describe mathematical concepts . For instance , exponentiation takes the term hopping , and the fictional term unreasonable numbers was coined for irrational numbers . The UCLA Professor of Slavic Languages Michael Henry Heim translated the book from German to English . The translation was particularly difficult in that it required special attention to the numerical aspect of the book . He was also challenged by the necessity to use simple English words appropriate for the target audience of The Number Devil — that is , children aged eleven to fourteen . The mathematics book was then published in English in 1998 .
The book was a hit across Europe , becoming a best seller in at least Spain , Germany , the Netherlands , and Italy . The Number Devil also had considerable success in Japan . After the success of The Number Devil , Enzensberger wrote a follow @-@ up , called Where Were You , Robert ? , a children 's book focusing on history rather than math . The German author has since stated he will not write any more young adult 's books , but instead direct his effort towards poetry . Viva Media later published an educational computer game , similarly titled The Number Devil : A Mathematical Adventure , based on the book . An audiobook was also released for The Number Devil .
= = Reception = =
The Number Devil received mostly positive reviews from critics . Mathematics professor John Allen Paulos of Temple University wrote an article for The New York Review of Books , praising The Number Devil as a " charming numerical fairy tale for children . " Likewise , mathematics writer Martin Gardner of the Los Angeles Times applauded Enzensberger 's introduction of mathematics " in such an entertaining way . " In a book review for The Baltimore Sun , Michael Pakenham approved of the book 's simplicity , writing , " it 's not incomprehensible . Not for a minute . "
Not all reviews were positive , however . The American Mathematical Society 's Deborah Loewenberg Ball and Hyman Bass reviewed the book from a mathematical perspective . Although they praised its " attractive and imaginative fantasy , " the two mathematicians found several issues . Ball and Bass were concerned with the The Number Devil 's negative characterization of math teachers , its apparent presentation of mathematics as magical rather than factual , and a number of other contentions . Ted Dewan , writing for the Times Educational Supplement , believed it to be " far more compelling than a standard text , " but found it less adventurous than he hoped for . He also criticized its use in mathematics education , stating " I suspect this is the sort of book that well @-@ meaning adults will mistakenly thrust upon children because it will be good for them . "
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= Vojislav Lukačević =
Vojislav Lukačević ( Serbian Cyrillic : Војислав Лукачевић ; 1908 – 14 August 1945 ) was a Serbian Chetnik commander in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia during World War II . At the outbreak of war , he held the rank of captain of the reserves in the Royal Yugoslav Army .
When the Axis powers invaded Yugoslavia in April 1941 , Lukačević became a leader of Chetniks in the Sandžak region and joined the movement of Draža Mihailović . While the Chetniks were an anti @-@ Axis movement in their long @-@ range goals and did engage in marginal resistance activities for limited periods , they also pursued almost throughout the war a tactical or selective collaboration with the occupation authorities against the Yugoslav Partisans . They engaged in cooperation with the Axis powers to one degree or another by establishing modi vivendi or operating as auxiliary forces under Axis control . Lukačević himself collaborated extensively with the Italians and the Germans in actions against the Yugoslav Partisans until mid @-@ 1944 .
In January and February 1943 , while under the overall command of Major Pavle Đurišić , Captain Lukačević and his Chetniks participated in several massacres of the Muslim population of Bosnia , Herzegovina and the Sandžak . Immediately after this , Lukačević and his Chetniks participated in one of the largest Axis anti @-@ Partisan operations of the war , Case White , where they fought alongside Italian , German and Croatian ( NDH ) troops . The following November , Lukačević concluded a formal collaboration agreement with the Germans and participated in a further anti @-@ Partisan offensive , Operation Kugelblitz .
In February 1944 , Lukačević travelled to London to represent Mihailović at the wedding of King Peter of Yugoslavia . After returning to Yugoslavia in mid @-@ 1944 , and in anticipation of an Allied landing on the Yugoslav coast , he decided to break with Mihailović and fight the Germans , but this was short @-@ lived , as he was captured by the Partisans a few months later . After the war , he was tried for collaboration and war crimes and sentenced to death . He was executed in August 1945 .
= = Early life = =
Lukačević was born in 1908 in Belgrade , Kingdom of Serbia to a wealthy banking family . At one point , he was employed by the French civil engineering company Société de Construction des Batignolles . He attained the rank of captain in the reserves of the Royal Yugoslav Army before World War II .
= = Invasion and occupation = =
After the outbreak of World War II , the government of Regent Prince Paul of Yugoslavia declared its neutrality . Despite this , and with the aim of securing his southern flank for the pending attack on the Soviet Union , Adolf Hitler began placing heavy pressure on the Kingdom of Yugoslavia to sign the Tripartite Pact and join the Axis . After some delay , the Yugoslav government conditionally signed the Pact on 25 March 1941 . Two days later a bloodless coup d 'état deposed Prince Paul and declared 17 @-@ year @-@ old Prince Peter II of Yugoslavia of age . Following the subsequent German @-@ led invasion of Yugoslavia and the Yugoslav capitulation 11 days later , Lukačević went into hiding in the forests . He soon returned to Belgrade , where he became aware of the activities of Draža Mihailović . He then left the capital with some other officers and soldiers to form a Chetnik detachment in the Novi Pazar area of the Sandžak region . On 16 November 1941 Muslim forces from Novi Pazar and Albanian forces from Kosovo attacked Raška and quickly advanced toward the town . They were commanded by Aćif Hadžiahmetović . The situation for the defenders became very difficult , so Lukačević personally engaged himself in the defence of the town . On 17 November they stopped the advance of Hadžiahmetović 's forces and forced them to retreat . On 21 November Lukačević took part in the attack of Chetnik forces on Novi Pazar . In the summer of 1942 , Lukačević and his Chetniks fought the Partisans in Herzegovina .
= = Massacres of Muslims = =
In December 1942 , Chetniks from Montenegro and Sandžak met at a conference in the village of Šahovići near Bijelo Polje . The conference was dominated by Montenegrin Serb Chetnik commander Major Pavle Đurišić and its resolutions expressed extremism and intolerance , as well as an agenda which focused on restoring the pre @-@ war status quo in Yugoslavia implemented in its initial stages by a Chetnik dictatorship . It also laid claim to parts of the territory of Yugoslavia 's neighbors . At this conference , Mihailović was represented by his chief of staff , Major Zaharije Ostojić , who had previously been encouraged by Mihailović to wage a campaign of terror against the Muslim population living along the borders of Montenegro and the Sandžak .
The conference decided to destroy the Muslim villages in the Čajniče district of Bosnia . On 3 January 1943 , Ostojić issued orders to " cleanse " the Čajniče district of Ustaše @-@ Muslim organisations . According to the historian Radoje Pajović , Ostojić produced a detailed plan which avoided specifying what would be done with the Muslim population of the district . Instead , these instructions were to be given orally to the responsible commanders . Delays in the movement of Chetnik forces into Bosnia to participate in the anti @-@ Partisan Case White offensive alongside the Italians enabled Chetnik Supreme Command to expand the planned " cleansing " operation to include the Pljevlja district in the Sandžak and the Foča district of Bosnia . A combined Chetnik force of 6 @,@ 000 was assembled , divided into four detachments , each with its own commander . Lukačević commanded a force of 1 @,@ 600 , consisting of Chetniks from Višegrad , Priboj , Nova Varoš , Prijepolje , Pljevlja and Bijelo Polje . His force formed one of the four detachments , and Mihailović ordered that all four detachments be placed under the overall command of Đurišić .
In early February 1943 , during their advance northwest into Herzegovina in preparation for their involvement in Case White , the combined Chetnik force massacred large numbers of the Muslim population in the targeted areas . In a report to Mihailović dated 13 February 1943 , Đurišić reported that the Chetnik forces under his command had killed about 1 @,@ 200 Muslim combatants and about 8 @,@ 000 old people , women , and children , and destroyed all property except for livestock , grain and hay , which they had seized . Đurišić reported that :
The operations were executed exactly according to orders . [ ... ] All the commanders and units carried out their tasks satisfactorily . [ ... ] All Muslim villages in the three above mentioned districts are entirely burnt , so that not one of the houses remained undamaged . All property has been destroyed except cattle , corn and hay . In certain places the collection of fodder and food has been ordered so that we can set up warehouses for reserved food for the units which have remained on the terrain in order to purge it and to search the wooded areas as well as establish and strengthen the organization on the liberated territory . During operations complete annihilation of the Muslim population was undertaken , regardless of sex and age .
The orders for the " cleansing " operation stated that the Chetniks should kill all Muslim fighters , communists and Ustaše , but that they should not kill women and children . According to Pajović , these instructions were included to ensure there was no written evidence regarding the killing of non @-@ combatants . On 8 February , one Chetnik commander made a notation on their copy of written orders issued by Đurišić that the detachments had received additional orders to kill all Muslims they encountered . On 10 February , Jovan Jelovac , the commander of the Pljevlja Brigade , who was subordinated to Lukačević , told one of his battalion commanders that he was to kill everyone , in accordance with the orders of their highest commanders . According to the historian Professor Jozo Tomasevich , despite Chetnik claims that this and previous " cleansing actions " were countermeasures against Muslim aggressive activities , all circumstances point to it being Đurišić 's partial achievement of Mihailović 's previous directive to clear the Sandžak of Muslims .
= = Case White = =
Lukačević and his Chetniks were drawn into closer collaboration with the Axis during the second phase of Case White , which took place in the Neretva and Rama river valleys in late February 1943 and was one of the largest anti @-@ Partisan offensives of the war . Despite the fact that the Chetniks were an anti @-@ Axis movement in their long @-@ range goals and did engage in marginal resistance activities for limited periods , their involvement in Case White is one of the most significant examples of their tactical or selective collaboration with the Axis occupation forces . In this instance , the participating Chetniks received Italian logistic support and included those operating as legalized auxiliary forces under Italian control . During this offensive , between 12 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 Chetniks fought alongside Italian forces , and Lukačević and his Chetniks also fought alongside German and Croatian troops against the Partisans .
In February 1943 , during the second phase of Case White , Lukačević and his Chetniks jointly held the town of Konjic on the Neretva river alongside Italian troops . After being reinforced by German and NDH troops and some additional Chetniks , the combined force held the town against concerted attacks by the Partisans over a seven @-@ day period . The first attack was launched by two battalions of the 1st Proletarian Division on 19 February and was followed by repeated attacks by the 3rd Assault Division between 22 and 26 February . Unable to capture the town and its critical bridge across the Neretva , the Partisans eventually crossed the river downstream at Jablanica . Ostojić was aware of Lukačević 's collaboration with the Germans and NDH troops at Konjic but , at his trial , Mihailović denied that he himself was aware of it , claiming that Ostojić controlled the communications links and kept the information from him . During the fighting at Konjic , the Germans also supplied Lukačević 's troops with ammunition . Both Ostojić and Lukačević were highly critical of what they described as Mihailović 's bold but reckless tactics during Case White , indicating that Mihailović was largely responsible for the Chetnik failure to hold the Partisans at the Neretva .
In September 1943 , immediately following the Italian capitulation , the Italian Venezia Division , which was garrisoned at Berane , surrendered to the British Special Operations Executive Colonel S.W. " Bill " Bailey and Major Lukačević , but Lukačević and his troops were unable to control the surrendered Italians . Partisan formations arrived in Berane shortly afterward and were able to convince the Italians to join them .
= = Collaboration with the Germans = =
In September 1943 , United States Lieutenant Colonel Albert B. Seitz and Lieutenant George Musulin parachuted into the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia , along with British Brigadier Charles Armstrong . In November , Seitz and another American liaison officer , Captain Walter R. Mansfield , conducted a tour of inspection of Chetnik areas , including that of Lukačević . During their tour they witnessed fighting between Chetniks and Partisans . Due to their relative freedom of movement , the Americans assumed that the Chetniks controlled the territory they moved through . However , despite the praise that Seitz expressed for Lukačević , the Chetnik leader was collaborating with the Germans at the same time that he was hosting the visiting Americans .
In mid @-@ November 1943 , Major Lukačević was the chief of the Chetnik detachments based near Stari Ras , near Novi Pazar in the Sandžak . On 13 November , his representative concluded a formal collaboration agreement ( German : Waffenruhe @-@ Verträge ) with the representative of the German Military Commander in southeast Europe , General der Infanterie ( Lieutenant General ) Hans Felber . The agreement was signed on 19 November , and covered a large portion of the Sandžak and the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia , bounded by Bajina Bašta , the Drina river , the Tara river , Bijelo Polje , Rožaje , Kosovska Mitrovica , the Ibar river , Kraljevo , Čačak and Užice . Under the agreement , a special German liaison officer was assigned to Lukačević to advise on tactics , ensure cooperation , and facilitate arms and ammunition supply . British Prime Minister Winston Churchill read the decrypted text of the agreement between Lukačević and Felber , which had a significant influence on the changing attitude of the British towards Mihailović .
In early December 1943 , Lukačević 's Chetniks participated in Operation Kugelblitz , the first of a series of German operations alongside the 1st Mountain Division , 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen , and parts of the 187th Reserve Division , the 369th ( Croatian ) Infantry Division and the 24th Bulgarian Division . The Partisans avoided decisive engagement and the operation concluded on 18 December . Also during December , the Higher SS and Police Leader in the Sandžak , SS @-@ Standartenführer Karl von Krempler , posted notices authorising local Serbs to join Lukačević 's Chetniks . On 22 December , shortly after the conclusion of Operation Kugelblitz , Oberst ( Colonel ) Josef Remold issued an order of the day commending Lukačević for his enthusiasm in fighting the Partisans in the Sandžak , and allowed him to keep some of the arms he had captured .
= = Break with Mihailović = =
In mid @-@ February 1944 , Lukačević , Baćović and another officer accompanied Bailey to the coast south of Dubrovnik and were evacuated from Cavtat by a Royal Navy gunboat . Their passage through German @-@ occupied territory was probably facilitated by Lukačević 's accommodation with the Germans . At one point , Lukačević was invited to have a meal with the German garrison commander of a nearby town , but declined the offer . Lukačević and the others then travelled via Cairo to London , where Lukačević represented Mihailović at King Peter 's wedding on 20 March 1944 . After the British government decided to withdraw support from Mihailović , Lukačević and his Chetnik companions were not allowed to return to Yugoslavia until the British mission to Mihailović headed by Armstrong had been safely evacuated from occupied territory . Lukačević and the others were detained by the British in Bari and thoroughly searched by local authorities , who suspected them of a robbery that had occurred in the Yugoslav consulate in Cairo a short time before . Most of the money , jewelry and uncensored letters that they were carrying were impounded . The men were flown out of Bari on 30 May , and landed on an improvised airfield at Pranjani northwest of Čačak shortly after . Because their landing at Pranjani coincided with Armstrong 's departure , Lukačević and Baćović demanded that Armstrong be held as a hostage until their impounded belongings could be returned from Bari . The Chetniks at the airfield refused to keep Armstrong any further , and he was allowed to depart without incident .
In mid @-@ 1944 , after Mihailović was removed from his post as Minister of the Army , Navy and Air Force as a result of the dismissal of the Purić government by King Peter , Lukačević attempted to independently contact the Allies in Italy in the hope of " reaching an understanding on a common fight against the enemy " . When these attempts failed , Lukačević announced in August 1944 that he and other Chetnik commanders in eastern Bosnia , eastern Herzegovina and Sandžak were no longer obeying orders from Mihailović , and were forming an independent resistance movement to fight the occupiers and those collaborating with them . In early September , he issued a proclamation to the people explaining his reasons for attacking the Germans . On 19 October , Lukačević proposed that the Chetniks change their policy to greet the Red Army as liberators and ask to be taken under the command of a Russian general . He also tried to arrange a non @-@ aggression pact with the Partisans . Subsequently , he deployed his 4 @,@ 500 Chetniks into southern Herzegovina and for several days from 22 September they attacked the 369th ( Croatian ) Infantry Division and the Trebinje – Dubrovnik railway line , capturing some villages and taking hundreds of prisoners . Mihailović formally relieved Lukačević of his command and asked other Chetnik commanders to act against him . However , the Partisans , concerned Lukačević was trying to link up with a feared British landing on the Adriatic coast , attacked his forces on 25 September , first capturing his stronghold at Bileća and then comprehensively defeating him . With several hundred remaining Chetniks , Lukačević withdrew as far as Foča before returning to the Bileća area in the hope of linking up with small detachments of British troops that had been landed to support Partisan operations . Instead he was captured by the Partisans .
= = Trial and execution = =
Lukačević , along with other defendants , was tried by a military court in Belgrade between 28 July and 9 August 1945 . He was accused of conducting the massacre at Foča , participating in the extermination of the Muslim population , collaboration with the occupying forces and the Serbian puppet government of General Milan Nedić and the commission of crimes against the Partisans . He was found guilty of various offences and executed by firing squad on 14 August 1945 .
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= Carlos Menem =
Carlos Saúl Menem ( born July 2 , 1930 ) is an Argentine politician who was President of Argentina from 1989 to 1999 . He has been a Senator for La Rioja Province since 2005 .
Born in Anillaco , he became a Peronist during a visit to Buenos Aires . He led the party in his home province of La Rioja , and was elected governor in 1973 . He was deposed and detained during the 1976 Argentine coup d 'état , and was elected governor again in 1983 . He defeated the Buenos Aires governor Antonio Cafiero in the primary elections for the 1989 presidential elections , which he won . Hyperinflation forced outgoing president Raúl Alfonsín to resign early , shortening the presidential transition .
Menem supported the Washington Consensus , and tackled inflation with the Convertibility plan in 1991 . The plan was complemented by a series of privatizations , and was a success . Argentina re @-@ established diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom , suspended since the 1982 Falklands War , and developed special relations with the United States . The country suffered two terrorist attacks . The Peronist victory in the 1993 midterm elections allowed him to force Alfonsín to sign the Pact of Olivos for the 1994 amendment of the Argentine Constitution . This amendment allowed Menem to run for re @-@ election in 1995 , which he won . A new economic crisis began , and the opposing parties formed a political coalition that won the 1997 midterm elections and the 1999 presidential election .
Menem ran for the presidency again in 2003 , but unsure of winning against Néstor Kirchner , he resigned . He was elected senator for La Rioja in 2005 .
= = Early life and education = =
Carlos Saúl Menem was born in 1930 in Anillaco , a small town in the mountainous north of La Rioja Province , Argentina . His parents , Saúl Menem and Mohibe Akil , were Syrian nationals from Yabroud who had emigrated to Argentina . He attended elementary and high school in La Rioja , and joined a basketball team during his university studies . He visited Buenos Aires in 1951 with the team , and met the president Juan Perón and his wife Eva Perón . This influenced Menem to become a Peronist . He studied law at the National University of Córdoba , graduating in 1955 .
After President Juan Perón 's overthrow in 1955 , Menem was briefly incarcerated . He later joined the successor to the Peronist Party , the Justicialist Party ( Partido Justicialista ) ( PJ ) . He was elected president of its La Rioja Province chapter in 1973 . In that capacity , he was included in the flight to Spain that brought Perón back to Argentina after his long exile . According to the Peronist politician Juan Manuel Abal Medina , Menem played no special part in the event .
= = Governor of la Rioja = =
= = = 1st term ( 1973 – 1976 ) and detainment = = =
Menem was elected governor in 1973 , when the proscription over Peronism was lifted . He was deposed during the 1976 Argentine coup d 'état that deposed the president Isabel Martínez de Perón . He was accused of corruption , and having links with the guerrillas of the Dirty War . He was detained on March 25 , kept for a week at a local regiment , and then moved to a temporary prison at the ship " 33 Orientales " in Buenos Aires . He was detained alongside former ministers Antonio Cafiero , Jorge Taiana , Miguel Unamuno , José Deheza , and Pedro Arrighi , the unionists Jorge Triaca , Diego Ibáñez , and Lorenzo Miguel , the diplomat Jorge Vázquez , the journalist Osvaldo Papaleo , and the former president Raúl Lastiri . He shared a cell with Pedro Eladio Vázquez , Juan Perón 's personal physician . During this time he helped the chaplain Lorenzo Lavalle , despite being a Muslim . In July he was sent to Magdalena , to a permanent prison . His wife Zulema visited him every week , but rejected his conversion to Christianity . His mother died during the time he was a prisoner , and dictator Jorge Rafael Videla denied his request to attend her funeral . He was released on July 29 , 1978 , on the condition that he live in a city outside his home province without leaving it . He settled in Mar del Plata .
Menem met Admiral Eduardo Massera , who intended to run for president , and had public meetings with personalities such as Carlos Monzón , Susana Giménez , and Alberto Olmedo . As a result , he was forced to reside in another city , Tandil . He had to report daily to Chief of Police Hugo Zamora . This forced residence was lifted in February 1980 . He returned to Buenos Aires , and then to La Rioja . He resumed his political activities , despite the prohibition , and was detained again . His new forced residence was in Las Lomitas , in Formosa Province . He was one of the last politicians to be released from prison by the National Reorganization Process .
= = = 2nd and 3rd terms ( 1983 – 1989 ) = = =
Military rule ended in 1983 , and the radical Raúl Alfonsín was elected president . Menem run for governor again , and was elected by a clear margin . The province benefited from tax regulations established by the military , which allowed increased industrial growth . His party got control of the provincial legislature , and he was re @-@ elected in 1987 with 63 % of the vote . The PJ was divided in two factions , the conservatives that still supported the political doctrines of Juan and Isabel Perón , and those who proposed a renovation of the party . The internal disputes ceased in 1987 . Menem , with his prominent victory in his district , was one of the leading figures of the party , and disputed its leadership .
= = Presidential elections = =
Antonio Cafiero , who had been elected governor of Buenos Aires Province , led the renewal of the PJ , and was considered their most likely candidate for the presidency . Menem , on the other hand , was seen as a populist leader . Using a big tent approach , he got support from several unrelated political figures . As a result , he defeated Cafiero in the primary elections . He sought alliances with Bunge and Born , union leaders , former members of Montoneros , and the AAA , people from the church , " Carapintadas " , etc . He promised a " revolution of production " and huge wage increases ; but it was not clear exactly which policies he was proposing . The rival candidate , Eduardo Angeloz , tried to point out the mistakes made by Menem and Alfonsín . Jacques de Mahieu , a French ideologue of the Peronist movement ( and former Vichy collaborator ) , was photographed campaigning for Menem .
The elections were held on May 14 , 1989 . Menem won by a wide margin , and became the new president . He was scheduled to take office on December 10 , but inflation levels took a turn for the worse , growing into hyperinflation , causing public riots . The outgoing president Alfonsín resigned and transferred power to Menem five months early , on July 8 . Menem 's accession marked the first time since Hipólito Yrigoyen took office in 1916 that an incumbent government was peacefully succeeded by a president from an opposition party .
= = Presidency = =
= = = Economic policy = = =
When Menem began his presidency , there was massive hyperinflation and a recession . Most economists of the time thought that the ideal solution was the Washington Consensus : reduce expenditures below the amount of money earned by the state , and open international commerce to free trade . Alfonsín had proposed similar plans in the past , alongside some privatization ; but those projects were resisted by the PJ . The plan was resisted by factions benefiting from the protectionist policies , but the magnitude of the crisis convinced most politicians to change their minds . Menem , fearing that the crisis might force him to resign as well , embraced the Washington Consensus and rejected the traditional policies of Peronism . He invited the conservative politicians Álvaro Alsogaray and María Julia Alsogaray into his cabinet , as well as businessmen from Bunge and Born .
Congress sanctioned the economic emergency law and the state reform law . The first allowed the president to reduce or remove subsidies , and the latter to privatize state enterprises – the first being telephones and airlines . These privatizations were beneficial to foreign creditors , who replaced their bonds with company shares . Despite increased tax revenue , and the money from privatizations , the economy was still unstable . The Bunge and Born businessmen left the government in late 1989 , amid a second round of hyperinflation . The first measure of the new minister of economy , Érman González , was a mandatory conversion of time deposits into government bonds : the Bonex plan . It generated more recession , but hyperinflation was reduced .
His fourth minister of economy , Domingo Cavallo , was appointed in 1991 . He deepened the neoliberal reforms . The Convertibility plan was sanctioned by the Congress , setting a one @-@ to @-@ one fixed exchange rate between the United States dollar and the new Argentine peso , which replaced the Austral . The law also limited public expenditures , but this was frequently ignored . There was increased free trade to reduce inflation , and high taxes on sales and earnings to reduce the deficit caused by it . Initially , the plan was a success : the capital flights ended , interest and inflation rates were lowered , and economic activity increased . The money from privatizations allowed Argentina to repurchase many of the Brady Bonds issued during the crisis . The privatizations of electricity , water , and gas were more successful than previous ones . YPF , the national oil refinery , was privatized as well , but the state kept a good portion of the shares . The project to privatize the pension funds was resisted in Congress , and was approved as a mixed system that allowed both public and private options for workers . The national state also signed a fiscal pact with the provinces , so that they reduced their local deficits as well . Buenos Aires Province was helped with a fund that gave the governor a million pesos daily .
Although the Convertibility plan had positive consequences in the short term , it caused problems that surfaced later . Large numbers of employees of privatized state enterprises were fired , and unemployment grew to over 10 % . Big compensation payments prevented an immediate public reaction . The free trade , and the expensive costs in dollars , forced private companies to reduce the number of workers as well , or risk bankruptcy . Unions were unable to resist the changes . People with low incomes , such as retirees and state workers , suffered under tax increases while their wages remained frozen . The provinces of Santiago del Estero , Jujuy and San Juan had their first violent riots . To compensate for these problems , the government started a number of social welfare programs , and restored protectionist policies over some sectors of the economy . It was difficult for Argentine companies to export , and easy imports damaged most national producers . The national budget soon slid into deficit .
Cavallo began a second wave of privatizations with the Correo Argentino and the nuclear power plants . He also limited the amount of money released to the provinces . He still had the full support of Menem , despite growing opposition within the PJ . The Mexican Tequila Crisis impacted the national economy , causing a deficit , recession , and a growth in unemployment . The government further reduced public expenditures , the wages of state workers , and raised taxes . The deficit and recession were reduced , but unemployment stayed high . External debt increased . The crisis also proved that the economic system was vulnerable to capital flight . The growing discontent over unemployment and the scandals caused by the privatization of the Correo led to Cavallo 's removal as minister , and his replacement by Roque Fernández . Fernández maintained Cavallo 's fiscal austerity . He increased the price of fuels , sold the state shares of YPF to Repsol , fired state employees , and increased the value @-@ added tax to 21 % . He also undertook more privatization . A new labor law was met with resistance , both by Peronists , opposition parties , and unions , and could not be approved by Congress . The 1997 Asian financial crisis and the 1998 Russian financial crisis also affected the country with consequences that lasted longer than the Tequilla Crisis and started a depression .
= = = Domestic policy = = =
Menem began his presidency assuming a non @-@ confrontational approach , and appointing people from the conservative opposition , and business people to his cabinet . To prevent successful legal cases against the projected privatizations , the Supreme Court 's numbers were increased from five to nine judges ; the new judges ruled in support of Menem and usually had the majority . Other institutions that restrained or limited executive power were controlled as well . When Congress resisted some of his proposals , he used the Necessity and Urgency Decree as an alternative to send bills to it . He even considered it feasible to dissolve Congress and rule by decree , but this step was never implemented . In addition , he developed a bon vivant lifestyle , taking advantage of his authority . For instance , he made a journey from Buenos Aires to Pinamar driving a Ferrari Testarossa in less than two hours , violating speed limits . He divorced his wife Zulema Yoma and expanded the Quinta de Olivos presidential residence with a golf course , a small zoo , servants , barber , and even a buffoon .
The swiftgate scandal broke out in 1990 , as American investors were damaged by a case of corruption , and asked for assistance from the United States ' Ambassador Terence Todman . Most of the ministers resigned as a result of it . Cavallo was reassigned as minister of economy , and his successful economic plan turned him into a prominent figure in Menem 's cabinet . Cavallo brought a number of independent economists to the cabinet , and Menem supported him by replacing Peronist politicians . Both teams complemented each other . Both Menem and Cavallo tried to be recognized as the designer of the convertibility plan .
Antonio Cafiero , a rival of Menem in the PJ , was unable to amend the constitution of the Buenos Aires province to run for a re @-@ election . Duhalde stepped down from the vice presidency and became the new governor in the 1991 elections , turning the province into a powerful bastion . Menem also selected famous people with no political background to run for office in those elections including the singer Palito Ortega and racing driver Carlos Reutemann . The elections were a big success for the PJ . After these elections , all of the PJ was aligned with Menem 's leadership , with the exception of a small number of legislators known as the " Group of Eight " . The opposition from the UCR was minimal , as the party was still discredited by the 1989 crisis . With such political influence , Menem began his proposal to amend the constitution to allow a re @-@ election . The party did not have the required super majority in the Congress to call for it . The PJ was divided , as other politicians intended to replace Menem in 1995 , or negotiate their support . The UCR was divided as well , as Alfonsín opposed the proposal , but governors Angeloz and Massaccesi were open for negotiations . The victory in the 1993 elections strengthened his proposal , which was approved by the Senate . Menem called for a non @-@ binding referendum on the proposal , to increase pressure on the radical deputies . He also sent a bill to the Congress to modify the majority requirements . Alfonsín met with Menem and agreed to support the proposal in exchange for amendments that would place limits on presidential power . This negotiation is known as the Pact of Olivos . The capital city of Buenos Aires would be allowed to elect its own chief of government . Presidential elections would use a system of ballotage , and the president could only be re @-@ elected once . The electoral college was abolished , replaced by direct elections . The provinces would be allowed to elect a third senator ; two for the majority party and one for the first minority . The Council of Magistrates of the Nation would have the power to propose new judges , and the Necessity and Urgency Decrees would have a reduced scope .
Despite of the internal opposition of Fernando de la Rúa , Alfonsín got his party to approve the pact . He reasoned that Menem would be supported by the eventual referendum , that many legislators would turn to his side , and he would eventually be able to amend the constitution reinforcing presidential power rather than limiting it . Still , as both sides feared a betrayal , all the contents of the pact were included as a single proposal , not allowing the Constituent Assembly to discuss each one separately . The Broad Front , a new political party composed of former Peronists , led by Carlos Álvarez , grew in the elections for the Constituent Assembly . Both the PJ and the UCR respected the pact , which was completely approved . Duhalde made a similar amendment to the constitution of the Buenos Aires province , in order to be re @-@ elected in 1995 . Menem won the elections with more than 50 % of the vote , followed by José Octavio Bordón , and Carlos Álvarez . The UCR finished third in the elections for the first time .
Growing unemployment increased popular resistance against Menem after his re @-@ election . There were several riots and demonstrations in the provinces , unions opposed the economic policies , and the opposing parties organized the first cacerolazos . Estanislao Esteban Karlic replaced Antonio Quarracino as the head of the Argentine Episcopal Conference , which led to a growing opposition to Menem from the Church . The teachers ' unions established a " white tent " at the Congressional plaza as a form of protest . The first piqueteros operated in Cutral Có , and this protest method was soon imitated in the rest of the country . His authority in the PJ was also held in doubt , as he was unable to run for another re @-@ election and the party sought a candidate for the 1999 elections . This led to a fierce rivalry with Duhalde , the most likely candidate . Menem attempted to undermine his chances , and proposed a new amendment to the constitution allowing him to run for an unlimited number of re @-@ elections . He also started a judicial case , claiming that his inability to run for a third term was a proscription . Several scandals erupted , such as the scandal over Argentine arms sales to Ecuador and Croatia , the Río Tercero explosion that may have destroyed evidence , the murder of the journalist José Luis Cabezas , and the suicide of Alfredo Yabrán , who may have ordered it . The PJ lost the 1997 midterm elections against the UCR and the FREPASO united in a political coalition , the Alliance for Work , Justice and Education ( Alianza ) . The Supreme Court confirmed that Menem was unable to run for a third re @-@ election . Duhalde became the candidate for the presidential elections , and lost to the candidate for the Alianza ticket , Fernando de la Rúa .
= = = Armed forces = = =
Argentina was still divided by the aftermath of the Dirty War . Menem proposed an agenda of national reconciliation . First , he arranged the repatriation of the body of Juan Manuel de Rosas , a controversial 19th century governor , and proposed to reconcile his legacy with those of Bartolomé Mitre and Domingo Faustino Sarmiento , who also fought in the Argentine Civil Wars . Menem intended to use the reconciliation of these historical Argentine figures as a metaphor for the reconciliation of the Dirty War . However , although the repatriation and acceptance of Rosas was a success , the acceptance of the military regime was not .
The military leaders of the National Reorganization Process , convicted in the 1985 Trial of the Juntas , received presidential pardons , despite popular opposition to them . This was an old request of the Carapintadas in previous years . However , Menem did not apply their proposed changes to the military . The colonel , Mohamed Alí Seineldín , who was also pardoned , started a new mutiny , killing two military men . Unlike the mutinies that took place during the presidency of Alfonsín , the military fully obeyed Menem 's orders for a forceful repression . Seineldín was utterly defeated , and sentenced to life imprisonment . This was the last military mutiny in Argentina .
The president effected drastic cuts to the military budget , and privatized military factories . Menem appointed Lt. Gen. Martín Balza , who had performed well during the repression of Seineldín 's mutiny , as the Army 's General Chief of Staff ( head of the military hierarchy ) . The death of a conscript soldier in 1994 , victim of abuses by his superiors , led to the abolition of conscription in the country . The following year , Balza voiced the first institutional self @-@ criticism of the armed forces during the Dirty War , saying that obedience did not justify the actions committed in those years .
= = = Terrorist attacks = = =
The Israeli embassy suffered a terrorist attack on March 17 , 1992 . It was perceived as a consequence of Argentina 's involvement in the Gulf War . Although Hezbollah claimed responsibility for it , the Supreme Court investigated several other hypotheses . The Court wrote a report in 1996 suggesting that it could have been the explosion of an arms cache stored in the basement . Another hypothesis was that the attack could have been performed by Jewish extremists , in order to cast blame on Muslims and thwart the peace negotiations . The Court finally held Hezbollah responsible for the attack in May 1999 .
The Argentine Israelite Mutual Association suffered a terrorist attack with a car bomb on July 18 , 1994 , which killed eighty @-@ five people . It was the most destructive terrorist attack in the history of Latin America . The attack was universally condemned and 155 @,@ 000 people manifested their concern in a demonstration at the Congressional plaza ; but Menem did not attend . The legal case stayed unresolved during the remainder of Menem 's presidency . Menem had suggested , in the first press conference , that former Carapintada leaders may be responsible of the attack , but this idea was rejected by the minister of defense several hours later . The CIA office in Buenos Aires initially considered it a joint Iranian @-@ Syrian attack , but some days later considered it just an Iranian attack . Menem and Mossad also preferred this line of investigation . As a result of the attack , the Jewish community in Argentina had increased influence over Argentine politics . Years later , the prosecutor Alberto Nisman charged Menem with covering up a local connection to the attack , as the local terrorists may have been distant Syrian relatives of the Menem family . However , Menem was never tried for this suspected cover up .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
During his presidency , Argentina aligned with the United States , and had special relations with the country . Menem had a positive relation with US president George H. W. Bush , and maintained it with his successor Bill Clinton . The country left the Non @-@ Aligned Movement , and the Cóndor missile program was discontinued . Argentina supported all the international positions of the US , and sent forces to the Gulf War , and the peace keeping efforts after the Kosovo War . The country was accepted as a Major non @-@ NATO ally , but not as a full member .
Menem 's government re @-@ established relations with the United Kingdom , suspended since the Falklands War , after Margaret Thatcher left office in 1990 . The discussions on the Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute were temporarily given a lower priority , and the focus shifted to discussions of fishing rights . He also settled all remaining border issues with Chile . The Lago del Desierto dispute had an international arbitration , favourable to Argentina . The only exception was the dispute over the Southern Patagonian Ice Field , which is still open .
In 1991 Menem became the first head of state of Argentina to make a diplomatic visit to Israel . He proposed to mediate between Israel and Syria in their negotiations over the Golan Heights . The diplomatic relations were damaged by the lack of results in the investigations over the two terrorist attacks .
= = Post @-@ presidency = =
Menem ran in 2003 and won the greatest number of votes , 24 % , in the first round of the April 27 , 2003 presidential election ; but votes were split among numerous parties . 45 % is required for election ( or 40 % if the margin of victory is 10 or more percentage points ) . A second @-@ round run @-@ off vote between Menem and second @-@ place finisher , and fellow Peronist , Néstor Kirchner , who had received 22 % , was scheduled for May 18 . By that time , Menem had become very unpopular . Polls predicted that he faced almost certain defeat by Kirchner in the runoff . Most polls showed Kirchner taking at least 60 percent of the vote , and at least one poll showed Menem losing by as many as 50 points . To avoid a humiliating electoral defeat , Menem withdrew his candidacy on May 14 , effectively handing the presidency to Kirchner .
Ángel Maza , the elected governor of La Rioja , was allied with Menem , and had campaigned for him . However , weak provincial finances forced Maza to switch his support to Kirchner , which weakened Menem 's influence even further . In June 2004 Menem announced that he had founded a new faction within the PJ , called " People 's Peronism . " He announced his intention to run in the 2007 election . In 2005 , the press reported that he was trying to form an alliance with his former minister of economy Cavallo to fight in the parliamentary elections . Menem said that there had been only preliminary conversations and an alliance did not result . In the October 23 , 2005 elections , Menem won the minority seat in the Senate representing his province of birth . The two seats allocated to the majority were won by President Kirchner 's faction , locally led by Ángel Maza .
Menem ran for Governor of La Rioja in August 2007 , but was defeated . He finished in third place with about 22 % of the vote . This was viewed as a catastrophic defeat , signaling the end of his political dominance in La Rioja . It was the first time in 30 years that Menem had lost an election . Following this defeat in his home province , he withdrew his candidacy for president . At the end of 2009 he announced that he intended to run for the presidency again in the 2011 elections. but ran for a new term as senator instead .
= = = Corruption charges = = =
On June 7 , 2001 , Menem was arrested over a weapons export scandal . It was based on exports to Ecuador and Croatia in 1991 and 1996 . He was held under house arrest until November . He appeared before a judge in late August 2002 and denied all charges . Menem and his second wife Cecilia Bolocco , who had had a child since their marriage in 2001 , moved to Chile . Argentine judicial authorities repeatedly requested Menem 's extradition to face embezzlement charges . This request was rejected by the Chilean Supreme Court as under Chilean law , people cannot be extradited for questioning . On December 22 , 2004 , after the arrest warrants were cancelled , Menem returned with his family to Argentina . He still faced charges of embezzlement and failing to declare illegal funds in a Swiss bank . He was declared innocent of those charges in 2013 .
In August 2008 , the BBC reported that Menem was under investigation for his role in the 1995 Río Tercero explosion , which is alleged to have been part of the weapons scandal involving Croatia and Ecuador . Following an Appeals Court ruling that found Menem guilty of aggravated smuggling , he was sentenced to seven years in prison on June 13 , 2013 , for his role in illegally smuggling weapons to Ecuador and Croatia ; his position as senator earned him immunity from incarceration , and his advanced age ( 82 ) afforded him the possibility of house arrest . His minister of defense during the weapons sales , Oscar Camilión , was concurrently sentenced to 5 and a half years .
In December 2008 , the German multinational Siemens agreed to pay an $ 800 million fine to the United States government , and approximately € 700 million to the German government , to settle allegations of bribery . The settlement revealed that Menem had received about US $ 2 million in bribes from Siemens in exchange for awarding the national ID card and passport production contract to Siemens ; Menem denied the charges but nonetheless agreed to pay the fine .
On December 1 , 2015 , Menem was also found guilty of embezzlement , and sentenced four and half years to prison . Domingo Cavallo , his economy minister , and Raúl Granillo Ocampo , Menem 's former minister of justice , also received prison sentences of more than three years for participating in the scheme , and were ordered to repay hundreds of thousands of pesos ’ worth of illegal bonuses .
= = Public image = =
In his initial times , Menem sported an image similar to the old caudillos , such as Facundo Quiroga and Chacho Peñaloza . He also groomed his sideburns in a similar style . His presidential inauguration was attended by several gauchos . Contrary to Peronist tradition , Carlos Menem did not prepare huge rallies in the Plaza de Mayo to address the people from the balcony of the Casa Rosada . Instead of that , he took full advantage of mass communication media , such as television .
= = Honour = =
= = = Foreign honour = = =
Malaysia : Honorary Recipient of the Order of the Crown of the Realm ( 1991 )
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= Pacer ( album ) =
Pacer is an album released in October 1995 by the Amps , Kim Deal 's side project from her group the Breeders , who took a break from playing together beginning in late 1994 . Deal recruited two new musicians and named the group the Amps . The band recorded Pacer at several studios in the USA and in Ireland , with different engineers each time , including Steve Albini , Bryce Goggin , and John Agnello .
The album received mixed reviews , ranging from highly enthusiastic to quite dismissive . Despite radio airplay for its single , " Tipp City " , Pacer did not sell well . The Amps toured in 1995 and 1996 with groups such as Sonic Youth , Guided By Voices , and Foo Fighters . In 1996 , Deal changed the band 's name back to the Breeders , making Pacer the Amps ' only album .
= = Background = =
Kim Deal 's band the Breeders released Last Splash in August 1993 ; the album was very successful , and its release was followed by much touring . The Breeders then took an extended break from activity . One reason was that Deal 's sister Kelley , who was also in the group , was arrested on drug charges in November 1994 . Member Josephine Wiggs likewise took time away from the band , although Wiggs and Deal have different memories of the circumstances surrounding this . Wiggs recalls offering to be involved if Deal 's next album was going to be a Breeders record , but having the impression that Deal wanted to do a solo release ; Deal remembers Wiggs declining to be part of any immediate Breeders ' recording , but offering to be on the one after that .
Regardless of the causes of the Breeders ' hiatus , by early 1995 Deal believed her next album would be a solo one , and at first intended to play all instruments on it herself . Back at her home in Dayton , Ohio , she practiced the drums and initially prepared six songs for recording . Around the same time , she produced some tracks for Guided by Voices at Easley Studios in Memphis , Tennessee . While there , Deal used a portion of the studio time to record demos for some of her new songs . As an attempt to distract her sister from her drug problems , Deal recruited Kelley to play on three songs at this initial recording session . Kelley 's involvement changed Deal 's mind about playing all the instruments herself , and she began to conceptualize the album as a band project .
After the Easley recording session , Deal returned to Dayton . She asked Breeders ' drummer Jim Macpherson to play drums in the new project , and Dayton musicians Luis Lerma and Nate Farley to play bass and guitar , respectively . Deal adopted a stage persona for herself named Tammy Ampersand , and called the band " Tammy and the Amps " ; this later evolved into simply " the Amps " . The group began by performing at small shows , and learned the songs well to prepare for recording the album . At some point during the recording sessions , Kelley 's drug difficulties and rehabilitation prevented her from continuing as a member of the band .
= = Recording = =
Pacer was recorded at seven studios in total , with different engineers each time . The track " Tipp City " was used from the original session at Easley Studios , recorded in February 1995 and engineered by Doug Easley and Davis McCain . The Amps ' next session was with engineer Steve Albini at his Chicago studio . Deal had previously worked with Albini on the Pixies ' Surfer Rosa and the Breeders ' Pod releases . The Amps and Albini recorded songs including further versions of " Tipp City " , which are unreleased , and " Hoverin " ; an earlier version of the latter song had previously been released on the Breeders ' " Divine Hammer " single in October 1993 . Other recording sessions , whose various engineers included Bryce Goggin and John Agnello , took place at studios in Long Island and Woodstock , New York , as well as Dayton , Los Angeles , and Dublin , Ireland .
In a 1996 interview , Deal said that for Pacer , she focused on the vocals : " Usually , I tend to spend more time with the instruments . Last Splash had quite a few instrumentals and quite a few songs where I might say five words . [ On Pacer , the ] songs are all vocal @-@ heavy . The vocal leads , and if you take the vocal away , you don 't have much of a song . " The sound of the album has been described as " lo @-@ fi " .
= = Release = =
Pacer was released in late October 1995 . It peaked at No. 60 on the UK Album Chart , and No. 29 on the American Heatseekers Album chart . " Tipp City " was released as the album 's single and included an alternate version of " Empty Glasses " , as well as a cover of the Tasties ' " Just Like a Briar " . The single received some radio airplay in the USA , and reached No. 61 on the UK Singles Chart , but Pacer did not sell well .
= = Reception = =
Critical appraisal of Pacer has been mixed . Allmusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine describes the album as " exciting , gut @-@ level rock & roll " . The Rough Guide to Rock calls Pacer " satisfyingly lo @-@ fi " . In Spin magazine , reviewer Joy Press writes that the album includes " a half @-@ dozen gems " but that its overall " foggy sound " and " indecipherable lyrics " prevent the listener from fully embracing the work . Robert Christgau considers the album 's songs to be " definitely slight " and " uneven " but praises the vocals , stating that " speedy or dreamy , Kim Deal sounds so sane , so unpretentious , so goddamn nice that you want to take her home and give her a shampoo " . In The Trouser Press Guide to ' 90s Rock , critic Ira Robbins writes that " Other than the fine title track and a few others , the performances are forced and lackluster ; the production varies between flat and colorless . " The New Rolling Stone Album Guide similarly praises the title song while dismissing the rest of the album as " forgettable " .
= = Aftermath = =
The Amps toured in 1995 and 1996 , with bands including Guided by Voices , Sonic Youth , Brainiac , the Tasties , Helium , and Foo Fighters . Later in 1996 , the group added member Carrie Bradley ( who had played on Pod ) , and Deal changed its name back to the Breeders . The band 's lineup continued to evolve , and within a few years , Deal was the only of the former Amps left in the group . Pacer is the sole album that the Amps released .
A number of artists have covered songs from Pacer . The Muffs included a version of " Pacer " on their compilation albums Hamburger and Kaboodle . On Gigantic : A Tribute to Kim Deal , released on American Laundromat Records , the German Art Students covered " Bragging Party " and Tara King Theory , " Tipp City " . Musician Girl Talk included a sample of " Tipp City " on " Touch 2 Feel " on his album Unstoppable . The Breeders themselves released a new version of " Full on Idle " on Title TK and over the years have sometimes performed Amps ' songs at their concerts .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Kim Deal , except where noted .
= = Chart positions = =
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= Gravity ( Lecrae album ) =
Gravity is the sixth studio album by American Christian hip hop artist Lecrae , released on September 4 , 2012 . The album features appearances from Big K.R.I.T. , Mathai , Ashthon Jones , and Mali Music , along with labelmates Trip Lee , Andy Mineo , Derek Minor , who was formerly known as PRo , and Tedashii . Producers on the album include DJ Khalil , Street Symphony 's Heat Academy , and The Watchmen . The first single off the album , " I Know " , was released on July 24 , 2012 , and was followed by " Tell the World " featuring Mali Music on August 15 , 2012 , and " Mayday " featuring Big K.R.I.T. and Ashthon Jones on August 30 , 2012 . Reach Records released five music videos for the album : " Lord Have Mercy " , featuring Tedashii along with No Malice of Clipse , on August 1 , 2012 , " Tell the World " , featuring Mali Music , on October 19 , 2012 , " Mayday " , featuring Big K.R.I.T. and Ashthon Jones , on December 13 , 2012 , " Fakin ' " , featuring Thi 'sl , on February 1 , 2013 , and " Confe $ $ ions " , featuring David Banner , on April 30 , 2013 .
The first week of sales for the album set a new record for Lecrae , with Gravity debuting at No. 3 on the Billboard 200 with 72 @,@ 000 units sold , and was the biggest sales week ever for a Christian hip hop album . The bonus track " Fuego " featuring KB and Suzy Rock from the iTunes deluxe edition of the album peaked at No. 20 on the Billboard Top Heatseekers Songs , No. 13 on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Digital charts , and No. 64 on the Hot Digital Songs charts . Critically , Gravity was very well received , and is considered Lecrae 's strongest , most mainstream work to date . It won Best Gospel Album at the 2013 Grammy Awards and Best Rap / Hip Hop Album at the 2013 Dove Awards .
= = Background = =
Gravity is a follow @-@ up to the mixtape Church Clothes , which was released earlier in 2012 , and Lecrae 's two previous studio albums , Rehab , which was released in September 2010 , and Rehab : The Overdose , which followed five months later . The Church Clothes mixtape was released for free on May 10 , 2012 , and was hosted by DJ Don Cannon . It was considered Lecrae 's step into the mainstream due to his collaboration with artists such as No Malice of Clipse and the producers 9th Wonder , Boi @-@ 1da , S1 and Street Symphony . The featuring of mainstream artists , particularly Don Cannon , was controversial within Christian circles . The mixtape was downloaded on DatPiff.com almost 100 @,@ 000 times within 48 hours and in less than a month reached 250 @,@ 000 downloads , a platinum rating on DatPiff.com.
Lecrae said in a statement to AllHipHop : " With the release of Gravity , I really wanted to expand on my previous work while still making sure to keep it all very authentic to who I am as an artist as well as a person [ . ] When I released Church Clothes earlier this year , it was the precursor of what 's come with this album . It introduced my music to new audiences , allowing me to impact others . "
= = Recording and production = =
Lecrae stated in an exclusive video with AllHipHop that after recording Church Clothes in March , he was on the road before beginning recording for Gravity in May . In an article by SOHH , Lecrae revealed that he had started work on the album in February , then wrapped up recording during the mid @-@ year . The album was recorded over the next couple months at Music House Studios in Atlanta , Georgia . On July 10 , 2012 , Christian hip hop website Rapzilla reported that Lecrae had shot a music video with No Malice of Clipse and with his labelmate Tedashii . The report included photographs from the video set .
Much of the production on the album was handled by producers with whom Lecrae has worked with in the past , chiefly The Watchmen and Heat Academy . The Watchmen consists of the producers J.R. , Alex Medina , and Wit while Heat Academy is led by Street Symphony . DJ Khalil , whose past production work includes Recovery by Eminem , produced the track " Mayday " , which features Big K.R.I.T. and American Idol season 10 finalist Ashthon Jones . Tyshane , who previously contributed to a track from Church Clothes , co @-@ produced the song " Violence " with ThaInnaCircle . Other producers include Dirty Rice , DJ Official , Dru Castro , and Joseph Prielozny .
Besides Big K.R.I.T. and Ashthon Jones , the album also features appearances by The Voice finalist Mathai , Mali Music , and Reach Records artists Trip Lee and Tedashii . On working with Big K.R.I.T. , Lecrae stated to Billboard that K.R.I.T. had already reached out to him before the collaboration to show his appreciation for Lecrae 's honesty . In an interview with AllHipHop , Lecrae mentioned that both he and Big K.R.I.T. have similar backgrounds , having both grown up in the Southern United States and struggled with religion under the influence of a religious grandmother .
= = Promotion and marketing = =
On May 31 , 2012 , Rapzilla posted an article featuring photos and tweets from the Gravity recording sessions . A teaser video for the album was released on YouTube on June 20 , 2012 , and announced that the album would be released in the latter half of 2012 . On July 10 , 2012 , Family Christian made the album available for pre @-@ order , and Rapzilla used this information to announce the following day that the release date was September 4 , 2012 . Also on July 10 , Lecrae posted photos from his video shoot with No Malice and Tedashii . Rapzilla responded a few days later with speculation over the possibility that in one photo Lecrae 's T @-@ shirt bore the logo of Gravity .
On July 17 , 2012 , Lecrae performed with his labelmate Andy Mineo at an Apple Store in SoHo , New York City . The performance included live renderings of songs from Rehab and Gravity . The following day , Lecrae held an exclusive preview session of the album at The Cutting Room with his industry friends and select publications including AllHipHop and Billboard . The cover art to Gravity was revealed the day after , along with an official announcement of the release date .
The lead single from the album , " I Know " , was released on July 24 , 2012 , as a complimentary free download upon pre @-@ ordering of the album . On July 27 , 2012 , Billboard reported about Gravity in its daily news show The Beat . Rapzilla also made the single available for streaming on SoundCloud . On the same day , the album 's tracklist was revealed . The music video for " Lord Have Mercy " was released on August 1 , 2012 . On August 7 , 2012 , a deluxe version of Gravity was made available for preorder on iTunes . This version includes three bonus songs featuring appearances from Suzy Rock , Tenth Avenue North , and KB , and according to Rapzilla , the album already reached the No. 9 spot on the iTunes Hip @-@ Hop / Rap Chart . Later the same day , the deluxe version moved up the No. 2 spot on the iTunes Hip @-@ Hop / Rap Chart and No. 18 overall on iTunes . On August 14 , 2012 , Lecrae launched a website for the album , and released the single " Tell the World " featuring Mali Music on August 15 , 2012 . According to a photo posted on Lecrae 's Instagram account , on August 15 , 2012 , Lecrae held another private listening session at New Era Flagship Store in Atlanta . On August 23 , 2012 , Rapzilla reported that Lecrae had shot a music video with Mali Music for the single " Tell the World " . The following day , a promotional video for the album , entitled " It All Comes Down " , was released . The fourth single for the album , " Mayday " , featuring Big K.R.I.T. and Ashthon Jones , was released on August 30 , 2012 . The music video for " Tell the World " was released on October 19 , 2012 , and announcements were been made that Lecrae had filmed music videos for " Fakin ' " , featuring Thi 'sl , and " Mayday " . The video for " Mayday " aired December 13 , 2012 on the MTV Networks channels MTV Jams , mtvU , and MTV2 . On February 1 , 2013 , Lecrae released the music video for " Fakin ' " on MTV and MTV2 , and it quickly reached No. 1 on the MTV.com Top Video Picks . Lecrae released the fifth and final music video from the album , " Confe $ $ ions " , on April 30 , 2013 , on BET 's 106 & Park It features an acting appearance by David Banner .
= = Lyrics and style = =
When asked what sets Gravity apart from his previous releases , Lecrae stated that " Obviously , there 's more risk involved in terms of just making more mature music that 's not as straight [ and ] explicit. it 's dealing with bigger issues . People may have to think a little bit more . The production is a lot bigger and more advanced than it 's been . Lyrically , as an artist , I think I 've written some of the best lyrics I 've ever written . " Lecrae provided insight into the album 's concept during an interview with Family Christian , stating that " Gravity is loosely based on Ecclesiastes and I think what Solomon was trying to do was bring some weight to life and that ’ s really what I want to do , to paint some sober pictures . " He described that " there ’ s a sober picture of how it ’ s only for a short period of time , it ’ s short @-@ lived , or that we still have Jesus . So that ’ s what I would call a weighty part , a gravitational pull to remind us of who we are in Jesus . " Billboard stated that Lecrae increased his level of production for Gravity and " mixed reggae and soul influences with his signature brash sound . " AllHipHop described the album as opening with " an influx of instruments like violin , drums , guitars " . " I Know " was described as having one of the hardest beats on the album , while " Mayday " was considered one of the most " organic " sounding tracks . " Violence " was considered one of the most energetic tracks , and was described as " caribbean @-@ esque " with a dancehall vibe . After the music video for " Lord Have Mercy " was released , an article in The Christian Post article compared the song to the Kanye West single " Mercy " , both in its title and musical style . The article elaborated that " like Kanye West 's song , " ' Lord Have Mercy ' features slowed down sampled vocals for its chorus along with heavy bass and an overall dark tone . " It noted the appearance of No Malice in the video , stating that " the chorus seems to sample his voice . "
= = Artwork and packaging = =
In a blog for the Houston Chronicle , hip @-@ hop writer Sketch the Journalist posted an article on the cover and promotional artwork for Gravity . He compared the cover as a combination of those from Quarantine by GRITS and Get Rich or Die Tryin ' by 50 Cent , and compared the promotional art to that of Braille and S1 's CloudNineteen . Sketch subsequently updated the post based off a reader comment , and added the cover of De La Soul 's AOI : Bionix in combination with the promo art for CloudNineteen in his comparison of Gravity 's cover art .
= = Touring = =
Three release parties were held for the album . The first occurred on September 28 , 2012 , in Manchester , United Kingdom , followed by Denver , Colorado on the 27th and Houston , Texas , on the 28th .
In support of the album , Lecrae toured with his entire label roster , consisting of Tedashii , Trip Lee , KB , Andy Mineo , and PRo , along with special guests Propaganda and Thi 'sl . The tour ran from October through November and stopped at 30 cities across the United States and Canada .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial reception = = =
Upon its release , Gravity debuted at No. 3 on the Billboard 200 , with 72 @,@ 000 units sold . This set a career high for Lecrae , whose previous highest sales week was 27 @,@ 000 units with Rehab , and was the best sales week ever for a Christian hip hop album . By September 23 , 2012 , the album had sold 103 @,@ 000 copies . In the first week of sales , the iTunes deluxe edition of the album reached number No. 1 on that vendor 's hip @-@ hop / rap albums chart , while the regular version of the album came in second place , a feat that prompted writ @-@ up on Lecrae in Time . Rapzilla initially reported that the deluxe edition of the album had also reached the No. 2 spot on the overall iTunes album chart , and this report was subsequently updated to reflect deluxe version of Gravity reaching No. 1 on that chart . In addition , the bonus song " Fuego " from the deluxe edition reached No. 5 on the iTunes top hip @-@ hop / rap songs chart . The song charted at No. 20 on the Billboard Top Heatseekers Songs , No. 13 on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Digital charts , and No. 64 on the Hot Digital Songs charts . According to Inquisitr , in the same week of the release of Gravity , the iTunes version of Church Clothes jumped to the No. 4 spot on the top hip @-@ hop / rap albums chart . As of November 28 , 2012 , the album has sold 150 @,@ 000 copies in the U.S.
= = = Critical reception = = =
Both AllHipHop and Billboard were very positive toward Gravity after a preview listening session , considering it Lecrae 's strongest and most mainstream work to date . AllHipHop stated that " overall , it appears that Lecrae is ready to offer one of his most broad and , dare @-@ we @-@ say , mainstream albums in terms of sound ; yet , it still manages to capture the trueness of what he has always stood for and rapped about . If anything , Gravity is a giant step forward for his expanding career , and it will surely be a welcome addition to many ' Top 10 ' lists when 2012 comes to a close . " Indie Vision Music in announcing the cover of Gravity called the album " likely the biggest Christian hip hop album yet " . AllHipHop listed " Mayday " as one of the standout tracks on the album , noting the " beautiful " melody and hook by Ashthon Jones . The reviewer considered " Violence " a personal favorite , calling Lecrae 's line " Grew up under Tupac , bible verse and two glocks " one of the most powerful lines on the album . Parlé Magazine also was favorable to the song , stating " That track is definitely going places . " Jonathan Landrum of The Associated Press was favorable to the album , saying that " in his sixth album ' Gravity , ' Lecrae delivers a strong piece of work . He 's not afraid to rap about his past mistakes , supplying inspirational rhymes filled with Christian values backed by well @-@ produced secular hip @-@ hop beats . " In its track @-@ by @-@ track review of the album , The Boombox stated that " based on the warm reception to Church Clothes , this LP is set to stir the pot further in the realm of both of hip @-@ hop and Christianity . " David Jeffries of Allmusic gave the album four out of five stars , declaring that Lecrae makes Gravity 's various genre experiments and jumps in style " sound effortless and natural " . He asserted that " while Rehab is the more rewarding album in the end , this one is more persuasive and immediate , making it an easy entry point into this gifted artist 's discography . "
In an initial review by Jesus Freak Hideout , Kevin Hoskins rated the album four out of five stars , calling the album solid but finding that the album 's R & B passages " pale in comparison to the other tracks stylistically and are not necessarily needed . " Hoskins listed the songs " Falling Down , " " Power Trip , " " Lord Have Mercy , " and " I Know " as some of the best tunes , and called " Lucky Ones " a " perfect song . " New Release Tuesday called Gravity one of the most anticipated releases of the year . In its review , the site gave the album four out of five stars , stating that the recording in many ways lives up to the anticipation , but had three or four too many songs that detract from the album 's whole . Rapzilla was very favorable to the album , rating it four @-@ point @-@ five out of five and calling it the most important album in the history of Christian hip hop . The reviewer , Armond Goss , listed the tracks " Lord Have Mercy " , " Fakin ' " , and " Buttons " the low points on the album , but said that those were the only problems that they found . " Confe $ $ ions " , " Power Trip " , and " Gravity " were all listed by as extremely strong , but Goss considered the track " Mayday " as the best track " sonically , lyrically and conceptually " on the album , stating that DJ Khalil 's production work " provides the perfect backdrop for K.R.I.T. to walk into your church in the middle of service and express his frustrations with hypocrisies and for Crae to walk in behind him and calm the mob down while still co @-@ signing K.R.I.T. ’ s verse . " The Houston Press summarized the album by stating that " by and large , Gravity acts and dresses like a stand along rap album built from the same organ drenched and string heavy foundation that Houston 's style of G @-@ funk did in the ' 90s . It 's another " heavy " rap album to drive away from the same escapism tactics rap loves to dwell in . "
At CCM Magazine , Andy Argyrakis said that Lecrae has " officially arrived as the top star in the scene " , and that the artist has " his finger on today 's production trends ( and certainly being ahead of the curve on a few occasions ) , his rhymes are packed with so much authenticity that even the most mainstream @-@ minded listener has the potential to connect . " Anthony Peronto of Christian Music Zine rated the album 4 @.@ 75 out of five , and said that " loosely inspired by the book of Ecclesiastes , Gravity is so far the most important CHH album ever made and bridges the gap between Christian and the secular rap scenes . " At Cross Rhythms , Steve Hayes wrote that this is Lecrae 's " finest project to date " , called it " brilliantly produced [ and ] explosively impacts the listener " , and said the release would be " enjoyed for years to come . " New Release Tuesday 's Mark Ryan noted that " there are 3 or 4 songs too many on the album that detract from the album as a whole " , which is the reason he did not " get overly excited " , but he did affirm that " fans and newcomers alike will enjoy the album " .
= = = Awards = = =
Gravity won Best Gospel Album for the 2013 Grammy Awards . This was the first time that a hip @-@ hop artist has won this award . At the 2013 Dove Awards , the album won Rap / Hip Hop Album , and the song " Tell the World " , featuring Mali Music , won Rap / Hip Hop Recorded Song of the Year . Gravity also won Best Rap , Hip Hop Gospel CD of the Year at the 2014 Stellar Awards . The album was also nominated for Top Christian Album at the 2013 Billboard Music Awards .
= = = Initial release competition with T.I. = = =
On July 19 , 2012 , Rapzilla posted an article entitled " Is Lecrae and T.I. similar to Kanye vs 50 Cent ? " , which noted that Trouble Man by T.I. was scheduled for release the same day as Gravity . The article speculated that the potential cultural impact of Gravity could be like that of Kanye West after his 2007 competition with 50 Cent . The writer , Steven Patton , stated that " we may be on the cusp of another watershed moment this coming September . Two artists living in Atlanta and largely the front runners of two different ideologies are releasing a new album on the same day . " A few hours after being posted , the article was updated stating that the release date for Trouble Man was being pushed back to September 19 . However , the release date was subsequently returned to September 4 , before T.I. announced that he was pushing the album back indefinitely . Trouble Man ultimately was released on December 18 , 2012 , and debuted at No. 2 on the Billboard 200 , selling 179 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Music Videos = = =
" Lord Have Mercy " ( featuring Tedashii )
" Tell the World " ( featuring Mali Music )
" Mayday " ( featuring Big K.R.I.T. & Ashthon Jones )
" Fakin ' " ( featuring Thi 'sl )
" Confessions "
= = = Samples listing = = =
" Walk with Me " featuring Novel – sampled " I Want Jesus to Walk With Me " by Solomon Burke .
" Fakin ' " featuring Thi 'sl – sampled " Spend It " by 2 Chainz
" Confe $ $ ions " – sampled " Fallin ' " by Trip Lee featuring J. Paul
" Power Trip " featuring PRo , Sho Baraka , and Andy Mineo – sampled " Juicy " by The Notorious B.I.G. and " Money , Power , & Respect " by The LOX featuring DMX and Lil ' Kim
" Lord Have Mercy " featuring Tedashii – sampled " Darkest Hour " by Lecrae and No Malice
= = Gravity : The Remix EP = =
On December 26 , 2012 , DJ Official and Alex Medina released a remix version of the album , Gravity : The Remix EP , as a free digital download . It features the producers Gawvi ( formerly known as G @-@ Styles ) , Big Juice , D @-@ Flow , Black Knight , and Tyshane .
= = = Track listing = = =
= = Personnel = =
= = = Performance = = =
Lecrae - primary artist
= = = = Featured artists = = = =
= = = = Additional vocals = = = =
Tasha Catour
Michael Jefferson
Elidaysi Medina
Jennifer Rosa
Bradley Tomlinson
= = = = Instrumentation = = = =
= = = Production and engineering = = =
= = = Additional composition = = =
= = = Packaging = = =
Zack Arias - photography
= = = Artists and repertoire = = =
Torrance " Street Symphony " Esmond
Joseph Prielozny
= = Charts = =
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= Tropical Storm Edouard ( 2002 ) =
Tropical Storm Edouard was the first of eight named storms to form in September 2002 , the most such storms in the North Atlantic for any month at the time . The fifth tropical storm of the 2002 Atlantic hurricane season , Edouard developed into a tropical cyclone on September 1 from an area of convection associated with a cold front east of Florida . Under weak steering currents , Edouard drifted to the north and executed a clockwise loop to the west . Despite moderate to strong levels of wind shear , the storm reached a peak intensity of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) on September 3 , but quickly weakened as it tracked westward . Edouard made landfall on northeastern Florida on September 5 , and after crossing the state it dissipated on September 6 while becoming absorbed into the larger circulation of Tropical Storm Fay .
Tropical Storm Edouard dropped moderate rainfall across Florida , exceeding 7 inches ( 175 mm ) in the western portion of the state . Though Edouard was a tropical storm at landfall , wind speeds along the storm 's path over land were light . The rain flooded several roads ; however , there were no casualties , and damage was minimal .
= = Meteorological history = =
An area of cloudiness and rainshowers developed several hundred miles east @-@ southeast of Bermuda on August 25 , likely in association with a low @-@ level disturbance that formed along a cold front . For several days , it moved southwestward , and , while located on the southwestern end of an upper @-@ level trough to the north of Puerto Rico , deep convection throughout the system increased . The system tracked westward , and initially remained disorganized while surface pressures remained high . The system turned to a northwest drift , and began to slowly organize on August 30 while located a few hundred miles northeast of the Bahamas . A broad low @-@ pressure area developed on August 31 though convection remained disorganized as winds of 20 to 25 mph ( 32 to 40 km / h ) were reported in squalls . Conditions remained favorable for continued organization , and convection increased and persisted across the system . The system developed into Tropical Depression Five on September 1 after developing a low @-@ level circulation while located about 140 miles ( 225 km ) east of Daytona Beach , Florida .
Upon first forming , the tropical depression was located in an area of light to moderate westerly wind shear . With a ridge to the north and west of the depression , the system moved to the northwest under weak steering currents . The depression slowly strengthened and intensified into Tropical Storm Edouard on September 2 while located about 120 miles ( 190 km ) east of Jacksonville , Florida . The storm remained disorganized with wind shear displacing most of the deep convection from the low @-@ level circulation . Upon becoming a tropical storm , forecasters initially predicted Edouard to gradually turn to the northeast , and within three days be located a short distance off the coast of South Carolina with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . However , forecasters admitted little confidence in the prediction , and later forecasts predicted the storm to execute a loop and track westward into northern Florida or southern Georgia . Shortly after the tropical cyclogenesis of Edouard , steering currents became weak , resulting in the storm to turn sharply eastward . Late on September 2 deep convection developed over the center , though the center quickly became exposed again . The environment appeared to become more hostile on September 2 and 3 with increasing shear and dry air overspreading the center . Despite the conditions , the storm maintained vigorous convection over the eastern portion of the circulation , and it quickly intensified on September 3 to reach peak winds of 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) . A Reconnaissance Aircraft flight into the system estimated surface winds of up to 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and reported flight level winds of 82 mph ( 132 km / h ) .
Shortly after peaking in intensity , Tropical Storm Edouard began to weaken as convection diminished from vertical shear and dry air , and later on September 3 the center was exposed from the steadily decreasing convection . The development of a weak and narrow mid @-@ level ridge turned the storm to the west @-@ southwest towards northeastern Florida . Despite strong levels of wind shear , Edouard remained a tropical storm while producing sporadic amounts of deep convection , and on September 4 the banding structure improved . Early on September 5 , Edouard made landfall near Ormond Beach , Florida as a minimal tropical storm , and almost immediately weakened to a tropical depression over land . It tracked across the state for about 13 hours and entered the Gulf of Mexico near Crystal River . Initial forecasts predicted Edouard to restrengthen to a tropical storm over the northeastern Gulf of Mexico , though uncertainty was noted due to the development of Tropical Storm Fay in the northwestern portion of the gulf . Upon entering the Gulf of Mexico , the depression encountered strong wind shear from the outflow of Tropical Storm Fay . Edouard generated minimal amounts of intermittent convection along the southeastern portion of its circulation , enough for it to remain a tropical cyclone . By September 6 the remaining convection dissipated , and Edouard dissipated while becoming absorbed into the larger circulation of Tropical Storm Fay .
= = Preparations = =
Three hours after developing , the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm watch from Titusville , Florida , to Brunswick , Georgia , due to uncertainty in the track of the storm . Hours after becoming a tropical storm , a tropical storm warning was issued from Fernandina Beach , Florida , to the mouth of the Savannah River , with a tropical storm watch further northward to the mouth of the South Santee River in South Carolina , though these were cancelled after Edouard turned to the east . About 10 hours before landfall , the National Hurricane Center issued another tropical storm warning from Titusville , Florida to Brunswick , Georgia , with a tropical storm watch further south to Sebastian Inlet , Florida .
Two days before the storm made landfall , several Florida counties were monitoring the progress of the storm . Though no serious impact was anticipated , Brevard County officials identified possible shelters if warranted . Putnam County officials placed several shelters on standby , and utility crews in Duval County were placed on standby in the event of power failure . Several media releases of information were issued regarding the storm . The State Emergency Operation Center was on Level 2 , or partial activation , and the state government organized two conferences to discuss county actions in regards to the storm . The National Weather Service issued a flood watch hours before Edouard made landfall for much of eastern Florida due to the expected rainfall from the storm .
The South Carolina Emergency Management Division monitored the progress of the storm , and the Division increased its awareness level in response to the storm . Important state agencies in South Carolina government were notified to be ready to respond if the need arose .
= = Impact = =
In Bermuda , the outflow from the storm produced cloudy conditions throughout the island . Squally conditions were reported a short distance to the west of the island , though no rain was reported on Bermuda .
While moving erratically off the east coast of Florida , Tropical Storm Edouard produced rough surf conditions and rip currents along many beaches . Beachgoers and visitors were advised to exercise extreme caution . The storm produced water levels about 6 inches above normal near Cape Canaveral , though elsewhere wave action and storm tides were not significant . Despite being a tropical storm at landfall , sustained tropical storm force winds were not observed . A rainband ahead of the storm produced a 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) wind gust at Patrick Air Force Base , and a station in St. Augustine recorded a wind gust of 38 mph ( 61 km / h ) . Sustained winds peaked at 31 mph ( 50 km / h ) at Patrick Air Force Base . Edouard dropped light to moderate rainfall in eastern Florida , primarily during 2 to 3 hour periods . The highest official rainfall total peaked at 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) at Orlando Executive Airport , though unofficial totals reached as high as 4 @.@ 8 inches ( 122 mm ) in Rockledge . Rainfall was higher in western Florida , peaking at 7 @.@ 64 inches ( 194 mm ) in DeSoto County with an area near Tampa reporting over 7 inches ( 175 mm ) .
Moderate rainfall resulted in river flooding along the St. Johns River , resulting in flooding along roads in Seminole County . Roadway , urban , and lowland flooding was also reported in Brevard and Orange counties . Roadway flooding was extensive in some areas , resulting in road closures in Oviedo , Cocoa Beach , and Cape Canaveral . Heavy rainfall in Pinellas Park caused heavy street flooding along an intersection on U.S. Highway 19 . No casualties were reported , and damage was minor .
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= Major urinary proteins =
Major urinary proteins ( Mups ) , also known as α2u @-@ globulins , are a subfamily of proteins found in abundance in the urine and other secretions of many animals . Mups provide a small range of identifying information about the donor animal , when detected by the vomeronasal organ of the receiving animal . They belong to a larger family of proteins known as lipocalins . Mups are encoded by a cluster of genes , located adjacent to each other on a single stretch of DNA , that varies greatly in number between species : from at least 21 functional genes in mice to none in humans . Mup proteins form a characteristic glove shape , encompassing a ligand @-@ binding pocket that accommodates specific small , organic chemicals .
Urinary proteins were first reported in rodents in 1932 , during studies by Thomas Addis into the cause of proteinuria . They are potent human allergens , and are largely responsible for a number of animal allergies , including to cats , horses and rodents . Their endogenous function within an animal is unknown , but may involve regulating energy expenditure . However , as secreted proteins they play multiple roles in chemical communication between animals , functioning as pheromone transporters and stabilizers in rodents and pigs . Mups can also act as protein pheromones themselves . They have been demonstrated to promote aggression in male mice , and one specific Mup protein found in male mouse urine is sexually attractive to female mice . Mups can also function as signals between different species : mice display an instinctive fear response on the detection of Mups derived from predators such as cats and rats .
= = Discovery = =
Humans in good health excrete urine that is largely free of protein . Therefore , since 1827 physicians and scientists have been interested in proteinuria , the excess of protein in human urine , as an indicator of kidney disease . To better understand the etiology of proteinuria , some scientists attempted to study the phenomenon in laboratory animals . Between 1932 and 1933 a number of scientists , including Thomas Addis , independently reported the surprising finding that some healthy rodents have protein in their urine . However , it was not until the 1960s that the major urinary proteins of mice and rats were first described in detail . It was found that the proteins are primarily made in the liver of males and secreted through the kidneys into the urine in large quantities ( milligrams per day ) .
Since they were named , the proteins have been found to be differentially expressed in other glands that secrete products directly into the external environment . These include lacrimal , parotid , submaxillary , sublingual , preputial and mammary glands . In some species , such as cats and pigs , Mups appear not to be expressed in urine at all and are mainly found in saliva . Sometimes the term urinary Mups ( uMups ) is used to distinguish those Mups expressed in urine from those in other tissues .
= = Mup genes = =
Between 1979 and 1981 , it was estimated that Mups are encoded by a gene family of between 15 and 35 genes and pseudogenes in the mouse and by an estimated 20 genes in the rat . In 2008 a more precise number of Mup genes in a range of species was determined by analyzing the DNA sequence of whole genomes .
= = = Rodents = = =
The mouse reference genome has at least 21 distinct Mup genes ( with open reading frames ) , and a further 21 Mup pseudogenes ( with reading frames disrupted by a nonsense mutation or an incomplete gene duplication ) . They are all clustered together , arrayed side by side across 1 @.@ 92 megabases of DNA on chromosome 4 . The 21 functional genes have been divided into two sub @-@ classes based on position and sequence similarity : 6 peripheral Class A Mups , and 15 central Class B Mups . The central Class B Mup gene cluster formed through a number of sequential duplications from one of the Class A Mups . As all the Class B genes are almost identical to each other , researchers have concluded that these duplications occurred very recently in mouse evolution . Indeed , the repetitive structure of these central Mup genes means they are likely to be unstable and may vary in number among wild mice . The Class A Mups are more different from each other and are therefore likely to be more stable , older genes but what , if any , functional differences the classes have are unknown . The similarity between the genes makes the region difficult to study using current DNA sequencing technology . Consequently , the Mup gene cluster is one of the few parts of the mouse whole genome sequence with gaps remaining , and further genes may remain undiscovered .
Rat urine also contains homologous urinary proteins ; although they were originally given a different name , α2u @-@ globulins , they have since become known as rat Mups . Rats have 9 distinct Mup genes and a further 13 pseudogenes clustered together across 1 @.@ 1 megabases of DNA on chromosome 5 . Like in mice , the cluster formed by multiple duplications . However , this occurred independently of the duplications in mice , meaning that both rodent species expanded their Mup gene families separately , but in parallel .
= = = Nonrodents = = =
Most other mammals studied , including the pig , cow , cat , dog , bushbaby , macaque , chimpanzee and orangutan , have a single Mup gene . Some , however , have an expanded number : horses have three Mup genes and gray mouse lemurs have at least two . Insects , fish , amphibia , birds and marsupials appear to have disrupted synteny at the chromosomal position of the Mup gene cluster , suggesting the gene family may be specific to placental mammals . Humans are the only placental mammals found not to have any active Mup genes ; instead they have a single Mup pseudogene containing a mutation that causes missplicing , rendering it dysfunctional .
= = Function = =
= = = Transport proteins = = =
Mups are members of a large family of low @-@ molecular weight ( ~ 19 kDa ) proteins known as lipocalins . They have a characteristic structure of eight beta sheets arranged in an anti @-@ parallel beta barrel open on one face , with alpha helices at both ends . Consequently , they form a characteristic glove shape , encompassing a cup @-@ like pocket that binds small organic chemicals with high affinity . A number of these ligands bind to mouse Mups , including 2 @-@ sec @-@ butyl @-@ 4 @,@ 5 @-@ dihydrothiazole ( abbreviated as SBT or DHT ) , 6 @-@ hydroxy @-@ 6 @-@ methyl @-@ 3 @-@ heptanone ( HMH ) and 2 @,@ 3 dihydro @-@ exo @-@ brevicomin ( DHB ) . These are all urine @-@ specific chemicals that have been shown to act as pheromones — molecular signals excreted by one individual that trigger an innate behavioural response in another member of the same species . Mouse Mups have also been shown to function as pheromone stabilizers , providing a slow release mechanism that extends the potency of volatile pheromones in male urine scent marks . Given the diversity of Mups in rodents , it was originally thought that different Mups may have differently shaped binding pockets and therefore bind different pheromones . However , detailed studies found that most variable sites are located on the surface of the proteins , and appear to have little effect on ligand binding .
Rat Mups bind different small chemicals . 1 @-@ Chlorodecane is the most common ligand , with 2 @-@ methyl @-@ N @-@ phenyl @-@ 2 @-@ propenamide , hexadecane and 2 @,@ 6 @,@ 11 @-@ trimethyl decane found to be less prominent . Rat Mups also bind limonene @-@ 1 @,@ 2 @-@ epoxide , resulting in a disease of the host 's kidney , hyaline @-@ droplet nephropathy , that progresses to cancer . Other species do not develop this disorder because their Mups do not bind that particular chemical . Accordingly , when transgenic mice were engineered to express the rat Mup their kidneys developed the disease . The Mup found in pigs , named salivary lipocalin ( SAL ) , is expressed in the salivary gland of males where it tightly binds androstenone and androstenol , both pheromones that cause female pigs to assume a mating stance .
Isothermal titration calorimetry studies performed with Mups and associated ligands ( pyrazines , alcohols , thiazolines , 6 @-@ hydroxy @-@ 6 @-@ methyl @-@ 3 @-@ heptanone , and N @-@ phenylnapthylamine , ) revealed an unusual binding phenomena . The active site has been found to be suboptimally hydrated , resulting in ligand binding being driven by enthalpic dispersion forces . This is contrary to most other proteins , which exhibit entropy @-@ driven binding forces from the reorganisation of water molecules . This unusual process has been termed the " nonclassical hydrophobic effect . "
= = = Pheromones = = =
Studies have sought to find the precise function of Mups in pheromone communication . Mup proteins have been shown to promote puberty and accelerate the estrus cycle in female mice , inducing the Vandenbergh and Whitten effects . However , in both cases the Mups had to be presented to the female dissolved in male urine , indicating that the protein requires some urinary context to function . In 2007 Mups normally found in male mouse urine were made in transgenic bacteria , and therefore created devoid of the chemicals they normally bind . These Mups were shown to be sufficient to promote aggressive behaviour in males , even in the absence of urine . In addition , Mups made in bacteria were found to activate olfactory sensory neurons in the vomeronasal organ ( VNO ) , a subsystem of the nose known to detect pheromones via specific sensory receptors , of mice and rats . Together , this demonstrated that Mup proteins can act as pheromones themselves , independent of their ligands .
Consistent with a role in male @-@ male aggression , adult male mice secrete significantly more Mups into their urine than females , juveniles or castrated male mice . The precise mechanism driving this difference between the sexes is complex , but at least three hormones — testosterone , growth hormone and thyroxine — are known to positively influence the production of Mups in mice . Wild house mouse urine contains variable combinations of four to seven distinct Mup proteins per mouse . Some inbred laboratory mouse strains , such as BALB / c and C57BL / 6 , also have different proteins expressed in their urine . However , unlike wild mice , different individuals from the same strain express the same protein pattern , an artifact of many generations of inbreeding . One unusual Mup is less variable than the others : it is consistently produced by a high proportion of wild male mice and is almost never found in female urine . When this Mup was made in bacteria and used in behavioural testing , it was found to attract female mice . Other Mups were tested but they did not have the same attractive qualities , suggesting the male @-@ specific Mup acts as a sex pheromone . Scientists named this Mup darcin as a humorous reference to Fitzwilliam Darcy , the romantic hero from Pride and Prejudice . Taken together , the complex patterns of Mups produced has the potential to provide a range information about the donor animal , such as gender , fertility , social dominance , age , genetic diversity or kinship . Wild mice ( unlike laboratory mice that are genetically identical and which therefore also have identical patterns of Mups in the urine ) have individual patterns of Mup expression in their urine that act as a " barcode " to uniquely identify the owner of a scent mark .
In the house mouse , the major MUP gene cluster provides a highly polymorphic scent signal of genetic identity . Wild mice breeding freely in semi @-@ natural enclosures showed inbreeding avoidance . This avoidance resulted from a strong deficit in successful matings between mice sharing both MUP haplotypes ( complete match ) . In another study , using white @-@ footed mice , it was found that when mice derived from wild populations were inbred there was reduced survival when such mice were reintroduced into a natural habitat . These findings suggest that inbreeding reduces fitness , and that scent signal recognition has evolved in mice as a means of avoiding inbreeding depression .
= = = Kairomones = = =
In addition to serving as social cues between members of the same species , Mups can act as kairomones — chemical signals that transmit information between species . Mice are instinctively afraid of the smell of their natural predators , including cats and rats . This occurs even in laboratory mice that have been isolated from predators for hundreds of generations . When the chemical cues responsible for the fear response were purified from cat saliva and rat urine , two homologous protein signals were identified : Fel d 4 ( Felis domesticus allergen 4 ) , the product of the cat Mup gene , and Rat n 1 ( Rattus norvegicus allergen 1 ) , the product of the rat Mup13 gene . Mice are fearful of these Mups even when they are made in bacteria , but mutant animals that are unable to detect the Mups showed no fear of rats , demonstrating their importance in initiating fearful behaviour . It is not known exactly how Mups from different species initiate disparate behaviours , but mouse Mups and predator Mups have been shown to activate unique patterns of sensory neurons in the nose of recipient mice . This implies the mouse perceives them differently , via distinct neural circuits . The pheromone receptors responsible for Mup detection are also unknown , though they are thought be members of the V2R receptor class .
= = = Allergens = = =
Along with other members of the lipocalin protein family , major urinary proteins can be potent allergens to humans . The reason for this is not known , however molecular mimicry between Mups and structurally similar human lipocalins has been proposed as a possible explanation . The protein product of the mouse Mup17 gene , known as Mus m 1 , Ag1 or MA1 , accounts for much of the allergenic properties of mouse urine . The protein is extremely stable in the environment ; studies have found 95 % of inner city homes , and 82 % of all types of homes in the United States have detectable levels in at least one room . Similarly , Rat n 1 is a known human allergen . A US study found its presence in 33 % of inner city homes , and 21 % of occupants were sensitized to the allergen . Exposure and sensitization to rodent Mup proteins is considered a risk factor for childhood asthma , and is a leading cause of laboratory animal allergy ( LAA ) — an occupational disease of laboratory animal technicians and scientists . One study found that two @-@ thirds of laboratory workers who had developed asthmatic reactions to animals had antibodies to Rat n 1 .
Mup genes from other mammals also encode allergenic proteins , for example Fel d 4 is primarily produced in the submandibular salivary gland and is deposited onto dander as the cat grooms itself . A study found that 63 % of cat allergic people have antibodies against the protein . Most had higher titres of antibodies against Fel d 4 than against Fel d 1 , another prominent cat allergen . Likewise , Equ c1 ( Equus caballus allergen 1 ) is the protein product of a horse Mup gene that is found in the liver , sublingual and submaxillary salivary glands . It is responsible for about 80 % of the antibody response in patients who are chronically exposed to horse allergens .
= = = Metabolism = = =
While the detection of Mups excreted by other animals has been well studied , the functional role in the producing animal is less clear . However , in 2009 , Mups were shown to be associated with the regulation of energy expenditure in mice . Scientists found that genetically induced obese , diabetic mice produce thirty times less Mup RNA than their lean siblings . When they delivered Mup protein directly into the bloodstream of these mice , they observed an increase in energy expenditure , physical activity and body temperature and a corresponding decrease in glucose intolerance and insulin resistance . They propose that Mups ' beneficial effects on energy metabolism occurs by enhancing mitochondrial function in skeletal muscle . Another study found Mups were reduced in diet @-@ induced obese mice . In this case , the presence of Mups in the bloodstream of mice restricted glucose production by directly inhibiting the expression of genes in the liver .
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= Li Jiawei =
Li Jiawei ( Chinese : 李佳薇 ; pinyin : Lǐ Jiāwēi ; born 9 August 1981 ) is a Chinese @-@ born Singaporean table tennis player who is ranked among the top ten athletes in her sport . Spotted by Singapore talent scouts in Beijing in 1995 , she moved to Singapore and commenced her international career in competitive table tennis in 1996 . She became a Singapore citizen at the age of 18 years under the Foreign Sports Talent Scheme .
As a singles player , Li was ranked sixth in the world as of August 2008 . Her highest ranking was in December 2005 , when she was third . Li is also a key player for women 's team and doubles , and mixed doubles events . She finished in fourth place in singles at both the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens and the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . On 15 August , the Singapore women 's team composed of Li and her teammates Feng Tianwei and Wang Yuegu defeated South Korea 3 – 2 in the semifinals . However , in the finals on 17 August , the team lost to China and earned a silver medal , marking the first time that Singapore had won an Olympic medal since the nation 's independence in 1965 . The medal came 48 years after Tan Howe Liang won the country 's first medal , a silver in weightlifting at the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome . Li ended 2008 on a high , winning gold in the women 's team event with Feng and Wang at the ITTF Pro Tour ERKE German Open in Berlin in November , and in the doubles with Sun Beibei at the ITTF Volkswagen Pro Tour Grand Finals in Macau in December 2008 .
Li won the women 's team bronze medal with Feng and Wang at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London . She announced her retirement from competitive sports on 27 December 2012 .
= = Early years = =
Li Jiawei , the only daughter of a government official and a housewife , was born on 9 August 1981 in Beijing , People 's Republic of China . In 1990 , Li was a student at the Beijing Shichahai Sports School . She then entered the Beijing provincial team in 1994 . Her skill in table tennis was recognized by Singaporean talent scouts and she was invited to train in Singapore under the Foreign Sports Talent Scheme in 1996 , returning to China once a year to visit her parents . She began representing Singapore internationally in competitive table tennis the following year . At 18 , she became a Singapore citizen .
= = Professional career = =
Ranked 18th in the world in 2000 , Li achieved gold medals in the women 's team , women 's doubles and mixed doubles events at the XVII Commonwealth Games held between 25 July and 4 August 2002 in Manchester , and was ranked eighth in November 2002 . The following year , in December 2003 , Li was a member of the Singapore team which swept the top awards at the 23rd Southeast Asian Games in the women 's team , women 's singles , women 's doubles and mixed doubles .
On 3 July 2004 , Li took gold in the women 's singles at the International Table Tennis Federation ( ITTF ) Pro Tour US Open in Chicago . Subsequently , at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens , she defeated the second @-@ seeded China player Wang Nan but eventually finished in fourth place . In 2005 , she was second in the ITTF Pro Tour Grand Finals , and gained silver medals for the women 's singles and mixed doubles at the 23rd Southeast Asian ( SEA ) Games held between 28 November and 4 December 2005 in Manila . She was also the key player in the gold @-@ winning women 's team and women 's doubles events . In December 2005 , she was ranked third in the world as a singles player . She won an individual Singapore Youth Award in 2005 and was Her World magazine 's Young Woman Achiever of 2005 .
At the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne , Li won gold for the women 's team and women 's doubles , and the silver medal for the women 's singles and mixed doubles events . Subsequently , she won the women 's singles at the ITTF Pro Tour Russia Open . She also achieved third place in the ITTF Pro Tour Grand Finals and the Women 's World Cup , which are two of the most prestigious and difficult competitions in the table tennis arena . At the 15th Asian Games held from 29 November to 7 December 2006 in Doha , Qatar , she achieved three medals : a silver for the women 's team event and two bronzes for the women 's singles and mixed doubles . The next year , she won gold in the singles at the ITTF Pro Tour Chinese Taipei Open in Taipei , and helped Singapore to the top spots in the women 's team and mixed doubles events at the 2007 SEA Games in Nakhon Ratchasima ( Korat ) , Thailand .
As at August 2008 , Li was ranked sixth in the world . She won the accolade of Sportswoman of the Year from the Singapore National Olympic Council five times in a row between 2002 and 2006 , and received a Meritorious Award in 2007 .
At the club competition level , Li plays in the Chinese Table Tennis Super League . In 2008 , she represented Peking University club , and in 2010 , she played for Beijing Holdings which consists of world champion Ding Ning as well .
= = = 2008 Summer Olympics = = =
Li represented Singapore for the third time in the Olympic Games at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . She was the flag @-@ bearer for Team Singapore at the opening ceremony of the Games on 8 August , having requested the honour . She explained : " There has been so much debate over the foreign talent scheme . This is my way of showing everyone that everything I 've ever achieved is because of Singapore . "
At the Beijing Olympics , table tennis team events are played in a best @-@ of @-@ five @-@ matches format . Teams play two single matches followed by a doubles match . If there is no winner after these matches , the teams play a fourth singles match , and if necessary a rubber match to determine the winning team . On 13 August , the Singapore women 's table tennis team coached by Liu Guodong , comprising Li as the team captain and her teammates Feng Tianwei and Wang Yuegu , beat teams from the United States and Nigeria with comfortable 3 – 0 wins . On 14 August , the Singapore team also defeated the Netherlands 3 – 0 to reach the semifinals , but not before a gruelling five @-@ game doubles match against the Dutch players Li Jie and Elena Timina which Li Jiawei and Wang Yuegu eventually won 3 – 2 . The next day , 15 August , the Singapore team defeated the South Korean team of Dang Ye @-@ Seo , Kim Kyung @-@ Ah and Park Mi @-@ Young 3 – 2 in the semifinals , which went to five matches . Li lost her singles match to Korea 's Kim , but beat Kim and Park in the doubles with her partner Wang . Singapore 's Feng won both her singles matches against Dang and Park .
On 17 August , Li and her teammates gained Singapore a silver medal in women 's table tennis after losing to China in three matches . Li won the first game of her singles match , but was then defeated by her former Beijing Sports School teammate Zhang Yining . In the doubles match , China 's Zhang and Guo Yue bested Singapore 's Li and Wang Yuegu . This marked the first time that Singapore had won an Olympic medal since the nation 's independence in 1965 . The medal came 48 years after Tan Howe Liang won the country 's first medal , a silver in weightlifting in the lightweight category at the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome . Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong requested that the live English @-@ language broadcast of his National Day Rally speech , which coincided with the table tennis finals , be postponed by a day . He also provided the audience with updates on the score , and made a conference call to Tan Eng Liang , Team Singapore 's chef de mission , to congratulate the team .
Li and her teammates received byes into the third round of the singles tournament . Asked if she stood a chance of winning any more medals , she said : " I will try my best in every match . I definitely hope to win one more medal for Singapore . " She beat Croatia 's Tamara Boroš in the third round , Hong Kong 's Lin Ling in the fourth round , and the USA 's Wang Chen in the quarter @-@ finals . However , on 22 August she was defeated in the semifinals 4 – 1 by Zhang Yining of China , ranked number one in the world , and lost the bronze medal 4 – 2 to China 's Guo Yue . Thus placed fourth in the singles tournament , she equalled her performance in the 2004 Athens Olympics but again failed in her quest for an individual Olympic medal . After the bronze medal match , a tearful Li told reporters this would be her final Olympics . At a victory celebration in Singapore on 25 August , Vivian Balakrishnan , the Minister for Community Development , Youth and Sports , announced that Li , Feng and Wang would be presented with the Pingat Jasa Gemilang ( Meritorious Service Medal ) . This is only the third time the medal will be awarded to athletes , the two previous recipients being weightlifter Tan Howe Liang ( 1962 ) and swimmer Joscelin Yeo ( 2006 ) .
Li has expressed interest in pursuing a communications degree at Peking University . In October 2008 the Singapore Table Tennis Association said the Association and the Singapore Sports Council were prepared to offer her a scholarship to do so . Nevertheless , Li said that she wished to continue her career and to compete in the 2012 Summer Olympics .
In May 2009 , the national table tennis women 's team , composed of Li and her teammates Feng , Wang and Sun Beibei , were awarded the Team of the Year ( Event ) prize at the Singapore Sports Awards .
= = = Events between 2008 and 2012 = = =
On 22 November 2008 , despite crashing out of the singles event earlier , Li and her teammates Feng and Wang won the top title and US $ 8 @,@ 000 at the ITTF Pro Tour ERKE German Open in Berlin . Li ended the year as top seed with Sun Beibei , achieving gold in the women 's doubles at the ITTF Volkswagen Pro Tour Grand Finals in Macau on 14 December 2008 , the first time that Singapore had won this event . They beat South Koreans Kim Kyung Ah and Park Mi @-@ Young 11 – 5 , 6 – 11 , 11 – 9 , 11 – 8 , 11 – 4 . Li was named Today newspaper 's Singapore Athlete of the Year 2008 .
Li returned to the international stage in February 2010 after taking a year off from competitive table tennis to give birth to a child . Her first major competition – the World Team Table Tennis Championships in Moscow – saw her and her teammates beating China in the finals to clinch gold . Li also had a series of good performances after her return . She guided the women 's team to gold at the 2010 Commonwealth Games in New Delhi and went on to win the women 's doubles title with Sun Beibei . She ended 2010 with a bang by winning the silver medal in the women 's team event of the 16th Asian Games .
= = = 2012 Summer Olympics = = =
Li represented Singapore at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London . She participated in the women 's team competition with Feng Tianwei and Wang Yuegu . They were beaten 0 – 3 by Japan in the semifinals , but took the bronze medal on 7 August 2012 by edging South Korea out 3 – 0 . Feng defeated Kim Kyung Ah 11 – 9 , 11 – 8 , 4 – 11 , 13 – 11 ; and Li also successfully fended off Seok Ha Jung 11 – 5 , 11 – 8 , 6 – 11 , 11 – 8 . Li and Wang then succeeded in the doubles game against Seok and Dang Ye Seo 11 – 9 , 11 – 6 , 6 – 11 , 11 – 5 . This marked the first time Singapore had won more than one medal at an Olympic Games . Li , who was said to have been instrumental to the team 's win , called the achievement " the perfect birthday present " and commented : " It 's been a really significant and meaningful Olympics for me . ... I managed to be very focused today and I would say this is one of my best performances . " Asked whether she would compete at the 2016 Summer Olympics , she said that she had not given serious thought to retirement but would need to take a break to allow her long @-@ standing knee injury to recover . " [ W ] e 'll have to see how the situation is closer to the date . "
= = Retirement = =
Li announced her retirement from competitive sports on 27 December 2012 . Although she planned to relocate to Beijing with her husband and son , she said she hoped to continue her involvement with table tennis in Singapore . The Singapore Table Tennis Association was said to be helping Li find employment in a Singapore company with operations based in China .
= = Medals = =
= = Personal life = =
Li first met Singaporean badminton player and fellow Olympian Ronald Susilo in 2002 at a sports meet . They began dating after participating together in the Athens Olympics , and the " golden sports couple " , as they were dubbed by the media , announced their engagement in September 2004 . About two years later there were rumours that they were breaking up , but these were denied by them at the time . On 15 January 2008 , when queried by a journalist , Susilo confirmed that he and Li had broken up amicably the previous week . Following a report in The Sunday Times that Susilo was contemplating legal action against her to recover money he claimed to have spent in buying their condominium apartment and car , Li disagreed that Susilo had a share in the apartment and implied he was trying to affect her mood and thus her chances of winning a medal at the Beijing Olympics . Susilo declined to discuss the matter with the press , saying it was a private matter between Li and himself ; he wished her all the best for the Olympics . In October 2008 it was announced that Li and Susilo had settled their property dispute amicably . The terms of the settlement were confidential .
On 26 September 2008 , Li registered a marriage in Beijing with Li Chao , a businessman based in that city ; they were introduced by a mutual friend in March 2008 . Sources quoted by The Straits Times said Li had long wanted her children to bear her surname . A lavish wedding banquet was held at the Beijing Hotel on 25 April 2009 . In November 2008 Li said she wished to have two to three children before turning 35 , though this would not affect her table tennis career . On 13 October 2009 , she and her husband had their first child , a boy weighing 3 @.@ 575 kilograms ( 7 @.@ 88 lb ) . Her husband confirmed that they were " hoping for at least three kids , the more the merrier " , and it was reported that Li would try for more children following the 2012 Summer Olympics . Li started training again in February 2010 and competed in the Commonwealth Games and Asian Games .
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= P.T. ( video game ) =
P.T. ( short for " playable teaser " ) , is a first @-@ person psychological survival horror video game directed by Hideo Kojima in collaboration with Guillermo Del Toro , developed by Kojima Productions under the fake pseudonym " 7780s Studio " , and published by Konami .
Released for the PlayStation 4 on 12 August 2014 as a free download on the PlayStation Network , P.T. served primarily as an interactive teaser for the game Silent Hills , a cancelled installment in the Silent Hill series . After the cancellation , Konami removed P.T. from the PlayStation Store and eliminated re @-@ installing the game , a decision that later spawned criticism and fan efforts to allow P.T. to be re @-@ downloaded .
P.T. received critical acclaim for its direction , visuals , story complexity , and supernatural tension , but was both criticized and acclaimed for the puzzles and solutions .
= = Gameplay = =
Unlike the third @-@ person perspective in Silent Hill games , P.T. uses a first @-@ person perspective , which centers on an unknown protagonist , whom the player controls , who awakens in a haunted suburban house and experiences supernatural occurrences . Available areas to explore in the home consist of an L @-@ shaped corridor with two rooms adjacent to it : a bathroom , and a staircase which leads to the room in which the player starts a loop , or a continuous reincarnation of the corridor . The only actions the player can use are walking and zooming . To progress , the player must investigate frightening events and solve cryptic puzzles . Each time a loop is successfully completed , changes appear in the corridor . Additionally , the player encounters a hostile ghost named Lisa . If she catches the protagonist , the player experiences a startling jump scare and is sent back to the beginning of the current loop .
After the player solves the final puzzle , a cryptic and unrevealed puzzle that allows the player to escape , a trailer reveals that P.T. is a " playable teaser " for a new game in the Silent Hill series , called Silent Hills , directed by Hideo Kojima and Guillermo del Toro , with the protagonist portrayed by Norman Reedus .
= = Plot = =
P.T. centers on an unnamed protagonist who awakens in a concrete @-@ lined room , and opens a door to a haunted corridor , in which he can only walk through a hallway which continuously loops and redecorates itself . The first time he passes , a radio reports on a familicide , which was committed by the father , and later mentions two other cases exactly like it , while the radio issues other messages in various languages , including a Swedish message referencing the 1938 radio drama The War of the Worlds .
The protagonist soon encounters a hostile and unstable female apparition , presumably named Lisa , and upon entering the bathroom and being locked , he obtains a flashlight and finds a creature resembling an underdeveloped fetus in the sink . He soon gets out , but finds out that the apparition is watching him . If the protagonist is attacked by the ghost , he reawakens in the first room of the game , beginning the loop again , but it 's possible to avoid her completely . In the room , a bloody moving paper bag speaks to him , speaking of a disturbing experience , and revealing the same words the player sees when they start the game - " Watch out . The gap in the door ... it 's a separate reality . The only me is me . Are you sure the only you is you ? "
The next few loops feature a refrigerator hanging from the ceiling , leaking blood , whilst the sound of a crying baby can be heard . This happens several times , each time being more severe than the last . As it transitions , the lamps turn completely red , the player 's vision blurs , and the character moves abnormally quickly , with a set of disturbing illusions . Eventually , the protagonist hears the sounds of a murder being committed in the bathroom through the bathroom peephole . Upon the bathroom door opening by itself , the protagonist enters and the fetus @-@ like creature addresses the protagonist , revealing that ten months earlier , he lost his job and turned to alcoholism , with his wife landing a part @-@ time cashier job from the manager who was sexually attracted to her . The corridor then corrects itself and the protagonist eventually gets locked in . As he tries to escape , the same " Paper Bag " voice utters " 204863 " repeatedly and the player 's perspective distorts , before the game displays a false crash message .
Upon restarting , the protagonist awakens in the beginning room . The player continues the loop with only the flashlight as a light source . The player then discovers the torn pieces of a photograph , scattered throughout the hall and reassembles it in its frame . After the picture is completed and a set of tasks are done , a telephone rings and the radio 's voice says " You 've been chosen . " The protagonist sees the door unlock and leaves the building .
In the subsequent cutscene , the radio 's voice remarks about having lived a life of regularity until his father killed him and his family without any creativity ; he then voices his intention to return with his " new toys " . The protagonist steps out into the streets of a deserted city and is revealed to be Norman Reedus . The credits then reveal the nature of the Playable Teaser .
= = Development = =
Kojima Productions used their game engine , the Fox Engine , to develop P.T .. Hideo Kojima 's intention when creating P.T. was to scare people in a unique way , as well as to deliver an interactive teaser experience instead of releasing trailers and screenshots of Silent Hills .
= = = Game design = = =
P.T. was designed to take players at least a week to complete , and Kojima intended the puzzles to be very enigmatic and difficult . Despite this , a few gamers reportedly finished the game within hours after the release , surprising him . Kojima also intended for P.T. to be a mystery in order to make it a more frightening experience . There is little , if not cryptic , information given in the game on events that take place , and there are few clues as to how to solve the puzzles . He chose the corridor as the setting as opposed to " a ruin " because he wanted the teaser to emotionally affect the player regardless of " cultural background " . Kojima elaborated that P.T. and Silent Hills have no canonical and direct relation , and that Silent Hills would have been enhanced by elements that were never in P.T. He based his concept of P.T. on horror films and other media that he found frightening . When creating the game , Kojima refrained from using graphic violence to build up suspense , as he felt that too many horror games rely on the trope . He wanted to elicit a more " genuine , thoughtful and permeating " type of fear .
= = Release = =
P.T. was originally announced at Gamescom 2014 as a demo for an eponymous mystery horror video game . It was released on 12 August 2014 , on the PlayStation Network . Instead of formally announcing a new Silent Hill game , director Hideo Kojima decided to release P.T. as a game demo from a nonexistent gaming studio called 7780s Studio . In September 2014 , Sony announced during its pre @-@ Tokyo Game Show press conference that P.T. had been downloaded over a million times .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Erik Kain of Forbes enjoyed the game for its anxiety @-@ inducing horror , and wrote that it succeeded as marketing for the upcoming Silent Hills . David Houghton of GamesRadar praised it for its immersive , well @-@ executed horror and for how the game 's difficulty created online discourse : " By spreading out into the real world , by forcing solutions by way of hearsay , internet whispers , and desperate , rumoured logic , it has become its own urban myth . " Eurogamer 's Jeffrey Matulef wrote that , through its emphasis on " sound effects , visual design , choreography , and difficult to decipher enemy placements " over traditional progress , the game became immersive and terrifying . However , the puzzles in P.T. received criticism . Klepek panned the puzzles , describing them as an " exercise in frustration " . Matthew Reynolds of Digital Spy wrote that the final puzzle was a " source of frustration " which lacked a clear solution . In contrast , Matulaf stated that , while the puzzles ranged in cleverness and difficulty , they added to the horror of the game by being emotionally " uncomfortable " .
P.T. was also placed on some " best @-@ of " lists in 2014 . GameSpot awarded it the " Game of the Month " for August 2014 . IGN 's Marty Sliva chose P.T. as an honorable mention on his list of the best video game trailers of the year , describing it as " one of the most interesting , gorgeous , and terrifying " games he played that year . Another reviewer for IGN , Lucy O 'Brien , described the game as " the most genuinely frightening interactive experience in recent years " , making it her choice for game of the year . Giant Bomb gave the Best Horror Game of the year award to P.T. , saying that " P.T. reminded us what happens when unlimited resources are thrown at a horror experience . " P.T. won " Scariest Game " at Bloody Disgusting 's FEAR Awards . Polygon ranked it as the tenth best game of the year , and Slant Magazine 's staff ranked it as the eighth best video game of the year . Patrick Klepek of Kotaku originally listed the game as number one on a list of the ten best easily available horror games in February 13 , describing it as " the new king of horror . " The game was replaced by Amnesia : The Dark Descent as number one when Silent Hills was cancelled and P.T. removed .
= = Themes and analysis = =
Reviewers have identified several themes in P.T. According to Eurogamer 's Jeffrey Matulef , the game 's main theme is " cyclical mental anguish " , supported by the obtuse and confusing nature of the puzzles . Danielle Riendau of Polygon wrote that P.T. uses two primary themes from the Silent Hill series , " a sense of family trauma and domestic violence and the duality of the ' real world ' and the nightmare world . " She suggested that P.T. and Eraserhead shared thematic content , writing that both included a crying , deformed infant and that the film 's protagonist journeyed from reality into a terrifying world .
P.T. ' s ceaselessly looping hallway has been a source of critical discussion . Rob Crossley of GameSpot wrote that it induced " mild claustrophobia " and " a familiarity with your surroundings " . He remarked that while the length of the first part of the corridor worked to create tension , the design of the second part intentionally prevented the player from being able to keep everything in view , causing the player to feel vulnerable . David Houghton of GamesRadar described the looping corridor as " the conduit for everything that it builds " , along with saying that " it fills that structure with an unbroken feedback loop of ' horror ' ... every time you leave is a monumental relief , and every simultaneous instance of returning is a moment of primal foreboding at how things might , and almost certainly will , escalate , compounded by the knowledge of the seemingly countless iterations before . " Houghton felt that the game understood how to evoke horror by working " within the realm of psychology " . Polygon quoted a game player who said that " P.T. ' s greatest asset is its looping hallway " , elaborating that it not only invokes fear , but also " curiosity , or a desire to know what will happen next " . Matulef said that the claustrophobic and repetitive environment displayed in the game can hypnotize the player into a sense of vulnerability .
The majority of what is said and depicted in the game is open to interpretation , leading fans to develop and discuss theories about the nature of the events that occur in the game . Let 's Players Voidburger and Bob opined that the open @-@ ended nature of the game is one of its greatest aspects . They also said that there may be something in the game that has not been discovered yet . They noted the colored lights as something they still had not figured out , and they felt that the game hinted that the radio may be the main culprit behind the father 's killing . The game also contained a Swedish line in the radio describing a radio drama from 1938 being true , which gamers suggested may be a nod to Orson Welles 's radio adaptation of The War of the Worlds . This possible reference to alien invasions was noted as a continuation of a Silent Hill tradition of having secret endings that included aliens . Another theory commonly discussed is deciphering the identity of the player character . The fetus talking to the player character about his remembering moments " ten months back " seems to imply that he is the father who killed Lisa and the kids , although Voidburger and Bob believe that the player character may be the protagonist that was to be in Silent Hills , as shown in the trailer following the ending of P.T.
= = Media description = =
Journalists have expressed confusion about whether the game should be described as a teaser , video game , or demo . Despite ongoing debate , the game won awards for best trailer while also winning game of the month and best horror game of the year awards . While naming P.T. as an honorable mention for best trailer , Marty Sliva from IGN felt that P.T. was more of an " interactive experimental film / puzzle game " . " Demo " has been one of the more common descriptions , though GameSpot was reluctant to categorize it as such . Despite it being commonly called a demo of Silent Hills , there is no evidence that it was going to be a part of Silent Hills aside from the reveal of the trailer and title after the end of the game . Hideo Kojima himself explained that it was not a demo of Silent Hills and described it as a " teaser " in a tweet .
Christopher Grant from Polygon likened P.T. to Pixar 's animated shorts shown before its full @-@ length animated feature films .
= = Legacy = =
Following news of the cancellation of Silent Hills , it was announced that P.T. would be removed from the PlayStation Network on 29 April 2015 . Originally , it was reported that the demo could be re @-@ downloaded , but in May 2015 it was no longer re @-@ downloadable from the PlayStation Store . Cancellation of the game led to criticism of Konami . Patrick Klepek from Kotaku stated " It 's fine that Konami doesn 't want to make Silent Hills " but that the deletion of P.T. was wrong since the demo had become part of gaming culture . Nick Robinson of Polygon described Konami 's removal as the " most irresponsible , cowardly decision possible " , but that the subsequent unavailability had also made the demo " one of the coolest , most fascinating games in the history of our medium " . After the cancellation , PlayStation 4 consoles with P.T. installed were listed on eBay for over $ 1000 ; eBay later pulled the auctions down . The incident has been compared to the mass selling of iPhones containing Flappy Bird after that game 's removal from the iOS App Store . Guillermo del Toro , the intended future director of Silent Hills , commented on P.T. ' s popularity , speculating that there were people who still have a passion for the Silent Hill series .
P.T. has also been alluded to in other video games . The antagonist , Lisa , made a cameo in another video game directed by Kojima , Metal Gear Solid V : The Phantom Pain ( 2015 ) . Additionally , the now @-@ cancelled first @-@ person survival @-@ horror video game Allison Road was heavily inspired by P.T. Allison Road was to take place in a haunted townhouse in the United Kingdom and feature a male protagonist who attempts to unravel the mystery behind his missing family over five nights . In the demo , some wall graffiti directly alludes to P.T. by repeating a statement made in the game . The Park , a spin @-@ off game from The Secret World , has a sequence inspired by P.T. , and the horror game Layers of Fear was heavily inspired by P.T. as well .
On February 2016 , the YouTube channel known collectively as " Oddest of the Odd " , released a short film titled " Silent Hills P.T. in real life " . The film draws heavily from its source material , as an unseen protagonist explores a two @-@ story hallway loop in the first person camera perspective . The short film was featured by IGN describing it as " incredible " while GameRant 's Alexander Pan described the video as being " complete with the demo 's much @-@ touted disturbing content and eerie atmosphere . "
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= Katyusha rocket launcher =
Katyusha multiple rocket launchers ( Russian : Катю ́ ша ; IPA : [ kɐˈtʲuʂə ] ) are a type of rocket artillery first built and fielded by the Soviet Union in World War II . Multiple rocket launchers such as these deliver explosives to a target area more quickly than conventional artillery , but with lower accuracy and requiring a longer time to reload . They are fragile compared to artillery guns , but are inexpensive , easy to produce , and usable on any chassis . Katyushas of World War II , the first self @-@ propelled artillery mass @-@ produced by the Soviet Union , were usually mounted on ordinary trucks . This mobility gave the Katyusha ( and other self @-@ propelled artillery ) another advantage : being able to deliver a large blow all at once , and then move before being located and attacked with counter @-@ battery fire .
Katyusha weapons of World War II included the BM @-@ 13 launcher , light BM @-@ 8 , and heavy BM @-@ 31 . Today , the nickname is also applied to newer truck @-@ mounted Soviet ( and not only Soviet ) multiple rocket launchers — notably the common BM @-@ 21 — and derivatives .
= = Nickname = =
Initially , concerns for secrecy kept their military designation from being known by the soldiers who operated them . They were called by code names such as Kostikov guns ( after the head of the RNII , the Reaction @-@ Engine Scientific Research Institute ) , and finally classed as Guards Mortars . The name BM @-@ 13 was only allowed into secret documents in 1942 , and remained classified until after the war .
Because they were marked with the letter K ( for Voronezh Komintern Factory ) , Red Army troops adopted a nickname from Mikhail Isakovsky 's popular wartime song , " Katyusha " , about a girl longing for her absent beloved , who has gone away on military service . Katyusha is the Russian equivalent of Katie , an endearing diminutive form of the name Katherine : Yekaterina → Katya → Katyusha .
German troops coined the nickname Stalin 's organ ( German : Stalinorgel ) , after Soviet leader Joseph Stalin , prompted by the visual resemblance of the launch array to a church organ and the sound of the weapon 's rocket motors . Weapons of this type are known by the same name in Denmark ( Danish : Stalinorgel ) , Finland ( Finnish : Stalinin urut ) , France ( French : orgue de Staline ) , Norway ( Norwegian : Stalinorgel ) , the Netherlands and Belgium ( Dutch : Stalinorgel ) , Hungary ( Hungarian : Sztálinorgona ) , and in Sweden ( Swedish : Stalinorgel ) .
The heavy BM @-@ 31 launcher was also referred to as Andryusha ( Андрюша , an affectionate diminutive of " Andrew " ) .
= = World War II = =
Katyusha rocket launchers invented in Voronezh , were mounted on many platforms during World War II , including on trucks , artillery tractors , tanks , and armoured trains , as well as on naval and riverine vessels as assault support weapons , Soviet engineers also mounted single Katyusha rockets on lengths of railway track to serve in urban combat .
The design was relatively simple , consisting of racks of parallel rails on which rockets were mounted , with a folding frame to raise the rails to launch position . Each truck had 14 to 48 launchers . The M @-@ 13 rocket of the BM @-@ 13 system was 80 cm ( 2 ft 7 in ) long , 13 @.@ 2 cm ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter and weighed 42 kg ( 93 lb ) .
The weapon is less accurate than conventional artillery guns , but is extremely effective in saturation bombardment , and was particularly feared by German soldiers . A battery of four BM @-@ 13 launchers could fire a salvo in 7 – 10 seconds that delivered 4 @.@ 35 tons of high explosives over a 400 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 4 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 sq ft ) impact zone , making its power roughly equivalent to that of 72 guns . With an efficient crew , the launchers could redeploy to a new location immediately after firing , denying the enemy the opportunity for counterbattery fire . Katyusha batteries were often massed in very large numbers to create a shock effect on enemy forces . The weapon 's disadvantage was the long time it took to reload a launcher , in contrast to conventional guns which could sustain a continuous low rate of fire .
The distinctive howling sound of the rocket launching terrified the German troops and could be used for psychological warfare .
= = = Development = = =
In June 1938 , the Soviet Jet Propulsion Research Institute ( RNII ) in Leningrad was authorized by the Main Artillery Directorate ( GAU ) to develop a multiple rocket launcher for the RS @-@ 132 aircraft rocket ( RS for Reaktivnyy Snaryad , ' rocket @-@ powered shell ' ) . I. Gvay led a design team in Chelyabinsk , Russia , which built several prototype launchers firing the modified 132 mm M @-@ 132 rockets over the sides of ZiS @-@ 5 trucks . These proved unstable , and V.N. Galkovskiy proposed mounting the launch rails longitudinally . In August 1939 , the result was the BM @-@ 13 ( BM stands for Боевая Mашина ( translit . Boyevaya Mashina ) , ' combat vehicle ' for M @-@ 13 rockets ) .
The first large @-@ scale testing of the rocket launchers took place at the end of 1938 , when 233 rounds of various types were used . A salvo of rockets could completely straddle a target at a range of 5 @,@ 500 metres ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) . But the artillery branch was not fond of the Katyusha , because it took up to 50 minutes to load and fire 24 rounds , while a conventional howitzer could fire 95 to 150 rounds in the same time . Testing with various rockets was conducted through 1940 , and the BM @-@ 13 @-@ 16 with launch rails for sixteen rockets was authorized for production . Only forty launchers were built before Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941 .
After their success in the first month of the war , mass production was ordered and the development of other models proceeded . The Katyusha was inexpensive and could be manufactured in light industrial installations which did not have the heavy equipment to build conventional artillery gun barrels . By the end of 1942 , 3 @,@ 237 Katyusha launchers of all types had been built , and by the end of the war total production reached about 10 @,@ 000 .
The truck @-@ mounted Katyushas were installed on ZiS @-@ 6 6 × 4 trucks , as well as the two @-@ axle ZiS @-@ 5 and ZiS @-@ 5V . In 1941 , a small number of BM @-@ 13 launchers were mounted on STZ @-@ 5 artillery tractors . A few were also tried on KV tank chassis as the KV @-@ 1K , but this was a needless waste of heavy armour . Starting in 1942 , they were also mounted on various British , Canadian and U.S. Lend @-@ Lease trucks , in which case they were sometimes referred to as BM @-@ 13S . The cross @-@ country performance of the Studebaker US6 2 ½ ton truck was so good that it became the GAU 's standard mounting in 1943 , designated BM @-@ 13N ( normalizovanniy , ' standardized ' ) , and more than 1 @,@ 800 of this model were manufactured by the end of World War II . After World War II , BM @-@ 13s were based on Soviet @-@ built ZiL @-@ 151 trucks .
The 82 mm BM @-@ 8 was approved in August 1941 , and deployed as the BM @-@ 8 @-@ 36 on truck beds and BM @-@ 8 @-@ 24 on T @-@ 40 and T @-@ 60 light tank chassis . Later these were also installed on GAZ @-@ 67 jeeps as the BM @-@ 8 @-@ 8 , and on the larger Studebaker trucks as the BM @-@ 8 @-@ 48 . In 1942 , the team of scientists Leonid Shvarts , Moisei Komissarchik and engineer Yakov Shor received the Stalin prize for the development of the BM @-@ 8 @-@ 48 .
Based on the M @-@ 13 , the M @-@ 30 rocket was developed in 1942 . Its bulbous warhead required it to be fired from a grounded frame , called the M @-@ 30 ( single frame , four round ; later double frame , 8 round ) , instead of a launch rail mounted on a truck . In 1944 it became the basis for the BM @-@ 31 @-@ 12 truck @-@ mounted launcher .
A battery of BM @-@ 13 @-@ 16 launchers included four firing vehicles , two reload trucks and two technical support trucks , with each firing vehicle having a crew of six . Reloading was executed in 3 – 4 minutes , although the standard procedure was to switch to a new position some 10 km away due to the ease with which the battery could be identified by the enemy . Three batteries were combined into a division ( company ) , and three divisions into a separate mine @-@ firing regiment of rocket artillery .
= = = Variants = = =
Soviet World War II missile systems were named according standard templates which are the following :
BM @-@ x @-@ y ( names used for ground vehicles )
M @-@ x @-@ y ( names used for towed trailers and sledges )
y @-@ M @-@ x ( names used for navy )
where :
x is a model of a missile .
y is a number of launch rails / tubes .
In particular , BM @-@ 8 @-@ 16 is a vehicle which fires M @-@ 8 missiles and has 16 rails . BM @-@ 31 @-@ 12 is a vehicle which fires M @-@ 31 missiles and has 12 launch tubes . Short names such as BM @-@ 8 or BM @-@ 13 were used too . Number of launch rails / tubes is absent here . Such names describe launchers only no matter a vehicle they are mounted on . In particular BM @-@ 8 @-@ 24 had a number of variants : vehicle mounted ( ZiS @-@ 5 truck ) , tank mounted ( T @-@ 40 ) and tractor mounted ( STZ @-@ 3 ) . All of them had the same name : BM @-@ 8 @-@ 24 . Other launchers had a number of variants mounted on different vehicles too . Typical set of vehicles for soviet missile systems is the following :
ZIS @-@ 5 ( truck ) ,
ZIS @-@ 6 ( truck ) ,
GAZ @-@ AA ( truck ) ,
STZ @-@ 3 ( tractor ) ,
T @-@ 40 ( tank ) ,
Studebaker US6 ( truck ) ,
Armored train car ,
River boat ,
Towed sledge ,
Towed trailer ,
Backpack ( portable variant , so called " mountain Katyusha " ) ,
ZiS @-@ 151 ( truck , used after the war ) ;
Note : There was also an experimental KV @-@ 1K – Katyusha mounted on KV @-@ 1 tank which was not taken in service .
A list of some implementations of the Katyusha follows :
= = = Rocket variants = = =
Rockets used in the above implementations were :
The M @-@ 8 and M @-@ 13 rocket could also be fitted with smoke warheads , although this was not common .
= = = Combat history = = =
The multiple rocket launchers were top secret in the beginning of World War II . A special unit of the NKVD troops was raised to operate them . On July 14 , 1941 , an experimental artillery battery of seven launchers was first used in battle at Rudnya in Smolensk Province of Russia , under the command of Captain Ivan Flyorov , destroying a concentration of German troops with tanks , armored vehicles and trucks at the marketplace , causing massive German Army casualties and its retreat from the town in panic . Following the success , the Red Army organized new Guards mortar batteries for the support of infantry divisions . A battery 's complement was standardized at four launchers . They remained under NKVD control until German Nebelwerfer rocket launchers became common later in the war .
On August 8 , 1941 , Stalin ordered the formation of eight special Guards mortar regiments under the direct control of the General Headquarters Reserve ( Stavka @-@ VGK ) . Each regiment comprised three battalions of three batteries , totalling 36 BM @-@ 13 or BM @-@ 8 launchers . Independent Guards mortar battalions were also formed , comprising 12 launchers in three batteries of four . By the end of 1941 , there were eight regiments , 35 independent battalions , and two independent batteries in service , fielding a total of 554 launchers .
In June 1942 heavy Guards mortar battalions were formed around the new M @-@ 30 static rocket launch frames , consisting of 96 launchers in three batteries . In July , a battalion of BM @-@ 13s was added to the establishment of a tank corps . In 1944 , the BM @-@ 31 was used in motorized heavy Guards mortar battalions of 48 launchers . In 1943 , Guards mortar brigades , and later divisions , were formed equipped with static launchers .
By the end of 1942 , 57 regiments were in service — together with the smaller independent battalions , this was the equivalent of 216 batteries : 21 % BM @-@ 8 light launchers , 56 % BM @-@ 13 , and 23 % M @-@ 30 heavy launchers . By the end of the war , the equivalent of 518 batteries were in service .
= = Post @-@ war development = =
The success and economy of multiple rocket launchers ( MRL ) have led them to continue to be developed . During the Cold War , the Soviet Union fielded several models of Katyusha @-@ like MRL , notably the BM @-@ 21 launchers somewhat inspired by the earlier weapon , and the larger BM @-@ 27 . Advances in artillery munitions have been applied to some Katyusha @-@ type multiple launch rocket systems , including bomblet submunitions , remotely deployed land mines , and chemical warheads .
With the breakup of the Soviet Union , Russia inherited most of its military arsenal including its large complement of MRLs . In recent history , they have been used by Russian forces during the First and Second Chechen Wars and by Armenian and Azerbaijani forces during the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh War . Georgian government forces are reported to have used BM @-@ 21 or similar rocket artillery in fighting in the 2008 South Ossetia war .
Katyusha @-@ like launchers were exported to Afghanistan , Angola , Czechoslovakia , Egypt , East Germany , Hungary , Iran , Iraq , Mongolia , North Korea , Poland , Syria , and Vietnam . They were also built in Czechoslovakia , the People 's Republic of China , North Korea , and Iran .
Proper Katyushas ( BM @-@ 13s ) also saw action in the Korean War , used by the Chinese People 's Volunteer Army against the South and United Nations forces . Soviet BM @-@ 13s were known to have been imported to China before the Sino @-@ Soviet split and were operational in the People 's Liberation Army .
Israel captured BM @-@ 24 MRLs during the Six @-@ Day War ( 1967 ) , used them in two battalions during the Yom Kippur War ( 1973 ) and the 1982 Lebanon War , and later developed the MAR @-@ 240 launcher for the same rockets , based on a Sherman tank chassis .
During the 2006 Lebanon War , Hezbollah fired between 3 @,@ 970 and 4 @,@ 228 rockets , from light truck @-@ mounts and single @-@ rail man @-@ portable launchers . About 95 % of these were 122 mm ( 4 @.@ 8 in ) Syrian @-@ manufactured M @-@ 21OF type artillery rockets which carried warheads up to 30 kg ( 66 lb ) and had a range of 20 km , perhaps up to 30 km ( 19 mi ) . Hamas has launched 122 @-@ mm Grad @-@ type Katyusha rockets from the Gaza Strip against several cities in Israel , although they are not reported to have truck @-@ mounted launchers . Although Katyusha originally referred to the mobile launcher , today the rockets are often referred to as Katyushas .
Some allege that the CIA bought Katyushas from the Egyptian military and supplied them to the Mujahideen ( via Pakistan 's ISI ) during the Soviet Afghan war .
Katyusha @-@ like MRLs were also allegedly used by the Rwandan Patriotic Front during its 1990 invasion of Rwanda , through the 1994 genocide . They were effective in battle , but translated into much anti @-@ Tutsi sentiment in the local media .
It was reported that BM @-@ 21 launchers were used against American forces during the 2003 invasion of Iraq . They have also been used in the Afghanistan and Iraq insurgencies . In Iraq , according to Associated Press and Agence France @-@ Presse reports , Katyusha @-@ like rockets were fired at the Green Zone late March 2008 .
Katyusha rockets were reportedly used by both Gaddafi Loyalists and anti @-@ Gaddafi forces during the Libyan Civil War .
Also , several countries have continued to build and operate Katyusha @-@ like systems well into the 21st century , as for example the Teruel MRL of the Spanish Army .
In February 2013 , the Defense Ministry of Yemen reported seizing an Iranian ship , and that the ship 's cargo included ( among its other weapons ) Katyusha rockets .
In August 2013 the Irish republican dissident group Óglaigh na hÉireann was blamed for planting a Katyusha @-@ style rocket in undergrowth next to a field near Cullyhanna in South Armagh in an area used by soldiers on training exercises . The weapon was to be triggered using a mobile phone .
The Russian army has mounted some multiple rocket launchers on turretless T @-@ 72 tanks and called the weapon a TOS @-@ 1 . These were developed in the 1980s , but have been modernized and are in very limited service .
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= Typhoon Nora ( 1973 ) =
Typhoon Nora was the third @-@ most intense tropical cyclone on record . Originating from an area of low pressure over the western Pacific , Nora was first identified as a tropical depression on October 2 , 1973 . Tracking generally westward , the system gradually intensified , attaining typhoon status the following evening . After turning northwestward , the typhoon underwent a period of rapid intensification , during which its central pressure decreased by 77 mb ( hPa ; 2 @.@ 27 inHg ) in 24 hours . At the end of this phase , Nora peaked with winds of 295 km / h ( 185 mph ) and a pressure of 877 mb ( hPa ; 25 @.@ 91 inHg ) , making it the most @-@ intense tropical cyclone on record ( alongside Typhoon Ida in 1958 ) at the time ; however , this pressure has since been surpassed by two other typhoons and one hurricane . The typhoon subsequently weakened and turned northwestward as it approached the Philippines . After brushing Luzon on October 7 , the system passed south of Taiwan and ultimately made landfall in China on October 10 . Once onshore , Nora quickly weakened and dissipated the following day .
The Philippines and Taiwan sustained the most extensive losses from Typhoon Nora , with 36 people losing their lives collectively . In the former , more than 1 million residents were left homeless as high winds and flooding wrecked homes . Damage in the country reached $ 2 million ( 1973 USD ) . In Taiwan , more than 1 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed and 8 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . The typhoon was also responsible for several maritime incidents that killed at least four people .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 30 , a weak surface low developed within the monsoon trough about 195 km ( 120 mi ) south of Yap . Drifting northwestward , the system gradually organized into a tropical depression by October 2 . Later that day , aircraft reconnaissance revealed the system to have intensified into a tropical storm , at which time it was assigned the name Nora . The system 's movement soon became slow and erratic , with Nora executing a counter @-@ clockwise loop on October 3 . After completing the loop , it attained typhoon status and acquired a temporary northward trajectory . Due to the cyclone 's proximity to the Philippines , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration also monitored the storm and assigned it with the local name Luming . Late on October 4 , Nora began to undergo a period of rapid intensification . Several aircraft reconnaissance missions were flown by the U.S. Air Force 54th Weather Reconnaissance Squadron into the storm between October 5 and 6 , documenting the typhoon 's dramatic strengthening .
By the evening of October 5 , Nora had attained winds in excess of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) , ranking it as a Category 5 @-@ equivalent super typhoon on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale . A recon mission into the storm at this time revealed concentric eyewalls , measured at 14 km ( 9 mi ) and 32 km ( 20 mi ) . Initially , the aircraft was unable to penetrate into the core of the eye due to severe turbulence ; however , they were successful after a second attempt . Once inside the eye , they discovered an almost cloud @-@ free center with " an amphitheater or bowl @-@ like appearance . " Stratocumulus clouds were suppressed to an unusually low altitude of 1 @.@ 2 km ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) . The core of Nora was exceptionally warm , with temperatures reaching a near @-@ record 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) at the 700 mb level . At 0020 UTC on October 6 , a dropsonde released by the reconnaissance team recorded a surface pressure of 877 mb ( hPa ; 25 @.@ 91 inHg ) just inside the eyewall of the typhoon . At this time , maximum winds were estimated to have peaked at 295 km / h ( 185 mph ) . This intensity ranked Nora as the most @-@ intense tropical cyclone on record in the world , alongside Typhoon Ida in 1958 . However , in post @-@ storm analysis , it was noted that since the dropsonde did not record a pressure at the storm 's center , Nora was likely slightly stronger than indicated . Since then , Nora 's intensity has been surpassed by three other storms : Typhoon June in 1975 , Typhoon Tip in 1979 , and Hurricane Patricia in 2015 .
Despite the storm 's extreme intensity , it quickly began to weaken as it approached the Philippines on October 6 . Within ten hours , the pressure rose to 894 mb ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 40 inHg ) and later dropped below Category 5 status . That morning , Nora turned more northwesterly in response to a weakening in a subtropical ridge and an approaching shortwave trough over China . Steady weakening continued over the following days , with the storm brushing the northeastern tip of Luzon , Philippines , with winds of 175 – 185 km / h ( 110 – 115 mph ) on October 7 . Nora 's intensity leveled out around 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) on October 8 as it tracked between the Philippines and Taiwan . After passing within 95 km ( 60 mi ) of Taiwan , Nora turned more northerly before making landfall near Xiamen , Fujian as a minimal typhoon early on October 10 . Once onshore , the storm rapidly degenerated into an area of low pressure before dissipating the following day .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Prior to the typhoon 's arrival in the Philippines , all domestic flights in and out of Manila were cancelled ; however , international travel was unaffected . The United States Air Force also moved its planes from Clark Air Base to other bases in Asia . Additionally , all schools in Manila were closed . Brushing the coast of Luzon in the Philippines as a Category 3 @-@ equivalent typhoon , Nora caused considerable damage in the region . Gale @-@ force winds were measured across much of western Luzon , with a peak reading of 126 km / h ( 78 mph ) at Manila port . These winds caused scattered power and communication losses throughout the Peninsula . The city of Baguio ( population 100 @,@ 000 ) lost power for approximately six hours . Crop losses were extensive , with the storm striking close to harvest time . Heavy rains from the storm , peaking at 338 mm ( 13 @.@ 3 in ) in Baguio , triggered significant flooding and caused a breach in the Arnedo Dike in Apalit , Pampanga . Eight towns along a 45 km ( 30 mi ) stretch downstream were flooded ; however , roads remained passable . Flooding in Manila also prompted the evacuation of 400 residents . In Caloocan , a child died after being electrocuted by downed wires . Across the Philippines , 24 people were killed and over 1 million were left homeless . Damage to crops and property reached $ 2 million ( 1973 USD ) . Nora was the first of three typhoons to impact the Philippines in the span of a week , with Patsy and Ruth striking the country on October 12 and 15 respectively .
While passing south of Taiwan , rough seas spawned by the typhoon were responsible for several maritime incidents over the Taiwan Strait and South China Sea . The Philippine Freighter Asian Mariner , though all 38 crewmen were rescued . The Greek freighter Baltic Klif capsized about 150 km ( 90 mi ) southwest of the Penghu Islands , with three crewmen confirmed dead and several others missing and presumed dead . Additionally , the Taiwanese fishing vessel Jai Tai NR3 became stranded amid 9 @.@ 1 m ( 30 ft ) seas , with its bow split open . One of the crew perished ; however , the frigate USS Worden was able to rescue seven fishermen despite the dangerous seas . As the storm neared landfall in China , two ships became stranded over the South China Sea and sent out distress signals .
Passing within 95 km ( 60 mi ) of Taiwan , the storm brought gale @-@ force winds and torrential rain to the island . A peak gust of 126 km / h ( 78 mph ) was measured in Tungchi , Penghu Islands . The most significant impacts came from the rains , which amounted to 523 mm ( 20 @.@ 6 in ) in Sinkong over a 20 ‑ hour span . Widespread flooding and many landslides destroyed at least 1 @,@ 000 homes , and washed out bridges , roads , and railroads . Twelve people lost their lives and twenty @-@ eight others were reported missing . Additionally , 8 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . In Hong Kong , the typhoon produced gusty winds , peaking at 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) , though no rainfall was recorded . Although Nora struck China as a typhoon , there were no reports of damage received .
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= Falcon 's Fury =
Falcon 's Fury is a free @-@ standing Sky Jump drop tower attraction at the Busch Gardens Tampa amusement park in Tampa , Florida , United States . Manufactured by Intaride ( a subsidiary of Intamin ) , the ride reaches a maximum height of 335 feet ( 102 m ) making it North America 's tallest free @-@ standing drop tower . Riders experience about five seconds of free fall , reaching a speed of 60 miles per hour ( 100 km / h ) . The ride 's name was chosen to invoke a falcon 's ability to dive steeply at high speed to capture prey .
The project was originally planned to begin in 2012 with the ride opening in 2013 , but it was delayed by one year . Construction began in 2013 with a scheduled opening date of May 1 , 2014 ; however , the opening was delayed due to mechanical and technical issues . Following a preview opening to park employees in early August and a soft opening on August 16 , 2014 , Falcon 's Fury officially opened to the public on September 2 , 2014 . Public response to the ride has been positive , praising the height of the tower and the drop experience .
= = History = =
Planning for Falcon 's Fury began around the time the park completed its Cheetah Hunt ride in 2011 . Ground tests in the Timbuktu area ( now known as Pantopia ) revealed " interesting soil conditions " , with steel beams and concrete required to reinforce the site .
Rumors that Busch Gardens Tampa might replace its Sandstorm ride with a 200 @-@ foot ( 61 m ) drop tower surfaced in the fall of 2011 when its sister park , Busch Gardens Williamsburg , opened Mäch Tower that August . Construction surveying was observed in January 2012 . Two months later plans were filed with the city to build a drop tower , possibly for the 2013 season . Speculation about the new attraction 's name began when SeaWorld Parks & Entertainment , owners of Busch Gardens Tampa , filed trademark applications for " Desert Dive " and " Falcon 's Fury " on May 2 and July 11 , 2012 , respectively , and bought the DesertDive.com domain name . When permits for the new ride differed from those for Mäch Tower in November 2012 , rumors began that the seats would tilt forward . Due to the height of the attraction , approval from the Federal Aviation Administration was required . According to the FAA and the city of Tampa , the tower was supposed to be built in December 2012 and open to the public in 2013 . For unknown reasons the project was delayed , with its construction pushed back to the second half of 2013 .
On May 31 , 2013 , it was announced that Sandstorm would close on June 2 to make room for a new attraction . About two weeks later , on June 11 , Busch Gardens Tampa announced plans for Falcon 's Fury and construction began that month . During the fourth quarter of 2013 , the park drove steel piles for the ride 's foundation nightly for about a month .
On September 20 , the tower for Falcon 's Fury was shipped from Spain in nine sections , arriving at the park near the end of October ; the ride 's smaller parts had been delivered earlier from several European countries . Installation of one of the nine tower pieces was planned for every other night , with the last piece in place by New Year 's Eve . Construction was done by the Adena Corporation , and on November 18 the first piece was installed . The ride 's second piece was installed on December 2 , and two more were installed by December 6 . The fifth section was placed by December 21 , and the sixth was erected by New Year 's Day . The seventh tower piece was installed by January 3 , 2014 , and the eighth by January 5 , reaching a height of about 300 feet ( 91 m ) , and Falcon 's Fury 's gondola was seen at the park on January 12 . The ride 's counterweight was installed on January 22 , and the tower was capped during the weekend of February 1 . Work on the ride 's electrical components then began . Assembly of the gondola was completed by the end of March . Testing was originally scheduled to begin in February , but due to construction delays the first drop tests were not made until April 15 . Tower painting began in June , with its sunset motif estimated to take 60 hours over a three @-@ week period .
At the end of February , Busch Gardens Tampa announced that Falcon 's Fury would open on May 1 , and on April 3 the park began a sweepstakes contest for its " Falcon 's Fury First @-@ to @-@ Ride Party " . A second , similar contest began on April 11 , with fifty winners from each contest being among the first riders . A week later , the park announced that the ride 's opening would be delayed , and several media events scheduled for April and May ( including the First @-@ to @-@ Ride party ) were cancelled . It was later disclosed that the delay was due to manufacturing and technical issues with the cables which pull the gondola up the tower . During the week of August 10 , Falcon 's Fury opened for park employees . On August 16 the ride soft @-@ opened to the public , and two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half weeks later Falcon 's Fury officially opened .
= = Ride experience = =
Falcon 's Fury has two shaded queue lines : a standby line which can hold guests for about 45 minutes , and a Quick Queue for guests with passes that allow them to bypass the standby line . Although the Quick Queue system will not initially be used for the ride , it may be added later . Riders must be between 54 inches ( 137 cm ) and 77 inches ( 196 cm ) .
When the riders are seated a catch car connects to the gondola and raises it to the top of the tower , which takes about one minute . Although the tower is 335 feet ( 102 m ) high , the gondola stops 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) lower . When it reaches the maximum height the seats tilt forward , with a computer @-@ randomized wait time from one to five seconds . When the wait time ends , the gondola is released from the catch car into a five @-@ second free fall reaching a maximum speed of 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) . As the gondola passes through the pre @-@ braking section , the seats rotate back into a vertical position . After the pre @-@ brake the gondola enters the main magnetic @-@ brake run , where riders experience approximately 3 @.@ 5 g ( 34 m / s2 ) of deceleration as the gondola slows . When it comes to a full stop at the base of the tower , the riders disembark . One cycle of the ride lasts about one and a half minutes . Busch Gardens Tampa placed an Easter egg in the form of a painted Falcon 's Fury logo on top of one of its buildings , which can be seen only from a certain side of the gondola .
= = Characteristics = =
The tower and gondola were manufactured by Intaride , a subsidiary of Intamin . The ride covers an area of about 3 @,@ 600 square feet ( 330 m2 ) .
= = = Tower = = =
The Falcon 's Fury tower is 335 feet ( 102 m ) tall , the tallest free @-@ standing drop tower in North America , and can bend 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) in any direction from the top to withstand hurricane @-@ force winds . The tower is composed of nine sections , including the machine house . Each piece of the tower weighs up to 105 tonnes ( 103 long tons ; 116 short tons ) , and the entire structure weighs about 519 tonnes ( 511 long tons ; 572 short tons ) . The 77 tonnes ( 76 long tons ; 85 short tons ) machine house at the top contains four DC motors used to lift the gondola . Inside the tower is a 68 tonnes ( 67 long tons ; 75 short tons ) counterweight , composed of hundreds of lead weights , to help raise the gondola . The tower 's foundation is made up of 105 steel piles , varying in depth from 75 feet ( 23 m ) to 205 feet ( 62 m ) . A 138 @-@ foot ( 42 m ) eddy current brake system on the tower slows the gondola after its free fall . The structure is painted yellow , aqua and two shades of red .
= = = Gondola = = =
The ride 's single gondola has 32 seats , grouped octagonally around the tower . Each of the eight sides seats four riders , and each seat has an over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraint and seat belt . Falcon 's Fury can theoretically accommodate 800 riders per hour . Carbon @-@ fiber wings buttress each end of a group of seats , protecting outside riders ' arms and legs during the drop . The gondola reaches a height of 310 feet ( 94 m ) , 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) below the top of the tower . When it reaches its maximum height the seats tilt 90 degrees forward , with the riders facing the ground ( the first use of this feature on a drop tower ) .
= = Records = =
When Falcon 's Fury opened it became North America 's tallest free @-@ standing drop tower . Although taller drop towers exist on the continent — such as Lex Luthor : Drop of Doom at Six Flags Magic Mountain and Zumanjaro : Drop of Doom at Six Flags Great Adventure , which reach drop heights of 400 feet ( 120 m ) and 415 feet ( 126 m ) respectively — those attractions were added to existing structures . Despite its height , the ride 's maximum speed of 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) does not set a speed record . Other drop towers — such as Drop Tower at Kings Dominion , which reaches 72 miles per hour ( 116 km / h ) — are faster . However , Falcon 's Fury is the world 's first drop tower whose seats tilt 90 degrees . Although tilting seats were first used by Intamin in 2001 on Acrophobia at Six Flags Over Georgia , their tilt angle is smaller .
= = Reception = =
The initial reception after the ride 's announcement was positive . According to Lance Hart , a theme park enthusiast from Screamscape , " Instead of selling your picture ... they should sell baby wipes and clean underwear at the exit " and the ride could be the most frightening drop tower in the world . Robb Alvey of Theme Park Review called the ride the world 's best drop tower , later ranking it one of the top 14 new attractions for 2014 ; Dave Parfitt and Arthur Levine of USA Today ranked Falcon 's Fury in their top ten . Brady MacDonald of the Los Angeles Times originally ranked Falcon 's Fury his seventh @-@ most @-@ anticipated ride for 2014 ; on an updated list , he ranked it 17th .
For safety reasons , construction on Falcon 's Fury was done primarily at night . Residents near the park complained about noise from the pile driver during the laying of the foundation , and complaints about the ride 's operating noise continued into August 2014 .
According to the park and Twitter posts selected by news media , public response during the soft opening was positive ; Total Orlando gave the ride five stars for teenagers and four stars for adults . On Coaster101.com " Ashley " said that although the restraints were tight , they were comfortable and not as tight as those on other rides , adding : " The drop on Falcon 's Fury is different from any ride I have ever ridden . The best way I can describe it is that instead of leaving your stomach at the top of the tower , you take it with you to the bottom . " According to Florida Trip Guides , the ride was a good addition to the park 's attraction lineup : " Falcon 's Fury is not for the faint of heart . I have ridden dozens of drop towers but this one is different . Something about facing straight down and falling really makes you nervous . " Robert Niles of Theme Park Insider said that Falcon 's Fury and other recent attractions were nearing the extreme of human tolerance ; as a result , " You 're getting to the point where instead of making an attraction more popular by having it achieve some type of record , you 're actually limiting the audience for that . " Randi Nissenbaum of Bay News 9 called the view from the top of the tower incredible , and although she was nervous at first she wanted to ride again . Sue Carlton of the Tampa Bay Times said , " it was terrifying and thrilling and I held on as hard as I could and yelled and closed my eyes and afterward stepped off rubber @-@ kneed and exhilarated . "
For the 2014 season , Busch Gardens Tampa expected attendance to increase by three to eight percent . However ( as predicted in June 2014 by IBISWorld Research ) , combined attendance for the second quarter of the year increased by about 0 @.@ 3 percent for SeaWorld Orlando , SeaWorld San Diego , SeaWorld San Antonio , Busch Gardens Williamsburg and Busch Gardens Tampa . Compared to the same period in 2013 , combined attendance for the first half of the year dropped by just over four percent . Busch Gardens Tampa blamed the lack of its anticipated attendance increase partially on the Falcon 's Fury delays .
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= Battle of Logorište =
The Battle of Logorište was fought east of Duga Resa and south of Karlovac , Croatia , from 4 – 6 November 1991 during the Croatian War of Independence , between the Croatian National Guard ( Zbor narodne garde – ZNG ) and the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) . The ZNG placed the JNA @-@ held Logorište barracks under a blockade as part of the countrywide Battle of the Barracks , which aimed to pin down JNA units isolated in their bases and force them to surrender weapons and ammunition to the ZNG . However , the JNA garrison broke out from the besieged barracks with part of its stored equipment before the ZNG claimed the vacant base . The breakout was supported by JNA units and SAO Krajina units deployed to lift the blockade of the barracks and other JNA garrisons in Karlovac . A battle ensued as the ZNG attempted to contain advancing JNA units , ending with a ceasefire signed in The Hague .
Although both sides claimed victory , neither achieved all their objectives ; the JNA garrison evacuated the Logorište barracks , but Croatian defences elsewhere held . Particularly heavy fighting was reported in the Karlovac suburb of Turanj , identified as the primary axis of the JNA effort . While the JNA removed some weapons and equipment stored in the Logorište barracks , the remaining supplies were removed by the ZNG over a one @-@ week period after the battle .
= = Background = =
In 1990 , after the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia , ethnic tensions between Croats and Croatian Serbs worsened . The Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) confiscated the Croatian Territorial Defence Force 's ( Teritorijalna obrana – TO ) weapons to minimize resistance . On 17 August , tensions escalated into an open revolt by the Croatian Serbs centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin , parts of Lika , Kordun , Banovina and Slavonia .
After two unsuccessful attempts by Serbia ( supported by Montenegro and the Serbian provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo ) to obtain the Yugoslav Presidency 's approval for a JNA operation to disarm Croatian security forces in January 1991 — and a bloodless skirmish between Serb insurgents and Croatian special police in March — the JNA , supported by Serbia and its allies , asked the federal presidency for wartime powers and the declaration of a state of emergency . The request was denied on 15 March , and the JNA came under the control of Serbian President Slobodan Milošević . Milošević , preferring a campaign to expand Serbia rather than preserve Yugoslavia , publicly threatened to replace the JNA with a Serbian army and declared that he no longer recognized the authority of the federal presidency . The threat caused the JNA to gradually abandon plans to preserve Yugoslavia in favour of Serbian expansion . By the end of March the conflict escalated with its first fatalities , during the Plitvice Lakes incident . The JNA stepped in , supporting the insurgents and preventing the Croatian police from intervening . In early April , leaders of the Serb revolt in Croatia declared their intention to integrate the area under their control with Serbia ; this was seen by the Croatian government as an intention to secede from Croatia .
At the beginning of 1991 Croatia had no regular army , and in an effort to bolster its defence the country doubled its police force to about 20 @,@ 000 . The force 's most effective component was its 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong special police , deployed in 12 battalions with a military structure . There were also a 9 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 @-@ strong regionally @-@ organized reserve police , grouped into 16 battalions and 10 companies . The reserve police carried only small arms , and a portion of the force was unarmed . Although the Croatian government responded in May by forming the Croatian National Guard ( Zbor narodne garde – ZNG ) , its development was hampered by a United Nations arms embargo introduced in September . On 12 September the ZNG was ordered to blockade all JNA facilities it could reach , beginning the Battle of the Barracks .
= = Prelude = =
In late September and early October 1991 , the blockade of JNA barracks in and around Karlovac and Croatian defences in the city were maintained by about 900 police and ZNG troops . The troops were assigned to the 110th Infantry Brigade and the under @-@ strength 3rd Battalion of the 2nd Guards Brigade . The 110th Infantry Brigade , at one @-@ third of its planned strength due to poor organisation and a shortage of weapons , was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Rudolf Brlečić .
The JNA 's Stjepan Milašinčić @-@ Seljo barracks in Logorište , south of Karlovac , was one of the largest weapons @-@ storage facilities in Croatia . The barracks contained weapons and equipment for the 8th Proletarian Motorised Brigade , the 471st Mixed Antitank Artillery Brigade , elements of the logistics battalion of the 580th Mixed Artillery Brigade , an armoured battalion of the 236th Proletarian Motorised Brigade and 200 tonnes of fuel and stockpiled food assigned to the 944th Logistics Base . During the summer of 1990 , a mechanised battalion of the 4th Armoured Brigade was moved from Jastrebarsko to the Logorište barracks . When the battalion was deployed to Lika in late March 1991 , about 40 men remained at the barracks ( whose fortifications were improved ) . The barracks commander was Lieutenant Colonel Boro Ercegovac , who was also commanding officer of the 8th Proletarian Motorised Brigade .
The 1st Battalion of the ZNG 's 110th Infantry Brigade blockaded the barracks on 19 September to contain the JNA and prevent the removal of weapons . The blockade was poorly organised , allowing a pair of tanks to leave the barracks and raid a nearby settlement two days later ; however , according to Croatian sources one tank was destroyed during the raid . To relieve blockaded garrisons in the Karlovac area the JNA redeployed the 169th Motorised Brigade from Loznica and three detachments of the TO from Vojnić , assigning them to Operational Group 1 ( OG @-@ 1 ) . OG @-@ 1 attacked Croatian defences on 4 October , reaching the east bank of the Korana River on 8 October . The 169th Motorised Brigade collapsed due to inadequate manpower , and was replaced by the 9th Motorised Brigade ( brought in from Serbia ) on 15 October .
= = = Order of battle = = =
According to the JNA an additional 450 troops were deployed to the barracks ( despite the blockade ) from 22 October to 4 November , primarily tank crews assigned to the 9th Motorised Brigade and two companies of SAO Krajina TO from Vojnić . The reinforcements crossed the Korana River , adjacent to the barracks , and their movements led to several skirmishes . By 4 November , the barracks housed a 685 @-@ strong garrison . During the second half of October , the 129th and 137th Infantry Brigades were established in Karlovac and nearby Duga Resa to bolster Croatian defences . The two new brigades were assigned areas of responsibility ( AORs ) on 29 November by the Karlovac Operational Zone commanding officer , Colonel Izidor Češnjaj ; the 110th and 137th Brigade AORs were just south of the Logorište barracks . The 137th Infantry Brigade was commanded by Major Nedjeljko Katušin . The 110th Infantry Brigade deployed three companies of its 1st Battalion north and west of the Logorište barracks , while three companies of its 3rd Battalion were deployed south of the barracks . Further south , three companies of the 3rd Battalion of the 137th Infantry Brigade faced the Korana . The 1 / 110th Brigade was supported by two companies of police ( including an antitank and sniper group of special police reserve troops commanded by Želimir Feitl ) in Sv . Doroteja , north of the barracks . The 3 / 137th Brigade was supported by an additional company of police . The 3rd Battalion of the 2nd Guards Brigade was ordered to redeploy to Banovina ; most of its troops were on leave or had left the area , and only a squad remained in the rear of the 137th Infantry Brigade .
= = Timeline = =
The JNA 5th Military District command instructed OG @-@ 1 to relieve blockaded JNA garrisons in the Karlovac and Zagreb areas . During the first stage of the advance , OG @-@ 1 intended to reach the Kupa River via Turanj ( breaking through the ZNG positions ) while the second stage relieved JNA garrisons blockaded in Karlovac . On 2 November OG @-@ 1 began artillery bombardment in the Karlovac area , forcing the 2nd Battalion of the 110th Infantry Brigade to abandon its positions in Turanj the following day . The abandoned defences were occupied by elements of the brigade 's 1st Battalion .
On 3 November , the ZNG was renamed the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) . OG @-@ 1 supplemented its orders with instructions to capture the village of Barilović and its surroundings ( south of the Logorište barracks ) to facilitate the evacuation of the barracks . Anticipating the JNA advance , the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia instructed the Karlovac Operational Zone and the 110th Infantry Brigade to capture the Logorište and Jamadol barracks and secure ammunition for HV ( whose stock was dwindling ) . Brlečić ordered the police force , commanded by Feitl , to capture the barracks that night ; Feitl refused , and the order was rescinded by Češnjaj . The JNA artillery bombarded Karlovac during the night of 3 – 4 November .
= = = 4 November = = =
The breakout from the Logorište barracks began on 4 November at 7 : 30 a.m. , after an hour @-@ long artillery bombardment and airstrikes on battalion and company command posts . The JNA simultaneously attacked HV defences at Turanj ( further north ) , threatening Karlovac . The breakout was commanded by the OG @-@ 1 chief of staff , Colonel Mirko Raković .
While most of the JNA garrison in the Logorište barracks remained in place , a group of 10 to 16 tanks deployed south ( without significant resistance ) toward the villages of Belajske Poljice and Belaj . The armoured force went through Belaj before it was stopped at Gornji Velemerić and about 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 miles ) north of the village of Carevo Selo by elements of the 2nd Guards Brigade and the 137th Infantry Brigade . The JNA force retreated to Belaj after losing two tanks , mounting another attack on the road to Barilović . The four tanks dispatched to Barilović were also stopped by 137th Brigade troops before reaching their objective . By evening the 137th Infantry Brigade was reinforced by two companies redeployed from Generalski Stol and Erdelj , elements of the 3rd Battalion of the 2nd Guards Brigade , one tank , three armoured personnel carriers ( APCs ) and an antitank missile system to contain the JNA advance . During the night of 4 – 5 November , the civilian population was evacuated .
A secondary force of four JNA tanks , supported by infantry , was deployed from the Logorište barracks to secure high ground north and east of the barracks and protect the flank of the armoured force in Belaj . According to the HV , advancing troops were met by the 2nd Company of the 3rd Battalion of the 110th Brigade ( supported by a T @-@ 55 tank ) in Mala Vinica after the JNA force secured its immediate objectives . The JNA lost three tanks and a truck in the clash . According to them one tank was destroyed and another damaged , forcing the remaining two to retreat to the barracks . The secondary force was limited to within 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 feet ) from Belajske Poljice after the HV secured Vinica Hill , which was attacked by a Yugoslav Air Force Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 21 at 2 : 00 p.m.
The Karlovac Operational Zone did not assist the 137th Infantry Brigade , instead directing subordinated units to lift JNA sieges of Slunj and Saborsko and securing the Karlovac – Slunj road . This prompted Katušin to request help from Zagreb Operational Zone commander Colonel Stjepan Mateša . Mateša , a native of Duga Resa , ordered the 7th Brigade of the Croatian TO to deploy a battalion to Karlovac . Although the General Staff approved the order ( instructing the 8th Brigade of the Croatian TO to add one of its battalions ) , no 8th Brigade troops were sent .
= = = 5 November = = =
The JNA , warned about reinforcements to the 137th Infantry Brigade , abandoned its plan to advance to Barilović . It reoriented its efforts to reach the Korana Bridge in the village of Malići , down the road from Gornji Velemerić and Carevo Selo ( where its tanks were stopped the day before ) . The battle resumed in the morning when JNA tanks ( supported by the Yugoslav Air Force , artillery and multiple rocket launchers ) broke through positions held by the 2nd Guards Brigade at 1 : 00 p.m. , reaching Carevo Selo before they were stopped again by the HV . Shortly afterwards , the 2nd Battalion of the 7th Brigade arrived from Zagreb to Duga Resa and were attached to the 137th Infantry Brigade . One company of the battalion was deployed to Vinica Hill , and a second was deployed west of Carevo Selo ( where it relieved troops from the 2nd Guards Brigade ) .
The 110th Infantry Brigade assigned secondary importance to the fighting around the Logorište barracks , since it was struggling to hold its positions at Turanj ( where the HV estimated a two @-@ battalion @-@ strong attack was in progress , with artillery and air support ) . At 5 : 00 a.m. the Vinica Hill positions were reinforced by the Sports Company ( composed of Zagreb University Faculty of Kinesiology students ) and a platoon of 82 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) mortars attached to the 3rd Battalion of the 110th Infantry Brigade . The battalion was tasked with blocking the Logorište – Belajske Poljice road leading south from the Logorište barracks and capturing Belajske Poljice by noon .
Since there were only 40 trained drivers in the Logorište barracks , Boro Ercegovac ordered soldiers who had never operated military vehicles to drive in a column starting from the barracks under fire at 3 : 30 p.m. As the column advanced south towards Malići , elements of the 110th Infantry Brigade retreated from the village of Zastinja ( on the right bank of the Korana River ) . The evacuating JNA column sustained casualties , although it was supported by the 9th Motorised Brigade and two detachments of the SAO Krajina TO from Vojnić . The SAO Krajina TO were later accused of killing civilians in the area .
= = = 6 November = = =
During the night of 5 – 6 November , fighting died down after a ceasefire was brokered in The Hague . The lull was used by the 137th Infantry Brigade to extract its encircled troops and civilians near the Korana River , east of Malići . The JNA column began moving south again at dawn ; it reached Malići at about 9 : 00 a.m. , crossed the Korana River ( over the village bridge and a pontoon bridge ) by 11 : 00 and proceeded to Vojnić . Shortly afterwards , the Logorište barracks and its surroundings were secured by the HV .
= = Aftermath = =
Both sides claimed victory after the battle , with the JNA hailing the evacuation of the garrison as its greatest success . However , they achieved only part of their objectives ; the JNA failed to secure the area surrounding the barracks or remove all the weapons and equipment in it , and the planned coordinated advance against Turanj also failed . Croatian forces failed in their primary objective : containing the garrison . Nonetheless , the JNA threat from the Logorište barracks was removed ( freeing up forces assigned to the blockade of the barracks ) and a large number of weapons were captured .
The 137th Infantry Brigade had 17 fatalities in the battle , and the 2nd Guards Brigade had one . The 110th Infantry Brigade had 14 killed and 26 wounded , but the brigade sustained most of its casualties at Turanj rather than Logorište . The JNA had 14 dead and 33 wounded troops . In addition , 14 civilians were killed and 14 captured and held by the JNA and the SAO Krajina TO . One prisoner died in captivity , and the remainder were later exchanged . Seven of the exchanged prisoners had been severely injured , and died shortly after the exchange . The Central Intelligence Agency estimated that the JNA lost most of its tanks which had been housed in the Logorište barracks .
The JNA evacuated 21 T @-@ 55 tanks , nine T @-@ 34s , an armoured recovery vehicle , an armoured vehicle @-@ launched bridge , ten APCs ( including an armoured command vehicle ) and 50 vehicles carrying military equipment . Elements of the 110th Infantry Brigade entered the Logorište barracks on the morning of 6 November , removing some of the military hardware in the barracks before pulling out at 1 : 00 p.m. after being informed that the JNA was planning an artillery attack . Captured equipment continued to be removed from the barracks until 13 November .
= = = Command @-@ system failure = = =
The destruction of property caused outrage in Duga Resa , largely directed at Nedjeljko Katušin ( who fled for his life to Karlovac and then to Zagreb Operational Zone headquarters on the morning of 6 November ) . The 110th Infantry Brigade blamed the 137th Brigade for all mistakes , including the breakout from the barracks ( which occurred in the brigade 's AOR ) . Izidor Češnjaj also blamed Katušin . However , Katušin was supported by the General Staff and was soon appointed commanding officer of the 140th Infantry Brigade based in Jastrebarsko . In fact , Croatian command and control systems failed ( especially the Karlovac Operational Zone command , in the immediate vicinity of the battlefield ) . Communications were poor , and the zone command issued no instructions to the troops fighting near Logorište . The 110th Infantry Brigade was focused on the fighting at Turanj , paying little attention to Logorište , and the 137th Infantry Brigade made poor use of reinforcements deployed from Zagreb . The JNA command was more effective , probably because of the proximity of its command post on Šanac Hill , 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 feet ) away ( permitting direct observation of part of the battlefield ) .
= = = War crimes trial = = =
Croatian authorities charged two former members of the SAO Krajina TO with shooting two HV soldiers who had tried to surrender to the JNA on 4 November . One of the two was arrested in October 2010 , and was convicted and sentenced to nine years in prison in November 2013 .
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= Interstate 75 in Michigan =
Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) is a part of the Interstate Highway System that runs from Miami , Florida , to Sault Ste . Marie in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan . I @-@ 75 enters Michigan from Ohio in the south , north of Toledo and runs generally northward through Detroit , Pontiac and Bay City , crosses the Mackinac Bridge , and ends at the Canadian border in Sault Ste . Marie . The freeway runs for approximately 396 miles ( 637 km ) on both of Michigan 's peninsulas . The landscapes traversed by I @-@ 75 include Southern Michigan farmland , northern forests , suburban bedroom communities , and the urban core of Detroit . The freeway also uses three of the state 's monumental bridges to cross major bodies of water . There are four auxiliary Interstates in the state related to I @-@ 75 , as well as nine current or former business routes , with either Business Loop I @-@ 75 ( BL I @-@ 75 ) or Business Spur I @-@ 75 ( BS I @-@ 75 ) designations .
The freeway bears several names in addition to the I @-@ 75 designation . The southern segment was called the Detroit – Toledo Expressway during planning in the 1950s and 1960s . Through Detroit , I @-@ 75 is the Fisher Freeway or the Walter P. Chrysler Freeway , named for pioneers in the auto industry . Sections on either side of the Mackinac Bridge are the G. Mennen Williams Freeway or the Prentiss M. Brown Freeway , named for politicians who helped get the bridge built . Officially , the entire length is the American Legion Memorial Highway , after the organization of the same name . Various sections carry components of the four Great Lakes Circle Tours in the state .
Several Indian trails spanned the state along the general path of the modern freeway . After statehood , several of these were converted into plank roads that later became some of the first state highways . In the 1920s , five of these were added to the United States Numbered Highway System : US Highway 2 ( US 2 ) , US 10 , US 24 , US 25 , and US 27 . In the 1950s , a Michigan Turnpike was proposed as a tolled , controlled @-@ access highway in the Lower Peninsula . After passage of the Federal Highway Act of 1956 , this turnpike proposal was shelved as a free Interstate Highway was planned . Construction started in 1957 , signs went up in 1959 , and I @-@ 75 was completed in 1973 . Since completion , the freeway has been upgraded with the construction of the Zilwaukee Bridge near Saginaw and improved connections to the Ambassador Bridge in Detroit .
= = Route description = =
Known as " Michigan 's Main Street " , I @-@ 75 is listed on the National Highway System ( NHS ) for its entire length . The NHS is a network of roadways important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . The freeway is the busiest in the state : between M @-@ 8 ( Davison Highway ) and McNichols Road in Detroit approximately 194 @,@ 300 vehicles used the freeway on average each day in 2010 ; in contrast the lowest traffic level was 3 @,@ 208 vehicles between the M @-@ 48 and M @-@ 80 interchanges in Chippewa County . I @-@ 75 carries segments of all four Great Lakes Circle Tours in the state . It is also the only highway located on both Michigan 's Upper and Lower peninsulas ( UP and LP , respectively ) . Between the Ohio state line and Kawkawlin , I @-@ 75 contains between a minimum of six and a maximum of ten lanes total ; other sections vary between four and six lanes in total .
= = = Lake Erie shore and the Downriver communities = = =
Crossing the state line north of Toledo , Ohio , I @-@ 75 enters Michigan in Monroe County carrying the Lake Erie Circle Tour ( LECT ) near the North Maumee Bay of Lake Erie . The freeway runs parallel to the shoreline of the Great Lake and past the community of Luna Pier . Further north , I @-@ 75 passes to the southeast of Monroe and crosses the River Raisin between the city and the river mouth . North of the river , the freeway turns further inland running through farmland . Near Newport , I @-@ 275 splits off to the northwest and I @-@ 75 continues its northeasterly trek through Monroe County . When it crosses the Huron River , the trunkline enters Wayne County between South Rockwood and Rockwood .
On the north side of the county line , I @-@ 75 begins to run inland of , and parallel to , the Detroit River , entering the Downriver area . The freeway turns northerly after the interchange with M @-@ 85 ( Fort Street ) near Gibraltar , and the LECT departs I @-@ 75 to follow M @-@ 85 north of the interchange . The landscape transitions to suburban residential areas instead of farmland through this area . The freeway turns back northeasterly in Taylor and intersects the southern end of M @-@ 39 ( Southfield Highway ) in Lincoln Park . I @-@ 75 crosses the Ecorse River and passes through an industrial area of Metro Detroit . Further north , the freeway spans the River Rouge in the southern part of Detroit .
I @-@ 75 parallels to M @-@ 85 ( Fort Street ) and follows the Detroit River as far east as the Ambassador Bridge . Near the bridge 's approaches , the freeway turns 90 ° away from the river and intersects the eastern end of I @-@ 96 before turning again to follow the river further inland . From there , I @-@ 75 meets M @-@ 10 ( Lodge Freeway ) and crosses under M @-@ 1 ( Woodward Avenue ) . East of Woodward , the freeway travels past both Comerica Park and Ford Field , homes of the Detroit Tigers and Detroit Lions professional sports teams , respectively .
= = = Detroit to the Tri @-@ Cities = = =
Immediately east of Ford Field , I @-@ 75 turns northwesterly to follow the Chrysler Freeway away from the downtown Detroit area . The transition from the Fisher Freeway involves a set of one @-@ lane ramps through the interchange with the connections to Interstate 375 and M @-@ 3 ( Gratiot Avenue ) . Heading north @-@ northwesterly , I @-@ 75 passes to the east of the campus of Wayne State University and through an interchange with I @-@ 94 ( Edsel Ford Freeway ) . The Chrysler Freeway passes to the west of Hamtramck and to the east of Highland Park , enclaves within Detroit . I @-@ 75 meets M @-@ 8 ( Davison Freeway ) and continues through residential areas of Detroit 's northern side . North of M @-@ 102 ( 8 Mile Road ) , the freeway crosses out of Detroit and into Oakland County . The Chrysler Freeway jogs through the suburb of Hazel Park , site of the " worst freeway for accidents in Metro Detroit " at a curve near 9 Mile Road .
Further north , I @-@ 75 intersects I @-@ 696 near 10 Mile Road . The freeway continues northward for about six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) into Troy , where it turns westward . The route for I @-@ 75 zig @-@ zags through Troy and Auburn Hills as the freeway alternates from north – south to east – west to bypass Pontiac . Near the M @-@ 59 interchange , I @-@ 75 passes the headquarters for Chrysler . Further north , by the M @-@ 24 interchange , it runs near The Palace of Auburn Hills , home of the Detroit Pistons . The freeway traverses through additional suburban residential areas as it runs northwesterly away from Pontiac . These subdivisions end north of Clarkston , which is the location of the northern terminus for US 24 . Continuing through Holly and Newark , the freeway transitions back to a rural , wooded setting .
As I @-@ 75 approaches Grand Blanc , the landscape changes back to suburbs . I @-@ 475 ( UAW Freeway ) splits off to the north to bypass the east side of Flint , and I @-@ 75 merges with US 23 . The combined I @-@ 75 / US 23 turns northerly to round the west side of the city . I @-@ 75 / US 23 meets I @-@ 69 near the Bishop International Airport southwest of downtown Flint . The freeway continues northward along the western residential neighborhoods , encountering the northern end of I @-@ 475 near Mount Morris . I @-@ 75 passes to the west of Clio and the east of Birch Run , the latter home to a large outlet mall . From there , the trunkline travels through farmland in southern Saginaw County .
= = = Central Michigan = = =
I @-@ 75 / US 23 enters the southern reaches of the suburban Tri @-@ Cities at Bridgeport and proceeds northward through the area . The freeway passes to the east of downtown Saginaw . I @-@ 675 splits off to run westward into downtown , and I @-@ 75 curves around to the northwest to cross the Saginaw River on the Zilwaukee Bridge in the suburb of Zilwaukee . North of the river , I @-@ 675 reconnects to I @-@ 75 , which continues northward into Bay County . The freeway passes to the west of Bay City , encountering the eastern end of the US 10 freeway . From there , I @-@ 75 / US 23 curves northwesterly to bypass Kawkawlin before continuing north to the Standish area through farmlands inland from the Saginaw Bay . West of Standish , US 23 splits to follow the Lake Huron shoreline , and I @-@ 75 turns northwesterly to run inland .
West of Sterling , the landscape changes again ; in this area the freeway enters forest lands . I @-@ 75 continues northwestward through Arenac County and crosses into western Ogemaw County . M @-@ 30 passes under the freeway without an interchange as I @-@ 75 rounds the west side of West Branch . On the northwest side of that city , M @-@ 55 merges onto I @-@ 75 , and the two highways turn to run concurrently westward into Roscommon County . East of Prudenville , M @-@ 55 splits from the freeway . I @-@ 75 turns northward to curve around the east of Houghton and Higgins lakes . Turning back to the northwest , the trunkline bypasses Roscommon to the south and transfers into southern Crawford County . About five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) north of the county line , I @-@ 75 meets the northern end of US 127 , the former US 27 .
= = = Northern Michigan = = =
After the US 127 interchange , I @-@ 75 turns northward , and passes to the east of Grayling . There are a pair of interchanges on either end of town for BL I @-@ 75 , and the southern one is a partial interchange ; only northbound I @-@ 75 traffic may access the business loop and traffic entering the freeway may only access southbound I @-@ 75 . There is no interchange further north for M @-@ 72 ; access to that highway is provided through the business loop . On the north side of Grayling , there is a full interchange for BL I @-@ 75 / M @-@ 93 that provides the southbound I @-@ 75 connection to M @-@ 72 as well as access from both directions to the Hartwick Pines State Park .
Crossing into southern Otsego County , I @-@ 75 continues northward through Northern Michigan forests . It passes to the east of the community of Waters and Otsego Lake . North of exit 279 , I @-@ 75 proceeds by the Gaylord Regional Airport and crosses the 45th Parallel , the halfway mark between the Equator and the North Pole by latitude . The freeway then traverses the west side of Gaylord and continues through forests in the northern sections of the county . North of Vanderbilt , I @-@ 75 enters southern Cheboygan County , assuming the G. Mennen Williams Freeway name .
I @-@ 75 continues northward through Cheboygan County , passing the community of Indian River and spanning the river of the same name . North of town , the freeway traverses the area between Burt and Mullett lakes before intersecting the southern end of M @-@ 27 ; that highway provides access to Topinabee and Cheboygan . I @-@ 75 continues northward through tree farms and other agricultural properties in rural Cheboygan County . Cheboygan is accessible by way of interchanges for C @-@ 64 and C @-@ 66 , a pair of county @-@ designated highways in this area . North of C @-@ 66 , I @-@ 75 turns northwesterly . The freeway meets the northern end of US 31 and picks up the Lake Michigan Circle Tour ( LMCT ) designation before entering Emmet County on the south side of Mackinaw City . I @-@ 75 then parallels the county line on the west side of the village , meeting the northern end of US 23 . After that interchange , the Lake Huron Circle Tour ( LHCT ) merges in from the south . There is one more interchange along the freeway before I @-@ 75 ascends the approaches to the Mackinac Bridge .
= = = Mackinac Bridge = = =
The Mackinac Bridge carries I @-@ 75 across the Straits of Mackinac that separate Michigan 's Upper and Lower peninsulas ; the straits also form the connection between Lakes Michigan and Huron . The structure , unlike the rest of the state highways in Michigan like I @-@ 75 , is under the maintenance and control of the Mackinac Bridge Authority ( MBA ) . The authority collects a toll from traffic that crosses the bridge , which as of January 1 , 2012 , is $ 4 for passenger cars and $ 5 per axle for commercial vehicles and motorhomes . In addition to cash , the MBA offers a pre @-@ paid debit card option for the payment of tolls . The authority also provides a driver assistance program that will drive vehicles across the bridge at no additional charge ; motorists who use the service have a fear of bridges . Because the bridge normally only allows motor vehicles , bicyclists and snowmobiles shuttled across are subject to fees . The authority maintains a small police department to patrol the bridge and escort vehicles across , and a pair of radio station transmitters that broadcast bridge conditions and travel information on AM 530 and AM 1610 .
= = = Upper Peninsula = = =
North of the Mackinac Bridge , I @-@ 75 passes to the west of downtown St. Ignace , traveling between the Father Marquette National Memorial and the Straits State Park . There is an interchange north of the toll plaza that marks the eastern end of US 2 in the state . The LMCT departs I @-@ 75 to follow US 2 while the LHCT follows BL I @-@ 75 through town . The freeway curves around the Mackinac County Airport and meets the northern end of the business loop near Castle Rock ; the LHCT returns to I @-@ 75 at that interchange as well . Continuing northward , M @-@ 123 ( Tahquamenon Trail ) intersects from the west as the freeway parallels H @-@ 63 ( Mackinac Trail ) , the former route of US 2 . I @-@ 75 crosses the Carp River and follows the shores of St. Martin Bay before meeting M @-@ 134 . At that interchange , the LHCT departs again to run eastward . Through this area , the freeway continues northeasterly , traversing the Eastern Unit of the Hiawatha National Forest .
I @-@ 75 crosses the Pine River before entering Chippewa County . The freeway takes a more northerly track as it travels under M @-@ 48 without an interchange . Further north , M @-@ 48 curves around to connect I @-@ 75 with Rudyard , and the freeway turns back to continue northeastward . About five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) northeast of Rudyard , I @-@ 75 passes next to Chippewa County International Airport , the former Kincheloe Air Force Base in Kinross and Kincheloe . North of there in Dafter , the freeway intersects M @-@ 28 ( 9 Mile Road ) . Beyond that interchange , I @-@ 75 picks up the Lake Superior Circle Tour ( LSCT ) designation , which it carries the rest of the way north . On the south side of Sault Ste . Marie , the freeway meets BS I @-@ 75 and picks up the LHCT designation one more time . I @-@ 75 rounds the west side of the city , passes the Sault Ste . Marie Municipal Airport and the campus of Lake Superior State University before meeting the customs and toll plazas for the International Bridge . From there , I @-@ 75 crosses the two @-@ lane bridge and terminates at the Canadian border . As of 1 April 2012 , the toll rates on the bridge are $ 3 for passenger vehicles , $ 2 @.@ 10 for commuters , and $ 4 per axle for commercial vehicles ; currently the same toll rate is assessed in US dollars and Canadian dollars . Motorists have the option to pay with cash or an IQ Card , an electronic toll collection debit card that uses radio @-@ frequency identification technology .
= = History = =
= = = Indian trails to state highways = = =
Before Michigan became a state , the first land transportation corridors were the Indian trails . The French @-@ Indian Trail ran through southeastern Michigan between Toledo , Monroe and Detroit . The Saginaw Trail ran north from Detroit to the Saginaw area where it connected with the original Mackinaw Trail that ran roughly parallel to , and west of , the modern I @-@ 75 . Another path , the Cheboygan Trail , ran parallel to the modern freeway to the east between the West Branch area and Cheboygan . In the UP , an extension of the Mackinac Trail connected St. Ignace and Sault Ste . Marie . In the 19th century , the Michigan Legislature chartered private companies to build and operate plank roads or turnpikes in the state , many of which replaced the original Indian trails . These roads were originally made of oak planks , but later legislation permitted gravel as well . By the first decade of the 20th century , only 23 of the 202 chartered turnpikes were still in operation ; many companies that received a charter never built their specified roadways . The remaining plank roads were turned over to the state or purchased by railway companies in the early part of the century .
The State Trunkline Highway System was formed on May 13 , 1913 , and several sections of the system were designated along the course of the then @-@ future I @-@ 75 . Division 1 connected the Ohio state line northeasterly to Detroit , and Division 2 connected Detroit with Mackinaw City . A branch of Division 7 ran north from St. Ignace to Sault Ste . Marie . The system was signposted in 1919 , and those highways were marked on maps for the first time . The first M @-@ 10 was designated along the highways from Ohio through Detroit to Standish . M @-@ 76 connected Standish with Grayling , where the first M @-@ 14 ran northward to Cheboygan . From there , M @-@ 10 connected to Mackinaw City . In the UP , M @-@ 12 connected St. Ignace with Sault Ste . Marie along a route to the east of the old Mackinac Trail . When the United States Numbered Highway System was formed on November 11 , 1926 , most of these highways were redesignated as part of the national system . From the state line northward , M @-@ 10 was included as a part of US 24 and US 25 . At Detroit , M @-@ 10 was used as a part of US 10 . North of Grayling , M @-@ 14 was redesignated as a part of US 27 . M @-@ 12 was used for US 2 .
The Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) rerouted US 2 in 1933 between Rogers Park and Sault Ste . Marie . The new routing followed Mackinac Trail instead of turning east to Cedarville and north to Sault Ste . Marie ; the former routing was given the M ‑ 121 designation .
= = = Turnpikes and freeways = = =
By 1945 , a divided highway designated Alternate US 24 ( US 24A ) was opened from the state line north to Erie . After World War II , the MSHD planned to convert several highways in the state to freeways . In planning maps from 1947 , the modern I @-@ 75 corridor was included in the system that later became the Interstate Highway System . It was also included in the General Location of National System of Interstate Highways Including All Additional Routes at Urban Areas Designated in September 1955 , or Yellow Book after the cover color , that was released in 1955 as the federal government readied plans for the freeway system .
The Michigan Turnpike Authority ( MTA ) , an agency which was created in 1951 , proposed the construction of a toll freeway to run north – south in the state . The original termini for the turnpike were Bridgeport and Rockwood . The state highway commissioner at the time , Charles Ziegler , distrusted a separate agency dealing with statewide road building at the time , and he worked to stall progress on any proposed turnpikes . Ziegler , who had a seat on the MTA board , publicly sparred with authority chairman George Higgins , even announcing that the MSHD would build a parallel freeway that would " reduce tolls on the turnpike 40 to 50 percent " according to consultants . Trucking interests in the state also opposed the projects , preferring a moderate gas tax increase over any tolls . Detroit denied the MTA permission to route a turnpike through the city over issues related to the River Rouge , Rouge Park and access across the right @-@ of @-@ way . After a lawsuit by City of Dearborn , the legislation creating the authority was upheld by the Michigan Supreme Court in 1955 , and the authority was allowed to sell bonds for its Bridgeport – Rockwood and Detroit – Chicago toll roads .
The original planning maps plotted the first turnpike to the west of Detroit , running near US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) . This route was later proposed for I @-@ 75 itself ; I @-@ 275 would have been the freeway to loop into downtown Detroit . The proposed length was increased by December 1955 ; the extended Michigan Turnpike would have run from a connection across the Ohio state line to Toledo north through Detroit and Saginaw and eventually to the southern end of the Mackinac Bridge . By the following April , any extensions were cancelled leaving the turnpike to its original termini ; the east – west companion road was also cancelled at that time . The MTA proposed a state constitutional amendment in January 1956 that would allow the Michigan Legislature to issue state @-@ guaranteed bonds for part of the MTA 's construction expenses . According to The Wall Street Journal , the authority " struggled for survival " in the face of opposition from the MSHD just two months later ; the department 's actions impaired the authority 's appropriations from the state legislature and its ability to sell the necessary bonds to pay for construction . When the federal government approved the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 , Ziegler and the MSHD announced plans for a full freeway to run north through the Lower Peninsula and continue across to the Upper Peninsula . This announcement undermined the efforts to build the Michigan Turnpike . By August 1956 , the MTA voted to reduce its operations to a skeleton staff , but moved forward in May 1957 on a bond sale to finance construction of the roadway . Financiers stated such a sale was only feasible if the turnpike was to be safe from competition . The Michigan Townships Association called for the abolition of the MTA in 1958 . The legislature killed a bill to do so in June 1959 , but it later voted to repeal the act that created the authority in 1962 .
= = = Interstate Highway era = = =
The first sections of freeway for I @-@ 75 were opened in 1957 , beginning with the southern section near the Ohio state line opened in October 1957 . The Mackinac Bridge was opened to traffic on November 1 , 1957 ; a new section of freeway and an interchange connected US 2 to the bridge . The MSHD formally proposed the I @-@ 75 number in 1958 . On June 30 of that year , the first stretch of the " Fenton – Clio Expressway " opened . Construction on the Chrysler Freeway in Detroit started on January 30 , 1959 . The I @-@ 75 signs were first installed along the Detroit – Toledo Expressway in October 1959 , replacing US 24A signage in the Monroe area , after the state waited for final approval of the numbering system to be used in the state .
In November 1960 , sections of freeway opened from Indian River north to the southern Mackinac Bridge approaches in Mackinaw City and from St. Ignace to Evergreen Shores , and by December , the section of freeway running between Evergreen Shores and M ‑ 123 was scheduled to open . The next year the original Zilwaukee Bridge , a bascule bridge across the Saginaw River was opened along with a section of freeway north to Kawkawlin . That September , the section between Gaylord and Vanderbilt was completed , and in October 1961 , the first segment of I @-@ 75 near Grayling opened , connecting M @-@ 18 with the city . By the end of the year , the freeway was completed between Kinross and Dafter in the UP , and the former segment of US 27 between Grayling and Gaylord was turned back to local control . After this individual segment of freeway was completed , it left a gap between Gaylord and Indian River that was designated " TO I @-@ 75 " on maps for the former segment of US 27 , and US 27 was truncated to about five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) south of Grayling . The 12 @-@ mile ( 19 km ) section of I @-@ 75 was opened between Gaylord and Waters in July 1962 . Another temporary " TO I @-@ 75 " designation was applied along US 10 and US 27 from Bay City to Grayling . In 1961 , the MSHD had proposed that the section of I @-@ 75 south of Detroit to Toledo be built as an electronic highway under a bid through General Motors ; the testing for such a roadway was ultimately done at Ohio State University instead .
On October 25 , 1962 , the section of freeway from M @-@ 24 near Pontiac to the Flint area opened . The same year , the freeway gap was filled in between Gaylord and Indian River . The International Bridge and its approaches opened in Sault Ste . Marie on October 31 , 1962 . The following year , a set of segments opened in the Detroit area . The freeway was extended south from Pontiac to 11 Mile Road with a connection along M @-@ 150 to M @-@ 102 ( 8 Mile Road ) . Another section opened to connect with US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) in the Woodhaven area ; a TO I @-@ 75 designation was added to connect along US 24 and M @-@ 102 to M @-@ 150 . On the other end of the state , the gaps in the freeway across the UP were completed in 1963 as well , and the section of freeway in Northern Michigan was named the most scenic new highway in the US in 1963 by Parade magazine . The first part of the Chrysler Freeway opened to traffic on June 26 , 1964 , the southern mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of which was designated I @-@ 375 .
The segment of I @-@ 75 through the Downriver suburbs of Detroit between the US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) connector and M @-@ 39 ( Southfield Highway ) was completed on December 28 , 1966 . The same year , I @-@ 75 was scheduled to open southward from 11 Mile Road to M @-@ 102 ( 8 Mile Road ) . In 1967 , two segments of freeway opened . One was from Kawkawlin to Standish in October , and the other through Detroit extended I @-@ 75 along the Fisher Freeway in December . The first section of M @-@ 76 freeway from Standish northwesterly to Alger was scheduled to open in July 1968 . A one @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) section of the Chrysler Freeway through Detroit opened on December 19 , 1968 , and the remainder was scheduled to open on January 10 , 1969 .
In 1970 , I @-@ 75 through Detroit was completed , and two additional sections of M @-@ 76 were converted to freeway . The northern section ran from the US 27 @-@ to @-@ I @-@ 75 transition south of Grayling to the Crawford – Roscommon county line , and the second was an extension from Alger to the West Branch area . The first ice @-@ detection system in the state was installed on the River Rouge bridges in the Detroit area in an attempt to maximize driver safety . The next year , the last section of the Chrysler Freeway in Hazel Park was finished when an interchange for the then @-@ unbuilt I @-@ 696 was completed . Another segment of the M @-@ 76 freeway was completed at the same time , bypassing Roscommon . The final section between Alger and Roscommon was opened on November 1 , 1973 , in a dedication by Governor William G. Milliken .
Since the freeway was completed , a few changes have been made to I @-@ 75 in Michigan . MDOT truncated US 2 to end in St. Ignace by removing it from the I ‑ 75 freeway in 1983 . In 1986 , US 10 was truncated to Bay City , removing its concurrency with I @-@ 75 from there to Clarkston . Two years later , the original bascule Zilwaukee Bridge across the Saginaw River was replaced by a much higher structure slightly north of the former bridge .
= = = Gateway Project = = =
Beginning on February 25 , 2008 , I @-@ 75 closed completely to traffic in both directions from Rosa Parks Boulevard ( exit 49 ) to Clark Street ( exit 47 ) in Detroit . This facilitated the complete rebuilding of the road as part of the Ambassador Gateway Project to better connect I @-@ 75 and I @-@ 96 to the Ambassador Bridge . Through traffic on I @-@ 75 was rerouted along I @-@ 94 to I @-@ 275 and local detours were posted . The freeway reopened to traffic in June 2009 , five months ahead of schedule . The overall project to realign and connect the bridge to the freeways was mired in lawsuits between MDOT and the private company that owns the bridge . The company 's owner was jailed for contempt of court during court proceedings in early 2012 . MDOT was later ordered to assume responsibility for construction , and the department completed the project on September 21 , 2012 .
= = Freeway names = =
I @-@ 75 has five named segments in Michigan . The southernmost section from the state line north to the Detroit area is the Detroit – Toledo Expressway . The segment through southern and central Detroit is known as the Fisher Freeway . It was dedicated on September 17 , 1970 , to the Fisher Brothers , who founded Fisher Body , later a part of General Motors . After the curve in downtown Detroit , I @-@ 75 follows the Walter P. Chrysler Freeway northward . That segment is named for Walter P. Chrysler , founder of Chrysler . The name was chosen by the Detroit Common Council on November 6 , 1957 , and codified in state law in 1990 ; the state definition for the name places the northern end of the designation at the Oakland – Genesee county line .
Officially , the entire length of I @-@ 75 in Michigan is the American Legion Memorial Highway . As a practical matter , this name is not used on the southernmost segments of the Interstate . The American Legion was honored with the designation in 1969 in a state law that required private interests to finance the signage . Public Act 174 of 1984 redesignated I @-@ 75 in honor of the group and placed responsibility for signage in MDOT 's hands . Another name that was applied to all of I @-@ 75 was the Michigan Bicentennial Freedom Way . Designated by Senate Concurrent Resolution 216 of 1975 , the name only applied to the freeway in 1976 . The designation was formally repealed in 2001 .
Two other segments near the Straits of Mackinac were named in 1976 for figures instrumental in the construction of the Mackinac Bridge . From the Cheboygan – Otsego county line north to the bridge , I @-@ 75 was named for G. Mennen Williams , the former governor once called " Michigan 's Politician of the Century " in the press . The section in Mackinac County from the northern end of the Mackinac Bridge was named for Prentiss M. Brown , the former Congressman and Senator who served on the MBA board until his death in 1971 .
= = Monumental bridges = =
Along its route in the state , I @-@ 75 utilizes three of Michigan 's monumental bridges . The first of them is the Zilwaukee Bridge near Saginaw . The original bridge across the Saginaw River at Zilwaukee was built in 1960 as a bascule bridge to allow shipping traffic to use the river . Opening the drawbridge would back traffic up on I @-@ 75 / US 10 / US 23 for upwards of four hours on holiday weekends . Approved in 1974 , construction on the replacement bridge started in October 1979 . A major construction accident in August 1982 delayed completion of the new Zilwaukee Bridge ; a bridge pier partially collapsed when contractors overloaded a section under construction . The affected 300 @-@ foot ( 91 m ) deck segment tilted to rest three feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) higher on one end and five feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) lower on the other . The structure was originally supposed to cost $ 76 @.@ 8 million with a 1983 completion date ; in the end it cost $ 131 @.@ 3 million ( equivalent to $ 472 million in 2015 ) when the southbound span finally opened on September 19 , 1988 . The structure is the largest concrete segmental bridge in the United States .
The second is the Mackinac Bridge that connects Michigan 's two peninsulas at the Straits of Mackinac . A structure was first proposed in 1888 by one of the directors of the Grand Hotel on Mackinac Island . Car ferry service was started in 1923 to cross the straits , and a bridge authority was first created in 1934 to investigate the possibility of building a permanent connection across the straits . This early authority started with a 1921 proposal for a series of bridges that would have connected Cheboygan to St. Ignace by way of Bois Blanc , Round , and Mackinac islands . The federal Public Works Administration rejected loan and grant requests for that project . A second , direct crossing was then proposed based on designs used for the Tacoma Narrows Bridge . The collapse of that bridge and World War II delayed any further work on a structure beyond tests of the lake bottom and the construction of the 4 @,@ 200 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 300 m ) causeway on the St. Ignace side ; the first bridge authority was abolished in 1947 . The current agency was created on June 6 , 1950 .
The MBA was authorized in 1952 to sell bonds to finance construction , which were sold on December 17 , 1953 , to finance the $ 99 @.@ 8 million ( equivalent to $ 2 @.@ 28 billion in 2015 ) cost of the bridge . The structure was designed by David B. Steinman and built by Merritt @-@ Chapman & Scott for the substructure and the American Bridge Company division of U.S. Steel Corporation for the superstructure . Construction started in 1954 and the Mackinac Bridge opened to traffic on November 1 , 1957 . Final work on the bridge was completed in September 1958 . Overall , the structure has a 3 @,@ 800 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) central suspension span flanked by two 1 @,@ 800 @-@ foot ( 550 m ) side spans . With the two backstay spans , the Mackinac Bridge is 8 @,@ 614 feet ( 2 @,@ 626 m ) long between cable anchorages , the longest in the world at the time it opened . The total length of the structure is 26 @,@ 444 feet ( 8 @,@ 060 m ) with two 555 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 169 m ) towers and 155 feet ( 47 m ) of clearance for passing ships under the main span . In 2000 , the bridge was named " Michigan 's No. 1 Civil Engineering Project of the 20th Century " by the Michigan Section of the American Society of Civil Engineers ( ASCE ) , and the structure was named a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 2010 by the national ASCE .
The northernmost of the three monumental bridges along I @-@ 75 is the International Bridge , linking the twin cities of Sault Ste . Marie in Michigan and Ontario . The governments on each side of the international border formed a bridge authority to build a highway bridge in 1935 . Construction started on the structure September 16 , 1960 . The International Bridge is nearly three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) long , encompassing spans over the American and Canadian navigation channels for the Soo Locks and the St. Mary 's River . The American approach is 2 @,@ 471 feet ( 753 m ) , and the Canadian approach is 2 @,@ 942 feet ( 897 m ) . The center span over the river is 9 @,@ 280 feet ( 2 @,@ 830 m ) , flanked by 1 @,@ 260 @-@ foot ( 380 m ) and 830 @-@ foot ( 250 m ) spans over the American and Canadian shipping channels , respectively . The bridge was designed by the same firm that handled the Mackinac Bridge for a cost of $ 20 million ( equivalent to $ 344 million in 2015 ) . It opened to traffic on October 31 , 1962 .
= = Exit list = =
= = Related trunklines = =
There are four auxiliary Interstate Highways for I @-@ 75 in Michigan . I @-@ 275 begins as a loop from northern Monroe County and continues to connect with I @-@ 96 and I @-@ 696 . The freeway serves the population of western Wayne County and Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport . The highway was originally intended to connect with I @-@ 75 north of Pontiac . I @-@ 375 was the shortest signed Interstate in the nation ; It serves the immediate downtown Detroit area . I @-@ 475 is known as the UAW Freeway and the David Dunbar Buick Freeway . This freeway serves Flint 's downtown areas as I @-@ 75 goes to the west side of the city . The fourth auxiliary Interstate is I @-@ 675 , a loop into the city of Saginaw that served as an alternate to I @-@ 75 when the drawbridge over the Saginaw River was still operating .
In addition to the auxiliary Interstates , there are eight current business routes related to the freeway in the state . These business loops and spurs provide signed connections into the downtowns of Pontiac , Bay City , West Branch , Roscommon , Grayling , Gaylord , St. Ignace , and Sault Ste . Marie . A ninth highway was previously designated in Saginaw as well .
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= Gordon Bell ( American football ) =
Gordon Granville Bell ( born December 25 , 1953 ) is a former American football running back , kickoff returner and punt returner who played for the University of Michigan Wolverines from 1973 – 1975 , and professionally for the New York Giants ( 1976 @-@ 1977 ) and St. Louis Cardinals ( 1978 ) of the National Football League ( NFL ) .
Bell was a two @-@ time All @-@ Ohio running back in high school and led Ohio 's Troy High School to undefeated seasons in 1970 and 1971 . As a 16 @-@ year @-@ old junior , he rushed for 324 yards in a single game ; for the year he had 1 @,@ 593 yards rushing and scored 146 points . As a senior in 1971 , he lost the Ohio AAA high school back of the year award to Archie Griffin .
Bell played tailback for Michigan teams that had a combined record of 28 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 from 1973 – 1975 . As a junior in 1974 , Bell was a part @-@ time player who started only three of Michigan 's eleven games , but he still managed to become only the third player in school history to rush for 1 @,@ 000 yards in a season . In 1975 , he set several single @-@ season school records , including most all @-@ purpose yards ( 1 @,@ 714 yards ) , most 100 @-@ yard rushing games ( eight ) , and most rushing attempts ( 273 ) . At the time of his graduation from Michigan , Bell also ranked second in school history in career rushing yards and third in all @-@ purpose yards . Though Bell 's records have been surpassed in more recent years , he remains one of the all @-@ time rushing leaders in Michigan history . Despite his accomplishments , Bell played in the shadow of Big Ten Conference rival , Archie Griffin , who won back @-@ to @-@ back Heisman Trophies . In some respects , Bell exceeded even Griffin 's accomplishments , as Bell won the 1975 Big Ten rushing championship .
Bell played three years of professional football , but never made it into the starting lineup for an NFL team . In three NFL seasons , he had 1 @,@ 444 all @-@ purpose yards . His best NFL season was 1976 , when he had 784 all @-@ purpose yards .
= = Youth = =
A native of Troy , Ohio , Bell had attended Ohio State Buckeyes games with his father from the age of six . In high school , he was one of the top football prospects in Ohio . As a junior at Troy High School in 1970 , Bell gained over 1 @,@ 593 yards , scored 146 points , led Troy High to its first unbeaten season ( 10 @-@ 0 ) since 1957 , and was named to the Associated Press 1970 All @-@ Ohio Class AAA high school first team . In the 1970 season opener , 16 @-@ year @-@ old Bell rushed for 324 yards and scored four touchdowns in a 54 – 6 win over Piqua High School . Afterward , Bell said , " All I can say is that my line was tremendous . " Piqua 's coach said , " Our kids were on Bell from the start , but they just couldn 't bring him down . " In October 1970 , Bell put on " one of the greatest one @-@ man shows ever seen at Beavercreek , " scoring three touchdowns and rushing for 233 yards in 30 carries . The Beavercreek coach said afterward that the game 's turning point came the moment Bell walked onto the field .
As a senior in 1971 , Bell led Troy High to a 10 – 0 record . In the season opener , Bell broke off tackle and rushed 70 yards for a touchdown the first time he got the ball . He scored touchdowns in three of his first four carries , though one was nullified by a penalty . Bell rushed for 190 yards and three touchdowns in the season opener . The opposing coach said , " It was the same old story . We knew we had to stop Bell and yet we still couldn 't do it . That boy is a great football player . " Bell again won first @-@ team All @-@ Ohio honors , but he lost the Associated Press 1971 Ohio AAA high school back of the year award . The award instead went to a high school senior from Columbus , Archie Griffin . Bell and Griffin would continue their rivalry in college .
In 1971 , Bell also won the Piqua YMCA high school weight @-@ lifting contest in the 165 @-@ pound class .
= = University of Michigan = =
= = = Overview = = =
Bell was recruited to the University of Michigan by assistant coach Gary Moeller . He was a relatively small player , standing 5 feet 9 inches ( 1 @.@ 75 m ) tall , and weighing 178 pounds ( 81 kg ; 12 @.@ 7 st ) . He was sometimes referred to as Michigan 's " mighty mite tailback . " In addition to his speed , what set him apart from other backs was his ability to cut and find the smallest of holes . Bo Schembechler called Bell " the greatest cutback runner I 've ever coached . " In 1975 , the Associated Press noted : " Bell is noted for his ability to cut on a dime , spurt through miniscule [ sic ] holes and hurdle tacklers . He 's got fine speed and he 's durable . Bell seems to get -- pardon the expression -- his bell rung on many tackles , only to bounce up as if nothing happened . " Noted Michigan radio broadcaster Bob Ufer often referred to Bell as " little Gordie Bell . " Ufer once humorously said , referring to Bell 's ability to shift directions quickly , that Bell " could run fifteen minutes in a phone booth and never touch the sides . "
In his career at Michigan , Bell gained 2 @,@ 902 rushing yards in 535 carries , and scored 28 rushing touchdowns . In addition to running from scrimmage , Bell ran back 12 kickoffs for an average of 26 @.@ 4 yards .
= = = 1973 season = = =
As a sophomore in 1973 , Bell saw his first action against Iowa . He was given five carries and gained 50 yards ( including a 24 @-@ yard gain ) for a ten @-@ yard per carry average . Bell did not start any games in 1973 , but his playing time increased later in the season , including 19 carries against Minnesota for 73 yards and 15 carries against Indiana for 89 yards . For the season , Bell rushed for 464 yards in 88 carries . The 1973 team finished with a record of 10 – 0 – 1 , with the only imperfection coming at the end of the season with a 10 – 10 tie with Ohio State . Despite tying for the Big Ten Conference championship , Big Ten athletic directors decided to send Ohio State to the Rose Bowl , and conference rules did not permit Michigan to play in another bowl game . Michigan ended up ranked number 6 in the final Associated Press poll .
= = = 1974 season = = =
For the 1974 season , Bell rushed for 1048 yards which was , at that time , the third highest single @-@ season total in school history . He joined Ron Johnson and Billy Taylor as the only players in Michigan history to rush for 1 @,@ 000 yards in a season . Bell accomplished the feat despite being a part @-@ time player , sharing the starting tailback job with sophomore Rob Lytle . In the 1974 campaign , Lytle started eight games to Bell 's three , although Bell outrushed Lytle 1048 yards to 802 . Bell had lost about 10 pounds ( 4 @.@ 5 kg ; 0 @.@ 71 st ) in the summer before the 1974 season , dropping to 175 pounds ( 79 kg ; 12 @.@ 5 st ) . He said , " I did it on my own to help me run , to make me quicker . "
Asked in 1974 about his alternating Lytle and Bell at the tailback position , Bo Schembechler said : " They 're both good . They have equal ability and they both deserve to play . " , Bell said at the time that he did not mind sharing playing time with Lytle because " we 're both pretty fair backs . It 's only fair that we share it . " In an October 1974 win over Minnesota ( by a score of 49 – 0 ) , Bell and Lytle combined for 292 rushing yards — 158 for Lytle and 134 for Bell .
In Michigan 's 51 – 0 victory over Purdue in November 1974 , Bell rushed for 166 yards in 22 carries for a 7 @.@ 2 yards per carry average . He also set up a field goal and another touchdown with runs of 32 and 39 yards . Bell was named the UPI 's Midwest offensive player of the week for the effort . When a reporter asked Bell for a comment , he said , " Coach doesn 't want us to say anything this week . We 've got to get ready for Ohio State . "
After Bell and Lytle combined for 1 @,@ 850 rushing yards in 1974 , Schembechler said : " Bell and Lytle are the greatest combination in the country . Bell is the best cut runner I 've ever had . Lytle is a great power runner . The tailback position is healthy to say the least . "
= = = 1975 season = = =
In both 1975 , Bell again shared the Michigan backfield duties with Rob Lytle . Bell was a senior in 1975 on a Michigan team that went 8 – 2 – 2 and finished the season ranked # 8 in the final Associated Press poll . Bell rushed for 1 @,@ 390 yards , added 314 yards on kickoff returns , and was voted the team 's Most Valuable Player .
Michigan started the 1975 season ranked # 3 in the country , and moved into the # 2 spot with a 23 – 6 win over Wisconsin in the season opener . Despite being hampered by a muscle pull , Bell still rushed for 210 yards in 28 carries against Wisconsin . After the game , Bell noted that he " couldn 't cut as well as ( he ) would have liked , " but he played through the injury realizing that , as a senior , " the coaches expect us to show the way . " On being named the UPI 's Midwest Back of the Week , Bell noted , " It 's really an honor to be recognized like that , but you have to have a lot of help out there . I thought Rick Leach was just super in the game . He sure didn 't look like a freshman . And our offensive line did the job despite having so many sophomores in there . " Bell 's 210 @-@ yard performance against Wisconsin stood as the school record in a season opener for 28 years until Chris Perry rushed for 232 yards in the 2003 season opener against Central Michigan .
After the opener against Wisconsin , Bell and the Wolverines tied games against Stanford ( 19 – 19 ) and Baylor ( 14 – 14 ) . Despite being favored by 18 points over Baylor , the Wolverines nearly lost and fell out of the top 10 in national ranking for the first time since September 1972 . After the Baylor game , Schembechler said the team lacked leadership . Bell may have been the one player to whom Bo 's criticism did not apply , as he had a career @-@ long 64 @-@ yard kickoff return against Baylor , scored both of Michigan 's touchdowns , and rushed for 89 yards in 26 carries . Bell 's second touchdown against Baylor came with 6 : 50 remaining in the fourth quarter and saved the Wolverines from a defeat .
The Wolverines rebounded into the top 10 with a 31 – 7 victory over Missouri in the fourth game of the season and strung together seven straight wins before facing Ohio State . Bell rushed for 119 yards against Missouri and had 150 all @-@ purpose yards . In a 16 – 6 win over Michigan State in week five , Bell scored Michigan 's only touchdown on a 19 @-@ yard run in the fourth quarter . The Wolverines beat Northwestern Wildcats , 69 – 0 , in week six . For the first time in Michigan history , the Wolverines had three backs who each rushed for at least 100 yards . As the starting back , Bell rushed for 100 yards and scored two touchdowns in the first quarter alone . With the game turning into a blowout , Schembechler pulled Bell after the first quarter , and Rob Lytle gained another 105 yards , before being replaced by Harlan Huckleby who gained 157 yards . Michigan tied the modern Big Ten record of 573 rushing yards in the game .
In a 28 – 21 win against Minnesota , Bell rushed for 174 yards on 31 carries for his fifth consecutive 100 @-@ yard game . He also scored two touchdowns , including a 23 @-@ yard run midway through the fourth quarter . The UPI noted : " Bell 's clinching run came with 8 : 04 gone in the final quarter and saved Michigan from the embarrassment of a tie . " Bell 's performance in the Minnesota game gave him 2 @,@ 488 career rushing yards , second in school history to Billy Taylor 's record of 3 @,@ 072 yards . In a close 21 – 15 win over Illinois , Bell scored two first @-@ quarter touchdowns and carried the ball a career @-@ high 35 times . Going into the Ohio State game , Bell was in a three @-@ person contest for the Big Ten Conference rushing championship . Bell led with an average of 134 @.@ 1 yards per conference game to 125 @.@ 1 for Billy Marek of Wisconsin , and 123 @.@ 7 for Archie Griffin .
Michigan ended the season with a 21 – 14 loss to Ohio State . Despite the loss , Bell won the battle of the backs , rushing for 124 yards on 21 carries and throwing for a touchdown pass , while Griffin was limited to 46 yards on 19 carries . Bell had 166 all @-@ purpose yards against the Buckeyes , his last regular season game for Michigan . In his only bowl game appearance , Bell played in a 14 – 6 loss to the Oklahoma Sooners in Orange Bowl after the 1975 season . He gained 53 yards rushing and 90 all @-@ purpose yards .
= = = Comparisons to Archie Griffin = = =
Bell was Michigan 's starting running back in the same years in which Archie Griffin won consecutive Heisman Trophies for Ohio State . In head @-@ to @-@ head meetings in 1974 and 1975 , Bell played as well or better than Griffin . In 1974 , each carried the ball 25 times , and Bell ended up with 108 yards compared with 111 yards for Griffin although Ohio State won the game 12 – 10 . In 1975 , Bell outgained Griffin 124 yards to 46 yards . Bell averaged 132 @.@ 9 yards per game in 1975 to lead Griffin and the Big Ten Conference in conference game rushing . Even so , Griffin won the Heisman Trophy , and Bell finished eighth in the 1975 Heisman Trophy voting .
During the 1975 season , Bell was asked how he felt about all the publicity being received by Griffin . He replied : " All of the publicity in the world doesn 't help you win . I don 't feel slighted because Archie is in our conference . I feel I 'm just as good as he is . " Bell later recalled : " Those two games against Ohio State were my biggest , and I consider the second game a personal victory . I outrushed Archie , but he had a great public relations guy in Woody Hayes . . . . He wasn 't the best player in the conference so how can he be the best player in the country ? "
Lee Larkins , who played for Purdue and was one of the top defensive backs in the Big Ten , said in 1976 that Bell was the best running back he ever played against . As a senior , Larkins played against Gordon Bell , Archie Griffin , and Ricky Bell of USC . Larkins said : " Gordon Bell was the best of the three . He was a super tough runner and a tough guy to make a solid tackle on . Gordon has a lot more speed and more moves than Archie does , and I thought he was a better all around player . "
= = = Relationship with Bo Schembechler = = =
During Bell 's years at Michigan , he played for the Wolverines ' legendary coach , Bo Schembechler . Near the end of Bell 's freshman year , Bell told Schembechler he was taking an incomplete in a course . Schembechler talked to Bell 's father , Trenton Bell , about the incomplete . Schembechler recalled , " Trenton told me ( Gordon ) ' d be back to finish that course . And he was . " Schembechler added , " Gordie listens to Trenton . What he says gets done . "
Schembechler described Gordon Bell as " a very , very durable guy . " Bo noted : " He isn 't exactly frail . He 's put together well . He 's a confident guy . Exciting and good as he is , he 's also one of the nicest guys you 'll ever meet . "
As Archie Griffin garnered the lion 's share of the media attention in 1975 , Schembechler spoke out for Bell : " I think Bell 's as good as any back there is anywhere . I haven 't seen any who looks better . . . . He is certainly the most underpublicized great back in the country . "
= = = Records and honors = = =
Bell finished the 1975 season as the Big Ten 's leading rusher , was selected to the Associated Press All @-@ Big Ten team , was chosen as Michigan 's Most Valuable Player , and finished eighth in the Heisman Trophy voting . In a year with an abundance of strong running backs , Bell and Earl Campbell were relegated to the AP 's third @-@ team All @-@ American , as Archie Griffin and Ricky Bell took first @-@ team honors , and Tony Dorsett and Jimmy DuBose took second @-@ team honors .
Bell 's career at Michigan was among the best in school history to that point . His school records included :
Bell set the single @-@ season all @-@ purpose yards record in 1975 with 1 @,@ 714 yards . Bell 's record stood until 1987 when it was broken by Jamie Morris . Bell 's total ranked eighth on Michigan 's all @-@ time list at the end of 2006 .
Bell 's 273 carries in 1975 broke Ron Johnson 's record of 255 carries set in 1968 . Bell 's total remained the school record until 1987 when Jamie Morris carried the ball 282 times . Bell 's 1975 performance now ranks eighth on the all @-@ time Michigan list .
In 1975 , Bell set the Michigan record with eight 100 @-@ yard rushing games . That record stood for 12 years until Jamie Morris compiled ten in 1987 .
Bell 's 1 @,@ 390 yards rushing in 1975 was the second best single @-@ season total in school history , just one yard short of the record set by Ron Johnson in 1967 . Bell 's 1975 total now ranks 11th best in school history .
At the end of the 1975 season , Bell had rushed for a career total of 2 @,@ 902 yards , second best in school history behind Billy Taylor 's record of 3 @,@ 072 yards . Bell 's career total still ranks ninth best in school history .
Bell 's 210 @-@ yard rushing game in the season opener against Wisconsin was the fourth best in school history at the time , behind Ron Johnson 's 347 @-@ yard game against the Badgers in 1968 . Bell is one of twelve backs in Michigan history to rush for 200 yards in a game .
Bell 's 13 rushing touchdowns in 1975 was the second best in school history , behind Ron Johnson 's 19 touchdowns in 1968 . His total is now tied for 11th best in school history .
Bell 's 28 career rushing touchdowns ranked third in school history , behind Billy Taylor and Tom Harmon .
Bell finished his career at Michigan ranked second behind Bob Nussbaumer in career yards per carry and now ranks ninth .
Bell 's 35 carries against Illinois in 1975 was the second most in school history at the time , behind Ron Johnson 's 42 @-@ carry performance in 1967 . He is now tied for twelfth in school history .
Bell 's 535 career carries was second to Billy Taylor at the time of Bell 's graduation . It now ranks tenth .
Bell ranked third in career all @-@ purpose yards ( behind Ron Johnson and Billy Taylor ) .
= = Professional career = =
= = = New York Giants = = =
Bell was drafted by the New York Giants in the fourth round of the 1976 NFL Draft . Bell did not get much playing time early in the 1976 season with the Giants . In late November , columnist David Bushnell wrote an article , " Are Giants missing the boat on Gordon Bell ? , " questioning the team 's lack of utilization of Bell . Bushnell noted that Bell had " spent most of the season standing on the sideline waiting to be inserted into the lineup for a few plays . " The Giants ' starting running back in 1976 was Doug Kotar , though Bushnell opined that Bell was the superior back : " Bell is quick , with speed to break any play for a long gain , and he can catch the ball . . . . If the Giants are trying to break Bell in gradually , they might just miss the boat totally , breaking Bell instead . " Bell noted at the time that the lack of playing time held him back : " It takes me about a quarter or so to get going , break a sweat and get the legs loosened up . I really don 't like being shuffled in and out so much , but as a rookie I can 't do much about it . " Bell also added , " Sure it 's been hard for me to be a spot player , especially because my body isn 't ideal for that type job . I think it 's better for me to play a lot , but then again I 'm not the coach . "
The 1976 Giants , who started 0 – 7 under Bill Arnsparger before going 3 – 4 under John McVay , had a diversified offense in which Bell was second on the team with 25 receptions for 198 yards . When Kotar was injured , Bell got his first start of the 1976 season on November 27 , 1976 . Bell rushed for two touchdowns in a 28 @-@ 16 victory over the Seattle Seahawks . He posted the best day of his professional career , with touchdown runs of two and 21 yards , gaining 56 yards on the ground and 41 more on pass receptions . After the game , Bell said , " I needed a game like that . " The backfield was led by Doug Kotar and Larry Csonka with Bell being the third leading rusher .
Having seen little playing time as a rookie in 1976 , Bell played even less in 1977 , as the Giants worked Bob Hammond and Willie Spencer into the rushing rotation . Bell rushed for 63 yards in 16 carries for the entire 1977 season . His main contribution to the 1977 Giants was as a kickoff returner , as he returned 12 kickoffs for 235 yards , second best on the Giants after Hammond .
= = = St. Louis Cardinals = = =
During 1978 , he was briefly on the Green Bay Packers roster during training camp , and he signed with the St. Louis Cardinals in November . In 1978 , Bell had more kickoff returns ( eight ) than rushes ( seven ) with St. Louis .
= = Later years = =
After retiring from football , Bell ran a barbecue restaurant in Dayton , Ohio . He later sold radio advertising in Detroit , Michigan and Chicago , Illinois .
= = Career statistics = =
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= Ontario Highway 406 =
King 's Highway 406 ( pronounced " four @-@ oh @-@ six " ) , commonly referred to as Highway 406 , is a 400 @-@ series highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . The primary north @-@ south route though the central portion of the Niagara Peninsula , Highway 406 connects Welland , Thorold and downtown St. Catharines to the Queen Elizabeth Way ( QEW ) .
Construction of Highway 406 began in 1963 . The first section opened between St. Davids Road and Geneva Street on December 7 , 1965 , followed by a southward extension to Beaverdams Road in late 1969 . The route was later extended south as a super two to Merritt Road where it became Highway 58 . In 1977 , construction began to connect the freeway with the QEW ; this was completed in late 1984 . Construction on the route resumed in 1987 , connecting the route with East Main Street in Welland , completed during the mid @-@ 1990s .
In 2009 construction resumed on the highway to expand the remaining two lane sections to a four lane divided freeway , with the existing route becoming the southbound lanes of the new freeway . The southern terminus in Welland was converted to a roundabout while the remaining at @-@ grade intersections were rebuilt as interchanges .
= = Route description = =
From 1987 until 2015 , Highway 406 was unique as the only 400 @-@ series highway with two lane sections and with an at @-@ grade rail crossing . The highway is heavily travelled within St. Catharines , but volumes drop considerably south of the city . The speed limit on Highway 406 varies from 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) to 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) . It is patrolled by the Ontario Provincial Police .
The 406 designation begins at East Main Street in Welland at a roundabout immediately west of East Main Street Tunnel beneath the Welland Canal . From here the now @-@ four @-@ lane divided road veers northeast and travels parallel to the canal . Two golf courses separate the canal . As the highway passes to the west of them , it jogs to the west and crosses a Trillium Railway spur ( formerly at @-@ grade , now over the railroad ) , and meets Daimler Parkway and Woodlawn Road at a newly constructed interchange . Soon after , it crosses the Welland River and then the former channel of the canal , which was replaced by the current Welland By @-@ Pass in the 1970s .
The highway curves to the northwest as it passes through thick forest , and meets another newly built interchange with Merritt Road ( formerly Highway 58 ) , which as of 2009 was being rebuilt as a grade @-@ separated interchange . After this , it returns to its northward orientation and passes the final at @-@ grade intersection ( now an overpass ) , Niagara Regional Road 63 ( Port Robinson Road ) .
North of Port Robinson Road , Highway 406 widens to four lanes and a median opens in the centre , making it a controlled access freeway . The forests break and the freeway continues straight north for 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) through a mostly agricultural area . Along the straightaway are interchanges with former Highway 20 and Niagara Regional Road 67 ( Beaverdams Road ) . The freeway crosses over Lake Gibson , infamous for its connection with the crimes of Paul Bernardo , and curves to the northeast . It passes beneath Niagara Regional Road 71 ( St. Davids Road ) and Highway 58 at a complicated interchange as it descends the Niagara Escarpment , a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve , and enters St. Catharines .
Within St. Catharines , Highway 406 twists frequently , entering the Twelve Mile Creek valley south of a complicated interchange with Westchester Avenue and Geneva Street and curving west . Within the valley , the freeway features a lower design speed and reduced speed limit of 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) . It passes beneath the high @-@ level St. Paul Street bridge , crosses the creek and intersects Fourth Avenue . Exiting the creek valley , the freeway parallels Fourth Avenue for a 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) , gradually curves to the north and ends 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) to the north , merging with the QEW .
= = History = =
Planning for Highway 406 began in early 1959 , when Minister of Highways Fred M. Cass presented the Ontario Roads and Streets report to the Ontario Legislative Assembly on March 16 , outlining highways needs for the province over 20 years . One of the planned routes was a freeway to link Highway 3 in Port Colborne with the QEW , travelling alongside the Welland Canal . By 1961 , route studies and planning were well underway . The future route was designated as Highway 406 despite construction not beginning until 1963 ; the first section , between Geneva Street and St. Davids Road , opened December 7 , 1965 . This was followed several years later by an extension south to Beaverdams Road , which opened November 21 , 1969 . During the early 1970s , the highway was extended south as a Super 2 to north of the Welland River , where it curved west along Merritt Road and became Highway 58 . This extension , which included the Beaverdams Road interchange and a signalized intersection , was opened on June 30 , 1971 .
In 1977 , construction began on the section of Highway 406 between Geneva Street and the QEW . This work included the construction of several large bridges over the widened ravine , a curving structure over Twelve Mile Creek , and the first single @-@ point urban interchange ( SPUI ) in Ontario ( the only other SPUI is located on Airport Parkway in Ottawa ) . The original design plans for Highway 406 called for this section to follow the creek valley the full distance to the QEW , interchanging with it east of Martindale Road . Instead , the alignment was moved west of the city . Realignments to several streets in St. Catharines were completed in advance of construction on overpasses , ramps and the bridges over Twelve Mile Creek ; this work was finished in late 1983 . Grading contracts were awarded in mid @-@ 1983 for the entire extension . Paving took place during the summer of 1984 , and the route was opened to traffic in October 1984 .
Further work to extend the future southbound lanes Highway 406 to East Main Street in Welland began during the fall of 1987 , including an eastward extension of Woodlawn Road . Construction of the bridges that carry the extension over the Welland River and old canal began in mid @-@ 1988 , and was completed during the fall of 1989 . Work then began to grade and pave the Woodlawn Road Extension to Highway 406 and Highway 406 between there and East Main Street . The extension was completed by the mid @-@ 1990s .
= = = Expansion = = =
Highway 406 was the last 400 @-@ series highway that featured at @-@ grade intersections and two lane sections . The original intention was to twin this two @-@ lane section shortly after it was constructed in the 1970s . Plans were deferred multiple times , until the project resumed in the early 2000s . The first phase of this twinning opened to traffic in 2007 , extending the four @-@ lane highway 5 @.@ 6 km ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ) from its previous convergence south of Beaverdams Road to a point north of Port Robinson Road .
On May 15 2009 , Minister of Transportation Jim Bradley announced that the section from Port Robinson road to East Main Street in Welland would be converted to a full freeway ; this work includes a roundabout at East Main Street to replace the current southern terminus . Work on the Merritt Road overpass began in September 2009 , and was scheduled for completion in mid @-@ 2011 . On August 19 , 2011 , full construction began with a groundbreaking ceremony . The roundabout with East Main Street opened to traffic on September 5 , 2013 , featuring no central island . Despite requests from local politicians , there are no plans to extend Highway 406 to Port Colborne at this time .
= = Exit list = =
Highway 406 's northern terminus is tied at the QEW , whereas the southern terminus has been relocated in various proposals . As a result , exits were unconventionally numbered from north to south . The entirety of Highway 406 is located within the Regional Municipality of Niagara .
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= Hurricane Elena =
Hurricane Elena was an unpredictable and damaging tropical cyclone that affected eastern and central portions of the United States Gulf Coast in late August and early September 1985 . Threatening popular tourist destinations during Labor Day weekend , Elena repeatedly deviated from its forecast path , triggering evacuations of unprecedented extent . The hurricane wrought havoc to property and the environment between southwestern Florida and eastern Louisiana , though lesser effects were felt well beyond those areas . Elena developed on August 28 near Cuba , and after traveling lengthwise across the island with little impact , it entered the Gulf of Mexico and continued to strengthen . Initially projected to strike the central Gulf Coast , the hurricane unexpectedly veered toward the east on August 30 , then stalled just 50 mi ( 80 km ) west of Cedar Key , Florida . Despite predictions that Elena would continue eastward across Florida , the cyclone remained nearly stationary for about 48 hours , causing damage all along the eastern gulf with high winds and waves , before slowly moving northwest and ultimately making landfall near Biloxi , Mississippi , on September 2 as a Category 3 major hurricane . The storm quickly weakened upon moving ashore and dissipated on September 4 .
The hurricane 's unpredictable shifts in direction created what was considered the largest peacetime evacuation in the nation 's history . Evacuations occurred in sequence to follow the storm 's forecast positions , and many residents and tourists along portions of the Gulf Coast were forced to leave twice in a matter of days . Preparations were generally timely and efficient , though accommodations and resources at storm shelters were stretched thin , and many refugees tried to return home against officials ' orders . About 1 @.@ 25 million people fled the storm in Florida alone , contributing to a region @-@ wide total of nearly 2 million evacuees . Tropical cyclone warnings and watches were continuously issued and adjusted , and forecasters stressed the storm 's destructive potential for days .
Elena 's slow movement off western Florida resulted in severe beach erosion and damage to coastal buildings , roads , and seawalls , especially to those of old or inadequate construction . Destruction was greatest near the shore and on islands such as Cedar Key and Dog Island , though tornadoes spawned by the hurricane swept through communities and mobile home parks well inland . The hurricane devastated the Apalachicola Bay shellfish industry , killing large quantities of oysters , destroying their reefs , and leaving thousands of workers unemployed . Farther west , Dauphin Island in Alabama endured wind gusts as high as 130 mph ( 210 km / h ) and a significant storm surge . The island sustained some of the most significant damage inflicted by Elena , including several hundred damaged or demolished homes . The rest of the state 's coast also sustained considerable damage , and the inland pecan and soybean crops were severely diminished in Alabama and Mississippi .
Over 13 @,@ 000 homes were damaged in Mississippi , and 200 were destroyed . Cities close to the Alabama border — including Pascagoula — experienced widespread damage to residences , schools , and businesses , and the community of Gautier was effectively isolated from the outside world . Several apparent but unconfirmed tornadoes appear to have exacerbated the damage in the Gulfport area . Wind damage extended into portions of eastern Louisiana . Overall , nine people died as a result of the hurricane : two in Texas due to drownings in rip currents , three in Florida , two in Louisiana , one in Arkansas , and one in a maritime accident in the Gulf of Mexico . Damage totaled about $ 1 @.@ 3 billion , and power outages from the storm affected 550 @,@ 000 people . In Elena 's wake , President Ronald Reagan declared parts of Alabama , Mississippi , and Florida federal disaster areas , making storm victims eligible for financial aid and temporary housing . The name Elena was later retired from the cyclical list of Atlantic hurricane names because of the storm 's effects .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Elena trace to an easterly tropical wave that was first identified off the western coast of Africa on August 23 , 1985 . The system sped westward across the Atlantic at up to 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) . Its rapid motion , combined with the presence of an unusually hostile Saharan Air Layer , prevented tropical cyclogenesis for several days . Driven by a strong subtropical ridge to its north , the wave quickly approached North America as it began to show signs of organization . At 00 : 00 UTC on August 28 , the disturbance developed into a tropical depression while over the Windward Passage . The newly designated depression began to track west @-@ northwestward over Cuba , which is known to disrupt tropical cyclone development . Despite that , its central barometric pressure continued to deepen , and reconnaissance aircraft found winds exceeding 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) near the center . In response , the National Hurricane Center upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Elena over northern Cuba later on August 28 .
After passing north of Havana , Cuba , Elena emerged into the Gulf of Mexico . At 12 : 00 UTC on August 29 , Elena intensified into a Category 1 hurricane . Analysis of steering currents through the morning of August 30 suggested that Elena would continue on its northwestward track , striking the area between New Orleans , Louisiana , and Biloxi , Mississippi within 30 hours . Unexpectedly , a mid @-@ to @-@ upper @-@ level trough of low pressure diving in from the northwest created a weakness in the easterly currents , allowing Elena to recurve and slow drastically in forward speed . Roughly 24 hours after attaining hurricane intensity , the storm abruptly turned east in response to the trough . Having defied initial forecasts , Hurricane Elena drifted on its new course toward the coast of northwest Florida . Forecasters now called for the trough to direct the hurricane across the Florida Peninsula and into the western Atlantic . However , the relatively weak trough moved rapidly , and instead of fully engaging Elena , its axis passed over the storm 's center . Further , post @-@ storm analysis of water vapor imagery suggested that the hurricane split the trough into two distinct segments .
Extrapolation from the storm 's eastward progress yielded a projected landfall location near Levy County . However , after the passage of the upper @-@ level system early on August 31 , steering currents slackened , and Elena became nearly stationary in the extreme northeastern Gulf of Mexico . At its closest , the center of the storm was around 50 mi ( 80 km ) from Cedar Key , Florida , with maximum sustained winds estimated at 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) . Elena 's intensity remained consistent , and the cyclone was able to continue strengthening as soon as movement resumed . Early on September 1 , Elena reached Category 3 major hurricane status . An area of high pressure soon began to build over the eastern United States , causing Elena to slowly retrograde westward . For much of September 1 , the center of the hurricane was within range of the WSR @-@ 57 radar station in Apalachicola , Florida , enabling extensive study of small features within the eye and surrounding eyewall . During that period of observation , the previously unobstructed eye became cloud @-@ filled .
The hurricane accelerated on a trajectory toward the central U.S. Gulf Coast , sliding south of the Florida Panhandle . During the afternoon of September 1 , the hurricane attained its peak intensity , with winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) as confirmed by reconnaissance aircraft . On the morning of September 2 , Elena approached coastal Mississippi from the east @-@ southeast , still at major hurricane status . It came ashore close to Biloxi , which was coincidentally within the hurricane 's first forecast destination range before its extended detour . Once inland , the hurricane immediately deteriorated , weakening to a tropical storm just hours after landfall , and its center rapidly filled . The system curved northwestward over Mississippi and Louisiana , and despite weakening , it continued to ignite thunderstorm activity which spawned heavy rains . Elena persisted for several days before degenerating into a remnant area of low pressure on September 4 . Its associated cloud structure became distorted on September 5 , and dissipated over Kentucky that same night .
= = Preparations = =
The unpredictable nature of the hurricane , in conjunction with its arrival at popular tourist destinations on the Labor Day holiday weekend , severely complicated preparations along the Gulf Coast . Evacuations and the hoisting of weather advisories inadvertently occurred in stages to keep up with Elena 's shifts in direction ; hurricane warnings were in effect at one point or another for every coastal location between Morgan City , Louisiana , and Sarasota , Florida . Much of the northern Gulf Coast was under a hurricane warning on two separate occasions for two different trajectories of the storm . Evacuations of residents and vacationers also overlapped in many cases . Collectively , this led to the " largest number of people ever evacuated " , according to Robert Case . Some evacuees moved inland to meet relatives , but many stayed relatively local , filling hotels and designated shelters such as schools and churches . Despite the unusually fluid scenario , officials were well aware of the storm 's destructive power days before its actual landfall . National Hurricane Center hurricane expert Bob Sheets cautioned on August 30 that Elena " will be over a $ 1 billion storm " .
During Elena 's initial approach , the first series of hurricane warnings were issued between Grand Isle , Louisiana , and Apalachicola , Florida . The storm 's projected path quickly nudged westward , prompting the warnings to be extended to Morgan City , Louisiana , and truncated to Pensacola , Florida on their eastern reach . Heeding the advisories , nearly one million residents and vacationers fled the storm 's path . Personnel on offshore oil rigs in the northern Gulf of Mexico began leaving as early as August 29 . The governors of Louisiana , Mississippi , Alabama , and Florida declared states of emergency by August 30 . Huge crowds formed at stores as individuals searched for emergency supplies , and simultaneously , lines grew at gas stations . Due to the impending danger , many businesses closed and fortified their buildings . Across the Gulf Coast , classes at schools were cancelled , and residents in the New Orleans area were particularly wary of what was being called the first serious hurricane threat in 20 years ( Hurricane Betsy caused catastrophic flooding in and around New Orleans in 1965 ) . In Mississippi , the mass exodus created bumper @-@ to @-@ bumper traffic on crucial highways , such as the west – east U.S. Route 90 . In Florida , then @-@ Governor Bob Graham activated 250 National Guard troops on August 30 to facilitate efficient evacuations , stating that 1 @,@ 600 more were on standby . By that time , it became evident that Elena would head farther east than initially expected , stirring more concern for the eastern Gulf Coast . Accordingly , hurricane warnings were dropped for coastal Louisiana west of Grand Isle and replaced eastward to Apalachicola , Florida .
By the evening of August 30 , after Elena 's sharp turn to the east , hurricane warnings along most of the northern Gulf Coast were discontinued . In accordance , evacuees between Louisiana and the four westernmost counties of the Florida Panhandle returned home as shelters closed . With the storm 's new course , the area of highest threat translated east to the remainder of the Panhandle and the western Florida Peninsula . As such , Governor Graham recommended evacuations south to the Tampa area late on August 30 . A mandatory evacuation was then issued overnight for ten more coastal counties , encompassing 573 @,@ 000 affected individuals . On August 31 , Governor Graham advised residents in vulnerable areas of 15 inland counties to find safer ground . In response to the heightening danger , most of the National Guard troops previously on standby were sent to block access to certain areas , and an additional 3 @,@ 000 were placed on standby .
In the greater St. Petersburg , Pinellas County , area alone , 320 @,@ 000 people evacuated ahead of the storm in what was a national record for the largest evacuation of a single county in history . The large number of refugees from the storm put a strain on facilities , highways , and contingencies . Although the number of people required to leave far exceeded the capacity of Pinellas County shelters , only 120 @,@ 000 of the 300 @,@ 000 or more refugees made use of the shelters . Still , official shelter usage was considered to be higher than average , possibly due to shortened lead times limiting the ability of individuals to make arrangements with friends and relatives , or increased awareness of available resources . Post @-@ storm phone surveys indicated that evacuation order compliance rates were as high as 90 % in Pinellas County , and the entire evacuation there took just 9 hours , rather than the expected 15 . With over 200 @,@ 000 individuals recorded to be in more than 120 shelters along the coast of west @-@ central Florida , evacuees became restless as a result of the duration of the storm . Supplies such as food ran short , and many people ignored orders and tried to return home prematurely . The threat of Hurricane Elena also triggered an unprecedented mass transfer of medical and nursing home patients . Tampa General Hospital , at 84 % of patient capacity , was evacuated ; four more hospitals and around 19 nursing homes in Pinellas County were also cleared . Overall , nearly 2 @,@ 000 nursing home patients were transported to safety . Although successful , the process encountered issues such as time constraints and staffing shortages .
Late on September 1 , when the storm began to retrograde , hurricane warnings were reinstated westward along the coast to Grand Isle , Louisiana , as advisories along the west coast of the Florida Peninsula were allowed to expire . By the time officials lifted evacuation orders , the number of evacuees staying in shelters already decreased significantly due to the rampant eagerness and anxiety . Roughly 250 @,@ 000 people in the Florida Panhandle , 175 @,@ 000 in Alabama , 70 @,@ 000 in Mississippi , and 50 @,@ 000 in Louisiana — a total of 545 @,@ 000 — were ordered to leave . Several hundred thousand of the people affected by the new string of evacuation orders had also been forced to leave just days earlier , and in extreme cases had one day or less reprieve . Governor Graham 's office reported that during the entire storm event , 1 @.@ 25 million people from Florida evacuated at some point , and state police in Louisiana estimated that figure in their state to be around 400 @,@ 000 . In total , nearly 2 million people fled the storm over its entire course .
= = Impact = =
According to the Hurricane Research Division of the Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory , Hurricane Elena produced Category 3 winds ( 111 mph ( 179 km / h ) or greater ) in Florida , Alabama , and Mississippi . The American Red Cross reported that in addition to the hundreds of single @-@ family homes demolished by the hurricane , over 17 @,@ 000 sustained some degree of damage ; thousands of mobile homes , apartments , and condominiums were also damaged or destroyed . A forecaster at the National Hurricane Center determined the worst of the hurricane 's effects were focused around Dauphin Island , Alabama , and Pascagoula , Mississippi , though noteworthy damage occurred across large areas of Louisiana , Mississippi , Alabama , and Florida , with impacts documented as far west as South Padre Island , Texas , and as far north as Kentucky . Nine deaths were attributed to the hurricane in four states and on the waters of the Gulf of Mexico , and 134 people along Elena 's path were hospitalized , many of them due to storm @-@ related stress . Power outages plagued the entire region , affecting about 550 @,@ 000 customers . The National Climatic Data Center compiled a total monetary damage figure of $ 1 @.@ 3 billion .
In addition to its effects over land , Elena also had an impact on offshore interests . When a cargo ship close to the hurricane 's center rolled in high seas on August 29 , two unsecured storage containers collided , crushing a man to death . An oil platform operated by Exxon and anchored off the coast of Pensacola , Florida , was ripped from its moorings and reported missing on September 2 . The oil rig drifted 14 mi ( 23 km ) away before it was spotted by a Coast Guard aircraft . Exxon previously evacuated the platform after rough seas snapped the first two of its eight anchoring cables . Damage was reported on four other offshore platforms , and a 6 in ( 150 mm ) oil pipeline broke during the hurricane at an estimated cost of $ 1 @.@ 6 million ( the same pipeline broke two more times during the 1985 hurricane season ) .
A large aspect of the hurricane 's devastation was the havoc it wrought on the eastern Gulf of Mexico oyster industry , particularly in the Apalachicola Bay area and off the coast of Alabama . Elena subjected the Apalachicola Bay reefs to high winds , strong tidal action , and moderate to heavy rainfall , churning up huge quantities of silt and mud which suffocated up to 90 % of live oysters and virtually destroyed the most important harvesting sites . Commercial harvesting was suspended until May 1986 , at which time some of the prominent reefs of the eastern Apalachicola Bay system were deemed able to sustain oyster @-@ catching . Low astronomical tides amplified the effects of severe turbulence in the water . Thousands of individuals relying on the Apalachicola Bay oyster industry soon found themselves struggling to make a living ; losses in production at two major reefs were expected to surpass $ 30 million . All of Alabama 's major reefs were affected by the hurricane , and its most productive was nearly destroyed . The problem was later confounded in November by Hurricane Kate , which , according to the National Hurricane Center , " [ dealt ] the final blow " to certain oyster beds .
= = = Florida = = =
The storm began affecting Florida late on August 28 and early on August 29 . In Key West , on the east side of Elena 's strengthening center , wind gusts exceeded 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , accompanied by 1 @.@ 8 in ( 46 mm ) of rain and higher @-@ than @-@ normal tides . Several boats washed ashore at Smathers Beach . Similarly adverse conditions occurred throughout rest of the Keys and across the southern Florida Peninsula ; 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) wind gusts and modest rainfall stretched as far east as the Miami area . Easterly winds produced significant wave heights of 5 @.@ 2 ft ( 1 @.@ 6 m ) at West Palm Beach and 10 @.@ 5 ft ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) at Jacksonville , along the Atlantic coast of Florida , by August 31 .
Outer rainbands of the large hurricane produced squally weather over parts of northern Florida as early as the morning of August 30 . By then , the low @-@ lying coastline near Apalachicola already began to flood . Elena would continue to impact the state for several days as it meandered offshore , resulting in moderate to heavy rainfall . Upwards of 10 in ( 250 mm ) accumulated in many locations , peaking at 15 @.@ 67 in ( 398 mm ) near Cross City and reaching 11 @.@ 31 in ( 287 mm ) at Apalachicola . Farther south in the Tampa area , the precipitation was less significant , exceeding 5 in ( 130 mm ) at Clearwater . Parts of the state 's northeastern coast — farther away from the hurricane 's center — also saw formidable rainfall , with a local maximum of 10 @.@ 57 in ( 268 mm ) at Jacksonville . Still , those totals represented a relatively dry storm , considering its long duration . Despite initial hopes that the hurricane would help alleviate drought conditions across interior portions of southern Florida , precipitation there was generally inconsequential .
Storm @-@ heightened tides extended along the Florida coast as far south as Sarasota and generally ran a modest 3 to 6 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 to 1 @.@ 83 m ) above normal , though their duration and extent proved noteworthy . The highest recorded storm surge associated with the hurricane was 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) at Apalachicola . The combination of raised water levels and strong waves resulted in severe erosion along many beaches . Many homes near the water were destroyed by the surge , and shoreline structures such as docks , causeways , bridges , low @-@ lying roads , and seawalls sustained substantial damage . Several large fishing piers were either partially or totally destroyed ; notably , the city pier at Cedar Key and the popular 1 @,@ 500 ft ( 460 m ) Big Indian Rocks Fishing Pier were both demolished by the hurricane . Debris from the Big Indian Rocks Fishing Pier drifted northward toward Clearwater Pass and accumulated along private beaches at Belleair Shore .
The storm 's strongest winds remained largely over open waters , although severe gusts still brushed coastal cities and barrier islands . The strongest winds were observed in two areas of the coast : from Cedar Key to Clearwater , and from Apalachicola to Pensacola . Official gust reports included 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) at Cedar Key and nearly 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) at Clearwater ; later , on September 2 , a gust of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) was observed at Pensacola along the Florida Panhandle , with sustained winds exceeding 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . Winds in Franklin County approached 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) by unofficial estimates . The storm 's effects were not limited to the shore , however , as fallen trees in the inland Tallahassee area damaged around 50 vehicles .
Though Hurricane Elena never crossed Florida 's coast , its drawn @-@ out interaction with land agitated large swaths of the state 's western shore . Winds along and around the Pinellas County coast generally blew from the south or southwest for several days , creating persistent onshore flow that built up heavy seas . Near Clearwater , waves reached 8 @.@ 2 ft ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) in height , marked by a period of 13 seconds on August 31 . One study determined that the storm removed an average of 10 cubic yards of coastal material per linear foot of shoreline in Escambia County , Gulf , Franklin , and Pinellas counties , with values peaking at 15 @.@ 6 cubic yards per foot . Along the predominantly marshy coasts of Pasco , Hernando , and Citrus counties , erosion and structural damage were much more limited , partly due to the local southerly or southeasterly wind direction .
In some cases , the hurricane left quasi @-@ permanent alterations on beaches and small islands . For example , North Bunces Key — an island of southern Pinellas County — lost most of its vegetation to the storm , and overwashing shifted the southern part of the island up to 330 ft ( 100 m ) from its original settlement . More extensive changes were seen on and near Caladesi Island , which formed in 1921 after a hurricane split a larger barrier island into two by a new channel . The inlet became dominant over Dunedin Pass to the south , which grew narrower very gradually until Elena rearranged the dynamics of the beach , allowing Dunedin Pass to fill completely with sand within a couple years of the hurricane 's passage . As a result , Clearwater Beach became connected to Caladesi Island . Elena also created a new inlet known as Willy 's Cut , which existed until 1991 . Interest in artificially reopening Dunedin Pass prompted an official study in 1994 on the engineering and financial merits of such a project . Due to the high cost of dredging and the likelihood of nearly continuous maintenance , no action was taken .
The hurricane tore two barges from their moorings in Tampa Bay and blew them into Gandy Bridge , leaving the bridge with unspecified damage . Throughout the area , rising waters inundated streets , washed boats ashore , and destroyed numerous homes along the coast . At low @-@ lying Cedar Key to the north , storm surge exceeded 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) . There , and at Alligator Point to the northwest , the surge values represented return periods of 25 to 30 years ; elsewhere , they were equivalent to about 10 @-@ year events . Floodwaters in Cedar Key rose to 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) in depth , with 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) waves atop the standing water . The extent of structural damage was largely dependent on construction type , as newer , elevated buildings fared much better than older structures nearer sea level . Waterfront restaurants were especially susceptible ; winds blew out several large sliding @-@ glass doors at one establishment , allowing both the winds and the tide to enter its interior . Elena severed the sole bridge to Cedar Key , temporarily isolating the city and stranding several residents . The Florida Department of Transportation hurriedly worked to make the bridge passable long enough to rescue the stranded individuals . The hurricane compromised several other roads , destroying a 75 ft ( 23 m ) section of State Road 24 . Monetary losses in Cedar Key alone were estimated at $ 2 million , and all major aspects of local infrastructure were severely affected , initially preventing residents from returning home to the island . At least 34 homes and businesses on the island were damaged or destroyed .
Pinellas County suffered some of the worst damage from Hurricane Elena in Florida . At the height of the storm , over 500 @,@ 000 of its residents were without electricity . Forty @-@ four single @-@ family homes were destroyed , 31 more were damaged , and several condominiums , townhouses , and commercial buildings were damaged or destroyed . The hurricane also wrecked or irreparably compromised nearly 2 @.@ 7 mi ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) of coastal bulkheads and inflicted minor damage on 2 @.@ 15 mi ( 3 @.@ 46 km ) more . Most of the affected seawalls were degrading or poorly reinforced . Seawalls with higher standards of construction generally remained intact , though even in those cases , overwash from the Gulf of Mexico topped the barriers and deposited large volumes of sand . The hurricane cost roughly $ 100 million in Pinellas County .
Elena 's track parallel to the Florida Panhandle subjected the coastline between Apalachicola and Pensacola Beach to particularly severe conditions that resulted in " significant " property damage there . In Apalachicola proper , winds tore large roofs off buildings , and data from Florida 's Department of Natural Resources indicate that 20 residences and one community building in Franklin County were damaged or destroyed . Structural failure was prevalent along the county 's waterfront and on islands such as Dog Island ; however , it was mainly limited to poorly constructed buildings . Several miles of roadways in the county sustained significant damage , and about 1 ⁄ 2 mile ( 800 m ) of bulkhead was destroyed . Low seawalls allowed crucial points of the causeway to St. George Island to erode , causing it to fail . In Escambia County , the hurricane left $ 2 million in damages . Throughout much of the remainder of the Florida Panhandle , structural damage was limited , though 100 @,@ 000 people in the Pensacola area lost power . The configuration of the southern tip of Cape San Blas in Gulf County was changed by the storm . The hurricane wiped out eagle nests , generated freshwater fish kills , and impacted other species of wildlife at the St. Vincent and St. Marks National Wildlife Refuges . St. George Island and Honeymoon Island State Parks were heavily impacted , with appreciable but lesser damage in numerous other protected areas . U.S. Route 98 , which closely follows the coast in this region , required extensive repairs after being undermined in nearly two dozen locations .
When tropical cyclones move over land , they often produce the wind shear and atmospheric instability required for the development of weak , embedded supercell thunderstorms , which can produce tornadoes . These tornadoes are usually weak and short @-@ lived , but still capable of producing significant damage . While centered over the Gulf of Mexico , the eastern side of Hurricane Elena 's circulation spawned several such tornadoes over central Florida . A tornado struck just east of Leesburg on September 1 , destroying 64 single @-@ family houses and mobile homes , and damaging another 118 ; seven people were treated for non @-@ life @-@ threatening injuries . Later that same day , another tornado touched down over downtown Leesburg , with much less damage . In nearby Marion County , tornadic activity destroyed six mobile homes , compromised another 50 residences , and inflicted as much as $ 500 @,@ 000 in total losses , though only minor injuries were reported . At Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39 in Cape Canaveral , a weak tornado struck two vehicles near the location where Space Shuttle Atlantis was being prepared for its first flight . A tornado in New Port Richey tore parts of the roof off at least one building and brought down trees , and tornadic activity was also identified in Sumter County .
The hurricane took one life in the state and indirectly contributed to two additional deaths . In Daytona Beach , a tree struck a parked vehicle , killing a person inside . The exact cause of the tree 's uprooting was unknown , although it may have been hit by lightning or a short @-@ lived tornado . Elsewhere , two individuals died of heart attacks : one while installing storm shutters on his home , and another at a designated shelter .
= = = Alabama = = =
The center of Elena passed 30 mi ( 50 km ) south of mainland Alabama as it accelerated toward the Gulf Coast , impacting the state 's two @-@ county coast and offshore islands . Wind gusts at Dauphin Island , situated much closer to the hurricane 's eye , were estimated to have reached 130 mph ( 210 km / h ) ; these velocities represented some of the highest experienced on land from the storm , and were strong enough to snap hundreds of large pine trees . Dauphin Island received an 8 @.@ 4 ft ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) storm surge that resulted in substantial flooding and areas of total overwash . Rainfall amounted to just 3 in ( 76 mm ) on the island .
With its location close to the storm 's center , Dauphin Island saw the greatest damage in Alabama . Access to the island was shut down during and immediately after the hurricane , slowing the progression of damage assessments . Additionally , the storm cut power and phone services . Post @-@ storm surveys revealed discernible patterns in structural damage on the island ; these included a nearly complete lack of destruction on the heavily wooded eastern end , and damage concentrated closer to the western side and along areas exposed to strong easterly winds . First @-@ hand accounts relayed that in the most severe cases , entire elevated homes were torn from their pilings and swept into the Gulf of Mexico . The number of homes demolished in that manner was informally placed at 50 , though such total building collapses were typically confined to poorly secured buildings . In total , the hurricane destroyed 190 residences on Dauphin Island , accounting for nearly 25 % of all homes , and a further 235 sustained substantial damage . An unofficial and early estimate of losses on the island was $ 30 million .
Windspeeds were markedly lower over mainland Alabama ; Mobile recorded winds of over 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , with gusts as high as 84 mph ( 135 km / h ) . The storm 's angle of approach created strong offshore winds along the mainland , which depressed water levels and limited the extent of positive surge once winds shifted to onshore . Winds from the hurricane took a toll on crops , ruining 8 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 lb ( 3 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 kg ) of pecans and reducing soybean production by 10 % . Farms were still in the process of recovering from Hurricane Frederic in 1979 when Elena struck .
Wave action took a toll on the foundations of waterfront structures along the coasts of Baldwin and Mobile counties , where Elena inflicted about $ 715 @,@ 000 worth of damage to roadways . Most damage was concentrated near the shore , where extensive erosion took place , and on islands and minor peninsulas . Farther inland , Elena 's impact was generally limited to downed trees and power lines . The storm destroyed the city boardwalk at Gulf Shores , with the cost of rebuilding expected to approach $ 300 @,@ 000 . Alabama Power reported extensive power outages affecting up to 100 @,@ 000 customers . According to the Insurance Information Institute , storm @-@ related damages in Alabama totaled about $ 100 million . An estimated 300 homes in the state were destroyed by Hurricane Elena , and another 1 @,@ 345 sustained lighter damage .
= = = Mississippi = = =
Along the coast of Mississippi , where Elena made landfall , the most significant effects of the storm stemmed from its strong winds gusting to over 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) . Recorded gusts included 121 mph ( 195 km / h ) at Gulfport , 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) at Pascagoula , and 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) at Biloxi . Several other weather stations clocked sustained winds at over 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Consistent with the storm 's dry nature , rainfall in the state was mainly light and confined to southern and western areas . Gulfport picked up more than 4 @.@ 5 in ( 110 mm ) , while just over 3 in ( 75 mm ) of rain fell at Natchez . Some streets in Gulfport and Biloxi flooded at the height of the storm . The highest tides ran 6 to 8 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 4 m ) above normal along the coast , reaching 7 @.@ 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) above average at Pascagoula and Ocean Springs . As with Alabama , negative surge values were recorded at the storm 's onset . The tide gauge at Gulfport recorded a water level of 5 @.@ 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) below average early on September 2 , before quickly swelling to 5 @.@ 43 ft ( 1 @.@ 66 m ) above normal . Air pressure reportedly fell so rapidly at Pascagoula ahead of the hurricane 's approaching center that car windows began to shatter . The barometer there bottomed out at 953 mb , the lowest recorded pressure on land in association with the cyclone .
The worst of the damage occurred along a 40 mi ( 64 km ) stretch of coastline , particularly in the Pascagoula area and surrounding towns . Elena 's winds damaged most of the schools in Jackson County , and more specifically , every school in Pascagoula was structurally impaired to some degree . Damages to schools in Ocean Springs totaled $ 3 million ; in the same city , the overall conditions following the hurricane were described as worse than those in the prior hurricanes Frederic or Camille . Elena destroyed 20 houses and two supermarkets in Ocean Springs , and several buildings on each city block sustained severe roof damage due to fallen trees . Two shopping centers were destroyed in nearby Gautier , possibly by short @-@ lived tornadoes . A fire captain in Gautier remarked immediately after the storm that he had not yet seen an unharmed building in the city . The community became essentially isolated from the outside world , and quickly began to run short of food , clean water , and gasoline supplies . Initial reports from Pascagoula also indicated that most , or all , of that city 's buildings were damaged . Nearly every business in the city was damaged to the extent that none were able to operate by the time the storm cleared . A post @-@ storm assessment by the Mississippi Emergency Management Agency revealed over 900 businesses in Jackson County sustained damage , contributing to a total of nearly 1 @,@ 500 in the state 's three coastal counties .
Harrison and Hancock counties were generally not impacted quite as severely as areas closer to the Alabama border , but the entire area still suffered extensively . In sections of Gulfport , large fires were sparked by downed power lines and fed by broken natural gas pipes . Debris on roadways prevented firefighters from reaching the fires , thereby allowing them to spread . Similar destruction was seen to the east at Biloxi , where the hurricane 's winds tore the roofs off many buildings . Beachfront communities were in a state of disarray , with large trees uprooted , debris littering the ground , and accumulations of sand on parts of roads like U.S. 90 . Damage to schools in Harrison County — particularly in Gulfport and Biloxi — was extensive . Most homes in the area survived the storm , which was locally estimated to have been a once @-@ in @-@ 50 @-@ year event , with relatively little damage . Several buildings along the coast in the Biloxi area sustained severe damage , but many of the older houses near the Gulf of Mexico there fared remarkably well . Winds brought down large highway signs , in some cases causing damage to nearby buildings . Along the coast , Elena caused beach erosion , damaged coastal structures and recreational beach facilities , and dislocated navigational buoys and markers in various ports , several of which were closed pending Coast Guard inspection . Winds over inland Pearl River County damaged 350 permanent and mobile homes , and as in Alabama , the hurricane took a large toll on pecan and soybean crops and farms .
There were numerous reports in southern Mississippi of embedded tornadoes that exacerbated the hurricane 's effects . Reports in Gulfport indicated that three schools actively being used as hurricane shelters were struck and damaged by tornadoes . At one location , almost 400 people being housed in a school had to rush to safety before part of the structure 's roof collapsed . Another apparent tornado sideswiped a senior citizens ' center , endangering nearly 200 people in a structure that sustained damage to windows , doors , and part of its roof ; about 20 people required rescue by paramedics . Only minor injuries occurred in association with the possible tornadoes . Teams of experts tasked with reviewing the validity of tornado reports were scarcely able to uncover sufficient evidence that much of the damage in southern Mississippi had been done by tornadoes . As a result , few of the events were confirmed to have been tornadoes , and it was considered likely that most of the damage in the region was the result of squall @-@ like winds that are part of an intense hurricane 's nature , or potentially localized microbursts . This conclusion was not definitive , however ; indeed , a city official in Biloxi remarked that in situations as extreme as Elena 's onslaught , " when you can 't even see your hand in front of you , it 's very hard to tell if it 's a tornado or the hurricane " . Any unconfirmed tornadoes would have possessed winds equal to or weaker than the hurricane 's synoptic winds .
The storm left 80 @,@ 000 customers under the jurisdiction of the Mississippi Power Company without power ; most of Jackson County 's 126 @,@ 000 residents were affected by the outage . Operations at Ingalls Shipbuilding in Pascagoula were halted due to the power outage and widespread damage to the shipyard 's buildings and cranes ; at least two other shipyards in the state were compromised by the hurricane . Additionally , the storm forced the temporary closure of the Chevron USA refinery at Pascagoula . Facilities at Horn Island in the Gulf Islands National Seashore , Buccaneer State Park , and the Mississippi Sandhill Crane National Wildlife Refuge required repairs following the storm ; at the latter , damages included the cost of healing a Florida sandhill crane 's injured leg . Thirty seafood plants were impaired , and another was destroyed . The Red Cross estimated that 200 single @-@ family houses in the state were destroyed , and some 13 @,@ 200 were damaged , 1 @,@ 200 of them heavily . Additionally , the hurricane demolished 390 mobile homes and damaged another 2 @,@ 290 . The overall cost of damage in Mississippi alone approached $ 1 billion .
= = = Louisiana = = =
After moving inland , the storm 's northwestward track brought it over the Louisiana border on two separate occasions , first reaching Washington Parish as a minimal hurricane . Winds there were strong enough to bring down hundreds of trees , damaging houses and knocking out power to over 15 @,@ 000 customers in the process . The hurricane also overturned mobile homes and strewn debris throughout communities such as Bogalusa and Franklinton in Washington Parish , the hardest @-@ hit area in the state . Downed trees caused damage to 200 homes and another 200 businesses , chiefly near Bogalusa .
Winds across the rest of the state were moderate , gusting to around 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) at Slidell on the northeastern shore of Lake Pontchartrain , so damage outside of Washington Parish was sporadic . Throughout the state , at least 40 @,@ 000 electric customers lost power . Located southwest of the storm 's core , New Orleans escaped with little damage and relatively benign weather conditions ; still , the hurricane triggered minor flooding and brought down tree limbs around the city . Levees along the shores of Lake Pontchartrain were able to contain the lake 's large waves , despite initial fears to the contrary . Still , the adverse conditions forced the temporary closure of the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway . The storm led to the deaths of two individuals in the state : one due to a drowning in St. Tammany Parish and another in a traffic accident attributed to the weather . Insured and uninsured damages were worth near $ 17 million combined , with an additional $ 500 @,@ 000 in agricultural losses .
Elena subjected the Chandeleur Islands to a 6 @.@ 5 ft ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) or greater storm surge . The island chain is an important buffer to parts of mainland Louisiana against storms , but is frequently reshaped or shrunken by intense hurricanes . Hurricane Danny and Hurricane Juan also impacted the islands in 1985 . Elena eroded away at least 20 % and possibly up to 40 % of the Chandeleur Islands ' total land mass and cut 30 significant channels into the island chain . Parts of the islands left intact suffered extensive loss of vegetation . The hurricane , along with Danny and Juan , also impacted several other barrier islands , and Elena itself removed as much as 112 ft ( 34 m ) of beach along the island of Grand Isle .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Precipitation from Hurricane Elena reached into southern Georgia and parts of South Carolina , with little impact aside from meager drought relief . For several days after landfall , the weakening tropical cyclone produced moderate to heavy rainfall across portions of central and northern Arkansas . Rainfall totals were generally 2 to 4 in ( 51 to 102 mm ) , with locally higher amounts ; Mountain Home , Arkansas received 8 @.@ 95 in ( 227 mm ) of rain , including 6 @.@ 6 in ( 170 mm ) in just three hours on September 4 . Clinton to the south recorded 8 @.@ 6 in ( 220 mm ) . At the state capital of Little Rock , under 3 in ( 76 mm ) of liquid fell . Listed by the National Weather Service among " some of the most significant tropical cyclones to affect Arkansas " , the remnants of Elena triggered flash flooding in parts of four counties ; 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of standing water submerged streets in downtown Hot Springs . In Mountain Home , floodwaters forced 10 families to evacuate their homes , and one person died after a swollen creek swept her car off a bridge spanning it .
Significant rainfall also occurred over parts of western Kentucky , with lighter precipitation in several adjacent states . Over 8 in ( 200 mm ) fell at Paducah , where urban streets and low @-@ lying terrain experienced freshwater flooding Floodwaters 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) deep submerged cars to their windows and infiltrated 40 homes , several businesses , a hotel , and a high school . Localized evacuations and road closures were required , and a person wading in an active creek had to be rescued after the creek swept him downstream . Around 10 @,@ 000 customers lost electric service for a short period due to the storm . Shelters were opened to those displaced by the flooding , but scarcely used .
Early in its formative stages , Elena triggered rainshowers and thunderstorms over parts of Cuba , The Bahamas , and Hispaniola . Later , the mature hurricane generated strong rip currents as far away as South Padre Island , Texas , where two swimmers drowned in separate incidents over the Labor Day weekend . Both victims were male Texas residents .
= = Aftermath = =
Hurricane Elena has a multifaceted legacy ; it is remembered not only for its severe impacts , but also for its unpredictability and the wide extent of pre @-@ storm preparations . Due to its notoriety , the name Elena was retired from the cyclical list of Atlantic hurricane names in the spring of 1986 . Consequently , it will never again be used for an Atlantic hurricane . The name was replaced by Erika , which was first used during the 1991 season .
= = = Florida = = =
The state of Florida received a federal Major Disaster Declaration on September 12 . Franklin , Levy , Manatee , and Pinellas counties — where the storm left 5 @,@ 000 individuals without work — became eligible for federal aid after President Ronald Reagan visited the state and determined that residents in those areas would benefit from assistance such as temporary housing , low @-@ interest loans for rebuilding efforts , and monetary grants . Disaster centers were opened in those four counties as centralized locations for federal , state , and volunteer agencies to operate relief programs . President Reagan later included Hillsborough , Wakulla , and Dixie counties , bringing the total number of Florida counties eligible for federal aid to seven . The deadline for residents of all seven counties to apply for either state or federal assistance was set for November 12 . Several major corporations — including Texaco , Exxon , and J.C. Penney — contacted customers in the affected areas and offered to make special arrangements for their monthly payments if they had been financially impacted by the storm . While only a small number of customers took advantage of the assistance , the companies ' actions were met with highly positive feedback .
In the days following the storm , residents of Cedar Key were forbidden from returning to their homes and businesses while washed @-@ out roadways underwent repairs and debris was cleared . Portable toilets were delivered and clean water trucked in for use while the city 's infrastructure was being stabilized . After the city of Cedar Key dropped its participation in the National Flood Insurance Program in early 1984 , leaving residents unable to purchase flood insurance for their property , the city council voted unanimously to return to the program after Hurricane Elena . Tourism decreased significantly in some areas due to prospective travelers ' concerns about the extent of the damage . The hurricane created a 13 % drop in visitors between October 1984 and October 1985 in Pinellas County , marking an early end to the annual " tourist season " , which generally ends after Labor Day weekend ; tourist spending fell accordingly .
After the storm , residents were allowed to return to their neighborhoods on a by @-@ town basis . Once authorized to enter their communities , many individuals inadvertently gained access to other municipalities in the area that were not ready for the return of civilians . In turn , dangerous situations arose amid preliminary cleanup operations . In Pinellas County , laws were proposed to unify the municipal decisions to accept residents after future disasters . As part of the proposed laws , the county sheriff , as opposed to local officials , would become responsible for allowing cities to reopen . Despite extensive resistance , county commissioners approved the change , giving the sitting sheriff power to override municipal evacuation orders . An additional ordinance was proposed to allow banning of alcohol sales during emergencies . During Hurricane Elena , intoxicated individuals created disorder at shelters and impeded evacuations by refusing to leave hurricane parties .
To help the Apalachicola Bay shellfish industry recover , special regulations were put in place to monitor harvests , and $ 2 million was designated toward rehabilitation efforts . Using a portion of the funds , out @-@ of @-@ work oyster catchers were employed to repopulate crucial reefs . The state of Florida also issued a grant to help individuals in the crippled seafood industry make necessary payments . Efforts to help newly unemployed individuals in the shellfish industry continued in the months following the storm ; local Tallahassee musicians organized a benefit concert in January 1986 to raise money for families of oystermen in Franklin County .
On September 1 and 2 , Florida Power Company received help from Gulf Coast companies to return power to 170 @,@ 000 customers before the assisting companies ' home areas were struck by the hurricane . Power was restored to most areas by September 4 , with an exception being St. George 's Island ; service was expected to be restored after several additional days . More broadly , owners of heavily damaged homes in the state faced new regulations on coastal construction in the state , which went into effect less than a month after the storm . The new rules entailed more rigorous study of factors such as a property 's prior history and surrounding buildings before approval to rebuild a demolished structure would be granted . Governor Graham preliminarily advised that houses more than halfway destroyed not be rebuilt . Recovery efforts after Hurricane Elena continued to a small degree for years after its passage ; for example , beach replenishment at Indian Rocks Beach in Pinellas County began in the summer of 1990 .
= = = Central Gulf Coast = = =
Power companies from several states sent workers to help restore service to the hardest @-@ hit areas of the Gulf Coast . Most of Alabama Power 's affected customers had power within 24 hours of the storm , though restoration of service to Dauphin Island took significantly longer . Power was fully restored to Central Louisiana Electric customers by September 4 . Alabama 's two coastal counties were declared federal disaster areas on September 7 . Special loan assistance was made available by the Small Business Administration and the Farmers Home Administration , the latter of which sought to help commercial growers who lost their crops to the storm .
Mississippi Governor William Allain sent 500 members of the National Guard to partner with 200 law enforcement officers along Mississippi 's coast in minimizing crime , and nighttime curfews were established in several cities . On September 4 , President Reagan declared Mississippi 's coastal counties a Major Disaster area . The Federal Emergency Management Agency estimated that as many as 3 @,@ 000 homes in the state were uninhabitable , their occupants forced to find temporary living arrangements . The Small Business Administration approved special loans up to $ 500 @,@ 000 for owners of damaged businesses . Mississippi Power Company 's system was the hardest @-@ hit , and restoration of service was slow ; 50 @,@ 000 of 80 @,@ 000 customers were still without electricity by September 5 .
By September 5 , the Salvation Army , Red Cross , and other organizations had served 100 @,@ 000 meals to those displaced by the hurricane in Mississippi , and federal food stocks became available for the state to distribute to storm victims . Still , resources such as food and ice started to run short in the hardest @-@ hit locations , and long lines formed at the first few stores and gas stations to reopen . With dwindling supplies , the Salvation Army had to procure food from other parts of the region to serve to victims . In the days after the hurricane , an increase in heart attack deaths in the Harrison County area was noted .
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= Together Again ( Janet Jackson song ) =
" Together Again " is a song by American recording artist Janet Jackson from her sixth studio album , The Velvet Rope ( 1997 ) . It was written and produced by Jackson , Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , with additional writing by Jackson 's then @-@ husband , René Elizondo , Jr . It was released as the second single from the album on December 2 , 1997 , by Virgin . Originally written as a ballad , the track was rearranged as a dance and house song . Jackson was inspired to write the song by her own personal experience of losing a friend to AIDS , as well as by a piece of fan mail she received from a young boy in England who had lost his father .
" Together Again " was well received by music critics , who praised the song 's structure and Jackson 's vocals , comparing them to those of Diana Ross and works by Donna Summer . Commercially , the song was a success , topping the Billboard Hot 100 chart for two weeks , as well as reaching the top of the Hot Dance Club Songs . The song was additionally certified Gold by the RIAA . Worldwide , it peaked within the top five in most countries , such as Canada and the United Kingdom , and topped the charts in the Netherlands . It is Jackson 's best selling single selling 6 million copies worldwide and is one of the best selling singles of all time .
Two music videos were produced for " Together Again " . The video for the original , directed by Seb Janiak , shows Jackson and her dancers performing in a futuristic African paradise where people are seen living side by side with wild animals such as elephants , giraffes , and wildcats . Another music video released for the ' Deeper Remix ' was directed by René Elizondo , Jr. and shows Jackson in an apartment . Jackson performed " Together Again " in a number of occasions to promote The Velvet Rope , including at the American Music Awards , and also on all of her tours since its release . It is also included in two of Jackson 's greatest hits collections , Number Ones ( 2009 ) and Icon : Number Ones ( 2010 ) .
= = Background = =
" Together Again " was written as a tribute from Jackson to a friend who had recently died from AIDS as well as AIDS victims and their families worldwide , as stated in the liner notes of The Velvet Rope ( 1997 ) . Originally written as a ballad , the track was re @-@ arranged as a dance and house song . Jackson was reportedly inspired to write the song from her own personal experience , as well as a piece of fan @-@ mail she received from a young boy in England who had lost his father . According to Jimmy Jam , " it had a deep meaning for her because it was about a friend she lost to AIDS , but as with all her songs , she tries to make them apply in a general sense to anybody . The idea was to make it a joyous song musically " . The arrangement of the song was constructed in 30 minutes by Jam , Lewis and Jackson while in the recording studio . Once the melody was in place , Jackson finished writing the lyrics to the song . The song 's sound was inspired by Donna Summer 's song " Last Dance " . Jackson told MTV News that her inspiration to write " Together Again " was " Runaway " by Nuyorican Soul , as the song reminded her of being in Studio 54 in New York when she was a child . " Runaway " gave Jackson a kind of New York feel of disco and she wanted to do something like this .
= = Composition = =
" Together Again " was written and produced by Jackson , Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , with additional writing by Jackson 's then @-@ husband , René Elizondo , Jr . It is a dance and house track . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , the song is set in common time with a key of C major . Jackson 's vocals range between A3 to D5 . The song has a moderate tempo of 123 beats per minute with the chord progression following the sequence of C – Em7 / B – Em7 ( b5 ) / Bb – A7 – Dm9 – G13 – Dm9 – G13 . The bass line in the chorus descends according to the key until reaching the supertonic , after which it goes back to the dominant note set up the resolution , the repetition of the chorus or the interlude , which begins on the submedian . At the end of the second bridge , the song modulates up a minor third into E @-@ flat major . Three versions of the song were released ; the original dance version , the " Deep Remix " , a R & B and hip @-@ hop version , and the " Deeper Remix " , which is a R & B and soul remake . Lyrically , it was described as a ode from Jackson to a friend who had died from AIDS . Larry Flick from Billboard noted its " tear @-@ stained lyrics " . Ernest Hardy of Rolling Stone described it as " unsullied pop bliss " , saying " The bass @-@ heavy house track " Together Again " showcases a poignant lead vocal , giving off a ' 60s soul / girl group vibe " ,
= = Critical reception = =
Music critics received " Together Again " positively . BBC deemed it a " thumping great hit , an old @-@ fashioned piece of professional dance music , played perfectly " . Music critic Joey Guerra from The Daily Cougar stated , " Jackson pours her heart into " Together Again , " which builds to an ecstatic house beat " which takes " a cue from the soaring melodies of ' 60s girl groups " . He further commented that the song is " genuine happy @-@ feeling . It sounds lame at first but pay attention to what she 's singing ; that vocal smile changes everything . " " She even makes a bid for gay icon status " , wrote Neil McCormick in a review of The Velvet Rope for The Daily Telegraph , " delivering a diva @-@ ish performance reminiscent of Diana Ross on ' Together Again ' . "
" Together Again " was also compared to other singers ' works . Jon Pareles from The New York Times described " Together Again " as " a creamy Diana Ross homage " , noting that Jackson " deploys her small voice shrewdly " in it . Larry Flick from Billboard magazine called " Together Again " " a gourgeous disco ode to loved ones lost to AIDS @-@ related illnesses " . Jackson " has clearly been studying Donna Summer records , delivering a wonderfully nuanced performance that takes firm command of the track 's vibrant house beat without sacrificing an ounce of emotion " . Danyel Smith , while interviewing Jackson for Vibe in November 1997 , elaborated that the song was a big , perfect ode to Donna Summer , and likened it to her songs " MacArthur Park " and " Last Dance " . In 1999 , ' Together Again " won the award for " Most Played Song " at the BMI Pop Awards .
= = Chart performance = =
" Together Again " debuted at number nine on the Billboard Hot 100 chart on the issue dated December 20 , 1997 , before becoming Jackson 's eighth number @-@ one single on January 31 , 1998 , spending two weeks at number one , and a total of forty @-@ six weeks on the chart . The song also peaked atop the Hot Dance Club Songs chart and at number eight on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . " Together Again " was certified Gold by the RIAA . In Canada , it peaked at number two on the official singles chart and also reached number two on the dance chart . In Australasia , " Together Again " also experienced success . In Australia , it debuted at number eighteen on the issue dated December 7 , 1997 , peaking at number four and staying on the ARIA Charts for twenty @-@ five weeks and was certified double @-@ platinum by the ARIA for 70 @,@ 000 copies shipped . In New Zealand , it debuted at number sixteen the week of December 21 , 1997 . On February 22 , 1998 , it reached its peak of number five , staying on the chart for ten weeks .
The song debuted and peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart on December 13 , 1997 , falling to six the following week , two weeks later it returned to its peak of four , spending ten weeks in the top ten and nineteen weeks inside the chart . It was certified Platinum by the BPI eventually selling nearly 800 @,@ 000 units in the UK . It also spent 1 week atop the UK R & B singles chart and number six on the UK Dance Chart . It is Jackson 's best selling UK single.In Austria , it entered the singles chart at number twenty @-@ five , eventually peaking number six and spending a total of fourteen weeks on the chart . In France , the song peaked at number two for ten weeks , and was certified Platinum by the SNEP . In Germany , it peaked at number two for two weeks and remaining on the German Singles Chart for twenty @-@ four weeks . It was certified Platinum for 500 @,@ 000 copies sold . In the Netherlands , " Together Again " entered the singles chart at number sixty @-@ one during the week of December 13 , 1997 . It eventually peaked at number one , staying a total of thirty @-@ two weeks on the chart . The NVPI certified the single Gold for shipment of 10 @,@ 000 copies . On the Swiss Singles Chart dated January 11 , 1998 , " Together Again " debuted at number thirteen . After two weeks , it peaked at number two and was later certified Gold by the IFPI . A portion of the single 's worldwide sales were donated by Jackson to The American Foundation for AIDS Research .
= = Music videos = =
Two music videos were produced for " Together Again " . The original version was directed by French photographer Seb Janiak and choreographed by Tina Landon . Filmed in the Serengeti , Tanzania , the video decipts Jackson with mini red ponytails on her head . She and her dancers perform in a futuristic African @-@ flavored paradise where people are seen living side by side with wild animals such as elephants , giraffes , and wildcats . At a point of the video , Jackson appears to be hugging another version of herself . Dan MacRae from ET Canada commented , " Janet is positively beaming as she participates in some lovely choreography and chills out with local wildlife " . This version received a nomination for Best Dance Video at the 1998 MTV Video Music Awards . Another music video was released for the " Deeper Remix " . Directed by René Elizondo , Jr , the video depicts Jackson in an apartment remembering a friend . Both videos are featured on the DVD edition of 2001 's All for You and the 2004 video compilation From Janet to Damita Jo : The Videos .
= = Live performances = =
In order to promote The Velvet Rope and the single , Jackson performed " Together Again " at the American Music Awards of 1998 . The singer has also performed the song on all of her tours since its release . She included the song on the 1998 The Velvet Rope Tour . Dressed up in " chandeliers and sensible clothing " , it was performed as the closing song from the concert . Jon Pareles from The New York Times viewed the performance as " an elegy disguised as an arm @-@ waving , feel @-@ good song " . The performance of the song at the October 11 , 1998 show in New York City , at the Madison Square Garden , was broadcast during a special titled The Velvet Rope : Live in Madison Square Garden by HBO . It was also added to the setlist at its DVD release , The Velvet Rope Tour – Live in Concert in 1999 . It was again performed as the encore on the All for You Tour in support of her follow @-@ up album All for You in 2001 and 2002 . Gina Vivinetto from St. Petersburg Times , while reviewing the concert , described the performance , " The show closed with a buoyant Together Again that found Jackson grinning , surrounded by dancers moving in refreshing , unscripted merriment " . The February 16 , 2002 final date of the tour at the Aloha Stadium in Hawaii , was broadcast by HBO , and included a performance of " Together Again " . This rendition was also added to the setlist at its DVD release , Janet : Live in Hawaii , in 2002 . Jackson also performed it on VH1 's The Concert for New York City benefit concert which paid tribute to victims of the September 11 attacks the same year .
In 2004 , while promoting her eighth studio album Damita Jo , Jackson made surprise performances of " Together Again " and " All Nite ( Don 't Stop ) " at New York 's Gay Pride March . " Together Again " was one of her older songs on the 2008 Rock Witchu Tour , her first tour in seven years . It was at the middle of the setlist . She was dressed in a gold and black glam hip hop @-@ inspired track suit , and one gold glove . Variety magazine 's Phil Gallo likened her vocals in the song to that of Diana Ross 's . Rap @-@ Up noted the audience " went wild " during the song . While reviewing the Vancouver concert , Marsha Lederman of Globe and Mail noted that the most memorable moment of the show was when Jackson " stopped on the catwalk after her hit Together Again , listened to the crowd roar its approval , and became emotional – really emotional . We 're talking tears . ' Thank you , ' she said – seeming to really mean it , as she waved her hands , begging the audience to stop " , she completed . While promoting her second greatest hits album Number Ones , the singer performed an eight @-@ minute medley of six hits during the American Music Awards of 2009 . It included " Control " , " Miss You Much " , " What Have You Done for Me Lately " , " If " , " Make Me " , and finished with " Together Again " . For the latter 's performance , Jackson stood alone at center stage , smiling , as the received applauses and standing ovation from the audience . It also was the closing song of her concert at Essence Music Festival in New Orleans , in July 2010 , which she headlined . " Together Again " was again performed as a closing number on her Number Ones : Up Close and Personal 2011 tour as a dedication to her late brother , Michael Jackson , wearing a tight white one @-@ piece disco suit . MTV News ' writer Vaughn Schoonmaker noted that the song appeared to be the biggest hit of the show . Jackson included the song on her 2015 @-@ 2016 Unbreakable World Tour .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Janet Jackson - vocals , songwriter , producer , vocal and rhythm arrangement
Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis - songwriters , producers , all other instruments , vocal and rhythm arrangements
René Elizondo , Jr . - songwriter
Steve Hodge - engineering , mixing
Alexander Richbourg - drum machine
Xavier Smith – assistant engineer
Source :
= = Charts = =
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= Upsilon Andromedae c =
Upsilon Andromedae c ( abbreviated υ Andromedae c , υ And c ) , also named Samh , is an extrasolar planet orbiting the Sun @-@ like star Upsilon Andromedae A every 241 @.@ 2 days . Its discovery in April 1999 by Geoffrey Marcy and R. Paul Butler made this the first multiple @-@ planet system to be discovered around a main @-@ sequence star , and the first multiple @-@ planet system known in a multiple star system . Upsilon Andromedae c is the second known planet in order of distance from its star .
In July 2014 the International Astronomical Union launched a process for giving proper names to certain exoplanets and their host stars . The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names . In December 2015 , the IAU announced the winning name was Samh for this planet . The winning name was submitted by the Vega Astronomy Club of Morocco and honours the 11th Century astronomer Ibn al @-@ Samh of Muslim Spain .
= = Discovery = =
Like the majority of known extrasolar planets , Upsilon Andromedae c was detected by measuring variations in its star 's radial velocity as a result of the planet 's gravity . This was done by making precise measurements of the Doppler shift of the spectrum of Upsilon Andromedae A. At the time of discovery , Upsilon Andromedae A was already known to host one extrasolar planet , the hot Jupiter Upsilon Andromedae b , however by 1999 it was clear that the inner planet could not explain the velocity curve .
In 1999 , astronomers at both San Francisco State University and the Harvard @-@ Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics independently concluded that a three @-@ planet model best fit the data . The two new planets were designated Upsilon Andromedae c and Upsilon Andromedae d .
= = Orbit and mass = =
Like the majority of long @-@ period extrasolar planets , the orbit of Upsilon Andromedae c is eccentric , more so than any of the major planets in the Solar System ( including Pluto ) . If placed in the Solar System , Upsilon Andromedae c would lie between the orbits of Earth and Venus .
The high orbital eccentricity may be the result of gravitational perturbations from the planet Upsilon Andromedae d . Simulations suggest that the orbit of Upsilon Andromedae c returns to its original circular state roughly once every 6 @,@ 700 years .
One proposal is that interactions between Upsilon Andromedae d and a ( now lost ) outer planet moved Upsilon Andromedae d into an orbit closer to the star , where it gradually caused the orbit of Upsilon Andromedae c to become eccentric . If so , the rogue planet would have had to eject immediately ; it is unclear how likely this situation might be . Other models are possible .
A limitation of the radial velocity method used to detect Upsilon Andromedae c is that the orbital inclination is unknown , and only a lower limit on the planet 's mass can be obtained . However , by combining radial velocity measurements from ground @-@ based telescopes with astrometric data from the Hubble Space Telescope , astronomers have determined the orbital inclination as well as the actual mass of Upsilon Andromedae c , which is about 13 @.@ 98 times the mass of Jupiter . The mutual inclination between c and d is 29 @.@ 9 degrees .
= = Characteristics = =
Given the planet 's high mass , it is likely that Upsilon Andromedae c is a gas giant with no solid surface . Since the planet has only been detected indirectly through observations of its star , properties such as its radius , composition , and temperature are unknown .
Since its actual mass is approximately 14 times that of Jupiter , and its star 's metallicity is similar to that of the Sun , Upsilon Andromedae c may actually be a small brown dwarf .
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= Coquitlam =
Coquitlam / koʊˈkwɪtləm / ( 2011 census population 126 @,@ 840 ) is a city in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia , Canada . Coquitlam , mainly a suburban city , is the sixth @-@ largest city in the province and is one of the 21 municipalities comprising Metro Vancouver . The current mayor of Coquitlam is Richard Stewart .
= = History = =
The Coast Salish people were the first to live in this area , and archaeology confirms continuous occupation of the territory for at least 9 @,@ 000 years . The name Kwikwetlem is said to be derived from a Coast Salish term meaning " red fish up the river " .
Explorer Simon Fraser came through the region in 1808 , and in the 1860s Europeans gradually started settling the area . Coquitlam began as a " place @-@ in @-@ between " with the construction of North Road in the mid @-@ 19th century to provide Royal Engineers in New Westminster access to the year @-@ round port facilities in Port Moody .
The young municipality got its first boost in 1889 when Frank Ross and James McLaren opened what would become Fraser Mills , a $ 350 @,@ 000 , then state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art lumber mill on the north bank of the Fraser River . The District of Coquitlam was incorporated in 1891 . By 1908 , a mill town of 20 houses , a store , post office , hospital , office block , barber shop , and pool hall had grown around the mill . A mill manager 's residence was built that would later become Place des Arts .
Over the next two years , several contingents of French Canadian mill workers arrived from Quebec , and Maillardville was born . Named for Father Edmond Maillard , a young Oblate from France , it became the largest Francophone centre west of Manitoba . Maillardville 's past is recognized today in street names , the Francophone education system and French immersion programs , French @-@ language guides and scouts , and celebrations such as Festival du Bois .
Following World War II , Coquitlam and the rest of the Lower Mainland experienced substantial population growth that continues today . The opening of Lougheed Highway in 1953 made the city more accessible and set the stage for residential growth . In 1971 , Coquitlam and Fraser Mills were amalgamated , which gave the city a larger industrial base . The mill closed in 2001 , and is now rezoned into a residential area .
= = Geography = =
Coquitlam is situated some 10 to 15 km ( 6 @.@ 2 to 9 @.@ 3 mi ) east of Vancouver , where the Coquitlam River connects with the Fraser River and extends northeast along the Pitt River toward the Coquitlam and Pitt lakes . Coquitlam borders Burnaby and Port Moody to the west , New Westminster to the southwest , and Port Coquitlam to the southeast . Burke Mountain , Eagle Ridge , and 1 @,@ 583 m ( 5 @,@ 194 ft ) tall Coquitlam Mountain form the northern boundary of the city . Coquitlam 's area , 152 @.@ 5 square kilometres ( 58 @.@ 9 sq mi ) , dwarfs the other communities in the Tri @-@ Cities ; it is about six times larger than either Port Moody or Port Coquitlam .
Like Vancouver , Coquitlam is in the Pacific Time Zone ( winter UTC − 8 , summer UTC − 7 ) , and the Pacific Maritime Ecozone .
= = = Neighbourhoods = = =
Coquitlam 's geographic shape can be thought of as a tilted hourglass , with two larger parcels of land with a smaller central section connecting them .
Southwest Coquitlam comprises the original core of the city , with Maillardville and Fraser River industrial sector giving way to the large residential areas of Austin Heights , colloquially referred to as " The Bump " due to its high and flat plateau topography . These older residences , with larger property dimensions , are increasingly being torn down and replaced with newer and larger homes . The Poirier Street area was the city 's original recreational centre with the Coquitlam Sports Centre , Chimo Aquatic and Fitness Centre , and sports fields located there , while City Hall was previously located further south in Maillardville .
The Austin Heights area contains Como Lake , a renowned urban fishing and recreation area , and headwaters for the Como watershed . The watershed represents one of the last urban watersheds in the Tri @-@ Cities that supports wild stocks of coho salmon as well as other species at risk such as coastal cutthroat trout ( both sea @-@ run and resident ) and bird species such as the great blue heron and green heron . It also contains Mundy Park , one of the largest urban parks in the Metro Vancouver area .
In 1984 , the provincial government sold 57 hectares ( 141 acres ) formerly attached to Riverview Hospital to Molnar Developments . Shortly afterward , this land was subdivided and became Riverview Heights , with about 250 single family homes . The remaining 240 acres ( 0 @.@ 97 km2 ) of this still @-@ active mental health facility has been the subject of much controversy between developers , environmentalists , and conservationists . In 2005 , the city 's task force on the hospital lands rejected the idea of further housing on the lands and declared that the lands and buildings should be protected and remain as a mental health facility .
Coquitlam Town Centre , was designated as a " Regional Town Centre " under the Metro Vancouver ’ s Livable Region Strategic Plan . The concept of a town centre for the area dates back to 1975 , and is intended to have a high concentration of high @-@ density housing , offices , cultural , entertainment and education facilities to serve major growth areas of the region , served by rapid transit service . It is in the town centre that many public buildings can be found , including City Hall , a branch of the Coquitlam Public Library , R.C.M.P. station , Coquitlam 's main fire hall , the David Lam Campus of Douglas College , the Evergreen Cultural Centre , City Centre Aquatic Complex , Town Centre Park and Percy Perry Stadium . Coquitlam Town Centre is currently undergoing an update of the Town Centre plan .
In 1989 , the provincial government sold 570 hectares ( 1 @,@ 409 acres ) of second @-@ growth forested land on the south slope of Eagle Mountain , known locally as Eagle Ridge , to developer Wesbild . This resulted in the closure of Westwood Motorsport Park in 1990 , and the creation of Westwood Plateau , which was developed into 4 @,@ 525 upscale homes , as well as two golf courses .
With development on Westwood Plateau completed and the opening of the David Avenue Connector in 2006 , Coquitlam 's primary urban development has now shifted to Burke Mountain in the northeastern portion of the city .
Coquitlam Land Use ( 2001 ) Total 152 @.@ 5 km2 ( 37 @,@ 684 acres ) :
Agricultural Land 381 @.@ 25 ha ( 942 @.@ 1 acres )
Extractive Industry 138 @.@ 00 ha ( 341 @.@ 0 acres )
Harvesting and Research 0 @.@ 00 ha ( 0 @.@ 0 acres )
Residential
Single Family 2 @,@ 790 @.@ 75 ha ( 6 @,@ 896 @.@ 1 acres )
Rural 488 @.@ 00 ha ( 1 @,@ 205 @.@ 9 acres )
Town / Low @-@ rise 244 @.@ 00 ha ( 602 @.@ 9 acres )
High @-@ rise 15 @.@ 25 ha ( 37 @.@ 7 acres )
Commercial 288 @.@ 75 ha ( 713 @.@ 5 acres )
Industrial 427 @.@ 00 ha ( 1 @,@ 055 @.@ 1 acres )
Institutional 350 @.@ 75 ha ( 866 @.@ 7 acres )
Transport . Comm . , Utilities 274 @.@ 50 ha ( 678 @.@ 3 acres )
Recreation / Nature Areas 5 @,@ 429 @.@ 00 ha ( 13 @,@ 415 @.@ 4 acres )
Open / Undeveloped 3 @,@ 080 @.@ 50 ha ( 7 @,@ 612 @.@ 1 acres )
GVRD Watershed 1 @,@ 342 @.@ 00 ha ( 3 @,@ 316 @.@ 2 acres )
= = = Climate = = =
Like the rest of Metro Vancouver , Coquitlam has a maritime temperate climate , enjoying mild temperatures and sufficient precipitation ; warm drier summers and wet mild winters . However , unlike other cities in the area , precipitation is especially heavy in Coquitlam due to its proximity to the mountain slopes . With westward air moving off the Pacific Ocean , the air is forced to flow up the Coast Mountains causing it to cool and condense and fall as precipitation , this process is known as orographic precipitation . The orographic effect is mainly responsible for the massive 1 @,@ 955 mm ( 77 @.@ 0 in ) . ) annual average precipitation that Coquitlam receives each year , with most falling as rainfall in the fall and winter months , with 287 mm ( 11 @.@ 3 in ) . ) in November ; the summer is usually sunny with minimal precipitation with 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) . ) in August . Although the mild temperatures allow for mostly rain to fall during the winter months , occasionally snow will fall . With a slightly higher elevation compared to the rest of Metro Vancouver , Coquitlam can receive an average of 58 cm ( 23 in ) . ) of snow each year , with it rarely staying on the ground for more than a day or two , adding to a very intermittent snow cover during the winter season . On 29 December 1996 over 45 cm of snow fell in just 24 hours .
One of the most recent snowy winters was 2008 – 09 , when in the last two weeks of December cold temperatures from an arctic front that had just seeped its way into the lower mainland and the Fraser Valley collided with moist air from the pacific ; almost 100 centimetres ( 39 in ) of snow fell in Coquitlam , resulting in an extreme snow cover ( over 50 cm ) for Christmas and resulted major traffic and flight issues . In the first week of January 2009 , sudden warmer temperatures starting with heavy wet snow and later transitioning into heavy rain from a pineapple express resulted in some flooding in low @-@ lying areas near the Fraser river . As Coquitlam has a slightly higher elevation than most communities in Metro Vancouver most of the precipitation that fell in the first week of January 2009 was heavy wet snow that transitioned into rain much later , resulting in an even deeper snow pack notably for residents on Westwood Plateau where the elevation is anywhere from 100 to 400 m above sea level . After the winter of 2008 – 09 ended , over 175 cm of snow had fallen .
Coquitlam is also located in the warmest region in Canada where average mean annual temperature is 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) . Temperatures are warm during the summer months with an average high of 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) , and an average low of 13 ° C ( 55 ° F ) in August . During the winter months , the average high is 6 ° C ( 43 ° F ) , and the average low is 1 ° C ( 34 ° F ) in January . This relatively mild climate , by Canadian standards , is caused by the warm Alaska current offshore and the many mountain ranges preventing the cold arctic air from the rest of Canada from reaching the southwest corner of British Columbia ; however , occasionally it can fall well below freezing ( below − 5 ° C / − 10 ° C ) for a day or two during the winter .
= = Demographics = =
In the 2011 Census , Statistics Canada originally reported that Coquitlam had a population of 126 @,@ 456 living in 45 @,@ 553 of its 48 @,@ 083 total dwellings , a 10 @.@ 4 % change from its 2006 population of 114 @,@ 565 . Statistics Canada subsequently amended the 2011 census results to a population of 126 @,@ 840 living in 45 @,@ 743 of its 48 @,@ 289 total dwellings , a 10 @.@ 7 % change from 2006 . With a land area of 122 @.@ 30 km2 ( 47 @.@ 22 sq mi ) , it had a population density of 1 @,@ 037 @.@ 1 / km2 ( 2 @,@ 686 @.@ 1 / sq mi ) in 2011 .
According to the 2006 Canadian census , there were 114 @,@ 565 people living in the municipality in 43 @,@ 241 private dwellings . 37 % of households contained a married couple with children , 25 % contained a married couple without children , and 22 % were one @-@ person households . Of the 32 @,@ 185 reported families : 77 % were married couples with an average of 3 @.@ 2 persons per family , 15 % were lone @-@ parents with an average of 2 @.@ 5 persons per family , and 8 % were common @-@ law couples with an average of 2 @.@ 6 persons per family . The median age of Coquitlam ’ s population was 39 @.@ 0 years , slightly younger than the British Columbia median of 40 @.@ 8 years . Coquitlam had 82 @.@ 6 % of its residents 15 years of age or older , less than the provincial average of 83 @.@ 5 % . The south part of Coquitlam has a pocket of French speakers .
In the same 2006 census , about 41 % of Coquitlam residents were foreign @-@ born , much higher than the 27 % foreign @-@ born for the whole of British Columbia . 61 % of respondents claimed to not be a visible minority , while the largest visible minorities included Chinese ( 17 @.@ 2 % ) , Korean ( 5 @.@ 3 % ) , South Asian and West Asian ( both 3 @.@ 7 % ) , and Filipino ( 2 @.@ 7 % ) . 58 % of respondents list English as their mother tongue , while 96 % state having knowledge of English .
Also according to the 2006 census , the median income in 2005 for all families was $ 67 @,@ 031 , compared to the provincial average of $ 62 @,@ 346 . 55 @.@ 7 % of respondents 15 years of age and older claim to have a post @-@ secondary certificate , diploma or degree , compared to 52 @.@ 2 % province @-@ wide . The 2001 census found that 20 @.@ 2 % of Coquitlam residents are Protestant and 21 @.@ 6 % are Catholic . 10 @.@ 8 % belong to other Christian denominations , 8 @.@ 6 % are adherents of other religions , and 35 % profess no religion .
Only 25 @.@ 3 % of Coquitlam residents who work outside the home work within the city of Coquitlam itself , just over half the provincial average of 48 @.@ 7 % of residents who work within their own municipality , yet 18 @.@ 2 % of Coquitlam residents take public transit or bicycle or walk to work , close to the provincial average of 19 @.@ 2 % .
= = = Languages = = =
The three most commonly spoken mother tongues reported in Coquitlam as of the 2011 census were Korean ( 6 @.@ 1 % ) , Farsi ] ( 4 @.@ 9 % ) and Mandarin ( 4 @.@ 7 % ) .
= = Economy = =
As a bedroom community , the majority of Coquitlam residents commute to work in Vancouver , Burnaby , and other Metro Vancouver suburbs . Coquitlam 's main industrial area lies in the southern Maillardville / Fraser Mills area near the Fraser River . Among the largest employers within Coquitlam are the City of Coquitlam with approximately 850 employees , Art in Motion with approximately 750 employees , and Hard Rock Casino with approximately 600 employees . Other major employers include Coca @-@ Cola , Sony , and the Marine Propulsion division of Rolls @-@ Royce .
In 2007 , there were 610 retail businesses in Coquitlam , and these provided 8 @,@ 765 jobs ( 27 % of all jobs ) within the city . Most retail businesses are concentrated around Coquitlam Centre in the Town Centre area , and big @-@ box retailers such as IKEA and The Home Depot in the Pacific Reach areas , with the remainder of the city 's retail outlets centered around the Austin Heights and North Road sectors .
The Tri @-@ Cities Chamber of Commerce has over 900 members including businesses , professionals , residents and other community groups , governed by a 14 @-@ person volunteer Board of Directors .
= = Government = =
Federal - Coquitlam is represented by two federal MP 's in the Parliament of Canada . Fin Donnelly ( New Democratic Party ) represents the Port Moody — Coquitlam riding , while Ron McKinnon ( Liberal Party ) represents Coquitlam — Port Coquitlam .
Provincial - Coquitlam is represented by three provincial MLA 's in the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia . Linda Reimer ( British Columbia Liberal Party ) represents the Port Moody @-@ Coquitlam riding , while Douglas Horne ( BC Liberals ) represents Coquitlam @-@ Burke Mountain , and Selina Robinson ( BC NDP ) represents Coquitlam @-@ Maillardville .
Municipal - In the 2014 civic election , Richard Stewart was elected as mayor of Coquitlam , and Craig Hodge , Terry O 'Neill , Brent Asmundson , Dennis Marsden , Mae Reid , Teri Towner , Bonita Zarrillo and Chris Wilson were all elected to Coquitlam City Council . Coquitlam contracts out garbage and recycling services to International Paper Industries for city residents , but local businesses are responsible for their own garbage and recycling arrangements . Coquitlam Lake provides residents with a mountain @-@ fed water source , while the city maintains its own sewage management system .
Judicial - The nearest Supreme Court of British Columbia venue is the New Westminster Law Courts . Provincial Court of British Columbia cases were formerly handled through the Coquitlam Provincial Court , but this was closed in 1996 and moved to the new Port Coquitlam Provincial Court .
= = Education = =
Coquitlam is served by School District 43 Coquitlam , and offers four public secondary schools , seven middle schools , and dozens of elementary schools . Francophone education in the Tri @-@ Cities is offered by Conseil Scolaire Francophone de la Colombie @-@ Britannique .
Coquitlam Town Centre is home to the 4 @,@ 000 @-@ student David Lam Campus of Douglas College , which offers university transfer , career @-@ training and academic @-@ upgrading programs . Therapeutic Recreation , Hotel and Restaurant Management , and Animal Health Technology programs are housed in the original main campus building . The $ 39 million Health Sciences Centre opened in 2008 , with state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art facilities for Nursing , Psychiatric Nursing and other health @-@ career programs .
There are two major universities , University of British Columbia and Simon Fraser University , located in the nearby municipalities . The British Columbia Institute of Technology ( BCIT ) in neighbouring Burnaby provides polytechnic education and grants degrees in several fields . Vancouver is also home to the Emily Carr University of Art and Design and the Vancouver Film School .
The Coquitlam Public Library has two branches : City Centre and Poirier . The library has a collection of over 240 @,@ 000 items , and an annual budget of over $ 4 million .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
Coquitlam is served by TransLink , which is responsible for both public transit and major roads . There is regular bus service on numerous lines running throughout the city and connecting it to other municipalities in Metro Vancouver , with a major exchange at Coquitlam Central Station . The 97 B @-@ Line express bus service connects the central part of the city to the Lougheed Town Centre SkyTrain station in neighbouring Burnaby .
The West Coast Express , with a stop at Coquitlam Central Station , provides commuter rail service west to downtown Vancouver and east as far as Mission . WCE operates Monday to Friday only ( excluding holidays ) , with five trains per day running to Vancouver in the morning peak hours and returning through Coquitlam in the evening peak hours . There are two additional runs via " TrainBus " in the morning ( after all trains ) and three in the evening ( after all trains ) . There are also three TrainBus departures in each direction on Saturdays and two on Sundays .
Beginning in 2017 , Coquitlam will be served by the Evergreen Line , a 10 @.@ 9 km ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) long extension of TransLink 's SkyTrain system , using Bombardier 's Advanced Rapid Transit technology , at a cost of $ 1 @.@ 4 billion . The Evergreen Line will run from the Coquitlam Town Centre area , through Coquitlam Central Station and into Port Moody , re @-@ entering Coquitlam on North Road and finally joining the existing SkyTrain system at Lougheed Town Centre . The Evergreen Line is expected to replace the 97 B @-@ Line .
For motorists , the Trans @-@ Canada Highway provides freeway access to Burnaby , Vancouver , Surrey , and other municipalities in the Lower Mainland . Lougheed Highway is an alternative route to the Trans @-@ Canada , entering Coquitlam through Maillardville , past the Riverview Hospital area , up to Coquitlam Centre where it turns sharply east to Port Coquitlam . Barnet Highway begins at the Coquitlam Centre area and heads directly east through Port Moody and on to Burnaby and downtown Vancouver .
Coquitlam has 13 @.@ 1 km of bike routes , including dedicated bike lanes on Guildford Way , David Avenue , and Chilko Drive , plus additional routes through city parks . Future bike routes have been identified for Lougheed Highway and for the southern Maillardville area near the Fraser River .
Coquitlam is served by two international airports . Vancouver International Airport , located on Sea Island in the city of Richmond to the west , is the second busiest in Canada and provides most of the air access to the region . Abbotsford International Airport , located to the east , is the sixth busiest airport in Canada . Nearby Pitt Meadows Airport provides services for smaller aircraft and there are also Boundary Bay Airport and Langley Airport for small aircraft .
Greyhound Canada has a bus depot in south Coquitlam for both passenger and package service .
Residents and visitors wishing to travel to Vancouver Island , the Gulf Islands , and other destinations along the Inside Passage may use the BC Ferries car and passenger ferry service from two terminals in the communities of Tsawwassen and Horseshoe Bay , south and north of Vancouver respectively . BC Ferries operates the Queen of Coquitlam , a C class ferry capable of carrying 362 cars and 1 @,@ 466 passengers , which was launched in 1976 . She received an $ 18 million rehabilitation in November 2002 , and currently operates as a secondary vessel on the Departure Bay @-@ Horseshoe Bay route .
= = = Health care = = =
Coquitlam is served by Fraser Health , which operates the 106 @-@ bed Eagle Ridge Hospital on the Port Moody / Coquitlam city boundary . ERH opened its doors in 1984 and operates a 24 @-@ hour emergency department , ambulatory , long @-@ term care and acute care programs . It is a Centre of Excellence for elective surgery for urology , gynaecology , plastics and orthopedics . The hospital also offers public education clinics for asthma , diabetes , rehabilitation services and programs for cardiology , children 's grief recovery , youth crisis response and early psychosis prevention .
Fraser Health also operates the 352 @-@ bed Royal Columbian Hospital just south of Coquitlam in New Westminster . Coquitlam residents are also served by many privately owned health care clinics , while Tri @-@ Cities Health Services operates 653 residential care beds .
Coquitlam is also the home of Riverview Hospital , a large mental health facility , operating under the governance of BC Mental Health & Addiction Services . Riverview opened in 1913 and had 4 @,@ 630 patients at its peak , but advances in treatment and cutbacks in funding have resulted in fewer people receiving mental health care , and much of the facility has closed over the last few decades .
= = = Police , fire , emergency services = = =
Coquitlam contracts out its police service to the Royal Canadian Mounted Police , with the main police station adjacent to City Hall at Coquitlam Town Centre and community police stations in the Austin Heights and Burquitlam areas . The Coquitlam RCMP detachment also serves the municipalities of Anmore , Belcarra , and Port Coquitlam .
Coquitlam has its own fire service , known as Coquitlam Fire / Rescue , with four fire halls . Coquitlam uses names , not numbers for their halls . The fire halls are Town Centre , Austin Heights , Mariner Way near Mundy Park and Burke Mountain .
Like all other municipalities in British Columbia , Coquitlam 's ambulance service is run by the British Columbia Ambulance Service .
Coquitlam Search and Rescue is a volunteer search and rescue team operating under the Provincial Emergency Program . Coquitlam SAR is responsible for urban and wilderness search and rescue for the area between Indian Arm and Pitt Lake , and encompasses the local communities of Coquitlam , Burnaby , Port Coquitlam , Port Moody , New Westminster , Belcarra and Anmore . The SAR team is based at Town Centre Fire Hall .
= = Culture and contemporary life = =
Being in close proximity to Vancouver and surrounded by the rest of the Lower Mainland , Coquitlam residents have access to virtually unlimited choice in cultural and leisure activities . Within the city itself are numerous venues that bring these choices closer to home .
Coquitlam was designated as a Cultural Capital of Canada in 2009 by the Department of Canadian Heritage .
= = = Arts and entertainment = = =
The Molson Canadian Theatre , a 1 @,@ 074 @-@ seat multi @-@ purpose venue , opened as part of a $ 30 million expansion to Coquitlam 's Hard Rock Casino in 2006 , while Cineplex Entertainment operates the 4 @,@ 475 @-@ seat SilverCity Coquitlam movie complex with 20 screens .
A partnership of the city , the arts community , private business and senior governments , the Evergreen Cultural Centre in the Town Centre area is a venue for arts and culture , a civic facility designed to host a wide variety of community events . It features a 264 @-@ seat black box theatre , rehearsal hall , art studios and art gallery . Evergreen serves as the home venue for the Pacific Symphonic Wind Ensemble , the Coastal Sound Music Academy , and the Stage 43 Theatrical Society . Nearby proscenium theatres include the 336 @-@ seat Terry Fox Theatre in Port Coquitlam , and the 206 @-@ seat Inlet Theatre in Port Moody .
Place des Arts is a non @-@ profit teaching arts centre in Maillardville founded in 1972 , offering programs in visual arts , music , acting , and dance . It features specialized programs for school students and home learners , and presents concerts and exhibitions for the public . Studios are offered for pottery , fibre arts , yoga , ballet , drama , piano , drawing and painting . Place des Arts offers four faculty concerts throughout the year , as well as numerous recitals and presentations by students on an ongoing basis .
Place Maillardville is a community centre providing leisure activities for all age groups , with programs on French language , culture , as well as physical activities . Heritage Square offers visitors a wealth of historic sites , gardens , a bike path , and an outdoor amphitheatre ; it is also home to the Mackin Heritage Home & Toy Museum .
= = = Parks and community = = =
Coquitlam has a considerable number of open green spaces , with the total area of over 890 hectares ( 2 @,@ 200 acres ) . There are over 80 municipal parks and natural areas , with Mundy Park located roughly in the centre of the city being the biggest , and Ridge Park located in the highlands near the city 's northern edge . Pinecone Burke Provincial Park , Minnekhada Regional Park , and Pitt Addington Marsh are on the northern and eastern border of the city , while the restricted area of the Metro Vancouver 's Coquitlam watershed border Coquitlam to the north . Colony Farm is a 404 hectare park that straddles the Coquitlam and Port Coquitlam boundaries , offering walking trails rich with wildlife and gardens . Town Centre Park is a large city park located in the central area of the city , it provides city residents with many recreational activities . Como Lake Park is also popular with local residents .
Coquitlam does not have any beaches within the city limits , but the Tri @-@ Cities offers freshwater beaches in neighbouring Anmore ( Buntzen Lake , Sasamat Lake ) and saltwater beaches in Belcarra and Port Moody .
Numerous yearly festivals are staged at various locations throughout Coquitlam , including Festival du Bois ( first full weekend in March ) , the Water 's Edge Festival ( third full weekend in March ) , Como Lake Fishing Derby ( last Sunday in May ) , BC Highland Games ( last Saturday in June ) , a Canada Day Celebration at Town Centre Park ( July 1 ) , and the Blue Mountain Music Festival ( mid @-@ July ) .
= = = Sports and recreation = = =
Professional sports teams in the area include the Vancouver Canucks ( National Hockey League ) , BC Lions ( Canadian Football League ) , Vancouver Whitecaps FC ( Major League Soccer ) , and the Vancouver Canadians ( Northwest League baseball ) . The 2010 Winter Olympics were also staged in the Metro Vancouver and Whistler areas .
The city is responsible for the maintenance of numerous sports and recreation fields , including 40 grass / sand / soil sports fields , five FieldTurf fields , 35 ball diamonds , several all @-@ weather surfaces , a bowling green , a croquet / bocce court , and a cricket pitch . The city also operates Percy Perry Stadium and the Poirier Sport & Leisure Complex . Privately owned Planet Ice features 4 additional ice rinks , and more rinks are found throughout the Tri @-@ Cities .
The city manages four all @-@ age community centres ( Centennial , Pinetree , Poirier , Summit ) , and two senior community centres ( Dogwood Pavilion , Glen Pine Pavilion ) .
Baseball - The Coquitlam Reds of the B.C. Premier Baseball League play their home games at Mundy Park ; the Reds ' most famous alumnus is former Major League All @-@ Star and National League MVP Larry Walker . Coquitlam is also home to Coquitlam Little League , which has been part of Little League International since 1955 ; Coquitlam finished 3rd at the 1984 Little League World Series . In 2008 , Coquitlam hosted the Junior League Canadian Championships .
Basketball - Coquitlam is home to the Tri City Youth Basketball Association ; formed in 1999 , it serves the Tri @-@ Cities with over 1 @,@ 400 players from grades 2 to 9 . The program is part of the Steve Nash Youth Basketball program administered by Basketball BC . It is open to both boys and girls , and operates out of school gyms across the Tri @-@ Cities area .
Cricket - Coquitlam is home to the Windies Cricket Club . The club consists of over 40 members with 3 adult teams playing in the Premier , Second & Fifth Divisions . The club is affiliated with the British Columbia Mainland Cricket League and games are played at Mackin Park . A youth Kanga Cricket Program was formed with the aim of promoting and growing the game of cricket in Coquitlam . The SuperStrikers cricket team is open to boys and girls aged 6 – 16 .
Football - Coquitlam is home to the Coquitlam Minor Football Association , which is a member of the Vancouver Mainland Football League . CMFA players range from 6 to 18 years of age , and play against teams from the Lower Mainland and Vancouver Island . Coquitlam was also the home of the Tri @-@ City Bulldogs of the Canadian Junior Football League from 1991 @-@ 2004 .
Golf - In addition to courses in neighbouring communities in the Tri @-@ Cities , Coquitlam itself is home to several golf facilities . The Vancouver Golf Club , located in southwest Coquitlam , has hosted two major LPGA tour events as well as one Senior PGA Tour event . The Westwood Plateau Golf & Country Club is one of the highest rated golf courses in Canada . Both the Westwood Plateau Golf Academy and Eaglequest Golf Centre are designed as executive learning courses .
Hockey - Founded in 2001 , the Coquitlam Express of the British Columbia Hockey League play at the Poirier Sport & Leisure Complex . Coquitlam is also home to the Coquitlam Minor Hockey Association , a AAA club in the Greater Vancouver area in the Pacific Coast Division , with almost 1000 members from Initiation Hockey 1 to Juvenile .
Lacrosse - Coquitlam is home to the Coquitlam Adanacs of the Western Lacrosse Association , who play at the Poirier Sport & Leisure Complex , and to the Coquitlam Minor Lacrosse Association . In July 2008 , Percy Perry Stadium hosted the 2008 ILF Under @-@ 19 World Lacrosse Championships .
Motorsports - Coquitlam was formerly home to Westwood Motorsport Park , Canada 's first purpose @-@ built permanent road course , located on what is now Westwood Plateau . The first race was held in 1959 , and over the years hosted many different professional series including Formula Atlantic and Trans @-@ Am . Notable drivers to have raced at Westwood include Formula One World Champion Keke Rosberg , Indianapolis 500 winners Bobby Rahal and Danny Sullivan , Gilles Villeneuve and Michael Andretti . The track finally closed in 1990 due to encroaching development , and racing moved to Mission Raceway Park .
Soccer - The city is home to two major soccer associations , including the Coquitlam Metro @-@ Ford Soccer Club which has over 2500 players that range from Under @-@ 5 to adult teams including the Women 's Premier team which plays in the Pacific Coast Soccer League , and the North Coquitlam United Soccer Club .
Swimming - City Centre Aquatic Complex is an indoor aquatic centre built in the Town Centre area at a cost of $ 8 @.@ 2 million and opened in 1994 . CCAC features a 50m Olympic size swimming pool , wave pool , waterslide , 3 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 280 m2 ) fitness centre , and physiotherapy clinic . The Chimo Aquatic and Fitness Centre opened in 2008 in the Austin Heights area at a cost of $ 19 @.@ 5 million , replacing the older Chimo Pool nearby . CAFC features a 25m swimming pool , a 20m lap pool , leisure pool , and fitness room . Coquitlam also operates three outdoor swimming pools ( Eagle Ridge , Rochester , Spani ) , two outdoor wading pools ( Blue Mountain , Mackin ) , and three outdoor splash pads ( Blue Mountain , Panorama , Town Centre ) .
Track and Field - Coquitlam is home to the Coquitlam Cheetahs track and field club , who train at Percy Perry Stadium , which was named after their former coach who died in 2005 .
= = = Media = = =
In addition to the other Metro Vancouver media outlets , CKPM @-@ FM was the first radio station dedicated to the Tri @-@ Cities area when it took to the air in 2009 .
Coquitlam is served by two bi @-@ weekly newspapers , the Tri @-@ City News and Coquitlam Now .
A significant number of movie and television productions have been partly or completely filmed in Coquitlam in recent years , including 2014 's Godzilla , both New Moon and Eclipse from the Twilight series , The X @-@ Files , Juno , Smallville , The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants , Dark Angel , The Day the Earth Stood Still , Romeo Must Die , and Watchmen . The city maintains the Coquitlam Film Office to coordinate permits , traffic and crowd control , and insurance for film and television productions .
= = Notable residents = =
Juno Award @-@ winning rock musician Matthew Good is from Coquitlam . He graduated from Centennial Secondary in 1989 , and became lead singer for the Matthew Good Band , one of Canada 's most successful alternative rock bands in the 1990s . Centennial Secondary was featured in the " Alert Status Red " video , and its cheerleading squad recorded for " Giant " . The Matthew Good Band was dissolved in 2002 , and Good has since pursued a solo career and established himself as a political activist , blogger , and author of a book of previously published manifestos .
Actor Taylor Kitsch graduated from Gleneagle Secondary in 1999 , and went on to star in movies such as John Carter and Battleship , and the television series Friday Night Lights .
Former FA Premier League goalkeeper Craig Forrest is from Coquitlam and attended Centennial Secondary . Forrest appeared in 263 games for Ipswich Town , 30 games for West Ham United , and 3 games for Chelsea . Forrest also earned 56 caps for the Canadian national soccer team , the most of any goalkeeper in team history , and earned the most clean sheets in the country 's history . Forrest was elected to Canada ’ s Soccer Hall of Fame in 2007 . Former Canadian national soccer team midfielder Jeff Clarke and Canadian women 's national soccer player Brittany Timko also both attended Centennial Secondary .
Former National Basketball Association player Lars Hansen was raised in Coquitlam and played his high school basketball at Centennial Secondary . He was a member of the Seattle SuperSonics 1979 NBA Championship team , and was elected to the Canadian Basketball Hall of Fame in 2008 .
Model and host of MTV Select and G4techTV Amanda MacKay also attended Centennial Secondary where she started her journalism career writing for the school 's student newspaper .
American political analyst and former Fox News co @-@ host , Rachel Marsden , was raised in Northeast Coquitlam 's Burke Mountain area .
Former BC Lions placekicker Lui Passaglia has resided in Coquitlam for over 20 years . Passaglia is a member of the Canadian Football Hall of Fame , and his # 5 jersey is one of eight numbers retired by the Lions . Passaglia was voted # 30 of the CFL 's Top 50 players of the modern era by Canadian sports network TSN .
Playboy Playmate and actress Dorothy Stratten was raised in Coquitlam and attended Centennial Secondary School . Stratten was Playmate of the Year for 1980 . She appeared in several movies , including Peter Bogdanovich 's They All Laughed , before she was murdered by her estranged husband . Stratten was portrayed twice in biographies of her life , by Jamie Lee Curtis in Death of a Centerfold : The Dorothy Stratten Story , and by Mariel Hemingway in Star 80 .
Spoken word poet Chris Tse was raised in Coquitlam though he is based in Ottawa . He was captain of the Ottawa spoken word team that won the Canadian Festival of Spoken Word championships and also placed second overall in the Poetry Slam World Cup in Paris , France .
Iconic Filipino pop and jazz singer , musician , lyricist , and songwriter Joey Albert is a Coquitlam resident , where she spearheaded fundraising efforts for Typhoon Haiyan . Tickets to her shows were by donation to the Canadian Red Cross .
= = Sister cities = =
Coquitlam currently has Sister City relationships with the following :
Laizhou , People 's Republic of China
Ormoc City , Philippines
Paju , South Korea
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= Walter Alston =
Walter Emmons Alston ( December 1 , 1911 – October 1 , 1984 ) , nicknamed " Smokey " , was an American baseball player and manager in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He is best known for managing the Brooklyn / Los Angeles Dodgers between 1954 and 1976 . Alston signed 23 one @-@ year contracts with the Dodgers . He had a calm , reticent demeanor , for which he was sometimes also known as " The Quiet Man " .
Alston grew up in rural Ohio and lettered in baseball and basketball at Miami University in Ohio . Though his MLB playing career consisted of one game and one at @-@ bat with the St. Louis Cardinals in 1936 , he played and managed for several seasons in minor league baseball . His service included a stint as manager of the Nashua Dodgers , the first integrated professional team in modern baseball . He was promoted to manage the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1954 after several successful seasons in Brooklyn 's Class AAA minor league teams .
As a major league manager , Alston led Dodgers teams to seven National League ( NL ) pennants and four world championships . His 1955 team was the only World Series championship team while the club was in Brooklyn ; they clinched the NL pennant earlier in the calendar year than any previous pennant winner in league history . Alston retired with more than 2 @,@ 000 career wins and managed NL All @-@ Star teams to seven victories . He was selected as Manager of the Year six times .
Alston was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1983 . He suffered a heart attack that year , was hospitalized for a month and was unable to attend his Hall of Fame induction ceremony . He never fully recovered and he died at a hospital in Oxford , Ohio on October 1 , 1984 .
= = Early life = =
Alston was born in Venice , Ohio . He spent much of his childhood on a farm in Morning Sun , Ohio . When Alston was a teenager , the family moved to Darrtown , Ohio . He attended Milford Township High School in Darrtown . He received the nickname " Smokey " as a high school pitcher , owing to the speed of his fastball . He graduated from high school in 1929 and married longtime girlfriend Lela Vaughn Alexander the next year .
In 1935 , Alston graduated with a degree in industrial arts and physical education from Miami University in Oxford , Ohio . He said that finances were a challenge in college and that he had paid his way through school by playing pool . He lettered three years in both basketball and baseball .
= = Playing career = =
Alston played minor league baseball as an infielder for the Greenwood Chiefs and Huntington Red Birds in 1935 and 1936 , respectively . For the 1936 Huntington team , he hit 35 home runs in 120 games . Alston 's only major league game was with the St. Louis Cardinals on September 27 , 1936 , substituting for Johnny Mize at first base . He later described his major league playing career to a reporter by saying , " Well , I came up to bat for the Cards back in ' 36 , and Lon Warneke struck me out . That 's it " . He also committed one error in two fielding chances at first base .
Alston returned to the minor leagues after his brief MLB appearance . He split the 1937 season between the Houston Buffaloes and Rochester Red Wings , hitting for a combined .229 batting average . Alston played for the Portsmouth Red Birds in 1938 , finishing the season with a .311 average and 28 home runs as Portsmouth won its only Middle Atlantic League championship . He returned to Portsmouth in 1940 , hit 28 home runs and was a player @-@ manager for part of the season . He was a player @-@ manager for the next two seasons with the Springfield Cardinals and even appeared in seven games as a pitcher in 1942 . He returned to Rochester as a first baseman and third baseman in 1943 . He moved to the Trenton Packers , where he was a player @-@ manager in 1944 and 1945 . Alston had been offered the job in Trenton , a minor league farm club of the Brooklyn Dodgers , by Branch Rickey , the executive who had signed him as a player with St. Louis .
After his two seasons with Trenton , Alston served as a player @-@ manager for the first integrated U.S. baseball team based in the twentieth century , the Nashua Dodgers of the Class @-@ B New England League . Alston managed black Dodgers prospects Don Newcombe and Roy Campanella , leading Nashua to a New England League title in 1946 . Alston later said that he did not give much consideration to racial issues and that he had simply thought about how much they would benefit the team . Alston led the Pueblo Dodgers to the Western League title the next season . He appeared as a player in two games , which were his final professional playing appearances . For his 13 @-@ season minor league playing career , Alston hit .295 with 176 home runs . However , he hit only .239 in 535 at bats in Class AA , which was the highest minor league classification through 1945 .
= = Managerial career = =
= = = Minor leagues = = =
In 1948 , Alston managed the St. Paul Saints , a Dodgers Class AAA affiliate , to an 86 @-@ 68 win @-@ loss record . The team finished in third place , 14 games behind an Indianapolis Indians team managed by Al López . That year , Alston managed Campanella again , where Campanella integrated the American Association . The media was critical of Alston for playing Campanella ; they said that the catcher was simply there to integrate the league . Campanella hit 13 home runs in 35 games and fans were dismayed when he was called up to the Dodgers . The 1949 Saints finished with a 93 @-@ 60 record and four of its players collected more than 90 runs batted in ( RBI ) . The team finished in first place , half a game in front of Indianapolis . During the baseball off @-@ season , Alston worked as a teacher in Darrtown .
From 1950 to 1953 , Alston managed another Dodgers AAA affiliate , the Montreal Royals of the International League . The team won between 86 and 95 games during each season of Alston 's tenure . The 1951 and 1952 Montreal Royals won International League pennants . In 1951 and 1953 , Montreal won the Governors ' Cup playoff tournament . Alston was inducted into the International League Hall of Fame many years later .
= = = Major leagues = = =
= = = = Brooklyn Dodgers = = = =
Alston was named manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers for the 1954 season . His predecessor , Charlie Dressen , had moved on from the Dodgers after the team 's leadership refused to sign him to a two @-@ year or three @-@ year contract . Dressen had won two pennants in three years and nearly won a third . Dodgers executive Buzzie Bavasi fought for Alston to be hired in Brooklyn . Bringing Alston to Brooklyn has been described as Bavasi 's biggest contribution to the team 's history . Alston was an unknown at the major league level and the New York Daily News reported his hiring with the headline " Walter Who ? "
Becoming immediately known for his quiet nature , Alston was sometimes referred to as " The Quiet Man " . Alston 's personality contrasted with that of Dressen , who was much more outspoken . Sportswriters had difficulty writing about Alston at first because he did not say much . He also seemed more conservative in his decisions on the field , which drew criticism from his players even though he had managed many of them in the minor leagues . Don Zimmer said that he had learned more from Dressen and that Dressen knew more about baseball than Alston . Jackie Robinson did not like Alston at first either , according to Robinson 's wife .
Alston commented on his approach , saying , " I never criticized a player for a mistake on the spot . Whenever I got steamed up about something , I always wanted to sleep on it and face the situation with a clear head . " Sportswriter Jim Murray said that Alston was " the only guy in the game who could look Billy Graham right in the face without blushing and who would order corn on the cob in a Paris restaurant . " The 1954 Dodgers finished second in the NL as both Gil Hodges and Duke Snider hit at least 40 home runs and registered 130 runs batted in .
The 1955 Dodgers got off to a strong start . Even so , an Associated Press article noted that Alston was reticent in response to questions and that he did not seem like a manager who had won ten consecutive games . The 1955 Brooklyn team won the pennant and its only World Series championship . They clinched the NL pennant earlier in the year than any team had in NL history . In the World Series , Alston started Johnny Podres , who had a mediocre 9 @-@ 10 regular season record , in the third and seventh games ; Podres won both games . The pitcher had struggled with arm problems for much of the season .
Sandy Koufax emerged as a pitcher for the Dodgers during that championship season . Alston was criticized by Jackie Robinson and others over his sparse use of Koufax in his early career . During Koufax 's second MLB start , he pitched a shutout , giving up two hits and striking out 14 batters . However , that success did not prompt a lot of opportunities for Koufax . The pitcher appeared in only 12 games that season , mostly in relief .
The 1956 team repeated as NL champions ; the team was bolstered by the play of Duke Snider , who hit a league @-@ leading 43 home runs and also led the league in walks . They fell to third place ( 84 @-@ 70 ) in 1957 .
= = = = Early years in Los Angeles = = = =
The team finished in seventh place ( 71 @-@ 83 ) in 1958 , the club 's first season after moving from Brooklyn to Los Angeles . Criticism of Alston had begun to mount during that season , but he led the Dodgers to a world championship in 1959 . Six players on the 1959 team finished with double @-@ digit totals in home runs , while 22 @-@ year @-@ old Don Drysdale led the team 's pitchers with 17 wins . Several Los Angeles players , including Wally Moon , characterized Alston as indecisive in the late 1950s and 1960s . However , Moon later came to describe Alston as a good manager who had gotten " good mileage " out of his players .
Managing the NL All @-@ Star Team in 1960 , Alston attracted some controversy when he left Milwaukee Braves pitchers Warren Spahn and Lew Burdette off the All @-@ Star roster . An Associated Press report said the omission may have been a snub directed at Dressen , who was by then managing in Milwaukee . The 1960 Dodgers finished in fourth place . The following year , the team finished in second place after veteran Duke Snider missed two months with a broken arm . The Dodgers lost the lead in the 1962 NL pennant race and rumors surfaced that Alston and coach Leo Durocher might be fired , but the team retained both men for 1963 .
The Dodgers won the 1963 World Series . This series represented the first time that the New York Yankees had lost a World Series in four games . Alston 's pitchers excelled , as Koufax struck out 23 batters over two games and Drysdale threw a shutout in Game 3 . Over the four games , Alston employed only three starting pitchers and one relief pitcher in the series . In 1964 , the team finished 80 @-@ 82 in its first losing season in several years . Alston used the team 's 1964 performance to motivate them moving forward . In spring training before the 1965 season , he said that he would not let his team forget the difficulties they had in the previous season .
The Dodgers returned to the 1965 World Series . Alston could not start his number one pitcher , Koufax , in the opening game of that series because Koufax was observing Yom Kippur . Instead , Alston turned to Drysdale , who struggled , lasting 2 2 ⁄ 3 innings and surrendering seven runs . When Alston came to the mound to remove him , Drysdale said to his manager , " I bet right now you wish I was Jewish , too . " The team recovered from losing that first game and they won the World Series in seven games . Koufax appeared in three games during the series , registering two shutouts .
Alston 's Dodgers teams of the 1960s benefited from the strong pitching by Drysdale and Koufax . In 1966 , both players held out of spring training and demanded three @-@ year contracts each worth $ 500 @,@ 000 , which was more money than anyone was making in baseball at the time . The players were eventually signed for lesser amounts . Drysdale struggled that year , but Koufax won 27 games . The Dodgers went to the 1966 World Series but were defeated in four games . Koufax retired after the season on the advice of doctors who examined his sore arm . Drysdale retired three years later . Both men had pitched their entire major league careers for Alston .
= = = = Final years as manager = = = =
Alston guided his teams to at least 85 wins per season between 1969 and 1976 . They finished in second place in their division six times during that span . The team came very close to a pennant in 1971 ; after falling 11 games out of first place , the team performed well late in the season and finished one game behind the San Francisco Giants . Beginning in 1973 , Alston 's team featured an infield of Steve Garvey , Davey Lopes , Bill Russell and Ron Cey . The group played together for eight years , remaining together long after the end of Alston 's tenure .
In 1974 , the Dodgers won the NL pennant and went to the World Series to face the Oakland Athletics . Alston used closer Mike Marshall in a record @-@ setting 106 games that season and Marshall won the Cy Young Award . Alston received some media attention when he considered using Marshall as a starter . Marshall ended up appearing in all five games of the series and gave up one run in nine innings , but he did not start a game . The Dodgers lost the series four games to one . The 1975 and 1976 Dodgers won 88 and 92 games respectively , but they finished well out of first place in both seasons .
In September 1976 , Alston announced that he would retire at the end of the season . At a press conference , Alston said , " I 've been in baseball for 41 years and it 's been awfully good to me . This has been a pretty big day . I had three birdies playing golf for the first time in my life and now I 'm announcing that I 'm stepping down as manager . I told Peter this afternoon to give somebody else a chance to manage the club . " Alston retired with 2 @,@ 063 wins ( 2 @,@ 040 in the regular season and 23 in the postseason ) . Alston was named NL Manager of the Year six times . He also managed NL All @-@ Star squads a record nine times and won seven of those games . At a time when multi @-@ year contracts were on the rise , Alston 's managerial career consisted of 23 one @-@ year contracts . He earned seven NL pennants in that span .
Sportswriter Leonard Koppett described Alston 's role with the Dodgers , pointing out that O 'Malley was always seen as " the boss " while Alston stuck to the on @-@ field management of the team . Koppett said that Alston 's loyalty and subdued nature contributed to the stability that the team enjoyed . O 'Malley once commented that Alston was " non @-@ irritating . Do you realize how important it is to have a manager who doesn 't irritate you ? "
= = Later life and legacy = =
The Dodgers retired Alston 's number the year after he stepped down as manager ; he was only the fourth Dodger to receive that honor . He was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum in 1983 . Alston suffered a heart attack that year and was hospitalized for a month . Alston 's grandson traveled to Cooperstown to represent the ill former manager at the Hall of Fame induction ceremony . Alston died in an Oxford hospital from complications from the recent heart attack on October 1 , 1984 . He was 72 . A funeral home spokesman said that Alston had remained ill since the heart attack . He is interred at Darrtown Cemetery in Darrtown , Ohio .
Upon Alston 's death , MLB commissioner Peter Ueberroth referred to him as one of baseball 's greatest managers . Former Dodgers great Duke Snider acknowledged occasional run @-@ ins with Alston , but he said that Alston excelled at utilizing the specific strengths of each team that he managed . Tommy Lasorda , who played and coached under Alston and ultimately succeeded him as manager , commented on how easy it was to play for Alston . Broadcaster Vin Scully said , " I always imagined him to be the type who could ride shotgun on a stage through Indian territory . He was all man and two yards tall . He was very quiet , very controlled . He never made excuses . He gave the players the credit and he took the blame . He was so solid , so American . "
Ohio State Route 177 was named the Walter " Smokey " Alston Memorial Highway in 1999 . He was inducted into the International League Hall of Fame in 2010 . In April 2013 , readers of the Los Angeles Times named Alston number 16 on a list of the 20 greatest Dodgers of all time . A memorial to Alston is located at Milford Township Community Park in Darrtown .
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= Tafl games =
Tafl games are a family of ancient Germanic and Celtic strategy board games played on a checkered or latticed gameboard with two armies of uneven numbers , representing variants of an early Scandinavian board game called tafl or hnefatafl in contemporary literature .
Although the size of the board and the number of pieces varied , all games involved a distinctive 2 : 1 ratio of pieces , with the lesser side having a king @-@ piece that started in the centre . No complete , unambiguous description of the rules of a tafl game exists , but the king 's objective was to escape to ( variously ) the board 's periphery or corners , while the greater force 's objective was to capture him . The attacking force has the natural advantage at the start of each game , likely indicating an important cultural aspect by mimicking the success of Viking raids . Another cultural indication of the king is that importance of the Viking chiefs ' presence in battle . Although the kings of Europe later claimed divine rule and sat upon the throne rather than bodies in the battlefield , it was essential for a Viking chief to be considered an equal in war . The importance of war is also reflected in Hnefatafl because it is a war strategy game , which can indicate an important reason why the gaming boards have been found with males of all ages . In Balnakeil , a male skeleton between the ages of 8 and 13 was found with weapons and a Hnefatafl board game . Vikings tended to take boys onto the battlefield with them , which explains why young boys also played these war @-@ strategic board games .
There is also some controversy over whether some tafl games ( i.e. Hnefatafl and Tawlbwrdd ) may have employed dice . Tafl spread everywhere the Vikings traveled , including Iceland , Britain , Ireland , and Lapland . Versions of Tafl , comprising Hnefatafl , Alea Evangelii , Tawlbwrdd ( Wales ) , Brandubh , Ard Rí and Tablut , were played across much of Northern Europe from earlier than 400 B.C. until it was supplanted by chess in the 12th century .
The term tafl ( Old Norse : " table " , " board " ; pronounced [ tavl ] ) is the original name of the game . However , Hnefatafl became the preferred term for the game in Scandinavia by the end of the Viking Age , to distinguish it from other board games , such as Skáktafl ( chess ) , Kvatrutafl ( Tables ) and Halatafl ( Fox games ) , as these became known . The specific name Hnefatafl possibly arose as meaning " board game of the fist " , from hnefi ( " fist " ) + tafl , where " fist " referred to the central king @-@ piece . The precise etymology is disputed , but hnefi certainly referred to the king @-@ piece , and several sources refer to Hnefatafl as " King 's table " . In Anglo @-@ Saxon England , the term tæfl also referred to many board games . It is not known if the Anglo @-@ Saxons had a specific name for the game or if they generically referred to it as " tæfl " in the way that modern people might refer to " cards " .
Several games may be confused with tafl games , due to the inclusion of the word " tafl " in their names or other similarities . Halatafl is the Old Norse name for Fox and Geese , a game dating from at least the 14th century . It is still known and played in Europe . Kvatrutafl is the Old Norse name for Tables ( the medieval forerunner of Backgammon ) . Skáktafl is the Old Norse name for Chess . Fidchell or Fithcheall ( Modern Irish : Ficheall ) was played in Ireland . The Welsh equivalent was Gwyddbwyll and the Breton equivalent Gwezboell ; all terms mean " wood @-@ sense " . This popular medieval game was played with equal forces on each side and thus was not a tafl variant , but rather may have been the medieval descendant of the Roman game Latrunculi or Ludus latrunculorum .
= = Hnefatafl in Saga literature = =
Hnefatafl was mentioned in several of the medieval sagas , including Orkneyinga saga , Friðþjófs saga , Hervarar saga , and others . These three period treatments of Hnefatafl offer some important clues about the game , while numerous other incidental references to Hnefatafl or Tafl exist in saga literature . Sagas help indicate the widespread use of board games just by mentioning them — although rituals varied in the Viking period from region to region , there were some underlying basics to culture . The fact that the sagas mention board games indicates this use because the sagas are read and understood by a very large audience . In Orkeyinga saga , the notability of Hnefatafl is evident in the nine boasts of Jarl Rögnvald Kali Kolsson , who tops his list with skill at Tafl . In Friðþjófs saga , a conversation over a game of Hnefatafl reveals that the king 's men are red and the attackers white , and that the word hnefi does indeed refer to the kingpiece . The most revealing – and yet most ambiguous – clues to Hnefatafl lie in a series of riddles posed by a character identified as Odin in disguise ( see Gestumblindi ) in Hervarar saga . One riddle , as stated in Hauksbók , refers to " the weaponless maids who fight around their lord , the [ brown / red ] ever sheltering and the [ fair / white ] ever attacking him , " although there is controversy over whether the word weaponless refers to the maids or , as in other versions , to the king himself , which may support the argument that a " weaponless king " cannot take part in captures ( see # Balance of play ) . One may also note that the assignment of the colours of brown or red to the defenders and fair or white to the attackers is consistent with Friðþjófs saga . Another of Gestumblindi 's riddles asks , " What is that beast all girded with iron , which kills the flocks ? He has eight horns but no head , and runs as he pleases . " Here , it is the answer that is controversial , as the response has been variously translated as : " It is the húnn in hnefatafl . He has the name of a bear and runs when he is thrown ; " or , " It is the húnn in hnefatafl . He has the name of a bear and escapes when he is attacked . " The first problem is in translating the word húnn , which may refer to a die ( as suggested by the former translation ) , the " eight horns " referring to the eight corners of a six @-@ sided die and " the flocks " that he kills referring to the stakes the players lose . Alternatively , húnn may refer to the king , his " eight horns " referring to the eight defenders , which is more consistent with the latter translation , " He has the name of a bear and escapes when he is attacked . " Ultimately , the literary references prove inconclusive on the use of dice in Hnefatafl .
= = Tafl variants = =
= = = Brandub = = =
Brandub ( Irish : bran dubh ) was the Irish form of tafl . We know from two poems that it was played with five men against eight , and that one of the five was a " Branán " , or chief . A number of 7 × 7 boards have been found , the most famous being the elaborate wooden board found at Ballinderry in 1932 , featuring holes for pegged pieces , possibly to allow for portability of the game . The name brandub means " black raven " .
= = = Ard Rí = = =
Ard Rí ( Gaelic : High King ) was a Scottish tafl variant played on a 9 × 9 board with a king and eight defenders against sixteen attackers . This is the least documented of the known tafl variants .
= = = Tablut = = =
This variant from Sápmi , is the best documented version . Carl Linnaeus recorded the rules and a drawing of the board in his journal during his 1732 expedition to Lapland . His description , in Latin , was incomplete , as he did not speak the Sami language of his hosts and described the game only from observing the players . The game was played on a 9 × 9 mat of embroidered reindeer hide . In his diary , Lachesis Lapponica , Linnaeus referred to the light ( defending ) pieces as " Swedes " and the dark ( attacking ) pieces as " Muscovites " . What may have been the same game was still being played in the late 19th century , as described in P.A. Lindholm 's Hos Lappbönder ( 1884 ) .
= = = Tawlbwrdd = = =
This variant was played in Wales . It is described as being played with 8 pieces on the king 's side and 16 on the attacker 's side . Robert ap Ifan documented it with a drawing in a manuscript dated 1587 . His version was played on an 11 × 11 board with 12 pieces on the king 's side and 24 on the opponent 's side . His passage states :
The above tawlbwrdd should be played with a king in the centre and twelve men in the places next to him , and twenty @-@ four men seek to capture him . These are placed , six in the centre of each side of the board and in the six central positions . And two move the men in the game , and if one [ piece ] belonging to the king comes between the attackers , he is dead and is thrown out of the game , and the same if one of the attackers comes between two of the king ’ s men in the same manner . And if the king himself comes between two of the attackers , and if you say ‘ Watch your king ’ before he moves to that space , and he is unable to escape , you capture him . If the other says ‘ I am your liegeman ’ and goes between two , there is no harm . If the king can go along the [ illegible ] line , that side wins the game .
= = = Hnefatafl = = =
Hnefatafl was a popular game in medieval Scandinavia and was mentioned in several of the Norse Sagas . Some of these saga references have contributed to controversy over the possible use of dice in playing hnefatafl . The rules of the game were never explicitly recorded , and only playing pieces and fragmentary boards are extant , so it is not known for sure how the game was played . If dice were in fact used , nothing has been recorded about how they were employed . Archaeological and literary sources indicate Hnefatafl may have been played on a 13 × 13 or an 11 × 11 board . It became a popular game in Northern Europe during the Viking era ( end of the 8th century to 1000 C.E ) , a turbulent time full of conflicts . When chess became a popular game during the Middle Ages , the rules of Hnefatafl were forgotten over time . Hnefatafl was particularly popular in Nordic countries and followed the Viking civilization to other parts of Europe , primarily to the British Isles and the Viking country of " Gardarike . " The game developed differently at different locations . Archaeologists have found editions in places such as Ireland and Ukraine . Hnefatafl literally translates to " fist table , " from the Old Icelandic ( equivalently in modern Icelandic ) hnef , ' fist ' , and tafl , ' table ' . The study of medieval manuscripts and examination of pieces and boards has allowed researchers to figure out how the game was probably played . It was last recorded to have been played in Wales during 1587 and Lapland in 1723 .
= = = Alea evangelii = = =
Alea evangelii , which means " game of the gospels " , was described , with a drawing , in the 12th @-@ century Corpus Christi College , Oxford manuscript 122 , from Anglo @-@ Saxon England . It was played on the intersections of a board of 18 × 18 cells . The manuscript describes the layout of the board as a religious allegory , but it is clear that this was a game based on Hnefatafl .
= = Reconstruction = =
No complete , unambiguous description of the rules of a tafl game exists . The best description we have from history is that given by Linnaeus of the game Tablut in the 1732 diary of his travels , Lachesis Lapponica . The following rules are based on the 1811 translation of Lachesis Lapponica into English by James Edward Smith .
The game is played on a 9 × 9 board . Initial setup is as shown in the diagram .
The king starts on the central square or castle , called the konakis , which no other piece may ever occupy .
The eight defenders , called Swedes , start on the eight squares adjoining the konakis , in the form of a cross .
The sixteen attackers , called Muscovites , start in groups of four at the centre of each edge of the board . ( In Linnaeus ' notes , these squares were embroidered to signify them as the domain of the Muscovites . )
All remaining squares ( neutral zone ) may be occupied by any piece during the game .
Any piece may move any number of vacant spaces in any straight line [ ← ↑ → ↓ ] , but not diagonally . ( Compare to the rook in Chess . )
No piece may ever pass over another piece in its path .
If the king should ever have an unimpeded path ( through the neutral zone ) to the edge of the board , unless he is immediately blocked by a Muscovite , he may escape and the game is over . ( This rule suggests that the king may not escape through the domain of the Muscovites . )
If the king should ever have a path of escape , he must call out " raichi " ; if two paths of escape , then his escape is imminent and he must call out " tuichu " . ( Compare these to " check " and " checkmate " in Chess . )
Any piece , save for the king , may be captured and removed from the board if it becomes surrounded on two opposite sides by enemies . ( This is known as custodial capture . )
If the king is surrounded on all four sides by enemies , he is taken prisoner . If he is surrounded on three sides , he may escape by the fourth .
If the king is on a square adjoining the konakis and is surrounded on three sides by his enemies and the fourth by the konakis , he is captured . ( This rule suggests that once the king has left the konakis , he can never return . )
If the king is captured , the Swedes are conquered and the Muscovites victorious .
Several problems of gameplay are left woefully ambiguous or completely untouched in Linnaeus ' notes , and some translations are problematic . There are also several other variations played by modern reconstructionists .
= = Balance of play = =
There is some controversy concerning the widely reported imbalance of the game , as the rules strongly favor the king , although there are several rule modifications that can produce more balanced play , such as a weaponless king ( the king cannot participate in captures ) , escape to the corners ( rather than to the edges ) , or hostile attacker camps ( the king and defenders may be captured against a vacant attacker camp square ) . Schmittberger ( 1992 ) even reveals some workarounds to produce more balanced play without modifying the rules of gameplay .
One such solution is by bidding : Players take turns bidding on how many moves it will take them to win the game . The lowest bidder gets the king . Thus , one player may open with a bid of 15 turns , the other player may counter with a bid of 14 turns , and the first player , more confident in his ability to escape in 13 rounds than in his ability to contain for 14 , may bid 13 and take the king 's side . If that player does not escape within 13 turns , the other player wins . Another workaround is to play a two @-@ round match , in which players switch sides after the first round . If the king escapes both rounds , the winner is the player whose king escaped in the fewest turns .
The description of Tawlbrydd by Robert ap Ifan ( preceding Linnaeus ' account by 145 years ) states that the king could be captured by two men . Peterson suggests that Linnaeus ' special capture of the king is incorrect , and states that statistics from modern games played with four @-@ man capture of the king show that white wins more often than black . However , it has not yet been demonstrated that balanced play results from rules allowing for a two @-@ man capture of the king . Interestingly , some sources indicate that Scandinavian museum reconstructions of Hnefatafl typically stipulate that the king may be captured by only two attackers unless he is still in his hall , in which case he must be surrounded on all four sides .
= = Legacy = =
Around 1960 , Milton Bradley published Swords and Shields , which was essentially Tablut as recorded by Linnaeus , but with the Swedes transformed into shields ( with a king shield ) and the Muscovites transformed into swords . Tafl seems also to have been the basis for two other modern board games that each bear significant resemblance to the historical games , but with some important differences . Both games feature similar symmetry but diverge from the classic 2 : 1 attacker / defender ratio , and both have important differences in their tactics . Breakthru was developed in the 1960s as part of the 3M bookshelf game series . It features tafl @-@ like symmetry , but with twelve defenders plus one " flagship " ( cf. king ) pitted against twenty attackers upon a tiered board , so that the objective of the defenders is to escort the flagship from the centre to the outer zone of the board . Apart from the distinction of the inner zone and outer zone , there are no distinctive spaces on the Breakthru board . Breakthru also features a distinctive double move , whereas no evidence points to such a move in any of the historical games . Thud , a modern game inspired by a series of fantasy novels by Terry Pratchett ( which in turn were inspired by the historical tafl games ) , also features the general symmetry of tafl games , although it is played on an octagonal board with only eight defenders pitted against thirty @-@ two attackers . Thud also features a " Thudstone " ( cf. konakis ) , but no kingpiece . There are also important differences in the moves and attacks in Thud .
In 2008 , Hnefatafl was revived by Peter Kelly in the island of Fetlar in Shetland , where the annual World Quickplay Hnefatafl Championships are now held each summer under the auspices of the Fetlar Hnefatafl Panel . The 2008 Champion was Wendy Sutherland from Yorkshire , while the 2009 and 2010 Championships were won by Tim Millar from Somerset . The term " quickplay " refers to the time limit of ten seconds per move , marked by the sounding of a gong . Hnefatafl can be played online on sites similar to Chess.com. Aage Nielsen created his site in 1998 , and currently hosts the World Tafl Federation Hnefatafl Championship Tournament . A modern Hnefatafl game site was launched in 2014 , by Jacob Teal and John Carlyle .
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= Ved Vejen =
Ved Vejen ( meaning By the Wayside or At the Roadside ) is a short novel written by the Danish author Herman Bang in 1886 . It was originally published in Copenhagen by Det Schubotheske Forlag as part of a collection of four stories entitled Stille Eksistenser ( Quiet Existences ) , centering on women who are subdued or living in isolation . It was first published independently in 1898 . An impressionist novel , it relates the story of Katinka , a sensitive but ambitious young woman married to a boisterous and somewhat vulgar station master , Bai .
At the time of release in Denmark in 1886 , critics from the daily newspapers were generally enthusiastic about Ved Vejen . It is now considered an important contribution to Danish literature , listed in the Danish Culture Canon . In 1988 it was made into a feature film Katinka , directed by Max von Sydow .
= = Background = =
Herman Bang 's novel was inspired by an incident in 1883 when he was passing through Skørping Station in the north of Jutland . He noticed a young woman at the window who , her pale face couched in her hands , stared after his departing train . In the introduction to Stille Eksistenser he explains : " For the rest of the journey , I could see the woman 's face between the flowers . Her look was not quite one of longing — longing would have perhaps fluttered to death by breaking its wings in such tight confines — just a quite resignation , a waning sorrow . And when the train had slid by , she would be peering out with the same look over Egnens Lyng — over the dreary plain . "
Bang started writing the novel in 1885 in Vienna , after remembering Skørping Station : " It was in one of those windows behind the flowers that I saw her face , a face which I had not been able to erase from my memory for two years and which , as if a painter , I felt like drawing in soft , melancholic , almost blurry lines and using it as a kind of cover illustration for this book . "
= = Plot = =
The novel centres on the character of Katinka Bai , a quiet , sensitive young woman married to a boisterous and somewhat vulgar station master , Bai . The marriage is barren , and she remains isolated . Almost subconsciously , she passionately longs after something undefinable . Even after the arrival of Huus , a neighbour with whom she begins to establish a promising relationship , she is unable to fulfill her passion , although for the first time in her life she falls in love . In the small provincial community where they live , neither she nor Huus dares to break the conventions they know , sad as it all may be . When they realize they cannot take their attachment any further , they decide to separate and Huus leaves the country . At the end of the novel , as at the beginning , Katinka stands by the wayside , observing life glide by .
= = Themes = =
In Ved Vejen , Bang has masterfully developed his impressionistic style . While recognizing that impressionism was first and foremost a trend in painting , he explained in a letter sent to Peter Nansen from Prague that he was trying to achieve the same style in literature : " Impressionistic is indeed the word . I am frantically striving to make every single impression clear and precise and distinctive , and so I never think about the whole " Jean @-@ Claude Polet adds that while he owes much to Zola , Daudet and Maupassant , he channels naturalism into a quite unexpected direction , that of impressionism . His characters are revealed through their responses or a slight turn of phrase along the lines of the Norwegian Jonas Lie or the Russian Turgenev . He does not explain , he merely presents a picture , providing the reader with impressions , allowing him to read between the lines , interpreting what lies behind the words . On meeting Claude Monet , he was told , " You are the first impressionist writer . " A recognized example of his mastery of impressionism is the novel 's opening scene where all the characters meet at the station .
Longtime Scandinavian Studies scholar Niels Ingwersen states that the novel " engagingly , ironically , sadly captures the quite trivial life of a rural , provincial community " and illustrates an unconsummated love relationship between two ordinary people . He highlights the " amazingly suggestive impressionism " of the novel which permits the reader to become more intimate with the characters , especially the scene at the vicar 's party which provides a vivid image of the personalities of the people attending it , with their individual voices coming together to form a complete picture . Although Katinka Bai , a timid individual , is not a heroine in comparison with today 's depiction of a strong independent woman , the reader is naturally drawn to empathize with her situation and with her as a character .
= = Critical response = =
The novel , like Bang 's other works such as Stuk ( 1887 ) , Tine ( 1889 ) , and Ludvigsbakke ( 1896 ) , is still widely read in Denmark , confirming the author as one of Denmark 's leading novelists . At the time of release in Denmark in 1886 , the daily newspapers were generally enthusiastic about Ved Vejen . Writing in Politiken , Edvard Brandes , after referring to the novel 's " outrageous style " , welcomed it as a " quite excellent novel " which was " so specially Danish " . He concluded by calling for it to be widely read as " the best new literature we have seen this autumn " . In Social @-@ Demokraten , C.E. Jensen found that Bang " depicts the infinitely simple existence and everything it covers with the finest and most sensitive art ... His style gives the reader an impression of reality 's monotony , allowing him to imagine the emotions hidden behind it . " Vilhelm Møller of Nutiden i Billeder og Text praised Ved Vejen as the best of the four stories in Stille Eksistenser , " containing all Bang 's qualities in good measure and very few of the weaknesses which have disrupted his earlier work . It can certainly be favourably compared with all the novels of the past year . " Only Berlingske Tidende 's ( unnamed ) critic was dismissive , commenting : " The story Ved Vejen is weak in content and often unreadable in form ... We recommend the author to be less nervous , less jumpy and less impressionistic . "
In selecting Ved Vejen for the Danish Culture Canon , the selection committee operating under the Danish Ministry of Culture explained that the attraction of the novel is that it portrays with considerable empathy how a meek young woman becomes increasingly aware of desires she hardly knew she possessed . With bittersweet irony , the author allows Katinka to develop her infatuation by listening to the heartaches of others . With its almost cinematic sequences , the novel conveys a balance between its subdued humour and a strong sympathy for what goes on in people 's minds , especially in a secluded environment removed from mainstream society . It is not just Bang 's portrayal of a bygone provincial world that seems so typically Danish but his mastery in making the hidden pain of loneliness so meaningful to today 's readership . In 1988 it was made into a feature film Katinka , directed by Max von Sydow , starring Tammi Øst as Katinka .
= = Literature = =
Ved Vejen has been translated into English as Katinka .
Bang , Herman ( 1990 ) [ 1886 ] . Katinka . Translated by Tiina Nunnally . Fjord Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 940242 @-@ 47 @-@ 0 .
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= Final Fantasy XIII =
Final Fantasy XIII ( ファイナルファンタジーXIII , Fainaru Fantajī Sātīn ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square Enix for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 , and later for Microsoft Windows . Released in Japan in December 2009 and worldwide in March 2010 , it is the thirteenth major installment in the Final Fantasy series . The game includes fast @-@ paced combat , a new system for the series for determining which abilities are developed for the characters called " Crystarium " , and a customizable " Paradigm " system to control which abilities are used by the characters . Final Fantasy XIII includes elements from the previous games in the series , such as summoned monsters , chocobos , and airships .
The game takes place in the fictional floating world of Cocoon , whose government , the Sanctum , is ordering a purge of civilians who have supposedly come into contact with Pulse , the much @-@ feared world below . The former soldier Lightning begins her fight against the government in order to save her sister who has been branded as an unwilling servant to a god @-@ like being from Pulse , making her an enemy of Cocoon . Lightning is soon joined by a band of allies , and together the group also become marked by the same Pulse creature . They rally against the Sanctum while trying to discover their assigned task and whether they can avoid being turned into monsters or crystals at the completion .
Development began in 2004 and the game was first announced at Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) 2006 . Final Fantasy XIII is the flagship title of the Fabula Nova Crystallis collection of Final Fantasy games and is the first game to use Square Enix 's Crystal Tools engine . Final Fantasy XIII received mostly positive reviews from video game publications , which praised the game 's graphics , presentation , and battle system . The game 's story received a mixed response from reviewers , and its linearity compared to previous games in the series was mostly criticized . Selling 1 @.@ 7 million copies in Japan in 2009 , Final Fantasy XIII became the fastest @-@ selling title in the history of the series . As of January 2013 , the game has sold over 6 @.@ 6 million copies worldwide . The Windows PC version has sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies worldwide according to SteamSpy putting it at over 7 @.@ 1 million copies sold worldwide . A sequel , titled Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 , was released in December 2011 in Japan and in February 2012 in North America and PAL regions . A second sequel , titled Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII , which concludes Lightning 's story and the Final Fantasy XIII saga ; was released in November 2013 in Japan and in February 2014 in North America and PAL regions .
= = Gameplay = =
The player directly controls the on @-@ screen character through a third @-@ person perspective to interact with people , objects , and enemies throughout the game . The player can also turn the camera around the characters , which allows for a 360 ° view of the surroundings . The world of Final Fantasy XIII is rendered to scale relative to the characters in it ; instead of a caricature of the character roaming around miniature terrain , as found in the earlier Final Fantasy games , every area is represented proportionally . The player navigates the world by foot or by chocobo . Players may save their game to a hard disk drive using save stations , where the player can also purchase items from retail networks or upgrade their weapons . An in @-@ game datalog provides a bestiary and incidental information about the world of Final Fantasy XIII . The Final Fantasy XIII Ultimate Hits International version of the game , released in Japan , also contains an " Easy " mode option .
= = = Battle system = = =
As in Final Fantasy XII , enemies are integrated into the open field and can be approached or avoided by the player . When the player 's character touches an enemy , the screen transitions from the regular map to a separate battle screen similar to those used in previous Final Fantasy titles . A maximum of three characters may be used in battles , which use a variant on the series ' traditional Active Time Battle ( ATB ) system first featured in Final Fantasy IV . Under this system , the player selects an action from the menus , such as Attack , Magic , and Item . Unlike previous games in the series , the player only controls the lead character while the remaining two characters are controlled by the game 's artificial intelligence ( AI ) . Each action requires a specific number of slots on the ATB bar , which continually refills to a set maximum number of slots . The ATB bar gradually increases in size throughout the game from two slots to six . The player may select less than the maximum number of possible actions or may stop the filling of the ATB bar and perform as many actions as can be done with the current ATB amount . The player may select an autobattle command , which fills the ATB slots with actions chosen automatically . Actions cannot be performed outside of battle , and the characters ' health is fully restored after each battle .
Each enemy has a meter , called a chain counter , consisting of a percentage starting at 100 which increases when the enemy is struck by attacks or spells . Attacks by different roles have different effects ; some raise the chain by a larger amount while others give the player longer before the chain counter resets . The amount of damage performed by an attack is multiplied by the chain percentage before it is applied to the enemy . When the chain counter reaches a preset amount , different for each enemy , the enemy is placed into Stagger State . In this mode , the enemy has lowered defense and may be launched into the air . The Paradigm system allows the player to program six different roles which the characters can then assume to perform certain formations in battle in response to the specific conditions . The roles consist of Commando , a warrior @-@ type role ; Ravager , a black mage @-@ type role which uses damage @-@ dealing magic ; Medic , a White Mage @-@ type role which can heal and remove negative status ailments ; Saboteur , which use magic to weaken enemies by inflicting negative statuses ; Synergist , which uses magic to strengthen allies by giving positive statuses ; and Sentinel , which has protective and defensive abilities similar to a paladin . Each of the characters can initially take on only three roles , but the player has access to all of them later in the game ( although the other three roles are limited in their abilities for those players which choose them ) . The player can select which roles the controlled character and the AI characters are using both outside and during battle , which is the only way that the player can control the AI characters during battle . The player can only choose from specific sets of paradigms that the player has set up beforehand outside of battle .
Each character can summon a specific Eidolon into battle . These summoned creatures include series staples Odin , Shiva , Alexander , and Bahamut , and newcomers Hecatoncheir and Brynhildr . When summoned , the Eidolon stays in combat while the characters accompanying the summoner leave the party . While an Eidolon is summoned , the player can trigger a feature called Gestalt Mode , in which the Eidolon transforms into a different form and performs different attacks while the summoning character rides them .
= = = Crystarium = = =
The Crystarium is a leveling system consisting of six crystals and resembles the Sphere Grid from Final Fantasy X. Each crystal in the Crystarium represents one of the six Paradigms , and is divided into ten levels . Each level contains various nodes that supply bonuses to health , strength , or magic , or provide new abilities and accessory slots . These nodes are connected by a semi @-@ linear path . The player may advance down the path by acquiring Crystarium Points , which are awarded after defeating enemies . The full Crystarium is not available to the player at the beginning of the game ; at specific points in the game 's plot , the player gains access to new crystals or levels .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Final Fantasy XIII is set on the world of Gran Pulse ( often simply called Pulse ) . Central to the story is Cocoon , a massive artificial sphere that floats above Pulse 's surface and is ruled by the Sanctum , a theocratic government . The two worlds are controlled by fal 'Cie / fælˈsiː / , beings with godlike power . The Cocoon fal 'Cie are responsible for keeping Cocoon floating , as well as providing light and water to the people that live inside . Each fal 'Cie handles a specific task . The fal 'Cie have the capability of marking the humans that live in Pulse and Cocoon as their servants . These servants , called l 'Cie / ləˈsiː / , are branded with a symbol representing either Pulse or Cocoon and are given a " Focus " — a task to complete . If the l 'Cie complete their task in time , they are transformed to crystal and according to legend gain eternal life ; otherwise they become mindless monsters called Cie 'th / siθ / . The l 'Cie are not explicitly told their Focus , but are instead given visions that they must interpret .
Several hundred years before the events of the game , a battle known as the War of Transgression took place between Pulse and Cocoon . During the battle , l 'Cie from Pulse attacked and ripped a large hole in Cocoon . Eventually , the l 'Cie completed their focus and were turned to crystal . The hole was patched with material lifted from Pulse , and Cocoon 's citizens have since lived in fear of another invasion ; this fear is used by the Sanctum to remain in power . The Sanctum oversees two military branches : the Guardian Corps , responsible for keeping order on Cocoon , and the Public Security and Intelligence COMmand ( PSICOM ) , the special forces in charge of dealing with any threat related to Pulse . The fal 'Cie have given the humans advanced technology , including flying airships and mechanical creatures , and a form of magic also exists . This magic is normally only accessible to l 'Cie , fal 'Cie , and various monsters in Cocoon and Pulse , though distilled chemical forms can be used by normal humans through the use of Manadrives .
= = = Characters = = =
The six main playable characters of Final Fantasy XIII are Lightning , the main protagonist of the game , a former soldier and older sister to Serah ; Snow Villiers , Serah 's fiancé and leader of NORA , a paramilitary group ; Oerba Dia Vanille , the game 's narrator and an exile who is later revealed to be a l 'Cie from Pulse ; Sazh Katzroy , a civilian pilot and father to a young boy , Dajh ; Hope Estheim , a young boy who is struggling within the relationships he shares with his parents ; and Oerba Yun Fang , a l 'Cie from Pulse who is working with the Sanctum 's Cavalry branch . Other characters include Galenth Dysley , the ruler of the Sanctum and main antagonist ; Cid Raines , a Sanctum Brigadier General in the Cavalry who does not trust the government ; and Serah Farron , Lightning 's younger sister and Snow 's fiancée .
= = = Plot = = =
Final Fantasy XIII begins in Cocoon as the citizens of the town of Bodhum are being evicted , or Purged , from Cocoon after coming in contact with something from Pulse . Over the course of the game , the player is shown flashbacks of the events of the previous 13 days , which began when a fal 'Cie from Pulse was discovered near Bodhum . Lightning 's sister Serah had found the fal 'Cie from Pulse and been changed into a l 'Cie by it . Lightning and Sazh derail a Purge train bound for Pulse in an attempt to save Serah . In the subsequent battle , Snow leads his resistance group , NORA , to rescue the Purge exiles . Several of them are killed , including Hope 's mother . As Snow heads to the fal 'Cie Anima to save Serah , he is joined by two of the exiles : Hope and Vanille . The two groups meet at the fal 'Cie , and find Serah just as she turns to crystal . Anima then brands them all as l 'Cie and they are cast out into a different part of Cocoon . During this transformation , the newly crested l 'Cie all have the same vision : a monster called Ragnarok . The group , arguing over the ambiguous nature of the dreamed Focus , find Serah in her crystallized form ; Snow remains with her as the others leave .
Snow meets Cid and Fang after being captured and detained aboard the airship Lindblum . Meanwhile , the others escape from PSICOM , but are separated during an air strike ; Hope and Lightning travel to Palumpolum , while Sazh and Vanille travel to Nautilus . In Lightning 's scenario , she unintentionally supports Hope 's goal of killing Snow as revenge for his mother 's death . In Vanille 's scenario , Sazh discusses how his son Dajh was turned into a l 'Cie by a Cocoon fal 'Cie and was taken by PSICOM to discover his Focus . At Palumpolum , Lightning tries to persuade Hope not to go through with his revenge and meets Snow and Fang . Fang reveals that she and Vanille were l 'Cie from Pulse who were turned into crystals ; they were turned back into humans 13 days prior to the start of the game , sparking the Purge . Hope attempts to murder Snow , but after Snow saves him from an airstrike , he decides not to go through with it . The party then escapes the city with Cid 's aid . At Nautilus , Vanille reveals herself to Sazh as a l 'Cie from Pulse , and indirectly the reason that Dajh was turned into a l 'Cie . PSICOM then captures Sazh and Vanille and detains them on board the airship Palamecia .
The other members of the party stage a rescue mission and reunite with Vanille and Sazh before they confront Galenth Dysley , the Sanctum 's Primarch . Dysley reveals himself as the Cocoon fal 'Cie ruler Barthandelus . He tells them that their Focus is to transform into the beast Ragnarok and slay the sleeping fal 'Cie Orphan , who keeps Cocoon afloat above Pulse . Slaying the fal 'Cie Orphan will result in the destruction of Cocoon . The party escapes and learns from Cid that the fal 'Cie believe that Cocoon 's destruction will summon the Maker , the creator of the worlds . The fal 'Cie cannot harm Orphan themselves . Vanille and Fang reveal to the party that they were involved in the War of Transgression centuries prior , and that their Focus then had been the same : to transform into Ragnarok and attempt to destroy Orphan . The party flies away to Pulse and travels to Oerba , Vanille and Fang 's hometown , where they hope to learn how to remove their l 'Cie marks . The town is deserted , and they find no living people on the surface . The group is unsuccessful in removing their marks , and Dysley confronts them again . He tells them that he is forcing Cid , now the head of the Sanctum , to create chaos in Cocoon to force the Cavalry to attack Cid and Orphan in a coup d 'état .
The party infiltrates Cocoon with the goal of preventing its destruction . They head towards Orphan only to find that the Cavalry have been turned into Cie 'th . The party encounters Dysley and overpowers him , but Orphan awakens and merges with Dysley , then compels Fang to finish her Focus as Ragnarok while the others are seemingly transformed into Cie 'th . The group reappears in human form , preventing Fang from transforming . The party engage and defeat Orphan and escape Cocoon , which is now falling towards Pulse . As the rest of the party turns to crystal for completing their Focus , Vanille and Fang remain on Cocoon and transform into Ragnarok together . They prevent a collision between Cocoon and Pulse by turning themselves into a crystal pillar between the two worlds . The rest of the party awaken from their crystallization on Pulse and find their l 'Cie brands gone . The game ends with Lightning , Hope , Snow and Sazh reuniting with Serah and Dajh .
= = Development = =
Development of Final Fantasy XIII began in February 2004 , shortly after the release of Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 International + Last Mission in Japan . Back then , the project was internally referred to by the codename " Colors World " . Over the first year , director Motomu Toriyama and scenario conceptor Kazushige Nojima conceived ideas for the plot . Nojima thought up the crystal mythology that became the basis for the Fabula Nova Crystallis series , including concepts such as the fal 'Cie and l 'Cie . Toriyama then created a story premised on this mythology . He wanted to portray " characters at the mercy of a predetermined , unjust fate " who " belong together but collide heavily " . In order to achieve this , each of the story 's thirteen chapters was made to focus on different protagonists . Chapters seven and eight were to mark a turning point in the interpersonal relationships of the party .
In March 2006 , when the structural part of the narrative started to come together , lead scenario writer Daisuke Watanabe joined the team . Toriyama gave him a rough outline of the first eight chapters , which included several cornerstone scenes that needed to be kept , like when party members were separated or reunited . He told Watanabe what he wanted to express with the scenario and asked him to flesh out the story and to strengthen how the points in his outline connected . For example , Toriyama 's rudimentary instructions in the document would say " Snow and Hope reconcile " . Watanabe had to decide about how the scenes with this reconciliation would play out , then write the scenario that way . To emphasize what the story tried to express , Watanabe adjusted the personalities Toriyama had given to each character . For example , he felt that the party should not have a " reliable and calm leader type " at the beginning of the story , in order to more accurately show the confusion and unease after the protagonists transform into l 'Cie . Toriyama has said that one of the storytelling challenges was the despair of the characters and the many points at which they are seemingly cornered . He mentioned the scene where Sazh tries to commit suicide as one such example : Although Toriyama felt it was " almost a little too dark " , he wanted to include something like it in the game . In contrast , he said that lighthearted elements such as Sazh 's Chocobo chick helped maintain a good balance .
At the beginning of the development , the game was intended to be released on the PlayStation 2 . In May 2005 , however , after the positive reception of the tech demo of Final Fantasy VII , the team decided to move the game to the PlayStation 3 and developed it with the new Crystal Tools engine , a seventh generation multiplatform game engine created by Square Enix for its next generation games . Square Enix believed that developing a new engine would speed up development time later in the project , though it would initially cause a delay in the game 's development . However , the delay was longer than originally anticipated as the engine had to accommodate the requirements of several other games in addition to XIII . Another factor in the platform move was the delayed release of Final Fantasy XII , which came out a very short time before the release of the PlayStation 3 . A PC port was considered during development , but was decided against due to how Square Enix saw the video game market situation at the time as well as additional complexities that Square Enix did not have experience with related to the PC platform , such as security issues . Final Fantasy XIII was first shown at the 2006 E3 convention . The trailer shown was an artistic concept that did not represent the final concept for the game , since at the time there was no playable form of the game . Announced alongside the game was Final Fantasy Versus XIII , later retitled as Final Fantasy XV , and the PlayStation Portable game Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 , originally titled Final Fantasy Agito XIII , the three of which form the Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy series . Square Enix explained that although all three games are thematically linked , they are not directly related in terms of story .
The developers for Final Fantasy XIII were divided into multiple areas , with each developer or team focusing only on a specific task such as developing a specific in @-@ game area or modeling characters . Each physical area of the game was developed separately ; after an initial design was approved , teams were assigned to a specific location and filled in details without reusing assets from other areas . Several of the game 's developers had worked on previous installments of the series . Director Motomu Toriyama had worked on Final Fantasy X and X @-@ 2 ; producer Yoshinori Kitase had worked on V through VIII and as the producer for X and X @-@ 2 ; main @-@ character designer Tetsuya Nomura had performed the same role for VII , VIII , X , and X @-@ 2 , and battle @-@ system director Toshiro Tsuchida reprised that role from Final Fantasy X. As XIII was the first Final Fantasy game for the PlayStation 3 , the development team 's internal goal was for the game to have the same " gameplay and craftmanship " impact that Final Fantasy VII and X had as the first games of the series on their respective consoles . They aimed to sell five million copies of the game . Toriyama wanted the game to be " the ultimate single player RPG " .
Tsuchida 's concept for the battle system was to maintain the strategic nature of command @-@ based battles . The system stemmed from a desire to create battles similar to those found in the film Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children . Magic points ( MP ) , which had been a part of the battle system in previous Final Fantasy titles , were removed in the game 's battle system as Tsuchida and the other designers felt that it gave players an incentive to not use their most powerful magic attacks due to the MP cost , in turn making battles less interesting . The Paradigm system was designed early in the battle system 's development , with the intent of making battles rely on quickly changing strategies and feel fast @-@ moving . Originally there were only five roles , but the Saboteur was later added as the designers felt that its abilities were missing from the game and did not fit with the other roles . Together with the maximum of three characters in a combat situation , the groupings of enemies were designed to force the player to switch Paradigms to keep them engaged in the battles .
Toriyama wanted Lightning to be a new type of female character with an athlete 's body and a less feminine nature than some of the previous female characters of the series . His guideline to Nomura was to make her " strong and beautiful " , and she was intended to be reminiscent of Final Fantasy VII 's Cloud Strife . Fang was initially meant to be a male character , but the gender was changed to coincide with the updated character designs during the latter part of development . The graphics capabilities of the PS3 and Xbox 360 compared to previous consoles allowed Nomura to use more complex elements in the character designs than before , such as Lightning 's cape and detailed facial features . This in turn meant that the art team had to do much more work for each character or area than in previous games . Nomura did not take an involved role in the creation of the non @-@ playable characters .
Unlike previous games in the series which were more inspired by Asian locations and culture , Final Fantasy XIII was intended by the art team to be reminiscent of the United States . Pulse was based on landscape photographs the team took from across the country , and Cocoon was intended to be a " melting pot " of different ethnicities . The setting was also given a science fiction aesthetic to make it stand out more in comparison with other entries in the series . Art director Isamu Kamikokuryo revealed that many additional scenarios such as Lightning 's home , which were functioning in an unreleased build during development , were left out of the final version due to concerns about the game 's length and volume . Kamikokuryo said the content they cut was , in itself , enough to make another game . According to Toriyama , the cuts were made in " various stages of [ the game 's ] development " , and that some of the content was removed just before the game 's completion . The game , unlike previous titles in the series , includes no explorable town areas ; Toriyama said in an interview that the team was unable to make them as graphically appealing as the rest of the game and chose to eliminate them . Toriyama intended to have a piece of downloadable content available for the game that would include a new area , weapons and quests , but was forced to cut it as well due to quality concerns so late in the project and difficulties with the different systems for extra content on the two gaming consoles .
A playable demo of Final Fantasy XIII was included in the Japanese version of Final Fantasy VII Advent Children Complete , released on April 16 , 2009 . Toriyama stated that the release of the demo , which was not in the original development schedule , helped the team recognize a shared vision for what the game should look and feel like , a problem which had been plaguing the development team up until then . It helped the team prioritize the work that still needed to be done , which increased the development speed for the remainder of the project . The game was intended to appeal to both Western and Japanese audiences , and focus groups from both regions were used . The English localization began while development was still in progress to lessen the delay between the Japanese and worldwide releases . The game was initially going to be released solely for the PlayStation 3 , but an Xbox 360 version was announced late in the game 's development cycle . The Xbox version , due to technical limitations , runs at a lower resolution ( 720p maximum ) than the PlayStation version and is spread across 3 discs .
= = = Music = = =
Masashi Hamauzu composed the game 's soundtrack . His previous work on the series was as a co @-@ composer for Final Fantasy X and as the main composer for Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII . The game was the first main @-@ series Final Fantasy game to not include any compositions by original series composer Nobuo Uematsu . Although Uematsu was originally announced to compose the main theme of the game , this role was taken over by Hamauzu after Uematsu signed on to compose the soundtrack to Final Fantasy XIV . The score features some pieces orchestrated by Yoshihisa Hirano , Toshiyuki Oomori , and Kunihito Shiina , with the Warsaw Philharmonic Orchestra . The song " My Hands " , from British singer Leona Lewis ' second album Echo , was chosen to replace Final Fantasy XIII 's original theme song , " Kimi ga Iru Kara " by Sayuri Sugawara , for the game 's international release . Square Enix President Yoichi Wada later said that it would have been better if the American branch of the company had produced a theme song from scratch , but a lack of staff led to the decision of licensing an existing song .
Music from the game has been released in several albums . Square Enix released the main soundtrack album , Final Fantasy XIII Original Soundtrack , on four Compact Discs in 2010 . The album sold 16 @,@ 000 copies the day of its release . Square Enix released selections from the soundtrack on two gramophone record albums in 2010 : W / F : Music from Final Fantasy XIII and W / F : Music from Final Fantasy XIII Gentle Reveries . An album of arranged pieces from the soundtrack , Final Fantasy XIII Original Soundtrack -PLUS- , was also released by Square Enix in 2010 , as was an album of piano arrangements . For Life Music published a single of the theme song for the Japanese version of the game , " Kimi ga Iru Kara " ( 君がいるから , " Because You 're Here " ) , in 2009 .
= = Versions and merchandise = =
The game was released in Japan on December 17 , 2009 , and in North America , Europe and Australia on March 9 , 2010 . Alongside the release of the game in Japan , Japanese alcoholic beverage distributor Suntory released the " Final Fantasy XIII Elixir " to promote the game . On the same day , a Final Fantasy XIII PlayStation Home personal space was made available for free in Japan until January 13 , 2010 , along with a costume and personal space furnishings ; they were released to the Asian , European , and North American versions of PlayStation Home on March 11 , 2010 . On December 18 , 2012 the game was re @-@ released as part of the Final Fantasy 25th Anniversary Ultimate Box Japanese package . It was re @-@ released again on November 21 , 2013 as part of the Lightning Ultimate box , a Japan exclusive edition which includes Final Fantasy XIII and its two sequels .
The game was released bundled with consoles in different regions . The game was bundled in Japan with a limited @-@ edition white PlayStation 3 with a pink color print of Lightning on the surface of the console , and with an Xbox 360 with the silver strip on the hard drive emblazoned with the Final Fantasy XIII logo in the western release . A limited quantity of themed Xbox faceplates created by Nomura were made available through a select few retailers in Europe , North America , and Australia . PAL territories received a limited collector 's edition of the game for both Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 , with the Final Fantasy XIII Original Sound Selection " best of " soundtrack CD , three Eidolon art prints , a Brand of the l 'Cie decal and The World of Final Fantasy XIII , a hardback book featuring character artwork , CG @-@ rendered artwork , and environments from across the game production . Square Enix published three Ultimania books : the Final Fantasy XIII Scenario Ultimania and the Final Fantasy XIII Battle Ultimania on January 28 , 2010 , and the Final Fantasy XIII Ultimania Ω on September 30 , 2010 . The Battle Ultimania provides a description and analysis of the new battle system and its components , and developer interviews . The Scenario Ultimania describes the main scenarios in the game , profiles on the characters and areas in Cocoon and Gran Pulse , developer interviews , and details on each location . The last guide , the Ultimania Ω , includes voice actor and additional staff interviews , the complete story of Final Fantasy XIII including additional character profiles , a collection of artworks and illustrations , and additional dissections of the story and background .
While the game was released on both PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in western regions , the game was a PlayStation 3 exclusive in Asian territories . This was changed in late 2010 when Square Enix announced that the Xbox 360 version would in fact release in Japan , despite many statements to the opposite . It was later released digitally for PC via Square Enix 's online store and Steam , along with its two sequels . Final Fantasy XIII was the first game in the series to receive an official release in Chinese . This was the first edition of a Final Fantasy game in which Japanese voice @-@ overs could be enabled . An international version of the game for the Xbox 360 called Final Fantasy XIII Ultimate Hits International was released in Asia on December 16 , 2010 . The game includes an " Easy " mode option , and features the English voices . It comes with a bonus booklet titled Final Fantasy XIII Corridor of Memory that contains content that was previously left out of the original version of the game and a short story epilogue titled Final Fantasy XIII Episode I.
Final Fantasy XIII has been released on iOS devices including Apple TV , Android devices including Google Chromecast and the Amazon Appstore in Japan . It has also been released on PlayStation Now .
= = Reception = =
Final Fantasy XIII sold over one million units on its first day of sale in Japan , and had sold 1 @.@ 7 million copies for the PlayStation 3 in Japan by the end of 2009 , and 1 @.@ 9 million by the end of 2010 . Square Enix had anticipated high initial sales for the game and shipped close to two million units for its launch . The game sold more than one million copies in North America in its release month . In March 2010 , Square Enix stated that Final Fantasy XIII was the fastest @-@ selling title in the franchise 's history . By April of the same year , American game sales for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 reached an estimated 800 @,@ 000 and 500 @,@ 000 units respectively . As of January 2013 , the game had shipped 6 @.@ 6 million copies worldwide . According to Media Create , female gamers accounted for nearly a third of the game 's Japanese fanbase . As of July 2012 , a combined total of 9 @.@ 7 million units has been sold on consoles for both Final Fantasy XIII and its sequel Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 . The Steam version has sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies as of January 2016 .
Final Fantasy XIII received generally positive reviews . Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the PlayStation 3 version 84 @.@ 15 % based on 62 reviews and 83 / 100 based on 83 reviews , the Xbox 360 version 81 @.@ 68 % based on 39 reviews and 82 / 100 based on 54 reviews and the Microsoft Windows version 49 @.@ 00 % based on 2 reviews and 65 / 100 based on 5 reviews . It was rated 39 out of 40 by the Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu . Dengeki praised the game for the battle system , stating that the battles are by far the most exciting in the series , and concluded Final Fantasy XIII deserved a score of 120 , as 100 would not be enough . The game was voted as the second best game of 2009 in Dengeki Online 's reader poll , and in January 2010 , it was voted the best game ever in Famitsu 's reader poll . The game received a Best RPG of the year award nomination at the Spike Video Game Awards , but lost to Mass Effect 2 , Ali Hillis also voices Liara T 'Soni . It won the " Future Division " award at the Japan Game Awards 2009 and later won a Game Designers Award at the Japan Game Awards 2010 .
Universal praise was given to the technical milestones achieved by the game 's graphics and presentation . Edge felt that Cocoon in particular was an " inspired setting [ ... ] blessed with a vibrancy and vivid colour that often leaves you open @-@ mouthed " . GameSpot called the art design " magnificent " . Further praise was given to the pre @-@ rendered animation sequences and the almost seamless transition of visual quality between these and the realtime gameplay . Many also appreciated the game 's soundtrack , with Masashi Hamauzu providing " a score with catchy hooks and blood @-@ pumping battle melodies " , according to Wired .
The battle system of Final Fantasy XIII received widespread praise . The increased pace of battles was appreciated , with several reviews describing it as " thrilling " ; Edge 's description of the battle system summarized it as " among the genre 's finest " . 1UP.com said that " Despite the fact that two @-@ thirds of your party is AI @-@ controlled , FFXIII 's battles may be the most involving the series has ever seen . " The story got a mixed reception , with Wired remarking that the plot was " a little more human and less esoteric than in previous games " . 1UP.com felt that the story was " hardly world @-@ class writing " , but that the writers clearly knew the medium well and had attempted to avoid clichés . Reviewers felt that the characters worked well together , and that the interactions among them as the game progressed made up for shortcomings in the story .
= = = Linearity = = =
While critics generally praised Square Enix 's attempt to revitalize the Final Fantasy series formula , many reacted negatively to the linear nature of the game , especially in the first ten chapters on Cocoon , an issue which many felt was compounded by the large reduction of towns , free @-@ roaming capabilities , and interaction with non @-@ player characters . GamePro described the gameplay as " a long hallway toward an orange target symbol on your mini @-@ map that triggers a cutscene , a boss fight , or both , " and 1UP.com criticized the linear aspect as the game 's " biggest shortcoming " , and felt the first section was " superficial . " Edge and others awarded the game especially lower scores as a result of these aspects , with Edge in particular lowering the score they awarded the game to a five out of ten primarily due to the game 's linear nature .
In contrast , reviewers from GamesRadar and Computer and Video Games appreciated the linear nature ; the former stated that " the streamlined , focused structure eliminates potential tedium without dumbing anything down " , while the latter felt it was " a clever move " , and kept the player from being " [ bogged ] down with mundane number crunching , [ and ] finicky and repetitive leveling @-@ up . " Many negatively noted the gradual unfurling of the player 's abilities over this first part of the game , from battle gameplay to selecting the party leader . Combined with the game 's linear nature , some reviews went as far as to describe these chapters as " boring " until the world of Gran Pulse was revealed . Edge noted that while it did not do enough to make up for the opening chapters , at Gran Pulse the game " hits a sweet spot " as the narrative offers " hunting side @-@ quests and the simple joy of exploring to see what visual marvel is around the next corner . "
= = = Response to criticism = = =
After release , director Motomu Toriyama felt that the lower @-@ than @-@ expected review scores for a main Final Fantasy series game came from reviewers who approached the game from a Western point of view . These reviewers were used to games in which the player was given an open world to explore , he said , noting that this expectation contrasted with the vision the team set out to create . He noted that it " becomes very difficult to tell a compelling story when you 're given that much freedom " . Yoshinori Kitase stated that they " didn 't really intend to work within the RPG template , " but " wanted to create a new game , even a new genre . " He stated that " in a lot of senses FFXIII is more like an FPS than an RPG . "
Toriyama and Kitase later said , in July 2011 , that the biggest complaints about the game were that it was too linear and that there was not enough interaction between the player and the world , which they described as a lack of towns and minigames compared to the previous Final Fantasy games . They also named the amount of time it took to access all of the gameplay elements as a common criticism , saying that people interpreted it as a " lengthy tutorial " .
Yoichi Wada , then @-@ president of Square Enix , made his thoughts about the reception of the game known to Gamasutra . He said " some value it highly and some are not very happy with it " . He added , " Should Final Fantasy become a new type of game or should Final Fantasy not become a new type of game ? The customers have different opinions . It 's very difficult to determine which way it should go . "
= = Sequels = =
At the Square Enix First Production Department Conference held on January 18 , 2011 , Square Enix announced that they were developing a direct sequel to Final Fantasy XIII , entitled Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 , which they intended to build on the game 's story and characters while taking on board the criticism and other feedback about the original . It was released on December 15 , 2011 in Japan , January 31 , 2012 in North America and February 3 , 2012 in Europe , for both the PlayStation 3 and the Xbox 360 . Motomu Toriyama and Yoshinori Kitase returned to their respective roles as director and producer . The game begins three years after the events of Final Fantasy XIII , and features Serah and newcomer Noel as the main protagonists . XIII @-@ 2 is the fourth sequel game in the Final Fantasy series , after Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings and Final Fantasy IV : The After Years . Most of the team returned again to create a second sequel entitled Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII , meant to wrap up the story of Lightning and the Final Fantasy XIII universe . The game was released in November 2013 in Japan and in February 2014 in North America and Europe . Toriyama stated in the Ultimania Omega companion book prior to XIII @-@ 2 's announcement that he hoped to write a story " where Lightning ends up happy " , though at the time Square Enix had no plans to make a sequel .
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= When Harry Met Sally ... =
When Harry Met Sally … is a 1989 American romantic comedy film written by Nora Ephron and directed by Rob Reiner . It stars Billy Crystal as Harry and Meg Ryan as Sally . The story follows the title characters from the time they meet just before sharing a cross @-@ country drive , through twelve years or so of chance encounters in New York City . The film raises the question " Can men and women ever just be friends ? " and advances many ideas about relationships that became household concepts , such as those of the " high @-@ maintenance " girlfriend and the " transitional person " .
The origins of the film were derived from Reiner 's return to single life after a divorce . An interview Ephron conducted with Reiner provided the basis for Harry . Sally was based on Ephron and some of her friends . Crystal came on board and made his own contributions to the screenplay , making Harry funnier . Ephron supplied the structure of the film with much of the dialogue based on the real @-@ life friendship between Reiner and Crystal . The soundtrack consists of standards performed by Harry Connick Jr . , with a big band and orchestra arranged by Marc Shaiman . Connick won his first Grammy Award for Best Jazz Male Vocal Performance .
Columbia Pictures released the film using the " platform " technique , which involved opening it in a few select cities , letting positive word of mouth generate interest , and then gradually expanding distribution over subsequent weeks . When Harry Met Sally ... grossed a total of US $ 92 @.@ 8 million in North America . Ephron received a British Academy Film Award , an Oscar nomination , and a Writers Guild of America Award nomination for her screenplay . The film is ranked 23rd on AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs list of the top comedy films in American cinema and number 60 on Bravo 's " 100 Funniest Movies " . In early 2004 , the film was adapted for the stage in a production starring Luke Perry and Alyson Hannigan .
= = Plot = =
In 1977 , Harry Burns ( Billy Crystal ) and Sally Albright ( Meg Ryan ) graduate from the University of Chicago and share the drive to New York City , where Sally is beginning journalism school and Harry is starting a career . Harry is dating a friend of Sally 's , Amanda ( Michelle Nicastro ) . During the drive , they discuss their differing ideas about relationships between men and women . Harry says that " Men and women can 't be friends because the sex part always gets in the way . " Sally disagrees , claiming that men and women can be strictly friends without sex . During a stop in a diner , Sally is angered when Harry tells her she is attractive ; she accuses him of making a pass at her . In New York , they part on unfriendly terms .
Five years later , Harry and Sally find themselves on the same flight . Sally has just started dating a man named Joe ( Steven Ford ) – who is a neighbor of Harry 's – and Harry is engaged to a woman named Helen , which surprises Sally . Harry suggests they become friends , forcing him to qualify his previous " rule " about the impossibility of male @-@ female friendships . Despite Harry 's suggestions of exceptions to that rule , they separate , concluding that they will not be friends .
Harry and Sally run into each other again in a bookstore five years later . They have coffee and talk about their previous relationships ; Sally and Joe broke up because she wanted a family and he did not want to marry , and Harry 's relationship ended when Helen fell in love with another man . They take a walk and decide to be friends . They have late @-@ night phone conversations , go to dinner , and spend time together . Their dating experiences with others continue to inform their differing approaches to relationships and sex .
During a New Year 's Eve party , Harry and Sally find themselves attracted to each other . Though they remain friends , they set each other up with their respective best friends , Marie ( Carrie Fisher ) and Jess ( Bruno Kirby ) . When the four go to a restaurant , Marie and Jess hit it off ; they later become engaged . One night , over the phone , Sally tearfully tells Harry that her ex is getting married . He rushes to her apartment to comfort her , and they unexpectedly have sex , resulting in an awkward moment the next morning as Harry leaves in a state of distress . This creates tension in their relationship . Their friendship cools for three weeks until the two have a heated argument during Jess and Marie 's wedding dinner . Following this fight , Harry repeatedly attempts to mend his friendship with Sally , but she feels that they cannot be friends after what happened .
At a New Year 's Eve party that year , Sally feels alone without Harry by her side . Harry spends New Year 's alone , walking around the city . As Sally decides to leave the party early , Harry appears and declares his love for her . At first she argues that the only reason he is there is because he is lonely , but he disagrees and lists the many things he realized he loves about her . They make up and kiss , and marry three months later .
= = Cast = =
Billy Crystal as Harry Burns
Meg Ryan as Sally Albright
Carrie Fisher as Marie Fisher
Bruno Kirby as Jess Fisher
Steven Ford as Joe
Lisa Jane Persky as Alice
Michelle Nicastro as Amanda Reese
Kevin Rooney as Ira Stone
Harley Kozak as Helen Hillson
Franc Luz as Julian
Tracy Reiner as Emily
Estelle Reiner as Older Woman Customer
= = Production = =
In 1984 , director Rob Reiner , producer Andy Scheinman and writer Nora Ephron met over lunch at the Russian Tea Room in New York City to develop a project . Reiner pitched an idea for a film that Ephron rejected . The second meeting transformed into a long discussion about Reiner and Scheinman 's lives as single men . Reiner remembers , " I was in the middle of my single life . I 'd been divorced for a while . I 'd been out a number of times , all these disastrous , confusing relationships one after another " . The next time they all met , Reiner said that he had always wanted to do a film about two people who become friends and do not have sex because they know it will ruin their relationship but have sex anyway . Ephron liked the idea , and Reiner acquired a deal at a studio .
She then proceeded to interview Reiner and Scheinman about their lives in order to have material on which to draw . These interviews also provided the basis for Harry . Reiner was constantly depressed , pessimistic yet very funny . Ephron also got bits of dialogue from these interviews . Sally was based on Ephron and some of her friends . She worked on several drafts over the years while Reiner made Stand By Me and The Princess Bride . Billy Crystal came on board when the project was called Boy Meets Girl and made his own contributions to the screenplay , making Harry funnier . The comedian " experienced vicariously " Reiner 's ( his best friend at the time ) return to single life after divorcing comedian / filmmaker Penny Marshall and in the process was unconsciously doing research for the role of Harry .
During the screenwriting process when Ephron would not feel like writing , she would interview people who worked for the production company . Some of the interviews appeared in the film as the interludes between certain scenes featuring couples talking about how they met , although the material was rewritten and reshot with actors . Ephron supplied the structure of the film with much of the dialogue based on the real @-@ life friendship between Reiner and Crystal . For example , in the scene where Sally and Harry appear on a split screen , talking on the telephone while watching their respective television sets , channel surfing , was something that Crystal and Reiner did every night .
Originally , Ephron wanted to call the film How They Met and went through several different titles . Reiner even started a contest with the crew during principal photography - whoever came up with the title won a case of champagne . In order to get into the lonely mindset of Harry when he was divorced and single , Crystal stayed by himself in a separate room from the cast and crew while they were shooting in Manhattan . The script initially ended with Harry and Sally remaining friends and not pursuing a romantic relationship because she felt that was " the true ending " , as did Reiner . Eventually , Ephron and Reiner realized that it would be a more appropriate ending for them to marry , though they admit that this is generally not a realistic outcome .
When posed the film 's central question , can men and women just be friends , Ryan replied , " Yes , men and women can just be friends . I have a lot of platonic ( male ) friends , and sex doesn 't get in the way . " Crystal said , " I 'm a little more optimistic than Harry . But I think it is difficult . Men basically act like stray dogs in front of a supermarket . I do have platonic ( women ) friends , but not best , best , best friends . "
Rob Reiner initially envisioned actress Susan Dey for the role of Sally Albright . When she declined , he later considered Elizabeth Perkins . He also considered casting Elizabeth McGovern . Molly Ringwald was almost cast , but Meg Ryan convinced Reiner to give her the role . Reiner 's mother Estelle and daughter Tracy both played roles in the film .
= = = Deli scene = = =
In a scene featuring the two title characters having lunch at Katz 's Delicatessen in Manhattan , the couple are arguing about a man 's ability to recognize when a woman is faking an orgasm . Sally claims that men cannot tell the difference , and to prove her point , she vividly ( fully clothed ) fakes one as other diners watch . The scene ends with Sally casually returning to her meal as a nearby patron ( played by Reiner 's mother ) places her order : " I 'll have what she 's having . " When Estelle Reiner died at age 94 in 2008 , The New York Times referred to her as the woman " who delivered one of the most memorably funny lines in movie history " . This scene was shot again and again , and Ryan demonstrated her fake orgasms for hours . Katz 's Deli still hangs a sign above the table that says , " Where Harry met Sally ... hope you have what she had ! "
This classic scene was born when the film started to focus too much on Harry . Crystal remembers saying , " ' We need something for Sally to talk about , ' and Nora said , ' Well , faking orgasm is a great one , ' and right away we said , ' Well , the subject is good , ' and then Meg came on board and we talked with her about the nature of the idea and she said , ' Well , why don 't I just fake one , just do one ? ' " Ryan suggested that the scene take place in a restaurant , and it was Crystal who came up with the scene 's classic punchline – " I 'll have what she 's having . " In 2005 , the quote was listed 33rd on the AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes list of memorable movie lines . Reiner recalls that at a test screening , all of the women in the audience were laughing while all of the men were silent .
In late 2013 , Improv Everywhere , the New York City initiative behind the annual No Pants Day in the subways and various flash @-@ mob stunts , convened and filmed a re @-@ enactment . While a look @-@ alike couple performed the scene , 30 others joined as if it was contagious . Surprised staff and customers responded in appreciation . The film and follow @-@ up interviews are public . In October of the same year , Katz Delicatessen invited Baron Von Fancy to display his ten @-@ foot high mural quoting the famous line in its pop @-@ up gallery next door , The Space .
= = Soundtrack = =
The When Harry Met Sally ... soundtrack album features American singer and pianist Harry Connick Jr . Bobby Colomby , the drummer for Blood , Sweat & Tears , was a friend of Reiner 's and recommended Harry Connick Jr . , giving the director a tape of the musician 's music . Reiner was struck by Connick 's voice and how he sounded like a young Frank Sinatra . The movie 's soundtrack album was released by Columbia Records in July 1989 . The soundtrack consists of standards performed by Harry Connick Jr. with a big band and orchestra arranged by Marc Shaiman . Connick won his first Grammy for Best Jazz Male Vocal Performance .
Arrangements and orchestrations on " It Had to Be You " , " Where or When " , " I Could Write a Book " , and " But Not for Me " are by Connick and Shaiman . Other songs were performed as piano / vocal solos , or with Connick 's trio featuring Benjamin Jonah Wolfe on bass and Jeff " Tain " Watts on drums . Also appearing on the album are tenor saxophonist Frank Wess and guitarist Joy Berliner . The soundtrack went to # 1 on the Billboard Traditional Jazz Chart and was within the top 50 on the Billboard 200 . Connick also toured North America in support of this album . It went on to reach double @-@ platinum status .
The music in the film is performed by various artists , such as Louis Armstrong and Ella Fitzgerald , Frank Sinatra , Ray Charles , Bing Crosby , and Harry Connick Jr .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Columbia Pictures released the film using the " platform " technique which involved opening it in a few select cities letting positive word of mouth generate interest and then gradually expanding distribution over subsequent weeks . On its opening weekend , it grossed $ 1 million in 41 theaters . Billy Crystal was worried that the film would flop at the box office because it was up against several summer blockbuster films , like Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade and Batman . The film went into wide release on July 21 , 1989 , and grossed $ 8 @.@ 8 million on its opening weekend in 775 theaters . This was later expanded to 1 @,@ 174 theaters and the film grossed a total of $ 92 @.@ 8 million in North America , well above its $ 16 million budget .
= = = Critical reviews = = =
Reviews for When Harry Met Sally ... were positive . It has a rating of 89 % on Rotten Tomatoes , summarized in the view that : " Rob Reiner 's touching , funny film set a new standard for romantic comedies , and he was ably abetted by the sharp interplay between Billy Crystal and Meg Ryan " . On Metacritic , the film has a score of 76 out of 100 , based on 17 critics .
The film led Roger Ebert to call Reiner " one of Hollywood 's very best directors of comedy " , and said that it was " most conventional , in terms of structure and the way it fulfills our expectations . But what makes it special , apart from the Ephron screenplay , is the chemistry between Crystal and Ryan . " In a review for The New York Times , Caryn James called When Harry Met Sally ... an " often funny but amazingly hollow film " that " romanticized lives of intelligent , successful , neurotic New Yorkers " ; James characterized it as " the sitcom version of a Woody Allen film , full of amusing lines and scenes , all infused with an uncomfortable sense of déjà vu " .
Rita Kempley 's review in The Washington Post praised Meg Ryan as the " summer 's Melanie Griffith – a honey @-@ haired blonde who finally finds a showcase for her sheer exuberance . Neither naif nor vamp , she 's a woman from a pen of a woman , not some Cinderella of a Working Girl . " Mike Clark , of USA Today , gave the film three out of four stars , writing , " Crystal is funny enough to keep Ryan from all @-@ out stealing the film . She , though , is smashing in an eye @-@ opening performance , another tribute to Reiner 's flair with actors . " David Ansen provided one of the rare negative reviews of the film for Newsweek . He criticized the casting of Crystal , " Not surprisingly he handles the comedy superbly , but he 's too cool and self @-@ protective an actor to work as a romantic leading man " , and felt that as a film , " of wonderful parts , it doesn 't quite add up " .
= = = Awards = = =
Nora Ephron received an Oscar nomination and a Writers Guild of America Award nomination for her screenplay . She won a British Academy Film Award for Best Original Screenplay and was nominated for Best Film . Rob Reiner was nominated for an Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures ( DGA ) award . The film was also nominated for five Golden Globes , including Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy , Reiner for Best Director – Motion Picture , Billy Crystal for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy , Meg Ryan for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy , and Nora Ephron for Best Screenplay .
= = = Legacy = = =
Over the years , When Harry Met Sally ... has become " the quintessential contemporary feel @-@ good relationship movie that somehow still rings true " . Ephron still received letters from people obsessed with the film and still had " people who say to me all the time , ' I was having a Harry @-@ and @-@ Sally relationship with him or her ' . " The film is 23rd on AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs list of the top comedy films in American cinema and number 60 on Bravo 's " 100 Funniest Movies . " Entertainment Weekly named it as one of the Top 10 romantic movies of all time . The magazine also ranked it 12th on their Funniest Movies of the Past 25 Years list . The periodical also ranked it 7th on their 25 Best Romantic Movies of the Past 25 Years list and # 3 on their Top 25 Modern Romances list . The film has inspired countless romantic comedies , including A Lot Like Love , Hum Tum and Definitely , Maybe . In addition , the film helped popularize many ideas about love that have become household concepts now , such as the " high @-@ maintenance " girlfriend and the " transitional person " .
In June 2008 , AFI revealed its " Ten top Ten " — the best ten films in ten " classic " American film genres — after polling over 1 @,@ 500 people from the creative community . When Harry Met Sally was acknowledged as the sixth best film in the romantic comedy genre . It is also ranked # 15 on Rotten Tomatoes ' 25 Best Romantic Comedies .
In early 2004 , the film was adapted for the stage in a Theatre Royal Haymarket production starring Luke Perry and Alyson Hannigan . Molly Ringwald and Michael Landes later replaced Hannigan and Perry for the second cast .
= = = = American Film Institute recognition = = = =
2000 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs - # 23
2002 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Passions - # 25
2004 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs :
" It Had to Be You " - # 60
2005 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes :
Customer : " I 'll have what she 's having . " - # 33
Harry Burns : " But I would be proud ... " Sally Albright : " But I would be proud ... " " Harry Burns : " ... to partake ... " Sally Albright : " ... to partake ... " Harry Burns : " ... of your pecan pie . " Sally Albright : " ... of your pecan pie . " - Nominated
2007 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) – Nominated
2008 : AFI 's 10 Top 10 :
# 6 Romantic Comedy Film
= = Home release = =
When Harry Met Sally ... was first released on VHS in late 1989 , a few months after its theatrical release . It was later re @-@ released on VHS in 1994 as part of a Billy Crystal collection , and in 1997 under the Contemporary Classics edition ; the latter release included trailers that were not included in the original VHS release . It was released on DVD for the first time on January 9 , 2001 , and included an audio commentary by Reiner , a 35 @-@ minute " Making Of " documentary featuring interviews with Reiner , Ephron , Crystal , and Ryan , seven deleted scenes , and a music video for " It Had To Be You " by Harry Connick Jr . A Collector 's Edition DVD was released on January 15 , 2008 , including a new audio commentary with Reiner , Ephron , and Crystal , eight deleted scenes , all new featurettes ( It All Started Like This , Stories Of Love , When Rob Met Billy , Billy On Harry , I Love New York , What Harry Meeting Sally Meant , So Can Men And Women Really Be Friends ? ) , and the original theatrical trailer . The film was released on Blu @-@ ray on July 5 , 2011 containing all of the special features found on the 2008 DVD release .
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= SMS Dresden ( 1917 ) =
SMS Dresden was the second and final ship of the Cöln class of light cruisers to be completed and commissioned in the Kaiserliche Marine . The ship was laid down in 1916 and launched on 25 April 1917 ; she was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 28 March 1918 . She and her sister Cöln were the only two of her class to be completed ; eight of her sisters were scrapped before they could be completed . The ships were an incremental improvement over the preceding Königsberg @-@ class cruisers .
Dresden was commissioned into service with the High Seas Fleet eight months before the end of World War I ; as a result , her service career was limited and she did not see action . She participated in a fleet operation to Norway to attack British convoys to Scandinavia , but they failed to locate any convoys and returned to port . Dresden was to have participated in a climactic sortie in the final days of the war , but a revolt in the fleet forced Admirals Reinhard Scheer and Franz von Hipper to cancel the operation . The ship was interned in Scapa Flow after the end of the war and scuttled with the fleet there on 21 June 1919 , under orders from the fleet commander Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter .
= = Construction = =
Dresden was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Ariadne " and was laid down at the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg in 1916 . She was launched on 25 April 1917 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 28 March 1918 . The ship was 155 @.@ 5 meters ( 510 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 14 @.@ 2 m ( 47 ft ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 01 m ( 19 @.@ 7 ft ) forward . She displaced 7 @,@ 486 t ( 7 @,@ 368 long tons ; 8 @,@ 252 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of steam turbines powered by eight coal @-@ fired and six oil @-@ fired Marine @-@ type boilers . These provided a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 kn ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) and a range of approximately 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 000 km ; 6 @,@ 900 mi ) at 12 kn ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) .
The ship was armed with eight 15 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , four were located amidships , two on either side , and two were arranged in a super firing pair aft . These guns fired a 45 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 20 @.@ 5 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 840 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 17 @,@ 600 m ( 57 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 040 rounds of ammunition , for 130 shells per gun . Dresden also carried three 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns mounted on the centerline astern of the funnels , though one was removed in 1918 . She was also equipped with a pair of 60 cm ( 24 in ) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes in deck @-@ mounted swivel launchers amidships . She also carried 200 mines . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with 60 mm thick armor plate .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning , Dresden joined the reconnaissance screen for the High Seas Fleet . She was the last light cruiser built by the Kaiserliche Marine . The ship was assigned to the II Scouting Group , alongside the cruisers Königsberg , Pillau , Graudenz , Nürnberg , and Karlsruhe . The ships were in service in time for the major fleet operation to Norway in 23 – 24 April 1918 . The I Scouting Group and II Scouting Group , along with the Second Torpedo @-@ Boat Flotilla , were to attack a heavily guarded British convoy to Norway , with the rest of the High Seas Fleet steaming in support . The Germans failed to locate the convoy , which had in fact sailed the day before the fleet left port . As a result , Admiral Reinhard Scheer broke off the operation and returned to port .
In October 1918 , Dresden and the rest of the II Scouting Group were to lead a final attack on the British navy . Dresden , Cöln , Pillau , and Königsberg were to attack merchant shipping in the Thames estuary while the rest of the Group were to bombard targets in Flanders , to draw out the British Grand Fleet . Großadmiral Reinhard Scheer , the commander in chief of the fleet , intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , in order to secure a better bargaining position for Germany , whatever the cost to the fleet . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation .
During the sailors ' revolt , Dresden was ordered to steam to Eckernförde to serve as a relay to Kiel . Communications had been disrupted by major unrest there . The battleship Markgraf laid in Dresden 's path , and her unruly crew refused to move out of Dresden 's way ; Markgraf aimed one of her 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) gun turrets at Dresden , but then her crew backed down and let Dresden leave the port . The ship then went to Swinemünde , where her crew partially scuttled her following reports that mutinous ships were en route to attack the cruisers stationed there . After these proved false , Dresden was re @-@ floated and returned to seaworthy condition . This involved removing the ammunition for all of the guns and allowing them to air @-@ dry . Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , most of the High Seas Fleet 's ships , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow . Dresden was among the ships interned , but owing to her poor condition following the naval mutiny , she was not able to steam with the rest of the fleet in November . She arrived on 6 December , leaking badly .
The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Versailles Treaty . Von Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . Dresden began to sink at 13 : 50 . Her wreck lies to this day on her port side at the bottom of Scapa Flow to the south east of the island of Cava , in a depth of 25 to 45 meters ( 82 to 148 ft ) . Her upper decks have been badly damaged ; her weather deck has fallen off , exposing her internal structure . Her guns are buried in mud .
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= New Jersey Route 284 =
Route 284 is a 7 @.@ 03 @-@ mile ( 11 @.@ 31 km ) state highway in New Jersey , United States , running from Route 23 in Sussex north to the New York state line in Wantage Township . New York State Route 284 continues north to U.S. Route 6 at Slate Hill , New York . The route is a connector to Unionville , and intersects with an old alignment of its original designation , Route 84 . Route 284 was first a part of Route 8 in the 1920s , becoming Route 8N in 1927 and Route 84 in 1942 before being assigned Route 284 in 1966 .
= = Route description = =
Route 284 begins at a signaled intersection in Sussex with NJ 23 . The route proceeds northward , intersecting with Sussex County Route 643 at less than a half @-@ mile into the highway . Route 284 leaves the borough of Sussex and enters Wantage Township , intersecting with Layton Road , Janice Drive , and Possum River Road . Route 284 passes to the south of a lake , crosses over a branch of the Wallkill River and intersects with County Route 642 ( Bassets Bridge Road ) . Just after the intersection with Route 642 , the rural highway crosses over Quarryville Brook . At 5 @.@ 41 miles ( 8 @.@ 71 km ) , Route 284 intersects with an old routing of its original designation , NJ 84 . The original alignment merges in with NJ 284 less than a mile later . After crossing the Wallkill River branch again and the Appalachian Trail , Route 284 leaves New Jersey for New York and becomes NY 284 .
= = History = =
Route 8 , one of the routes assigned before the 1927 renumbering , ran largely along the present Route 23 corridor , but at Sussex it turned north rather than continuing northwest through High Point State Park . The section from Sussex north to the state line was taken over by the state in 1919 . In the 1927 renumbering , the majority of Route 8 became Route 23 . The part north of Sussex was proposed to become part of Route 31 , but that was instead moved to the present Route 94 corridor in the final version of the bill . As Route 8 north of Sussex was not assigned a number , the State Highway Commission appended a suffix of N ( to distinguish it from new Route 8 ) , forming Route 8N . The connecting route in New York had been numbered New York State Route 8 to match New Jersey , but in the 1930 renumbering it became New York State Route 84 , in order to free up the number 8 for a longer route . New Jersey renumbered its Route 8N to New Jersey Route 84 in March 1942 to match , in part to provide a single number for military caravans during World War II .
The final renumbering was made in 1966 , when Interstate 84 opened in New York . As the new I @-@ 84 was close to the older Route 84 , Route 84 was renumbered in both New York and New Jersey to Route 284 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Sussex County .
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= Piotr Skarga =
Piotr Skarga ( less often , Piotr Powęski ; 2 February 1536 – 27 September 1612 ) was a Polish Jesuit , preacher , hagiographer , polemicist , and leading figure of the Counter @-@ Reformation in the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth . Due to his oratorical gifts , he has been called " the Polish Bossuet " .
Skarga is remembered by Poles as a vigorous early advocate of reforms to the Polish @-@ Lithuanian polity , and as a critic of the Commonwealth 's governing classes , as well as of its religious tolerance policies . He advocated strengthening the monarch 's power at the expense of parliament ( the Sejm ) and of the nobility ( the szlachta ) .
He was a professor at the Kraków Academy and in 1579 he became the first rector of the Wilno Academy . Later , he served in the Jesuit College at Kraków . He was also a prolific writer , and his Lives of the Saints ( Żywoty świętych , 1579 ) was for several centuries one of the most popular books in the Polish language . His other important work was the Sejm Sermons ( Kazania Sejmowe , 1597 ) , a political treatise , which became popular in the second half of the 19th century , when he was seen as the " patriotic seer " who predicted the partitions of Poland .
= = Life = =
Skarga was born on 2 February 1536 , north of Grójec , in the small folwark ( manor ) of Powęszczyzna ( also known as Skargowzczyzna or Skargowo ) . His family are often described as lesser landless szlachta ( gentry , or nobility ) , but it seems likely most of his ancestors had been peasants , later townsfolk who had only recently become minor nobility . He was reared at the family estate , and lost his parents when he was young ; his mother died when he was eight years old , and his father , Michał Skarga , four years later . Thereafter he was supported by his brothers , one of whom , Stanisław Skarga , was a priest . Piotr started his education at a parochial school in Grójec before moving to Kraków , where in 1552 he enrolled at the Kraków Academy , precursor to Jagiellonian University . His teachers included the priests Marcin Glicjusz and Jan Leopolida . He finished his studies in 1555 .
Immediately after he finished his education , he served for two years as rector of the collegiate school at St. John 's Church in Warsaw . From October 1557 he tutored Jan Tęczyński , son of magnate Andrzej Tęczyński , and visited Vienna with his pupil , where he likely became closely acquainted with the Society of Jesus , a key order of the counter @-@ reformation . He then returned to Poland , which emerged as one of the main terrains of struggle between the Protestant Reformation movement and the Catholic Church 's counter @-@ reformation . From 1562 he served as a parson in Rohatyn , and around 1564 he took holy orders . That year he became a canon , and the following year he also served as chancellor of the Lwów chapter . From 1566 to 1567 he was chaplain at the court of castellan Jan Krzysztof Tarnowski ( the royal secretary to King Sigismund II Augustus ) ; after Tarnowski 's death he returned to Lwów , taking up the position of the cathedral preacher .
In 1568 he departed for Rome , arriving in 1569 and joining the Society of Jesus . In 1571 he returned to Poland , and preached successively at Pułtusk , Lwów , Jarosław , Warsaw ( where he delivered a sermon before the Sejm ) and Płock , where he visited the court of Queen Anna Jagiellon , who would become one of his patrons . A leading proponent of counter @-@ reformation , Skarga commonly preached against non @-@ Catholic denominations and helped secure funds and privileges for the Society of Jesus .
In 1573 he was rector of the Wilno Jesuit College , precursor to the Wilno Academy ( Vilnius University ) . In 1577 he became a professor at the Kraków Academy . That year he also finished one of his most important works , The Lives of the Saints ( Żywoty świętych ) , which was published two years later . In 1579 he became the first rector of the Wilno Academy .
In 1576 he published Pro Sacratissima Eucharistia contra haeresim Zwinglianam , ad Andream Volanum ( For the Most Sacred Eucharist , against the Zwinglian Heresy , to Andrzej Wolan ) . In 1582 he published Artes duodecim Sacramentariorum , sive Zwinglio @-@ calvinistarum ( The Seven Pillars on Which Stands Catholic Doctrine on the Most Sacred Sacrament of the Altar ) . Both these works formed part of Skarga 's dialogue with the Calvinist author Andrzej Wolan , which took the form of a series of rival polemics over a number of years . Wolan was a notable figure in the Commonwealth politics — not only a publicist , but a royal secretary , diplomat and Sejm deputy .
In 1584 Skarga was transferred to the new Jesuit College at Kraków . On 26 March 1587 he founded the Polish version of the Mount of Piety , a pawnbroker run as a charity and called in Polish the Bank Pobożny ( lit. the Pious Bank ) . In 1588 the newly elected King Sigismund III Vasa established the new post of court preacher , and Skarga became the first priest to hold it . Skarga became a valued adviser to the King , and Sigismund became so fond of him that when the priest considered retirement , Sigismund rejected this , requesting that he remain at court for as long as possible .
As part of his Counter @-@ Reformation policies , Skarga was also a major proponent of the Union of Brest , a merger between the Roman Catholic Church and a faction of the Eastern Orthodox Church . His influence on King Sigismund , whom he supported ( or encouraged ) in opposing religious tolerance and seeking to strengthen royal power , was a factor that has been cited as a cause of the civil war — the ( ultimately unsuccessful ) Zebrzydowski Rebellion of 1606 — in which the royal faction confronted a popular movement among the nobility , led by the Zebrzydowski family , who sought to depose Sigismund . Some critics referred to Skarga as " the principal mischief @-@ maker of the Kingdom " ( in the Latin , " pracecipuus turbator Regnii " ) .
In 1611 he delivered his final sermon before the Sejm and published his final work , an ideological testament , Wzywanie do jednej zbawiennej wiary ( A Call for One Redeeming Faith ) . He remained Sigismund 's court preacher until April 1612 , four months before his death .
Skarga died on 27 September 1612 and was buried in the Saints Peter and Paul Church in Kraków .
= = Writer = =
In addition to being a popular and well @-@ known preacher , Skarga was the author of numerous theological texts and polemics , and it is as a writer that his fame has endured .
His two most important works are The Lives of the Saints ( Żywoty świętych , 1579 ) and Sejm Sermons ( Kazania Sejmowe , 1597 ) . The former , a hagiography , won him fame in his lifetime , while the Sermons gained recognition only in subsequent centuries , during the Partitions of Poland . Tazbir describes the Lives as Skarga 's chief work and as a major attack on the religious tolerance promoted by the Warsaw Confederation . The book was immensely popular , the first edition selling out by 1583 . A second edition was published in 1585 , and by the mid @-@ 17th century twelve editions had been printed , making it one of the most popular books published in Poland and Lithuania in that era ( rivaled by the Kronika Polska — Polish Chronicles — of Marcin Bielski ) . It was Skarga 's most popular work and continued to rank highly with Polish readers until the 18th and 19th centuries , when it was eclipsed by his Sermons .
The Sermons , a political treatise composed in the guise of sermons , went almost unnoticed by contemporaries . In the Sermons , Skarga discusses what he sees as the problems of the ailing Commonwealth : lack of patriotism , internal quarrels , tolerance of heretics , the king 's relative powerlessness , perverse laws ( a critique of the nobility 's Golden Freedoms ) , and immorality . Another notable aspect of the book is its focus on the desperate plight of the serfs ( the peasants ) .
= = Importance = =
Janusz Tazbir , in his 1978 biography of Skarga , noted that " there already is an extensive literature on Skarga " . He attributed this to Skarga 's being the most famous figure of the Polish Counter @-@ Reformation , which gained him his initial fame ; and , later , to his rediscovered reform proposals which , while controversial in his time , gained him renown during the Partitions of Poland and have been well regarded since .
His popularity as the " patriotic seer " who predicted the Partitions reached a zenith in the second half of the 19th century , when some historians , such as Ignacy Chrzanowski , went so far as to speak of " the cult of Skarga . " Tazbir states that Skarga 's writings are valued primarily for their advocacy of political and socioeconomic reforms , rather than for their theological content .
From the Polish Enlightenment of the middle of the 18th century onward , his works , penned in Polish rather than in Latin , have also been increasingly valued for their style and contributions to the development of the written Polish language and of Polish literature . Skarga has been positively viewed not only by historians but by such luminaries of Polish culture as poet Adam Mickiewicz and painter Jan Matejko ; the former called Skarga 's Lives a " most poetic Polish masterpiece " , and the latter created a well @-@ known painting , Kazanie Skargi ( Skarga 's Sermon ) .
Over the centuries , Skarga became a character in a number of other artistic works , including a novel by Józef Ignacy Kraszewski , though he has never been the chief character in any literary work longer than a poem .
In 1936 , on the 400th anniversary of Skarga 's birth , with the endorsement of Poland 's President Ignacy Mościcki and the Polish government , the Polish writer Zofia Kossak @-@ Szczucka proposed that Skarga be beatified . Nearly eight decades later , Skarga 's cause for beatification was inaugurated on 12 June 2013 .
In 2012 , on the 400th anniversary of his death , the Polish Sejm declared that year the " Year of the Reverend Piotr Skarga " .
= = Writings = =
Pro Sacratissima Eucharistia contra haeresim Zwinglianam , ad Andream Volanum ( For the Most Sacred Eucharist , against the Zwinglian Heresy , 1576 )
Lives of the Saints ( Żywoty świętych , 1579 , 8 editions in his lifetime ) .
Artes duodecim Sacramentariorum , sive Zwinglio @-@ calvinistarum ( Siedem filarów , na których stoi katolicka nauka o Przenajświętszym Sakramencie Ołtarza , llThe Seven Pillars on Which Stands Catholic Doctrine on the Most Sacred Sacrament of the Altarll , 1582 )
Sejm Sermons ( Kazania sejmowe , 1597 , published posthumously ) .
Soldiers ' Devotions ( Żołnierskie nabożeństwo , 1606 ) .
Wzywanie do jednej zbawiennej wiary ( A Call for One Redeeming Faith , 1611 )
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= HMAS Sydney ( D48 ) =
HMAS Sydney , named after the Australian city of Sydney , was one of three modified Leander @-@ class light cruisers operated by the Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) . Ordered for the Royal Navy as HMS Phaeton , the cruiser was purchased by the Australian government and renamed prior to her 1934 launch .
During the early part of her operational history , Sydney helped enforce sanctions during the Abyssinian crisis , and at the start of World War II was assigned to convoy escort and patrol duties in Australian waters . In May 1940 , Sydney joined the British Mediterranean Fleet for an eight @-@ month deployment , during which she sank two Italian warships , participated in multiple shore bombardments , and provided support to the Malta Convoys , while receiving minimal damage and no casualties . On her return to Australia in February 1941 , Sydney resumed convoy escort and patrol duties in home waters .
On 19 November 1941 , Sydney was involved in a mutually destructive engagement with the German auxiliary cruiser Kormoran , and was lost with all 645 aboard . The wrecks of both ships were lost until 2008 ; Sydney was found on 17 March , five days after her adversary . Sydney 's defeat is commonly attributed to the proximity of the two ships during the engagement , and Kormoran 's advantages of surprise and rapid , accurate fire . However , the cruiser 's loss with all hands compared to the survival of most of the Germans have resulted in controversy , with some alleging that the German commander used illegal ruses to lure Sydney into range , that a Japanese submarine was involved , and that the true events of the battle are concealed behind a wide @-@ ranging cover up .
= = Construction and acquisition = =
The ship was laid down by Swan Hunter & Wigham Richardson at Wallsend @-@ on @-@ Tyne , England , on 8 July 1933 for the Royal Navy as HMS Phaeton , named after the Greek mythological figure . However , in 1934 , the Australian government was seeking a replacement for the light cruiser HMAS Brisbane , and negotiated to purchase Phaeton while she was still under construction . The cruiser was renamed after the capital city of New South Wales , and was launched on 22 September 1934 by the wife of Stanley Bruce , former Prime Minister of Australia and the serving Australian High Commissioner to the United Kingdom . Sydney was commissioned into the RAN on 24 September 1935 , drawing her ship 's company from Brisbane , which had been decommissioned earlier that day .
Following the announcement that Australia was purchasing a British @-@ built cruiser , there was criticism , primarily from the Opposition of the day , stating that such a warship should be built using Australian resources and labour . Several reasons were given in reply for acquiring British @-@ built cruisers instead of Australian @-@ made : the ship was already close to completion , the pending threat of war meant that there was not enough time to train Australians in the necessary shipbuilding skills , and that of the two cruisers built in Australian shipyards , one ( HMAS Adelaide ) had taken seven years to complete .
= = Design = =
Sydney was one of three Modified Leander @-@ class light cruisers acquired by the RAN during the late 1930s . Although the first ship of the class to join the RAN , Sydney was the second ship to be laid down , although the first to be completed , in what was sometimes referred to as the Perth class : Perth and Hobart operated with the Royal Navy for a short period before they were purchased by Australia in 1938 . Like most British cruisers , the Leanders were designed for long range patrols , scouting , and trade protection duties .
Sydney 's displacement ranged between 6 @,@ 701 tons ( light ) and 8 @,@ 940 tons ( full load ) , with a standard displacement of 7 @,@ 198 tons : improved fabrication and welding techniques made her 52 tons lighter than her sister ships . She had a length of 530 feet ( 160 m ) between perpendiculars and 562 feet 4 inches ( 171 @.@ 40 m ) overall , a beam of 56 feet 8 @.@ 5 inches ( 17 @.@ 285 m ) , and a draught at standard displacement between 15 feet 3 inches ( 4 @.@ 65 m ) forward and 17 feet 3 inches ( 5 @.@ 26 m ) aft .
The ship was propelled by four Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers , feeding Parsons single reduction geared turbines , which supplied 72 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 54 @,@ 000 kW ) to the four propeller shafts . Unlike the first five Leanders , which had their machinery arranged on the " in @-@ line " principle ( consisting of six boilers in three compartments forward , and four turbines in two further compartments aft ) , Sydney was designed with two redundant machinery groups , a design practice adopted from the United States Navy . The cruiser had two boilers and the turbines for the outer shafts forward , and two boilers and the turbines for the inner shafts aft ; as steam from any boiler could be routed to any turbine , the ship could continue operating if one space was damaged . Each space had its own uptake , giving the modified ships a different profile to the single @-@ funnelled early Leanders ; an arrangement which contributed to naval historian Henry Lenton 's description of the Modified Leanders as " the most handsome cruisers ever built by the Royal Navy , with a symmetry that was as attractive as it was functional . "
Sydney and her sister ships were constructed from 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) hull plating , with a 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) armour belt over the machinery spaces ( the lengthening of this belt from 84 to 141 feet ( 26 to 43 m ) to adequately cover both spaces negated the weight reduction from their reorganisation ) , and 2 @-@ inch ( 51 mm ) plates over the shell rooms and magazines . Sydney was the first Australian warship fitted with asdic ; a Type 125 unit in a retractable pattern 3069 dome . The retractable sonar dome , located near the bow , was a weak point in the hull .
One of the cruiser 's early commanding officers , Royal Navy Captain J.W.A. Waller , believed that the ship 's single director control tower was a weak point in the design . The director control tower was the highest compartment on the ship , from where personnel would determine the range and optimum firing angle for a gun salvo , then transmit this information to the gun turrets : the actual firing could be controlled from the tower or the turret . Waller believed that the centralised system could be destroyed with a single hit , or the wiring linking the compartment to the turrets could be severed , forcing the four turrets to rely on independent control . Although Waller suggested that a second tower be installed aft to provide redundancy , it was deferred indefinitely as subsequent commanding officers did not share his concerns , and combat experiences of other Leander @-@ class cruisers showed that the system was more robust than expected .
= = = Armament = = =
Sydney 's main armament consisted of eight 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) breech @-@ loading Mk XXIII guns mounted in four Mk XXI twin turrets : " A " and " B " forward , " X " and " Y " aft . All eight guns could be fired in salvo , elevated to an angle of 60 ° and depressed to − 5 ° , and fire eight rounds a minute at targets up to 24 @,@ 800 yards ( 22 @,@ 700 m ) away .
Four 4 @-@ inch ( 100 mm ) quick firing Mk V guns , mounted on single , high angle , Mk IV mountings , were fitted to a platform around the aft funnel . These were primarily used to target aircraft at heights up to 28 @,@ 750 feet ( 8 @,@ 760 m ) , but could also be used against surface targets , with a maximum range of 16 @,@ 300 yards ( 14 @,@ 900 m ) . Their replacement with eight Mk XIX high @-@ angle / low @-@ angle guns in four twin mounts , which was to occur in the late 1930s , was prevented by the outbreak of World War II . The guns could have been swapped out during a maintenance docking , but the demand for cruisers and Sydney 's fortune in never sustaining major damage meant that the additional time in dock could not be justified . For close @-@ range anti @-@ aircraft defence , the 4 @-@ inch guns were supplemented by twelve 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 13 mm ) Vickers Mk III machine guns , which were arranged in three Mk II quadruple mountings , one on each side of the forward superstructure , and the third on top of the aft superstructure .
A mixture of 0 @.@ 303 @-@ inch ( 7 @.@ 7 mm ) machine guns were used for close defence work , and could be fitted to pedestals at various points on the ship , primarily around the bridge and on the three searchlight platforms ( one either side of the forward funnel , the third raised above the aft superstructure ) . At launch , Sydney carried fourteen Lewis machine guns and two Vickers machine guns , but by the start of World War II , the Lewis guns had been reduced to nine , and the Vickers guns removed completely .
Eight 21 @-@ inch ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes were fitted in two QR Mk VII quadruple mounts to the deck below the platform for the 4 @-@ inch guns . Only eight Mark 9 torpedoes were carried . Sydney was fitted with a single depth charge rail at the stern , which held five Mk VII depth charges . Four 3 @-@ pounder ( 47 @-@ mm , 1 @.@ 9 @-@ in ) quick @-@ firing Hotchkiss guns were carried as saluting guns . These were removed during the August 1940 refit .
Sydney was fitted with a 53 @-@ foot ( 16 m ) , cordite @-@ powered revolving catapult between the two funnels , which was used to launch a Supermarine Walrus ( sometimes described as a Seagull V ) amphibious aircraft . The Walrus was operated by Royal Australian Air Force personnel from No. 5 Squadron RAAF ( which was redesignated No. 9 Squadron RAAF in 1939 ) . The 7 @-@ ton electric crane used to recover the aircraft also served to deploy most of the ship 's boats .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Early history = = =
Sydney completed working up trials before sailing from Portsmouth on 29 October 1935 , Captain J.U.P. Fitzgerald RN in command . Almost immediately after departing , Sydney was instructed to join the Royal Navy 's Mediterranean Fleet at Gibraltar and assist the 2nd Cruiser Squadron in enforcing economic sanctions against Italy in response to the Abyssinian crisis . During January 1936 , the cruiser underwent maintenance in Alexandria and visited medical facilities in Cyprus : cases of rubella and mumps had been circulating through the ship 's company since late 1935 . In March , Sydney was reassigned the 1st Cruiser Squadron , where she and the heavy cruiser HMAS Australia continued to enforce sanctions and participate in fleet exercises with Royal Navy units . Following the resolution of the Abyssinian crisis , Sydney departed for Australia on 14 July ; reaching Fremantle in late July before visiting Melbourne on 8 August and arriving in her namesake city three days later .
After reaching Australian waters , Sydney spent most of her time on fleet exercises and training cruises . In 1938 , the cruiser was one of several RAN units prepared to respond to the Munich crisis , but all ships stood down after the potential war was averted . From 17 to 19 April 1939 , Sydney was one of eight warships involved in a joint forces trade protection exercise off the south @-@ east Australian coast . In early August 1939 , Sydney was in Darwin , prior to visiting the Netherlands East Indies . However , in response to the events which prompted the start of World War II , Sydney was ordered to sail to Fremantle on a war footing , where she arrived on 22 August .
= = = Start of World War II = = =
Following the declaration of war , Sydney was instructed to carry out patrol and escort duties in Australian waters . Captain John Collins took over command of Sydney on 16 November . On 28 November , Sydney joined the Australian heavy cruisers Australia and Canberra in an unsuccessful four @-@ day search for the German pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee , which was known to be operating in the Indian Ocean . Sydney was relieved by HMAS Adelaide on 13 December , and sailed to Cockatoo Island in Sydney for a maintenance docking . The work was completed in late January 1940 , and as a shakedown cruise Sydney joined Canberra and the British ships Leander and Ramillies in escorting the Suez @-@ bound Anzac convoy US 1 ; Sydney broke off after the convoy left the east coast of Australia and returned to Sydney . Returning to Fremantle on 6 February , Sydney relieved Australia as the cruiser responsible for patrol and escort duties on the west coast .
On 19 April , Sydney joined the escort of Anzac convoy US 2 off Albany , and remained with the convoy until it reached the Cocos Island on 28 April and was replaced by French cruiser Suffren . The Australian cruiser set course for Fremantle , but on 1 May was assigned to the East Indies Station and rerouted to Colombo , where she arrived on 8 May . Arriving in Colombo on 8 May , Sydney was immediately tasked with meeting Anzac convoy US 3 off the Cocos Islands and escorting it across the Indian Ocean . The cruiser departed on 12 May , but while en route , she was instructed to make for the Mediterranean . Arriving back in Colombo on 18 May , Sydney replenished before sailing at high speed to Aden , where she arrived four days later . The Australian cruiser , accompanied by HM Ships Gloucester and Eagle , departed the next day , with the ships crossing the Suez Canal during the night of 25 – 26 May , and arriving in Alexandria that afternoon at 15 : 30 . Sydney was originally marked for operations in the Red Sea , but after observing the performance of an Australian five @-@ destroyer flotilla assigned to the British Mediterranean Fleet , Admiral Andrew Cunningham decided to " keep the Australian cruiser for himself " and attached Sydney to the Royal Navy 's 7th Cruiser Squadron .
= = = Mediterranean operations = = =
Sydney was in Alexandria harbour on 10 June 1940 , and that evening learned of Italy 's intention to declare war at midnight . By 01 : 00 on 11 June , all ships in harbour had departed to search for Italian warships in position to attack Alexandria , and secure the sea lines of communication in the eastern Mediterranean and Aegean . The Australian cruiser was involved in the westbound sweep , and sailed as far as the Gulf of Taranto during the four @-@ day operation . Apart from an unsuccessful depth charge attack on a suspected submarine during the afternoon of 13 June , Sydney did not encounter any enemy vessels .
On 21 June , Sydney fired in anger for the first time , joining the British cruisers Orion and Neptune , the French battleship Lorraine , and a force of destroyers in shelling the Italian port of Bardia . Sydney focused her fire on a military camp throughout the twenty @-@ two @-@ minute bombardment . During this operation , the Australian ship 's Walrus amphibian performed bombardment spotting for the squadron , but was fired on by three biplanes : although reported at the time as Italian Fiat CR.42s , the attackers were later determined to be British Gloster Gladiators . The pilot flew the damaged aircraft to Mersa Matruh , and was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for his skill in doing so , but the unrepairable Walrus was the only casualty of the operation . The next day , a retaliatory airstrike against the ships , by then having returned to Alexandria , failed to do damage . That same day , Germany and Vichy France signed the Second Armistice at Compiègne : although French warships ( which had until that point operated with the Allies ) were ordered to return to France and disarm , the British government was unwilling to allow them to fall into Axis hands . Sydney and the British warships in Alexandria turned their guns on the French , but unlike the situation in Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir , which deteriorated into a naval battle , British Admiral Cunningham and French Admiral René @-@ Emile Godfroy peacefully negotiated to disarm the ships at Alexandria .
Sydney and other elements of the 7th Squadron sailed from Alexandria on 27 June , escorting a Malta convoy . Late on 28 June , the ships engaged a force of three Italian destroyers . Although two Italian vessels were able to withdraw , the third , Espero was disabled . At 20 : 00 , Sydney ( which had little opportunity to fire during the engagement ) was detailed to recover any survivors and sink the destroyer while the rest of the force continued on to Malta . However , while 6 @,@ 000 yards ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) from Espero , the Italian ship fired two shells , both of which fell in line with but short of the cruiser . Sydney opened fire , and after four salvos struck the destroyer with no shots fired in return , resumed the approach . Espero sank at 20 : 35 , and Sydney remained in the area for almost two hours to collect survivors despite the risk of submarine attack , before she was ordered to withdraw to Alexandria . The cruiser rescued 47 Italians ( three of whom died from wounds during the return voyage ) , and left a fully provisioned cutter in the water to be used by other Italian survivors after Sydney had departed .
On the evening of 7 July , Sydney departed from Alexandria as part of a fleet including four other light cruisers , three battleships , an aircraft carrier , and sixteen destroyers , divided into three groups . The three groups were to rendezvous on 9 July at a point 120 nautical miles ( 220 km ; 140 mi ) east of Cape Passero and 150 nautical miles ( 280 km ; 170 mi ) from Malta , at which point the destroyers would escort two convoys outbound from Malta , while the other vessels would attack targets of opportunity around Sicily . However , early on 8 June , the British submarine HMS Phoenix reported that she had unsuccessfully attacked an Italian fleet including two battleships . Throughout the day , the fleet had to defend itself from multiple Italian air raids : at one point Sydney and the other cruisers of the 7th Squadron attacked what they thought was a high @-@ flying bomber , but was later determined to be the planet Venus . Aerial reconnaissance located the Italian force during the afternoon , which was made up of at least two battleships , accompanied by multiple cruisers and destroyers . The sightings of such a large force of warships , combined with the heavy air attack , led Admiral Andrew Cunningham to conclude that the Italians were also covering a major convoy , and decide to reposition his fleet between the Italians and Taranto , the projected destination .
Contact with the Italian fleet was lost during the night , but regained in the morning of 9 July . By 14 : 00 , the Allied fleet had positioned itself in the Italians ' path , and Cunningham ordered them west , to close on the projected position of the enemy and engage . Sydney spotted smoke at 14 : 45 , and made visual contact with a force of five cruisers just after 15 : 00 . The Allied cruiser squadron , supported by the battleship HMS Warspite altered their course northward , and at 15 : 20 , Sydney opened fire on an Italian Zara @-@ class cruiser , 23 @,@ 000 yards ( 21 @,@ 000 m ) distant , but both the Allied and Italian cruiser forces were unable to successfully hit their opposing numbers . Sydney remained unsuccessful until the late part of the engagement , when she successfully shelled a smokescreen @-@ laying destroyer . The naval component of what came to be known as the Battle of Calabria concluded around 17 : 00 , with Cunningham unwilling to pursue the Italian fleet through the smokescreen they had created . The Allied ships instead broke off for Malta , while enduring several heavy but ineffective air attacks ; during the safe delivery of Malta Convoy MA 5 and the return to Alexandria on 13 July , Sydney sustained no damage , but expended all her anti @-@ aircraft ammunition . Sydney 's participation in the battle earned the ship a battle honour : " Calabria 1940 " .
The Australian cruiser spent five days in Alexandria for resupply and maintenance , before departing for Crete with the British destroyer HMS Havock . They arrived at sunset on 18 July , and the next morning , the two ships were ordered to patrol the Gulf of Athens for Axis warships and shipping , while providing support for a four @-@ ship destroyer force ( HM Ships Hyperion , Ilex , Hero , and Hasty ) conducting an anti @-@ submarine sweep north of Crete . Believing that these two tasks were incompatible , and that protecting the destroyers was the more important , Sydney 's commander , Captain John Collins , ordered the two ships to move 100 nautical miles ( 190 km ; 120 mi ) south of their patrol area while maintaining radio silence . At 07 : 20 on 19 July , the destroyer force spotted and was spotted by a pair of Italian light cruisers ; Giovanni dalle Bande Nere and Bartolomeo Colleoni , which opened fire seven minutes later . The British destroyers turned to a north @-@ east heading and set off at 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) , broadcasting news of the attack to the silent Sydney while closing the gap between the two forces . Using the wireless signals to track the four destroyers , Sydney and Havock made to intercept the destroyers and their cruiser pursuit , and was able to close at least half an hour earlier than if they had followed their original instructions : when Sydney opened fire on Bande Nere at 08 : 29 , both sides were surprised by the appearance of the cruiser . Within minutes , Sydney had successfully damaged Bande Nere , and when the Italians withdrew to the south , the six Allied ships pursued . At 08 : 48 , with Bande Nere hiding behind a smoke screen , Sydney shifted her fire to Bartolomeo Colleoni , which was disabled by 09 : 33 . Collins ordered the destroyers to torpedo the ship and rescue survivors : Hyperion , Ilex , and Havock did so , while Hero and Hasty supported Sydney in continuing pursuit of Bande Nere . At 10 : 37 , the chase ended , as the faster Italian cruiser had outrun the Allies , visibility was reduced by smoke and haze , and ammunition aboard the pursuing ships was low : Sydney had ten shells left for her forward turrets . The six ships returned to Alexandria around 11 : 00 on 20 July after fending off several air attacks ( one of which damaged Havock ) , and were met by cheering from all ships in the harbour .
The only damage to Sydney during what came to be known as the Battle of Cape Spada was caused by a shell at 09 : 21 , which knocked a hole in the forward funnel , and wounded a sailor through splinter damage . For his actions , Collins was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath , while other officers and sailors from Sydney received two Distinguished Service Orders , two Distinguished Service Crosses , five Distinguished Service Medals , and twelve Mentions in Despatches between them . Sydney herself was awarded the battle honour " Spada 1940 " .
After refuelling and rearming , Sydney and HMS Neptune departed Alexandria on 27 July to join the covering force for a southbound convoy from the Aegean . The ships were attacked five times that afternoon by aircraft , but Sydney escaped with only minor damage and shrapnel wounds . The two cruisers broke away from the convoy the next day to locate and sink the Italian tanker Ermioni , which was supplying the Dodecanese Islands . The two cruisers located Ermioni just before dusk : Sydney provided anti @-@ submarine protection while the tanker 's crew were convinced to transfer to the British warships , after which Ermioni was shelled by Neptune . The two ships returned to Alexandria on 30 July , and Sydney departed the same day in company with HMS Orion for a three @-@ day patrol .
Back in Alexandria , Sydney underwent a refit , during which a 3 @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) high , 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 13 mm ) thick wall of armour plating was constructed around the 4 @-@ inch gun platform , while the ship 's company repainted the ship from standard grey to a naval camouflage pattern . The refit was completed by 12 August , when Sydney , Neptune , and five destroyers set off to interdict Axis shipping along the north African coast and the Aegean Sea . The operation was cancelled after no ships were located during the first two days , and Sydney was tasked with assisting a destroyer squadron during shore bombardments at Bomba and Bardia . At the end of the month , the cruiser joined the escort of Malta convoy MB 5 .
On the return voyage , Sydney and several other vessels were tasked with attacking Italian facilities . Canvas and timber were used to alter the cruiser 's profile to resemble an Italian Condottieri @-@ class cruiser , allowing her to manoeuvre close to Scarpanto during the night of 3 – 4 September . At dawn , Sydney and the British destroyer Ilex attacked the Italian Makri Yalo Airbase at Scarpanto ; the cruiser fired 135 shells in 25 minutes , while the destroyer fended off five E @-@ boats , sinking two . On completion , the two ships rejoined the fleet , but were again mistaken for Italian warships and nearly fired on before Sydney raised the White Ensign and cut down her disguise . Admiral Cunningham congratulated Sydney with the message " Well Done . You are a stormy petrel . " , which was adopted as a nickname for the cruiser . On her return to Alexandria , the Australian cruiser underwent another short refit , which was completed late in the month : on 24 September Sydney supported HMS Protector during the interception of a French merchant ship , then completed a two @-@ day patrol west of Cyprus . Late on 28 September , Sydney joined the heavy escort of a Malta @-@ bound troop convoy . During the return voyage , Sydney and HMS Orion left the fleet on 1 October for a sweep of the Aegean Sea , which was concluded with a brief bombardment of Maltezana before returning to Alexandria two days later .
The entire Mediterranean fleet sailed from Alexandria on 8 October to provide cover for several Malta Convoys , and attempt to draw the Italian fleet into battle . The convoys reached their destination safely , and the operation was uneventful for Sydney ; the only contact with Italian forces was an engagement during the early morning of 12 October between the British cruiser Ajax and seven Italian torpedo boats and destroyers , of which Ajax sank three and damaged a fourth . From 25 October , Sydney , Orion , and the destroyers Jervis and Juno were engaged in a sweep of the Aegean for Axis vessels , reaching as far north as the Dardanelles . No major incidents occurred until 28 October , when the Italians invaded Greece : the four ships were recalled to Alexandria , where they arrived that evening . Shortly after , the two cruisers were joined by HM Ships York and Gloucester and met the main force of the Mediterranean fleet west of Crete on 30 October . Over the next few days , the warships patrolled around Crete and along the Greek mainland , and provided cover for the first supply convoy to Crete .
On 5 November , Sydney and HMS Ajax departed from Port Said with military equipment to be used to establish an Allied advanced base at Souda Bay , Crete . After delivering the equipment , which included almost 1 @,@ 000 soldiers , the equipment for a Bofors battery , cases of food , and several trucks , the cruisers rejoined the main fleet . The Mediterranean Fleet remained on patrol for several days , and during the night of 11 – 12 November , while the bulk of the fleet supported the world 's first all @-@ naval @-@ aircraft attack on the Italian fleet anchored in Taranto , Sydney , Ajax , Orion and the destroyers Nubian and Mohawk attempted to transit the Strait of Otranto as a diversion . Despite the mission of " looking for trouble " , the northbound passage through the strait passed without incident . The return was not so uneventful : at 01 : 20 , a convoy of four merchantmen with two escorting destroyers was spotted by Sydney 's lookouts . The Allied warships manoeuvred in close , and opened fire at 01 : 27 : Sydney directing her fire onto a freighter 7 @,@ 000 yards ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) away . During the 23 @-@ minute engagement , the cruiser successfully contributed to the destruction of three merchant ships and damaged a destroyer , avoided a torpedo , and unsuccessfully fired two in return . At 01 : 57 , the undamaged Allied force departed the strait , and met the main fleet before midday .
From 15 to 20 November , Sydney and three other cruisers transported 4 @,@ 000 Allied soldiers and their equipment from Alexandria to the Piraeus as reinforcements for the Greek military . On returning to Alexandria , Sydney deployed with the majority of the Mediterranean fleet to cover multiple convoys across the sea : the Australian cruiser spent the remainder of the month operating throughout the eastern and central Mediterranean , and was bombed by Italian aircraft on 24 November at Souda Bay , but escaped damage . Sydney started December in the Aegean , where she escorted convoys and shelled the port of Valona , then proceeded to Malta for a refit and repairs to her rudder , which lasted until the end of the year . During this refit , the cruiser was fitted with degaussing equipment . The ship rejoined the fleet on 8 January 1941 , when she was instructed to head home after proceeding along the north coast of Africa and linking up with any Australia @-@ bound merchant ships she encountered . The recall was attributed to the need to bring Sydney in for a major refit and give her personnel leave , a plan to spread combat experience throughout the RAN by trading the cruiser with her sister ship , Perth , and a need to protect Australia against the German merchant raiders operating in the area , particularly following the attacks on Nauru .
Before leaving , 100 of the ship 's company were removed on 11 January , so they could be sent to England to help man the new N @-@ class destroyers . The next day , the ship sailed for Aden via the Suez Canal . Sydney and the troopship Empress of Canada left Aden on 16 January to join Convoy SW 4B , which Sydney escorted until relieved by HMS Ceres four days later . The Australian cruiser was instructed to attack any Italian ships at Mogadiscio , but as there were no large merchant ships in port and Sydney was forbidden to attack the harbour itself , she then proceeded to the Seychelles to refuel . On 24 January , Sydney was one of several warships which responded to an attack on the merchantman Mandasor by the German merchant raider Atlantis . Despite a three @-@ day search , Sydney did not come into contact with Atlantis . Sydney resumed her voyage home , and arrived in her namesake city after sunset on 9 February . The cruiser anchored in Watsons Bay for the night , then sailed into the inner harbour the next morning and tied up alongside at Sydney Cove to a heroes ' welcome . On 11 February , a holiday was declared for school students in Sydney , so they could join the thousands of people who witnessed the ship 's company perform a freedom of entry march .
As well as the battle honours for the battles at Calabria and Cape Spada , Sydney was granted the " Mediterranean 1940 " battle honour for her various actions during the Mediterranean naval campaign . During the eight @-@ month deployment , the only fatality in the ship 's company was a death due to illness .
= = = Australian waters = = =
Following a short refit , Sydney sailed for Fremantle on 27 February , where she was assigned to escort and patrol tasks in the Indian Ocean . This primarily involved meeting convoys off the southern Australian coast and escorting them on the next leg of their journey , either westbound to the Middle East and Europe , or northwards to the Dutch East Indies .
In April , Sydney escorted the troopship Queen Mary from Fremantle to Jervis Bay , before embarking Admiral Ragnar Colvin and a party of advisors from all three branches of the Australian military and transporting them to Singapore by 19 April for a secret conference between the British Commonwealth , the Netherlands East Indies , and the United States of America . The cruiser returned to Fremantle before month 's end , after which Collins handed command over to Captain Joseph Burnett on 15 May . Shortly after , the cruiser escorted the transport SS Zealandia during a troop transport run to Singapore . Sydney escorted the troopship to Sunda Strait , where responsibility was handed over to the British light cruiser HMS Danae . In early June , Sydney met Zealandia and Danae on the troopship 's return voyage , and took over escort duties from Sunda Strait back to Fremantle . After replenishing in Fremantle , Zealandia joined a multiple ship convoy to the east coast of Australia , which was also escorted by Sydney . The convoy departed on 24 June and made for Sydney , after which the cruiser joined the escort of a Pacific convoy before returning for maintenance . This concluded on 8 August , when Sydney escorted the troopship Awatea to New Zealand , then Fiji .
On her return to Sydney at the end of August , the cruiser joined the troopships Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth during the first leg of their voyage ( Anzac convoy US 12A ) , escorting them until rendezvousing with Canberra in the Great Australian Bight . Sydney then sailed to Melbourne , and remained until 19 September , during which her camouflage was repainted in a new pattern . The cruiser then escorted the four @-@ ship Anzac convoy US 12B to Fremantle : heavy seas while crossing the Great Australian Bight caused " A " turret to become jammed on a port facing . This was repaired in Fremantle , and the convoy proceeded to Sunda Strait , where Sydney handed the merchant ships over to the British cruisers Glasgow and Danae on 3 October and set course for Fremantle . On the night of 5 – 6 October , a mysterious ship that responded to challenge signals near Rottnest Island then disappeared led the Naval Officer in Charge Fremantle to believe that the approaches to the harbour had been mined . Sydney was diverted to intercept Queen Mary before the troopship reached Fremantle , and ordered to remain with her until a channel was swept and found free of mines . After reaching port on 7 October , Sydney officially assumed patrol and escort duties in Western Australian waters .
The next few weeks were uneventful for Sydney , and between 18 and 29 October , the cruiser visited Geraldton and Bunbury . On 2 November , the Australian cruiser sailed to meet Zealandia off Albany . The troopship was on a second troop transport run to Singapore ; delivering the 8th Division . The two ships returned to Fremantle , and on 11 November , they departed for Sunda Strait . Zealandia was handed over on 17 November to HMS Durban for the next leg , and the Australian cruiser turned for home : she was scheduled to arrive in Fremantle late on 20 November .
= = Final battle and loss = =
Note : all times in this section are UTC + 7
On the afternoon of 19 November 1941 , Sydney was off the coast of Western Australia , near Carnarvon , and heading south towards Fremantle . Around 15 : 55 , the cruiser spotted a merchant ship on a northbound course , which quickly turned away from the coast at 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . Sydney increased speed to 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) and made to intercept . As she closed the gap , Sydney began to signal the unidentified merchantman , first by signal light , then after no reply was forthcoming and the distance between the two ships had decreased , by a combination of light and signal flag . The merchant ship hoisted her callsign , but as she was ahead and just port of Sydney , the flags were obscured by the funnel . A request from the cruiser that the merchant ship make her signal letters clear , which the signals officer did by lengthening the halyard and swinging the flags clear . The callsign was that of the Dutch ship Straat Malakka , but she was not on Sydney 's list of ships meant to be in the area . Further flag signals were exchanged between the ships , with Sydney asking the Dutch ship 's destination and cargo .
At 17 : 00 , a distress signal was transmitted by Straat Malakka , indicating that she was being pursued by a merchant raider . Following this , Sydney pulled alongside the merchant ship from astern ; pacing the merchantman on a parallel course , approximately 1 @,@ 300 metres ( 4 @,@ 300 ft ) away . Sydney 's main guns and port torpedo launcher were trained on the ship , while she sent the interior portion of Straat Malakka 's secret callsign . Fifteen minutes later , at around 17 : 30 , the merchantman had not replied , and Sydney sent a signal ordering her to show the secret callsign .
Straat Malakka had not replied because she was the German auxiliary cruiser Kormoran in disguise , and when asked to reveal a callsign the Germans did not know , they responded by decamouflaging and opened fire . Prompted by the raider 's unveiling , Sydney also fired ( accounts are divided as to which ship fired first ) , but while her first salvo either missed or passed through Kormoran 's upper superstructure with minimal damage , four of the raider 's six 15 @-@ centimetre ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns ( the other two guns were on the port side and could not fire to starboard ) were able to destroy the cruiser 's bridge and gun director tower , damage the forward turrets , and set the aircraft on fire . Sydney did not fire again until after the raider 's sixth salvo : " Y " turret fired without effect , but " X " turret was able to put multiple shells into Kormoran , damaging machinery spaces and one of the raider 's guns , while igniting an oil tank . During this , Kormoran maintained heavy fire , and around the time of the eighth or ninth German salvo , a torpedo launched at the start of the engagement hit Sydney just forward of " A " turret and near the ASDIC compartment ( the weakest point on the ship 's hull ) , ripping a hole in the side and causing the bow of the cruiser to angle down . Down by the bows , the cruiser swung hard to port , and passed behind Kormoran ; during the turn , shells from the raider knocked " B " turret off Sydney .
By 17 : 35 , Sydney was heading south and losing speed , wreathed in smoke from multiple fires . Her main armament was disabled ( the two aft turrets had jammed on a port facing and could not be swung around ) , and her secondary guns were out of effective range . The cruiser continued to be hit by shells from Kormoran 's aft guns as the distance between the ships increased . The Germans reported that around 17 : 45 , all four torpedoes from Sydney 's starboard launcher were fired , but as Kormoran was manoeuvring to bring her port broadside to bear , they all missed . In fact , only two torpedoes from Sydney 's port launcher were ever fired , which must have happened some time earlier . The raider 's engines broke down after this turn , but she continued to fire on Sydney at a high rate despite being immobilised , although many of the shells would have missed as the distance between the two ships increased . Kormoran ceased fire at 17 : 50 , with the range at 6 @,@ 600 yards ( 6 @,@ 000 m ) , and launched another torpedo at 18 : 00 , but missed Sydney .
The Australian cruiser continued on a south @-@ south @-@ east heading at low speed ; observers aboard Kormoran doubted that Sydney was under control . Although disappearing over the horizon shortly later , the glow from the damaged , burning warship was consistently seen by the Germans until about 22 : 00 , and sporadically until midnight . At some point during the night , Sydney lost buoyancy and sank : the bow was torn off as she submerged and descended almost vertically , while the rest of the hull glided 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) forward as she sank , hitting the bottom upright and stern first . Sydney 's shells had crippled Kormoran ; the German sailors abandoned ship after it was determined that below @-@ deck fires could not be controlled before they reached the gun magazines or the mines in the cargo hold . The raider was scuttled at midnight , and sank slowly until the mine deck exploded half an hour later .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Sydney 's failure to reach Fremantle on 20 November was not initially cause for concern , as several factors might have delayed the cruiser , none of which were sufficient reason to break the order to maintain wireless silence . However , with no sign of the cruiser by 23 November , shore @-@ based wireless stations began transmitting orders for Sydney to break silence and report in . A raft of German survivors was recovered by a British tanker on 24 November , at which point a large @-@ scale air and sea search began . During this search , which lasted until the evening of 29 November , 318 survivors from Kormoran 's 399 personnel were found , but apart from a carley float and a lifebelt , nothing from Sydney or the 645 aboard was recovered .
Australian Prime Minister John Curtin officially announced the loss of the cruiser during the afternoon of 30 November . Sydney 's destruction was a major blow to Australian morale and military capability : her ship 's company made up 35 % of the RAN 's wartime casualties . The cruiser 's loss did not have the same impact internationally ; two British capital ships were destroyed during the same fortnight , and Japan entered World War II with attacks on Pearl Harbor and Singapore three weeks later .
The German survivors were taken to Fremantle and interrogated . Attempts to learn what had happened were hampered by the German officers instructing their sailors to obfuscate the enemy with false answers , people describing events they did not witness but heard of later , and difficulty in keeping groups separated in order to check their stories against each other . Despite this , Australian authorities were able to piece together the broad details of the battle , which was verified by a group of German sailors who had been taken to Sydney instead : their interviews showed the same commonalities and inconsistencies as those from Fremantle , and the interrogators concluded that the true story was being recounted . Interrogations were concluded in December , and by the end of January , Kormoran 's personnel had been moved to prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps in Victoria , where they remained until their repatriation to Germany in early 1947 .
On 6 February 1942 , a Carley float containing a dead body was spotted just off Christmas Island and towed ashore . Examination of the raft and its occupant led the island 's inhabitants to believe that they were from Sydney . Although a 1949 investigation conducted by the Royal Navy stated the raft was not from HMAS Sydney , and while some historians agreed , others concluded that the raft and the body originated from Sydney . The body was exhumed in October 2006 and reburied at Geraldton Cemetery in November 2008 , after DNA was extracted . As of 2009 , attempts to compare the DNA with relatives of Sydney personnel had yet to identify the unknown sailor .
= = = Controversy = = =
The battle between Sydney and Kormoran is seen as controversial : the disbelief that a modified merchant ship could so successfully defeat a cruiser combined with the lack of Australian survivors led some to believe that the German account was false . Rumours that the battle was not what it seemed had been around since Sydney failed to reach Fremantle on schedule in 1941 , but several historians ( including Tom Frame and Wesley Olson ) credit Michael Montgomery and his 1980 book Who Sank The Sydney ? with igniting the controversy .
The main claims made by supporters of an alternative view of the engagement include : that the Germans fired on Sydney before raising their battle ensign , or after using a flag of surrender or signals of distress to lure the cruiser in , that a Japanese submarine was partially or completely responsible for sinking Sydney , that the involvement of the Japanese was covered up to lure the United States into the war , and that Australian survivors were killed in the water to eliminate witnesses . Other claims , less widely heard , include a belief that Sydney was not at action stations and thus not prepared for Kormoran 's attack , distress calls from the cruiser were heard by Australian shore facilities but ignored , and that survivors were captured then executed by the Japanese . These claims have been proven false by historians and researchers ; the 1998 inquiry by the Joint Standing Committee for Foreign Affairs , Defence , and Trade concluded that the German accounts were a " feasible " interpretation of the battle , but there was no reliable evidence to support any of the alternative claims , while the 2009 report for the Cole Inquiry ( the third volume of which was completely dedicated to the " frauds , conspiracies and speculations " surrounding the battle ) found nothing to substantiate any of the theories raised .
In addition , most researchers have speculated as to why Sydney was so close to an unknown vessel , with various levels of blame assigned to Captain Burnett for the demise of his ship . Theories to explain Burnett 's actions include that he was inexperienced or incompetent , deceived by Kormoran 's disguise , the idea that he was under conflicting orders instructing that raiders be attacked at range but enemy supply ships be captured , or that he was trying to clearly identify the merchantman .
= = Search and rediscovery = =
Despite the approximate position of Kormoran being known ( most German accounts giving the battle coordinates as 26 ° S 111 ° E ) , the required search area for both ships was immense . Calculating a search area was complicated by the fact that several people distrusted the German location , and believed the ships would be found further south and closer to shore . Several attempts to bring supporters of the ' northern ' and ' southern ' positions to a consensus and narrow down the potential search area were unsuccessful .
Multiple searches were carried out by the RAN between 1974 and 1997 ( using the survey ship HMAS Moresby and later the trials ship HMAS Protector ) , but efforts were restricted to the continental shelf , and were usually in response to civilian claims that they had found Sydney at a certain location . Other searches were conducted by RAAF aircraft carrying magnetometers ; again , these were only in response to possible location claims . These searches failed to find either ship .
American shipwreck hunter David Mearns first learned of the battle in 1996 , and began to study it as a prelude to a search for the ships in 2001 . Mearns , with the aid of other researchers , focused on primary sources ( rediscovering several archive files and diaries in the process ) , and came to the conclusion that the German accounts were true , and that the ship would be found at the northern position . After attracting the interest of the RAN , Mearns entered into a partnership with HMAS Sydney Search , a not @-@ for @-@ profit company set up to administer and help fund an expedition to locate Sydney and Kormoran . State and Federal government grants totalling just under A $ 5 million , coupled with private and corporate donations , were used to fund a 45 @-@ day search from the end of February to early April 2008 .
Mearns ' plan was to inspect a 52 @-@ by @-@ 34 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 96 by 63 km ; 60 by 39 mi ) search box around the German location with a deep @-@ water , towed side @-@ scan sonar to locate Kormoran , after which the search team would be able to narrow down the search area for Sydney . After locating one or both vessels , the search ship ( survey vessel SV Geosounder , chartered from the subsea exploration company DOF Subsea Australia ) would return to port and replace the sonar with a remotely operated vehicle ( ROV ) to photograph and video the wrecks . After problems with equipment and weather , Geosounder commenced the search , and located Kormoran on 12 March 2008 at 26 ° 05 ′ 46 ″ S 111 ° 04 ′ 33 ″ E. Using the newly discovered wreck and the accounts of the Germans describing Sydney 's heading , speed , and last sighting after the battle , a 20 @-@ by @-@ 18 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 37 by 33 km ; 23 by 21 mi ) search box for the cruiser was calculated : the dramatically smaller area was due to the quality of information regarding Sydney 's position and heading in relation to Kormoran , while the raider 's location consisted of only broad coordinates .
Sydney was located on 17 March 2008 just after 11 : 00 , only hours after Kormoran 's discovery was made public . News that the cruiser had been found was announced by Prime Minister Kevin Rudd on 18 March . Sydney 's wreck was located at 26 ° 14 ′ 31 ″ S 111 ° 12 ′ 48 ″ E at 2 @,@ 468 metres ( 8 @,@ 097 ft ) below sea level , 11 @.@ 4 nautical miles ( 21 @.@ 1 km ; 13 @.@ 1 mi ) south @-@ east of the raider . The bow of the cruiser had broken off as the ship sank , and was located at the opposite end of a debris field stretching less than 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) north @-@ west from the hull , which was sitting upright on the ocean floor . On discovery , both wrecks were placed under the protection of the Historic Shipwrecks Act 1976 , which penalises anyone disturbing a protected shipwreck with a fine of up to A $ 10 @,@ 000 or a maximum five years imprisonment . Both wrecks were placed on the Australian National Heritage List on 14 March 2011 .
After the side @-@ scan sonar aboard Geosounder was switched out for the ROV ( again delayed by technical issues and more bad weather ) , the survey ship returned to Sydney 's wreck site on 3 April , and performed a detailed study of the ship and her debris field . Inspections were also carried out on Kormoran and the believed battle site ( the latter found to be outcrops of pillow lava ) , before Mearns declared the search over on 7 April . In April 2015 , an expedition to the wrecks by Curtin University and the Western Australian Museum commenced , with the objective of using 3D imaging to map the wrecksites for further study , and to determine if any deterioration since the 2008 discovery requires the development of a conservation management plan .
= = Awards , memorials , and legacy = =
Sydney was granted the battle honour " Kormoran 1941 " in recognition of the damage done to Kormoran . This was one of only three honours awarded during the 20th century for the sinking of a single ship , and the second to a ship named Sydney ( the other had been awarded to the previous Sydney for her defeat of the German light cruiser SMS Emden at the Battle of Cocos ) .
The main memorial for the loss of Sydney is located at Geraldton , Western Australia , on top of Mount Scott . Planning for the memorial commenced in late 1997 , after a speech by Sydney researcher Glenys McDonald at the local Rotary club . The first , temporary memorial ( consisting of a large boulder , a flagpole , and a bronze plaque ) , was installed prior to 19 November 1998 , and was used in a remembrance ceremony that year . During the playing of the Last Post , a large flock of seagulls flew over the participants and headed out to sea in formation : this became a major feature of the permanent memorial . The permanent memorial included four major elements : a stele of the same size and shape of the ship 's prow , a granite wall listing the ship 's company , a bronze statue of a woman looking out to sea and waiting in vain for the cruiser to come home , and a dome ( dubbed the " dome of souls " ) onto which 645 stainless steel seagulls were welded . The memorial ( minus the stele , which had not been completed in time ) was dedicated on 18 November 2001 , and was used the next evening for a commemoration ceremony marking the 60th anniversary of the ship 's loss . In May 2009 , the memorial was recognised by the Australian government as being of national significance . By 2011 , the stele had been completed , and a fifth element — a pool of remembrance containing a map of the region and the marked position of Sydney 's wreck — had been added .
Other memorials commemorating the loss of Sydney include an oak tree planted at the Melbourne Shrine of Remembrance , and an avenue in Carnarvon lined with 645 trees . The service of Sydney , along with the other ships of the same name , is commemorated by a stained @-@ glass window at the Garden Island Naval Chapel , and by the mast of the first Sydney at Bradleys Head , New South Wales . The names of those killed aboard Sydney are inscribed at the Australian War Memorial .
The " HMAS Sydney Replacement Fund " was established to help finance the acquisition of a replacement ship . The AU £ 426 @,@ 000 raised was contributed to the purchase of Australia 's first aircraft carrier in the late 1940s ; the Majestic @-@ class carrier was named HMAS Sydney upon her commissioning into the RAN in December 1948 . This Sydney operated during the Korean War , then was modified into a troop transport and served in the Vietnam War , before her sale for scrap in 1973 .
The Supermarine Seagull V aircraft that operated from Sydney between 1937 and 1938 , still survives as part of the collection of the Royal Air Force Museum in London .
The " HMAS Sydney II Cup " was introduced in 2010 as a commemorative trophy competed for by two Australian Football League clubs , the Sydney Swans ( representing the ship 's namesake ) and the West Coast Eagles ( representing the site of the ship 's loss ) , in an annual match . The trophy is based on the cruiser 's battle honour board , while the design of a Best On Ground trophy for the match 's best player is based on a shell casing from the frigate Sydney .
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= Joe McGinnity =
Joseph Jerome McGinnity ( March 20 , 1871 – November 14 , 1929 ) was an American right @-@ handed pitcher in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) in the late 19th and early 20th century . McGinnity played in MLB for ten years , pitching for the National League 's ( NL ) Baltimore Orioles ( 1899 ) and Brooklyn Superbas ( 1900 ) , before jumping to the American League ( AL ) to play for the Baltimore Orioles ( AL ) ( 1901 – 1902 ) . He returned to the NL with the New York Giants ( 1902 – 1908 ) . McGinnity continued to pitch in the minor leagues , eventually retiring from baseball for good at the age of 54 .
In MLB , he won 246 games with a 2 @.@ 66 earned run average ( ERA ) . He had seven 20 @-@ win seasons and two 30 @-@ win seasons . Including his time in the minor leagues , McGinnity won close to 500 games as a professional ballplayer . He led MLB in wins five times ( 1899 , 1900 , 1903 , 1904 , and 1906 ) and ERA once ( 1904 ) . With the Giants , he won the 1905 World Series . His teams also won NL pennants in 1900 and 1904 .
McGinnity was nicknamed " Iron Man " because he worked in an iron foundry during the baseball offseasons . His nickname came to convey his longevity and durability , as he routinely pitched in both games of doubleheaders . He set NL records for complete games ( 48 ) and innings pitched ( 434 ) in a single season , which still stand . McGinnity is considered one of the better players in the history of the New York Giants . The Veterans Committee elected him to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1946 .
= = Early life = =
McGinnity 's father , Peter , was born in Dublin , Ireland . His last name was McGinity before he came to United States . He changed it by adding an " n " after he emigrated to the United States in 1861 . Peter worked in coal mines and on the farm owned by John and Rebecca Denning , and they accepted him , allowing him to move in with them in their Henry County farm . John and Rebecca moved to Oregon , leaving the homestead in the hands of Peter and their daughter , Hannah . The two married in August 1865 , three months before the birth of their first son , William . Their second son , Peter , was born in 1869 , and Joe was born in 1871 . The McGinnitys had four more children .
Joe received little formal schooling . Due to the transient lifestyle of coal miners , his family moved frequently during his childhood . The McGinnitys moved to Gallatin County in 1878 . Two days after the birth of their seventh child , Peter died in an accident . At the age of eight , Joe and his older brothers went to work in the mines to support their family . In 1880 , the family moved to Springfield , Illinois , where Joe and his brothers worked for the Springfield Coal Company . They moved to Decatur , Illinois less than six months later , continuing to mine coal , while their mother cleaned houses .
= = Baseball career = =
= = = Early career = = =
While living in Decatur , McGinnity began playing baseball with other coal miners in their leisure time . The owner of the Decatur Coal Company founded the Decatur Baseball Association in 1886 . An outfielder , McGinnity substituted for his team 's pitcher in an 1888 game , which he won . He continued to pitch from that point on . He pitched for semi @-@ professional teams based in Decatur in 1888 and 1889 . His family headed west , stopping in the Indian Territory on their way to Montana , where Hannah 's sister struck gold in their coal mine . McGinnity and his brothers worked in a coal mine in Krebs . There , he met his future wife , Mary Redpath , the oldest daughter of a fellow coal miner . McGinnity also played baseball for the local team . He increased baseball 's popularity in the area , and was later referred to as " the father of Oklahoma baseball " by a sportswriter for The Oklahoman , as he organized , managed , and pitched for teams in Krebs . One of these teams began traveling to other towns along the Missouri – Kansas – Texas Railroad to play against their local teams . He also pitched for teams in neighboring towns .
John McCloskey , the manager of the minor league baseball Montgomery Colts of the Class @-@ B Southern League , heard about McGinnity 's pitching . McCloskey signed McGinnity , who made his professional debut with the Colts in 1893 . McCloskey habitually baited umpires during games , a trait which McGinnity learned . The league folded as a result of financial troubles related to the Panic of 1893 . Jimmie Manning , manager of the Southern League franchise in Savannah , Georgia , became manager of the Kansas City Blues of the Class @-@ A Western League for the 1894 season , and signed McGinnity to pitch for the Blues . Combined for Montgomery and Kansas City , McGinnity had a 21 – 29 win – loss record , while walking more batters than he could strikeout , and allowing more than a hit per inning pitched . According to a Western League umpire , catcher Tim Donahue tipped McGinnity 's pitches to opposing batters due to a personal feud . As McGinnity continued to struggle for Kansas City , he requested his release in June .
McGinnity moved to Springfield , Illinois , where he worked as a coal miner , bartender , and operated a saloon . McGinnity also pitched locally for semi @-@ professional teams in Springfield and Decatur , receiving a salary between $ 1 to $ 3 ( between $ 27 @.@ 35 to $ 85 @.@ 33 in current dollar terms ) for each game . During this time , McGinnity developed a sidearm pitch he nicknamed " Old Sal " , described as a " slow curve " , which became a feature of his later success . He also improved his fielding , as opponents attempted to bunt " Old Sal " .
While pitching for a semi @-@ professional team , McGinnity defeated the National League 's ( NL ) Baltimore Orioles in an exhibition game after he had already defeated a team from Chatham , Illinois earlier in the day . Pat Wright , who managed Springfield 's semi @-@ professional team , was named manager of the Peoria Distillers of the Class @-@ B Western Association , and he signed McGinnity to Peoria for the 1898 season , marking his return to professional baseball . Armed with " Old Sal " , McGinnity compiled a 9 – 4 record for Peoria , allowing only 118 hits and 60 walks while striking out 74 batters in 142 innings . He pitched a complete 21 @-@ inning game , believed to be the second longest professional baseball game to date . With low attendance and the distraction of the Spanish – American War , the Western Association folded in August .
= = = Major League Baseball = = =
Former Brooklyn Grooms player George Pinkney , who lived in Peoria during his retirement , saw McGinnity pitch , and contacted Brooklyn owner Charles Ebbets to recommend he sign McGinnity . He signed McGinnity in the spring of 1899 for $ 150 a month ( $ 4 @,@ 267 in current dollar terms ) . The syndicate that owned Brooklyn also owned the Baltimore Orioles .
With the ownership consolidation , Orioles player @-@ manager Ned Hanlon , who received an ownership stake in the clubs , moved from Baltimore to Brooklyn and assigned many of his best players to Brooklyn , including Joe Kelley , Dan McGann , Hughie Jennings and Willie Keeler . Hanlon assigned McGinnity to the Orioles for the 1899 season after seeing his unorthodox pitching delivery and slow pitching speed . With the Orioles , McGinnity played with John McGraw , who succeeded Hanlon as player @-@ manager , and Wilbert Robinson , who caught McGinnity . McGraw and Robinson had refused to relocate to Brooklyn due to their investment in a Baltimore restaurant . The two imparted their aggressive style of play to McGinnity . In his first year in the NL , McGinnity had a 28 – 16 record . His 28 wins led the NL , while he ranked second with 48 games , third with a 2 @.@ 68 earned run average ( ERA ) , and fourth with 366 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched .
After the 1899 season , the NL voted to contract four teams , which included the Orioles . Hanlon assigned McGinnity to Brooklyn , now known as the " Superbas " . McGinnity posted a 28 – 8 record for Brooklyn in the 1900 season . His 28 wins and 343 innings pitched led the league , as the Dodgers won the NL pennant . McGinnity also pitched two complete games in the Chronicle @-@ Telegraph Cup , as the Superbas defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates . Rather than draw straws to decide who would keep the trophy , the team voted to award it to McGinnity .
With the formation of the American League ( AL ) as a competitor to the NL , and rumors that the AL 's Detroit Tigers were interested in McGinnity , Brooklyn offered McGinnity a $ 5 @,@ 000 contract ( $ 136 @,@ 750 in current dollar terms ) to stay with Brooklyn . McGinnity considered retiring from baseball , but ultimately jumped to the AL , signing with the Baltimore Orioles of the AL before the 1901 season . He received a salary of $ 2 @,@ 800 ( $ 76 @,@ 580 in current dollar terms ) , choosing less money in an upstart league for the chance to be reunited with McGraw , who was player @-@ manager and part @-@ owner of the Orioles .
Fighting continued to erupt in games McGraw managed . During a brawl that erupted during a game against the Detroit Tigers on August 21 , 1901 , McGinnity spat on umpire Tom Connolly . McGinnity was arrested for the incident and permanently suspended by AL president Ban Johnson , who wanted there to be no fighting in AL games . Johnson later cut the suspension down to 12 days after McGinnity apologized . McGinnity compiled a 26 – 20 record for the 1901 Orioles , and his 48 games , 39 complete games , and 382 innings pitched led the AL .
McGinnity began the 1902 season with the Orioles . However , the franchise began to fall into significant debt . Joe Kelley , star player for the Orioles and son @-@ in @-@ law of part @-@ owner John Mahon , reported that the team owed as much as $ 12 @,@ 000 ( $ 328 @,@ 200 in current dollar terms ) . Unable to afford that debt , Mahon purchased shares of the team from Kelley and player @-@ manager John McGraw , who had resigned from the team and signed with the New York Giants of the NL . With this , Mahon became the majority shareholder . On July 17 , 1902 , Mahon sold his interest in the Orioles to Andrew Freedman , principal owner of the Giants , and John T. Brush , principal owner of the Cincinnati Reds , also of the NL . That day , Freedman and Brush released McGinnity , McGraw , Kelley , Roger Bresnahan , Jack Cronin , Cy Seymour , and Dan McGann from their Oriole contracts . Brush then signed Kelley and Seymour to the Reds , while Freedman signed McGinnity , Bresnahan , Cronin , and McGann , joining McGraw , his new player @-@ manager , on the Giants . McGinnity attempted to contact Johnson that night , offering to stay with the Orioles if he could receive Johnson 's personal assurance that he was welcome to stay . McGinnity did not hear back from Johnson , who had left his phone off the hook that night to avoid being contacted , and joined his teammates with the Giants .
With the Giants for the 1903 season , McGinnity won 31 games . He also set MLB records with 48 games started and 434 innings pitched , which remain NL records today . Jack Chesbro , pitching for the New York Highlanders of the American League during the 1904 season , set the current MLB records with 55 games started and 454 2 ⁄ 3 innings . In 1903 , McGinnity started both games of a doubleheader on numerous occasions . He performed this feat three times in a single month , winning all six games . On the final instance , The New York Times reported " he seemed fresh enough to tackle the visitors for a third contest if that were necessary " . He pitched over 100 innings in the month of August . Wins by McGinnity and fellow pitcher Christy Mathewson accounted for 73 % of the Giants ' winning games in 1903 , setting an MLB record for a pitching tandem . After the season , McGinnity and some of his teammates threatened to quit the Giants , accusing Brush , now the Giants owner , of going back on a promise to pay the team a monetary bonus for having finished among the top three teams in the NL , as well as a share of the gate receipts from exhibition games , for which they were paid $ 56 @.@ 35 ( $ 1 @,@ 484 in current dollar terms ) , though Brush allegedly had made over $ 200 @,@ 000 ( $ 5 @,@ 267 @,@ 407 in current dollar terms ) . McGinnity claimed that he would pitch in the California League , as he had received a salary offer for " $ 1 @,@ 000 ( $ 26 @,@ 337 in current dollar terms ) more than [ he ] got in New York " . Jack Warner eventually joined McGinnity in publicly threatening to quit .
McGinnity set a MLB record during the 1904 season recording his tenth win in 21 team games on May 21 , the fewest team games to for a pitcher to reach the mark . In 1904 , McGinnity had a 35 – 8 record , leading the NL in games ( 51 ) innings pitched ( 408 ) , shutouts ( 9 ) , saves ( 5 ) , and his career @-@ best 1 @.@ 61 ERA . With the Giants competing for the pennant , McGinnity again won both games in a doubleheader three times in a matter of weeks . Aided by McGinnity , the Giants again won the NL pennant . However , they did not compete in the 1904 World Series as Brush and McGraw refused to face the AL champion Boston Pilgrims , following their altercations with Johnson . After the 1904 season , McGinnity attempted to hold out from the Giants when Brush refused to allow McGinnity to play winter baseball with a team in the Southern United States .
McGinnity won 21 games in the 1905 season , as the Giants won the NL pennant . This year , the Giants participated in the 1905 World Series , against the AL champion Philadelphia Athletics . McGinnity started Games Two and Four of the five game series against the Athletics , winning one and losing one , while Mathewson pitched the other three . All five games , including the game McGinnity lost to Chief Bender , were shutouts . In 1906 , McGinnity again led the NL in wins , with 27 . This came in spite of a suspension McGinnity served for fighting Pirates catcher Heinie Peitz , which NL president Harry Pulliam described as " attempting to make the ball park a slaughterhouse . " The Mayor of Pittsburgh , who attended the game , insisted that McGinnity be arrested .
In the 1907 season , McGinnity finished with an 18 – 18 record with a 3 @.@ 16 ERA , allowing more than a hit per inning for the first time since the 1901 season . He missed the beginning of the 1908 season with a severe fever . In June 1908 , Brush put McGinnity on waivers , hoping another owner would relieve him of McGinnity 's $ 5 @,@ 000 salary ( $ 131 @,@ 685 in current dollar terms ) . He tried to wave McGinnity again in August , but both times McGinnity went unclaimed . Despite this , McGinnity reverted to his old form : from August 22 through the end of the season , McGinnity had an 11 – 7 record , five shutouts , a 2 @.@ 27 ERA , and an NL @-@ leading five saves . The Giants released McGinnity on February 27 , 1909 , when McGinnity decided to pay for his own release .
= = = Later career = = =
McGinnity purchased the Newark Indians of the Class @-@ A Eastern League ( EL ) for $ 50 @,@ 000 ( $ 1 @,@ 316 @,@ 852 in current dollar terms ) in 1909 from Frank J. Farrell . The press reported that McGinnity would operate the team as a farm team of the Giants , though he denied these reports . When McGinnity could not retain manager Harry Wolverton , he stepped in as player @-@ manager for the Indians . That season , he had a 29 – 16 record . His 422 innings pitched and 11 shutouts set EL single @-@ season records . He also won both games of doubleheaders on August 27 , 1909 , and July 23 , 1912 .
McGinnity played for and managed the Indians through 1912 . The Indians finished second in the EL in 1909 and 1910 . McGinnity sold his interests in the Indians to Ebbets and Ed McKeever and purchased the Tacoma Tigers of the Class @-@ B Northwestern League for $ 8 @,@ 500 ( $ 208 @,@ 426 in current dollar terms ) , spending another $ 50 @,@ 000 ( $ 1 @,@ 226 @,@ 034 in current dollar terms ) on the franchise in renovating the stadium . He served as player @-@ manager the Tigers at the start of the 1913 season , but stepped down as manager , hiring Russ Hall to serve as manager in June . McGinnity sold stock in the team in 1915 in order to afford operating expenses . He also briefly played for the Venice Tigers of the Class @-@ A Pacific Coast League in 1914 .
McGinnity sold the Tigers and purchased the Butte Miners of the Northwestern League in 1916 , serving as player @-@ manager and bringing with him several players from Tacoma . In June 1917 , he sold his stock in the team and secured his release . He played for the Great Falls Electrics of the Northwestern League for the remainder of the 1917 season .
McGinnity served as player @-@ manager of the Danville Veterans of the Class @-@ B Illinois – Indiana – Iowa League in the 1922 season and Dubuque Climbers of the Class @-@ D Mississippi Valley League during the 1923 season . With Dubuque , McGinnity won 15 games at age 52 . One of those wins was a shutout , pitched in a record one hour and seven minutes . Two years later , he returned to play for Dubuque and Springfield Senators of the Illinois – Indiana – Iowa League during the 1925 season . He pitched in his final professional game on July 28 , 1925 , after participating in an old @-@ timers game earlier in the day .
McGinnity joined the coaching staff of former teammate Wilbert Robinson , along with Kelley , for the Brooklyn Dodgers during the 1926 MLB season . McGinnity and Kelley were not retained after the season .
= = Personal life = =
McGinnity acquired his nickname , " Iron Man " , before his doubleheader pitching became widely discussed . According to Lee Allen in The National League Story ( 1961 ) , a reporter asked McGinnity , while he was still a minor league pitcher , what he did in between seasons . " I 'm an iron man " , he answered . " I work in a foundry . " McGinnity 's wife 's family operated an iron foundry in McAlester , Oklahoma , where McGinnity worked in the offseasons .
Because of his nickname and connection to the foundry , John McGraw named McGinnity the starter for the Giants ' March 23 , 1904 exhibition game against the Southern Association 's Birmingham Iron Men which was scheduled to raise funds for the Vulcan statue then being cast for the Louisiana Purchase Exposition that summer in St. Louis , Missouri . At his own request , McGinnity was allowed to visit the downtown foundry and personally pour some of the iron into the moulds for the statue .
While working with Williams College 's baseball team in 1929 , McGinnity became ill . He had surgery to remove tumors from his bladder , and was said to be in critical condition . After the surgery , he was quoted as saying " it 's the ninth inning , and I guess they 're going to get me out . " He died November 14 , 1929 in Brooklyn , New York , at the home of his daughter . He was interred in McAlester .
= = Legacy = =
McGinnity finished his MLB career with 246 career wins , seven 20 @-@ win seasons , and two 30 @-@ win seasons . He had nearly 500 professional wins including his years in the minor leagues . McGinnity set a career record in batters hit by pitch with 152 . He revolutionized the fielding of the pitching position , by attempting to make force outs at any base , instead of only throwing the ball to first base .
After his death , McGinnity was eulogized as " hard player " and " a fighter with brains " who hated to lose . Jennings described him as an even better fielder than he was a pitcher . McGraw said that McGinnity was " the hardest working pitcher I ever had on my ballcub " . Connie Mack called him a " magician " .
After failing to receive the necessary votes from the Baseball Writers ' Association of America for entry in the National Baseball Hall of Fame on seven occasions , McGinnity was elected to the Hall of Fame posthumously by the Veterans Committee in the 1946 balloting . He was also inducted into the Quad City Sports Hall of Fame in 1988 .
In a 1976 article in Esquire magazine , sportswriter Harry Stein published an " All Time All @-@ Star Argument Starter " , consisting of five ethnic baseball teams . Though Stein chose McGinnity as the right @-@ handed pitcher for the Irish team , the team was omitted from the article due to space limitations . The Irish team was included in The Book of Lists , published the following year . Lawrence Ritter and Donald Honig included McGinnity in their 1981 book , The 100 Greatest Baseball Players of All Time . The Chicago Tribune included McGinnity in its all @-@ time Illinois team in 1990 .
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= Decompression practice =
The practice of decompression by divers comprises the planning and monitoring of the profile indicated by the algorithms or tables of the chosen decompression model , to allow asymptomatic and harmless release of excess inert gases dissolved in the tissues as a result of breathing at ambient pressures greater than surface atmospheric pressure , the equipment available and appropriate to the circumstances of the dive , and the procedures authorized for the equipment and profile to be used . There is a large range of options in all of these aspects .
Decompression may be continuous or staged , where the ascent is interrupted by stops at regular depth intervals , but the entire ascent is part of the decompression , and ascent rate can be critical to harmless elimination of inert gas . What is commonly known as no @-@ decompression diving , or more accurately no @-@ stop decompression , relies on limiting ascent rate for avoidance of excessive bubble formation . Staged decompression may include deep stops depending on the theoretical model used for calculating the ascent schedule . Omission of decompression theoretically required for a dive profile exposes the diver to significantly higher risk of symptomatic decompression sickness , and in severe cases , serious injury or death . The risk is related to the severity of exposure and the level of supersaturation of tissues in the diver . Procedures for emergency management of omitted decompression and symptomatic decompression sickness have been published . These procedures are generally effective , but vary in effectiveness from case to case .
The procedures used for decompression depend on the mode of diving , the available equipment , the site and environment , and the actual dive profile . Standardized procedures have been developed which provide an acceptable level of risk in the circumstances for which they are appropriate . Different sets of procedures are used by commercial , military , scientific and recreational divers , though there is considerable overlap where similar equipment is used , and some concepts are common to all decompression procedures .
= = Decompression = =
Decompression in the context of diving derives from the reduction in ambient pressure experienced by the diver during the ascent at the end of a dive or hyperbaric exposure and refers to both the reduction in pressure and the process of allowing dissolved inert gases to be eliminated from the tissues during this reduction in pressure . When a diver descends in the water column the ambient pressure rises . Breathing gas is supplied at the same pressure as the surrounding water , and some of this gas dissolves into the diver 's blood and other fluids . Inert gas continues to be taken up until the gas dissolved in the diver is in a state of equilibrium with the breathing gas in the diver 's lungs , ( see : " Saturation diving " ) , or the diver moves up in the water column and reduces the ambient pressure of the breathing gas until the inert gases dissolved in the tissues are at a higher concentration than the equilibrium state , and start diffusing out again . Dissolved inert gases such as nitrogen or helium can form bubbles in the blood and tissues of the diver if the partial pressures of the dissolved gases in the diver gets too high above the ambient pressure . These bubbles and products of injury caused by the bubbles can cause damage to tissues known as decompression sickness , or " the bends " . The immediate goal of controlled decompression is to avoid development of symptoms of bubble formation in the tissues of the diver , and the long @-@ term goal is to also avoid complications due to sub @-@ clinical decompression injury .
= = Common procedures = =
The descent , bottom time and ascent are sectors common to all dives and hyperbaric exposures .
= = = Descent rate = = =
Descent rate is generally allowed for in decompression planning by assuming a maximum descent rate specified in the instructions for the use of the tables , but it is not critical . Descent slower than the nominal rate reduces useful bottom time , but has no other adverse effect . Descent faster than the specified maximum will expose the diver to greater ingassing rate earlier in the dive , and the bottom time must be reduced accordingly . In the case of real time monitoring by dive computer , descent rate is not specified , as the consequences are automatically accounted for by the programmed algorithm .
= = = Bottom time = = =
Bottom time is the time spent at depth before starting the ascent . Bottom time used for decompression planning may be defined differently depending on the tables or algorithm used . It may include descent time , but not in all cases . It is important to check how bottom time is defined for the tables before they are used . For example , tables using Bühlmann 's algorithm define bottom time as the elapsed time between leaving the surface and the start of the final ascent at 10 metres per minute , and if the ascent rate is slower , then the whole of the ascent time needs to be considered part of the bottom time for the algorithm to remain safe .
= = = Ascent rate = = =
The ascent is an important part of the process of decompression , as this is the time when reduction of ambient pressure occurs , and it is of critical importance to safe decompression that the ascent rate is compatible with safe elimination of inert gas from the diver 's tissues . Ascent rate must be limited to prevent supersaturation of tissues to the extent that unacceptable bubble development occurs . This is usually done by specifying a maximum ascent rate compatible with the decompression model chosen . This will be specified in the decompression tables or the user manual for the decompression software or personal decompression computer . The instructions will usually include contingency procedures for deviation from the specified rate , both for delays and exceeding the recommended rate . Failure to comply with these specifications will generally increase the risk of decompression sickness .
Typically maximum ascent rates are in the order of 10 metres ( 33 ft ) per minute for dives deeper than 6 metres ( 20 ft ) . Some dive computers have variable maximum ascent rates , depending on depth . Ascent rates slower than the recommended standard for the algorithm will generally be treated by a computer as part of a multilevel dive profile and the decompression requirement adjusted accordingly . Faster ascent rates will elicit a warning and additional decompression stop time to compensate .
= = No decompression dives = =
A " no decompression " , or " no stop " dive is a dive that needs no decompression stops during the ascent according to the chosen algorithm or tables , and relies on a controlled ascent rate for the elimination of excess inert gases . In effect , the diver is doing continuous decompression during the ascent .
= = = Safety stop = = =
As a precaution against any unnoticed dive computer malfunction , diver error or physiological predisposition to decompression sickness , many divers do an extra " safety stop " in addition to those prescribed by their dive computer or tables . A safety stop is typically 1 to 5 minutes at 3 to 6 metres ( 10 to 20 ft ) . They are usually done during no @-@ stop dives and may be added to the obligatory decompression on staged dives . Many dive computers indicate a recommended safety stop as standard procedure for dives beyond specific limits of depth and time . The Goldman decompression model predicts a significant risk reduction following a safety stop on a low @-@ risk dive
= = = No decompression limit = = =
The no decompression limit ( NDL ) or no stop time , is the interval that a diver may theoretically spend at a given depth without having to perform decompression stops . The NDL helps divers plan dives so that they can stay at a given depth and ascend without stopping while avoiding unacceptable risk of decompression sickness .
The NDL is a theoretical time obtained by calculating inert gas uptake and release in the body , using a model such as the Bühlmann decompression algorithm . Although the science of calculating these limits has been refined over the last century , there is still much that is unknown about how inert gases enter and leave the human body . In addition , every individual 's body is unique and may absorb and release inert gases at different rates . For this reason , dive tables typically have a degree of safety built into their recommendations . Divers can and do suffer decompression sickness while remaining inside NDLs , though the incidence is very low . Each NDL for a range of depths is printed on dive tables in a grid that can be used to plan dives . There are many different tables available as well as software programs and calculators , which will calculate no decompression limits . Most personal decompression computers ( dive computers ) will indicate a remaining no decompression limit at the current depth during a dive . The displayed interval is continuously revised to take into account changes of depth as well as elapsed time .
= = Continuous decompression = =
Continuous decompression is decompression without stops . Instead of a fairly rapid ascent rate to the first stop , followed by a period at static depth during the stop , the ascent is slower , but without officially stopping . In theory this is the optimum decompression profile . In practice this is very difficult to do manually , and it may be necessary to stop the ascent occasionally to get back on schedule , but these stops are not part of the schedule , they are corrections . For example , USN treatment table 5 , referring to treatment in a decompression chamber for type 1 decompression sickness , states " Descent rate - 20 ft / min . Ascent rate - Not to exceed 1 ft / min . Do not compensate for slower ascent rates . Compensate for faster rates by halting the ascent . "
To further complicate the practice , the ascent rate may vary with the depth , and is typically faster at greater depth and reduces as the depth gets shallower . In practice a continuous decompression profile may be approximated by ascent in steps as small as the chamber pressure gauge will resolve , and timed to follow the theoretical profile as closely as conveniently practicable . For example , USN treatment table 7 ( which may be used if decompression sickness has reoccurred during initial treatment in the compression chamber ) states " Decompress with stops every 2 feet for times shown in profile below . " The profile shows an ascent rate of 2 fsw every 40 min from 60 fsw ( feet of sea water ) to 40 fsw , followed by 2 ft every hour from 40 fsw to 20 fsw and 2 ft every two hours from 20 fsw to 4 fsw .
= = Staged decompression = =
Decompression which follows the procedure of relatively fast ascent interrupted by periods at constant depth is known as staged decompression . The ascent rate and the depth and duration of the stops are integral parts of the decompression process . The advantage of staged decompression is that it is far easier to monitor and control than continuous decompression .
= = = Decompression stops = = =
A decompression stop is a period a diver must spend at a relatively shallow constant depth during ascent after a dive to safely eliminate absorbed inert gases from the body tissues to avoid decompression sickness . The practice of making decompression stops is called staged decompression , as opposed to continuous decompression .
The diver identifies the requirement for decompression stops , and if they are needed , the depths and durations of the stops , by using decompression tables , software planning tools or a dive computer .
The ascent is made at the recommended rate until the diver reaches the depth of the first stop . The diver then maintains the specified stop depth for the specified period , before ascending to the next stop depth at the recommended rate , and follows the same procedure again . This is repeated until all required decompression has been completed and the diver reaches the surface .
Once on the surface the diver will continue to eliminate inert gas until the concentrations have returned to normal surface saturation , which can take several hours , and is considered in some models to be effectively complete after 12 hours , and by others to take up to , or even more than 24 hours .
The depth and duration of each stop is calculated to reduce the inert gas excess in the most critical tissues to a concentration which will allow further ascent without unacceptable risk . Consequently , if there is not much dissolved gas , the stops will be shorter and shallower than if there is a high concentration . The length of the stops is also strongly influenced by which tissue compartments are assessed as highly saturated . High concentrations in slow tissues will indicate longer stops than similar concentrations in fast tissues .
Shorter and shallower decompression dives may only need one single short shallow decompression stop , for example 5 minutes at 3 metres ( 10 ft ) . Longer and deeper dives often need a series of decompression stops , each stop being longer but shallower than the previous stop .
= = = = Deep stops = = = =
A deep stop was originally an extra stop introduced by divers during ascent , at a greater depth than the deepest stop required by their computer algorithm or tables . This practice is based on empirical observations by technical divers such as Richard Pyle , who found that they were less fatigued if the made some additional stops for short periods at depths considerably deeper than those calculated with the currently published decompression algorithms . More recently computer algorithms that are claimed to use deep stops have become available , but these algorithms and the practice of deep stops have not been adequately validated . Deep stops are likely to be made at depths where ingassing continues for some slow tissues , so the addition of deep stops of any kind can only be included in the dive profile when the decompression schedule has been computed to include them , so that such ingassing of slower tissues can be taken into account . Nevertheless , deep stops may be added on a dive that relies on a personal dive computer with real @-@ time computation , as the PDC will track the effect of the stop on its decompression schedule . Deep stops are otherwise similar to any other staged decompression , but are unlikely to use a dedicated decompression gas , as they are usually not more than two to three minutes long .
A study by Divers Alert Network in 2004 suggests that addition of a deep ( c . 15 m ) as well as a shallow ( c . 6 m ) safety stop to a theoretically no @-@ stop ascent will significantly reduce decompression stress indicated by precordial doppler detected bubble ( PDDB ) levels . The authors associate this with gas exchange in fast tissues such as the spinal cord and consider that an additional deep safety stop may reduce the risk of spinal cord decompression sickness in recreational diving . A follow @-@ up study found that the optimum duration for the deep safety stop under the experimental conditions was 2 @.@ 5 minutes , with a shallow safety stop of 3 to 5 minutes . Longer safety stops at either depth did not further reduce PDDB .
In contrast , experimental work comparing the effect of deep stops observed a significant decrease in vascular bubbles following a deep stop after longer shallower dives , and an increase in bubble formation after the deep stop on shorter deeper dives , which is not predicted by the existing bubble model .
A controlled comparative study by the Navy Experimental Diving Unit in the NEDU Ocean Simulation Facility wet @-@ pot comparing the VVAL18 Thalmann Algorithm with a deep stop profile suggests that the deep stops schedule had a greater risk of DCS than the matched ( same total stop time ) conventional schedule . The proposed explanation was that slower gas washout or continued gas uptake offset benefits of reduced bubble growth at deep stops .
= = = = Profile determined intermediate stops = = = =
PDISs are intermediate stops at a depth above the depth at which the leading compartment for the decompression calculation switches from ongassing to offgassing and below the depth of the first obligatory decompression stop , ( or the surface , on a no @-@ decompression dive ) . The ambient pressure at that depth is low enough to ensure that the tissues are mostly offgassing inert gas , although under a very small pressure gradient . This combination is expected to inhibit bubble growth . The leading compartment is generally not the fastest compartment except in very short dives , for which this model does not require an intermediate stop .
The 8 compartment Bühlmann - based UWATEC ZH @-@ L8 ADT MB PMG decompression model in the Mares Galileo dive computer processes the dive profile and suggests an intermediate 2 @-@ minute stop that is a function of the tissue nitrogen loading at that time , taking into account the accumulated nitrogen from previous dives . Within the Haldanian logic of the model , at least three compartments are offgassing at the prescribed depth - the 5 and 10 minute half time compartments under a relatively high pressure gradient . Therefore , for decompression dives , the existing obligation is not increased during the stop .
A PDIS is not a mandatory stop , nor is it considered a substitute for the more important shallow safety stop on a no @-@ stop dive . Switching breathing gas mix during the ascent will influence the depth of the stop .
The PDIS concept was introduced by Sergio Angelini .
= = = Decompression schedule = = =
A decompression schedule is a specified ascent rate and series of increasingly shallower decompression stops — often for increasing amounts of time — that a diver performs to outgas inert gases from their body during ascent to the surface to reduce the risk of decompression sickness . In a decompression dive , the decompression phase may make up a large part of the time spent underwater ( in many cases it is longer than the actual time spent at depth ) .
The depth and duration of each stop is dependent on many factors , primarily the profile of depth and time of the dive , but also the breathing gas mix , the interval since the previous dive and the altitude of the dive site . The diver obtains the depth and duration of each stop from a dive computer , decompression tables or dive planning computer software . A technical scuba diver will typically prepare more than one decompression schedule to plan for contingencies such as going deeper than planned or spending longer at depth than planned . Recreational divers often rely on a personal dive computer to allow them to avoid obligatory decompression , while allowing considerable flexibility of dive profile . A surface supplied diver will normally have a diving supervisor at the control point who monitors the dive profile and can adjust the schedule to suit any contingencies as they occur .
= = = Missed stops = = =
A diver missing a required decompression stop increases the risk of developing decompression sickness . The risk is related to the depth and duration of the missed stops . The usual causes for missing stops are : not having enough breathing gas to complete the stops , or accidentally losing control of buoyancy . An aim of most basic diver training is to prevent these two faults . There are also less predictable causes of missing decompression stops . Diving suit failure in cold water may force the diver to choose between hypothermia and decompression sickness . Diver injury or marine animal attack may also limit the duration of stops the diver is willing to carry out .
A procedure for dealing with omitted decompression stops is described in the US Navy Diving Manual . In principle the procedure allows a diver who is not yet presenting symptoms of decompression sickness , to go back down and complete the omitted decompression , with some extra added to deal with the bubbles which are assumed to have formed during the period where the decompression ceiling was violated . Divers who become symptomatic before they can be returned to depth are treated for decompression sickness , and do not attempt the omitted decompression procedure as the risk is considered unacceptable under normal operational circumstances .
If a decompression chamber is available , omitted decompression may be managed by chamber recompression to an appropriate pressure , and decompression following either a surface decompression schedule or a treatment table . If the diver develops symptoms in the chamber , treatment can be started without further delay .
= = Accelerated decompression = =
Decompression can be accelerated by the use of breathing gases during ascent with lowered inert gas fractions ( as a result of increased oxygen fraction ) . This will result in a greater diffusion gradient for a given ambient pressure , and consequently accelerated decompression for a relatively low risk of bubble formation . Nitrox mixtures and oxygen are the most commonly used gases for this purpose , but oxygen rich trimix blends can also be used after a trimix dive , and oxygen rich heliox blends after a heliox dive , and these may reduce risk of isobaric counterdiffusion complications . Doolette and Mitchell showed that when a switch is made to a gas with a different proportion of inert gas components , it is possible for an inert component previously absent , or present as a lower fraction , to in @-@ gas faster than the other inert components are eliminated ( inert gas counterdiffusion ) , sometimes resulting in raising the total tissue tension of inert gases in a tissue to exceed the ambient pressure sufficiently to cause bubble formation , even if the ambient pressure has not been reduced at the time of the gas switch . They conclude that " breathing @-@ gas switches should be scheduled deep or shallow to avoid the period of maximum supersaturation resulting from decompression " .
= = = Oxygen decompression = = =
The use of pure oxygen for accelerated decompression is limited by oxygen toxicity . In open circuit scuba the upper limit for oxygen partial pressure is generally accepted as 1 @.@ 6 bar , equivalent to a depth of 6 msw ( metres of sea water ) , but in @-@ water and surface decompression at higher partial pressures is routinely used in surface supplied diving operation , both by the military and civilian contractors , as the consequences of CNS oxygen toxicity are considerably reduced when the diver has a secure breathing gas supply . US Navy tables ( Revision 6 ) start in @-@ water oxygen decompression at 30 fsw ( 9 msw ) , equivalent to a partial pressure of 1 @.@ 9 bar , and chamber oxygen decompression at 50 fsw ( 15 msw ) , equivalent to 2 @.@ 5 bar .
= = Repetitive dives = =
Any dive which is started while the tissues retain residual inert gas in excess of the surface equilibrium condition is considered a repetitive dive . This means that the decompression required for the dive is influenced by the divers decompression history . Allowance must be made for inert gas preloading of the tissues which will result in them containing more dissolved gas than would have been the case if the diver had fully equilibrated before the dive . The diver will need to decompress longer to eliminate this increased gas loading .
= = = Surface interval = = =
The surface interval ( SI ) or surface interval time ( SIT ) is the time spent by a diver at surface pressure after a dive during which inert gas which was still present at the end of the dive is further eliminated from the tissues . This continues until the tissues are at equilibrium with the surface pressures . This may take several hours . In the case of the US Navy 1956 Air tables , it is considered complete after 12 hours , The US Navy 2008 Air tables specify up to 16 hours for normal exposure. but other algorithms may require more than 24 hours to assume full equilibrium .
= = = Residual nitrogen time = = =
For the planned depth of the repetitive dive , a bottom time can be calculated using the relevant algorithm which will provide an equivalent gas loading to the residual gas after the surface interval . This is called " residual nitrogen time " ( RNT ) when the gas is nitrogen . The RNT is added to the planned " actual bottom time " ( ABT ) to give an equivalent " total bottom time " ( TBT ) which is used to derive the appropriate decompression schedule for the planned dive .
Equivalent residual times can be derived for other inert gases . These calculations are done automatically in personal diving computers , based on the diver 's recent diving history , which is the reason why personal diving computers should not be shared by divers , and why a diver should not switch computers without a sufficient surface interval ( more than 24 hours in most cases , up to 4 days , depending on the tissue model and recent diving history of the user ) .
Residual inert gas can be computed for all modeled tissues , but repetitive group designations in decompression tables are generally based on only the one tissue , considered by the table designers to be the most limiting tissue for likely applications . In the case of the US Navy Air Tables ( 1956 ) this is the 120 minute tissue , while the Bühlmann tables use the 80 minute tissue .
= = Diving at altitude = =
The atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude , and this has an effect on the absolute pressure of the diving environment . The most important effect is that the diver must decompress to a lower surface pressure , and this requires longer decompression for the same dive profile . A second effect is that a diver ascending to altitude , will be decompressing en route , and will have residual nitrogen until all tissues have equilibrated to the local pressures . This means that the diver should consider any dive done before equilibration as a repetitive dive , even if it is the first dive in several days .
The US Navy diving manual provides repetitive group designations for listed altitude changes . These will change over time with the surface interval according to the relevant table .
Altitude corrections ( Cross corrections ) are described in the US Navy diving manual . This procedure is based on the assumption that the decompression model will produce equivalent predictions for the same pressure ratio . The " Sea Level Equivalent Depth " ( SLED ) for the planned dive depth , which is always deeper than the actual dive at altitude , is calculated in inverse proportion to the ratio of surface pressure at the dive site to sea level atmospheric pressure .
Sea level equivalent depth
= Actual depth at altitude × Pressure at sea level ÷ Pressure at altitude
Decompression stop depths are also corrected , using the ratio of surface pressures , and will produce actual stop depths which are shallower than the sea level stop depths .
Stop depth at altitude =
Stop depth at sea level × Pressure at altitude ÷ Pressure at sea level
These values can be used with standard open circuit decompression tables , but are not applicable with constant oxygen partial pressure as provided by closed circuit rebreathers . Tables are used with the sea level equivalent depth and stops are done at the altitude stop depth .
The decompression algorithms can be adjusted to compensate for altitude . This was first done by Bühlmann for deriving altitude corrected tables , and is now common on diving computers , where an altitude setting can be selected by the user .
= = Flying and ascent to altitude after diving = =
Exposure to reduced atmospheric pressure during the period after a dive when the residual gas levels have not yet stabilized at atmospheric saturation levels can incur a risk of decompression sickness . Rules for safe ascent are based on extension of the decompression model calculations to the desired altitude , but are generally simplified to a few fixed periods for a range of exposures . For the extreme case of an exceptional exposure dive , the US Navy requires a surface interval of 48 hours before ascent to altitude . A surface interval of 24 hours for a Heliox decompression dive and 12 hours for Heliox no @-@ decompression dive are also specified . More detailed surface interval requirements based on the highest repetitive group designator obtained in the preceding 24 ‑ hour period are given on the US Navy Diving Manual Table 9 @.@ 6 , both for ascents to specified altitudes , and for commercial flights in aircraft nominally pressurized to 8000 ft .
The first DAN flying after diving workshop in 1989 consensus guidelines recommended :
wait for 12 hours before flying after up to two hours of no @-@ stop diving within the previous 48 hours ;
wait for 24 hours before flying after multi @-@ day , unlimited no @-@ stop diving ;
wait for 24 – 48 hours before flying after dives that required decompression stops ;
do not fly with DCS symptoms unless necessary to obtain hyperbaric treatment .
DAN later proposed a simpler 24 @-@ hour wait after any and all recreational diving , but there were objections on the grounds that such a long delay would result in lost business for island diving resorts and the risks of DCS when flying after diving were too low to warrant this blanket restraint .
The DAN Flying after Diving workshop of 2002 made the following recommendations for flying after recreational diving :
a 12 @-@ hour surface interval for uncertified individuals who took part in a " resort " or introductory scuba experience ;
an 18 @-@ hour surface interval for certified divers who make an unlimited number of no @-@ decompression air or nitrox dives over multiple days ; and
substantially longer than 18 hours for technical divers who make decompression dives or used helium breathing mixes , as no specific evidence concerning decompression or helium diving was available .
These recommendations apply to flying at an altitude greater than , or cabin pressure less than , an altitude equivalent of 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 meters ) .
NASA astronauts train underwater to simulate the weightlessness and occasionally need to fly afterwards at cabin altitudes not exceeding 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 meters ) . Training dives use 46 % Nitrox and can exceed six hours at a maximum depth of 40 ffw ( 12 mfw ) for a maximum equivalent air depth ( EAD ) of 24 fsw ( 7 msw ) . NASA guidelines for EADs of 20 – 50 fsw ( 6 – 15 msw ) with maximum dive durations of 100 – 400 minutes allow either air or oxygen to be breathed in the preflight surface intervals . Oxygen breathing during surface intervals reduces the time to fly by a factor of seven to nine times compared with air . A study by another military organization , the Special Operations Command also indicated that preflight oxygen might be an effective means for reducing DCS risk .
Some places , ( for example , the Altiplano in Peru and Bolivia , or the plateau around Asmara ( where the airport is ) in Eritrea , and some mountain passes ) , are many thousand feet above sea level and travelling to such places after diving at lower altitude should be treated as flying at the equivalent altitude after diving .
= = Specialised decompression procedures = =
= = = Surface decompression = = =
Surface decompression is a procedure in which some or all of the staged decompression obligation is done in a decompression chamber instead of in the water . This reduces the time that the diver spends in the water , exposed to environmental hazards such as cold water or currents , which will enhance diver safety . The decompression in the chamber is more controlled , in a more comfortable environment , and oxygen can be used at greater partial pressure as there in no risk of drowning and a lower risk of oxygen toxicity convulsions . A further operational advantage is that once the divers are in the chamber , new divers can be supplied from the diving panel , and the operations can continue with less delay .
A typical surface decompression procedure is described in the US Navy Diving Manual . If there is no in @-@ water 40 ft stop required the diver is surfaced directly . Otherwise , all required decompression up to and including the 40 ft ( 12 m ) stop is completed in @-@ water . The diver is then surfaced and pressurised in a chamber to 50 fsw ( 15 msw ) within 5 minutes of leaving 40 ft depth in the water . If this " surface interval " from 40 ft in the water to 50 fsw in the chamber exceeds 5 minutes , a penalty is incurred , as this indicates a higher risk of DCS symptoms developing , so longer decompression is required .
In the case where the diver is successfully recompressed within the nominal interval , he will be decompressed according to the schedule in the air decompression tables for surface decompression , preferably on oxygen , which is used from 50 fsw ( 15 msw ) , a partial pressure of 2 @.@ 5 bar . The duration of the 50 fsw stop is 15 minutes for the Revision 6 tables . The chamber is then decompressed to 40 fsw ( 12 msw ) for the next stage of up to 4 periods on oxygen . A stop may also be done at 30 fsw ( 9 msw ) , for further periods on oxygen according to the schedule . Air breaks of 5 minutes are taken at the end of each 30 minutes of oxygen breathing .
Surface decompression procedures have been described as " semi @-@ controlled accidents " .
Data collected in the North Sea have shown that the overall incidence of decompression sickness for in @-@ water and surface decompression is similar , but surface decompression tends to produce ten times more type II ( neurological ) DCS than in @-@ water decompression . A possible explanation is that during the final stage of ascent , bubbles are produced that are stopped in the lung capillaries . During recompression of the diver in the deck chamber , the diameter of some of these bubbles is reduced sufficiently that they pass through the pulmonary capillaries and reach the systemic circulation on the arterial side , later lodging in systemic capillaries and causing neurological symptoms . The same scenario was proposed for type II DCS recorded after sawtooth profile diving or multiple repetitive diving .
= = = Dry bell decompression = = =
" Dry " , or " Closed " diving bells are pressure vessels for human occupation which can be deployed from the surface to transport divers to the underwater workplace at pressures greater than ambient . They are equalized to ambient pressure at the depth where the divers will get out and back in after the dive , and are then re @-@ sealed for transport back to the surface , which also generally takes place with controlled internal pressure greater than ambient . During and / or after the recovery from depth , the divers may be decompressed in the same way as if they were in a decompression chamber , so in effect , the dry bell is a mobile decompression chamber . Another option , used in saturation diving , is to decompress to storage pressure ( pressure in the habitat part of the saturation spread ) and then transfer the divers to the saturation habitat under pressure ( transfer under pressure – TUP ) , where they will stay until the next shift , or until decompressed at the end of the saturation period .
= = = Saturation decompression = = =
Once all the tissue compartments have reached saturation for a given pressure and breathing mixture , continued exposure will not increase the gas loading of the tissues . From this point onwards the required decompression remains the same . If divers work and live at pressure for a long period , and are decompressed only at the end of the period , the risks associated with decompression are limited to this single exposure . This principle has led to the practice of saturation diving , and as there is only one decompression , and it is done in the relative safety and comfort of a saturation habitat , the decompression is done on a very conservative profile , minimising the risk of bubble formation , growth and the consequent injury to tissues . A consequence of these procedures is that saturation divers are more likely to suffer decompression sickness symptoms in the slowest tissues , whereas bounce divers are more likely to develop bubbles in faster tissues .
Decompression from a saturation dive is a slow process . The rate of decompression typically ranges between 3 and 6 fsw ( 0 @.@ 9 and 1 @.@ 8 msw ) per hour .
The US Navy Heliox saturation decompression rates require a partial pressure of oxygen to be maintained at between 0 @.@ 44 and 0 @.@ 48 atm when possible , but not to exceed 23 % by volume , to restrict the risk of fire . For practicality the decompression is done in increments of 1 fsw at a rate not exceeding 1 fsw per minute , followed by a stop , with the average complying with the table ascent rate . Decompression is done for 16 hours in 24 , with the remaining 8 hours split into two rest periods . A further adaptation generally made to the schedule is to stop at 4 fsw for the time that is would theoretically take to complete the decompression at the specified rate , i.e. 80 minutes , and then complete the decompression to surface at 1 fsw per minute . This is done to avoid the possibility of losing the door seal at a low pressure differential and losing the last hour or so of slow decompression .
The Norwegian saturation decompression tables are similar , but specifically do not allow decompression to start with an upward excursion . Partial pressure of oxygen is maintained between 0 @.@ 4 and 0 @.@ 5 bar , and a rest stop of 6 hours is specified each night starting at midnight .
= = = Therapeutic decompression = = =
Therapeutic decompression is a procedure for treating decompression sickness by recompressing the diver , thus reducing bubble size , and allowing the gas bubbles to re @-@ dissolve , then decompressing slowly enough to avoid further formation or growth of bubbles , or eliminating the inert gases by breathing oxygen under pressure .
= = = = Therapeutic decompression on air = = = =
Recompression on atmospheric air was shown to be an effective treatment for minor DCS symptoms by Keays in 1909 .
Historically , therapeutic decompression was done by recompressing the diver to the depth of relief of pain , or a bit deeper , maintaining that pressure for a while , so that bubbles could be re @-@ dissolved , and performing a slow decompression back to the surface pressure . Later air tables were standardised to specific depths , followed by slow decompression . This procedure has been superseded almost entirely by hyperbaric oxygen treatment .
= = = = Hyperbaric oxygen therapy = = = =
Evidence of the effectiveness of recompression therapy utilizing oxygen was first shown by Yarbrough and Behnke , and has since become the standard of care for treatment of DCS .
A typical hyperbaric oxygen treatment schedule is the US Navy Table 6 , which provides for a standard treatment of 3 to 5 periods of 20 minutes of oxygen breathing at 60 fsw ( 18msw ) followed by 2 to 4 periods of 60 minutes at 30 fsw ( 9 msw ) before surfacing . Air breaks are taken between oxygen breathing to reduce the risk of oxygen toxicity .
= = = = In water recompression = = = =
If a chamber is not available for recompression within a reasonable period , a riskier alternative is in @-@ water recompression at the dive site . In @-@ water recompression ( IWR ) is the emergency treatment of decompression sickness ( DCS ) by sending the diver back underwater to allow the gas bubbles in the tissues , which are causing the symptoms , to resolve . It is a risky procedure that should only be used when it is not practicable to travel to the nearest recompression chamber in time to save the victim 's life .
The procedure is high risk as a diver suffering from DCS may become paralysed , unconscious or stop breathing whilst under water . Any one of these events may result in the diver drowning or further injury to the diver during a subsequent rescue to the surface . These risks can be mitigated to some extent by using a helmet or full @-@ face mask with voice communications on the diver , and suspending the diver from the surface so that depth is positively controlled , and by having an in @-@ water standby diver attend the diver undergoing the treatment at all times .
The principle behind in water recompression treatment is the same as that behind the treatment of DCS in a recompression chamber
Although in @-@ water recompression is regarded as risky , and to be avoided , there is increasing evidence that technical divers who surface and demonstrate mild DCS symptoms may often get back into the water and breathe pure oxygen at a depth 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) for a period to seek to alleviate the symptoms . This trend is noted in paragraph 3 @.@ 6 @.@ 5 of DAN 's 2008 accident report . The report also notes that whilst the reported incidents showed very little success , " [ w ] e must recognize that these calls were mostly because the attempted IWR failed . In case the IWR were successful , [ the ] diver would not have called to report the event . Thus we do not know how often IWR may have been used successfully . "
Historically , in @-@ water recompression was the usual method of treating decompression sickness in remote areas . Procedures were often informal and based on operator experience , and used air as the breathing gas as it was all that was available . The divers generally used standard diving gear , which was relatively safe for this procedure , as the diver was at low risk of drowning if he lost consciousness .
= = Decompression equipment = =
There are several types of equipment used to help divers carry out decompression . Some are used to plan and monitor the decompression and some mark the underwater position of the diver and act as a buoyancy control aid and position reference in low visibility or currents . Decompression may be shortened ( or accelerated ) by breathing an oxygen @-@ rich " deco gas " such as a nitrox with 50 % or more oxygen . The high partial pressure of oxygen in such decompression mixes create the effect of the oxygen window . This decompression gas is often carried by scuba divers in side @-@ slung cylinders . Cave divers who can only return by a single route , will often leave decompression gas cylinders attached to the guideline at the points where they will be used . Surface supplied divers will have the composition of the breathing gas controlled at the gas panel . Divers with long decompression obligations may be decompressed inside gas filled chambers in the water or at the surface .
= = = Planning and monitoring decompression = = =
Equipment for planning and monitoring decompression includes decompression tables , surface computer software and personal decompression computers . There is a wide range of choice :
A decompression algorithm is used to calculate the decompression stops needed for a particular dive profile to reduce the risk of decompression sickness occurring after surfacing at the end of a dive . The algorithm can be used to generate decompression schedules for a particular dive profile , decompression tables for more general use , or be implemented in dive computer software . Depending on the algorithm chosen the range of no @-@ decompression limits at a given depth on the same gas can vary considerably . It is not possible to discriminate between " right " and " wrong " options , but it is considered correct to say that the risk of developing DCS is greater for the longer exposures and less for the shorter exposures for a given depth .
Dive tables or decompression tables are tabulated data , often in the form of printed cards or booklets , that allow divers to determine a decompression schedule for a given dive profile and breathing gas . In some cases they may also specify an altitude range . The choice of tables for professional diving use is generally made by the organization employing the divers , and for recreational training it is usually prescribed by the certifying agency , but for recreational purposes the diver is generally free to make use of any of the range of published tables , and for that matter , to modify them to suit himself or herself .
Decompression software is available for personal computers to model the decompression requirements of user specified dive profiles with different gas mixtures using a choive of decompression algorithms . Schedules generated by decompression software represent a diver 's specific dive plan and breathing gas mixtures . It is usual to generate a schedule for the planned profile and for the most likely contingency profiles .
A personal dive computer is a small computer designed to be worn by a diver during a dive , with a pressure sensor and an electronic timer mounted in a waterproof and pressure resistant housing which has been programmed to model the inert gas loading of the diver 's tissues in real time during a dive . A display allows the diver to see critical data during the dive , including the maximum and current depth , duration of the dive , and decompression data including the remaining no decompression limit calculated in real time for the diver throughout the dive . The dive computer keeps track of residual gas loading for each tissue used in the algorithm . Dive computers also provide a measure of safety for divers who accidentally dive a different profile to that originally planned . Most dive computers will provide the necessary decompression information for acceptably safe ascent in the event that the no @-@ decompression limits are exceeded . The use of computers to manage recreational dive decompression is becoming the standard and their use is also common in occupational scientific diving . Their value in surface supplied commercial diving is more restricted , but they can usefully serve as a dive profile recorder .
= = = Controlling depth and ascent rate = = =
A critical aspect of successful decompression is that the depth and ascent rate of the diver must be monitored and sufficiently accurately controlled . Practical in @-@ water decompression requires a reasonable tolerance for variation in depth and rate of ascent , but unless the decompression is being monitored in real time by a decompression computer , any deviations from the nominal profile will affect the risk . Several items of equipment are used to assist in facilitating accurate adherence to the planned profile , by allowing the diver to more easily control depth and ascent rate , or to transfer this control to specialist personnel at the surface .
A shot line is a rope between a float at the surface , and a sufficiently heavy weight holding the rope approximately vertical . The shot line float should be sufficiently buoyant to support the weight of all divers that are likely to be using it at the same time . Recreational divers are free to choose lesser buoyancy ay their own risk . The shot weight should be sufficient to prevent a diver from lifting it from the bottom by over @-@ inflation of the buoyancy compensator or dry suit , but not sufficient to sink the float if the slack on the line is all taken up . Various configurations of shot line are used to control the amount of slack . The diver ascends along the shotline , and may use it purely as a visual reference , or can hold on to it to positively control depth , or can climb up it hand over hand . A Jonline may be used to fasten a diver to a shotline during a decompression stop .
A decompression trapeze is a device used in recreational diving and technical diving to make decompression stops more comfortable and more secure and provide the divers ' surface cover with a visual reference for the divers ' position . It consists of a horizontal bar or bars suspended at the depth of intended decompression stops by buoys . The bars are of sufficient weight and the buoys of sufficient buoyancy that the trapeze will not easily change depth in turbulent water or if the divers experience buoyancy control problems .
A surface marker buoy ( SMB ) with a reel and line is often used by a dive leader to allow the boat to monitor progress of the dive group . This can provide the operator with a positive control of depth , by remaining slightly negative and using the buoyancy of the float to support this slight over @-@ weighting . This allows the line to be kept under slight tension which reduces the risk of entanglement . The reel or spool used to store and roll up the line usually has slightly negative buoyancy , so that if released it will hang down and not float away .
A delayed or deployable surface marker buoy ( DSMB ) is a soft inflatable tube which is attached to a reel or spool line at one end , and is inflated by the diver under water and released to float to the surface , deploying the line as it ascends . This provides information to the surface that the diver is about to ascend , and where he is . This equipment is commonly used by recreational and technical divers , and requires a certain level of skill to operate safely . They are mostly used to signal the boat that the diver has started ascent or to indicate a problem in technical diving .
A diving stage , sometimes known as the basket , or diver launch and recovery system ( LARS ) , is a platform on which one or two divers stand which is hoisted into the water , lowered to the workplace or the bottom , and then hoisted up again to return the diver to the surface and lift him out of the water . This equipment is almost exclusively used by surface supplied professional divers , as it requires fairly complex lifting equipment . A diving stage allows the surface team to conveniently manage a diver 's decompression as it can be hoisted at a controlled rate and stopped at the correct depth for decompression stops , and allows the divers to rest during the ascent . It also allows the divers to be relatively safely and conveniently lifted out of the water and returned to the deck or quayside .
A wet bell , or open bell , is similar to a diving stage in concept , but has an air space , open to the water at the bottom in which the divers , or at least their heads , can shelter during ascent and descent .
= = = Providing gases to accelerate decompression = = =
Reducing the partial pressure of the inert gas component of the breathing mixture will accelerate decompression as the concentration gradient will be greater for a given depth . This is usually achieved by increasing the partial pressure of oxygen in the breathing gas , as substituting a different inert gas may have counter @-@ diffusion complications due to differing rates of diffusion , which can lead to a net gain in total dissolved gas tension in a tissue . This can lead to bubble formation and growth , with decompression sickness as a consequence . Partial pressure of oxygen is usually limited to 1 @.@ 6 bar during in water decompression for scuba divers , but can be up to 1 @.@ 9 bar in @-@ water and 2 @.@ 2 bar in the chamber when using the US Navy tables for surface decompression .
Stage cylinders are cylinders which are stored by scuba divers along the return route containing decompression and emergency gas . This is only practicable where the return route is known and marked by a guideline . Similar cylinders are carried by the divers when the route back is not secure . They are commonly mounted as sling cylinders , clipped to D @-@ rings at the sides of the diver 's harness . The divers must avoid breathing oxygen enriched " deco gas " at excessive depths because of the high risk of oxygen toxicity . To prevent this happening , cylinders containing oxygen @-@ rich gases must always be positively identifiable . One way of doing this is by marking them with their maximum operating depth as clearly as possible .
Surface supplied divers may be supplied with a gas mixture suitable for accelerated decompression by connecting a supply to the surface gas panel and providing it through the umbilical to the divers . This allows accelerated decompression , usually on oxygen , which can be used to a maximum depth of 30 ft ( 9 m ) . Surface supplied heliox bounce divers will be provided with mixtures suitable for their current depth , and the mixture may be changed several times during descent and ascent from great depths .
Closed circuit rebreathers are usually controlled to provide a fairly constant partial pressure of oxygen during the dive ( set point ) , and may be reset to a richer mix for decompression . The effect is to keep the partial pressure of inert gases as low as safely practicable throughout the dive . This minimizes the absorption of inert gas in the first place , and accelerates the elimination of the inert gases during ascent .
= = = Surface decompression = = =
Specialised equipment is available to decompress a diver out of the water . This is almost exclusively used with surface supplied diving equipment :
Deck decompression chambers are used for surface decompression , described in a previous section . Most deck decompression chambers are fitted with built in breathing systems ( BIBS ) , which supply an alternative breathing gas to the occupants ( usually oxygen ) , and discharge the exhaled gas outside the chamber , so the chamber gas is not excessively enriched by oxygen , which would cause an unacceptable fire hazard , and require frequent flushing with chamber gas ( usually air ) .
A dry bell may be used for bounce dives to great depths , and then used as the decompression chamber during the ascent and later on board the support vessel . In this case it is not always necessary to transfer into a deck chamber , as the bell is quite capable of performing this function , though it would be relatively cramped , as a bell is usually as small as conveniently possible to minimize weight for deployment .
A Saturation System or Saturation spread typically comprises a living chamber , transfer chamber and submersible decompression chamber , which is commonly referred to in commercial diving as the diving bell and in military diving as the personnel transfer capsule , PTC ( Personnel Transfer Capsule ) or SDC ( Submersible Decompression Chamber ) . The diving bell is the elevator or lift that transfers divers from the system to the work site and back . At the completion of work or a mission , the saturation diving team is decompressed gradually back to atmospheric pressure by the slow venting of system pressure , at rates of about of 15 metres ( 49 ft ) to 30 metres ( 98 ft ) per day , ( schedules vary ) . Thus the process involves only one ascent , thereby mitigating the time @-@ consuming and comparatively risky process of multiple decompressions normally associated with multiple non @-@ saturation ( " bounce diving " ) operations .
A hyperbaric lifeboat or hyperbaric rescue unit may be provided for emergency evacuation of saturation divers from a saturation system . This would be used if the platform is at immediate risk due to fire or sinking , and allows the divers under saturation to get clear of the immediate danger . The crew would normally start decompression as soon as possible after launching .
= = Teaching of decompression practice = =
Basic decompression theory and use of decompression tables is part of the theory component of training for commercial divers , and dive planning based on decompression tables , and the practice and field management of decompression is a significant part of the work of the diving supervisor .
Recreational divers are trained in the theory and practice of decompression to the extent that the certifying agency specifies in the training standard for each certification . This may vary from a rudimentary overview sufficient to allow the diver to avoid decompression obligation for entry level divers , to competence in the use of several decompression algorithms by way of personal dive computers , decompression software , and tables for advanced technical divers . The detailed understanding of decompression theory is not generally required of either commercial or recreational divers .
The practice of decompression techniques is another matter altogether . Recreational divers are expected not to do decompression dives by most certification organizations , though CMAS and BSAC allow for short decompression dives in some levels of recreational divers . Technical , commercial , military and scientific divers may all be expected to do decompression dives in the normal course of their sport or occupation , and are specifically trained in appropriate procedures and equipment relevant to their level of certification . A significant part of practical and theoretical training for these divers is on the practice of safe and effective decompression procedures and the selection and use of the appropriate equipment .
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= Banksia integrifolia =
Banksia integrifolia , commonly known as coast banksia , is a species of tree that grows along the east coast of Australia . One of the most widely distributed Banksia species , it occurs between Victoria and Central Queensland in a broad range of habitats , from coastal dunes to mountains . It is highly variable in form , but is most often encountered as a tree up to 25 metres ( 82 ft ) in height . Its leaves have dark green upper surfaces and white undersides , a contrast that can be striking on windy days .
It is one of the four original Banksia species collected by Sir Joseph Banks in 1770 , and one of four species published in 1782 as part of Carolus Linnaeus the Younger 's original description of the genus . It has had a complicated taxonomic history , with numerous species and varieties ascribed to it , only to be rejected or promoted to separate species . The taxonomy is now largely settled , with three subspecies recognised : B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia , B. integrifolia subsp. compar and B. integrifolia subsp. monticola .
A hardy and versatile garden plant , B. integrifolia is widely planted in Australian gardens . It is a popular choice for parks and streetscapes , and has been used for bush revegetation and stabilisation of dunes . Its hardiness has prompted research into its suitability for use as a rootstock in the cut flower trade , but has also caused concerns about its potential to become a weed outside its natural habitat .
= = Names = =
Now widely known as coast banksia or coastal banksia , B. integrifolia was previously known by a range of common names . The Checklist of Australian Trees lists four other common names : honeysuckle , white banksia , white bottlebrush and white honeysuckle ; and some older sources refer to it as honeysuckle oak .
It was known to Indigenous Australians before its discovery and naming by Europeans ; for example , the Gunai people of Gippsland called it birrna . Because of its wide range it would have a name in a number of other indigenous languages , but these are now lost . In 2001 , a search of historical archives for recorded indigenous names of Victorian flora and fauna failed to find a single name for the species .
= = Description = =
B. integrifolia is a highly variable species . It is most often encountered as a tree up to 25 metres ( 80 ft ) in height , but in sheltered locations it can reach 35 metres ( 110 ft ) . In more exposed areas it may grow as a small , gnarled tree , reaching to no more than about 5 metres ( 15 ft ) , and in highly exposed positions , such as on exposed coastal headlands , it may even be reduced to a small shrub .
It usually has a single stout trunk , which is often twisted and gnarled , with the rough grey bark characteristic of Banksia . The leaves are dark green with a white underside , and occur in whorls of three to five . Adult leaves have entire margins ; George specifies their dimensions as 4 to 20 centimetres ( 2 – 8 in ) long and 6 to 35 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 4 in ) wide , but The Banksia Atlas warns that " Atlas contributors found great variability in these measurements with specimens often falling outside the varietal limits specified by George ( 1981 ) or being intermediate between two varieties . " Juvenile leaves have dentate margins with a few short teeth , and are generally larger than adult leaves .
Flowers occur in Banksia 's characteristic " flower spike " , an inflorescence made up of several hundred flowers densely packed in a spiral around a woody axis . This is roughly cylindrical , 10 to 12 centimetres ( 4 – 5 in ) high and five centimetres ( 2 in ) wide . Flowers are usually pale yellow to yellow , but may be greenish or pinkish in bud . Each individual flower consists of a tubular perianth made up of four united tepals , and one long wiry style . Characteristic of the taxonomic section in which it is placed , the styles are straight rather than hooked . The style ends are initially trapped inside the upper perianth parts , but break free at anthesis . This process starts with the flowers at the bottom of the inflorescence , sweeping up the spike at an unusually high rate of between 96 and 390 flowers per 24 hours .
The flower spikes are not as prominent as in some other Banksia species , as they arise from two- to three @-@ year @-@ old nodes nested within the foliage . After flowering , old flower parts wither and fall away over a period of several months , revealing the " cone " , a woody axis embedded with many small follicles . The follicles are initially greenish and downy , but gradually fade to dark grey . Each follicle contains one or sometimes two seeds , separated by a thin wooden separator . The seed itself is black , 6 to 10 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 4 in ) long with a feathery black ' wing ' 10 to 20 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) long .
= = Taxonomy = =
B. integrifolia was first collected at Botany Bay on 29 April 1770 , by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Daniel Solander , naturalists on the Endeavour during Lieutenant ( later Captain ) James Cook 's first voyage to the Pacific Ocean . However , the species was not published until April 1782 , when Carolus Linnaeus the Younger described the first four Banksia species in his Supplementum Plantarum . Linnaeus distinguished the species by their leaf shapes , and named them accordingly . Thus the species with entire leaf margins was given the specific name integrifolia , from the Latin integer , meaning " entire " , and folium , meaning " leaf " . The full name for the species is therefore Banksia integrifolia L.f.
Then followed around 200 years of confusion over the taxonomic limits of the species , caused by the species ' great variability , similarities with closely related species , and early attempts to classify the species based on dried specimen material alone . A stable Banksia taxonomy did not begin to emerge until 1981 with the publication of Alex George 's landmark monograph The genus Banksia L.f. ( Proteaceae ) . Over the next 18 years , George 's arrangement was gradually refined in the light of new research and the discovery of new material , and there were several changes to B. integrifolia 's infraspecific taxa . These changes culminated in George 's 1999 arrangement , which had broad acceptance until 2005 , when Austin Mast , Eric Jones and Shawn Havery published a phylogeny that did not accord with George 's arrangement . A new taxonomic arrangement was not published at the time , but early in 2007 Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement by transferring Dryandra to Banksia , and publishing B. subg . Spathulatae for the species having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons . They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete ; in the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. integrifolia is placed in B. subg . Spathulatae ; indeed , it is the type species for the subgenus .
= = = Placement within Banksia = = =
The current taxonomic arrangement of the Banksia genus is based on George 's 1999 monograph for the Flora of Australia book series . In this arrangement , B. integrifolia is placed in Banksia subg . Banksia , because its inflorescences take the form of Banksia 's characteristic flower spikes ; Banksia sect . Banksia because of its straight styles ; and Banksia ser . Salicinae because its inflorescences are cylindrical . Kevin Thiele additionally placed it in a subseries Integrifoliae , but this was not supported by George .
B. integrifolia 's placement within Banksia may be summarised as follows :
Genus Banksia
Subgenus Isostylis
Subgenus Banksia
Section Oncostylis
Section Coccinea
Section Banksia
Series Grandes
Series Banksia
Series Crocinae
Series Prostratae
Series Cyrtostylis
Series Tetragonae
Series Bauerinae
Series Quercinae
Series Salicinae
B. dentata – B. aquilonia – B. integrifolia – B. plagiocarpa – B. oblongifolia – B. robur – B. conferta – B. paludosa – B. marginata – B. canei – B. saxicola
= = = Subspecies = = =
Although some of the great variability of B. integrifolia can be attributed to environmental factors , much is genetic : George writes that it " gives the impression that it is actively speciating to fill the many ecological niches through its range " . Three subspecies are currently recognised : B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia , B. integrifolia subsp. compar , and B. integrifolia subsp. monticola .
Banksia integrifolia subsp. integrifolia
The nominate subspecies occurs near the coast over most of the species ' range except the far north . It varies little except in northern New South Wales and southern Queensland , where some populations appear to be intermediate with B. integrifolia subsp. compar .
Banksia integrifolia subsp. compar
This subspecies grows in coastal Queensland as far north as Proserpine . For most of its range it is the only subspecies , but near its southern limit it co @-@ occurs with B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia . The two subspecies are distinguishable by their leaves , which are larger and glossy with wavy margins on B. integrifolia subsp. compar .
Banksia integrifolia subsp. monticola
Commonly known as white mountain banksia , it is the only subspecies with a montane distribution ; it occurs in the Blue Mountains of northern New South Wales . It is similar in form to B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia , but differs in having longer , narrower leaves , and follicles that are more deeply embedded in the old flower spike .
= = = Hybrids = = =
Presumed natural hybrids have been reported between B. integrifolia and other members of Banksia ser . Salicinae , although no hybrid names have been formally published to date . Presumed hybrids are identified by their intermediate features ; for example those with B. paludosa ( swamp banksia ) , known from Jervis Bay and Green Cape on the coast of southern New South Wales , have a smaller habit , longer , thinner flower spikes , and persistent old flowers on old " cones " , which are otherwise bare on pure B. integrifolia .
Presumed hybrids with B. marginata ( silver banksia ) occur on Wilsons Promontory in Victoria ; these are found in localities where both species co @-@ occur , and have features intermediate between the two . Another purported hybrid with B. marginata , thought to be from Cape Paterson on Victoria 's south coast , was first described by Alf Salkin and is commercially available in small quantities . It forms an attractive hardy low @-@ growing plant to 1 metre .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
B. integrifolia is widely distributed , in both geographical and ecological terms . According to Alex George , " it spans a wider geographical and climatic range than any other species . " Thiele and Ladiges make a similar claim : that its distribution " is a broader latitudinal , altitudinal and ecological amplitude than any other species , with the possible exception of B. spinulosa . "
It occurs along almost the entire eastern coast of Australia , from Geelong , Victoria to Proserpine , Queensland . There was an isolated population on Long Island , Tasmania in 1999 , and an 1876 record allegedly from King Island , although there has been speculation that that specimen was actually collected in the Furneaux Group . The species no longer occurs at any of these Tasmania locations , and has been declared extinct in Tasmania under that state 's Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 . The range of latitude is thus about 20 to 38 ° S.
For most of its distribution , B. integrifolia occurs only within about 50 kilometres ( 30 mi ) of the coast , where it typically occurs on poor quality sandy soils derived from sandstone . It grows near coastal cliffs and headlands , alongside river estuaries , and even on stabilised sand dunes . The temperature range for this area is around 0 – 30 ° C ( 30 – 85 ° F ) , with almost no frosts . The species can occur in pure stands , but is usually associated with other species such as Melaleuca quinquenervia ( broad @-@ leaved paperbark ) .
Between Sydney and Brisbane , B. integrifolia is found up to 200 kilometres ( 125 mi ) inland , with B. integrifolia subsp. monticola occurring in the Blue Mountains at altitudes up to 1500 metres ( 5000 ft ) . There it grows on better quality volcanic or rocky soils derived from granites and basalts , and would experience up to 100 frosts per year . In this montane habitat , it occurs in association with Eucalyptus species such as E. viminalis ( manna gum ) and E. pauciflora ( snow gum ) , and also rainforest species such as Nothofagus moorei ( Antarctic beech ) and Orites excelsa ( prickly ash ) .
No other species of tree occurs closer to the coast at Cape Byron , making B. integrifolia the most easterly tree on the Australian mainland .
= = Ecology = =
Like most other Proteaceae , B. integrifolia has proteoid roots , roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter . These enhance solubilisation of nutrients , thus allowing nutrient uptake in low @-@ nutrient soils such as the phosphorus @-@ deficient native soils of Australia . Studies on B. integrifolia suggest that its proteoid root mat achieves this by chemically modifying its soil environment .
B. integrifolia flowers have an unusually short life span for Banksia species , producing nectar for only about four to twelve days after anthesis . Most nectar is produced during the night and early in the morning , with only small amounts produced during the day . Flowers are produced all through the year , but there is a strong peak in autumn . Little else flowers within its range at this time , so it is a seasonally important source of food for nectariferous animals . Surveys have observed a range of animals feeding on the species , including a wide range of insects ; many species of bird including Phylidonyris novaehollandiae ( New Holland honeyeater ) , Anthochaera carunculata ( red wattlebird ) , Anthochaera chrysoptera ( little wattlebird ) , Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris ( eastern spinebill ) and Trichoglossus haematodus ( rainbow lorikeet ) ; and mammals such as Petaurus norfolcensis ( squirrel glider ) , Petaurus breviceps ( sugar glider ) , Acrobates pygmaeus ( feathertail glider ) and Pteropus poliocephalus ( grey @-@ headed flying fox ) . In some areas such as at Bungawalbin National Park in northern New South Wales , B. integrifolia is the only source of nectar and pollen in the autumn ( March – April ) and late winter ( July ) . The importance of non @-@ flying mammals to pollination of B. integrifolia was demonstrated in 1989 , with a study in Wilsons Promontory National Park showing a reduction of fruit set when measures were taken to exclude them .
Unlike most Banksia species , B. integrifolia does not require bushfire to trigger the release of its seed . Rather , seed is released spontaneously on reaching maturity in late summer . The species ' non @-@ reliance on fire for seed dispersal suggests that the exclusion of fire would not affect plant populations , but a number of studies have found the opposite to be true : in areas where fire has been excluded for many years , populations have declined substantially . An investigation into the defoliation and premature death of trees on the Yanakie Isthmus in south Victoria reached the tentative conclusion that the absence of fire had created unhealthy surface soil conditions . On the Mornington Peninsula , surveys of an area that had not been burnt since the 1890s found that B. integrifolia densities fell by 77 % between 1977 and 2000 . A subsequent study found the decline to have been caused by extremely high seedling mortality rates , due to grazing by herbivores and intense competition for soil moisture during summer . Despite acknowledging that " the role of fire in these systems remains unclear " , it concluded that " developing fire and / or grazing management regimes will be necessary to conserve the structural integrity of these coastal ecosystems . "
These concerns aside , B. integrifolia does not appear to be under threat . It has excellent resistance to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback , which poses a major threat to many other Banksia species ; and its wide distribution protects against the threat of habitat loss due to land clearing . As a result , it does not appear on the list of threatened Australian plants under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 .
= = Cultivation = =
Hardy and versatile , B. integrifolia will grow in clay , sand , acid and even alkaline soils , and it shows good resistance to wind and salt , making it suitable for seaside planting . It is therefore highly regarded as a low @-@ maintenance garden tree , although its large size makes it unsuitable for smaller gardens . Its hardiness may however forewarn weed potential , as some evidence of weediness has been seen in Western Australia and New Zealand . When growing near bushland within its native habitat , it is recommended to obtain local provenance seed or plants if available .
The most common form available in commercial nurseries is unimproved Banksia integrifolia subsp. integrifolia . It prefers a sunny aspect without exposure to frosts , and tolerates fairly heavy pruning . Seeds do not require any treatment , and take 5 to 6 weeks to germinate . Flowering begins at around four to six years from seed . The other subspecies are less well known in cultivation , but are obtainable . Cultivation is presumably similar to B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia , except that B. integrifolia subsp. monticola may be assumed frost @-@ tolerant . Dwarf forms of B. integrifolia are sometimes sold , and a registered prostrate cultivar , Banksia ' Roller Coaster ' , is available . The latter is a vigorous ground @-@ hugging plant that can spread to 4 or 5 metres across yet remains only 50 centimetres high .
Because of its high resistance to P. cinnamomi dieback , the feasibility of using B. integrifolia as a rootstock for susceptible Banksia species in the cut flower trade is under investigation . Presently , the success rate for grafting is only 30 – 40 % , and even with successful grafts there is a tendency for the union to fail under stress . More research is needed before the technique will be ready for commercial use .
= = Other uses = =
The wood of B. integrifolia is pink to red , with inconspicuous rings and conspicuous rays . It is spongy and porous , with a density of around 530 kilograms per cubic metre ( 33 lb / ft3 ) . It is considered highly decorative , but it warps badly on drying , has poor load @-@ bearing qualities , and is susceptible to termite attack ; it is therefore unsuitable for most construction purposes . It is sometimes used for cabinet panelling and in ornamental turnery , and natural bends were once sought after for making boat knees . It is a useful firewood .
B. integrifolia produces a dark amber @-@ coloured honey of middling quality and therefore low commercial value . Despite this , the species is highly valued by beekeepers because it produces large amounts of pollen and nectar during autumn and winter , thus helping support hives at a time when little else is flowering .
Historically , indigenous Australians obtained nectar from B. integrifolia by stroking the flower spikes then licking their hands , or by steeping flower spikes in a coolamon overnight . They also used the flower spikes as hairbrushes . Early settlers used the nectar as a syrup for sore throats and colds ; and bushmen would impregnate barren " cones " with fat to make a slow @-@ burning candle .
More recently , B. integrifolia has been used in the art of bonsai . Its rangy habit and long internodes are challenging to overcome , but the leaves do reduce with pruning , and unlike the gnarlier B. serrata ( saw banksia ) its trunk can become textured with age .
It is used as a floral emblem by two local government areas of Queensland : the City of Redcliffe and the City of Logan . In 2000 it was featured on an Australian postage stamp .
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= Dhoom 2 =
Dhoom 2 ( [ ˈd ̪ ʱuːm ] , English : Blast 2 , also abbreviated and known as D : 2 , D2 and Dhoom 2 : Back In Action ) is a 2006 Indian action film directed by Sanjay Gadhvi and produced by Aditya Chopra and Yash Chopra at an estimated budget of ₹ 350 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 2 million ) under the Yash Raj Films banner . It is the second in the Dhoom series . Abhishek Bachchan and Uday Chopra star as buddy cops Jai Dixit and Ali , respectively . The duo attempt to capture Mr. A ( Hrithik Roshan ) , a professional thief whose passion is to steal rare and valuable collectibles using high @-@ technology gadgets . The film features Bipasha Basu and Aishwarya Rai in lead female roles . Dhoom 2 was shot primarily in India , Durban , and Rio de Janeiro , becoming the first major Hindi film to be shot in Brazil . The distributor , Yash Raj Films , promoted the film by forging associations with Pepe Jeans and Coca @-@ Cola . It premiered on 24 November 2006 in India , where it received the widest release in Indian cinema history with over 1800 prints . It was dubbed simultaneously in Tamil as well as in Telugu . Singer Vijay Prakash dubbed for ACP Jai Dixit in Tamil .
Dhoom 2 was generally well received by critics and audiences ; it was accepted well by children and adults . It became the highest @-@ grossing Indian film of 2006 , and was the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film of all time as well at the time of its release . It is the seventh highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film in overseas markets . After grossing over ₹ 1 @.@ 5 billion ( US $ 22 million ) , Dhoom 2 was elevated to a " blockbuster " rating on Box Office India . It received an 80 % approval rating among critics on Rotten Tomatoes . Critics praised Dhoom 2 for its exotic locales and elaborate action sequences . However , there was an appeal by the Mumbai city police commissioner to censor the fast @-@ paced rash driving scenes due to fears that it would inspire Indian youths to ride their motorcycles rashly , resulting in an increase in the number of road accidents . A sequel titled Dhoom 3 was released on 20 December 2013 , which also went on to become the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film of all time .
= = Plot = =
The world 's oldest desert in Namibia ; A solitary railway line & A royal family on a royal journey . Mr.A ( Hrithik Roshan ) sky @-@ dives and lands on a train that is carrying the Queen . He steals her crown by disguising himself as the Queen , beats her guards easily and escapes . Newly promoted officer Ali ( Uday Chopra ) and Jai Dixit ( Abhishek Bachchan ) are introduced to Shonali Bose ( Bipasha Basu ) , a special officer assigned to investigate Mr. A 's case , who also happens to be a former classmate of Jai . After the initial investigation , Dixit analyses the underlying trend in Mr. A 's heists . As per his analysis , a theft in one of two famous Mumbai city museums will follow .
However , Dixit realizes that the artifact in the museum he is guarding happens to be imperfect . He immediately flees to the other museum when a disguised Mr. A steals a rare diamond and escapes . In a televised challenge to the police , Mr. A announces that he will steal an ancient warrior sword . In response , Dixit , Bose and Khan enforce a strict vigil at the location housing the sword . At night , Mr. A meets his impersonator in the room that holds the sword . The police are alerted , but they manage to steal the sword and escape . The impersonator turns out to be Sunehri ( Aishwarya Rai ) , a woman who idolises Mr. A , and after this they form an alliance .
In Rio de Janeiro , Mr. A and Sunehri plan their next heist . As Dixit 's analysis has named Rio the location of Mr. A 's next heist , Jai and Ali travel to the city . There they meet Monali ( Bipasha Basu ) , Shonali 's twin sister and Ali immediately falls for her . Meanwhile , the relationship between Mr. A and Sunehri evolves into romance and he unveils his real identity , Aryan , to her . However , he discovers that Sunehri was actually a spy working for Jai after seeing them together at a theatre and then a parade . Aryan forces Sunehri to play a game of Russian roulette . Sunehri cries and refuses to shoot Aryan because she loves him , but Aryan forces her . However , after six attempted shots from the gun , neither is injured because Aryan had not inserted a bullet into the gun . Sunehri admits she betrayed Aryan and that she loves him . In their final heist , Aryan and Sunehri successfully steal some early Lydian coins while disguised as performing dwarfs . Sunehri indicates that she does not wish to remain allied with Jai , forcing Jai and Ali to go after them . After the chase , all of them end up on the top of a waterfall , where Sunehri is caught by Ali . Sunehri , despite conveying her feelings for Aryan , shoots him . Aryan falls from the waterfall , after which Jai allows Sunehri to go free .
After six months , it is revealed that Aryan had survived , and now has opened a restaurant in the Fiji islands with Sunehri . Jai meets Aryan and Sunehri at the restaurant and states that despite their crimes , he does not wish to imprison the couple . Aryan shows him where all the stolen artifacts can be found . Jai is aware of the couple 's feelings towards each other , but warns them against returning to their life of crime . Jai later informs Ali that they should be heading back to India for their next case .
= = Cast = =
Hrithik Roshan as Aryan / Mr. " A " , a master thief living in disguise . He steals museum pieces such as the first man @-@ made coins , a queen 's crown , ancient sword and more . He only steals at selected museums to mark " A " , the first letter of his name , on the map of the world .
Abhishek Bachchan as ACP Jai Dixit , an Assistant Commissioner trying to find Mr. A. Jai is accompanied by inspector Ali and married to Sweety Dixit .
Aishwarya Rai as Sunehri , another thief who was blackmailed by Jai Dixit to find out more about Mr. A , because she was a petty thief in Mumbai and was forced to help him or face jail time .
Uday Chopra as Ali Akbar Fateh Khan , an assistant to Jai Dixit and an inspector .
Bipasha Basu as Shonali Bose and Monali Bose , twins with different personalities . Shonali is a tough assistant commissioner , and an old friend of Jai , while Monali is a joyful girl living in Rio de Janeiro .
Rimi Sen in a guest appearance as Sweety Dixit , Jai 's wife . She is pregnant and is suspicious of Jai 's friendship with Shonali .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The Dhoom series began with the release of Dhoom in 2004 . The film became a commercial box office hit and received generally positive reviews from audiences , but not so much from critics . As a result , producer Yash Chopra announced plans for a sequel , titled Dhoom 2 : Back in Action . John Abraham , portrayer of Kabir Sharma , the villain of the predecessor , was eliminated from the sequel because Chopra did not want Dhoom 2 to repeat the stories featured in its predecessor . Instead , Hrithik Roshan and Aishwarya Rai were introduced into the franchise as the sequel 's main villains . Aishwarya Rai 's character was summarised as Catwoman , a female fictional comic book femme fatale or anti @-@ hero . Rai stated , " All I can tell you is it would be nothing like anything you 've seen me do before . " Producer Aditya Chopra told Rai to lose weight after she gained it for her role in 2004 's Bride & Prejudice . Yash Chopra stated , " But yes , the role does require Aishwarya to convey oodles of sensuality . She has asked for a couple of months to get into shape . We ( at Yash Raj Films ) are very clear about every character in every script and what 's required of the actors . Before Dhoom , Esha Deol was specifically briefed about the look and the attitude she needed to cultivate . She readily agreed , and look at what Dhoom did to her career ! " Roshan also lost twelve pounds of weight at Aditya Chopra 's request . With the exception of Abraham and Esha Deol , all of the other main actors in Dhoom were hired again for Dhoom 2 .
= = = Filming = = =
Dhoom 2 was filmed in Mumbai ( India ) , Namibia , Durban ( South Africa ) , and Rio de Janeiro , ( Brazil ) , making it the first Bollywood movie to be shot in Brazil . In total , production lasted eighteen months and cost of ₹ 350 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 2 million ) . To ensure the sequel would be different from the original , which became famous for its brash motorcycle stunts , director Sanjay Gadhvi included very few motorcycles in Dhoom 2 . Nonetheless , Roshan 's role required him to perform several dangerous stunts involving activities such as roller @-@ blading , sand boarding and snow boarding .
Dhoom 2 made extensive use of visual effects , which were filmed at Yash Raj Studios . While shooting at Yash Raj Studios , the film suffered from a flood that destroyed the studio sets and delayed production . Fight and action sequences were storyboarded before being shown to Gadhvi and Allan Amin , who would make changes . The scenes were then sketched , given " proper shot list [ s ] " , and shared with Tata Elxsi , who oversaw the pre @-@ visualization of the sequences . Several scenes were filmed with the use of green screen and computer @-@ generated imagery . For example , the stunts Roshan 's performed on a train in the Namib Desert used green screen ; after Roshan recorded the stunts on a set , Gadhvi traveled to the desert to film the background . Other stunts were performed by stuntmen whose faces were later digitally exchanged with the actors ' .
The bullet effects and Hrithik 's gadgets and mechanical arm were also computer generated . The scene involving Abhishek Bachchan coming out of a lake using a jet ski was created using a green screen . The stunt came out at 90 degrees , but Sanjay Gandhvi wanted a 60 degrees jump . So , it was shot with a Super 35 , and hence the angle could be changed . Gandhvi discussed the use of technology in an interview :
We 've done animation and pre @-@ visualization for all the action sequences in Dhoom 2 and that is very important in terms of planning , cost effectiveness and also it 's a new way of preparing for shoot and the film specially which is as set on such a large canvas such as Dhoom 2 . In Dhoom 1 we had all the action sequences broken down and written . In this movie we had very big action sequences so we had all the scenes storyboarded and they would be checked , double checked and triple checked by myself , Alan Amin and Adi and we would then rectify if needed and that would be our level of planning .
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack of Dhoom 2 was recorded at YRF Studios . The music was composed by Pritam with background score by Salim @-@ Sulaiman . The lyrics were penned by Sameer except " Dhoom Again " by Asif Ali Beg and " Crazy Kiya Re — Remix " was remixed by Bunty Rajput . Although most of the song 's lyrics are primarily written in Hindi with some English , " Dhoom Again " is almost entirely in English . The soundtrack pulled average reviews from critics but higher praise from the public . It became the best selling Bollywood soundtrack of the year .
All music composed by Pritam .
= = Release = =
Dhoom 2 was released on 24 November 2006 in India , where it received the widest release in Indian cinema history at the time with over 1800 prints , including 250 digital copies . Some locations raised ticket prices for the film .
It was promoted with several tie @-@ ins . Coca @-@ Cola promoted the film as " Coke Uthale , Dhoom Machale " . India 's video game producing company FXLabs developed a game based on the film . Pepe Jeans sold Dhoom 2 @-@ related garments , including shirts , jeans , bandannas , caps , and metal accessories . Chetan Shah , the country head of Pepe Jeans London , stated : " Pepe Jeans is tremendously excited to be associated with the most awaited movie of the year Dhoom : 2 . The incredible starcast of Hrithik Roshan , Aishwarya Rai , Abhishek Bachchan , Bipasha Basu and Uday Chopra and the exciting and explosive content of the movie encapsulates everything that the Pepe Jeans brand stands for- young , cool , trendy , hip , fashionable and innovative .
= = = Box office = = =
In India , Dhoom 2 broke several box @-@ office records , mainly those for opening day and opening weekend grosses , including a first week of ₹ 66 million ( US $ 980 @,@ 000 ) in Mumbai and ₹ 179 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 7 million ) for all of India . In Mumbai , distributors received a profit of ₹ 94 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 4 million ) on the first week 's business . Box Office India awarded it a " blockbuster " rating after the film netted ₹ 803 million ( US $ 12 million ) in India and grossed ₹ 1 @.@ 5 billion ( US $ 22 million ) worldwide on a budget of ₹ 350 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 2 million ) . It is currently the 13th highest @-@ grossing film in India ( unadjusted for inflation ) .
Dhoom 2 grossed US $ 979 @,@ 000 in North America in 63 theatres over its three @-@ day opening weekend ( $ 1 @.@ 3 million over four days ) , becoming the third largest opening weekend for a Bollywood film in North America . Overall , it was the seventeenth ranked film at the American box office . Box Office Mojo reports it earned a total of $ 2 @,@ 643 @,@ 586 inside the United States and a total of $ 29 @,@ 752 @,@ 841 in other countries , including India . In Dubai , it achieved the highest first day opening for a Bollywood film .
Dhoom 2 ranked sixth among opening weekends for international films at the United Kingdom box office with a gross ( average per screen ) of £ 8 @,@ 151 . At the Australian box office , it had the twelfth highest opening and collected approximately A $ 176 @,@ 462 . It grossed approximately NZ $ 51 @,@ 453 on five screens in New Zealand . Dhoom 2 is estimated to have grossed US $ 8 @,@ 750 @,@ 000 total in the overseas markets .
= = = Reception = = =
= = = = India = = = =
In India , the film received mostly positive reviews from critics . Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars , reporting " On the whole , Dhoom 2 is a winner all the way . For Yash Raj , who 've not only produced but also distributed the film , Dhoom 2 should emerge as one of the biggest hits of their career . " Rajesh Karkera of Rediff gave it three and a half stars out of five , calling it " A complete roller @-@ coaster ride which left me completely enthralled and exhausted . Sure , there are faults when you stop to think rationally . But that does not stop you from being dazzled by the film . " Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ IBN gave it a three star rating , saying that Dhoom 2 is without doubt better than its predecessor , and that Hrithik Roshan is the heart and soul of the film . Vijay Venkataramanan of Planet Bollywood gave it seven out of ten stars ; while complaining about flaws in the plot and Aishwarya Rai ’ s performance , he still called it a good adrenaline @-@ pumping entertainer .
= = = = International = = = =
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported 83 % of six critics were positive and gave it a " fresh " certificate . Variety commented , " Loaded with enough attitude , Bollywood starpower and buff bodies to stop a speeding train , Dhoom 2 has been doing humongous biz since its November 24 worldwide opening , and provides adequate proof that Yash Raj Films is good for more than just family @-@ oriented comedy @-@ dramas . "
Rachel Saltz of The New York Times reviewed , " The pleasure principle is palpable in the giddy , slick Dhoom 2 , a satisfying example of the new , thoroughly modern Bollywood . It may represent the newfangled Bollywood , but old @-@ fashioned star power is what animates and elevates it above its occasional narrative flaws and longueurs . " Film Journal International 's Ethan Alter said , " Dhoom 2 has all of the benefits of a big @-@ budget Bollywood production : big @-@ name stars , exotic locales , well @-@ produced musical numbers and elaborate ( by Bollywood standards , anyway ) action sequences . It makes no lasting contributions to world cinema , but if two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours of disposable entertainment are all you 're after , you could do far worse . " L.A. Weekly 's David Chute stated the film was , " A movie meal as satisfying as this one can make you feel that nothing else matters . " Jaspreet Pandohar of the BBC gave it a two @-@ star rating , writing " By roping in acclaimed action director Alan Amin to take care of the thrills and spills , you 'd expect Gadhvi to have spent time crafting out a sophisticated storyline instead of simply sending his cast on a cat @-@ and @-@ mouse chase around the globe . It 's only Roshan 's charismatic performance as the criminal mastermind , and the sizzling chemistry he shares with Rai 's sassy cohort , that rescues this adventure from becoming an elongated tourism commercial . " Manish Gajjar , Bollywood Correspondent for BBC Shropshire said , " With its high @-@ powered action sequences matching Hollywood standards , Dhoom 2 is a winner all the way at the box office ! "
= = = Controversies = = =
The city of Mumbai 's police commissioner called for censoring of the fast @-@ paced rash driving scenes in the film due to fears that it would inspire Indian youths to ride their motorcycles rashly , resulting in an increase in the number of road accidents . Unlike the original , the robberies depicted in Dhoom 2 were not inspired by any real @-@ life crimes . Dhoom 2 , however , inspired the robbery of a man by his nephew , who wore clothing similar to Hrithik 's in the film while committing the crime .
= = Accolades = =
Dhoom 2 was nominated for several awards that year , but only picked up a few of the major ones . At the Filmfare Awards , Hrithik Roshan won the Best Actor , out of five total nominations for the film . At the International Indian Film Academy Awards ( IIFA ) , the film won for Best Makeup and the Best Costume Design . At the Stardust Awards , Aishwarya Rai won Star of the Year – Female and director Sanjay Gadhvi won the Hottest Young Film Maker title .
At the 2007 MTV India Style Awards , however , Dhoom 2 swept nearly all of the movie awards , winning the following :
Most Stylish Film : Dhoom 2
Most Stylish Actor – Male : Hrithik Roshan
Most Stylish Actor – Female : Aishwarya Rai
Most Stylish New Look : Hrithik Roshan
Most Stylish Body : Hrithik Roshan
Most Stylish Couple : Hrithik Roshan & Aishwarya Rai
Most Stylish Song in A Film : Shiamak Davar ( choreographer )
Most Stylish Bollywood Designer : Anaita Shroff Adajania
= = Home media = =
Dhoom 2 was released in DVD format on February 2007 . It was distributed by Yash Raj Films in all regions as a two @-@ disc set and for region 1 as a single @-@ disc set . It was released on Blu @-@ ray in December 2009 .
The film is also noteworthy because its soundtrack is the first in Indian cinema to be released in DVD @-@ Audio in addition to other audio formats . The tracks have been mixed in London in 5 @.@ 1 Surround Sound and audiophiles can choose the format from the audio menu . Four bonus tracks from other films are included , and the lyrics of all 10 tracks can be viewed on @-@ screen while the music is playing , enabling karaoke sing @-@ along .
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= Battle of Ap Bac =
The Battle of Ấp Bắc was a major battle fought on January 2 , 1963 , during the Vietnam War . It was fought in Định Tường Province ( now part of Tiền Giang Province ) , South Vietnam . On December 28 , 1962 , US intelligence detected the presence of a radio transmitter along with a sizable force of National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam ( NLF / Viet Cong ) soldiers , reported to number around 120 , in the hamlet of Ap Tan Thoi in Dinh Tuong Province , home of the Army of the Republic of South Vietnam ( ARVN ) 7th Infantry Division . To destroy the NLF force , the South Vietnamese and their US advisers planned to attack Ap Tan Thoi from three directions by using two provincial Civil Guard battalions and elements of the 11th Infantry Regiment , ARVN 7th Infantry Division . The infantry units would be supported by artillery , M @-@ 113 armored personnel carriers and helicopters .
On the morning of January 2 , 1963 , the South Vietnamese Civil Guards spearheaded the attack by marching toward Ap Tan Thoi from the south . However , when they reached the hamlet of Ap Bac , which is situated southeast of Ap Tan Thoi , they were immediately pinned down by elements of the Viet Cong 261st Battalion . Shortly afterwards , three companies of the 11th Infantry Regiment were committed into battle in northern Ap Tan Thoi , but they too could not overcome the NLF soldiers who had entrenched themselves in the area . Just before midday , further reinforcements were flown in from Tan Hiep . The fifteen US helicopters ferrying the troops were riddled by Viet Cong gunfire and five helicopters were lost as a result .
The ARVN 4th Mechanized Rifle Squadron was then deployed to rescue the South Vietnamese soldiers and US aircrews who were trapped in the southwestern end of Ap Bac , but its commander was highly reluctant about moving heavy M @-@ 113 carriers across the local terrain . Ultimately , their presence made little difference as the NLF stood their ground and killed more than a dozen South Vietnamese M @-@ 113 crew members in the process . Late in the afternoon , the ARVN 8th Airborne Battalion was dropped onto the battlefield and in a scene that characterized much of the day 's fighting ; the paratroopers were pinned down and could not break the NLF 's line of defense . Under the cover of darkness the Viet Cong withdrew from the battlefield , having won their first major victory .
= = Background = =
Small @-@ scale military actions , which would eventually escalate into the Vietnam War , started in the late 1950s , when South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem instituted an anti @-@ Communist campaign aimed at rooting out " left behind " Viet Minh forces . At that time , North Vietnam was hoping for an election , promised under the Geneva Accords of 1954 , that would unite North and South Vietnam . It was also worried about inciting the United States into directly supporting South Vietnam , and had recommended a policy of avoiding battle at all costs . However , Diem 's campaign was too successful to allow them to do nothing , and small @-@ scale actions broke out across the country . North Vietnam remained worried about U.S. involvement and refused any sort of military support , forcing the remaining Viet Minh to retreat into inaccessible areas in the hills and river estuaries . A stalemate of sorts followed , as South Vietnamese forces took so long to reach these areas that the guerilla fighters were able to retreat with little difficulty .
Large @-@ scale American support began during the Kennedy Administration in the early 1960s , with the arrival of large numbers of the U.S. Special Forces to help out in the field . The arrival of helicopters changed the nature of the battle considerably ; it enabled South Vietnamese soldiers to quickly fly to almost any point in the country , leaving little time for a retreat . Throughout 1962 , the combined forces were increasingly effective in routing the Viet Cong . These tactics , combined with the use of armored personnel carriers , took a heavy toll on various fledgling Viet Cong units . The lightly armed Viet Cong had no weaponry capable of stopping the armored carriers and inevitably were forced to flee , taking heavy casualties .
The most successful South Vietnamese force had been the 7th Infantry Division , then under the command of Colonel Huỳnh Văn Cao . His U.S. adviser was Lieutenant Colonel John Paul Vann , who directed much of the unit 's activity in concert with his planner , Captain Richard Ziegler . They had scored the biggest successes of the military campaigns of 1962 , killing along with the paramilitary and Civil Guard and Self Defense Corps , more than 2 @,@ 000 Viet Cong fighters and leaving thousands of others cut off from supplies .
However , South Vietnamese officers were often reluctant to absorb heavy casualties . On several occasions , Cao 's forces were in an excellent position to trap and wipe out whole battalions of Viet Cong , but he would fail to close the trap on one pretext or another and allow the enemy to escape . This behavior initially mystified Vann , who was attempting to build Cao into an aggressive commander . Unknown to Vann , Diem would reprimand or demote any officer who lost too many men , no matter how successful the operation . Diem was more interested in using the military to protect his regime than to take on the Viet Cong . His solution was to fill the ARVN with Catholic political cronies and friends like Cao , Lê Quang Tung , and Tôn Thất Đính , who had little military ability , but were very likely to help stop a coup attempt . After a skirmish on a highway that resulted in a small number of South Vietnamese casualties along with several trucks destroyed , Cao was called to Saigon and reprimanded by Diem . Upon his return , Vann and his group of advisers were forced to end the joint planning sessions that had been so successful earlier , and action essentially wound down in their region . Cao used the excellent military intelligence network they had developed to find areas devoid of the Viet Cong , and planned operations only in those areas . In many other cases , operations were executed on paper only , in order to report an increasing tempo of operations that did not actually exist .
In 1962 , Diem decided to split the command of the area in the south around Saigon into two , the former III Corps area being reduced in size to cover the area northeast of Saigon , and the newly created IV Corps taking over the west and southwest . Cao was promoted to general and assumed command of the new IV Corps Tactical Zone , which included the area of operations of his 7th Infantry Division . Command of the 7th was given to Cao 's chief of staff , Colonel Bùi Đình Đạm . Dam expressed concerns about his own abilities when the promotion was first presented to him by Diem . Nevertheless , he took Cao 's former position and welcomed Vann 's advisers back into the planning effort . Despite the change in leadership , the same problems continued to manifest themselves in the 7th Infantry Division .
= = Prelude = =
In November 1962 , the National Liberation Front 's Military Region 2 ordered the Viet Cong 261st Battalion and the 514th Battalion , the home battalion of Dinh Tuong Province , to destroy the strategic hamlets in their region and at the same time to attack South Vietnamese sweeping operations . Between December 28 and 30 , 1962 , an American aircraft equipped with eavesdropping equipment located a Viet Cong radio transmitter . It intercepted radio signals in the hamlet of Ap Tan Thoi in Dinh Tuong Province where the ARVN 7th Infantry Division was headquartered . The radio intercept and other information obtained by Jim Drummond , Vann 's intelligence officer , indicated that the Viet Cong were using Ap Tan Thoi as a headquarters location . Furthermore , South Vietnamese and American intelligence personnel believed the Viet Cong had deployed a reinforced company of about 120 men to protect the transmitter . Certain that the Viet Cong unit was no larger than the reported number , the ARVN 7th Infantry Division was instructed to attack Ap Tan Thoi .
An operational plan suited for an attack on a small enemy formation was drafted by Ziegler , who was an adviser to Dam and the command staff of the 7th Infantry Division . Ziegler 's plan , codenamed Operation Duc Thang I , called for the South Vietnamese to assault Ap Tan Thoi from three different directions ; three rifle companies from the 11th Infantry Regiment , 7th Infantry Division , to move from the north ; the Dinh Tuong Civil Guards Regiment to march northward from the south in separate columns ; and a company of 13 M @-@ 113 armored personnel carriers with an infantry company on board from the southwest . The M @-@ 113 carriers and the infantry company could act as both a mobile reserve and a reaction force , so it was positioned where it could be shifted to the contact area if the Viet Cong began to retreat . In addition , Dam would also deploy two rifle companies at Tan Hiep airfield , which could be brought onto the battlefield by helicopters from the U.S. Army 93rd Transportation Company .
On previous occasions , U.S. intelligence had tracked down the location of Viet Cong radio transmitters , but those were often relocated before the South Vietnamese launched their attacks , so Ziegler privately questioned if the Viet Cong had as many as 120 soldiers in Ap Tan Thoi . However , in 1963 , the National Liberation Front had changed their policy , from avoiding the South Vietnamese army to standing and fighting . The 1st Company , 261st Battalion and the 1st Company , 514th Battalion , had a total strength of 320 regular soldiers and were positioned in Ap Bac and Ap Tan Thoi respectively , which were separated by a distance of about 1 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) . The combined companies were supported by approximately 30 local force soldiers from Chau Thanh District who served as scouts , ammunition bearers , litter carriers , and emergency replacements . Together , elements of the Viet Cong 261st and 514th Battalions in Ap Tan Thoi and Ap Bac formed a ' composite battalion ' , which was placed under the command of Colonel Hai Hoang .
Previously , leadership of the 261st Battalion alternated between Hoang , a South Vietnamese revolutionary who had returned from North Vietnam after 1954 , and Tu Khue , who was a native of North Vietnam . Khue was unpopular among the battalion 's soldiers because he was known to be very strict and demanding . However , he was very careful about details . In contrast , Hoang was far more relaxed and commanded a high degree of confidence from the soldiers of the 261st Battalion . Thus , due to his strong leadership skills and popularity , Hoang was selected to take command of Viet Cong forces for operations in Ap Bac . Most of the soldiers under Hoang 's command were equipped with captured U.S.-made weaponry , such as the M1 carbine , BAR light machine guns , .30 caliber machine guns , and a single 60mm mortar .
In the days before the battle , Hoang anticipated a major attack from the South Vietnamese government , as Viet Cong intelligence agents in Dinh Tuong had reported the arrival of 71 truckloads of ammunition and other supplies from Saigon , about 65 kilometers ( 40 mi ) to the northeast . In addition , with information provided by Pham Xuan An , a well @-@ connected journalist and undercover Viet Cong agent in Saigon , Hoang 's soldiers conducted last @-@ minute anti @-@ helicopter and anti @-@ M @-@ 113 training by studying U.S.-made weaponry and South Vietnamese plans and manuals . The Viet Cong also took full advantage of the local terrain by taking up positions in Ap Tan Thoi in the north , along a tree @-@ lined creek in the southeast , and Ap Bac in the south . Their positions were well @-@ concealed by trees and shrubs , which made them difficult to see from the air and provided good protection from heavy weaponry . To the south and west of Ap Bac , the Viet Cong dug a series of foxholes in front of an irrigation dike , which afforded them an unobstructed field of fire in the surrounding rice fields . The foxholes were deep enough for one man to stand up , or big enough to accommodate a two @-@ man machine @-@ gun crew . Behind the foxhole line , the irrigation dike enabled Viet Cong units to communicate with each other . In short , the Viet Cong enjoyed a great advantage over any attacking force .
= = Battle = =
= = = The fight begins = = =
At 4 : 00 on the morning of January 2 , Viet Cong scouts around the hamlets of Ap Bac and Ap Tan Thoi reported hearing the sounds of truck and boat engines , so Hoang issued an alert order which prompted his troops to pick up their weapons and hurry to their foxholes . Most of the women , children , and old men in both hamlets fled and hid in the nearby swamps as soon as the order was issued .
Thirty CH @-@ 21 Shawnee helicopters were needed to airlift the entire 1st Battalion , ARVN 11th Infantry Regiment , but only ten were available . As a result , Dam could only send one company at a time onto the battlefield . At around 7 : 00 am , the first wave of CH @-@ 21 helicopters offloaded the first group of South Vietnamese soldiers . These troops had to hold their positions until the rest of the battalions had arrived . Because of the delay in the arrival of the regular South Vietnamese army units , two Civil Guard battalions of Task Forces A and B — under the command of Dinh Tuong provincial chief Major Lam Quang Tho — were left to march against enemy positions by themselves .
As planned , the first Civil Guard battalion of Task Force A started north towards Ap Bac . Hoang knew the Civil Guard battalions were approaching , so he instructed his company commander in Ap Bac to be ready , as they would fire the first shots of the battle . Viet Cong radio operators , using captured U.S.-made communication equipment , followed the movements of the Civil Guards by monitoring the frequencies the government troops were using . When the leading Civil Guard battalion came within 30 meters ( 98 ft ) of the southern end of Ap Bac , the Viet Cong opened fire from their foxholes and immediately killed the leading company 's commander and wounded the task force commander . Task Force A 's momentum was stopped when the soldiers of the leading Civil Guard battalion sought shelter in a dike , where they tried unsuccessfully to outflank the Viet Cong . During that time , artillery support was ineffective , as Civil Guard forward observers would not stand up to observe the fall of artillery rounds . Consequently , one artillery round after another simply fell behind Viet Cong positions , instead of on their foxhole line . To make matters worse , Tho failed to send his second Civil Guard battalion of Task Force B to rescue the first .
North of Ap Tan Thoi , three companies of the ARVN 11th Infantry Regiment fared no better . They marched south in three separate axes towards their objective . Again , well @-@ concealed Viet Cong soldiers of the 514th Battalion allowed their opponents to come within 20 meters ( 66 ft ) before opening fire . Immediately , the South Vietnamese infantrymen were forced to hug the ground . During the next five hours , they managed to launch three major assaults , but failed to break the Viet Cong 's line of defense . By 9 : 30 am , the last of Dam 's reserve companies had been airlifted into Tan Hiep , about two hours late because American aircrews were prevented from landing their CH @-@ 21 helicopters , known as " Flying Bananas " for their shape , in the heavy fog that covered Tan Hiep airfield most of the morning . With the ground attacks in the north and south bogged down , Dam decided to stretch out the defending Viet Cong units by attacking the east and the west .
Dam asked Vann , who was circling the battlefield aboard an L @-@ 19 reconnaissance aircraft , to reconnoiter possible landing zones on the east and west sides of Ap Bac , where additional reinforcements could be inserted to launch their attacks . In response , Vann asked his pilot to make low passes over the trees which covered Ap Bac . Although he could not see any Viet Cong positions , Vann knew there was a well @-@ fortified position at the southern end of the hamlet , due to the impact of the Viet Cong 's firepower on the Civil Guards since the very beginning of the battle . As Vann 's L @-@ 19 aircraft flew over the western tree line , the Viet Cong watched from their foxholes , but held their fire because they knew the aircraft was trying to draw fire in order to mark their positions . Although Vann was suspicious , he decided it was a better landing zone because the area was tranquil despite the heavy fighting elsewhere .
Vann then ordered his pilot to make contact with the other L @-@ 19 that was leading the ten CH @-@ 21s with the first South Vietnamese reserve company from Tan Hiep . Vann relayed a message to the command pilot of the ten CH @-@ 21 helicopters , which were being escorted by a group of five recently deployed UH @-@ 1 Huey gunships , armed with 7.62mm machine guns and 2 @.@ 75 inch rockets , and instructed him to land the reserve companies about 300 meters ( 980 ft ) from the western and southern tree lines that covered Ap Bac in order to minimize the effectiveness of the Viet Cong 's .30 caliber machine guns . However , in the early phases of the Vietnam conflict , command relationships between U.S. military units were not well @-@ established , and American aircrews had developed a tendency to disregard the instructions of advisors , especially Vann , who was regarded as domineering . Instead of following Vann 's instructions , the command pilot decided to lead his helicopters over southern Ap Tan Thoi and along the creek to Ap Bac . The American pilots landed their helicopters within 200 meters ( 660 ft ) west of Ap Bac , where they were hit multiple times by Viet Cong machine gun and small arms fire .
The five UH @-@ 1 gunships immediately strafed Viet Cong positions with 2 @.@ 75 inch rockets , but failed to suppress the enemy fire . After South Vietnamese soldiers had disembarked from the helicopters , one CH @-@ 21 was too severely damaged to get off the ground . A second CH @-@ 21 was sent to rescue the crew , but it too was immobilized as soon as it touched the ground . One of the Hueys returned to pick up the crews of the two downed CH @-@ 21 " Flying Bananas " . As it prepared to land , the main rotor was struck by enemy gunfire . The aircraft flipped over to the right and crashed . Almost simultaneously , a third CH @-@ 21 sustained heavy damage and was forced to land on the rice fields a short distance from the first two helicopters . By 10 : 30 am , all the South Vietnamese soldiers who had landed on the field were under heavy fire from inside Ap Bac and refused to move . Sergeant Arnold Bowers , who had ridden in the first crashed helicopter , raced back and forth to rescue injured American airmen .
= = = Arrival of the armored personnel carriers = = =
After Bowers had attended to the injured men , he borrowed a field radio from the South Vietnamese to coordinate artillery and air strikes . Later , two AD @-@ 6 Skyraiders arrived over Ap Bac and attacked the thatched houses with conventional bombs and napalm . The South Vietnamese soldiers , who were pinned down on the ground , believed their ordeal was over , so they stood up to see if the Viet Cong were retreating from their positions . The Viet Cong fired on the exposed soldiers and killed several . Vann then radioed Captain James B. Scanlon — senior adviser to the ARVN 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment — and told him that four U.S. helicopters had either been destroyed or immobilized about 1 @,@ 500 meters ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) southeast of the regiment 's position . Scanlon was told to get his South Vietnamese counterpart , Captain Ly Tong Ba — commander of the 4th Mechanized Rifle Squadron , 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment — to rescue the trapped South Vietnamese company and the helicopters .
Ba asserted that he would not take orders from Americans . He also argued that sending the 13 M @-@ 113 armored personnel carriers through the Cong Ba Ky Canal would enable the Viet Cong to retreat because it might take too much time . An argument broke out between Vann and Ba . Finally , Vann radioed Ziegler at the command post at Tan Hiep and told him to ask the commander of the ARVN 7th Infantry Division to order Ba to move toward Ap Bac immediately . Shortly afterwards , Ziegler returned with Dam 's permission , and Ba was ordered to move his M @-@ 113 carriers in the direction of the white smoke that were rising from the burning hamlet . The American advisers were quietly confident that Ba 's M @-@ 113s could turn the tide of battle ; on previous occasions , Viet Cong fighters often fled from the battlefield as soon as M @-@ 113 armored personnel carriers turned up . However , in contrast to previous engagements , Viet Cong commander Hoang had ordered the soldiers of the 261st and 514th Battalions to throw everything they had at the South Vietnamese , as retreat through the muddy rice fields would result in certain death .
The South Vietnamese M @-@ 113s had no problem crossing the generally shallow streams and rivers typical of the Mekong Delta , but the heavy 10 @-@ ton M @-@ 113s became bogged down in the deeper Cong Ba Ky Canal , forcing the crews and the infantry company on board to cut down brush and trees and fill the canal until it was shallow enough for the M @-@ 113s to cross . The rescue operation was further delayed when Ba tried to obtain proper authorization to advance , because he was under orders not to take commands directly from the American advisers . Vann , who was flying above the armored formation , demanded that Ba advance immediately . Ba replied that he would not take instructions from Americans . When Vann threatened to have Ba shot , he reluctantly continued to advance , although very slowly , toward the entrenched Viet Cong .
Meanwhile , a fourth CH @-@ 21 returned to Ap Bac to attempt to rescue the downed helicopter crews , and it too was heavily damaged by ground fire and forced to land on the muddy rice field . The Viet Cong had set a new record : the battle was the first time they had either destroyed or downed five helicopters within a few hours . At 1 : 30 pm , Ba 's M @-@ 113 formation finally closed in on the downed helicopters on the western side of Ap Bac . The M @-@ 113s approached the landing zone in single file instead of in formation , and they were immediately fired upon by Viet Cong inside the hamlet who were able to concentrate their fire on one target at a time . The South Vietnamese M @-@ 113 gun crews were exposed from the waist up , so they were easy targets for snipers ; by the end of the day , fourteen South Vietnamese M @-@ 113 crewmen had been killed due to their exposure . The two leading M @-@ 113s were able to pull up beside the downed helicopters , but one driver was killed while driving with his head outside of the hatch , and Ba was knocked unconscious inside his carrier .
Scanlon , with the help of Bowers , ran forward to aid the wounded men and carry them back to the M @-@ 113 formation . At that point , South Vietnamese M @-@ 113 crews backed off while firing their .50 caliber machine guns aimlessly into the sky . When Ba recovered , his company launched a frontal assault on the Viet Cong 's foxhole line . Just when the M @-@ 113 crews closed in on their objective , a Viet Cong squad leader and his men jumped out of their foxholes and tossed grenades at the lead formation of the attack force . Cohesion and morale among the crews of the armored formation quickly deteriorated as South Vietnamese sergeants , who served as both commanders and machine gunners of the carriers , were killed and were replaced by less experienced , poorly trained men .
In a last @-@ ditch effort to overrun the Viet Cong 's stronghold , an M @-@ 113 equipped with a flamethrower was sent forward to within 100 meters ( 330 ft ) of the Viet Cong position to fire the western tree line . The flamethrower had a range of up to 200 meters ( 660 ft ) , but when the operator fired the device , the flame died after only 30 meters ( 98 ft ) . It was later discovered that the crew had mixed the incorrect amount of jelling agent with the gasoline . The final attack mounted by the M @-@ 113 company failed . At around 2 : 30 pm , defeated and with their morale broken , the 4th Mechanized Rifle Squadron disengaged from the fight and withdrew .
By that stage , Vann was frustrated by the Civil Guard soldiers of Task Force B , because they appeared to be in no hurry to reach Ap Bac , as they searched one house at a time while marching up from the south @-@ western flank of the battlefield . In his final effort to defeat the Viet Cong , Vann flew into Tan Hiep and asked Cao to deploy an airborne battalion on the eastern side of Ap Bac , the most logical retreat route for the Viet Cong . Vann hoped to trap the Viet Cong inside the hamlets by blocking their retreat routes on all sides , and annihilate them using an elite battalion of South Vietnamese paratroopers . To Vann 's disappointment , Cao strongly opposed the idea and decided to drop one of his airborne battalions behind the M @-@ 113 formation on the western side instead . Vann accused Cao of wanting to let the Viet Cong escape in order to avoid further South Vietnamese casualties . However , Cao argued that a surrounded and well @-@ entrenched enemy would fight more fiercely than a retreating one , so he wanted the Viet Cong units inside the hamlets of Ap Bac and Ap Tan Thoi to expose themselves by retreating through the eastern side of the battlefield , where he could destroy them with artillery and airpower . Cao had also lost confidence in Vann , because Cao felt Vann had placed the lives of many South Vietnamese soldiers at risk to save the lives of a handful of Americans . Major @-@ General Tran Thien Khiem , Chief of the ARVN Joint General Staff , was present during the argument . He did not object to Cao 's plan because it was consistent with President Diem 's objective to save Vietnamese lives through the Rural Revolutionary Development and Chieu Hoi Programs , which encouraged Viet Cong fighters to join the South Vietnamese military .
= = = Insertion of the airborne battalion = = =
Believing it was useless to continue arguing with Cao , Vann climbed back into his L @-@ 19 reconnaissance aircraft and left Tan Hiep . Throughout the afternoon , he continued to press Cao to quickly deploy the South Vietnamese paratroopers . He was fearful that the battle would turn out to be the largest defeat of South Vietnamese forces up to that point of the war . Cao promised to deploy the second Civil Guard battalion which had just arrived on the south @-@ western flank of Ap Bac , and to drop the ARVN 8th Airborne Battalion at around 4 : 00 pm behind Ba 's armored personnel carriers . Late in the afternoon , a flight of C @-@ 123 Providers , with about 300 South Vietnamese paratroopers aboard , closed in on their objective and quickly drew machine gun fire from the hamlet . The C @-@ 123 pilots changed course to avoid the ground fire , but either the South Vietnamese jumpmaster or the American flight leader did not compensate for the change . As a result , the paratroopers landed right in front of the entrenched Viet Cong positions , instead of behind the 4th Mechanized Rifle Squadron and the Civil Guards .
The Viet Cong were able to pick off one South Vietnamese paratrooper after another , some as they descended and others when their parachutes became stuck in the trees . Those paratroopers that reached the ground and survived tried to move forward , but the Viet Cong soldiers in defilade position fired on the paratroopers exposed in the open rice paddies . Undeterred , the ARVN 8th Airborne Battalion launched small @-@ unit attacks , but on each occasion they were repelled , and sporadic fighting continued until sundown . By the end of the day , the airborne battalion had lost 19 soldiers killed in action and another 33 wounded . American advisers Captain Fletcher Ware and Sergeant Russell Kopti , who had parachuted in with the South Vietnamese , were also wounded . As night fell , Hoang knew that South Vietnamese forces were closing in from three directions . The eastern flank remained open , and he ordered both elements of the 261st and 514th Battalions , exhausted and low on ammunition , to assemble at the southern end of Ap Tan Thoi . They evacuated through the rice fields , taking their dead and wounded comrades .
Vann wanted to use a C @-@ 47 flare plane to illuminate the rice fields on the eastern flank of Ap Bac and Ap Tan Thoi . He wanted to hit the Viet Cong with 500 rounds of artillery and destroy them as they retreated . Cao would not approve the use of flares because it could expose the airborne battalion 's night defensive positions , and instead ordered 100 rounds of artillery to be fired at a rate of four shells per hour . At 10 : 00 pm , Viet Cong commander Hoang led his two companies out of Ap Tan Thoi and headed for their base camp in the Plain of Reeds , while the local force units left by a different route for their hideouts in the local area . The 1st Company , 261st Battalion , led the column , followed by litter carriers carrying the dead and wounded . The 1st Company , 514th Battalion , covered the tail of the formation , with one of their platoons acting as a rear guard . The wounded Viet Cong soldiers were transferred onto sampans at the canal on the eastern side of Ap Tan Thoi , while the rest of the formation marched on . At 7 : 00 am on January 3 , Hoang 's men successfully reached their destination without being detected .
= = Aftermath = =
On January 3 , a team of Western journalists toured the deserted Ap Bac hamlet with the American advisors . When reporter Neil Sheehan asked Brigadier General Robert York what had happened , the general replied : " What the hell 's it look like happened , boy ? They got away , that 's what happened " ! Shortly afterward , more than 18 hours too late , the South Vietnamese hit Ap Bac with an artillery barrage . The artillery rounds killed another five South Vietnamese soldiers and wounded 14 others . Vann , who had made key decisions during the early phases of the battle , blamed the South Vietnamese for the debacle . " It was a miserable damn performance , just like it always is . These people won 't listen . They make the same mistake over and over again in the same way " . According to Moyar ( 2008 ) , in blaming the South Vietnamese , Vann wanted to conceal the Americans ' flawed intelligence and poor leadership . He hoped to pressure the South Vietnamese to accept future changes he favored .
General Paul D. Harkins , commander of the Military Assistance Command , Vietnam ( MACV ) , had a far more optimistic assessment of the battle . He considered the operation to be a major success : after the Viet Cong abandoned their positions , the South Vietnamese units captured the hamlets of Ap Bac and Ap Tan Thoi . Harkins ' evaluation of the battle 's success were based on U.S. military doctrine from World War II , in which two armies fought a conventional combined arms battle with the goal to control territory . However , the Viet Cong were far more interested in exposing the weaknesses of Diem 's regime and its military . Thus , Moyar ( 2008 ) argues that Harkins ' optimistic and misdirected doctrine detracted from the long @-@ term performance of the South Vietnamese military and the American advisers attached to them . He refused to acknowledge the flawed system under which the South Vietnamese commanders and their American counterparts operated . Because of his attitude , neither the South Vietnamese or the Americans learned important lessons from the battle .
The South Vietnamese units that participated in the battle took heavy losses in their failed attempt to destroy the Viet Cong forces . South Vietnamese casualties included 83 killed in action and at least 100 wounded . The American participants , who included advisors and aircrews , counted three dead and eight wounded . Of the fifteen American helicopters sent to support the operation , only one escaped undamaged , and five were either downed or destroyed .
For the Viet Cong , the Battle of Ap Bac marked the first time they decided to stand and fight a large South Vietnamese formation , although outnumbered by more than five to one . Against overwhelming odds , the Viet Cong achieved their first major victory . They successfully stopped the well @-@ equipped South Vietnamese army , supported by a combination of artillery and armored units as well as American airpower . The Viet Cong casualties were just 18 soldiers killed and 39 wounded , despite the fact that the fighters were hit by more than 600 rounds of artillery , napalm and other ordnance released by 13 warplanes and five UH @-@ 1 gunships .
Ap Bac had many as yet undefined consequences for the South Vietnamese government and the American involvement in Vietnam . The battle was a significant milestone for the Viet Cong as a fighting force . For individual Viet Cong soldiers , the battle proved that they could defeat the superior South Vietnamese forces , equipped with modern military hardware and significant support and funding from the United States . Militarily , the morale and confidence of Viet Cong commanders and soldiers , who had experienced serious setbacks during the previous year , were significantly boosted . Politically , the Viet Cong 261st and 514th Battalions were able to exercise greater influence in their areas of operations because of the prestige of defeating the soldiers of Diem 's unpopular regime .
Despite the initial success of the Strategic Hamlet Program and the intensified military operations of 1962 , the events at Ap Bac placed additional pressure on Diem 's government because it showed it could not cope with the resurgence of the Viet Cong , particularly in the regions surrounding the Mekong River .
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= Battle of Green Spring =
The Battle of Green Spring took place near Green Spring Plantation in James City County , Virginia during the American Revolutionary War . On July 6 , 1781 United States Brigadier General " Mad " Anthony Wayne , leading the advance forces of the Marquis de Lafayette , was ambushed near the plantation by the British army of Earl Charles Cornwallis in the last major land battle of the Virginia campaign prior to the Siege of Yorktown .
Following a month of marching and countermarching in central Virginia by Cornwallis and Lafayette , Cornwallis in late June moved to Williamsburg , where he received orders to move to Portsmouth and send some of his army to New York City . Lafayette followed Cornwallis fairly closely , emboldened by the arrival of reinforcements to consider making attacks on the British force . On July 4 , Cornwallis departed Williamsburg for Jamestown , planning to cross the James River en route to Portsmouth . Lafayette believed he could stage an attack on Cornwallis 's rear guard during the crossing .
Cornwallis anticipated Lafayette 's idea , and laid an elaborate trap . General Wayne 's forces were very nearly caught in the trap , and only a bold bayonet charge against the numerically overwhelming British enabled his forces to retreat . Cornwallis did not follow the victory with pursuit , instead following his plan to cross the river . The action reinforced the perception among contemporaries that justified the moniker " Mad " to describe Wayne , although opinion on the merits of his actions was divided . The battlefield has been partially preserved , and reenactments are sometimes staged .
= = Background = =
In May 1781 , Earl Charles Cornwallis arrived in Petersburg , Virginia after a lengthy campaign through North and South Carolina . In addition to his 1 @,@ 400 troops , he assumed command of another 3 @,@ 600 troops that had been under the command of the turncoat Benedict Arnold , and was soon thereafter further reinforced by about 2 @,@ 000 more troops sent from New York . These forces were opposed by a much smaller Continental Army force led by the Marquis de Lafayette , then located at Richmond . Following orders originally given to Arnold 's predecessor in command , William Phillips ( who died a week before Cornwallis 's arrival ) , Cornwallis worked to eliminate Virginia 's ability to support the revolutionary cause , giving chase to Lafayette 's army , which numbered barely 3 @,@ 000 and included a large number of inexperienced militia .
Lafayette successfully avoided engaging Cornwallis , who used his numerical advantage to detach forces for raids against economic , military , and political targets in central Virginia . After about one month of this activity , Cornwallis turned back to the east , marching for Williamsburg . Lafayette , whose force grew to number about 4 @,@ 000 with the arrival of Continental Army reinforcements under General Anthony Wayne and additional experienced militiamen under William Campbell , followed Cornwallis . Buoyed by the increase in his troop strength , Lafayette also became more aggressive in his tactics , sending out detachments of his force to counteract those that Cornwallis sent on forage and raiding expeditions . One such foray led to a clash at Spencer 's Ordinary , a crossroads not far from Williamsburg , in late June .
When Cornwallis arrived at Williamsburg , he received orders from General Sir Henry Clinton to go to Portsmouth and prepare a detachment of troops to return to New York City . Pursuant to these orders , Cornwallis began moving south on the Virginia Peninsula on July 4 , planning to cross the wide James River at the Jamestown ferry . Lafayette followed , with advance units and most of his Continentals reaching Norrell 's Mill , about 8 miles ( 13 km ) from the ferry on July 5 .
Lafayette saw an opportunity to attack the British force as it made the difficult crossing of the James . Cornwallis also recognized the possibility , and decided to lay a trap , hoping to capture a portion of Lafayette 's army . He only sent his baggage train and John Graves Simcoe 's Queen 's Rangers across the river , and concealed his main force near the crossing . Cornwallis also sent men to " desert " to the Americans with information that most of the British force had crossed , leaving only a rear guard on the north side of the river .
= = Prelude = =
The position where Cornwallis hid his army was well @-@ chosen . To the left , impassable swampy terrain sloped down toward the river . To the right , there was more marshy ground and a few ponds . The access from the rest of the mainland toward the ferry was via a 400 @-@ yard ( 370 m ) causeway from the Green Spring Plantation that was surrounded by marshlands that an advancing army would have to negotiate . The earl arranged his army in two lines , with the 76th and 80th regiments along with part of the 43rd and Banastre Tarleton 's British Legion on the left , and the Brigade of Guards , and Hessian auxiliaries on the right . Both wings also included light infantry companies . Cornwallis left a small company of German jägers and a few men from the Legion to give the appearance of a rear guard picket , and gave them specific orders to resist the American advance as much as possible .
Brigadier General " Mad " Anthony Wayne led Lafayette 's advance company , about 500 men , out early on July 6 from Norrell 's Tavern . When Wayne reached Green Spring , he surveyed the terrain and noted the presence of the British guards . When Lafayette came up with his main force , the two men decided to go ahead with the attack , but Lafayette ordered more troops forward from Norrell 's Tavern around 1 pm . Some minor skirmishing took place while they awaited these troops . Wayne 's 500 soldiers included 200 Virginia riflemen under Majors John Willis and Richard Call backed by additional light infantry led by John Francis Mercer , William Galvan , and McPherson . Colonel Walter Stewart 's Pennsylvania Continental battalion formed the reserve . Lafayette sent forward two Pennsylvania Continental battalions under Colonels Richard Butler and Richard Humpton , and Major John P. Wyllys ' light infantry battalion . Beginning to suspect something was amiss , Lafayette held back the light infantry battalions of Colonels Francis Barber and Joseph Vose . The three @-@ battalion reinforcement increased the size of the force Wayne ordered into the swamps around 3 : 00 pm to between eight and nine hundred men . Wayne 's force now consisted of two companies of riflemen , one of dragoons , and most of the Pennsylvania Line , and included three pieces of field artillery . As they moved out , Lafayette rode out toward a spit of land on the riverbank from which he might observe the action .
= = Battle = =
Wayne 's advance force and the British pickets then began an extended skirmish lasting nearly two hours . The British forces slowly retreated , suffering significant casualties under the persistent American advance . Wayne 's riflemen performed particularly well , picking off several of the British commanding officers . However , the tables turned around 5 pm when the Americans reached an " abandoned " gun that Cornwallis had left in the road . Their seizure of the gun was the signal for the British counterattack , which began with a barrage of canister and grape shot , and was followed by an infantry charge .
Lafayette , from his vantage point on the river , had spotted the main British force and realized that Wayne was entering a trap . However , he was not able to reach Wayne in time to recall him . He immediately began moving additional troops forward in an attempt to prevent the trap from closing on Wayne . In the meantime , the British charge had thrown the Americans into some confusion , and Wayne was concerned that a retreat would turn into a disorderly rout . Wayne reformed his line , ordered his artillery to fire a blast of grape shot , and then had the line charge the numerically overwhelming British with bayonets fixed .
Wayne 's audacious charge worked ; it successfully halted the British advance long enough for Lafayette 's covering force to approach . Lafayette rode forward to assist in managing the American retreat , which began to crumble after Cornwallis personally led a countercharge . During the retreat , two of the American guns had to be abandoned because their horses were shot , and Lafayette was also unhorsed . As the sun was beginning to set , Cornwallis chose not to pursue the Americans , who retreated to Green Spring .
= = Aftermath = =
British reports of casualties in the battle listed 5 officers and 70 enlisted men killed or wounded . American casualties were reported to number about 140 , including 28 killed . Cornwallis , satisfied with the victory , did not to pursue the retreating Americans , and instead crossed the James as planned and moved on to Portsmouth . There his arrangements to embark troops were countermanded by new orders from Clinton that instead ordered him to use his force to establish a fortified naval station . This Cornwallis chose to do at Yorktown , where he was compelled to surrender after a brief siege in October 1781 .
Lafayette , in his dispatches and reports throughout the later stages of the Virginia campaign , painted Cornwallis 's movements to Williamsburg and Portsmouth as a retreat . These reports bolstered Lafayette 's reputation , and the battle , although a tactical setback , did not harm that reputation . General Wayne wrote of his decision to charge the full British force that it was " one of those prudent , tho ' daring manoeuvers which seldom fail of producing the desired effect ; the result in this Instance fully Justified it . " Lafayette publicly lauded Wayne 's performance , but recorded privately that Wayne made tactical mistakes and the battle read well " in a gazette " . Militia general Peter Muhlenberg blamed the loss on " the impetuosity of our brother Brigadier . " Wayne biographer Paul Nelson opines that Americans of the day could " hardly decide after the battle whether to admire Wayne for his brave and impetuous character or to condemn him as a foolhardy adventurer . "
= = Legacy = =
Portions of the Green Spring Plantation were purchased in 1966 by the National Park Service , and are now part of the Colonial National Historical Park . These holdings were added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 , and are , as of June 2010 , open only by special arrangement .
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= The Distrest Poet =
The Distrest Poet is an oil painting produced sometime around 1736 by the British artist William Hogarth . Reproduced as an etching and engraving , it was published in 1741 from a third state plate produced in 1740 . The scene was probably inspired by Alexander Pope 's satirical poem The Dunciad . It depicts a scene in a small , dingy attic room where a poet sits at his desk in the dormer and , scratching his head , stares at the papers on the desk before him , evidently looking for inspiration to complete the poem he is writing . Near him sits his wife darning clothes , surprised by the entrance of a milkmaid , who impatiently demands payment of debts .
= = Background = =
The engraving of The Distrest Poet in its third state was issued on 15 December 1741 as a companion piece to The Enraged Musician , a comic scene of a violinist driven to distraction by the noise from the street outside his practice room . The initial plate for The Distrest Poet was produced soon after Hogarth had completed the oil painting , but the third state plate was not completed until late in 1740 at which time Hogarth advertised his intention to issue a three @-@ image set : The Provok 'd Musician , The Distrest Poet , and a third image on the subject of " Painting " . The Provok 'd Musician ( renamed The Enraged Musician ) was produced in 1741 but the third image was never completed .
= = Picture = =
The scene is set in a small and messy garret , sparsely furnished by a few pieces of crude furniture . The room is poorly kept , with cracking plaster , a broken window and uneven floor , and a bare cupboard . In this way , Hogarth underlines the desperate circumstances of the occupants and the poverty of the family .
Starved of inspiration and suffering writer 's block , the poet sits on the end of his bed in his night gown , quill in hand , scratching his head . A copy of Edward Bysshe 's The Art of English Poetry , a guide to composition published in 1702 , lies open on the table . A copy of Popes 's satirical Grub Street Journal lies on the floor near his feet .
A few feet to his right sits his wife , darning the clothes on her lap and those sprawled on the floor , while a crying infant , who is upset and hungry , goes unattended in the only bed . Next to the poet 's wife , by the open door , an angry milkmaid presents her substantial bill , demanding payment for milk , underlining the poet 's refusal to provide for his family by getting himself a proper job . The cupboard stands open and empty , save for a mouse ; near the door , a dog steals the last of the family 's food from a plate .
Other , less obvious , elements of the painting reveal more about the poet 's personality and ideas . The poem he is attempting to write is entitled " Upon Riches " , which suggests that the poet lives in a fantasy world , while his wife and child go hungry . Ned Ward 's first published poem in 1691 was The Poet 's Ramble After Riches , which satirised his own struggles as an impoverished aspiring poet , and Hogarth may have had this in mind when he produced the picture . Earlier impressions showed the poem as " Poverty , A Poem " , which hinted at a connection to Theobald who had written " The Cave of Poverty , A Poem , Written in Imitation of Shakespeare " in 1714 . The poet 's dreams of riches are further suggested by the map that hangs over his head , entitled " A View of the Gold Mines of Peru " , replacing the image of Pope that appears in the earlier states of the print . The poet 's self @-@ interest is hinted by the presence of his pipe and tobacco on the window sill , the mug of beer sitting on the chair in the back of the room , the lace cuffs drying by the fire , his ill @-@ fitting wig , and gentleman 's sword lying at his feet ; it may be that despite his family 's circumstances , he refuses to forgo his own personal pleasures and effects . Alternatively , his fantasy of earning a fortune from his art may require that he keeps his gentlemanly accoutrements around him , as they will be required when his fantasies are realized .
= = = Alexander Pope = = =
The scene shown in The Distrest Poet was probably inspired by Alexander Pope 's satirical poem The Dunciad , most likely by the prefatory matter of the second version , the Dunciad Variorum which had been published in 1735 , and in which Pope confirmed his authorship of the original . The painting and early states of the print included a quotation from Pope 's work :
Studious he sate , with all his books around ,
Sinking from thought to thought , a vast profound :
Plunged for his sense , but found no bottom there ;
Then wrote and flounder 'd on , in mere despair .
The bill stuck to the wall above the poet 's head originally featured a reference to Pope in which he was punningly mocked as " His Holiness Pope Alexander " , depicted as an ape wearing a papal tiara with an ass as his Prime Minister . The initial states of the print kept the quotation but replaced the genuine bill with a representation ( which appears to have been entirely invented by Hogarth rather than copied from a real bill ) of Pope clashing with Edmund Curll over the unauthorised publication of the poet 's correspondence . Although Hogarth and Pope had never met , this literary inspiration led to speculation as to the identity of Hogarth 's poet as one of the targets of Pope 's satire . Ned Ward , the author of The London Spy was a strong contender , as was Lewis Theobald , to whom the lines quoted from Pope in Hogarth 's original print referred .
How far Hogarth sympathised with Pope is questionable . The original bill mocked him , but it featured in an image that , at the least , poked fun at the poor poet who was the subject . Hogarth may have been suggesting either that poet was showing contempt for Pope or that he placed Pope 's image above his head as a model to which to aspire . In the second image , which shows Pope and Curll locked in battle , it is not clear who has the upper hand , and by the time the print was issued the direct reference to Pope had been removed completely . Ronald Paulson , the preeminent modern authority on Hogarth , suggests that Hogarth would have viewed Pope , through his Roman Catholicism , as having been implicitly tied to the continental influences that Hogarth despised , and would have seen Pope 's refusal to accept the patronage of the great men of the time , while still cultivating them as friends and still reaping the rewards they had to offer , as hypocritical . Pope was part of the circle that included William Kent and Richard Boyle , 3rd Earl of Burlington who had displaced Hogarth 's father @-@ in @-@ law James Thornhill from commissions , and Hogarth also had ties to Lewis Theobald , a possible target of the satire , through illustrations he had produced for Theobald 's Perseus and Andromeda , and through his subscription to Theobald 's edition of the works of Shakespeare . Paulson suggests that the real " villain " of The Distrest Poet may be Pope , unseen but representing the successful " Great Poet " whom the deluded aspiring artist hopes to emulate , rather than the distressed poet himself . Hogarth had featured Pope picking John Gay 's pocket in the foreground of Emblematical Print on the South Sea Scheme , an early print he had produced on the theme of the South Sea Bubble ( both Pope and Gay had invested money in the scheme ) . At the same time , within the satire of the painting , the poet who is distressed is going to be one of Pope 's dunces .
The lines by Pope , though referring to Theobald , the hero of The Dunciad , are a characterisation of a Grub Street hack , a stereotype popular in the 1730s denoting a man of limited writing ability who lived in poverty but nevertheless determinedly pursued a career in literature ; , Therefore , the particular scribbler depicted in the painting would be one of this fraternity of " witlings " who banded together to protest Pope 's poem . In this context it would make sense , therefore , for the poet to have the scabrous anti @-@ Pope print , or an emblem of Pope 's fight with the hack writers ' patron , above him . Just as Moll Hackabout has a picture of Macheath on her wall in A Harlot 's Progress , this aspiring and witless poet would have a picture of his hero , Edmund Curll , and an anti @-@ Pope print . The emblem , in other words , identifies the poet 's " side " in the battle between dunces and men of wit .
Hogarth was well acquainted with the struggles of the Grub Street hack though , through the travails of his own father , Richard , who had been unable to make a living as writer and had eventually ended up at the Fleet Prison as a bankrupt . Hogarth may have been more than sympathetic to the dunce struggling with his rhymes . Jenny Uglow in her biography of Hogarth , posits that the gradual alteration of the prints above the poet 's head could suggest a slow softening of attitudes towards Pope and his attack on the class of writer to which Hogarth 's father had belonged , and perhaps evidence of Hogarth making his own compromises in his endeavours to become successful .
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= Real Irish Republican Army =
The Real Irish Republican Army or Real IRA , also referred to as the New IRA ( since the 2012 merger ) , is an Irish republican paramilitary organisation which aims to bring about a united Ireland . It formed in 1997 following a split in the Provisional IRA by dissident members , who rejected the Provisionals ' ceasefire that year . Like the Provisional IRA before it , the RIRA sees itself as the only rightful successor to the original Irish Republican Army and styles itself as " the Irish Republican Army " in English or Óglaigh na hÉireann in Irish . It is an illegal organisation in the Republic of Ireland and designated as a terrorist organisation in the United Kingdom and the United States .
Since its formation , RIRA has waged a campaign in Northern Ireland against the Police Service of Northern Ireland ( PSNI ) — formerly the Royal Ulster Constabulary ( RUC ) — and the British Army . The RIRA is the largest and most active of the " dissident republican " paramilitary groups operating against the British security forces . It has targeted security forces in gun attacks and bombings , and with grenades , mortars and rockets . The organisation has also been responsible for a number of bombings in Northern Ireland and England with the goal of causing economic harm and / or disruption . The most notable of these was the 15 August 1998 Omagh bombing , which killed 29 people . After that bombing the RIRA went on ceasefire , but began operations again in 2000 . In March 2009 it claimed responsibility for an attack on Massereene Barracks that killed two British soldiers , the first to be killed in Northern Ireland since 1997 .
The Real IRA has also been involved in vigilantism , mainly against alleged drug dealers and organized crime gangs . In Dublin in particular it has been accused of extortion and engaging in feuds with these gangs . In July 2012 it was reported that Republican Action Against Drugs ( RAAD ) and other small republican militant groups were merging with the Real IRA . As before , the group continues to refer to itself as " the Irish Republican Army " , but the new group has been referred as the " New IRA " in the press .
= = Origins = =
In July 1997 the Provisional IRA called a ceasefire . On 10 October 1997 a Provisional IRA General Army Convention was held in Falcarragh , County Donegal . At the convention , Provisional IRA Quartermaster General Michael McKevitt — also a member of the 12 @-@ person Provisional IRA Executive — denounced the leadership and called for an end to the group 's ceasefire and to its participation in the Northern Ireland peace process . He was backed by his partner and fellow Executive member Bernadette Sands McKevitt . The two dissidents were outmanoeuvred by the leadership and were left isolated . The convention backed the pro @-@ ceasefire line , and on 26 October McKevitt and Sands McKevitt resigned from the Executive along with other members .
In November 1997 McKevitt and other dissidents held a meeting in a farmhouse in Oldcastle , County Meath , and a new organisation , styling itself Óglaigh na hÉireann , was formed . The organisation attracted disaffected Provisional IRA members from Derry and the republican stronghold of South Armagh , and from other areas including Dublin and Belfast cities and Counties Limerick , Tipperary , Louth , Tyrone , Monaghan and Kerry .
The name " Real IRA " entered common usage when members set up a roadblock in Jonesborough , County Armagh and told motorists " We 're from the IRA . The real IRA " .
= = Objectives = =
The RIRA 's objective is a united Ireland by forcing the end of British sovereignty over Northern Ireland through the use of physical force . The organisation rejects the Mitchell Principles and the Good Friday Agreement , comparing the latter to the 1921 Anglo @-@ Irish Treaty which resulted in the partition of Ireland . The organisation aims to uphold an uncompromising form of Irish republicanism and opposes any political settlement that falls short of Irish unity and independence .
Bernadette Sands McKevitt , sister of hunger striker Bobby Sands and a founder of the RIRA 's political wing , the 32 County Sovereignty Movement , said in an interview that her brother " did not die for cross @-@ border bodies with executive powers . He did not die for nationalists to be equal British citizens within the Northern Ireland state " . The RIRA adopted a tactic of bombing town centres to damage the economic infrastructure of Northern Ireland . The organisation also attacks members of the security forces using land mines , home @-@ made mortars and car bombs , and has also targeted England using incendiary devices and car bombs to " spread terror and disruption " .
= = Campaign = =
= = = Early campaign = = =
The organisation 's first action was an attempted bombing in Banbridge , County Down on 7 January 1998 . The intention was to explode a 300 lb ( 140 kg ) car bomb , but this was thwarted when the bomb was defused by security forces . The RIRA continued its campaign in late February with bombings in Moira , County Down and Portadown , County Armagh . On 9 May the organisation announced its existence , in a coded telephone call to Belfast media claiming responsibility for a mortar attack on a police station in Belleek , County Fermanagh .
The RIRA also carried out attacks in Newtownhamilton and Newry , and a second attack in Banbridge on 1 August injured 35 people and caused £ 3 @.@ 5 million of damage when a 500 lb ( 230 kg ) car bomb exploded . Despite these attacks the organisation lacked a significant base and was heavily infiltrated by informers . This led to a series of high @-@ profile arrests and seizures by the Garda Síochána in the first half of 1998 ; these involved the death of RIRA member Rónán Mac Lochlainn who was shot dead trying to escape from police , following an attempted robbery of a security van in County Wicklow .
= = = Omagh bombing = = =
On 15 August 1998 the RIRA left a car containing 500 lb of home @-@ made explosives in the centre of Omagh , County Tyrone . The bombers could not find a parking space near the intended target of the courthouse , and the car was left 400 metres away . As a result , three inaccurate telephone warnings were issued , and the Royal Ulster Constabulary ( RUC ) believed the bomb was actually located outside the courthouse . They attempted to establish a security cordon to keep civilians clear of the area , which inadvertently pushed people closer to the actual location of the bomb . Shortly after , the bomb exploded killing 29 people and injuring 220 others , in what became the single deadliest strike of the Troubles .
The bombing caused a major outcry throughout the world , and the Irish and British governments introduced new legislation in an attempt to destroy the organisation . The RIRA also came under pressure from the Provisional IRA , when Provisional IRA members visited the homes of 60 people connected with the RIRA and ordered them to disband and stop interfering with Provisional IRA arms dumps . With the organisation under intense pressure , which included McKevitt and Sands @-@ McKevitt being forced from their home after the media named McKevitt in connection with the bombing , the RIRA called a ceasefire on 8 September .
= = = Ceasefire = = =
Following the declaration of the ceasefire the RIRA began to regroup , and by the end of October had elected a new leadership and were planning their future direction . In late December Irish government representative Martin Mansergh held a meeting with McKevitt in Dundalk , in an attempt to convince McKevitt to disband the RIRA . McKevitt refused , stating that members would be left defenceless to attacks by the Provisional IRA . In 1999 the RIRA began preparations for a renewed campaign , and in May three members travelled to Split in Croatia to purchase arms , which were smuggled back to Ireland . On 20 October , ten people were arrested when Gardaí raided a RIRA training camp near Stamullen , County Meath .
Officers found a firing range inside a disused wine cellar being used as an underground bunker , and seized weapons including an assault rifle , a submachine gun , a semi @-@ automatic pistol and an RPG @-@ 18 rocket launcher . An earlier version of the rocket launcher , the RPG @-@ 7 , had been in the possession of the Provisional IRA from as early as 1972 , but this was the first time the RPG @-@ 18 had been found in the possession of a paramilitary organisation in Ireland . Among those convicted were Alan Ryan , who was on bail for possession of a loaded revolver at his home in Dublin .
= = = Return to activity = = =
On 20 January 2000 the RIRA issued a call @-@ to @-@ arms in a statement to the Irish News . The statement condemned the Northern Ireland Executive , and stated : " Once again , Óglaigh na hÉireann declares the right of the Irish people to the ownership of Ireland . We call on all volunteers loyal to the Irish Republic to unite to uphold the Republic and establish a permanent national parliament representative of all the people . " The RIRA launched its new campaign on 25 February with an attempted bombing of Shackleton Army Barracks in Ballykelly . The bombers were disturbed as they were assembling the device , which would have caused mass murder if detonated , according to soldiers .
On 29 February a rocket launcher similar to one seized in the 1999 raid was found near an army base in Dungannon , County Tyrone , and on 15 March three men were arrested following the discovery of 500 lb of home @-@ made explosives when the RUC searched two cars in Hillsborough , County Down . On 6 April a bomb attack took place at Ebrington Barracks in Derry . RIRA members lowered a device consisting of 5 lb of homemade explosives over the perimeter fence using ropes , and the bomb subsequently exploded damaging the fence and an unmanned guardhouse .
= = = = Bombings in England = = = =
After the Omagh bombing , the RIRA leadership were unwilling to launch a full @-@ scale campaign in Northern Ireland due to the possibility of civilians being killed . Instead they decided to launch a series of attacks in England , in particular London , which they hoped would attract disenchanted Provisional IRA members to join the RIRA . On 1 June 2000 a bomb damaged Hammersmith Bridge ; a symbolic target for Irish republican paramilitary groups . The bridge had been targeted by the Irish Republican Army on 29 March 1939 as part of its Sabotage Campaign , and by the Provisional IRA on 24 April 1996 .
On 19 July , security forces carried out a controlled explosion on a bomb left at Ealing Broadway station and public transport was disrupted when the Metropolitan Police closed Victoria and Paddington train stations and halted services on the London Underground . On 21 September a rocket @-@ propelled grenade was fired at the MI6 headquarters using an RPG @-@ 22 rocket launcher , which generated headlines around the world . On 21 February 2001 a bomb disguised as a torch ( flashlight ) left outside a Territorial Army base in Shepherd 's Bush seriously injured a 14 @-@ year @-@ old cadet , who was blinded and had his hand blown off . A second attack in Shepherd 's Bush , the 4 March BBC bombing , injured a civilian outside the BBC Television Centre . The explosion was captured by a BBC cameraman , and the footage was broadcast on TV stations worldwide , and gained mass publicity for the group . On 14 April a bomb exploded at a postal sorting office in Hendon , causing minor damage but no injuries . Three weeks later on 6 May a second bomb exploded at the same building , causing slight injuries to a passer @-@ by . The 3 August Ealing bombing injured seven people , and on 3 November a car bomb containing 60 lb of home @-@ made explosives was planted in the centre of Birmingham . The bomb did not fully detonate and no one was injured .
= = = = Renewed campaign in Northern Ireland = = = =
The successful attack on Hammersmith Bridge encouraged the RIRA leadership to launch further attacks in Northern Ireland . On 19 June 2000 a bomb was found in the grounds of Hillsborough Castle , home of Secretary of State for Northern Ireland Peter Mandelson . On 30 June a bomb exploded on the Dublin @-@ to @-@ Belfast railway line near the village of Meigh in County Armagh . The explosion damaged the tracks , and caused disruption to train services . On 9 July a car bomb damaged buildings in Stewartstown , County Tyrone including an RUC station , and on 10 August an attack in Derry was thwarted by the RUC after a van containing a 500 lb bomb failed to stop at a police checkpoint . Following a car chase the bombers escaped across the Irish border , and the Irish Army carried out a controlled explosion on the bomb after the van was found abandoned in County Donegal . On 13 September two 80 lb bombs were planted at the Magilligan army camp in County Londonderry , one of which was planted in a wooden hut and partially exploded when a soldier opened the door to the hut . The second bomb was found during a follow @-@ up search and made safe by bomb disposal experts . On 11 November the RUC and British Army prevented a mortar attack after stopping a van near Derrylin , County Fermanagh , and the RUC prevented a further attack on 13 January 2001 when an 1100 lb bomb was found in Armagh — the largest bomb found in several years according to the RUC .
On 23 January the RIRA attacked Ebrington Army Barracks in Derry for a second time , firing a mortar over a perimeter fence . A mortar similar to the one used in the attack was found by Gardaí near Newtowncunningham on 13 February , and British army bomb disposal experts made safe another mortar found between Dungannon and Carrickmore on 12 April . On 1 August a 40 lb bomb was discovered in a car at the long @-@ stay car park of Belfast International Airport following a telephone warning , and was made safe with two controlled explosions by bomb disposal experts . In December a six @-@ day security operation ended when a 70 lb bomb found under railway tracks at Killeen Bridge near Newry was defused . The operation began following a number of telephone warnings , and the road and railway line connecting Newry to Dundalk were closed due to security alerts . A pipe bomb was discovered at a police officer 's home in Annalong , County Down on 3 January 2002 , and two teenage boys were injured in County Armagh on 2 March when a bomb hidden in a traffic cone exploded . On 29 March 2002 the RIRA targeted a former member of the Royal Irish Regiment from Sion Mills , County Tyrone , with a bomb attached to his car that failed to explode . On 1 August 2002 a civilian worker was killed by an explosion at a Territorial Army base in Derry . The man , a 51 @-@ year @-@ old former member of the Ulster Defence Regiment , was the thirtieth person killed by the RIRA .
= = = Arrests = = =
Despite the RIRA 's renewed activity , the organisation was weakened by the arrest of key members and continued infiltration by informers . McKevitt was arrested on 29 March 2001 and charged with membership of an illegal organisation and directing terrorism , and remanded into custody . In July 2001 , following the arrests of McKevitt and other RIRA members , British and Irish government sources hinted that the organisation was now in disarray . Other key figures were jailed , including the RIRA 's Director of Operations , Liam Campbell , who was convicted of membership of an illegal organisation , and Colm Murphy who was convicted of conspiring to cause the Omagh bombing , although this conviction was overturned on appeal .
On 10 April 2002 Ruairi Convey , from Donaghmede , Dublin , was jailed for three years for membership of the RIRA . During a search of his home a list of names and home addresses of members of the Gardaí 's Emergency Response Unit was found . Five RIRA members were also convicted in connection with the 2001 bombing campaign in England , and received sentences varying from 16 years to 22 years imprisonment . In October 2002 , McKevitt and other RIRA members imprisoned in Portlaoise Prison issued a statement calling for the organisation to stand down . After a two @-@ month trial , McKevitt was sentenced to twenty years imprisonment in August 2003 after being convicted of directing terrorism .
= = = 2002 – 2007 = = =
After McKevitt 's imprisonment , the RIRA regrouped . The RIRA claimed responsibility for a series of firebomb attacks against premises in Belfast in November 2004 , and an attack on a Police Service of Northern Ireland ( PSNI ) patrol in Ballymena during March 2006 was attributed to the RIRA by the Independent Monitoring Commission ( IMC ) . On 9 August 2006 , fire bomb attacks by the RIRA hit businesses in Newry , County Down . Buildings belonging to JJB Sports and Carpetright were destroyed , and ones belonging to MFI and TK Maxx were badly damaged . On 27 October 2006 , a large amount of explosives was found in Kilbranish , Mount Leinster , County Carlow by police , who believe the RIRA were trying to derail the peace process with a bomb attack . The IMC believe the RIRA were also responsible for a failed mortar attack on Craigavon PSNI Station on 4 December 2006 . The IMC 's October 2006 report stated that the RIRA remains " active and dangerous " and that it seeks to " sustain its position as a terrorist organisation " . The RIRA has stated it has no intention of calling a ceasefire unless a declaration of intent to withdraw from Northern Ireland is made by the British Government .
In a lengthy interview with An Phoblacht newspaper in 2003 , the leadership of the Provisional IRA said that the RIRA had " no coherent strategy " .
The Real IRA were suspected of complicity in the murder in December 2006 of drug @-@ dealer Martin ' Marlo ' Hyland . Hyland was shot dead at his Dublin home , along with a plumber , Anthony Campbell , who was carrying out work at the house . The organisation was embroiled in a feud with Hyland 's gang at the time .
= = = 2007 – 2013 = = =
On 8 November 2007 two RIRA members shot an off @-@ duty PSNI officer as he sat in his car on Bishop Street in Derry , causing injuries to his face and arm . On 12 November another PSNI member was shot by RIRA members in Dungannon , County Tyrone . On 7 February 2008 , the RIRA stated that , after experiencing a three @-@ year period of reorganisation , it intends to " go back to war " by launching a new offensive against " legitimate targets " . It also , despite having apologised for the Omagh bombing , denied any large scale involvement with the attack and said that their part had only gone as far as their codeword being used . On 12 May 2008 the RIRA seriously injured a member of the PSNI when a booby trap bomb exploded underneath his car near Spamount , County Tyrone . On 25 September 2008 the RIRA shot a man in the neck in St Johnston , near the Derry border . The same man was targeted in a pipe bomb attack on his home on 25 October , the RIRA did not claim responsibility for the attack , but security forces believe they were responsible for it .
On 7 March 2009 the RIRA claimed responsibility for the 2009 Massereene Barracks shooting . This shooting occurred outside the Massereene Barracks as four soldiers were receiving a pizza delivery . Two soldiers were killed , and the other two soldiers and two deliverymen were injured . On 3 April 2009 the RIRA in Derry claimed responsibility for carrying out a punishment shooting of a man who was awaiting sentencing for raping a 15 @-@ year @-@ old girl . The RIRA were also blamed for orchestrating rioting in the Ardoyne area of Belfast on 13 July 2009 as an Apprentice Boys parade was passing . Several PSNI officers were injured in the rioting and at least one shot was fired at police . In early November , the Independent Monitoring Commission released a report stating that the threat from the RIRA and other dissident republicans was at its most serious level since the 1998 Good Friday Agreement .
When drug dealer Sean Winters was shot dead in Portmarnock , north Dublin in September 2010 , the Real IRA " emerged as the chief suspects " . They were also suspected of shooting dead drugs gang leader Michael Kelly in Coolock in September 2011 .
On 5 October 2010 , a car bomb exploded outside a branch of the Ulster Bank on Culmore Road in Derry . Two police officers were slightly injured in the blast , which also damaged a hotel and other businesses . Several telephone warnings were received an hour prior to the blast allowing police to cordon off the area . The RIRA later claimed responsibility in a telephone call to the Derry Journal .
A large Real IRA explosives dump and arms cache were discovered in Dunleer , County Louth by Gardaí in October 2010 , following a weekend of searches and arrests in the east of the country . In addition , two Real IRA men were charged in Dublin 's non @-@ jury Special Criminal Court of membership of an illegal organisation . The Real IRA claimed responsibility for kidnapping and shooting dead of one of their members , Kieran Doherty , for alleged drug dealing . Further significant seizures of Real IRA arms and explosives were made by the Gardaí during 2012 and 2013 , leading to the arrest of over a dozen persons . In 2011 Michael Campbell , brother of Liam , was found guilty in Vilnius , Lithuania , of trying to purchase arms and explosives and was sentenced to twelve years in jail . In October 2013 Campbell was freed on appeal , only to have the Supreme Court of Lithuania order a retrial in June 2014 . Campbell has maintained his innocence , accusing British intelligence of attempting to frame him . In June 2013 Gardaí arrested eight people after a Real IRA meeting and uncovered a massive haul of the plastic explosive Semtex in two raids in Dublin . In October 2013 the Real IRA claimed responsibility for " executing " an alleged leading cocaine dealer in north Belfast .
= = = 2012 – present : Since the merger ( " New IRA " ) = = =
On 26 July 2012 , it was reported that Republican Action Against Drugs ( RAAD ) and other small republican militant groups were merging with the Real IRA . As before , the group would continue to refer to itself as " the Irish Republican Army " . It issued the following statement :
The leadership of the Irish Republican Army remains committed to the full realisation of the ideals and principles enshrined in the Proclamation of 1916 .
In recent years the establishment of a free and independent Ireland has suffered setbacks due to the failure among the leadership of Irish nationalism and fractures within republicanism . The root cause of conflict in our country is the subversion of the nation 's inalienable right to self @-@ determination and this has yet to be addressed . Instead the Irish people have been sold a phoney peace , rubber @-@ stamped by a token legislature in Stormont .
Non @-@ conformist republicans are being subjected to harassment , arrest and violence by the forces of the British crown ; others have been interned on the direction of an English overlord . It is Britain , not the IRA , which has chosen provocation and conflict .
The IRA 's mandate for armed struggle derives from Britain 's denial of the fundamental right of the Irish people to national self @-@ determination and sovereignty -- so long as Britain persists in its denial of national and democratic rights in Ireland the IRA will have to continue to assert those rights .
The necessity of armed struggle in pursuit of Irish freedom can be avoided through the removal of the British military presence in our country , the dismantling of their armed militias and the declaration of an internationally observed timescale that details the dismantling of British political interference in our country .
After the merger , the media began to refer to the group as the " New IRA " . As well as RAAD , the alliance includes an east Tyrone group thought to be responsible for killing PSNI officer Ronan Kerr in 2011 , and a Belfast group who badly wounded PSNI officer Peadar Heffron in 2010 . The Continuity IRA , and the group often referred to as ONH , remain independent . The PSNI reckoned that the new group has a membership of " between 250 and 300 military activists , backed up by associates " . In November 2012 it claimed responsibility for shooting dead a Prison Officer near Lurgan , the first prison officer to be killed since 1993 .
On 3 September 2012 prominent Real IRA member Alan Ryan was shot dead in Dublin . Gardaí believed that he had been involved in a feud with major crime gangs from whom he was trying to extort money . Following Ryan 's death an internal feud developed in the Real IRA . Ryan 's replacement as leader and another associate were shot and wounded in November 2012 , allegedly on the orders of the Northern leadership . In March 2013 , another prominent former Real IRA member , Peter Butterly from Dunleer , was shot dead ; three Dublin men , allegedly from the Alan Ryan faction , were charged with his murder and Real IRA membership .
In February 2014 the group sent seven letter bombs to British Army recruitment offices in south @-@ east England ; the first time republicans had struck in Britain since 2001 . The following month , a PSNI landrover was hit by an explosively formed projectile in Belfast . A civilian car was also hit by debris , but there were no injuries . The Real IRA claimed responsibility . In November 2014 , a PSNI armoured jeep was hit by another ' horizontal mortar ' in Derry , and in Belfast a PSNI landrover was attacked with a homemade rocket @-@ propelled grenade ( RPG ) launcher .
In April – May 2015 , there were two Real IRA bomb attacks in Derry . One exploded at the Probation Board offices , and two partially exploded at the perimeter fence of a British Army Reserve base . Later in May , four men , one an alleged associate of Real IRA leader Michael McKevitt , were reportedly arrested during an explosives seizure by police in Northern Ireland . In August , a firebomb exploded in a post van parked inside Palace Barracks , Holywood , a British military base which is home to MI5 in Northern Ireland . The firebomb destroyed the van and set nearby vehicles and garages on fire . On Halloween morning , three men were arrested and charged with IRA membership in addition to firearm offences . In November , a PSNI vehicle in Belfast was riddled with automatic gunfire , fired from an AK @-@ 47 . On Christmas Day in North Belfast , police came under fire again but were not injured . The attacker was charged with attempted murder . Days later , on 27 November 2015 , police in West Belfast came under heavy fire yet again . No officers were wounded because of the armour @-@ plating and bullet @-@ proof glass . The Real IRA or another dissident Republican group was suspected to be behind the attack .
On March 4 , 2016 , a prison officer ( Adrian Ismay ) had a heart attack and died in a hospital . He had received serious wounds following a booby @-@ trap bomb detonating under his van on Hillsborough Drive , East Belfast 11 days earlier . The wounds he received from the bombing were directly responsible for the heart attack that killed him . The ' New ' IRA claimed responsibility and said it was a response to the alleged mistreatment of republican prisoners at Maghaberry Prison . It added that the officer was targeted because he trained prison officers at Maghaberry .
In April 2016 , Gardaí arrested two significant members of the New IRA and seized € 10 @,@ 000 . In April , 2016 , explosives linked to the New IRA were found in Dublin and several people were questioned by police . The New IRA declared that all criminals were legitimate targets after Alan Ryan 's brother , Vincent Ryan , was shot dead . In April 2016 , the New IRA were blamed for badly injuring a man in a punishment shooting in Derry , shortly after a man had been killed by a dissident Republican attack in Ardoyne . In May 2016 three men were shot in paramilitary style attacks in republican areas of Belfast during a 24 @-@ hour period , leaving two injured and one dead . On 25 April a New IRA member , Michael Barr was shot dead in west Dublin . Gardaí suspected Barr was shot dead because it was believed by the Kinahan cartel he provided a “ safe house ” to one of the gunmen in the Regency Hotel attack . Fifteen people were arrested in Northern Ireland following a paramilitary funeral for him .
The terrorist threat level in Great Britain was upgraded to " substantial " on 11 May 2016 , with the New IRA 's continuing threats being part of the reason by Home Secretary Theresa May and MI5 .
On 16 May 2016 a ' terrorist hide ' was found by civilians in Capanagh Forest near Larne , Antrim , possibly belonging to the New IRA . It was a very substantial cache .
In June 2016 it was revealed that a five @-@ man New IRA hit team were in Dublin 's north inner city looking to murder two leading gangsters after one of their associates was shot dead in a gangland feud . Sources said the murder squad from the North spent several days and nights looking for their targets in the streets .
= = Structure and status = =
The RIRA has a command structure similar to the Provisional IRA , with a seven @-@ member Army Council consisting of a chief of staff , quartermaster general , director of training , director of operations , director of finance , director of publicity , and adjutant general . The rank @-@ and @-@ file members operate in active service units of covert cells to prevent the organisation from being compromised by informers . As of June 2005 , the organisation is believed to have a maximum of about 150 members , according to a statement by the Irish Minister for Justice , Equality and Law Reform , Michael McDowell .
The RIRA also has a political wing , the 32 County Sovereignty Movement ( formerly the 32 County Sovereignty Committee ) , led by Francis Mackey . The RIRA is distinct from the Continuity IRA , another Provisional IRA splinter group founded in 1986 , although the two groups have been known to co @-@ operate at a local level . The Provisional IRA has been hostile to the RIRA and issued threats to RIRA members , and in October 2000 was alleged to be responsible for the fatal shooting of Belfast RIRA member Joe O 'Connor according to O 'Connor 's family and 32 County Sovereignty Movement member Marian Price .
Organisations called " Irish Republican Army " are illegal in both UK law and Irish law ; both proscriptions have been held to apply to the RIRA as to other groups of the name . Membership in the organisation is punishable by a sentence of up to ten years imprisonment under UK law . In 2001 the United States government designated the RIRA as a " Foreign Terrorist Organization " ( FTO ) . This makes it illegal for Americans to provide material support to the RIRA , requires American financial institutions to freeze the group 's assets , and denies suspected RIRA members visas into the United States .
= = Funding = =
In 2014 , Forbes magazine estimated the group 's annual turnover at $ 50 million . According to the police in Northern Ireland , the main sources of the Real IRA 's funding are illegal fuel operations and various smuggling activities .
= = Weaponry = =
The RIRA initially took small amounts of materiel from Provisional IRA arms dumps under the control of McKevitt and other former Provisional IRA members , including the plastic explosive Semtex , Uzi submachine guns , AK @-@ 47 and AK @-@ 74 assault rifles , handguns , shotguns , detonators , and timing devices . The defection of senior Provisional IRA members also gave the RIRA the ability to manufacture home @-@ made explosives and improvised mortars , including the Mark 15 mortar capable of firing a 200 lb shell .
In 1999 the organisation supplemented its equipment by importing arms from Croatia , including military explosive TM500 , CZ Model 25 submachine guns , modified AK @-@ 47 assault rifles with a folding stock , and RPG @-@ 18 and RPG @-@ 22 rocket launchers . But a July 2000 attempt to smuggle a second consignment of arms was foiled by Croatian police , who seized seven RPG @-@ 18s , AK @-@ 47 assault rifles , detonators , ammunition , and twenty packs of TM500 .
In 2001 RIRA members travelled to Slovakia to procure arms , and were caught in a sting operation by the British security agency MI5 . The men attempted to purchase five tonnes of plastic explosives , 2 @,@ 000 detonators , 500 handguns , 200 rocket @-@ propelled @-@ grenades , and also wire @-@ guided missiles and sniper rifles . Three men from County Louth were arrested and extradited to the UK and subsequently imprisoned for 30 years each after pleading guilty to conspiring to cause explosions and other charges .
In June 2006 , the PSNI made a number of arrests following an MI5 sting operation targeting a dissident republican gun smuggling plot . The RIRA had attempted to procure arms from France including Semtex and C @-@ 4 plastic explosives , SA @-@ 7 surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles , AK @-@ 47s , rocket launchers , heavy machine guns , sniper rifles , pistols with silencers , anti @-@ tank weapons and detonators . On 30 June 2010 , two of those arrested were found guilty following a trial by judge in Belfast . On 1 October 2010 one man was sentenced to 20 years imprisonment for attempting to import weapons and explosives , while the other was sentenced to 4 years imprisonment for making a Portuguese property available for the purpose of terrorism .
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= Tropic Thunder =
Tropic Thunder is a 2008 American action comedy film co @-@ written , produced , directed by , and starring Ben Stiller . The film also stars Robert Downey , Jr. and Jack Black . The main plot revolves around a group of prima donna actors who are making a fictional Vietnam War film . When their frustrated director decides to drop them in the middle of a jungle , they are forced to rely on their acting skills in order to survive the real action and danger . Written by Stiller , Justin Theroux and Etan Cohen , the film was produced by Red Hour Films and distributed by Paramount Pictures through DreamWorks Pictures .
Stiller 's idea for the film originated while playing a minor role in Empire of the Sun , and he later enlisted Theroux and Cohen to help complete the script . After the film was green @-@ lit in 2006 , filming took place in 2007 on the Hawaiian island of Kaua 'i over thirteen weeks and was later deemed the largest film production in the island 's history . The film had an extensive marketing promotion , including faux websites for the three main characters and their fictional films , airing a fictional television special , and selling the energy drink advertised in the film , " Booty Sweat " .
The film received generally positive reviews , with critics praising the film 's characters , story , faux trailers , and the performances of Stiller , Downey , and Tom Cruise , though the depiction of the mentally handicapped proved controversial . The film 's soundtrack and score debuted on August 5 , 2008 , before the film 's theatrical release . In its North American opening weekend , the film earned US $ 26 million and retained the number one position for the first three weekends of release . Downey received Academy Award , BAFTA Award , and Screen Actors Guild Award nominations for his performance , with both him and Cruise receiving nominations for a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture . The film grossed more than $ 188 million worldwide before its release on home video on November 18 , 2008 .
= = Plot = =
Hook @-@ handed Vietnam veteran Staff Sergeant John " Four Leaf " Tayback 's ( Nick Nolte ) memoir , Tropic Thunder , is being made into a film . With the exception of newcomer supporting actor Kevin Sandusky ( Jay Baruchel ) , the cast — fading action hero Tugg Speedman ( Ben Stiller ) , five @-@ time Academy Award @-@ winning Australian method actor Kirk Lazarus ( Robert Downey , Jr . ) , rapper Alpa Chino ( Brandon T. Jackson ) , and drug @-@ addicted comedian Jeff Portnoy ( Jack Black ) — behave unreasonably . Rookie director Damien Cockburn ( Steve Coogan ) cannot control them during filming of a large battle scene , and production is reported to be one month behind schedule a mere week into production . Studio executive Les Grossman ( Tom Cruise ) orders Cockburn to resume filming as planned , or risk its cancellation .
Acting on Four Leaf 's advice , Damien drops the actors into the middle of the jungle , with hidden cameras and rigged special effects explosions to film " guerrilla @-@ style " . The actors have guns that fire blanks , along with a map and scene listing that will lead to a helicopter waiting at the end of the route . Unknown to the actors and production , the group have been dropped in the middle of the Golden Triangle , the home of the heroin @-@ producing Flaming Dragon gang . Just as the group are about to set off , Damien inadvertently steps on an old land mine and is blown up , stunning the actors . Tugg , believing Damien faked his death to encourage the cast to give better performances , persuades the others that Damien is alive and that they are still shooting the film . Lazarus is unconvinced but joins them in their trek through the jungle .
When Four Leaf and pyrotechnics operator Cody Underwood ( Danny McBride ) try to locate the dead director , they are captured by Flaming Dragon , at which point Four Leaf reveals that he fabricated his memoir , was never in the Army , and has hands . As the actors continue through the jungle , Kirk and Kevin discover that Tugg is leading them in the wrong direction . The four actors , tired of walking and hoping to be rescued , leave Tugg , who goes off by himself and is captured by Flaming Dragon . Taken to their heroin factory , Tugg believes it is a POW camp from the script . The gang discovers he is the star of their favorite film , the box office bomb Simple Jack , and forces him to reenact it several times a day . Meanwhile in Los Angeles , Tugg 's agent Rick ' Pecker ' Peck ( Matthew McConaughey ) is trying to negotiate with Les an unfulfilled term in Tugg 's contract that entitles him to a TiVo . Flaming Dragon calls the two and demands a ransom for Tugg , but Les instead berates the gang . Despite the threats , Les expresses no interest in rescuing Tugg and tries to convince Rick about the benefits of allowing Tugg to die and collecting the insurance . Les also offers Rick a Gulfstream V jet and money in return for his cooperation .
Kirk , Alpa , Jeff , and Kevin discover Flaming Dragon 's heroin factory . After witnessing Tugg being tortured , they plan a rescue attempt based on the film 's script . Kirk impersonates a farmer towing a captured Jeff on the back of a water buffalo , distracting the armed guards so Alpa and Kevin can locate the captives . After the gang 's leader ( Brandon Soo Hoo ) notices inconsistencies in Kirk 's story , the actors , knowing their cover has been blown , begin firing , temporarily subduing the gang . Their control of the gang falls apart when Jeff grabs the leader and heads for the drugs , and the gang regains their guns and begin firing .
The four actors locate Four Leaf , Cody , and Tugg and cross a bridge rigged to explode to get to Underwood 's helicopter . Tugg asks to remain behind with the gang which he considers his family , but quickly returns when Flaming Dragon fires in pursuit . Four Leaf detonates the bridge allowing Tugg to reach safety , but as the helicopter takes off , the gang fires a rocket @-@ propelled grenade at the helicopter . Rick unexpectedly stumbles out of the jungle carrying a TiVo box and throws it in the path of the grenade , saving them . The crew return to Hollywood , where footage from the hidden cameras is compiled into a feature film , Tropic Blunder , which becomes a major critical and commercial success . The film wins Tugg his first Academy Award , which Kirk presents to him at the ceremony .
In a mid @-@ credits scene , Rick is on a plane back to Hollywood with his estranged son .
= = Cast = =
Ben Stiller as Tugg Speedman : Once the highest @-@ paid , highest @-@ grossing action film star ever due to his Scorcher franchise , his career has stalled , and he now has a reputation for appearing in nothing but box office bombs . After a failed attempt at portraying a serious role in Simple Jack , in which he plays a mentally @-@ challenged farm boy , he takes the role of Four Leaf Tayback in an attempt to save his career . The first faux trailer at the film 's start is a preview for Scorcher VI : Global Meltdown , the latest in his series .
Jack Black as Jeff Portnoy : A drug @-@ addicted comedian @-@ actor well known for portraying multiple parts in films that rely on toilet humor , particularly jokes about flatulence . In the film @-@ within @-@ a @-@ film , he plays a raspy @-@ voiced soldier named Fats . He fears he is only considered an actor because of his comical delivery and nothing else . Portnoy 's faux trailer for The Fatties : Fart 2 , about a family ( with each member played by Portnoy ) which enjoys passing gas , spoofs Eddie Murphy 's portrayal of multiple characters in films such as Nutty Professor II : The Klumps .
Robert Downey , Jr. as Kirk Lazarus : An immensely talented Australian method actor , Lazarus had a controversial " pigmentation alteration " surgery to darken his skin for his portrayal of the black character Staff Sergeant Lincoln Osiris . Lazarus refuses to break character until he has recorded the DVD commentary for a part and only speaks in his character 's African American Vernacular English . Lazarus 's faux trailer , Satan 's Alley , is about two gay monks in a 12th @-@ century Irish monastery , parodying art house films like Brokeback Mountain and Downey 's own scenes with Tobey Maguire ( who in a cameo portrays the other monk ) in Wonder Boys .
Steve Coogan as Damien Cockburn : The inexperienced British film director who is unable to control the actors in the film .
Jay Baruchel as Kevin Sandusky : A respectful novice actor , he is the only cast member to have read the script and book and attended the assigned boot camp prior to the film . Sandusky plays a young soldier named Brooklyn in the film @-@ within @-@ a @-@ film . Brooklyn and Sandusky each occupy the position of straight man in character in the film @-@ within @-@ a @-@ film and its cast , being the only actor without an internal conflict or deep @-@ seated insecurity . He often serves as a mediator when tensions between the cast get high .
Danny McBride as Cody Underwood : The film 's explosives expert and helicopter pilot . He is a pyromaniac .
Brandon T. Jackson as Alpa Chino : A closeted homosexual rapper who is attempting to cross over into acting , portraying a soldier named Motown , while promoting his " Bust @-@ A @-@ Nut " candy bar and energy drink , " Booty Sweat " . He feels his image as a rapper would not allow him to be open as gay . His name is a play on Al Pacino . Before the faux trailers , a faux commercial for " Booty Sweat " and " Bust @-@ A @-@ Nut " appears , accompanied by the song " I Love Tha Pussy " and the slogan " Pop An Ass Open ! " .
Bill Hader as Rob Slolom : Grossman 's assistant and right @-@ hand man .
Nick Nolte as Sergeant John " Four Leaf " Tayback : The author of Tropic Thunder , a fake memoir of his war experiences on which the film @-@ within @-@ a @-@ film is based . He suggests the idea of dropping the actors in the middle of the jungle to get them looking and feeling like soldiers lost in a foreign land .
Matthew McConaughey as Rick " Pecker " Peck : Speedman 's extremely devoted agent and best friend .
Brandon Soo Hoo as Tran : The 12 @-@ year @-@ old young leader of the Flaming Dragon gang . The character was compared to Karen National Union guerrilla leaders Johnny and Luther Htoo .
Reggie Lee as Byong : The second @-@ in @-@ command of the Flaming Dragon gang .
Tom Cruise as Les Grossman : The profane , ill @-@ tempered studio executive producing Tropic Thunder .
Various actors and celebrities portray themselves , including Tobey Maguire , Tyra Banks , Maria Menounos , Martin Lawrence , The Mooney Suzuki , Jason Bateman , Lance Bass , Jennifer Love Hewitt , Alicia Silverstone , and Jon Voight . Christine Taylor ( Stiller 's wife ) , Mini Anden , Anthony Ruivivar , Rachel Avery , and Yvette Nicole Brown have roles as minor characters in the film . Co @-@ writer Justin Theroux appears in two brief roles as a UH @-@ 1 Huey gunner and the disc jockey from Zoolander ( shown in a deleted scene ) .
= = Production = =
= = = Script = = =
Stiller developed the premise for Tropic Thunder while shooting Empire of the Sun , in which he played a small part . Stiller wanted to make a film based on the actors he knew who , after taking part in boot camps to prepare for war film roles , became " self @-@ important " and " self @-@ involved " and appeared to believe they had been part of a real military unit .
Co @-@ writer Theroux revealed that the initial script concept was to have actors go to a mock boot camp and return with posttraumatic stress disorder . The final script was developed to satirize Vietnam War films such as Apocalypse Now , Rambo , Missing in Action , Platoon , Full Metal Jacket , Hamburger Hill , and The Deer Hunter . Theroux pointed out that since viewers had an increased awareness of the inner workings of Hollywood due to celebrity websites and Hollywood news sources , the script was easier to write . Dialogue for unscripted portions of the storyboard was developed on set by the actors or was improvised .
= = = Casting = = =
Etan Cohen created the role of Kirk Lazarus as a way of lampooning the great lengths that some method actors go to depict a role . Downey was approached by Stiller about the part while on vacation in Hawaii . Downey said on CBS ' The Early Show that his first reaction was , " This is the stupidest idea I 've ever heard ! " and that Stiller responded , " Yeah , I know — isn 't it great ? " In another interview , Downey said that he accepted the part but , having no idea where or even how to start building the character of Lazarus , eventually settled on a jive @-@ esque speech pattern and a ragged bass voice ; he then auditioned Lazarus ' voice over the phone to Stiller , who approved the characterization immediately . Downey revealed that he modeled the character on actors Russell Crowe , Colin Farrell , and Daniel Day @-@ Lewis . The initial script was written for Downey 's character to be Irish , but was altered after Downey stated he could improvise better as an Australian ( he had previously played a similar outlandish Australian character in the film Natural Born Killers ) . Downey 's practice of remaining in character between takes and even off the film set was also written into the script for his character to perform . Downey required between one and a half to two hours of make @-@ up application . According to Downey , " One makeup artist would start on one side of my face and a second makeup artist would start on the other side , and then they 'd meet in the middle . "
Downey acknowledged the potential controversy over his role : " At the end of the day , it 's always about how well you commit to the character . If I didn 't feel it was morally sound , or that it would be easily misinterpreted that I 'm just C. Thomas Howell [ in Soul Man ] , I would 've stayed home . " Jackson stated : " When I first read the script , I was like : What ? Blackface ? But when I saw him [ act ] he , like , became a black man ... It was just good acting . It was weird on the set because he would keep going with the character . He 's a method actor . " Stiller commented on Downey 's portrayal of a white actor playing a black man : " When people see the movie — in the context of the film , he 's playing a method actor who 's gone to great lengths to play a black guy . The movie is skewering actors and how they take themselves so seriously . " Stiller previewed the film before the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People , and several black journalists reacted positively to the character .
Cruise was initially set to cameo as Stiller 's character 's agent , Rick Peck . Instead , Cruise suggested adding a studio head character , and the idea was incorporated into the script . Stiller and Cruise worked together to create the new character , Les Grossman , as a middle @-@ aged businessman . The role required that Cruise don a fatsuit , large prosthetic hands , and a bald cap . It was Cruise 's idea to give the character large hands and dance to " Low " . Stiller intended to keep Cruise 's role a secret until the film 's release . In addition , Paramount Pictures refused to release promotional pictures of Cruise 's character to the media . In November 2007 , images of Cruise wearing a bald headpiece and a fatsuit appeared on Inside Edition , as well as on the Internet . Cruise 's attorneys threatened a lawsuit if photos showing Cruise in costume were published . They approached various sites that were hosting the image and quickly had it removed . A representative for Cruise stated : " Mr. Cruise 's appearance was supposed to be a surprise for his fans worldwide . Paparazzi have ruined what should have been a fun discovery for moviegoers . " The photography agency INF , who debuted the image , responded with a statement : " While these pictures were taken without breaking any criminal or civil laws , we 've decided to pull them from circulation effective immediately . "
Serving as a last @-@ minute replacement , Tobey Maguire was only available to be on set for two hours to film his scenes in Satan 's Alley . Downey said he was amazed Maguire would agree to do the film and felt like they were creating a " karmic pay @-@ off " for their scenes together in the 2000 film Wonder Boys , where Downey 's character has a one @-@ night stand with Maguire 's character . After Cruise vacated the role of Rick Peck , Owen Wilson was cast to play the part . Following his suicide attempt in August 2007 , Wilson dropped out of the film and was replaced by Matthew McConaughey .
= = = Filming = = =
Although Southern California and Mexico were considered for the main unit filming , the Hawaiian island of Kaua 'i ( where Stiller has a home ) was selected for the majority of the shooting . Kaua 'i was chosen over Mexico because a tax credit for in @-@ state spending was negotiated with the Kaua 'i Film Commission . John Toll , the cinematographer , stated the island was also selected for its similarity to Vietnam , based on its dense foliage , variety of terrains , and weather . Kaua 'i was first scouted as a possible location to film Tropic Thunder in 2004 . Stiller spent more than 25 hours over 6 weeks exploring the island , using all @-@ terrain vehicles , boats , and helicopters . After the film was greenlit by DreamWorks in 2006 , pre @-@ production lasted for six months , most of this time spent on scouting additional locations for filming . Filming for the Los Angeles and interior scenes occurred on sets at Universal Studios in Hollywood .
Tropic Thunder was the first major studio production on Kaua 'i in five years . After filming was completed , it was deemed the largest production filmed on the island to date , and contributed more than $ 60 million to the local economy . Tim Ryan , the executive editor of Hawaii Film & Video Magazine , commented on the filming on the island : " I think Tropic Thunder will give Kaua 'i much needed and long idled publicity in the production arena ... It should put Kaua 'i back on the production consideration radar . " Preliminary production crews were on the island starting in December 2006 and principal photography began in July 2007 , with filming lasting thirteen weeks over seven separate locations on the island . Much of the filming took place on private land as well as conservation status designated areas . Casting calls on the island sought 500 residents to portray the villagers in the film . Two units shot simultaneously on the island from the ground , and an aerial unit shot from helicopters . Many of the sets and the bridge used for one of the final scenes were built in three months . The island 's erratic weather hampered filming with rain and lighting issues . The crew also faced complications in moving the equipment and cast due to the difficult terrain .
The film advising company Warriors Inc. was enlisted to ensure the war scenes , including the attire worn by the actors , looked authentic . Former members of the U.S. military taught the actors how to handle , fire , and reload their weapons , as well as perform various tactical movements . The opening war scene was filmed over three weeks and required fifty stuntmen . Animatics were used to map out the necessary camera angles for filming .
= = = Effects = = =
Six companies working on different scenes and elements created 500 shots of visual effects in the film . These were at times altered weekly due to the reactions of test audiences in screenings . CIS Visual Effects Group assisted with the Scorcher VI faux trailer and twenty additional shots for the home media release . To expand on the comedy in the film , some of the explosions and crashes were embellished to look more destructive . The visual effects supervisor Michael Fink reflected on the exaggerated explosions : " We worked really hard to make the CG crashing helicopter in the hot landing sequence look real . Ben was adamant about that , but at the same time he wanted the explosion to be huge . When you see it hit the ground , it was like it was filled with gasoline ! It was the same thing with Ben 's sergeant character , who almost intercepts a hand grenade ... Now , I was in the Army for three years and no hand grenade would make an explosion like that ... But it was a big dramatic moment and it looks really cool ... and feels kind of real . "
Filming the large napalm explosion in the opening scene of the film required a 450 @-@ foot ( 137 @-@ meter ) row of explosive pots containing 1 @,@ 100 gallons ( 4 @,@ 165 liters ) of gasoline and diesel fuel . All the palm trees used in the explosion were moved to the specific location after the crew determined the impact of the lighting and necessary camera angles . Due to the size and cost of the 1 @.@ 25 @-@ second explosion , it was only performed once and was captured by twelve cameras . For the safety of the crew and cast , the detonators were added one hour before the explosion and nobody was allowed to be within 400 feet ( 120 m ) during detonation . The explosion was made up of twelve individual explosions and resulted in a mushroom cloud that reached 350 feet ( 110 m ) in the air . For the scene in the film , Danny McBride 's character , Cody Underwood , was the only actor shown in the shot of the explosion . All the other characters were added digitally . The explosion of the bridge in one of the final scenes used nine cameras to capture the shot , and the crew was required to be 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) away for their safety .
= = Promotion = =
A trailer for the film was released in April 2008 . The Calgary Herald gave it a rating of 3 / 5 , commenting : " This could either be good or very , very bad . " Gary Susman of Entertainment Weekly questioned whether the film would " ... turn into precisely the kind of bloated action monstrosity that it 's making fun of . " The trailer received the " Best Comedy Trailer " award at the 9th annual Golden Trailer Awards . DreamWorks also released a red band trailer , the first of its kind used by the studio to promote one of its films .
Stiller , Downey , and Black appeared on the seventh season finale of American Idol in a sketch as The Pips performing with Gladys Knight ( via archival footage ) . The three actors also later performed a sketch at the 2008 MTV Movie Awards which featured the actors attempting to create a successful viral video to promote the film with awkward results . In September 2008 , Stiller and Downey attended the San Sebastián International Film Festival to promote the film . A screening was shown , but it was not chosen to compete against the other films at the festival .
Between April 2008 and the film 's commercial release in August 2008 , the film had over 250 promotional screenings . On August 3 , 2008 , Stiller , Downey , and Black visited Camp Pendleton , a U.S. Marine Corps base in California , to present a screening to over a thousand military members and their families . The screening was on behalf of the United Service Organizations and included the actors heading to the screening by helicopter and Humvees . On August 8 , 2008 , a special 30 @-@ minute fictional E ! True Hollywood Story aired about the making of Tropic Thunder . In video games , a themed scavenger hunt was incorporated into Tom Clancy 's Rainbow Six : Vegas 2 , and Stiller allowed his likeness to be used in the online Facebook application game based on the film .
As a tie @-@ in for the film 's release , Paramount announced it would market the energy drink known in the film as " Booty Sweat " . Michael Corcoran , Paramount 's president of consumer products , commented on the release : " We 're very excited , because it has the potential to live for quite a while , well beyond the film . " The drink was sold in college bookstores , on Amazon.com , and at other retailers .
= = = Faux websites and mockumentary = = =
Several faux websites were created for the main characters and some of their prior film roles . A website for Simple Jack , a faux film exhibited within the film , was removed by DreamWorks on August 4 , due to protests from disability advocates . In addition , other promotional websites were created for " Make Pretty Skin Clinic " , the fictitious company that performed the surgery of the film 's character Kirk Lazarus , along with one for the energy drink " Booty Sweat " .
In mid @-@ July 2008 , a faux trailer for the mockumentary Rain of Madness was released . The mockumentary was a parody of Hearts of Darkness : A Filmmaker 's Apocalypse . It follows co @-@ writer Justin Theroux as a fictitious documentarian named Jan Jürgen documenting the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes aspects of the film within the film . Marketing for the faux documentary included a movie poster and an official website prior to Tropic Thunder 's release . The mockumentary was released on the iTunes Store after the film 's release and was also included on the home video release . Amy Powell , an advertising executive with Paramount , reflected on the timing of the release of Madness : " We always thought that people would be talking about Tropic Thunder at the water cooler , and that 's why we decided to release Rain of Madness two weeks into Tropic 's run — to keep this positive buzz going . "
= = Release = =
= = = Theatrical release = = =
Tropic Thunder premiered on August 11 , 2008 , at the Mann Village Theatre in Westwood , California , two days before its wide release . Members of several disability groups picketed before the premiere , protesting at the portrayal of mental retardation shown in the film . The groups revealed that it was the first time that they had ever protested together at an event . As a result of the protest , the normally unobstructed views of the red carpet leading to the premiere were blocked off by 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @-@ m ) -high fences and there was an increase in the number of security personnel present . No protests were held at the United Kingdom 's September premiere .
The North American release was scheduled for July 11 , 2008 , but was delayed until August 15 , before being brought forward to August 13 . As a result of the move from July , 20th Century Fox moved its family comedy Meet Dave in the open slot . The August 13 release date was also the opening weekends for the animated family film Star Wars : The Clone Wars and the horror film Mirrors . Studios consider the third week of August to be a weaker performing period than earlier in the summer because of students returning to school . Previous R @-@ rated comedies such as The 40 @-@ Year @-@ Old Virgin and Superbad were released in mid @-@ August and performed well at the box office . Reacting to Tropic Thunder 's release date , Rob Moore , vice chairman of Paramount Pictures , stated : " For a young person at the end of summer , you want to have some fun and forget about going back to school . What better than a crazy comedy ? "
= = = Reception = = =
Tropic Thunder received positive reviews from critics . The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 83 % , based on 221 reviews , with an average rating of 7 @.@ 1 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , " With biting satire , plenty of subversive humor , and an unforgettable turn by Robert Downey , Jr . , Tropic Thunder is a triumphant late summer comedy . " Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score from reviews by mainstream critics , gave a film score of 71 out of 100 , based on 39 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
After attending an industry screening in April 2008 Michael Cieply from The New York Times stated that the film was " ... shaping up as one of [ DreamWorks ] ' s best prospects for the summer . " Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film a positive review , writing " There are some wildly funny scenes , a few leaden ones and others that are scattershot , with humorous satire undercut by over @-@ the @-@ top grisliness . Still , when it 's funny , it 's really funny . " A review in Variety by Todd McCarthy was critical : " Apart from startling , out @-@ there comic turns by Robert Downey Jr. and Tom Cruise , however , the antics here are pretty thin , redundant and one @-@ note . " Rick Groen of The Globe and Mail gave the film a negative review , calling it " ... an assault in the guise of a comedy — watching it is like getting mugged by a clown . " J.R. Jones of Chicago Reader stated " The rest of the movie never lives up to the hilarity of the opening , partly because the large @-@ scale production smothers the gags but mostly because those gags are so easy to smother . " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave 3 @.@ 5 / 4 and wrote , " The movie is , may I say , considerably better than Stiller ’ s previous film , Zoolander ( 2001 ) . It ’ s the kind of summer comedy that rolls in , makes a lot of people laugh and rolls on to video . "
The faux trailers before the film also received mixed reviews . David Ansen of Newsweek approved of the trailers , writing " Tropic Thunder is the funniest movie of the summer — so funny , in fact , that you start laughing before the film itself has begun . " Christy Lemire , writing for the Associated Press , called the trailers " ... the best part of the trip . " Robert Wilonsky of The Village Voice was critical , saying that the trailers ' comedy " ... resides in the land of the obvious , easy chuckle . "
Downey was repeatedly singled out for praise by numerous critics , claiming that he " stole the show " , was " ... off @-@ the @-@ charts hilarious ... " , and would bring viewers " ... the fondest memories of [ his ] work . " Scott Feinberg , of the Los Angeles Times , criticized the concept of Downey 's portrayal of an African @-@ American , writing " ... I just can 't imagine any circumstance under which a blackface performance would be acceptable , any more than than [ sic ] I can imagine any circumstance under which the use of the N @-@ word would be acceptable . " Sara Vilkomerson said Cruise did " ... an astonishingly funny and surprising supporting performance . " Logan Hill of New York argued against Cruise 's cameo saying that it " ... just makes him look a little lost and almost pathetic — shucking and jiving , trying to appeal to the younger moviegoers who are abandoning him . "
Several critics commented on the controversy over lines in the film talking about the mentally disabled . Duane Dudek of the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel wrote that the film " ... is just sophomoric enough to offend . And while it is also funny , it is without the empathy or compassion to cause us to wonder why we are laughing . " Christian Toto of The Washington Times argued against the opposition , " Tropic Thunder is drawing fire from special interest groups for ... its frequent use of the word ' retard ' , but discerning audiences will know where the humor is targeted . And they 'll be laughing too hard to take offense . " Kurt Loder of MTV contrasted the opposition to the lines with Downey character portrayal of an African American , " The scene in which the derisive Alpa Chino [ Brandon T. Jackson ] nails Lazarus ' recitation of black @-@ uplift homilies as nothing more than the lyrics to the Jeffersons theme is funny ; but the one in which Lazarus quietly explains to Speedman that his Simple Jack character failed because he made the mistake of going ' full retard ' — rather than softening his character with cuteness in the manner of Forrest Gump — is so on @-@ the @-@ nose accurate , it takes your breath away . "
= = = Critics ' lists = = =
In January 2009 , Entertainment Weekly included Tropic Thunder in its list " 25 Great Comedies From the Past 25 Years " for its " spot @-@ on skewering of Hollywood . " The film also appeared on several critics ' top ten lists of the best films of 2008 . Stephen King placed it at the fourth position , calling the film " the funniest , most daring comedy of the year . " The Oregonian 's Marc Mohan , placed it sixth , and several critics placed it seventh : Elizabeth Weitzman of the New York Daily News , Premiere magazine , Mike Russell of The Oregonian , as well as Peter Hartlaub of the San Francisco Chronicle . David Ansen of Newsweek placed it eighth and Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly included the film in the tenth position .
= = = Box office = = =
Stacey Snider , the chief executive of DreamWorks , suggested that the film would earn around $ 30 million in its opening weekend and go on to be as successful as Borat : Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan , which earned $ 129 million in the U.S. and Canada and $ 260 million worldwide . The Dark Knight had been the number one film at the box office for the four weeks prior to the release of Tropic Thunder . Bob Thompson , a writer for the National Post , speculated that Tropic Thunder 's opening weekend would outperform The Dark Knight for the weekend . In a list compiled prior to the summer 's film releases , Entertainment Weekly predicted that the film would be the tenth highest grossing film of the summer at the American box office with $ 142 @.@ 6 million .
Tropic Thunder opened in 3 @,@ 319 theaters and , for its first five days of American and Canadian release , earned $ 36 @,@ 845 @,@ 588 . The film placed first in the weekend 's box office with $ 25 @,@ 812 @,@ 796 , surpassing Star Wars : The Clone Wars and Mirrors , which debuted the same weekend . Reacting to the film 's opening receipts , DreamWorks spokesman Chip Sullivan stated " We 're thrilled , quite frankly . It played out exactly how we hoped . " In foreign markets for the film 's opening weekend , it was released in 418 Russian and 19 United Arab Emirates locations earning $ 2 @.@ 2 million and $ 319 @,@ 000 , respectively .
The film maintained its number one position at the American and Canadian box office for the following two weekends , making it the second film in 2008 ( after The Dark Knight ) to hold the number @-@ one position for more than two consecutive weekends . The film 's widest release was in 3 @,@ 473 theaters , placing it in the top 25 widest releases in the U.S. for 2008 . For 2008 , the film was the fifth @-@ highest @-@ grossing domestic R @-@ rated film . The film 's U.S. and Canada gross of over $ 110 million made Tropic Thunder Stiller 's most successful film as a director . The film has had gross receipts of $ 110 @,@ 515 @,@ 313 in the U.S. and Canada and $ 77 @,@ 557 @,@ 336 in international markets for a total of $ 188 @,@ 072 @,@ 649 worldwide .
= = = Accolades = = =
In October 2008 , Paramount chose to put end @-@ of @-@ year award push funds behind Tropic Thunder , and began advertising for Downey to receive a nomination by the Academy Awards for Best Supporting Actor . In a November 2008 issue by Entertainment Weekly , Downey 's film role was considered one of the three contenders for Best Supporting Actor . As a way of extending the film @-@ within @-@ a @-@ film " universe " into real life , there have also been at least two online " For Your Consideration " ads touting Downey 's character , Kirk Lazarus , for Best Supporting Actor ; one of these contains " scenes " from Satan 's Alley that were not in the trailer as released in theaters . At least one of the ads was produced by Paramount Pictures and intended for early For Your Consideration awareness for Downey 's role . On January 22 , 2009 , the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences nominated Downey for Best Supporting Actor . At the 81st Academy Awards , Downey lost to Heath Ledger for his role as The Joker in The Dark Knight .
With the onset of the annual Hollywood film award season at the end of 2008 , Tropic Thunder began receiving nominations and awards starting with a win for " Hollywood Comedy of the Year Award " at the 12th annual Hollywood Film Festival on October 27 , 2008 . The film was nominated for Best Motion Picture , Comedy or Musical , for the Satellite Awards . In addition , Downey was nominated for Best Actor in a Supporting Role . The Broadcast Film Critics Association nominated Downey for Best Supporting Actor and awarded Tropic Thunder Best Comedy Movie at the BFCA 's Critics ' Choice Awards . Both Downey and Cruise received nominations from the Hollywood Foreign Press Association for Golden Globes for Best Supporting Actor . The Boston Society of Film Critics recognized the cast with its Best Ensemble award . Downey was also nominated by both the Screen Actors Guild and the British Academy of Film and Television Arts for Best Supporting Actor awards .
= = = Home media = = =
Tropic Thunder was released in the United States on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on November 18 , 2008 , three months after its release and a week after the end of its theatrical run in the U.S. and Canada . The film was released on home video on January 26 , 2009 in the United Kingdom . Special features include an unrated director 's cut of the film , audio commentaries ( including one featuring Stiller , Downey , and Black , with Downey providing his commentary as Lincoln Osiris , a nod to a joke in the film that Lazarus never breaks character until he completes the DVD commentary ) , several featurettes , deleted scenes , an alternate ending , and the Rain of Madness mockumentary .
For the film 's first week of release , Tropic Thunder placed on several video charts . It reached second place on the Nielsen VideoScan First Alert sales chart and Nielsen 's Blu @-@ ray Disc chart , earning $ 19 @,@ 064 @,@ 959 ( not including Blu @-@ ray sales ) . In rentals , it placed first on the Home Media Magazine 's video rental chart . The DVD sales in 2008 totaled $ 42 @,@ 271 @,@ 059 , placing it in 28th for DVD sales for the year . By September 2009 , 2 @,@ 963 @,@ 000 DVD units have been sold , gathering revenue of $ 49 @,@ 870 @,@ 248 .
= = Controversy = =
Tropic Thunder was criticized by the disability advocacy community . The website for Simple Jack was withdrawn on August 4 amid several groups ' concerns over its portrayal of mental retardation . A spokesman for DreamWorks said , " We heard their concerns , and we understand that taken out of context , the site appeared to be insensitive to people with disabilities . " A coalition of more than 20 disability advocacy groups , including the Special Olympics and the Arc of the United States , objected to the film 's repeated and excessive use of the word " retard " . DreamWorks offered to screen the film for the groups on August 8 to determine if it still offended them . The screening was postponed to the same day of the premiere on August 11 . After representatives for the groups attended the private screening and were offended by its content , the groups picketed outside the film 's premiere . Timothy Shriver , the chairman of the Special Olympics , stated , " This population struggles too much with the basics to have to struggle against Hollywood . We 're sending a message that this hate speech is no longer acceptable . "
Disability advocates and others who previewed the film reported that the offensive treatment of individuals with mental disabilities was woven throughout the film 's plot . Disability advocates urged people not to see the film , claiming it is demeaning to individuals with mental disabilities and would encourage bullying . Stiller defended the film , stating " We screened the movie so many times and this didn 't come up until very late ... in the context of the film I think it 's really clear , they were making fun of the actors and actors who try to use serious subjects to win awards . " Co @-@ writer Etan Cohen echoed Stiller 's rationale : " Some people have taken this as making fun of handicapped people , but we 're really trying to make fun of the actors who use this material as fodder for acclaim . " He went on to state that the film lampoons actors who portray mentally retarded / autistic characters such as Dustin Hoffman in Rain Man , Tom Hanks in Forrest Gump , and Sean Penn in I Am Sam . A DreamWorks spokesman did not directly respond to the criticism , claiming that Tropic Thunder " ... is an R @-@ rated comedy that satirizes Hollywood and its excesses , makes its point by featuring inappropriate and over @-@ the @-@ top characters in ridiculous situations . " The film 's advertising was altered , but none of the scenes in the film were edited as a result of the opposition . In response to the controversy , the director 's cut of the DVD ( but not the Blu @-@ ray ) includes a public service announcement in the special features that discourages use of the word " retard " .
= = Music = =
Tropic Thunder 's score and soundtrack were released on August 5 , 2008 , the week before the film 's theatrical release . The score was composed by Theodore Shapiro and performed by the Hollywood Studio Symphony . William Ruhlmann of allmusic gave the score a positive review , stating it is " ... an affectionate and knowing satire of the history of Hollywood action movie music , penned by an insider . " Thomas Simpson of SoundtrackNet called it " ... a mixture of fun , seriousness , rock n ' roll and great scoring . "
Five songs , " Cum On Feel the Noize " by Quiet Riot , " Sympathy for the Devil " by The Rolling Stones , " For What It 's Worth " by Buffalo Springfield , " Low " by Flo Rida and T @-@ Pain , and " Get Back " by Ludacris , were not present on the soundtrack , yet did appear in the film . The soundtrack features songs from The Temptations , MC Hammer , Creedence Clearwater Revival , Edwin Starr , and other artists . The single " Name of the Game " by The Crystal Method featuring Ryu has an exclusive remix on the soundtrack . The soundtrack debuted 20th on Billboard 's Top Soundtracks list and peaked at 39th on its Top Independent Albums list . James Christopher Monger of allmusic compared the music to other film 's soundtracks such as Platoon , Full Metal Jacket , and Forrest Gump and called it " ... a fun but slight listen that plays out like an old late- ' 70s K @-@ Tel compilation with a few bonus cuts from the future . "
= = Spin @-@ off = =
Cruise reprised his character Les Grossman for the 2010 MTV Movie Awards . On June 9 , 2010 , it was announced that a spin @-@ off film would be developed centering on Grossman . A script has been written by Michael Bacall ( Scott Pilgrim vs. the World , Project X ) . In March 2012 , Bacall gave an update on the long @-@ rumored Les Grossman spin @-@ off movie , revealing that the film will attempt to uncover where Grossman 's well @-@ documented anger issues originated .
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= Italian ironclad Conte Verde =
Conte Verde was the third of three Principe di Carignano @-@ class ironclads built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) , though she differed in several respects from her sisters . Unlike the other two members of her class , she did not receive complete iron armor , instead relying on partial plating at her bow and stern . She was laid down in February 1863 , she was launched in July 1867 , and she was completed in December 1871 . Conte Verde was a broadside ironclad armed with a battery of four 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) guns and eighteen 164 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) guns . Her career was limited , owing to the emergence of more modern ironclads and a severe reduction in the Italian naval budget following their defeat at the Battle of Lissa in 1866 . She was discarded in 1880 and sold to ship breakers to help pay for new ironclads then under construction .
= = Design = =
Conte Verde was 73 @.@ 7 meters ( 242 ft ) long between perpendiculars ; she had a beam of 15 @.@ 3 m ( 50 ft ) and an average draft of 6 @.@ 5 m ( 21 ft ) . She displaced 3 @,@ 514 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 459 long tons ; 3 @,@ 874 short tons ) normally and up to 3 @,@ 866 t ( 3 @,@ 805 long tons ; 4 @,@ 262 short tons ) at full load . She had a crew of 572 . Her propulsion system consisted of one single @-@ expansion steam engine that drove a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by six coal @-@ fired , cylindrical fire @-@ tube boilers . Her engine produced a top speed of 10 @.@ 2 knots ( 18 @.@ 9 km / h ; 11 @.@ 7 mph ) from 1 @,@ 968 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 468 kW ) , making her the fastest member of her class . She could steam for about 1 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 200 km ; 1 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . To supplement her steam engine , the ship was barque @-@ rigged .
Conte Verde was a broadside ironclad , and she was armed with a main battery of four 72 @-@ pounder 8 in ( 200 mm ) guns and eighteen 164 mm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . The ship was equipped with a spur @-@ shaped ram at the bow . Unlike her two sisters , Conte Verde did not have complete iron armor on her sides . She instead had wrought iron armor that covered only parts of her bow and stern . The rest of the ship received traditional timber armor .
= = Service history = =
The keel for Conte Verde was laid down at the San Rocco shipyard in Livorno on 2 February 1863 . She was launched on 29 July 1867 , and was completed in December 1871 . The ship did not have a long or particularly active career ; rapidly surpassed first by central battery and then turret ships , the first generation of ironclads with traditional broadside quickly became obsolete . In addition , the Italian government lost confidence in the fleet after its defeat in 1866 at the Battle of Lissa and drastically reduced the naval budget . The cuts were so severe that the fleet had great difficulty in mobilizing its ironclad squadron to attack the port of Civitavecchia in September 1870 , as part of the wars of Italian unification . Instead , the ships were laid up and the sailors conscripted to man them were sent home .
As a result , Conte Verde was not used in any significant way in her nine years in service . The ship was stricken from the naval register in 1880 , but was not actually broken up for scrap until 1898 . The Navy discarded both of her sisters , along with the ironclad Re di Portogallo between 1875 and 1880 to remove the cost of maintaining them from the naval budget , as part of an effort to reduce the financial impact of the new Caio Duilio and Italia @-@ classes then under construction .
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= Brioni Agreement =
The Brioni Agreement or Brioni Declaration ( Croatian : Brijunska deklaracija , Serbian : Brionska deklaracija , Slovene : Brijonska deklaracija ) is a document signed by representatives of Slovenia , Croatia and the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia under the political sponsorship of the European Community ( EC ) on the Brijuni Islands on 7 July 1991 . The agreement sought to create an environment in which further negotiations on the future of Yugoslavia could take place . However , ultimately it isolated the federal prime minister Ante Marković in his efforts to preserve Yugoslavia , and effectively stopped any form of federal influence over Slovenia . This meant the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) would focus on combat in Croatia , creating a precedent of redrawing international borders and staking the EC 's interest in resolving the Yugoslav crisis .
The agreement put an end to hostilities between the JNA and Slovene forces in the Ten @-@ Day War . Slovenia and Croatia agreed to suspend activities stemming from their 25 June declarations of independence for a period of three months . The document also resolved border control and customs inspection issues regarding Slovenia 's borders , resolved air @-@ traffic control responsibility and mandated an exchange of prisoners of war . The Brioni Agreement also formed the basis for an observer mission to monitor implementation of the agreement in Slovenia . Eleven days after the agreement was made , the federal government pulled the JNA out of Slovenia . Conversely , the agreement made no mitigating impact on fighting in Croatia .
= = Background = =
On 23 June 1991 , as Slovenia and Croatia prepared to declare their independence during the breakup of Yugoslavia , the European Community ( EC ) foreign ministers decided the EC member states would not extend diplomatic recognition to the two states . The EC viewed the declarations as unilateral moves and offered assistance in negotiations regarding the future of the SFR Yugoslavia instead . At the same time , the EC decided to suspend direct talks with Slovenia and Croatia . The move was welcomed by the Yugoslav federal government . Slovenia and Croatia declared independence on 25 June , and the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) units began to deploy from its bases in Slovenia the next day . On 27 June , armed conflict broke out as the JNA and the Territorial Defence Force of Slovenia ( TDS ) began fighting over control of Slovenia 's border posts , in what became the Ten @-@ Day War .
A three @-@ strong EC delegation made three visits to the region in late June and early July to negotiate a political agreement which would facilitate further negotiations . The delegation consisted of the foreign ministers of Luxembourg , as the incumbent holder of the EC presidency , and Italy and the Netherlands , as the previous and future holders of that office . The delegation members were Jacques Poos ( Luxembourg ) , Gianni de Michelis ( Italy ) , and Hans van den Broek ( Netherlands ) . Prior to the delegation 's arrival in Belgrade , Poos told reporters that the EC would take charge of the crisis . There , the delegation was met by Serbian president Slobodan Milošević who dismissed the prospect of Croatia leaving the Yugoslav federation because its population contained 600 @,@ 000 Serbs .
On 29 June , Croatia and Slovenia agreed to suspend their declarations of independence to allow time for a negotiated settlement . The EC delegation appeared to make progress when Serbia responded to the move by ceasing their opposition to the appointment of a Croatian member of the federal presidency , Stjepan Mesić , as the body 's chairman on 30 June . The appearance of a success was reinforced when the JNA ordered its troops posted in Slovenia to return to their barracks . On 1 July , de Michelis was replaced by João de Deus Pinheiro , the Portuguese foreign minister , to maintain the formula of current , former and future EC presidencies comprising the EC delegation as the Netherlands took over the presidency from Luxembourg , while Portugal was scheduled to assume the presidency after the Dutch .
= = Conference at Brijuni = =
A further result of the EC delegation 's mission were talks attended by representatives of the EC , Croatia , Slovenia , Serbia and the Yugoslav government . The talks were held at Brijuni Islands on 7 July . Besides the EC delegation , headed by van den Broek , five out of eight members of the federal presidency attended the talks — Mesić , Bogić Bogićević , Janez Drnovšek , Branko Kostić and Vasil Tupurkovski . The Yugoslav federal prime minister Ante Marković was also present , as were the Yugoslav federal foreign minister Budimir Lončar , interior minister Petar Gračanin and the deputy defence minister Vice Admiral Stane Brovet . Croatia was represented by President Franjo Tuđman while President Milan Kučan attended on behalf of Slovenia . Serbia was represented by Borisav Jović , a former Serbian member of the federal presidency who had resigned from the position on 15 June , instead of Milošević who refused to attend . Starting at 8 am , the EC delegation held separate talks with Kučan and his assistants , then with Tuđman and his assistants , and finally with Jović . In the afternoon , a plenary meeting was held with the federal , Slovene and Croatian delegations in attendance , while Jović reportedly left dissatisfied with the talks .
The agreement was prepared at the EC council of ministers in The Hague on 5 July . It consisted of a Joint Declaration , and two annexes detailing the creation of an environment suitable to further political negotiations and guidelines for an observer mission to Yugoslavia . The agreement , which became known as the Brioni Declaration or the Brioni Agreement , required the JNA and the TDS to return to their bases , and stipulated that Slovene officials were to control Slovenia 's borders alone and that both Slovenia and Croatia were to suspend all activities stemming from their declarations of independence for three months . The observer mission set out by the Brioni Agreement materialised as the European Community Monitor Mission ( ECMM ) tasked with monitoring the disengagement of the JNA and the TDS in Slovenia , and ultimately the withdrawal of the JNA from Slovenia .
= = Aftermath = =
Even though little was agreed upon and the agreement was later interpreted differently by its signatories , the Brioni Agreement established the EC 's interest in the region and the first EC Ministerial Conference on Yugoslavia was held in The Hague on 10 July . The ECMM helped calm several standoffs around military barracks in Slovenia and facilitated negotiations between Slovene authorities and the JNA regarding the withdrawal of the JNA from Slovenia . In Croatia , armed combat continued and the JNA shelled the city of Osijek the same evening the agreement was signed . The federal presidency ordered the complete withdrawal of the JNA from Slovenia on 18 July in response to Slovene actions in breach of the Brioni Agreement . The ECMM 's scope of work was expanded to include Croatia on 1 September . By mid @-@ September , the war had escalated as the Croatian National Guard and police blockaded the JNA barracks and the JNA embarked on a campaign against Croatian forces .
The Brioni Agreement isolated Marković who tried to preserve the federation , but was ignored by van den Broek who appeared not to comprehend issues presented before him , and the EC delegation tacitly encouraged the dissolution of Yugoslavia . The agreement diminished the authority of part of the JNA 's leadership who fought for the preservation of the Yugoslav federation . The agreement was also unfavourable for Croatia because it was left to defend against the JNA and Serb forces . By effectively removing Slovenia from influence of the federal authorities , especially the JNA , the agreement fulfilled one of the Serbian nationalists ' goals , allowing the redrawing of international borders . Sabrina Ramet noted that Kučan and Milošević reached an agreement in January 1991 in which Milošević gave his assurances that Slovenia 's independence bid would not be opposed by Serbia . In return , Kučan expressed his understanding for Milošević 's interest to create a Greater Serbia .
At the time , the EC viewed the agreement as a method of defusing the crisis and failed to attribute the lull which coincided with the Brioni Agreement to a shift in Serbian strategy instead . The EC delegation 's failure to respond to Jović 's departure before the plenary meeting and the EC foreign ministers ' declaration of 10 July indicating the EC would withdraw from mediation if the Brioni Agreement was not implemented only encouraged Serbia which , unlike Slovenia , Croatia , or the Yugoslav federation , had nothing to lose if the EC pulled out . In the end , the EC took credit for a rapid resolution of the armed conflict in Slovenia without realising that its diplomatic efforts had little to do with the situation on the ground .
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= Pigeye shark =
The pigeye shark or Java shark ( Carcharhinus amboinensis ) is an uncommon species of requiem shark , in the family Carcharhinidae , found in the warm coastal waters of the eastern Atlantic and western Indo @-@ Pacific . It prefers shallow , murky environments with soft bottoms , and tends to roam within a fairly localised area . With its bulky grey body , small eyes , and short , blunt snout , the pigeye shark looks almost identical to ( and is often confused with ) the better @-@ known bull shark ( C. leucas ) . The two species differ in vertebral count , the relative sizes of the dorsal fins , and other subtle traits . This shark typically reaches lengths of 1 @.@ 9 – 2 @.@ 5 m ( 6 @.@ 2 – 8 @.@ 2 ft ) .
The pigeye shark is an apex predator that mostly hunts low in the water column . It has a varied diet , consisting mainly of bony and cartilaginous fishes and also including crustaceans , molluscs , sea snakes , and cetaceans . This species gives birth to live young , with the developing embryos sustained to term via a placental connection to their mother . Litters of three to thirteen pups are born after a gestation period of nine or twelve months . Young sharks spend their first few years of life in sheltered inshore habitats such as bays , where their movements follow tidal and seasonal patterns . The pigeye shark 's size and dentition make it potentially dangerous , though it has not been known to attack humans . The shark is infrequently caught in shark nets protecting beaches and by fisheries , which use it for meat and fins . The IUCN presently lacks adequate data to assess the conservation status of this species .
= = Taxonomy = =
German biologists Johannes Müller and Jakob Henle described the pigeye shark and named it Carcharias ( Prionodon ) amboinensis in their 1839 Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen . Later authors reassigned it to the genus Carcharhinus . The type specimen is a stuffed female 74 cm ( 29 in ) long , originally caught off Ambon Island in Indonesia , from which the specific epithet is derived . Several junior synonyms are known for this species , among them Triaenodon obtusus , which was based on a near @-@ birth pigeye shark foetus .
= = Phylogeny and evolution = =
Since the pigeye shark so strongly resembles the bull shark , morphology @-@ based phylogenetic studies have considered the two species to be closely related . Neither this nor any other arrangement is strongly supported by molecular phylogenetic research , which to date has been inconclusive regarding this shark 's evolutionary relationship to other Carcharhinus species .
Genetic analysis of pigeye sharks across northern Australia suggest that the evolutionary history of this species was affected by coastline changes during the Pleistocene epoch ( 2 @.@ 6 million to 12 @,@ 000 years ago ) . The patterns of diversity found in its mitochondrial DNA are consistent with the repeated splitting and merging of its populations as geographical barriers were alternately formed and inundated . The most recent of these barriers was a land bridge across the Torres Strait that reopened only some 6 @,@ 000 years ago ; as a result , significant genetic separation exists between the sharks found off Western Australia and the Northern Territory and those found off Queensland .
= = Description = =
The pigeye shark is a very robust @-@ bodied species with a short , broad , and rounded snout . The small and circular eyes are equipped with nictitating membranes . The anterior rims of the nostrils bear medium @-@ sized flaps of skin . The mouth forms a wide arch and has barely noticeable furrows at the corners . There are 11 – 13 ( usually 12 ) upper and 10 – 12 ( usually 11 ) lower tooth rows on each side ; in addition , there are single rows of tiny teeth at the upper and lower symphyses ( jaw midpoints ) . The teeth are broad and triangular with serrated edges ; those in the lower jaw are slightly narrower , more upright , and more finely serrated than those in the upper . The five pairs of gill slits are of moderate length .
The first dorsal fin is large and triangular , with a pointed apex and a concave trailing margin ; it originates roughly over the posterior insertions of the pectoral fins . The second dorsal fin is less than a third as high as the first , and originates ahead of the anal fin . There is no midline ridge between the dorsal fins . The long pectoral fins are broad and slightly falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) , becoming narrow and pointed at the tips . The anal fin has a sharply notched trailing margin . The caudal peduncle has a deep notch on its upper surface at the caudal fin origin . The caudal fin is asymmetrical , with a well @-@ developed lower lobe and a longer upper lobe with a notch in the trailing margin near its tip .
The skin is covered by rather large dermal denticles , which become more tightly packed and overlapping with age ; each denticle bears three to five horizontal ridges and five posterior teeth . This species is grey above and white below , with a faint pale band on the flanks . The second dorsal fin and lower caudal fin lobe darken at the tips , particularly in juveniles . An albino individual was caught off Queensland in 1987 , which was the first known example of albinism in a requiem shark . An adult pigeye shark typically measures 1 @.@ 9 – 2 @.@ 5 m ( 6 @.@ 2 – 8 @.@ 2 ft ) long , while the largest individuals reach 2 @.@ 8 m ( 9 @.@ 2 ft ) long .
The pigeye shark can be most reliably distinguished from the bull shark by the number of precaudal ( before the caudal fin ) vertebrae ( 89 – 95 in C. amboinensis versus 101 – 123 in C. leucas ) . Externally , it has a greater size difference between its dorsal fins ( first @-@ to @-@ second height ratio > 3 @.@ 1 : 1 versus ≤ 3 @.@ 1 : 1 in C. leucas ) and the notch in its anal fin margin forms an acute angle ( versus a right angle in C. leucas ) . This species also usually has fewer tooth rows in the lower jaw ( 10 – 12 on each side versus 12 – 13 in C. leucas ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Though widely distributed in the tropical and subtropical marine waters of Eurasia , Africa , and Oceania , the pigeye shark does not appear to be common anywhere . Existing records are patchy , and the full extent of its range may be obscured by confusion with the bull shark . In the eastern Atlantic , it is found off Cape Verde and Senegal , and from Nigeria to Namibia ; there is a single Mediterranean record from off Crotone , Italy . It occurs all along the continental periphery of the Indian Ocean , from eastern South Africa to the Arabian Peninsula ( including Madagascar , the Seychelles , and Mauritius ) , to Southeast Asia and northern Australia . Its range extends into the Pacific , northward to the Philippines and southern China , and eastward to New Guinea and some Micronesian islands . Tagging and genetic data indicate that pigeye sharks , particularly juveniles , are not strongly migratory and tend to remain in a local area . The longest recorded distance covered by an adult is 1 @,@ 080 km ( 670 mi ) .
The pigeye shark inhabits coastal waters down to a depth of 150 m ( 490 ft ) , favouring environments with fine sediment and murky water . It sometimes enters estuaries , but unlike the bull shark , it does not ascend rivers and avoids brackish water . The movements and habitat usage of juvenile pigeye sharks have been extensively studied in Cleveland Bay in northeastern Queensland . Young sharks live in the bay year @-@ round , staying mostly in the eastern side where the input from three rivers produces strong currents and high turbidity . Individual home ranges are relatively small , averaging 30 km2 ( 12 sq mi ) , and increase in size with age . The juveniles generally stay in water less than 40 m ( 130 ft ) deep , with the youngest sharks spending the most time in the shallowest parts of the bay . They swim into the intertidal zone with the rising tide and depart as the tide recedes ; this movement may relate to exploiting foraging opportunities on the submerged mud flats , or to avoiding predation or competition by staying out of the deeper waters occupied by larger sharks . There is also an annual movement cycle where the juveniles move closer to the river mouths during the dry season and farther from them during the wet season ; since the rainy season brings a higher flow of fresh water into the bay , the sharks may be responding directly or indirectly to the resultant decrease in salinity and dissolved oxygen levels .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The pigeye shark is a largely solitary animal , though occasionally several individuals may be found at the same location . In the Mozambique Channel , it outnumbers the bull shark on the east side while the opposite is true on the west side , suggesting there may be competitive exclusion between these similar species . Parasites documented from the pigeye shark include the myxosporean Kudoa carcharhini , the copepods Pandarus smithii and P. cranchii , and the tapeworms Callitetrarhynchus gracilis , Cathetocephalus sp . , Floriceps minacanthus , Heteronybelinia australis , Otobothrium australe , O. crenacolle , and Protogrillotia sp . Young pigeye sharks are potentially vulnerable to predation by larger sharks . The natural mortality for juveniles in Cleveland Bay has been measured at no more than 5 % per year ; this rate is comparable to that in juvenile bull sharks , and is much lower than in juvenile blacktip sharks ( C. limbatus ) or lemon sharks ( Negaprion brevirostris ) .
= = = Feeding = = =
Though the pigeye shark will take prey from anywhere in the water column , it tends to hunt close to the sea floor . An apex predator , it feeds mainly on teleost fishes such as croakers , flatfishes , and cutlassfishes , and to a lesser extent on cartilaginous fishes , cephalopods , and decapod crustaceans . It has also been recorded eating gastropods , sea snakes , dolphins , and whale carrion . Other sharks and rays figure much more prominently in the diets of South African pigeye sharks than those from other regions ; the types consumed include requiem sharks , catsharks , angel sharks , guitarfishes , stingrays , and eagle rays .
= = = Life history = = =
The pigeye shark is viviparous ; like in other requiem sharks , after the developing embryo depletes its supply of yolk , it is sustained to term by its mother through a placental connection formed from the empty yolk sac . Mature females have a single functional ovary and two functional uteruses . Reproductive details vary among regions : off South Africa , the gestation period lasts about 12 months , with mating and birthing both occurring in late summer . The litters range from three to seven pups ( average five ) and the newborns are around 75 – 79 cm ( 30 – 31 in ) long . Off northern Australia , the gestation period lasts 9 months , with birthing taking place in November and December . The litters range from six to 13 pups ( average 9 ) and the newborns are around 59 – 66 cm ( 23 – 26 in ) long .
Young sharks can be found in shallow inshore environments such as bays until at least three years of age , suggesting this species uses these sheltered habitats as nurseries . As the sharks grow older , they venture farther from land into deeper water , more and more often , until they eventually disperse . This is a long @-@ lived , slow @-@ growing species ; males grow faster and reach a smaller ultimate size than females . Sexual maturity is attained at around 2 @.@ 1 m ( 6 @.@ 9 ft ) long and 12 years of age for males , and 2 @.@ 2 m ( 7 @.@ 2 ft ) long and 13 years of age for females . The maximum lifespan is at least 26 years for males and 30 years for females .
= = Human interactions = =
Large and formidably toothed , the pigeye shark is regarded as potentially dangerous to humans , though it has not been implicated in any attacks . This species is caught infrequently on longlines and in gillnets , and is used for meat and fins . As a predator , though , the shark can accumulate ciguatera toxins produced by dinoflagellates within its tissues . In November 1993 , some 500 people in Manakara , Madagascar , were poisoned , 98 of them fatally , after eating meat from a pigeye shark . This was the first recorded mass ciguatera outbreak caused by a shark , as well as the first with a significant death toll . The IUCN has listed the pigeye shark overall as Data Deficient , while noting that its rarity may render it susceptible to overfishing . In KwaZulu @-@ Natal , South Africa , small numbers of pigeye sharks are caught in shark nets set up to protect beaches . The catch rate and the average size of sharks caught both decreased between 1978 and 1998 , leading to concerns that the local population may be depleted . Thus , the IUCN has given this species a regional assessment of Near Threatened in the southwestern Indian Ocean .
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= Talking to the Moon ( song ) =
" Talking to the Moon " is the seventh track from American singer @-@ songwriter Bruno Mars ' debut studio album , Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans ( 2010 ) . The song was first unveiled on Mars ' debut extended play , It 's Better If You Don 't Understand ( 2010 ) , as its last track . It was written by Bruno Mars , Philip Lawrence , Ari Levine , Albert Winkler , and Jeff Bhasker , while production was handled by The Smeezingtons in collaboration with Bhasker . " Talking to the Moon " remains a pop song with power ballad influences , and its lyrics are about a failed relationship , solitude , and sadness . Instrumentally , the track relies on drum percussion and piano .
The song received mixed to positive reviews from critics who praised its slow pace and lyrics ; however , it was criticized for its overwhelming production . The song was officially released as a single only in Brazil through Warner Music Brasil , following its appearance on the soundtrack of the Brazilian telenovela Insensato Coração ( Irrational Heart ) from 2011 . As a result , the track charted on the Brasil Hot 100 Airplay , and on the Billboard Brasil Hot Pop & Popular , where it spent several weeks at number one , respectively . The song was performed many times during Mars ' debut world tour , The Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans Tour ( 2010 @-@ 2012 ) , as the fourteenth track on its set list .
= = Background and production = =
" Talking to the Moon " was first recorded by Mars for his debut EP , It 's Better If You Don 't Understand , which was released on May 11 , 2010 under Elektra Records . When asked about the lyrical content of the record , Mars stated that " [ he ] just [ writes ] songs that [ he ] strongly believe in and that are coming from inside . There 's no tricks . It 's honesty with big melodies . And [ he is ] singing the s * * * out of them . " During an interview , Mars explained that after writing and producing songs for other artists , he thought that he could write a song for himself . He started writing the lyrics of " Talking To The Moon " while playing the piano . The track was included five months later on his debut studio album , Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans , released on October 4 , 2010 under the Elektra and Atlantic labels . Mars also recorded an acoustic piano version included on the deluxe edition of the album . Ari Levine of The Smeezingtons stated that " Talking To The Moon " was one of his favorite songs on the album and described how the song was conceived in an interview for Sound on Sound :
" Talking to the Moon " was written by Albert Winkler , Jeff Bhasker , Bruno Mars , Philip Lawrence , and Ari Levine , and produced by Mars , Lawrence , and Levine , while Bhasker co @-@ produced the song . Levine and Mars played all the instruments on the track and recorded them ; Levine was as well responsible for engineering the song at Levcon Studios in California . The mixing of the track was done at Larrabee Sound Studios in North Hollywood by Manny Marroquin , with Christian Plata and Erik Madrid serving as assistants . Stephen Marcussen mastered the song at Marcussen Mastering in California .
= = Composition = =
" Talking to the Moon " remains a pop and power ballad that lasts for 3 minutes and 7 seconds , with a stripped @-@ down production , and instrumentation consisting primarily of drums and piano , along with several synthesizers . According to the digital sheet music published by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , the song was written in the key of C # minor and was set in a four @-@ four time signature with a ballad tempo of 73 beats per minute . Mars ' vocal range spans from G ♯ 3 to C ♯ 5 , and the song follows the chord progression E @-@ G ♯ 7 @-@ C ♯ m @-@ B @-@ A. His vocals on the hook of the record have been described as unusual for a pop song . The initial 30 seconds of the track give away its opening using a soft piano .
The song 's lyrics describe feelings of loneliness , loss , and hope in the chorus : " Talking to the moon / Try to get to you / In hopes you 're on the other side / Talking to me , too " . As the song continues , it shows the singer 's vulnerable side with soft , sincere lyrics about a lost love that has now gone , according to Alex Young of Consequence of Sound . A similar opinion was shared by Dan Pardalis of 411Mania.com , noticing that Mars hopes " his message will somehow make its way to a lost former lover " . Sherri Thornhill of Yahoo ! , believed the lyrics reveal the singer 's hope that " his former flame is talking to the moon just as he is . "
= = Critical reception = =
The song received mixed to positive reviews from music critics on the release of the album . Alex Young of Consequence of Sound gave the song a positive review writing that the song " may be the best of this collection [ album ] " , adding that " this track is primed for radio ; a soft , sincere piano @-@ driven song about a lost love that has now gone [ ... ] belts the vulnerable Mars . " Yahoo ! ' s music critic , Sherri Thornhill , praised the song , calling it a " beauty " and " relatable " , since the lyrics show the " heartbroken lover [ ' s ] " wish that his former lover is doing the same as he is - talking to the moon . The Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer 's reviewer , Tyrone S. Reid , considered the song " beautifully written , waxing poetic about love and longing – a forte that the singer employs with great results in his work . " In a similar review , Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly felt that the debut studio album " aptly applies Mars ’ studio talents ... in his own postmillennial way " , calling " Talking to the Moon " " woebegone " , adding that " a malt @-@ shop heart beats beneath [ its ] digital skin " . Emily Yang of The Signal stated that Mars " focuses on the slow pace of the drums and piano to convey his sorrow . He sings of loneliness which is almost palpable in the chorus . " Harris Decker of The Truth About Music , while reviewing his EP It 's Better If You Do 't Understand , called the song opening " spectacular " , while stating that it " just gets better from there " . The review concluded that , " with an over the top production , the chorus features a great hook and perfect balance " . Bill Lamb of About.com confessed about the recording that it " is possibly the weakest track simply because the heavy production threatens to overwhelm the centerpiece of Bruno Mars ' singing because it is a big power jazz ballad that would work well from the stage . " In the same vein , Mike Diver of BBC Music considered the song " a ballad devoid of detectable emotion " .
= = Commercial performance = =
Following the track 's inclusion on the soundtrack of Insensato Coração , which generated most of the song 's success and resulted its extensive airplay on Brazilian radio stations , Warner Music Brasil decided to release it as an official single there . After its release , " Talking to the Moon " charted on two Brazilian charts – Billboard Brasil Hot Pop & Popular and the Brasil Hot 100 Airplay with it reaching the top position in both cases . The song spent nine weeks at number one on both charts . It became the fourth song with the most weeks spent at the top of Billboard Brasil Hot Pop & Popular and on Brasil Hot 100 Airplay it ranked seventh with the most weeks at number one as of 2012 .
= = Usage in media = =
The song was used on the soundtrack of Brazilian telenovela Insensato Coração . It was also used in the movie , A Turtle 's Tale : Sammy 's Adventures , with it being as well included on the movie soundtrack as a bonus song . An acoustic piano version of " Talking to the Moon " was included on the charity compilation album , Songs for Japan , released on March 25 , 2011 . " Talking to the Moon " was featured in the movie Think Like A Man , released in 2012 , where the song was attributed to Mars in the final credits .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Mixed at Larrabee Sound Studios , Hollywood , California .
Mastered at Marcussen Mastering , Hollywood , California
Engineered at Levcon Studios , Hollywood , California .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans .
= = Charts = =
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= Rova of Antananarivo =
The Rova of Antananarivo / ˈruːvə / ( Malagasy : Rovan 'i Manjakamiadana [ ˈruvən manˌdzakəmiˈadə ̥ nə ] ) is a royal palace complex ( rova ) in Madagascar that served as the home of the sovereigns of the Kingdom of Imerina in the 17th and 18th centuries , as well as of the rulers of the Kingdom of Madagascar in the 19th century . Its counterpart is the nearby fortified village of Ambohimanga , which served as the spiritual seat of the kingdom in contrast to the political significance of the Rova in the capital . Located in the central highland city of Antananarivo , the Rova occupies the highest point on Analamanga , formerly the highest of Antananarivo 's many hills . Merina king Andrianjaka , who ruled Imerina from around 1610 until 1630 , is believed to have captured Analamanga from a Vazimba king around 1610 or 1625 and erected the site 's first fortified royal structure . Successive Merina kings continued to rule from the site until the fall of the monarchy in 1896 , frequently restoring , modifying or adding royal structures within the compound to suit their needs .
Over time , the number of buildings within the site varied . Andrianjaka founded the Rova with three buildings and a dedicated tomb site in the early 17th century . The number of structures rose to approximately twenty during the late 18th @-@ century reign of King Andrianampoinimerina . By the late 20th century , the Rova 's structures had been reduced to eleven , representing various architectural styles and historical periods . The largest and most prominent of these was Manjakamiadana , also known as the " Queen 's Palace " after Queen Ranavalona I , for whom the original wooden palace was built between 1839 – 1841 by Frenchman Jean Laborde . In 1867 the palace was encased in stone for Queen Ranavalona II by Scotsman James Cameron , an artisan missionary of the London Missionary Society . The neighbouring Tranovola , a smaller wooden palace constructed in 1819 by Creole trader Louis Gros for King Radama I , was the first multi @-@ storey building with verandas in the Rova . The model offered by Tranovola transformed architecture throughout the highlands over the course of the 19th century , inspiring a widespread shift toward two @-@ storey houses with verandas . The Rova grounds also contained a cross @-@ shaped wooden house ( Manampisoa ) built as the private residence of Queen Rasoherina , a stone Protestant chapel ( Fiangonana ) , nine royal tombs , and a number of named wooden houses built in the traditional style reserved for the andriana ( nobles ) in Imerina . Among the most significant of these were Besakana , erected in the early 17th century by Andrianjaka and considered the throne of the kingdom , and Mahitsielafanjaka , a later building which came to represent the seat of ancestral spiritual authority at the Rova .
A fire on the night of 6 November 1995 destroyed or damaged all the structures within the Rova complex shortly before it was due to be inscribed on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites . Although officially declared an accident , rumours persist that politically motivated arson may have been the actual cause of the fire . The chapel and tombs , as well as Besakana and Mahitsielafanjaka , have since been fully restored with bilateral government donations , state funds and grants from intergovernmental and private donors . Completion of the reconstruction of the Manjakamiadana exterior is estimated for 2012 , while interior restoration work will continue until at least 2013 . Once the building is fully restored , Manjakamiadana will serve as a museum showcasing royal artefacts saved from destruction in the fire .
= = Background = =
Madagascar 's central highlands were first inhabited between 200 BCE – 300 CE by the island 's earliest settlers , the Vazimba , who appear to have arrived by pirogue from southeastern Borneo and established simple villages in the island 's dense forests . By the 15th century the Merina ethnic group from the southeastern coast had gradually migrated into the central highlands where they established hilltop villages interspersed among existing Vazimba settlements ruled by local kings . In the mid @-@ 16th century these royal Merina villages ( rovas ) — now fortified with stone walls , gateways and deep defensive trenches — were united under the rule of King Andriamanelo ( 1540 – 1575 ) , who initiated the first military campaigns to expel or assimilate the Vazimba population by force . Villages inhabited by the andriana ( noble ) class established by Andriamanelo typically contained a rova or palace compound .
The rova 's earliest defining features had crystallised among the Merina as residences for local rulers at least 100 years before the emergence of the united Kingdom of Imerina under Andriamanelo . According to custom , a rova 's foundation was always elevated relative to the surrounding village . The compound also always featured a kianja ( central courtyard ) marked by a vatomasina ( tall sacred stone ) where the sovereign would stand to deliver kabary ( royal speeches or decrees ) . Contained within the rova was at least one lapa ( royal palace or residence ) as well as the fasana ( tomb ) of one or more of the site 's founders . The sovereign 's lodgings typically stood in the northern part of the rova , while the spouse or spouses lived in the southern part . It was not until the dawn of the 19th century that a perimeter wall of sharpened wooden stakes would constitute another defining feature of rova construction .
= = History = =
= = = 1610 – 1792 = = =
The Rova of Antananarivo is located 1 @,@ 480 metres ( 4 @,@ 860 ft ) above sea level on Analamanga , originally the highest of the numerous hills in Antananarivo . Around 1610 or 1625 , Andrianjaka , King of Imerina and grandson of King Andriamanelo , ordered a garrison of 1 @,@ 000 soldiers to seize the strategic site from its original Vazimba inhabitants . He reportedly succeeded with minimal bloodshed . According to oral history , the mere encampment of his army at the foot of Analamanga was sufficient to secure the submission of the Vazimba . Andrianjaka 's army then cleared the forest covering the hill 's summit and built a traditional rova to serve as an initial garrison , including an unnamed simple wooden house within it as a palace for the king . Soon afterward Andrianjaka built two more houses , reportedly named Masoandrotsiroa ( " There Are Not Two Suns " , also called Masoandro ) and Besakana ( " Great Breadth " ) . According to another account , Besakana may have been the name of the very first of the three houses Andrianjaka built within the Rova . The king also designated the construction site and design for the royal tombs he named Trano Masina Fitomiandalana ( " Seven Sacred Houses Arranged in Order " , also called Fitomiandalana ) , which were to be laid out in a line . Andrianjaka 's own tomb was the first of these to be built .
Generations of Andrianjaka 's successors through to his great @-@ grandson King Andriamasinavalona ( 1675 – 1710 ) ruled over the united central highland kingdom of Imerina from the Rova of Antananarivo . These monarchs occasionally altered the compound and its buildings to suit their purposes . In particular , Besakana served as a primary royal residence and was repeatedly rebuilt , most notably for Andriamasinavalona who , according to oral history , had famously sought and then spared a human sacrifice in preparation for the endeavour . At some point prior to 1800 , as the community of nobles inhabiting the Rova grew , the hilltop was lowered by 9 @.@ 1 metres ( 30 ft ) to expand the amount of level land available for construction . Consequently , among the hills of Antananarivo , the hilltop of Analamanga is now second in height to that of Ambohimitsimbina to the south .
The role of the Rova as a seat of power for the Kingdom of Imerina changed when Andriamasinavalona chose to divide the kingdom into four provinces ruled by his favourite sons . Antananarivo became the capital of the southern Imerina province with the Rova as its seat of government . The site retained this role until the late 18th century , when King Andrianampoinimerina ( 1787 – 1810 ) of Ambohimanga led a series of attacks beginning in 1792 that culminated in the capture of Antananarivo and its incorporation into the newly reunified Kingdom of Imerina .
= = = 1792 – 1810 = = =
After Andrianampoinimerina reunited the divided and warring Kingdom of Imerina , he successfully pursued an expansionist policy that saw his authority extended over a large portion of Madagascar by the time of his death in 1810 . Having captured Antananarivo by 1793 and transferred his capital from Ambohimanga to Antananarivo the following year , Andrianampoinimerina established new structures on the Rova grounds that would become imbued with the political and historic significance of his reign . In keeping with the tradition of Merina sovereigns before him , each building was assigned a name by which it could be distinguished . Several of the buildings were used interchangeably by the king as personal residences , including Manjakamiadana ( " Where It is Pleasant to Rule " ) , Besakana , Manatsaralehibe ( " Vast Improvement " , also called Manatsara ) — which he alone was authorised to enter — and Marivolanitra ( " Beneath the Heavens " ) , a building reportedly designed with a staircase leading to a rooftop observation deck from which the king could observe the town and plains below .
A number of the Rova 's buildings possessed unique design features . The modest wood building then known as Manjakamiadana was also called Felatanambola ( " Silver Hands " ) for the hand @-@ shaped sculptures crafted from melted silver piastres and attached to each of the building 's four tandrotrano ( roof horns ) — an architectural design element formed from the crossed gable beams that extended past the roof line of all traditional aristocratic Merina houses . Felatanambola 's decorative silver hands were later affixed to the roof horns of Besakana . Another distinctive building from this period was called Bevato ( " Many Stones " ) because its foundation was atypically composed of stone blocks . Manatsara was said to be the most well constructed of the many houses because it was built using ambora ( Tambourissa parrifolia ) , an extremely durable and rot @-@ resistant indigenous hardwood , rather than a traditional wood called hazomena ( Weinmannia rutenbergii ) . According to oral history , Manatsara was treasured by Andrianampoinimerina and the house was quite old but still well preserved in the mid @-@ 19th century when Queen Ranavalona I decided to recover its interior walls with wood taken from Sihanaka country .
Andrianampoinimerina 's many wives and other family members occupied the majority of the buildings , most notably Mahitsielafanjaka ( " That Which is Upright Rules Long " , also called Mahitsy ) , the abode of wife Rabodonizimirabalahy , where the sampy ( royal idol ) called Manjakatsiroa was kept . Three other royal idols were kept on the Rova grounds , namely Rakelimalaza , Ramahavaly and Rafantaka , each of which were housed in their own separate buildings . Nanjakana ( " Royal " ) was occupied by wives named Ramanantenasoa and Rasamona . Tsarazoky ( " Good Eldest One " ) was the home of Ramiangaly , while Rasendrasoa , Andrianampoinimerina 's principal wife , occupied Bado ( " Stupid " ) . Rarihasana ( " Armor of Sanctity " ) was inhabited by wives Ravaomanjaka and Razafinamboa ; Andrianampoinimerina 's son and heir , Radama I , would later offer this same house to Rasalimo , who eventually became one of Radama 's wives . Three notable houses were inhabited by other family members . Andrianampoinimerina gave Besakana to his adopted daughter Ramavo ( later to become Radama 's wife and eventually Queen Ranavalona I ) . Andrianampoinimerina 's sister , Ralaisoka , originally shared Besakana with Ramavo until a daughter named Ratsimanompo vacated a house called Fohiloha ( " Short " ) , leaving Ralaisoka to occupy it alone . Masoandrotsiroa served as the residence of Ramavo 's sister , Rangita , and an aunt named Rasalamo , a daughter of Andrianampoinimerina 's grandfather King Andriambelomasina , was given a house named Rarisambo ( " Fortified Ship " ) .
At least two buildings were transported in their entirety onto or away from the Rova compound during Andrianampoinimerina 's reign . Miandrivola ( " Guarding Money " ) was moved from Ambohidrano to the Rova compound , where it was inhabited by one of the king 's wives , Rafaravavy . The king also had Manatsara removed from Antananarivo to Ambohidrabiby .
= = = 1810 – 1896 = = =
Following unification of the greater part of the island under Merina rule in the 19th century , the palaces of the Rova served as the seat of power for successive sovereigns of the Kingdom of Madagascar , including King Radama I ( 1810 – 1828 ) , Queen Ranavalona I ( 1828 – 1861 ) , King Radama II ( 1861 – 1863 ) , Queen Rasoherina ( 1863 – 1868 ) , Queen Ranavalona II ( 1868 – 1883 ) and lastly Queen Ranavalona III ( 1883 – 1895 ) , who ruled from the Rova until Madagascar 's annexation by France . During his successful 1817 military campaign to pacify the east coast , Radama I — son and successor of Andrianampoinimerina — was favourably impressed by the houses he saw in Toamasina that had been built by newly arrived Creole merchants from Mauritius and Reunion . Radama invited one of them , a craftsman named Louis Gros , to return with him to Antananarivo to redesign Bevato as a home for his principal wife , Rasalimo . The new Bevato reportedly featured two stories , much like the houses Radama had seen in Toamasina .
Another wooden palace , Tranovola ( " Silver House " ) , was under construction at the same time as Bevato and is considered by historians to represent the first true hybrid of Creole and traditional Merina aristocratic architecture . Its innovations included a roof of wood shingles , a second storey , the addition of a veranda , glass windows , multiple interior rooms ( as opposed to a single open interior space ) and the use of curved shapes as design elements . Historic sources offer conflicting accounts of these two buildings . Some maintain that Bevato was relocated and remodelled to become Tranovola , while others maintain the buildings were separate but debate which of the two houses was the first two @-@ storey building in the Rova ( still other sources award this innovation to Marivolanitra ) . The design of Radama 's tomb likewise embodies the hybrid style that was to influence and inspire not only the majority of the buildings built at the Rova in the 19th century , but ultimately architecture throughout the entire highland region of Madagascar — particularly in its use of equidistant pillars supporting the overhanging roof to create a veranda .
Despite the stylistic innovations Radama adopted for the construction of several of the compound 's buildings , the Rova largely retained its traditional features during his reign . The basic layout of the compound remained largely unaltered from its original design with the sole exception of an expansion of the Rova along its north @-@ south axis . Stone walls topped with sharpened wooden stakes were built around the new perimeter during this period . Venerable buildings such as Besakana , Nanjakana , Mahitsy and Manjakamiadana were retained , as were the houses of several of Andrianampoinimerina 's wives , many of whom were still living at the time of Radama 's death in 1828 . During his reign , Radama undertook the restoration of Marivolanitra to serve chiefly as housing for visiting foreigners , and briefly inhabited it himself in addition to his main residence at Besakana . He also had a house called Kelisoa ( " Petite Beauty " ) built as a lodging for his concubines .
The Rova underwent several significant changes during the lengthy reign of Queen Ranavalona I. The largest of the buildings in the modern @-@ day compound , the wooden Manjakamiadana , was built between 1839 and 1840 . Ranavalona also made further modifications to Tranovola in 1845 , when it became the residence of her son Radama II . The boundaries of the compound were expanded to their largest and final extent , and numerous older buildings were removed from the Rova of Antananarivo to other towns in the highlands . Voahangy ( " Pearl " ) , the former home of Andrianampoinimerina 's wife Ramisa , was moved to Alasora . The house known as Tsiazompaniry ( " Forbidden to be Desired " ) , formerly inhabited by another of his wives , Rabodonizimirahalahy , was moved to the region of Antanamalaza . Bado was moved to Ambohidrabiby . The queen also moved Fohiloha , Kelisoa , Manatsara and Masoandro to the royal village of Ambohimanga .
Later queens also left their mark on the Rova through major construction projects . Queen Rasoherina had Marivolanitra relocated to Mahazoarivo to make room for Manampisoa ( " Adding What is Pleasant " ) , built from 1865 to 1867 for use as her personal residence . A Protestant chapel ( Fiangonana ) was erected during the reign of Ranavalona II , who also ordered the exterior of the wooden Manjakamiadana to be encased in stone . Plans to build a private residence for Ranavalona III were abandoned in 1896 at the time of French colonisation of the island . According to one source , partial electrification of the Rova may have been successfully tested on Christmas Day 1892 . Following this experiment , Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony and Queen Ranavalona III began working with a contractor to purchase and install the necessary equipment to expand electrification throughout the Rova , but this initiative was also interrupted by the advent of French colonisation .
= = = 1896 – present = = =
The 1896 French colonisation of Madagascar brought an end to the rule of the Merina sovereigns . The Rova of Antananarivo was converted into a museum the following year , and the Fitomiandalana tombs were excavated and moved to a new location behind the tombs of Radama I and Rasoherina . The bodies of sovereigns previously interred in the royal tombs at Ambohimanga were exhumed and transferred to the tombs in the Rova grounds , a sacrilegious move that degraded the status of Ambohimanga as a site of sacred pilgrimage . According to Frémigacci ( 1999 ) , French colonial administrator General Joseph Gallieni undertook this desacralisation of the Rova in an attempt to break popular belief in the power of the royal ancestors . By the same token , his actions relegated Malagasy sovereignty under the Merina rulers to a relic of an unenlightened past . The desecration of the two most sacred sites of Merina royalty represented a calculated political move intended to establish the political and cultural superiority of the colonial power .
Following independence the Rova compound remained largely closed to the public throughout the First ( 1960 – 1972 ) and Second ( 1975 – 1992 ) Republics except on special occasions . In 1995 , three years into the Third Republic ( 1992 – 2010 ) , the Rova compound was destroyed by fire . The tombs , chapel , exterior of Manjakamiadina and two traditional wooden houses ( Besakana and Mahitsy ) have since been restored with further restorations planned to continue until at least 2013 .
= = Buildings = =
The Rova compound extends to just less than one hectare ( approximately two acres ) , spanning 116 metres ( 381 ft ) north to south and over 61 metres ( 200 ft ) from east to west . A barricade of thick wooden posts with sharpened ends surrounded the compound until 1897 when it was replaced with a brick wall on the orders of General Gallieni . Entered via a stone stairway leading to a large north @-@ facing gate built by James Cameron in 1845 , this portal is topped by a bronze voromahery ( eagle ) imported from France by Jean Laborde in 1840 . Beyond the gate lies an open dirt courtyard approximately 37 metres ( 121 ft ) square , with the far end opposite the gate delimited by the northern face and entrance of Manjakamiadana . Over time , the Rova compound has contained several key buildings of political and historical significance , including five palaces , a chapel and nine tombs .
= = = Manjakamiadana = = =
Manjakamiadana was built in two stages . The original palace , built between 1839 and 1840 on the orders of Ranavalona I , was built entirely in wood by Jean Laborde . In 1867 , during the reign of Ranavalona II , a stone casing was erected around the original wooden structure . The 30 @-@ metre ( 98 ft ) long , 20 @-@ metre ( 66 ft ) wide original wooden structure was 37 metres ( 121 ft ) high , including the steeply pitched roof of wooden shingles , itself 15 metres ( 49 ft ) in height . These measurements exclude the two superimposed balconies that extended 4 @.@ 6 metres ( 15 ft ) from the exterior walls and encircled the entire building , supported by 0 @.@ 61 @-@ metre ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) diameter wooden posts . The exterior of the entire building , including the roof , was painted white , with the exception of the balcony railings which were red . The exterior walls were composed of wooden planks tightly fitted together in a repeated chevron pattern reminiscent of traditional thatch walls , while the wood planks of the interior walls were hung vertically . The building could be entered by three doors : the main entrance in the northern wall , another in the southern wall and a third reserved for servants in the eastern wall .
An open and spacious ground floor respected the same traditional layout exemplified in Besakana and other Merina homes , including the presence of hearth stones in their customary corner . Following traditional construction practices , the roof three stories above was supported by an enormous andry ( central pillar ) that was given the name Volamihitsy ( " Genuine Silver " ) . According to popular legend , this was made of a single rosewood tree trunk transported from the eastern rain forests . Recent archaeological excavations of the site during reconstruction have since disproved this account as the pillar was found to be a composite of fitted rosewood pieces rather than a single solid post . According to custom , the north @-@ eastern corner pillar was the first to be erected . Its length necessitated the use of a pulley designed by Jean Laborde , the principal architect , to haul the trunk into place . When an accident occurred during the operation , the queen designated a Malagasy carpenter to manufacture a crane to complete the task . Thousands of the queen 's subjects were forced to labour on the building 's construction in lieu of paying cash taxes pursuant to a tradition called fanampoana . One historic source claimed that 25 @,@ 000 subjects participated in the raising of the building 's corner posts alone . The harsh working conditions were said to have been the cause of many deaths , although precise figures are unknown .
Due to the deterioration of the wood of the exterior balconies over time , Queen Ranavalona II commissioned James Cameron to reinforce and encase the original structure in a stone shell in 1867 . Cameron 's exterior replaced the wooden balconies with stone walls three stories high . On each of the three floors , seven arched windows run the length of the two longer side walls while five windows illuminate the shorter front and back walls . A square tower stands at each of the four corners of the stone shell , extending above the level of the walls and forming their junction . A clock and bells were installed in the north @-@ eastern tower .
The ground floor of Manjakamiadana was divided into two vast rooms with furniture and decor that reflected European influence but with placement of objects respecting the norms of Malagasy cosmology . Following the reign of Radama II , the building was no longer inhabited but instead was reserved for state occasions . The northernmost of these two rooms was the site of the signing of important trade treaties with British and American dignitaries . It was also opened annually for the celebration of the Fandroana ( Royal Bath ) ceremony . Following the imposition of French colonial rule , Manjakamiadana was transformed in 1897 into L 'Ecole Le Myre de Vilers ( Le Myre de Vilers School ) , a training centre for Malagasy civil servants employed by the French colonial regime . When the purpose of the building changed , the elevation of the main hall 's floor was raised by building a platform on top of the original wooden floor .
= = = Tranovola = = =
Tranovola was first built in the Rova compound for Radama I in 1819 by Gros , then later reconstructed by Jean Laborde in 1845 on the orders of Queen Ranavalona I for her son Radama II . The origin of the name Tranovola , meaning " Silver House " , derives from the silver ornamentation used to decorate the exterior of the building . Sources have offered varying accounts of this silver decoration , including silver nails reportedly used to affix the roof , silver ornamentation on the window and door casings , tiny silver bells hung from the roof , and tiny mirrors embedded in the interior and exterior walls . Another account describes silver " fringes " on the west side of the building , and gable decorations consisting of silver " buttons " and decorative images made from pounded silver . After the supposed assassination of Radama II in 1863 , the palace was used by Prime Ministers Rainivoninahitriniony and Rainilaiarivony to receive ambassadors and conduct the diplomatic affairs of the Kingdom of Madagascar .
Built entirely of wood and surrounded by two stacked verandas around a central interior pillar supporting a steeply pitched roof , the exterior walls of Tranovola were painted red while the roof and railings of the verandas were painted white . Prior to its 1845 remodel , the original 6 @-@ metre ( 20 ft ) long and 7 @.@ 2 @-@ metre ( 24 ft ) wide Tranovola took shape in several stages over the course of Radama 's reign . The initial building was a two @-@ storey house that in other respects largely followed the traditional architectural norms of the noble class in the highlands . Some time later a balcony was added on the second floor . This was eventually replaced by wraparound verandas on both floors , from which the king would deliver his royal speeches to the crowd gathered below .
There were two key catalysts beyond Radama 's affinity for Creole architecture that inspired Gros to innovate so far beyond traditional construction norms : the recent construction of a two @-@ storey house with a balcony in the neighbourhood of Andohalo by a British missionary ( the first balcony in highland Madagascar ) , and the 1823 arrival of Princess Rasalimo to the Rova , necessitating the redesign of Bevato as her residence . Rasalimo , whose marriage to Radama secured the peace between the Merina Kingdom and that of her Sakalava people on the west coast , was made Radama 's principal wife and reportedly demanded an exceptional palace for her home . This request led Radama to employ a Creole architect named Jean Julien to design the unprecedented two @-@ storey house . Although historic sources are divided on whether Tranovola , Bevato or Marivolanitra was the first two @-@ storey house at the Rova , the innovations embodied in these buildings and particularly in Tranovola underscore the rising influence of foreign architectural norms in Imerina . Tranovola is widely represented by historians as the first true example of the hybridisation of Merina architectural norms and those of Europe , and its design served as a model for the larger Manjakamiadana palace some years later . The innovative features of this building and the Manjakamiadana it inspired — particularly the verandas supported by exterior columns — became the new norm in highlands architecture , especially upon the adoption of brick as the principal building material .
On each floor of the two @-@ storey building , the floor plan consisted of a large central room flanked on either side by two smaller rooms . Although the interior was laid out according to traditional cosmological norms with a north @-@ south orientation and central supporting pillar , the decor was entirely innovative . Tranovola was the first building in Imerina to feature glass windows . Its walls were inlaid with mirrors and painted with naive art frescoes of Merina sovereigns and royal army imagery in a style that has drawn comparisons with French 19th century Épinal prints . The building 's fine silk brocaded curtains , chandeliers , cabinets in ebony and gold , and sculptures in alabaster and bronze were remarked upon by a European visitor in 1823 , as were the colourful fabric wall coverings imported from England . During the reign of Ranavalona I , Crown Prince Rakoto ( later King Radama II ) occupied Tranovola as his personal residence . After the Queen 's death , Radama continued to occupy rooms on the second storey of the building , using the smaller rooms on the ground floor as storage space . A British visitor in 1873 reported that the wooden floors of Tranovola were highly polished , while the walls were hung with French wallpaper and decorated with imported mirrors and oil paintings including a portrait of Queen Victoria given as a gift to Radama II . Just inside the front door sat a seven @-@ pound Armstrong Gun in its carriage with numerous imported sofas , costly decorative objects and other items placed throughout the vast space .
Under Gallieni 's colonial administration , Tranovola was annexed to L 'Ecole le Myre de Vilers housed in the nearby Manjakamiadana . Later , in 1902 , Tranovola became the headquarters of the Académie Malgache ( Malagasy Academy ) before being transformed into a museum of palaeontology .
= = = Manampisoa = = =
Manampisoa , also called Lapasoa ( " Beautiful Palace " ) , was a small villa in the form of a cross designed by James Cameron for Queen Rasoherina . Construction was overseen by William Pool . After the first corner post of the building was raised on 25 April 1865 , work continued for two years before Manampisoa was complete . Measuring approximately 19 metres ( 62 ft ) long , 9 @.@ 1 metres ( 30 ft ) wide and 15 metres ( 49 ft ) high , the structure was built using traditional vertical wood wall boards topped by a wooden roof and featured sliding windows protected by heavy wooden shutters . It was built on a site formerly occupied by the wooden house called Marivolanitra , which was relocated to Mahazoarivo to make room for the new building .
Inside , the layout consisted of two floors with four rooms each , linked by a central staircase with a decorative wooden balustrade . Ebony and rosewood were used for the interior panelling , floors and ceilings while the floor of the central hall exhibited a diamond parquet design in oak and rosewood . An 1873 visitor described the floor as " highly polished ... all right enough for bare feet but rather slippery for boots " . Wallpaper adorned the walls of the central hall , which was approximately 15 metres ( 49 ft ) long , 6 @.@ 1 metres ( 20 ft ) wide and 3 @.@ 7 metres ( 12 ft ) high . The queen 's couch occupied the northeast corner of the room , a space reserved for the ancestors according to traditional Malagasy cosmology , where she would receive visitors in repose . A room formerly used as an office by Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony occupied the portion of the second floor facing the stairway .
Manampisoa was one of the residences of queens Rasoherina , Ranavalona II and Ranavalona III , the last three monarchs of the Kingdom of Madagascar . Once complete , Manampisoa was used by Rasoherina as her primary residence but the queen was only able to inhabit the house for approximately one year before dying in April 1868 . After Rasoherina 's death , her successor , Ranavalona II , used the building as a temporary worship space during work on the stone chapel . Upon the collapse of the monarchy following French colonisation , the colonial authority transformed Manampisoa into a museum of Malagasy culture .
= = = Besakana and other houses = = =
To the south of Manjakamiadana and Tranovola stood a number of smaller , older wooden houses , each between 15 metres ( 49 ft ) and 18 metres ( 59 ft ) high built in the traditional Merina architectural style reserved for the noble class . Three of these were of particular importance : Besakana , Mahitsy and Masoandro .
Besakana is believed to have been the first residence of a Merina sovereign on the Rova site . Historical accounts claim that the first sovereign of Antananarivo , Andrianjaka , built the original Besakana as his personal residence at his newly established capital in the mid @-@ 17th century . This original building was torn down and reconstructed in the same design by Andriamasinavalona around 1680 , and again by Andrianampoinimerina in 1800 , each of whom used the building as their personal residence . Radama I lived in Besakana for much of his time in the Rova compound . The first school in Imerina was established at Radama 's behest on 8 December 1820 by David Jones of the London Missionary Society to educate the children of the royal family . This school initially operated from Besakana for a short while until classes were transferred to the larger , recently remodelled Bevato nearby . Sovereigns were enthroned in Besakana and their mortal remains were displayed here before burial . A visitor writing in 1888 described this ancient building as " the official state room for civil affairs ... regarded as the throne of the kingdom . "
Mahitsielafanjaka ( Mahitsy ) became the residence of Andrianampoinimerina after he moved his capital from Ambohimanga to Antananarivo . Described in 1888 as the seat of ancestral spiritual authority at the Rova , the traditional sacrifice of a rooster during the ceremony of the Fandroana took place here , and ombiasy ( astrologers ) asked to perform sikidy ( divination ) for a sovereign would do so within this space . The building also formerly housed a major royal idol called Manjakatsiroa ( or the entire collection of royal idols , according to another account ) until the supposed public burning of all such relics by Queen Ranavalona II in 1869 following her conversion to Christianity . Built in 1796 , the traditional wooden Mahitsy follows traditional architectural norms : the roof is supported by the central pillar , and two superimposed beds — the highest for the king and the other for his wives — are located in the northeast corner , the portion of the home reserved for royalty and the ancestors . These beds are raised high off the ground to protect the sleepers from a nocturnal attack . Items formerly on display in this building after the end of the Merina monarchy in 1897 until the destruction of the original structure in the 1995 fire included Andrianampoinimerina 's filanzana ( palanquin ) , several wooden trunks and a pot of jaka ( zebu confit ) said to date from the king 's reign .
The name Masoandrotsiroa ( Masoandro ) was given to a series of buildings on the Rova grounds . The original Masoandro was one of the first three residences built by the Rova 's founder , Andrianjaka , in the early 17th century , and over time it became the house reserved for occupation by a new sovereign immediately following coronation . This same Masoandro or a restored version of it was still standing on the Rova grounds and occupied by one of Andrianampoinimerina 's wives two hundred years later . However , historic sources offer seemingly contradictory or incomplete accounts of the fate of this historic building . A Masoandro was said to have been relocated from the Rova to Ambohimanga by Ranavalona I. Another source states that Masoandro was demolished at the Rova by Ranavalona II and replaced by a house in brick , only to be demolished again by Ranavalona III . This last sovereign of Madagascar sought to build a new brick palace , also called Masoandro , with four square corner towers and a higher central tower modelled on the French Residence of Antananarivo . Work began in 1893 but was interrupted by war with France in 1895 . The brick foundations of this unfinished Masoandro are still visible today . Still another source states that Masoandro was one of three traditional wooden houses still standing at the Rova when Madagascar was colonised by the French , with the implication that the name was applied to distinct buildings at various times .
Near the foundations of the brick Masoandro formerly stood Kelisoa , a traditional wooden structure which housed sacred animals and concubines at different points during the reign of Radama I and was later used by Ranavalona III to hold receptions . Also formerly standing here was Tsarahafatra ( " Good Message " ) , a small palace built for Ranavalona I , rebuilt after 1862 , occupied as a primary residence by Ranavalona II and Ranavalona III , and ultimately destroyed by French artillery in September 1895 .
By the 1960s , Besakana , Mahitsy and one other wooden house ( presumably the last wooden Masoandro ) were the only remaining examples of an estimated twenty ancient aristocratic houses that had occupied the Rova site during the reign of Andrianampoinimerina . By 1975 , this unidentified third house — said to be the oldest original structure on the grounds — was no longer standing .
= = = Royal tombs = = =
Nine royal tombs were located in the north @-@ eastern quadrant of the Rova grounds . These included the two large tombs of King Radama I ( d.1828 ) and Queen Rasoherina ( d.1868 ) , as well as seven ancient wooden tombs known collectively as the Fitomiandalana . These older tombs , the first of which was built in 1630 for King Andrianjaka , were a series of seven tomb pits topped with individual wooden trano masina ( tomb houses ) built close together in a row with their gable peaks aligned , followed by one tomb pit without a tomb house . Tomb houses are particular to highland tombs and are intended to indicate the noble rank of the deceased and house his or her spirit after death .
Each tomb of the Fitomiandalana contained the bodies of early Kings of Imerina and their relatives , and was assigned a name after the principal occupant of the underlying grave . These were , in order : Andrianavalonibemihisatra ( son of Andriamasinavalona and King of Antananarivo , five bodies ) , Andriamponimerina ( son of Andriamasinavalona and King of Antananarivo at the time of future king Andrianampoinimerina 's birth , three bodies ) , Andrianjakanavalomandimby ( oldest son of Andriamasinavalona and King of Antananarivo , two bodies ) , Andriamasinavalona ( great @-@ grandson of Andrianjaka and King of Imerina , three bodies ) , Andriantsimitoviaminandriandehibe ( grandson of Andrianjaka and King of Imerina , two bodies ) , Andrianjaka ( founder of Antananarivo and King of Imerina , 12 bodies ) and Andriantsitakatrandriana ( son of Andrianjaka and King of Imerina , two bodies ) . The final tomb without a tomb house was for Andriantomponimerina ( son of Andriamasinavalona and King of Antananarivo ) and housed eight bodies .
After the dissolution of the Kingdom of Madagascar , the French colonial authorities shifted the location of these tombs thereby disrupting the original cosmological symbolism of their arrangement . When the original tombs were excavated for relocation , the French found the mortal remains of the nobles within had each been wrapped in numerous traditional lambas ( woven silk cloths ) then set within wooden coffins packed with charcoal . Bodies buried at Ambohimanga were found to have been entombed in the same way .
Two more distinctive stone tombs were built beside the Fitomiandalana , to the north of Tranovola , the first of which was completed in 1828 by Louis Gros for Radama I. Further north , the second tomb was originally built for Queen Rasoherina by James Cameron in 1868 . Both of these stone tombs were topped with a tomb house . Radama 's tomb bears features popularised during the reign of his father , Andrianampoinimerina : three superimposed levels ( excluding the tomb house ) with upright sheets of stone at the base level , one of which could be removed to provide access to the subterranean chamber where the sovereign 's body was laid upon a massive stone slab . Radama 's tomb house broke with tradition by replacing the usual miniaturised version of the aristocratic wooden house ( typified by Besakana and other ancient houses in the Rova grounds ) with a house featuring a veranda , an architectural novelty introduced during his reign . The roof of this tomb house was originally thatch made from rushes but was replaced in the 1850s with wooden shingles , an innovation introduced from nearby Reunion Island or Mauritius . By contrast , the tomb of Rasoherina , erected forty years later , featured a two @-@ level base ( excluding the tomb house ) made of chiselled stone blocks held together with cement .
General Joseph Gallieni ordered the disinterment of the Merina sovereigns buried 21 kilometres ( 13 mi ) away at Ambohimanga and had them reburied at the Rova . The bodies of Radama II and Andrianampoinimerina were added to the tomb of Radama I , while those of Ranavalona I and Ranavalona II went into the tomb of Rasoherina . Several decades later in 1938 , the body of Ranavalona III , who died in 1917 at her place of exile in Algiers ( Algeria ) , was added to those of the other queens of Madagascar at the Rova . During the 1995 fire , heat from the burning wooden structures within the Rova compound caused the stone tombs to explode , leaving the mortal remains of generations of Merina sovereigns to be consumed by the flames .
= = = Fiangonana = = =
Built by William Pool for Ranavalona II , Fiangonana ( " Chapel " ) required eleven years to complete . The structure 's foundation stone was laid on 20 July 1869 , and its subsequent construction used over 35 @,@ 000 hand @-@ chiselled stones . Inaugurated on 8 April 1880 , the central worship space measured 12 @.@ 9 metres ( 42 ft ) wide and 18 @.@ 5 metres ( 61 ft ) in length with an estimated capacity of 450 persons . The building was designed with a private pew for the royal family , elevated on a platform approximately 0 @.@ 91 metres ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) high and accessed by a short staircase . A private entrance available to the royal family was accessible by a decorative exterior bridge linking the chapel to the raised embankment upon which Manampisoa stood .
The chapel boasts a number of distinctive features . At the time of its completion , its 34 @-@ metre ( 112 ft ) tower was the only structure in Madagascar to be roofed in locally sourced slate . The windows were decorated with stained glass , and a pipe organ was installed to provide music at services . The organ and stained glass were imported from England , while the pews , altar panels and queen 's private pew were all ornately crafted from indigenous precious woods by local artisans . During the colonial period , the chapel was used briefly as an exhibition space for European paintings before being closed to the public .
= = Destruction = =
On the night of 6 November 1995 , a fire broke out in the Rova compound , destroying or severely damaging all of its buildings . Once the flames had been extinguished , all that remained of the original structures were the stone shells of the royal chapel and Manjakamiadana . Fire @-@ fighters arrived late at the scene . Their capacity to douse the fire was hampered by the discovery that their fire hoses did not properly fit onto the nearby hydrants . In addition , the water pressure at the hydrants was significantly reduced due to Analamanga hilltop 's high elevation . As the fire @-@ fighters battled the flames , numerous bystanders ran into Rova compound buildings to retrieve artefacts of historic and cultural significance . Approximately 1 @,@ 675 objects were saved out of an estimated total of 6 @,@ 700 . Some pillaging is believed to have occurred . On the night of the fire , the body of one of the queens was found in the public square in the centre of the city . A funeral vigil was held the following day for these royal remains . The remains were later identified as belonging to Ranavalona III , and have since been re @-@ interred in the royal tombs at Ambohimanga .
The destruction of the Rova of Antananarivo occurred at a time when the complex was in the final stages of the process to become classified as Madagascar 's first cultural UNESCO World Heritage Site . Six people were initially charged in connection with the Rova 's destruction in an Antananarivo court of law , but the official investigation concluded that the fire was an accident . Public accusations of a cover @-@ up placed the blame for the fire on government officials , various ethnic groups , foreign powers and other parties . Over fifteen years after the fire , the widespread belief persists within and outside Madagascar that a deliberate arson was the cause . Rumoured justifications for arson at the Rova were numerous and remain unproven . The revelation that important financial archives had been destroyed early on the morning of the fire sparked rumours that corrupt government officials had lit the blaze to create a public distraction from their illicit activities . Other explanations have included popular dissatisfaction with the election of divisive mayor Guy Willy Razanamasy or a flare @-@ up of long @-@ standing tensions among coastal peoples resentful of Merina socio @-@ political domination . Accusations were also made against both then @-@ president Albert Zafy and his predecessor , Didier Ratsiraka . The debate over why and how the Rova burned remains an unresolved and highly contentious subject almost two decades later .
= = Reconstruction = =
Shortly after the fire , the government of Madagascar established the Direction nationale des opérations Rova ( DNOR , or National Office of Rova Operations ) , a body directed by four national experts within Madagascar 's Ministry of Culture who were tasked with developing and overseeing plans for the reconstruction of the Rova . Two years after the fire , several key milestones in the process had been achieved , with objects recovered from the fire inventoried , site excavations completed , preliminary restoration plans for Manjakamiadana developed , and work on the royal chapel initiated . A ramp was also built to enable site access for the necessary heavy construction vehicles . Prior to work commencing , a traditional ceremony was performed to restore the sanctity of the site , which had served a dual role as both a physical tomb and spiritual link to venerated ancestors .
Estimated initial reconstruction costs were put at 20 million U.S. dollars by experts from UNESCO , which was the principal contributor of funds as well as expertise due to the Rova 's then status as a soon @-@ to @-@ be officially recognised World Heritage Site . The French Development Agency also pledged tens of thousands of dollars to the project while additional monies in the form of private donations from residents of Antananarivo helped to fund the reconstruction of the tombs on the complex . However , according to a UNESCO report released in June 2000 , the majority of funds raised by UNESCO between 1997 and 2000 for the Ratsiraka administration 's Rova reconstruction initiative — an estimated 700 billion Malagasy Francs — were allegedly embezzled by the DNOR Administrator , stalling reconstruction at the end of the planning stage .
Significant progress toward reconstruction was seen under the administration of President Marc Ravalomanana ( 2001 – 2009 ) who created the Comité national du patrimoine ( CMP , or National Heritage Committee ) responsible for overseeing the effort . The less time @-@ intensive restoration projects were the first to be undertaken and completed . Efforts to restore the chapel , the monument least affected by the fire due to its stone structure , focused particularly on restoring its roof , steeple and wooden pews along with altar panels that had burned in the fire . Work on the chapel was completed in 2003 . Reconstruction work on Mahitsy began in 2001 and was completed in January 2003 , while planning for the reconstruction of Besakana began in December 2003 but stalled in 2009 . The restoration of the nine royal tombs in the Rova complex was completed in October 2003 . In early January 2006 , Phase 1 of the Manjakamiadana reconstruction commenced . This phase was scheduled for completion in May 2008 . The reconstruction of the larger wooden palaces , such as Tranovola and Manampisoa , has not been planned .
The original exterior of Manjakamiadana comprised over 70 @,@ 000 granite stones , of which approximately 20 @,@ 000 had become cracked during the fire and needed replacement . The western wall of the palace partially collapsed in January 2004 and required complete rebuilding . Every stone was removed and numbered to facilitate the reinsertion of each one in its original place with two French stone @-@ masonry companies engaged to supervise the work . The foundation was modernised , first using laser technology to assess the topography of the site , then by driving 22 cement piles into the ground beneath the foundation base to a depth of 23 metres ( 75 ft ) . Phase 2 consisted of replacing each of the numbered exterior wall stones in its original place , bolstered where needed by new stones to replace those damaged in the fire . Although the palace interior was originally made of wood , the reconstructed building was designed using reinforced concrete interior supporting beams for the walls , ceiling and roof due to concerns over the availability and durability of hardwood . Finally , the roof was re @-@ tiled in blue @-@ gray slate imported from quarries near the French city of Angers .
Phases 1 and 2 of the reconstruction process were declared complete in December 2009 at a total cost of 6 @.@ 5 million euros . The work employed 230 people at three sites : a granite quarry on National Route 1 ( RN1 ) , a separate site where the stones were chiselled into shape , and the site of the Rova itself . Phase 3 will consist of the design and rebuilding of the interior of the palace , while Phase 4 will involve planning and subsequent development of the display and management of the museum collection to be housed on the ground floor . In late 2010 , work on these final two phases of reconstruction was scheduled to begin in 2011 with completion expected within 24 months at a cost of approximately 3 @,@ 765 @,@ 000 euros . Following the completion of the first two phases , the Minister of Culture and Heritage fast @-@ tracked the enclosure of windows and doors to protect the building 's interior and began establishing a new inventory of historic objects saved from the fire . These artefacts are currently housed in the Andafiavaratra Palace , former home of late 19th @-@ century Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony , and will be transferred to a museum within Manjakamiadana upon its completion .
In March 2009 the Ravalomanana administration was ousted following several months of opposition protests led by then @-@ mayor of Antananarivo , Andry Rajoelina . The transfer of power to Rajoelina , who adopted the title of President of the High Transitional Authority ( HAT ) , was widely viewed as a coup d 'état by members of the international community , leading many bilateral and intergovernmental donors to suspend non @-@ humanitarian support to the regime . The HAT declared its intention to continue the Manjakamiadana reconstruction project using a combination of state funds and donations from private Malagasy citizens . Six banking agencies in Madagascar were selected to serve as collection points for private donations . On 7 March 2011 the HAT relieved the original members of the National Heritage Committee of their posts and mandated the appointment of new members selected from among the regime 's ministerial staff . Despite the introduction of these diverse strategies , the HAT struggled to obtain adequate funds to continue the pace of Rova reconstruction seen in the latter half of the Ravalomanana presidency . Progress toward completion advanced sporadically at a gradual rate throughout the Rajoelina administration . Since assuming power in January 2014 , the Rajaonarimampianina administration has been engaged in discussions with the French Secretary of State for the Francophonie and International Development to agree upon French financial support to assist in completing the restoration work . In June 2014 , the administration declared that the cost of completing the final two phases had risen to 6 @-@ 7 million from the 3 @.@ 7 million originally estimated in 2010 .
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= Siege of Port Royal ( 1710 ) =
The Siege of Port Royal ( 5 – 13 October 1710 ) , also known as the Conquest of Acadia , was conducted by British regular and provincial forces under the command of Francis Nicholson against a French Acadian garrison and the Wabanaki Confederacy under the command of Daniel d 'Auger de Subercase , at the Acadian capital , Port Royal . The successful British siege marked the beginning of permanent British control over the peninsular portion of Acadia , which they renamed Nova Scotia , and it was the first time the British took and held a French colonial possession . After the French surrender , the British occupied the fort in the capital with all the pomp and ceremony of having captured one of the great fortresses of Europe , and renamed it Annapolis Royal .
The siege was the third British attempt during Queen Anne 's War to capture the Acadian capital , and it had profound consequences over the next 50 years . The conquest was a key element in the framing of the North American issues in French @-@ British treaty negotiations of 1711 – 1713 . It resulted in the creation of a new colony — Nova Scotia — and introduced significant questions concerning the fate of both the Acadians and the Mi 'kmaq who continued to occupy Acadia .
The Conquest of Acadia was a foundational moment in the history of the Canadian state — it was a precursor to the British conquests of Louisbourg and Quebec , and it portended the end of French power in North America more generally .
= = Background = =
Port Royal was the capital of the French colony of Acadia almost since the French first began settling the area in 1604 . It consequently became a focal point for conflict between English and French colonists in the next century . It was destroyed in 1613 by English raiders led by Samuel Argall , but eventually rebuilt . In 1690 it was captured by forces from the Province of Massachusetts Bay , although it was restored to France by the Treaty of Ryswick .
= = = Early expeditions = = =
With the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession in 1702 , colonists on both sides again prepared for conflict . Acadia 's governor , Jacques @-@ François de Monbeton de Brouillan , had , in anticipation of war , already begun construction of a stone and earth fort in 1701 , which was largely completed by 1704 . Following a French raid on Deerfield on the Massachusetts frontier in February 1704 , the English in Boston organized a raid against Acadia the following May . Led by Benjamin Church , they raided Grand Pré and other Acadian communities . English and French accounts differ on whether Church 's expedition mounted an attack on Port Royal . Church 's account indicates that they anchored in the harbour and considered making an attack , but ultimately decided against the idea ; French accounts claim that a minor attack was made .
When Daniel d 'Auger de Subercase became governor of Acadia in 1706 , he went on the offensive , encouraging Indian raids against English targets in New England . He also encouraged privateering from Port Royal against English colonial shipping . The privateers were highly effective ; the English fishing fleet on the Grand Banks was reduced by 80 percent between 1702 and 1707 , and some English coastal communities were raided .
English merchants in Boston had long traded with Port Royal , and some of this activity had continued illegally after the war began . However , the business was being hurt by the war , and some merchants began making vocal calls for action , and public outrage rose over the failure of the Massachusetts defenses to stop the French and Indian raids . Massachusetts Bay Governor Joseph Dudley had made repeated requests to London for support without any success , and finally decided to act independently to fend off accusations of complicity in the illegal trade . In spring of 1707 , he authorized an expedition against Port Royal . This expedition made two separate attempts to take Port Royal ; for a variety of reasons , both attempts failed despite the expedition 's significant numerical superiority .
= = = British expedition organized = = =
In the following years , France failed to send any significant support , while the British mobilized larger and better @-@ organized forces for the conflict in North America . Samuel Vetch , a Scots businessman with colonial ties , went to London in 1708 and lobbied Queen Anne for military support to conquer all of New France . She authorized a " great enterprise " to conquer all of Acadia and Canada in 1709 that was aborted when the promised military support failed to materialize . Vetch and Francis Nicholson , an Englishman who had previously served as colonial governor of Maryland and Virginia , returned to England in its aftermath , and again appealed to the queen for support . They were accompanied by four Indian chiefs , who caused a sensation in London . Nicholson and Vetch successfully argued on behalf of colonial interests for British military support against Port Royal .
Nicholson arrived in Boston on 15 July 1710 , bearing a commission from the queen as " General and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of all and sundry the Forces , to be employed in the expedition design 'd for the reducing of Port Royal in Nova Scotia " . In addition to 400 marines brought over from England , four New England provinces raised militia regiments : Massachusetts Bay provided 900 , Rhode Island 180 , Connecticut 300 , and New Hampshire 100 . Some of the provincial troops were drilled in the arts of siege warfare by Paul Mascarene , a Huguenot officer in the British Army . A band of Iroquois was also recruited to serve as scouts on the expedition . When the fleet sailed on 29 September , it consisted of 36 transports , two bomb galleys , and five warships . Two ships , HMS Falmouth and HMS Dragon , were sent from England , while HMS Feversham and HMS Lowestoft were sent from New York to join with HMS Chester , which was already stationed at Boston . Nicholson sent HMS Chester ahead of the fleet to blockade the Digby Gut , which controlled naval access to Port Royal .
= = = Port Royal defences = = =
Port Royal was defended by about 300 troops , many of whom were poorly trained recruits from France . Subercase had taken steps to improve the local defences since the 1707 sieges , building a new bomb @-@ proof powder magazine and barracks in 1708 , and clearing woods from the river banks to deny attackers cover . He completed the construction of another vessel to assist in naval defence , and engaged privateers with great success against New England fishing and shipping . From prisoners taken by the privateers he learned that plans were continually being made in 1708 and 1709 for new attempts on Port Royal .
= = Siege = =
As the fleet sailed north , it was met by a dispatch vessel sent by Thomas Matthews , captain of the Chester . She carried deserters from the French garrison , who reported that morale was extremely low . Nicholson sent the ship ahead with one of the transports ; when they entered Digby Gut they received some fire from parties of Mi 'kmaq on the shore . The ships returned fire with their cannons , without either side taking casualties . On 5 October , the main British fleet arrived at Goat Island , about 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) below Port Royal . That afternoon , the transport Caesar ran aground while attempting to enter the Annapolis River , and was eventually swept onto the rocks . Its captain , some of its crew , and 23 soldiers died , while a company commander and some 25 others struggled ashore .
The following day , 6 October , British marines began landing both north and south of the fortress and the town . The northern force was joined by four New England regiments under Colonel Vetch , while Nicholson led the remaining New England troops as part of the southern force . The landings took place without incident , with fire from the fort answered by one of the fleet 's bomb ships at long range . Although later accounts of the siege claimed Vetch 's detachment was part of a strategic plan to surround the fort , contemporary accounts report that Vetch wanted to have a command that was somewhat independent of Nicholson . These same accounts claim Vetch never got to within range of the fort 's guns until after the siege ended ; his attempts to erect a battery of mortars in a muddy area across Allain 's Creek from the fort was repulsed by cannon fire . The southern force met with guerrilla @-@ style resistance outside the fort , with Acadian and Indian defenders firing small arms from houses and wooded areas , in addition to taking fire from the fort . This fire resulted in three British killed , but the defenders were unable to keep the British on the south side from establishing a camp about 400 yards ( 370 m ) from the fort .
Over the next four days the British landed their cannons and brought them up to the camp . Fire from the fort and supporters outside it persisted , and the British bomb ships wrought havoc within the fort with their fire each night . With the opening of new British batteries imminent , Subercase sent out an officer with a parley flag on 10 October . The negotiations got off to a bad start because the officer was not properly announced by a drummer , and deteriorated from there . Each side ended up holding an officer of the other , principally over matters of military etiquette , and the British continued their siege work .
By 12 October , the siege trenches had advanced , and cannons that were within 300 feet ( 91 m ) of the fort opened fire . Nicholson sent Subercase a demand that he surrender , and negotiations began once more . By the end of the day , the parties reached an agreement on the terms of surrender , which was formally signed the next day . The garrison was allowed to leave the fort with all the honours of war , " their Arms and Baggage , Drums beating , and Colours flying . " The British were to transport the garrison to France , and there were specific protections in the capitulation to protect the local residents . These terms called for the " Inhabitants within Cannon shot of the Fort " to be allowed to remain on their properties for up to two years if they so chose , provided they were willing to take an oath to the British Crown .
= = Aftermath = =
The British took formal possession of Port Royal following a ceremony on 16 October , in which they renamed the place Annapolis Royal in honour of their queen . Samuel Vetch was inaugurated as the new governor of Nova Scotia . Massachusetts and New Hampshire proclaimed a day of public thanksgiving .
The first attempt to retake Annapolis Royal happened the next year . After a skirmish in which a party of British soldiers was ambushed , Bernard @-@ Anselme d 'Abbadie de Saint @-@ Castin lead a force of 200 Acadians and native warriors in a siege of the fort , without success .
The capture of Port Royal marked the end of French rule in peninsular Acadia , and inaugurated a struggle for control of the territory that lasted until the British conquests of the Seven Years ' War . The status of Acadia was one of the more contentious issues in the negotiations leading to the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht , and very nearly led to renewed war . French negotiators were unable to recover Acadia , although they were able to retain Isle Saint @-@ Jean ( present @-@ day Prince Edward Island ) and Île Royale , ( present day Cape Breton Island ) , which provided access to the important Atlantic fisheries .
Acadia 's people were placed in a difficult position by the conquest . The British on numerous occasions demanded they take oaths to the British Crown , but many refused to take oaths requiring them to take arms against the French , preferring to proclaim their neutrality . For this and other reasons , hundreds of Acadians left peninsular Nova Scotia over the next decade . Most of them avoided the principal French colonial settlements and went to French @-@ occupied Isle Saint @-@ Jean .
Acadia 's border was not formally demarcated by the Treaty of Utrecht , which became a cause of ongoing friction between the British and French , especially on the Isthmus of Chignecto , which both sides eventually fortified . The French interpreted the phrase ancient boundaries to imply only the peninsula of present @-@ day Nova Scotia , thereby excluding the mainland between New England and the St. Lawrence , ÎLe St. Jean , and Cape Breton . This helped the Amerindians of Abenaquis , Malecites , and MicMacs to retain their sovereignty over their old hunting grounds .
In 1746 , the grand expedition was organized in France under the command of the Duc d 'Anville . The expedition was composed of 20 warships , 21 frigates , and 32 transport ships , containing 800 cannons , 3 @,@ 000 soldiers , and 10 @,@ 000 marines . The expedition was to retake Louisbourg and then Annapolis Royal . However , after a three months crossing , and the dispersal of the fleet between Sable Island and the mainland , the expedition turned out to be a disaster for the French , and they would not try to recapture Port Royal again .
The territorial dispute would not be fully resolved until the British conquest of New France in 1760 , and the informal boundary between the British and French in the dispute ( the Missaguash River ) now forms the border between the Canadian provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick .
= = Historic fiction = =
Evelyn Eaton.Quietly My Captain Waits . Formac
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= Delaware Route 273 =
Delaware Route 273 ( DE 273 ) is a state highway in New Castle County , Delaware . The route runs from Maryland Route 273 ( MD 273 ) at the Maryland border near Newark east to DE 9 and DE 141 in New Castle . The route runs through suburban areas between Newark and New Castle as a four @-@ lane divided highway , passing through Ogletown and Christiana . DE 273 intersects DE 896 in downtown Newark , DE 2 / DE 72 on the eastern edge of Newark , DE 4 in Ogletown , Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) , DE 7 , and DE 1 in Christiana , DE 37 in Pleasantville , and DE 58 and U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) / US 40 in Hares Corner .
What is now DE 273 was originally built as a state highway in the 1920s and 1930s , with the portion east of Hares Corner becoming a part of US 40 , which had crossed the Delaware River on a ferry between New Castle and Pennsville , New Jersey . DE 273 was designated by 1936 to connect the Maryland border near Newark to Hares Corner . In the 1950s , the route was extended to New Castle when US 40 was realigned to the Delaware Memorial Bridge . DE 273 was moved onto new alignments around Christiana in the 1980s and through Ogletown in the 1990s .
= = Route description = =
DE 273 begins at the Maryland border west of Newark , where it continues west into that state as MD 273 . From the state line , the route heads southeast on two @-@ lane undivided Nottingham Road , passing through wooded suburban neighborhoods as it enters Newark . DE 273 becomes West Main Street as it approaches the downtown area , intersecting the southbound direction of DE 896 , at which point DE 273 forms a concurrency with southbound DE 896 . The road crosses CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision and comes to an intersection with New London Road , which runs northwest as northbound DE 896 , and South Main Street , which heads southwest as DE 896 .
At this point , DE 273 splits into the one @-@ way pair of West Delaware Avenue eastbound and West Main Street westbound , with eastbound DE 273 briefly following one @-@ way South Main Street southwest to get from West Main Street to West Delaware Avenue . The one @-@ way pair , which carries two lanes in each direction , becomes concurrent with DE 896 in both directions until the South College Avenue intersection . DE 273 runs through the University of Delaware campus and continues through the downtown as East Delaware Avenue eastbound and East Main Street westbound . Farther east , East Delaware Avenue shifts farther to the south of East Main Street , with the one @-@ way streets passing between a residential neighborhood and East Delaware Avenue passing to the north of Newark High School . Past here , the route comes to an intersection with DE 2 / DE 72 . At this point , eastbound DE 273 turns north to join DE 72 on four @-@ lane divided Library Avenue to rejoin westbound DE 273 .
Past DE 2 / DE 72 , DE 273 leaves Newark and heads east on Ogletown Road , a five @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane that passes through commercial areas , soon becoming a four @-@ lane divided highway . The road continues east and comes to a bridge over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor . The route turns southeast and reaches an interchange with DE 4 in Ogletown . Past this interchange , DE 273 becomes Christiana Road and heads east through suburban residential neighborhoods with some businesses . The road bends southeast again as it comes to an interchange with I @-@ 95 ( Delaware Turnpike ) . Following this , the route heads into more commercial areas and becomes Christiana Road , bypassing the community of Christiana to the southwest . DE 273 runs south through wooded areas and crosses Old Baltimore Pike before curving east and coming to an intersection with DE 7 . A short distance later , the road reaches an interchange with the DE 1 freeway .
Following this interchange , DE 273 heads through woods before entering areas of suburban homes and businesses , coming to an intersection with the southern terminus of DE 37 in Pleasantville . The route continues east and intersects the eastern terminus of DE 58 near the Wilmington Airport . A short distance later , the road comes to an intersection with US 13 / US 40 in Hares Corner .
Past this intersection , DE 273 becomes concurrent with DE 9 Truck and turns into two @-@ lane undivided Frenchtown Road , heading east between business parks to the south and farm fields to the north . DE 273 comes to an intersection with DE 9 and DE 141 to the west of New Castle , where the route , along with DE 9 Truck , officially ends . Despite this , DE 273 signage continues east along DE 9 toward New Castle on Delaware Street . Along this stretch , the road crosses the New Castle Industrial Track Trail . Before reaching the New Castle Historic District after a crossing of Norfolk Southern 's New Castle Secondary , DE 9 / DE 273 makes a left turn onto Ferry Cut Off Street . DE 273 's signed eastern terminus is at Sixth Street near the Delaware River , where DE 9 turns northeast on Sixth Street to head toward Wilmington .
DE 273 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 49 @,@ 566 vehicles at the I @-@ 95 interchange to a low of 8 @,@ 760 vehicles at the western edge of Newark . The portion of DE 273 east of DE 896 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
What is now DE 273 originally existed as a county road by 1920 . Four years later , the portion of road through Newark was upgraded to a state highway while the road was paved between Hares Corner and New Castle . A year later , the section between Ogletown and Christiana was planned as a state highway while the section east of Basin Road was upgraded to a state highway . In 1930 , the road between the Maryland border and Newark was built as a state highway , providing a shorter route to the Conowingo Dam in Maryland . The following year , US 40 was designated to run on the portion of road between Hares Corner and New Castle , where it connected to a ferry across the Delaware River to Pennsville , New Jersey . Also by this time , all of present @-@ day DE 273 was upgraded to a state highway except the portion of US 40 between Hares Corner and Basin Road . In 1934 , recommendations were made to upgrade US 40 to a state highway between Hares Corner and New Castle . The portion of US 40 between Hares Corner and New Castle was taken over by the state on July 1 , 1935 . Construction on upgrading this section began in 1936 . This project was completed later that year . The same year , a bridge was constructed over a Pennsylvania Railroad line ( now the New Castle Industrial Track Trail ) in New Castle .
DE 273 was designated to run from the Maryland border west of Newark east to US 13 and US 40 in Hares Corner by 1936 , roughly following its current alignment . In Newark , the route ran concurrent with DE 2 . By 1952 , US 40 was realigned to use the Delaware Memorial Bridge to cross the Delaware River , and DE 273 was extended east along the former alignment of US 40 to end at present @-@ day DE 9 in New Castle . In 1956 , DE 2 and DE 273 were routed onto the one @-@ way pair of Delaware Avenue eastbound and Main Street westbound in downtown Newark following an eastward extension of Delaware Avenue to the intersection between DE 2 and DE 273 east of the city .
By 1984 , DE 9 was realigned to follow DE 273 east of the DE 141 intersection . DE 273 was realigned to bypass Christiana a year later . DE 2 was routed to bypass Newark and DE 2 Bus. became concurrent with DE 273 through Newark by 1990 . By 1997 , DE 273 was moved to its current alignment in the Ogletown area , eliminating a short concurrency with DE 4 and involving the construction of an interchange with that route . The concurrent DE 2 Bus. designation was eliminated in 2013 as part of simplifying the route numbers in Newark .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
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= Jimmy Chamberlin =
James Joseph " Jimmy " Chamberlin ( born June 10 , 1964 ) is an American drummer and record producer . He is best known as the drummer for the alternative rock band The Smashing Pumpkins . Following the 2000 breakup of the band , Chamberlin joined Pumpkins frontman Billy Corgan in the supergroup Zwan and also formed his own group , the Jimmy Chamberlin Complex . In 2005 , Chamberlin joined Corgan in reforming The Smashing Pumpkins ; he eventually left the group in March 2009 , though he would return again in 2015 for a summer tour . He performed in the group Skysaw until 2012 . He is currently active under the Jimmy Chamberlin Complex name . In addition to his current work as CEO , Chamberlin has joined Chicago jazz saxophonist Frank Catalano for a string of 2013 – 15 performances in the Chicago area . An EP by Catalano and Chamberlin Love Supreme Collective - EP was released on the 29th of July 2014 .
Chamberlin , who originally trained as a jazz drummer , cites jazz musicians Benny Goodman , Duke Ellington , Gene Krupa , and Buddy Rich , as well as rock drummers Keith Moon , Ian Paice , and John Bonham as major influences on his technique . While he is known as " one of the most powerful drummers in rock , " he primarily strives for emotionally communicative playing . In 2008 , Gigwise named Chamberlin the 5th best drummer of all time .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Chamberlin was born in Joliet , Illinois , one of six children . His father and his older brother Paul were both active in jazz bands , playing clarinet and drums respectively , and his brother Paul is still an active rock drummer , with a local cover band , Chasing Amy .
Chamberlin began drumming at age 9 . His early instruction included Latin , Brazilian , and big band techniques , but focused on jazz , under the tutelage of future Yanni drummer , Charlie Adams .
Chamberlin left home at age 15 and joined a series of local bands . Although his early music career proved profitable , Chamberlin 's father pressured him into going to college . In 1994 , Chamberlin revealed that he had been estranged from his father for seven years . After three years with the show band JP and the Cats , Chamberlin , wearied by the touring schedule , quit and got a job building custom homes with his brother @-@ in @-@ law . Before long , he joined the Smashing Pumpkins .
= = = The Smashing Pumpkins = = =
The Smashing Pumpkins were looking for a live drummer to open a show at the Metro , a Chicago club . Chamberlin and Billy Corgan met through a mutual friend , and Chamberlin expressed cautious interest , later recalling :
So I went out and saw the band – Billy , James , and D 'arcy – playing at Avalon with a drum machine . Man , did they sound horrible ! They were atrocious . But the thing I noticed was that not only were the song structures good , but Billy 's voice had a lot of drive to it , like he was dying to succeed . So I ended up driving from work every Wednesday to rehearse with them .
Corgan had his own concerns :
He was wearing a pink t @-@ shirt , stonewashed jeans , he had a mullet haircut , and he was driving a 280Z , and had yellow drums . We were sort of looking each other in the eye thinking , ' This ain 't gonna happen , this is not the guy . ' [ But ] he 'd learned all our songs , as only Jimmy can , off the top of his head , and , within one practice , we were ready to play . It was amazing . We just knew right away . He 's that good .
Chamberlin made " tons of cash " as a carpenter , before giving up the job to move to Chicago and devote himself to the band . Chamberlin 's entry quickly pushed the band toward a more powerful , intense sound . The first two Smashing Pumpkins albums , Gish and Siamese Dream , were performed almost entirely by Corgan and Chamberlin alone .
During this period Chamberlin struggled with substance abuse . During the recording of 1993 's Siamese Dream in Marietta , Georgia , Chamberlin often disappeared for days at a time into the drug underworld of Atlanta , while the rest of the band feared for his life . He later said of his drug addiction that " It 's pretty textbook [ ... ] Guy makes it in rock band , gets very full of himself , starts thinking he 's indestructible , and all of a sudden he destroys himself . "
In the midst of the lengthy world tour supporting 1995 's multi @-@ platinum Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness , Chamberlin 's father died , and his substance abuse hit a fever pitch . Of this period , Chamberlin later said , " I learned that escapism was better than emotion , and that 's where I hid ... It got to the point that I really didn 't care . Life was scary for me . " Prior to shows scheduled July ' 96 at Madison Square Garden in New York City , Chamberlin and touring keyboardist Jonathan Melvoin overdosed on heroin ; Melvoin subsequently died , and Chamberlin was kicked out of the band , ostensibly to protect his health .
In October 1998 , Corgan convened a band meeting in which Chamberlin was reinstated as the group 's drummer , and the band decided to break up after one more album and tour . The band yielded two albums in 2000 , Machina / The Machines of God and the freely distributed Machina II / The Friends & Enemies of Modern Music , before performing a farewell show in Chicago on December 2 , 2000 .
= = = Other projects , 2001 – 2016 = = =
Chamberlin went on to form Zwan in 2001 with Corgan . Although Chamberlin predicted that " the band 's going to be huge , " Zwan produced only one album , Mary Star of the Sea , before disbanding in 2003 . Chamberlin formed his next project , Jimmy Chamberlin Complex , in 2004 , and released its first studio album , Life Begins Again , in 2005 . Chamberlin stated that , with the Jimmy Chamberlin Complex , " I just wanted to make music and not really be constrained to making a Zwan or a Pumpkins record . " . On the 29th of April 2016 , the Jimmy Chamberlin Complex released a new song " Paranoid " via Jimmy Chamberlin 's Official Twitter account
= = = Skysaw = = =
While giving drum clinics in late 2009 , Chamberlin announced his next project , a band called This . Describing the music as ' progressive , symphonic pop ' he reported that the band , also including multi @-@ instrumentalists Mike Reina and guitarist Anthony Pirog , would record with Roy Thomas Baker in Washington , D.C. in early 2010 .
This released their first album , a six @-@ track release titled Great Civilizations , on November 1 , 2010 as a digital download only , on both Amazon and iTunes . No official release announcement was made even on the band 's official website . Downloads from iTunes and Amazon were removed after there was confusion over the band 's name . The new band name , Skysaw , was officially announced in December 2010 .
In March 2011 it was announced that the Skysaw full @-@ length LP would be released on Dangerbird Records . On June 21 , 2011 , the new , extended 10 song LP Great Civilizations was released . The band subsequently toured with label mates Minus The Bear , performed hometown shows at Chicago 's Metro and the Black Cat in Washington , DC , and performed on the JBTV Television Show in Chicago , IL . Touring members included Boris Skalsky and Paul Wood of New York band Dead Heart Bloom .
On August 23 , 2012 Jimmy announced at a drum clinic that he had left Skysaw .
= = = Corporate ventures = = =
In 2011 , after introductions by then 1871 CEO Kevin Willer , Chamberlin began working with the burgeoning Chicago tech scene as an investor and advisor . Chamberlin 's increased involvement with startups led him to an introduction to LiveOne Inc . – a leader in digital and streaming entertainment . Founders Tim and John Ganschow ( of Chicago ) were presenting their new social platform , CrowdSurfing to an investment group that included Chamberlin . Chamberlin was impressed with the fledgling company and the CrowdSurfing technology and subsequently came on board to support the company both financially and as an advisor . In 2013 Chamberlin became Chief Executive Officer of LiveOne Inc . LiveOne Inc. has since partnered with Yahoo , YouTube , Live Nation , AEG , Vans , Phish , C3 , Budweiser 's Made In America Festival , Umphrey 's McGee , among others .
In November 2014 Chamberlin attended Web Summit , Ireland 's top tech conference . While there , he spoke of his time with the Smashing Pumpkins as well as on the future of Digital Music at the Web Summit Centre Stage with Adrian Grenier , Chris Kaskie , and Brian Morrissey . He pointed to digital as the medium for artists to truly express themselves and create art that connects with their fans : " Artists are looking for a destination ... [ and ] digital gives them the opportunity to realize some of those destinations and package them in a way that allows them to be creative " .
While there , he also name checked U2 and said their recent iTunes @-@ wide album release " moved the ball forward for everybody . "
= = = Frank Catalano = = =
Chamberlin joined Chicago jazz saxophonist Frank Catalano in 2013 for a number of live performances in the Chicago area . Since then they have continued to play live shows and have released a series of albums together . On July 29 , 2014 , Love Supreme Collective - EP featuring Jimmy Chamberlin , Percy Jones , Chris Poland , and Adam Benjamin was released and quickly became the # 1 selling jazz album on iTunes USA . The follow up album , released April 07th , 2015 called " God 's Gonna Cut You Down " debuted at # 2 on the iTunes Jazz sales chart and was the # 1 charting Instrumental album upon its release in April 2015 . It reached number 4 on the Billboard Jazz charts . On the 27th of May 2016 , a 3rd collaboration between Catalano and Chamberlin was released called " Bye Bye Blackbird " . This record features David Sanborn .
= = = Revival of The Smashing Pumpkins = = =
Billy Corgan announced at an April 2004 solo performance that he and Chamberlin intended to work together again in the future . After appearing on Life Begins Again , Corgan announced plans to " renew and revive " the Pumpkins through a full @-@ page advertisement in his hometown 's newspaper , the Chicago Tribune , on June 21 , 2005 . Chamberlin contacted Corgan to accept , and on February 2 , 2006 , MTV.com reported that he and Corgan had signed a new management deal with the Front Line Management , with a spokesperson confirming they had signed under the name " Smashing Pumpkins " .
Chamberlin and Corgan , without the other original members , decided to record an album alone . They played their first show in Paris on May 22 , 2007 , with three new band members . On July 10 , the new album , Zeitgeist , was released . Over the next year and a half , the band released more recordings and toured extensively .
On March 20 , 2009 the Pumpkins ' website announced that Chamberlin was leaving the band . Chamberlin released a blog stating that he left as he felt that the band would not further his commitment to music .
Chamberlin again joined the band for the 2015 End Times Tour .
Chamberlin remained in the line @-@ up for the subsequent " In Plainsong " Tour in 2016
= = Musical style and influences = =
Chamberlin comes from a jazz background , and he notes jazz musicians Benny Goodman , Duke Ellington , Gene Krupa , and Buddy Rich as influences . He has also been compared to jazz drummer Dennis Chambers for his " quick hands , furious snare rolls , and crackling rimshots . " In general , he is one of the few hard rock drummers to combine a driving backbeat with jazz @-@ like flourishes . When asked about his influences in 2007 , he responded :
Aside from the obvious – Keith Moon , John Bonham , Ian Paice – I would have to say Tony Williams , Elvin Jones , any of the jazz greats – Gene Krupa , those people . I think , more and more , as I get older , I 've developed my own rock style and I tend to pull more stuff from Elvin Jones and Tony now that I can incorporate it into a rock arena and kind of modernize it .
Other drummers that influenced Chamberlin around the recording of Zeitgeist included Bobby Caldwell of Captain Beyond , Lalo Schifrin 's Dirty Harry soundtrack , Weather Report , and Return to Forever 's Lenny White .
Chamberlin prefers not to use Pro Tools or click tracks ; He uses the slide technique for double strokes on the bass drum .
Bandmate Billy Corgan has said of Chamberlin , " he 's up there with Bonham , you know , that level of drummer , who has been able to play a variety of music and have his style impact the way people play drums . That 's the hallmark of a great drummer . And , right now , I think , pound for pound , he 's the best drummer in the world . "
= = Equipment = =
On the Smashing Pumpkins album Zeitgeist and subsequent tour , Chamberlin used a Yamaha Maple Custom Absolute kit with 60 ( instead of standard 45 ) degree bearing edges . His kit consisted of two snares ( 5x12 and the main snare , his 5.5x14 " Signature " model – Yamaha SD @-@ 2455JC ) , six toms ( 12x14 , 8x10 , 9x13 , and an 8x8 above his floor toms which are 16x16 and 16x18 ) , a 16x22 bass drum , four crash cymbals ( a 15 " thin and three Zildjian A customs – 15 " , 18 " , and 19 " ) , an 8 " splash cymbal , 15 " New Beat hi @-@ hats , a 20 " China High , a 22 " K Constantinople medium ride , and a 22 " riveted swish knocker . He occasionally used a triangle on his kit , mounted above the hi hats . Chamberlin 's drumheads are Remo coated Ambassador on snare @-@ side , clear Emperors on tom batters with clear Ambassadors underneath , with a Powerstoke 3 on the bass drum batter . He uses Zildjian cymbals and Vic Firth 5B sticks . His signature snare drum is popular with other drummers – Chad Smith has been known to use it as a second snare drum .
On the 6th of April , 2011 , Chamberlin announced that he had switched from long @-@ term drum manufacturer Yamaha to Drum Workshop . He has ordered a custom " prototype " Copper Lacquer Specialty with Chrome Hardware . The Shells are a ply combination of VLT Maple and Mahogany with no reinforcement hoops . The kick drum hoops are Solid Black Lacquer . The sizes are 5x8 , 7x10 , 8x13 , 10x14 rack toms . 14x14 , 16x16 floor toms . 16x22 kick and with a matching 5.5x14 snare and a stainless steel 6.5x14 snare .
As of 2015 , Chamberlin is endorsing Sakae drums . His current set up consists of a 22x16 " bass drum , 13x9 " rack tom , 8x7 " rack tom , 10x8 " rack tom , 14x14 " floor tom and a 16x16 floor tom . His snare is a Sakae maple 14x6 .
= = Discography = =
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= Derivative =
The derivative of a function of a real variable measures the sensitivity to change of a quantity ( a function value or dependent variable ) which is determined by another quantity ( the independent variable ) . Derivatives are a fundamental tool of calculus . For example , the derivative of the position of a moving object with respect to time is the object 's velocity : this measures how quickly the position of the object changes when time is advanced .
The derivative of a function of a single variable at a chosen input value , when it exists , is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function at that point . The tangent line is the best linear approximation of the function near that input value . For this reason , the derivative is often described as the " instantaneous rate of change " , the ratio of the instantaneous change in the dependent variable to that of the independent variable .
Derivatives may be generalized to functions of several real variables . In this generalization , the derivative is reinterpreted as a linear transformation whose graph is ( after an appropriate translation ) the best linear approximation to the graph of the original function . The Jacobian matrix is the matrix that represents this linear transformation with respect to the basis given by the choice of independent and dependent variables . It can be calculated in terms of the partial derivatives with respect to the independent variables . For a real @-@ valued function of several variables , the Jacobian matrix reduces to the gradient vector .
The process of finding a derivative is called differentiation . The reverse process is called antidifferentiation . The fundamental theorem of calculus states that antidifferentiation is the same as integration . Differentiation and integration constitute the two fundamental operations in single @-@ variable calculus .
= = Differentiation and derivative = =
Differentiation is the action of computing a derivative . The derivative of a function y
= f ( x ) of a variable x is a measure of the rate at which the value y of the function changes with respect to the change of the variable x . It is called the derivative of f with respect to x . If x and y are real numbers , and if the graph of f is plotted against x , the derivative is the slope of this graph at each point .
The simplest case , apart from the trivial case of a constant function , is when y is a linear function of x , meaning that the graph of y divided by x is a line . In this case , y =
f ( x ) = m x + b , for real numbers m and b , and the slope m is given by
<formula>
where the symbol Δ ( Delta ) is an abbreviation for " change in . " This formula is true because
<formula>
Thus , since
<formula>
it follows that
<formula>
This gives an exact value for the slope of a line . If the function f is not linear ( i.e. its graph is not a straight line ) , however , then the change in y divided by the change in x varies : differentiation is a method to find an exact value for this rate of change at any given value of x .
The idea , illustrated by Figures 1 to 3 , is to compute the rate of change as the limit value of the ratio of the differences Δy / Δx as Δx becomes infinitely small .
= = = Notation = = =
Two distinct notations are commonly used for the derivative , one deriving from Leibniz and the other from Joseph Louis Lagrange .
In Leibniz 's notation , an infinitesimal change in x is denoted by dx , and the derivative of y with respect to x is written
<formula>
suggesting the ratio of two infinitesimal quantities . ( The above expression is read as " the derivative of y with respect to x " , " d y by d x " , or " d y over d x " . The oral form " d y d x " is often used conversationally , although it may lead to confusion . )
In Lagrange 's notation , the derivative with respect to x of a function f ( x ) is denoted f ' ( x ) ( read as " f prime of x " ) or fx ' ( x ) ( read as " f prime x of x " ) , in case of ambiguity of the variable implied by the derivation . Lagrange 's notation is sometimes incorrectly attributed to Newton .
= = = Rigorous definition = = =
The most common approach to turn this intuitive idea into a precise definition is to define the derivative as a limit of difference quotients of real numbers . This is the approach described below .
Let f be a real valued function defined in an open neighborhood of a real number a . In classical geometry , the tangent line to the graph of the function f at a was the unique line through the point ( a , f ( a ) ) that did not meet the graph of f transversally , meaning that the line did not pass straight through the graph . The derivative of y with respect to x at a is , geometrically , the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at ( a , f ( a ) ) . The slope of the tangent line is very close to the slope of the line through ( a , f ( a ) ) and a nearby point on the graph , for example ( a + h , f ( a + h ) ) . These lines are called secant lines . A value of h close to zero gives a good approximation to the slope of the tangent line , and smaller values ( in absolute value ) of h will , in general , give better approximations . The slope m of the secant line is the difference between the y values of these points divided by the difference between the x values , that is ,
<formula>
This expression is Newton 's difference quotient . Passing from an approximation to an exact answer is done using a limit . Geometrically , the limit of the secant lines is the tangent line . Therefore , the limit of the difference quotient as h approaches zero , if it exists , should represent the slope of the tangent line to ( a , f ( a ) ) . This limit is defined to be the derivative of the function f at a :
<formula>
When the limit exists , f is said to be differentiable at a . Here f ′ ( a ) is one of several common notations for the derivative ( see below ) .
Equivalently , the derivative satisfies the property that
<formula>
which has the intuitive interpretation ( see Figure 1 ) that the tangent line to f at a gives the best linear approximation
<formula>
to f near a ( i.e. , for small h ) . This interpretation is the easiest to generalize to other settings ( see below ) .
Substituting 0 for h in the difference quotient causes division by zero , so the slope of the tangent line cannot be found directly using this method . Instead , define Q ( h ) to be the difference quotient as a function of h :
<formula>
Q ( h ) is the slope of the secant line between ( a , f ( a ) ) and ( a + h , f ( a + h ) ) . If f is a continuous function , meaning that its graph is an unbroken curve with no gaps , then Q is a continuous function away from h
= 0 . If the limit limh → 0Q ( h ) exists , meaning that there is a way of choosing a value for Q ( 0 ) that makes Q a continuous function , then the function f is differentiable at a , and its derivative at a equals Q ( 0 ) .
In practice , the existence of a continuous extension of the difference quotient Q ( h ) to h =
0 is shown by modifying the numerator to cancel h in the denominator . Such manipulations can make the limit value of Q for small h clear even though Q is still not defined at h = 0 . This process can be long and tedious for complicated functions , and many shortcuts are commonly used to simplify the process .
= = = Definition over the hyperreals = = =
Relative to a hyperreal extension R ⊂ R * of the real numbers , the derivative of a real function y |
= f ( x ) at a real point x can be defined as the shadow of the quotient ∆ y / ∆ x for infinitesimal ∆ x , where ∆ y =
f ( x + ∆ x ) - f ( x ) . Here the natural extension of f to the hyperreals is still denoted f . Here the derivative is said to exist if the shadow is independent of the infinitesimal chosen .
= = = Example = = =
The squaring function f ( x ) |
= x2 is differentiable at x =
3 , and its derivative there is 6 . This result is established by calculating the limit as h approaches zero of the difference quotient of f ( 3 ) :
<formula>
The last expression shows that the difference quotient equals 6 + h when h ≠ 0 and is undefined when h |
= 0 , because of the definition of the difference quotient . However , the definition of the limit says the difference quotient does not need to be defined when h =
0 . The limit is the result of letting h go to zero , meaning it is the value that 6 + h tends to as h becomes very small :
<formula>
Hence the slope of the graph of the squaring function at the point ( 3 , 9 ) is 6 , and so its derivative at x |
= 3 is f ′ ( 3 ) =
6 .
More generally , a similar computation shows that the derivative of the squaring function at x |
= a is f ′ ( a ) =
2a .
= = = Continuity and differentiability = = =
If y
= f ( x ) is differentiable at a , then f must also be continuous at a . As an example , choose a point a and let f be the step function that returns a value , say 1 , for all x less than a , and returns a different value , say 10 , for all x greater than or equal to a. f cannot have a derivative at a . If h is negative , then a + h is on the low part of the step , so the secant line from a to a + h is very steep , and as h tends to zero the slope tends to infinity . If h is positive , then a + h is on the high part of the step , so the secant line from a to a + h has slope zero . Consequently , the secant lines do not approach any single slope , so the limit of the difference quotient does not exist .
However , even if a function is continuous at a point , it may not be differentiable there . For example , the absolute value function y =
| x | is continuous at x |
= 0 , but it is not differentiable there . If h is positive , then the slope of the secant line from 0 to h is one , whereas if h is negative , then the slope of the secant line from 0 to h is negative one . This can be seen graphically as a " kink " or a " cusp " in the graph at x =
0 . Even a function with a smooth graph is not differentiable at a point where its tangent is vertical : For instance , the function y |
= x1 / 3 is not differentiable at x =
0 .
In summary : for a function f to have a derivative it is necessary for the function f to be continuous , but continuity alone is not sufficient .
Most functions that occur in practice have derivatives at all points or at almost every point . Early in the history of calculus , many mathematicians assumed that a continuous function was differentiable at most points . Under mild conditions , for example if the function is a monotone function or a Lipschitz function , this is true . However , in 1872 Weierstrass found the first example of a function that is continuous everywhere but differentiable nowhere . This example is now known as the Weierstrass function . In 1931 , Stefan Banach proved that the set of functions that have a derivative at some point is a meager set in the space of all continuous functions . Informally , this means that hardly any continuous functions have a derivative at even one point .
= = = The derivative as a function = = =
Let f be a function that has a derivative at every point a in the domain of f . Because every point a has a derivative , there is a function that sends the point a to the derivative of f at a . This function is written f ′ ( x ) and is called the derivative function or the derivative of f . The derivative of f collects all the derivatives of f at all the points in the domain of f .
Sometimes f has a derivative at most , but not all , points of its domain . The function whose value at a equals f ′ ( a ) whenever f ′ ( a ) is defined and elsewhere is undefined is also called the derivative of f . It is still a function , but its domain is strictly smaller than the domain of f .
Using this idea , differentiation becomes a function of functions : The derivative is an operator whose domain is the set of all functions that have derivatives at every point of their domain and whose range is a set of functions . If we denote this operator by D , then D ( f ) is the function f ′ ( x ) . Since D ( f ) is a function , it can be evaluated at a point a . By the definition of the derivative function , D ( f ) ( a )
= f ′ ( a ) .
For comparison , consider the doubling function f ( x ) =
2x ; f is a real @-@ valued function of a real number , meaning that it takes numbers as inputs and has numbers as outputs :
<formula>
The operator D , however , is not defined on individual numbers . It is only defined on functions :
<formula>
Because the output of D is a function , the output of D can be evaluated at a point . For instance , when D is applied to the squaring function , x ↦ x2 , D outputs the doubling function x ↦ 2x , which we named f ( x ) . This output function can then be evaluated to get f ( 1 ) |
= 2 , f ( 2 ) =
4 , and so on .
= = = Higher derivatives = = =
Let f be a differentiable function , and let f ′ ( x ) be its derivative . The derivative of f ′ ( x ) ( if it has one ) is written f ′ ′ ( x ) and is called the second derivative of f . Similarly , the derivative of a second derivative , if it exists , is written f ′ ′ ′ ( x ) and is called the third derivative of f . Continuing this process , one can define , if it exists , the nth derivative as the derivative of the ( n @-@ 1 ) th derivative . These repeated derivatives are called higher @-@ order derivatives . The nth derivative is also called the derivative of order n .
If x ( t ) represents the position of an object at time t , then the higher @-@ order derivatives of x have physical interpretations . The second derivative of x is the derivative of x ′ ( t ) , the velocity , and by definition this is the object 's acceleration . The third derivative of x is defined to be the jerk , and the fourth derivative is defined to be the jounce .
A function f need not have a derivative , for example , if it is not continuous . Similarly , even if f does have a derivative , it may not have a second derivative . For example , let
<formula>
Calculation shows that f is a differentiable function whose derivative is
<formula>
f ′ ( x ) is twice the absolute value function , and it does not have a derivative at zero . Similar examples show that a function can have k derivatives for any non @-@ negative integer k but no ( k + 1 ) th @-@ order derivative . A function that has k successive derivatives is called k times differentiable . If in addition the kth derivative is continuous , then the function is said to be of differentiability class Ck . ( This is a stronger condition than having k derivatives . For an example , see differentiability class . ) A function that has infinitely many derivatives is called infinitely differentiable or smooth .
On the real line , every polynomial function is infinitely differentiable . By standard differentiation rules , if a polynomial of degree n is differentiated n times , then it becomes a constant function . All of its subsequent derivatives are identically zero . In particular , they exist , so polynomials are smooth functions .
The derivatives of a function f at a point x provide polynomial approximations to that function near x . For example , if f is twice differentiable , then
<formula>
in the sense that
<formula>
If f is infinitely differentiable , then this is the beginning of the Taylor series for f evaluated at x + h around x .
= = = Inflection point = = =
A point where the second derivative of a function changes sign is called an inflection point . At an inflection point , the second derivative may be zero , as in the case of the inflection point x |
= 0 of the function y =
x3 , or it may fail to exist , as in the case of the inflection point x |
= 0 of the function y =
x1 / 3 . At an inflection point , a function switches from being a convex function to being a concave function or vice versa .
= = Notation ( details ) = =
= = = Leibniz 's notation = = =
The notation for derivatives introduced by Gottfried Leibniz is one of the earliest . It is still commonly used when the equation y
= f ( x ) is viewed as a functional relationship between dependent and independent variables . Then the first derivative is denoted by
<formula>
and was once thought of as an infinitesimal quotient . Higher derivatives are expressed using the notation
<formula>
for the nth derivative of y =
f ( x ) ( with respect to x ) . These are abbreviations for multiple applications of the derivative operator . For example ,
<formula>
With Leibniz 's notation , we can write the derivative of y at the point x = a in two different ways :
<formula>
Leibniz 's notation allows one to specify the variable for differentiation ( in the denominator ) . This is especially relevant for partial differentiation . It also makes the chain rule easy to remember :
<formula>
= = = Lagrange 's notation = = =
Sometimes referred to as prime notation , one of the most common modern notation for differentiation is due to Joseph @-@ Louis Lagrange and uses the prime mark , so that the derivative of a function f ( x ) is denoted f ′ ( x ) or simply f ′ . Similarly , the second and third derivatives are denoted
<formula> and <formula>
To denote the number of derivatives beyond this point , some authors use Roman numerals in superscript , whereas others place the number in parentheses :
<formula> or <formula>
The latter notation generalizes to yield the notation f ( n ) for the nth derivative of f – this notation is most useful when we wish to talk about the derivative as being a function itself , as in this case the Leibniz notation can become cumbersome .
= = = Newton 's notation = = =
Newton 's notation for differentiation , also called the dot notation , places a dot over the function name to represent a time derivative . If y = f ( t ) , then
<formula> and <formula>
denote , respectively , the first and second derivatives of y with respect to t . This notation is used exclusively for derivatives with respect to time or arc length . It is very common in physics , differential equations , and differential geometry . While the notation becomes unmanageable for high @-@ order derivatives , in practice only few derivatives are needed .
= = = Euler 's notation = = =
Euler 's notation uses a differential operator D , which is applied to a function f to give the first derivative Df . The second derivative is denoted D2f , and the nth derivative is denoted Dnf .
If y = f ( x ) is a dependent variable , then often the subscript x is attached to the D to clarify the independent variable x . Euler 's notation is then written
<formula> or <formula> ,
although this subscript is often omitted when the variable x is understood , for instance when this is the only variable present in the expression .
Euler 's notation is useful for stating and solving linear differential equations .
= = Rules of computation = =
The derivative of a function can , in principle , be computed from the definition by considering the difference quotient , and computing its limit . In practice , once the derivatives of a few simple functions are known , the derivatives of other functions are more easily computed using rules for obtaining derivatives of more complicated functions from simpler ones .
= = = Rules for basic functions = = =
Most derivative computations eventually require taking the derivative of some common functions . The following incomplete list gives some of the most frequently used functions of a single real variable and their derivatives .
Derivatives of powers : if
<formula>
where r is any real number , then
<formula>
wherever this function is defined . For example , if <formula> , then
<formula>
and the derivative function is defined only for positive x , not for x |
= 0 . When r =
0 , this rule implies that f ′ ( x ) is zero for x ≠ 0 , which is almost the constant rule ( stated below ) .
Exponential and logarithmic functions :
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
Trigonometric functions :
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
Inverse trigonometric functions :
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
= = = Rules for combined functions = = =
In many cases , complicated limit calculations by direct application of Newton 's difference quotient can be avoided using differentiation rules . Some of the most basic rules are the following .
Constant rule : if f ( x ) is constant , then
<formula>
Sum rule :
<formula> for all functions f and g and all real numbers <formula> and <formula> .
Product rule :
<formula> for all functions f and g . As a special case , this rule includes the fact <formula> whenever <formula> is a constant , because <formula> by the constant rule .
Quotient rule :
<formula> for all functions f and g at all inputs where g ≠ 0 .
Chain rule : If <formula> , then
<formula>
= = = Computation example = = =
The derivative of
<formula>
is
<formula>
Here the second term was computed using the chain rule and third using the product rule . The known derivatives of the elementary functions x2 , x4 , sin ( x ) , ln ( x ) and exp ( x ) = ex , as well as the constant 7 , were also used .
= = Derivatives in higher dimensions = =
= = = Derivatives of vector valued functions = = =
A vector @-@ valued function y ( t ) of a real variable sends real numbers to vectors in some vector space Rn . A vector @-@ valued function can be split up into its coordinate functions y1 ( t ) , y2 ( t ) , … , yn ( t ) , meaning that y ( t ) = ( y1 ( t ) , ... , yn ( t ) ) . This includes , for example , parametric curves in R2 or R3 . The coordinate functions are real valued functions , so the above definition of derivative applies to them . The derivative of y ( t ) is defined to be the vector , called the tangent vector , whose coordinates are the derivatives of the coordinate functions . That is ,
<formula>
Equivalently ,
<formula>
if the limit exists . The subtraction in the numerator is subtraction of vectors , not scalars . If the derivative of y exists for every value of t , then y ′ is another vector valued function .
If e1 , … , en is the standard basis for Rn , then y ( t ) can also be written as y1 ( t ) e1 + … + yn ( t ) en . If we assume that the derivative of a vector @-@ valued function retains the linearity property , then the derivative of y ( t ) must be
<formula>
because each of the basis vectors is a constant .
This generalization is useful , for example , if y ( t ) is the position vector of a particle at time t ; then the derivative y ′ ( t ) is the velocity vector of the particle at time t .
= = = Partial derivatives = = =
Suppose that f is a function that depends on more than one variable — for instance ,
<formula>
f can be reinterpreted as a family of functions of one variable indexed by the other variables :
<formula>
In other words , every value of x chooses a function , denoted fx , which is a function of one real number . That is ,
<formula>
<formula>
Once a value of x is chosen , say a , then f ( x , y ) determines a function fa that sends y to a2 + ay + y2 :
<formula>
In this expression , a is a constant , not a variable , so fa is a function of only one real variable . Consequently , the definition of the derivative for a function of one variable applies :
<formula>
The above procedure can be performed for any choice of a . Assembling the derivatives together into a function gives a function that describes the variation of f in the y direction :
<formula>
This is the partial derivative of f with respect to y . Here ∂ is a rounded d called the partial derivative symbol . To distinguish it from the letter d , ∂ is sometimes pronounced " der " , " del " , or " partial " instead of " dee " .
In general , the partial derivative of a function f ( x1 , … , xn ) in the direction xi at the point ( a1 … , an ) is defined to be :
<formula>
In the above difference quotient , all the variables except xi are held fixed . That choice of fixed values determines a function of one variable
<formula>
and , by definition ,
<formula>
In other words , the different choices of a index a family of one @-@ variable functions just as in the example above . This expression also shows that the computation of partial derivatives reduces to the computation of one @-@ variable derivatives .
An important example of a function of several variables is the case of a scalar @-@ valued function f ( x1 , ... , xn ) on a domain in Euclidean space Rn ( e.g. , on R2 or R3 ) . In this case f has a partial derivative ∂ f / ∂ xj with respect to each variable xj . At the point a , these partial derivatives define the vector
<formula>
This vector is called the gradient of f at a . If f is differentiable at every point in some domain , then the gradient is a vector @-@ valued function ∇ f that takes the point a to the vector ∇ f ( a ) . Consequently , the gradient determines a vector field .
= = = Directional derivatives = = =
If f is a real @-@ valued function on Rn , then the partial derivatives of f measure its variation in the direction of the coordinate axes . For example , if f is a function of x and y , then its partial derivatives measure the variation in f in the x direction and the y direction . They do not , however , directly measure the variation of f in any other direction , such as along the diagonal line y
= x . These are measured using directional derivatives . Choose a vector
<formula>
The directional derivative of f in the direction of v at the point x is the limit
<formula>
In some cases it may be easier to compute or estimate the directional derivative after changing the length of the vector . Often this is done to turn the problem into the computation of a directional derivative in the direction of a unit vector . To see how this works , suppose that v =
λu . Substitute h
= k / λ into the difference quotient . The difference quotient becomes :
<formula>
This is λ times the difference quotient for the directional derivative of f with respect to u . Furthermore , taking the limit as h tends to zero is the same as taking the limit as k tends to zero because h and k are multiples of each other . Therefore , Dv ( f ) =
λDu ( f ) . Because of this rescaling property , directional derivatives are frequently considered only for unit vectors .
If all the partial derivatives of f exist and are continuous at x , then they determine the directional derivative of f in the direction v by the formula :
<formula>
This is a consequence of the definition of the total derivative . It follows that the directional derivative is linear in v , meaning that Dv + w ( f ) = Dv ( f ) + Dw ( f ) .
The same definition also works when f is a function with values in Rm . The above definition is applied to each component of the vectors . In this case , the directional derivative is a vector in Rm .
= = = Total derivative , total differential and Jacobian matrix = = =
When f is a function from an open subset of Rn to Rm , then the directional derivative of f in a chosen direction is the best linear approximation to f at that point and in that direction . But when n > 1 , no single directional derivative can give a complete picture of the behavior of f . The total derivative gives a complete picture by considering all directions at once . That is , for any vector v starting at a , the linear approximation formula holds :
<formula>
Just like the single @-@ variable derivative , f ′ ( a ) is chosen so that the error in this approximation is as small as possible .
If n and m are both one , then the derivative f ′ ( a ) is a number and the expression f ′ ( a ) v is the product of two numbers . But in higher dimensions , it is impossible for f ′ ( a ) to be a number . If it were a number , then f ′ ( a ) v would be a vector in Rn while the other terms would be vectors in Rm , and therefore the formula would not make sense . For the linear approximation formula to make sense , f ′ ( a ) must be a function that sends vectors in Rn to vectors in Rm , and f ′ ( a ) v must denote this function evaluated at v.
To determine what kind of function it is , notice that the linear approximation formula can be rewritten as
<formula>
Notice that if we choose another vector w , then this approximate equation determines another approximate equation by substituting w for v. It determines a third approximate equation by substituting both w for v and a + v for a . By subtracting these two new equations , we get
<formula>
If we assume that v is small and that the derivative varies continuously in a , then f ′ ( a + v ) is approximately equal to f ′ ( a ) , and therefore the right @-@ hand side is approximately zero . The left @-@ hand side can be rewritten in a different way using the linear approximation formula with v + w substituted for v. The linear approximation formula implies :
<formula>
This suggests that f ′ ( a ) is a linear transformation from the vector space Rn to the vector space Rm . In fact , it is possible to make this a precise derivation by measuring the error in the approximations . Assume that the error in these linear approximation formula is bounded by a constant times | | v | | , where the constant is independent of v but depends continuously on a . Then , after adding an appropriate error term , all of the above approximate equalities can be rephrased as inequalities . In particular , f ′ ( a ) is a linear transformation up to a small error term . In the limit as v and w tend to zero , it must therefore be a linear transformation . Since we define the total derivative by taking a limit as v goes to zero , f ′ ( a ) must be a linear transformation .
In one variable , the fact that the derivative is the best linear approximation is expressed by the fact that it is the limit of difference quotients . However , the usual difference quotient does not make sense in higher dimensions because it is not usually possible to divide vectors . In particular , the numerator and denominator of the difference quotient are not even in the same vector space : The numerator lies in the codomain Rm while the denominator lies in the domain Rn . Furthermore , the derivative is a linear transformation , a different type of object from both the numerator and denominator . To make precise the idea that f ′ ( a ) is the best linear approximation , it is necessary to adapt a different formula for the one @-@ variable derivative in which these problems disappear . If f : R → R , then the usual definition of the derivative may be manipulated to show that the derivative of f at a is the unique number f ′ ( a ) such that
<formula>
This is equivalent to
<formula>
because the limit of a function tends to zero if and only if the limit of the absolute value of the function tends to zero . This last formula can be adapted to the many @-@ variable situation by replacing the absolute values with norms .
The definition of the total derivative of f at a , therefore , is that it is the unique linear transformation f ′ ( a ) : Rn → Rm such that
<formula>
Here h is a vector in Rn , so the norm in the denominator is the standard length on Rn . However , f ′ ( a ) h is a vector in Rm , and the norm in the numerator is the standard length on Rm . If v is a vector starting at a , then f ′ ( a ) v is called the pushforward of v by f and is sometimes written f ∗ v.
If the total derivative exists at a , then all the partial derivatives and directional derivatives of f exist at a , and for all v , f ′ ( a ) v is the directional derivative of f in the direction v. If we write f using coordinate functions , so that f = ( f1 , f2 , ... , fm ) , then the total derivative can be expressed using the partial derivatives as a matrix . This matrix is called the Jacobian matrix of f at a :
<formula>
The existence of the total derivative f ′ ( a ) is strictly stronger than the existence of all the partial derivatives , but if the partial derivatives exist and are continuous , then the total derivative exists , is given by the Jacobian , and depends continuously on a .
The definition of the total derivative subsumes the definition of the derivative in one variable . That is , if f is a real @-@ valued function of a real variable , then the total derivative exists if and only if the usual derivative exists . The Jacobian matrix reduces to a 1 × 1 matrix whose only entry is the derivative f ′ ( x ) . This 1 × 1 matrix satisfies the property that f ( a + h ) − f ( a ) − f ′ ( a ) h is approximately zero , in other words that
<formula>
Up to changing variables , this is the statement that the function <formula> is the best linear approximation to f at a .
The total derivative of a function does not give another function in the same way as the one @-@ variable case . This is because the total derivative of a multivariable function has to record much more information than the derivative of a single @-@ variable function . Instead , the total derivative gives a function from the tangent bundle of the source to the tangent bundle of the target .
The natural analog of second , third , and higher @-@ order total derivatives is not a linear transformation , is not a function on the tangent bundle , and is not built by repeatedly taking the total derivative . The analog of a higher @-@ order derivative , called a jet , cannot be a linear transformation because higher @-@ order derivatives reflect subtle geometric information , such as concavity , which cannot be described in terms of linear data such as vectors . It cannot be a function on the tangent bundle because the tangent bundle only has room for the base space and the directional derivatives . Because jets capture higher @-@ order information , they take as arguments additional coordinates representing higher @-@ order changes in direction . The space determined by these additional coordinates is called the jet bundle . The relation between the total derivative and the partial derivatives of a function is paralleled in the relation between the kth order jet of a function and its partial derivatives of order less than or equal to k .
By repeatedly taking the total derivative , one obtains higher versions of the Fréchet derivative , specialized to Rp . The kth order total derivative may be interpreted as a map
<formula>
which takes a point x in Rn and assigns to it an element of the space of k @-@ linear maps from Rn to Rm – the " best " ( in a certain precise sense ) k @-@ linear approximation to f at that point . By precomposing it with the diagonal map Δ , x → ( x , x ) , a generalized Taylor series may be begun as
<formula>
where f ( a ) is identified with a constant function , ( x − a ) i are the components of the vector x − a , and ( D f ) i and ( D2 f ) j k are the components of D f and D2 f as linear transformations .
= = Generalizations = =
The concept of a derivative can be extended to many other settings . The common thread is that the derivative of a function at a point serves as a linear approximation of the function at that point .
An important generalization of the derivative concerns complex functions of complex variables , such as functions from ( a domain in ) the complex numbers C to C. The notion of the derivative of such a function is obtained by replacing real variables with complex variables in the definition . If C is identified with R2 by writing a complex number z as x + i y , then a differentiable function from C to C is certainly differentiable as a function from R2 to R2 ( in the sense that its partial derivatives all exist ) , but the converse is not true in general : the complex derivative only exists if the real derivative is complex linear and this imposes relations between the partial derivatives called the Cauchy – Riemann equations – see holomorphic functions .
Another generalization concerns functions between differentiable or smooth manifolds . Intuitively speaking such a manifold M is a space that can be approximated near each point x by a vector space called its tangent space : the prototypical example is a smooth surface in R3 . The derivative ( or differential ) of a ( differentiable ) map f : M → N between manifolds , at a point x in M , is then a linear map from the tangent space of M at x to the tangent space of N at f ( x ) . The derivative function becomes a map between the tangent bundles of M and N. This definition is fundamental in differential geometry and has many uses – see pushforward ( differential ) and pullback ( differential geometry ) .
Differentiation can also be defined for maps between infinite dimensional vector spaces such as Banach spaces and Fréchet spaces . There is a generalization both of the directional derivative , called the Gâteaux derivative , and of the differential , called the Fréchet derivative .
One deficiency of the classical derivative is that not very many functions are differentiable . Nevertheless , there is a way of extending the notion of the derivative so that all continuous functions and many other functions can be differentiated using a concept known as the weak derivative . The idea is to embed the continuous functions in a larger space called the space of distributions and only require that a function is differentiable " on average " .
The properties of the derivative have inspired the introduction and study of many similar objects in algebra and topology — see , for example , differential algebra .
The discrete equivalent of differentiation is finite differences . The study of differential calculus is unified with the calculus of finite differences in time scale calculus .
Also see arithmetic derivative .
= = History = =
= = = Print = = =
= = = Online books = = =
|
= Cheryl Tunt =
Cheryl Tunt is a fictional character from the animated television series Archer . Cheryl , a secretary for Malory Archer , collaborates with seven other field operatives of the International Secret Intelligence Service ( ISIS ) , an illegal intelligence agency headquartered in New York City . Judy Greer provides the speaking voice for the character , who first appeared in the series ' pilot episode " Mole Hunt " on January 17 , 2010 , and starting with season 5 , Jessy Lynn Martens provides the singing voice for the character when she turns into country star Cherlene . Conceived and devised by Archer creator Adam Reed , Cheryl was initially intended to serve only as a minor character for the series .
A descendant of the wealthy Tunt family , Cheryl is introduced as a clingy and emotionally fragile individual . Early on she is intermittently referred to as " Carol " by her coworkers ( a premise which becomes one of the shows ' longest running jokes ) as they are initially dismissive of her somewhat morbid behavior and neglectful of her presence . As the series progresses , the character abandons her lugubrious traits and embraces a more sadistic and maniacal personality . Cheryl is often sexually aroused from being choked and enjoys sniffing and drinking rubber cement . She possesses a ditzy demeanor , which often interferes with her work ethic . An array of descriptions have been established for the character by critics , mainly her " incompetent " and " insane " tendencies . Throughout the series ' run , the character has been applauded by television commentators , as has Greer 's voice work , which has resulted in the actress being nominated for an Annie Award in the category of Voice Acting in a Television Production .
= = Arc and personality = =
Cheryl Tunt is introduced in the Archer pilot episode , " Mole Hunt " , as the secretary for Malory Archer ( Jessica Walter ) . Following the abrupt ending of her relationship with Sterling Archer ( H. Jon Benjamin ) , Cheryl attempts to manipulate Cyril Figgis ( Chris Parnell ) into cheating on companion Lana Kane ( Aisha Tyler ) , for whom she has great disdain . Cyril , who inevitably sustains emotional distress from Lana 's dominant antics , succumbs to Cheryl 's sexual desires after becoming suspicious of his girlfriend 's interactions with Archer . Paranoid that Lana may find out about his affair , Cyril attempts to distance himself from Cheryl , much to her dismay . She threatens to notify Lana of their affair — after having sex with Cyril , Cheryl reveals to Pam Poovey ( Amber Nash ) that her actual intention was to acquire Archer 's attention , as she thought that having a connection with Cyril would spark feelings of jealousy . Though Lana catches Cyril cheating on her with Framboise , the former head of HR at the Organization of Democratic Intelligence Networks ( ODIN ) , Cheryl confesses of their affair to her , subsequently adding more tension to their rivalry .
As an heir to the wealth of the Tunt family — who were trailblazers in the railroad industry — Cheryl is often subjected to numerous threats and kidnappings . As a result of her parents ' death , she and her brother , Cecil Tunt , inherit an estimated US $ 1 billion in trust funds ; it is split evenly amongst each party , which culminated with Cheryl 's net worth increasing tenfold . This prompts a group of robbers to cultivate a plan to abduct her , which ultimately fails as they mistake Pam for her . In that same episode , it is also revealed that she owns an ocelot named Babou , for which Archer develops a fondness ( this is a comedic reference to Salvador Dalí , who really did have a pet ocelot by that name with whom he frequently traveled . ) Cecil later tricks ISIS into a mission with the intent to videotape members talking of Cheryl 's insanity so he can get control of her half of the fortune . It turns out Cecil has spent all of his half of the fortune on various charities , including an undersea base whose insane leader used the funds to buy nerve gas missiles .
Cheryl is introduced as an emotionally fragile woman , who pines for the affection of Archer . As the series began to progress , the character abandons her depressive characteristics and adopts a more maniacal and unstable personality . " It was really fun to see her evolve , " Greer asserted , " and I think [ Archer creator Adam Reed ] and I always had fun recording together . I 'm so thankful that it got so crazy and turned so upside down , and how nuts this character is . It 's so fun . " Her instability has regularly resulted in Cheryl being sent into mental institutions . She is often sexually aroused from being choked . Commentators have described Cheryl as " incompetent " , " insane " , " glue @-@ chugging " , and " empty @-@ headed " . Throughout much of the first season , the character frequently developed aliases for herself to acquiesce to her coworkers ; these aliases include Cristal , an homage to the alcoholic beverage of the same name , and Cariña , which she professed " better captured [ her ] sensual womanhood " .
My interpretation is that she isn ’ t trying to keep the secret . That she doesn ’ t care . She changed her last name to avoid getting kidnapped , but really , if anyone figured it out and asked her , she ’ d just probably be like “ Yeah , shut up ! ” or whatever . I feel like everyone at ISIS is so self @-@ involved and so concerned with furthering their own agenda that it would never occur to them to think that anyone else has anything else going on .
After ISIS has gone bankrupt in the fifth season , Cheryl realizes her dream of becoming a country music superstar under the artist name " Cherlene " , after Dr. Krieger first cures her stage fright by injecting her with a microscopic mind control chip in the fourth episode ( " House Call " ) . Music performed by Cherlene in the show is sung by Jessy Lynn Martens and produced by among others Kevn Kinney of Drivin N Cryin . The network also released a 12 @-@ track album named " Cherlene " featuring country songs from the show , including a country cover of Kenny Loggins ' " Danger Zone " .
= = Development = =
Producers recruited actress Judy Greer to provide the role of Cheryl Tunt . Greer , despite auditioning for various advertisements , was unable to breakout as a prominent voice actress for animated television . While in Los Angeles , California , Greer met casting director Linda Lamontagne , who lent her roles in television shows such as Family Guy and Glenn Martin , DDS — the actress ascribes the interest from Archer producers to her work in the latter series . " She was kind of relentless with them , saying ' Use her , use her . ' I read for many different roles and then finally they cast me . "
Greer was notified of the position by her agent while shooting for a separate film . " I 'd been trying to get into voiceovers , " she explained , " so they called and said it was a pilot they were doing for FX , and I could record the part on my day off in 10 minutes . " The actress read the script and recorded her lines at a recording studio in Phoenix , Arizona ; upon first glance , Greer suggested that the raunchy and risque nature of the script would prevent any television stations from picking up the series . " So when I found out it was picked up , I was like , ' Oh ! Wait , I don 't know what you 're talking about . ' They said , ' Remember that thing ? ' And I went , ' Really ? ' So then I recorded a bunch of them , and the scripts were the funniest scripts that I 've ever read , and so crazy . "
Prior to Greer 's casting , Cheryl was initially intended to merely be a secondary character for Archer , and serve as a central figure in a proposed pregnancy angle . " It was going to be a running gag that Archer kept impregnating Malory ’ s secretaries , " remarked Reed , " Whenever it happened , they would gas them with sleeping gas and just leave them on the steps at Bellevue Hospital with no ID or memory of what just happened . But when Judy agreed to do the show , Cheryl became a much more important character . "
= = Reception = =
Television critics have commended the development of Cheryl , as well as Greer 's portrayal of the character . HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall declared that Cheryl was his favorite character on the show . In his review for " El Secuestro " , Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club felt that Greer 's vocals were the highlight of the episode , and affirmed that she effectively portrayed the unstable characteristics of Cheryl . " Greer is mostly just asked to say crazy things as Cheryl , and that ’ s fun , but she steps it up here , playing both Cheryl ’ s insanity and the part of her that ’ s a spoiled trust @-@ fund kid who ’ s found a day job and has to ride the subway with a dwarf that freaks her out . " Likewise , Ian MacDonald of TV Overmind proclaimed that the writers " found a great way to expand on ISIS ' most emotionally unstable employees " ; " Cheryl , whose crazy has been escalated to an almost extreme , " MacDonald stated , " seems almost justified in her maladjusted @-@ ness . She 's a billionaire heiress who owns an ocelot and drinks glue [ ... ] . Humor involving insane rich people just no [ t ] getting it is usually pretty funny , and if anyone can pull it off , it 's Adam Reed and [ Judy ] Greer . " Alongside fellow cast members Jessica Walter and H. Jon Benjamin , Greer was a candidate for an Annie Award in the category of Voice Acting in a Television Production — the award was given to Jeff Bennett for his work in the Nickelodeon television series The Penguins of Madagascar .
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= Oil shale industry =
Oil shale industry is an industry of mining and processing of oil shale — a fine @-@ grained sedimentary rock , containing significant amounts of kerogen ( a solid mixture of organic chemical compounds ) , from which liquid hydrocarbons can be manufactured . The industry has developed in Brazil , China , Estonia and to some extent in Germany and Russia . Several other countries are currently conducting research on their oil shale reserves and production methods to improve efficiency and recovery . However , Australia has halted their pilot projects due to environmental concerns . Estonia accounted for about 70 % of the world 's oil shale production in a study published in 2005 .
Oil shale has been used for industrial purposes since the early 17th century , when it was mined for its minerals . Since the late 19th century , shale oil has also been used for its oil content and as a low grade fuel for power generation . However , barring countries having significant oil shale deposits , its use for power generation is not particularly widespread . Similarly , oil shale is a source for production of synthetic crude oil and it is seen as a solution towards increasing domestic production of oil in countries that are reliant on imports .
= = History = =
Oil shale has been used since ancient times . Modern industrial oil shale mining began in 1837 at the Autun mines in France , followed by Britain , Germany and several other countries . The oil shale industry started growing just before World War I because of the mass production of automobiles and trucks and the supposed shortage of gasoline for transportation needs . In 1924 , the Tallinn Power Plant was the first power plant in the world to switch to oil shale firing .
Following the end of World War II , the oil shale industry declined due to the discovery of large supplies of easily accessible and cheaper crude oil . Oil shale production however , continued to grow in Estonia , Russia and China .
Following the 1973 oil crisis , the oil shale industry was restarted in several countries , but in the 1980s , when oil prices fell , many industries faced closure . The global oil shale industry has grown again from the mid @-@ 1990s . In 2003 , the oil shale development program was initiated in the United States , and in 2005 , the commercial leasing program for oil shale and tar sands was introduced .
As of May 2007 , Estonia is actively engaged in exploitation of oil shale on a significant scale and accounts for 70 % of the world 's processed oil shale . Estonia is unique in that its oil shale deposit account for just 17 % of total deposits in European Union but it generates 90 % of its power from oil shale . Oil shale industry in Estonia employs 7 @,@ 500 people , which is about 1 % of national employment , accounting for 4 % of its gross domestic product .
= = Mining = =
Oil shale is mined either by traditional underground mining or surface mining techniques . There are several mining methods available , but the common aim of all these methods is to fragment the oil shale deposits in order to enable the transport of shale fragments to a power plant or retorting facility . The main methods of surface mining are open pit mining and strip mining . An important method of sub @-@ surface mining is the room @-@ and @-@ pillar method . In this method , the material is extracted across a horizontal plane while leaving " pillars " of untouched material to support the roof . These pillars reduce the likelihood of a collapse . Oil shale can also be obtained as a by @-@ product of coal mining .
The largest oil shale mine in the world is the Estonia Mine , operated by Eesti Energia Kaevandused . In 2005 , Estonia mined 14 @.@ 8 million tonnes of oil shale . During the same period , mining permits were issued for almost 24 million tonnes , with applications being received for mining an additional 26 million tonnes . In 2008 , the Estonian Parliament approved the " National Development Plan for the Use of Oil Shale 2008 @-@ 2015 " , which limits the annual extraction of oil shale to 20 million tonnes .
= = Power generation = =
Oil shale can be used as a fuel in thermal power plants , wherein oil shale is burnt like coal to drive the steam turbines . As of 2012 , there are oil shale @-@ fired power plants in Estonia with a generating capacity of 2 @,@ 967 megawatts ( MW ) , China , and Germany . Also Israel , Romania and Russia have run oil shale @-@ fired power plants , but have shut them down or switched to other fuels like natural gas . Jordan and Egypt have announced their plans to construct oil shale @-@ fired power plants , while Canada and Turkey plan to burn oil shale at the power plants along with coal .
Thermal power plants which use oil shale as a fuel mostly employ two types of combustion methods . The traditional method is Pulverized combustion ( PC ) which is used in the older units of oil shale @-@ fired power plants in Estonia , while the more advanced method is Fluidized bed combustion ( FBC ) , which is used in the Holcim cement factory in Dotternhausen , Germany , and was used in the Mishor Rotem power plant in Israel . The main FBC technologies are Bubbling fluidized bed combustion ( BFBC ) and Circulating fluidized bed combustion ( CFBC ) .
There are more than 60 power plants around the world , which are using CFBC technology for combustion of coal and lignite , but only two new units at Narva Power Plants in Estonia , and one at Huadian Power Plant in China use CFBC technology for combustion of oil shale . The most advanced and efficient oil shale combustion technology is Pressurized fluidized @-@ bed combustion ( PFBC ) . However , this technology is still premature and is in its nascent stage .
= = Oil extraction = =
As of 2008 , the major shale oil producers are Estonia , Brazil and China , while Australia , USA , Canada and Jordan have planned to set up or restart shale oil production . According to the World Energy Council , in 2008 the total production of shale oil from oil shale was 930 @,@ 000 tonnes , equal to 17 @,@ 700 barrels per day ( 2 @,@ 810 m3 / d ) , of which China produced 375 @,@ 000 tonnes , Estonia 355 @,@ 000 tonnes , and Brazil 200 tonnes . In comparison , production of the conventional oil and natural gas liquids in 2008 amounted 3 @.@ 95 billion tonnes or 82 @.@ 12 million barrels per day ( 13 @.@ 056 × 10 ^ 6 m3 / d ) .
Although there are several oil shale retorting technologies , only four technologies are currently in commercial use . These are Kiviter , Galoter , Fushun , and Petrosix . The two main methods of extracting oil from shale are ex @-@ situ and in @-@ situ . In ex @-@ situ method , the oil shale is mined and transported to the retort facility in order to extract the oil . The in @-@ situ method converts the kerogen while it is still in the form of an oil shale deposit , and then extracts it via a well , where it rises up as normal petroleum .
= = Other industrial uses = =
Oil shale is used for cement production by Kunda Nordic Cement in Estonia , by Holcim in Germany , and by Fushun cement factory in China . Oil shale can also be used for production of different chemical products , construction materials , and pharmaceutical products , e.g. ammonium bituminosulfonate . However , use of oil shale for production of these products is still very rare and in experimental stages only .
Some oil shales are suitable source for sulfur , ammonia , alumina , soda ash , and nahcolite which occur as shale oil extraction byproducts . Some oil shales can also be used for uranium and other rare chemical element production . During 1946 – 1952 , a marine variety of Dictyonema shale was used for uranium production in Sillamäe , Estonia , and during 1950 – 1989 alum shale was used in Sweden for the same purpose . Oil shale gas can also be used as a substitute for natural gas . After World War II , Estonian @-@ produced oil shale gas was used in Leningrad and the cities in North Estonia . However , at the current price level of natural gas , this is not economically feasible .
= = Economics = =
The amount of economically recoverable oil shale is unknown . The various attempts to develop oil shale deposits have succeeded only when the cost of shale @-@ oil production in a given region comes in below the price of crude oil or its other substitutes . According to a survey conducted by the RAND Corporation , the cost of producing a barrel of shale oil at a hypothetical surface retorting complex in the United States ( comprising a mine , retorting plant , upgrading plant , supporting utilities , and spent shale reclamation ) , would range between US $ 70 – 95 ( $ 440 – 600 / m3 ) , adjusted to 2005 values . Assuming a gradual increase in output after the start of commercial production , the analysis projects a gradual reduction in processing costs to $ 30 – 40 per barrel ( $ 190 – 250 / m3 ) after achieving the milestone of 1 billion barrels ( 160 × 10 ^ 6 m3 ) . Royal Dutch Shell has announced that its Shell ICP technology would realize a profit when crude oil prices are higher than $ 30 per barrel ( $ 190 / m3 ) , while some technologies at full @-@ scale production assert profitability at oil prices even lower than $ 20 per barrel ( $ 130 / m3 ) .
To increase the efficiency of oil shale retorting and by this the viability of the shale oil production , researchers have proposed and tested several co @-@ pyrolysis processes , in which other materials such as biomass , peat , waste bitumen , or rubber and plastic wastes are retorted along with the oil shale . Some modified technologies propose combining a fluidized bed retort with a circulated fluidized bed furnace for burning the by @-@ products of pyrolysis ( char and oil shale gas ) and thereby improving oil yield , increasing throughput , and decreasing retorting time .
In a 1972 publication by the journal Pétrole Informations ( ISSN 0755 @-@ 561X ) , shale oil production was unfavorably compared to the coal liquefaction . The article stated that coal liquefaction was less expensive , generated more oil , and created fewer environmental impacts than oil shale extraction . It cited a conversion ratio of 650 liters ( 170 U.S. gal ; 140 imp gal ) of oil per one tonne of coal , as against 150 liters ( 40 U.S. gal ; 33 imp gal ) of shale oil per one tonne of oil shale .
A critical measure of the viability of oil shale as an energy source lies in the ratio of the energy produced by the shale to the energy used in its mining and processing , a ratio known as " Energy Returned on Energy Invested " ( EROEI ) . A 1984 study estimated the EROEI of the various known oil @-@ shale deposits as varying between 0 @.@ 7 – 13 @.@ 3 although known oil @-@ shale extraction development projects assert an EROEI between 3 and 10 . According to the World Energy Outlook 2010 , the EROEI of ex @-@ situ processing is typically 4 to 5 while of in @-@ situ processing it may be even as low as 2 . However , according to the IEA most of used energy can be provided by burning the spent shale or oil @-@ shale gas .
The water needed in the oil shale retorting process offers an additional economic consideration : this may pose a problem in areas with water scarcity .
= = Environmental considerations = =
Oil shale mining involves a number of environmental impacts , more pronounced in surface mining than in underground mining . They include acid drainage induced by the sudden rapid exposure and subsequent oxidation of formerly buried materials , the introduction of metals into surface @-@ water and groundwater , increased erosion , sulfur @-@ gas emissions , and air pollution caused by the production of particulates during processing , transport , and support activities . In 2002 , about 97 % of air pollution , 86 % of total waste and 23 % of water pollution in Estonia came from the power industry , which uses oil shale as the main resource for its power production .
Oil shale extraction can damage the biological and recreational value of land and the ecosystem in the mining area . Combustion and thermal processing generate waste material . In addition , the atmospheric emissions from oil shale processing and combustion include carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas . Environmentalists oppose production and usage of oil shale , as it creates even more greenhouse gases than conventional fossil fuels . Section 526 of the Energy Independence And Security Act prohibits United States government agencies from buying oil produced by processes that produce more greenhouse gas emissions than would traditional petroleum . Experimental in situ conversion processes and carbon capture and storage technologies may reduce some of these concerns in the future , but at the same time they may cause other problems , including groundwater pollution .
Concerns have been prominently raised over the oil shale industry 's use of water , particularly in arid regions where water consumption is a sensitive issue . In some cases , oil shale mining requires the lowering of groundwater levels below the level of the oil shale strata , which may affect the surrounding arable land and forest . Above @-@ ground retorting typically consumes between one and five barrels of water per barrel of produced shale oil , depending on technology . Water is usually used for spent shale cooling and oil shale ash disposal . In situ processing , according to one estimate , uses about one @-@ tenth as much water .
A 2008 programmatic environmental impact statement issued by the United States Bureau of Land Management stated that surface mining and retort operations produce 2 to 10 U.S. gallons ( 7 @.@ 6 to 37 @.@ 9 l ; 1 @.@ 7 to 8 @.@ 3 imp gal ) of waste water per 1 short ton ( 0 @.@ 91 t ) of processed oil shale .
Environmental activists , including members of Greenpeace , have organized strong protests against the oil shale industry . In one result , Queensland Energy Resources put the proposed Stuart Oil Shale Project in Australia on hold in 2004 .
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= 1906 Florida Keys hurricane =
The 1906 Florida Keys hurricane was a powerful and deadly hurricane that caused major impacts in Cuba and southern Florida . The fifth hurricane and third major hurricane of the season , the storm formed from a system near Barbados on October 4 . By October 8 , it had intensified into a tropical storm , and made landfall as a hurricane in Central America . The hurricane traveled towards Cuba , making landfall and wreaking havoc on the island . The storm then made a third landfall in the Florida Keys during the evening of October 18 . At least 240 people were killed as a result of the hurricane , and damages totaled at least $ 4 @,@ 135 @,@ 000 .
Of the 240 people killed during the storm , 135 were workers on the Florida East Coast Railway . The hurricane eventually led to the end of pineapple production in the Florida Keys for commercial purposes in 1915 , although this was amplified by two further hurricanes in the following years . In 1947 , Project Cirrus , a collaboration of the United States Air Force , attempted to seed a hurricane ; however , the storm made a sudden re @-@ curvature and came ashore near Charleston , South Carolina . As a result , several lawsuits were filed , although they were denied after the path of this storm was revealed to have been similar to the 1947 hurricane .
= = Meteorological history = =
The hurricane originated from a " cyclonic perturbation " near Barbados on October 4 , as reported by local newspapers . On October 5 , no closed circulation was evident in the system . In Colón , Panama , a report was sent to the Weather Bureau , reporting sinking barometric pressures on October 6 . It was recognized as a tropical storm early on October 8 , with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) , while located in the southwestern Caribbean Sea .
As the system continued to move west on October 9 , it strengthened into a hurricane , and while it began to curve toward the west @-@ northwest , further strengthening occurred , as it intensified into a Category 2 hurricane . The hurricane made landfall in Nicaragua on October 10 as a Category 3 hurricane . The system quickly weakened to a tropical storm as it traveled west @-@ northwestward on October 11 , later passing over the Gulf of Honduras . It later struck Belize on October 13 as a strong Category 1 hurricane on October 13 , tracking north @-@ northwestward .
The system weakened into a tropical storm by October 14 but restrengthened into a Category 1 hurricane by October 16 . As the hurricane began to turn northeastward , it continued to intensify , attaining Category 3 status by October 17 . The hurricane continued to approach Havana during the day , and the hurricane 's center passed east of Havana during the evening . The following morning , the hurricane was located over southern Florida moving northeastward , and passed east of the coast of South Carolina . The hurricane began to weaken as it was forced to curve south @-@ southwestward , striking Florida again as the result of a high @-@ pressure area . The system eventually weakened to a tropical depression over Florida , and traced southwestward into the Gulf of Mexico . On October 23 , the remnants of the hurricane struck Central America and dissipated on October 23 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Central America = = =
The town of Bluefields suffered moderate damage during the hurricane , including downed trees and damage to roofs . In western Nicaragua , widespread flooding damaged roads and disrupted the construction of a port in Corinto . In Matagalpa , many plantations were severely damaged , in addition to the destruction of bridges and roads in the city . Several landslides occurred , leading to the destruction of many hills . In addition , local crops suffered much damage , including much of the local banana and rubber crops . A large wave measuring 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) caused by the storm was described off Nicaragua , and caused brief disappearances of the Seal Cays . Along the Mosquito Coast , the town of Prinzapolka was nearly wiped out by the hurricane . Damage to fruit plantations in Costa Rica totaled $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
= = = Cuba = = =
Havana sustained major damage from the hurricane , with 50 houses destroyed , and cable operators in Miami , Santiago , and Jamaica were unable to reach telegraph services in the city . The wall of a legation of the United States was blown down . Vedado 's sea baths were severely damaged . Havana 's streetcar service was temporarily disrupted by the storm . Trees were blown down in the parks of Havana . Twenty people were killed in the city , while in Batabanó , nine people were killed , with many others missing . In Matanzas , the location of the United States ' 28th Infantry , tents were destroyed and there was widespread damage . However , nobody was killed or injured in the city . In San Luis , tobacco crops were ruined , and 150 tobacco barns in the Alquízar municipality were destroyed . The sugar crop in Pinar del Río Province survived well during the hurricane . In the La Guria section of Cuba , the banana crops were completely destroyed . Rivers topped their banks throughout the country .
= = = Florida = = =
In Miami , over 100 houses were destroyed , and the Episcopal and Methodist churches were completely destroyed . The jail in Miami was nearly completely dismantled , and the prisoners were evacuated . In Fort Pierce , the Peninsula and Occidental railcar sheds collapsed , with the roofs blown away . A two @-@ story brick saloon was destroyed during the hurricane . The Miami telegraph office reported street flooding in the city , and that the telegraph office was flooded . Damage in Miami amounted to $ 160 @,@ 000 . In Key West , houses and trees were knocked down . In St. Augustine , the tide was described as the " highest in ten years , " where streets were flooded throughout the city . At least 70 passengers on the steamers St. Lucia and Peerless drowned during the storm near Elliott Key . The steamers Campbell and the Sara were destroyed near the Isle of Pines , and the Elmora sank . Telegraph lines were also down south of Jupiter .
The effects of the hurricane were most severe on the Florida East Coast Railway , where at least 135 people died , 104 of them on Houseboat No. 4 , one of the railway 's boats . Many of the workers were swept to sea on barges and flatboats ; however , the steamer Jenny rescued 42 workers , who were dropped off at Key West , while another 24 were sent to Savannah , Georgia . The railway 's losses totaled about $ 200 @,@ 000 . Construction was disrupted for a whole year by the storm , as equipment was reassembled and repaired . Many farmers on the Florida Keys suffered large losses ; orange groves and fields of pineapples were devastated by the storm . Six lives were lost on plantations in the Keys . At the government wharf , the Fessenden was damaged during the hurricane .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the hurricane , all workers of the Florida East Coast Railway were provided with wooden barracks on land , and several additional safety measures were enforced . The hurricane eventually led to the end of the commercial production of pineapples in the Florida Keys . In 1947 , Project Cirrus attempted to use the method of cloud seeding in a hurricane . Approximately 180 pounds ( 82 kg ) of crushed dry ice were seeded into the 1947 hurricane . The system was successfully seeded ; however , soon after the seeding , the hurricane changed course and traced toward Charleston , South Carolina . Following the seeding , the project was cancelled and numerous lawsuits were filed as the result of the sudden change of the path in the storm . However , the similar path of this hurricane prevented the success of the lawsuits .
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= Ellen van Dijk =
Eleonora Maria " Ellen " van Dijk ( Dutch pronunciation : [ ˌeːleːoːˈnoːraː maːˈriaː ˈɛllən vɑn dɛik ] ; born 11 February 1987 ) is a Dutch professional road racing cyclist riding for Boels Dolmans Cycling Team . Besides road cycling she was also a track cyclist until 2012 . Van Dijk is known as a time trial specialist and is four times world champion . She won her first world title on the track in the scratch race in 2008 . She became Road World Champion in 2012 and 2013 in the team time trial and in 2013 also in the individual time trial . In 2015 she won the time trial at the first European Games and the silver medal in the team time trial at the world championships .
Van Dijk started as a speed skater and as part of her skating training she undertook cycling as part of cross @-@ training in summer . She excelled at both , competing nationally at junior level . After becoming a national cycling champion for the fifth time in 2007 , she quit speed skating and became a full @-@ time cyclist . Along with her world title successes , Van Dijk has also twice been European track champion , twice European time trial champion and has won six World Cup races . In 2012 she competed in three disciplines at the 2012 Olympic Games in London , where she helped Marianne Vos win the gold medal in the road race , finished eighth in the time trial and sixth in the team pursuit .
= = Personal life = =
Ellen van Dijk grew up in Harmelen , Utrecht together with her two older brothers , her father Nico and her mother Anneke . Besides speed skating and cycling , she also played volleyball and performed gymnastics when she was a child . Van Dijk left Harmelen for her study to Amsterdam in 2006 , where she still lives . During the first years in Amsterdam she shared her apartment with Mariëlle Kerste , her best friend and also a Dutch cyclist . Kerste moved out a few years later and Van Dijk has since shared an apartment with the Dutch cyclist Hannah Walter . In December 2014 Van Dijk moved to Woerden .
Van Dijk graduated from Minkema College , Woerden , in 2005 and earned a bachelor ’ s degree in Human Movement Sciences at the VU University in Amsterdam in 2011 . After the Olympics she started her master 's degree , but didn 't have time to complete it .
= = Sport career = =
= = = Speed skating = = =
Van Dijk started her career as a speed skater . As a very young child , she had performed in natural ice skating tours and , at the age of eight , she became a member of a local speed skating club . During the winter months , Van Dijk trained almost every day at the local speed skating rink in Utrecht . She did this from when she was aged twelve until she was twenty years old . Van Dijk competed five times in the junior Dutch Allround Championships ; she finished in tenth place on two occasions in the all @-@ around competition and in fourth place in the 3000m in 2005 . She also rode the track record at the 5000 metres .
= = = Early cycling years = = =
When she was ten years old , Van Dijk started , together with her two brothers and Mariëlle Kerste , cross @-@ training on a bike during the summer and she began competing in regional races . Because Van Dijk performed well , she started competing in national races at the age of 15 in 2002 . In the same year , in her first national championship , she finished in fourth place . The following year , she won the Dutch national road championship in the novice category . In 2004 , Van Dijk won two more national titles , this time as a junior , in the road race and in the road individual time trial . In the latter , she beat Marianne Vos , though Vos would avenge her defeat in Road World Championships in Verona , Italy . Vos won the junior road race world title , with Van Dijk finishing third . In 2005 , Van Dijk again won the Dutch national junior title in the individual time trial but finished second in the road race , again behind Vos . In 2007 , when Van Dijk was considered for selection in regional speed skating , she had to choose between speed skating and cycling – ultimately , she chose cycling .
= = = Professional career = = =
= = = = 2006 = = = =
Van Dijk achieved two stage victories in the Tour Féminin en Limousin and in the Giro della Toscana . In the middle of the season , Van Dijk suffered a clavicle fracture and as a result was hampered in the national championships . She finished 10th at the U @-@ 23 European Championships in Valkenburg and at the World University Cycling Championship , Van Dijk won the individual time trial and finished second in the road race . At the end of the season , Van Dijk was a reserve at the road world championships but she did not race . At the Dutch National Track Championships she won bronze in the individual pursuit .
= = = = 2007 = = = =
Van Dijk won the first stage in the Tour of Chongming Island and finished second in the general classification . At the national time trial championships she became for the first time Dutch champion in the elite category . In the time trial at the European Championships ( under @-@ 23 ) she finished fifth . Due to her good results in the time trials she was chosen to represent the Netherlands in the time trial at the Road World Championships in Stuttgart where she finished 17th . Due to her good results she became sportswomen of the year of Woerden . Because Van Dijk had more spare time in the winter after quitting speed skating , she was invited to join the Dutch national track cycling team . At the national track championships she became Dutch champion in the individual pursuit , ahead of Marianne Vos and Kirsten Wild , and finished fourth in the scratch race and points race .
= = = = 2008 = = = =
Due to her good results at the national track cycling championships , Van Dijk was chosen to ride the individual pursuit in the remaining two ( out of four ) 2007 – 2008 track cycling World Cups , where she could , via the UCI World Ranking system , potentially earn qualification for the 2008 Olympic Games . She finished in Los Angeles and Copenhagen in fifth and fourth places respectively . After finishing fifth in the individual pursuit at the World Track Championships in Manchester , Van Dijk missed out on qualification for the Olympic games ; she finished 12th in the UCI World Rankings and only the first eleven riders qualified . The day after she took revenge by winning her first major senior title , the scratch race at the 2008 World Cycling Championships . With eight laps to go she attacked and rode solo to the finish line . Later that year , she also became European Track Championships in the scratch as well as in the points race . She rode to the silver medal in the omnium and the individual pursuit events . Despite not winning a medal at the Dutch time trial championships she won the time trial at the European Championships ( under @-@ 23 ) . She was not selected to ride the time trial at the Summer Olympics , because the course would be too heavy for her .
= = = = 2009 = = = =
On the track , Van Dijk followed other competitors by riding with a heavier gear . The change seemed to bear fruit when , in February at the Track Cycling World Cup in Copenhagen , she won her first two World Cup victories in the individual pursuit and points race and won a silver medal in the team pursuit . A month later at the Track Cycling World Championships in Pruszków , Poland , she failed to live up to her billing as world champion and her performances were not as good as those than in Copenhagen in February and in Manchester the year before . Indeed , Van Dijk did not reach the podium in any event . In spite of her disappointing performance in Pruszków , Van Dijk was approached by , and soon agreed to join , the professional road cycling team Team Columbia – High Road Women . Although the name of the team has changed on a number of occasions since , Van Dijk rode for this team until 2013 . The road season did not start well as Van Dijk suffered a concussion in a crash during the Ronde van Gelderland in April and she was unable to ride for nearly six weeks . Almost immediately after having recovered from her injury , she defended successfully her European time trial title at the European Road Championships in July . After riding the time trial at the Road World Championships , Van Dijk took some rest in preparation for the Track Cycling World Cups . She skipped the National track championships , which were held two weeks after the World Championships .
= = = = 2010 = = = =
Van Dijk did not reach the finals at the Track Cycling World Championships in Melbourne , finishing fifth in both the individual pursuit and the team pursuit events . She also participated in the points race as a late replacement and finished eighth . Van Dijk won the time trial on the road in the Holland Ladies Tour en route to finishing third in the final general classification standings . She won the Sparkassen Giro and finished second in the Open de Suède Vårgårda World Cup race in Sweden . At the Dutch Track Championships , Van Dijk won five medals including gold in the individual pursuit .
= = = = 2011 = = = =
Van Dijk cycled in the team pursuit to a national team time trial record at the Track Cycling World Cup in Manchester . A month later however she rode with the team three seconds slower at the Track Cycling World Championships and finished in 5th place ; the same position in which Van Dijk finished in the individual pursuit .
Van Dijk started the road cycling season by winning all three classifications ( yellow jersey , points and young rider ) in the Ladies Tour of Qatar , including winning the second stage . Van Dijk dedicated her stage and overall win to teammate Carla Swart , who died whilst training after being hit by a truck a few weeks earlier . The price money she earned in Qatar was sent to her family . After riding stage races in the Netherlands , China and Spain she finished second at the Dutch time trial championships in Veendam and qualified for the World Championships later the year . A month later , in Sweden , she rode two World Cup races , winning the Open de Suède Vårgårda TTT and finishing second in the Open de Suède Vårgårda . As preparation for the World Championships she won the time trial at the Holland Ladies Tour . At the World Championships in Copenhagen she finished 6th in the time trial and was the best Dutch rider . Returning to the track , Van Dijk won the Track Cycling World Cup in Astana in a new national record , which was her fourth World Cup victory . At the end of the year she successfully defended her Dutch individual pursuit title at the Dutch National Track Championships and also became national champion in the madison .
= = = = 2012 = = = =
After a knee injury due to an accident with a scooter and a few weeks of required rest and adjusted training , Van Dijk won a stage in the Energiewacht Tour ; because she did not earn enough bonus seconds during the tour she finished second in the general classification . Van Dijk also won the individual time trial and the road race in the Omloop van Borsele . A few days later she started in the Gracia @-@ Orlova , where she won the prologue and a stage and helped her team @-@ mate Evelyn Stevens to win the general classification . Back in the Netherlands , in Emmen , she became the Dutch time trial champion in the elite category for the second time in her career .
Van Dijk was selected to represent her country at the Olympic Games in London , and she competed in the road race and the individual time trial on the road and in the team pursuit on the track . In the road race , Van Dijk was a domestique for Marianne Vos , who won the gold medal . Van Dijk attacked five times but finished outside the time limit . Because the victory of Marianne Vos was seen as a team performance , Van Dijk , Loes Gunnewijk and Annemiek van Vleuten were all subsequently honoured in both the Holland Heineken House and the Ridderzaal . In the time trial , Van Dijk finished eighth . She said afterwards that she was afraid to start too fast and subsequently lost a lot of time in the first part of the race . In the team pursuit , Van Dijk finished sixth together with Kirsten Wild , Amy Pieters and Vera Koedooder . In the qualification heats , the team had held the Olympic record for a short period and they rode a new Dutch national record in round one . According to Van Dijk , sixth place was the highest attainable place the team could have hoped to achieve .
As preparation for the Road World Championships , Van Dijk and her Team Specialized – lululemon won the team time trials at the World Cup ( Vargarda ) and in the Holland Ladies Tour . In between these victories , Van Dijk won the first and final stages of the Lotto @-@ Decca Tour and as a result also topped the general classification , finishing ahead of Kirsten Wild in second place . At the World Road Championships in Valkenburg Van Dijk became world champion in the team time trial with Team Specialized – lululemon . Three days later , Van Dijk finished fifth in the individual time trial on a hilly course that she afterwards described as being " not made for me " . During the road race , she was a casualty in a crash involving 50 riders and did not finish the race . During the winter period she chose not to ride on the track to keep her focus completely on the 2013 road cycling season .
= = = = 2013 = = = =
Van Dijk started the season with a third place in the general classification of the Ladies Tour of Qatar . During the season openers Van Dijk rode very well highlighted by her victory in the Le Samyn des Dames . In the first three UCI World Cup races Van Dijk finished two times second ( Ronde van Drenthe , Tour of Flanders ) and rode to a third place in the Trofeo Alfredo Binda in Italy . Her second stage race of the season , the Energiewacht Tour included the first individual time trial of the season which she won with a big difference . After also finishing two times second she won the general classification . About the time trial she said later that she had been tested on her time trial position during her stay in Italy . After a day of testing and adjusting the position of the sadle and the steer she found a better position which she was able to maintain for almost half an hour . She also said that she rode at a higher power than in the time trials at the 2012 Summer Olympics and the 2012 World Championships . Van Dijk also improved riding uphill and finished sixt in the fourth World Cup race , the hilly La Flèche Wallonne . Her time trial continued to go well and she won the time trials at the EPZ Omloop van Borsele and two time trial stages in the Gracia @-@ Orlová . She also won a mountain stage , the queen stage , in the Gracia @-@ Orlová and so the general classification . In June she successfully defended her National Time Trial title in Winsum . A few days later she rode in medal position during the National Road Race Championships but had to abandon the race due to a broken derailleur in the second last lap . At the Giro d 'Italia Femminile , the most prestigious stage race in women 's cycling , she won stage 8 , an individual time trial . With Specialized – lululemon she won World Cup team time trial at the Open de Suède Vårgårda TTT . After the last two World Cup races , the Open de Suède Vårgårda where she finished fourth and the GP de Plouay which she did not ride to prepare for the last stage races , she finished third in the overall World Cup standings . She rode strong during the stage races and won the general classification of the Lotto @-@ Belisol Belgium Tour as well as of the Holland Ladies Tour , including the team time trial stages .
As a preparation for the World Championships in Tuscany Van Dijk went during the season a few times to Italy to practise the time trial course . She trained at five in the morning to avoid traffic and made video recordings of the course to get to know the turns . In the week before the World Championships she won the French time trial Chrono Champenois – Trophée Européen . All the preparations paid off and the World Championships were very successful for Van Dijk . With her team she won for the second consecutive year the world title in the team time trial . Because Van Dijk had won almost all the time trials this year she was also the main favourite for the individual time trial . Despite the pressure she won the time trial with a convincing victory and became the second Dutch women to win this title . At the end of the championships , Van Dijk finished 16th on a non @-@ preferable hilly road race course .
Due to her successful season she ended third in the 2013 Women 's Road World Ranking . At the end of the year Van Dijk won the title Amsterdam Sportswoman of the year . She was nominated previous years but never won the title . She was also nominated to become Dutch cyclist of the year but lost from Marianne Vos .
= = = = 2014 = = = =
In October 2013 Van Dijk announced that she signed a three @-@ year contract with Boels Dolmans Cycling Team . She is a teammate of among others Lizzie Armitstead , Katarzyna Pawłowska and Christine Majerus . The time trial at the 2016 Summer Olympics will be her big goal . She will keep her focus on time trials , world cup races and flat short stage races . Due to her focus on road cycling , she will not compete on the track . Van Dijk was not able to start in the Ladies Tour of Qatar because she did not recover in time from an illness after riding mountainbikerace Egmond @-@ pier @-@ Egmond . She got back her shape during the fist races and just missed the podium in the GP Le Samyn . At the first World Cup race of the season , the Ronde van Drenthe , Van Dijk helped team mate Lizzie Armitstead to victory by closing a massive gap in the final of the race .
Van Dijk won the Tour of Flanders after a solo of 25 kilometres in April . After her time trial victory at the World Championships in 2013 , it is her major victory of her career according to herself . At the end of April , Ellen van Dijk won for the third consecutive the time trial at the Omloop van Borsele . The day afterwards Van Dijk finished third in the road race which ended with a bunch sprint . As part of the same time trial competition , Van Dijk did not win the time trial at the GP Leende a month later . She finished second behind former team mate Lisa Brennauer . Van Dijk responded that here average power during the time trial was not great but also not very bad and that Brennauer is a world class time trialist . Two days later she finished again second in the prologue of the Elsy Jacobs stage race , two seconds behind Marianne Vos .
At the Boels Rental Hills Classic Van Dijk was part of front group that consisted of six riders which fell apart into a group of three riders . With an uphill finish , Van Dijk lost the sprint from Johansson ( Orica @-@ AIS ) and finished second ahead of Amy Pieters ( Rabo Liv ) . Van Dijk won the mountain classification of the race . In June , Van Dijk started as the main favourite at the Dutch National Time Trial Championships , but did not win her fourth time trial title . She finished second , with a margin of only 0 @.@ 02 seconds , behind Annemiek van Vleuten ( Rabo Liv ) . Van Dijk was disappointed and responded that she was not that good as in 2013 without having a real explanation for it .
Van Dijk participated at La Course by Le Tour de France , the inaugural edition of a women 's race on the final day and on the same circuit of the Tour de France with worldwide broadcasting . Van Dijk attacked multiple times and was the only women who was able to get clear for a few laps with a maximal advantage of over half a minute . At the Open de Suède Vårgårda TTT , where she finished third with her team , she got some confidence back about her time trial performances . In begin September Van Dijk won the time trial of the Boels Rental Ladies Tour , with a 12 seconds gap over her main rival Lisa Brennauer . Her first international time trial victory of the season . With the other stages ending in a bunch sprint and sprinters winning the bonification seconds , Van Dijk finished third in the general classification . A final test for het time trial capabilities before the World Championships was at the Chrono Champenois ITT . Halfway the 33 @.@ 40 kilometres ( 20 @.@ 8 miles ) time trial she had a 39 seconds advantage over Hanna Solovey , but she finished second 8 seconds behind her because she lost about a minute after riding the wrong direction .
= = = = 2015 = = = =
Van Dijk started the season as usual with the Ladies Tour of Qatar . She won the second stage and took the lead in the general classification . The day afterwards team mate Lizzie Armitstead took over the leading jersey . Van Dijk ended the tour in third place in the overall classification . During the first European race of the season , the Omloop het Nieuwsblad , van Dijk escaped from a front group of 15 riders on the Molenberg with 30 km to go . Anna van der Breggen was the only one who was able to follow her . The duo extended their advantage over the cobbled sections that followed , holding off the chase group to the line , where Van Dijk lost the two @-@ up sprint . A few days later Van Dijk rode again strong in the Le Samyn des Dames . In the final kilometers she closed a one @-@ minute gap with the front group . After closing the gap she was the leadout for Chantal Blaak who sprinted to victory . Due to a back injury , Van Dijk could not start in Omloop van het Hageland . In the first World Cup of the season , the Ronde van Drenthe , the team was eager to win . In the final Van Dijk was the lead @-@ out for Armitstead . However , Armitstead lost Van Dijk in the last kilometer . Van Dijk continued sprinting and rode to the third place . She was happy with her result , but found it a shame that the team did not win . During the second World Cup race , the Trofeo Alfredo Bina Van Dijk couldn 't ride uphill with the fastest riders and finished eighth , with team mate Armitstead taking the win . For the Tour of Flanders , Van Dijk heard a day before the race she was not as a leader of the team , although Van Dijk won this World Cup race previous year . Because Van Dijk prepared very well for this race she was disappointed , and didn 't ride a good race finishing 24th . Van Dijk rode several races in the Netherlands , Belgium and Spain in April , May and the begin of the June . The most notable results from these race being a second place in the team time trial in the Energiewacht Tour and a second place in Gooik @-@ Geraardsbergen @-@ Gooik , being outsprinted by Gracie Elvin . Van Dijk was selected to represent the Netherlands at the first 2015 European Games in the time trial and the road race in Baku , Azerbaijan in June . The time trial was her big goal and she was the favorite to win it . With a good race over the straight circuit she was 36 seconds faster than the Ukrainian Hanna Solovey and won the first gold medal for the Netherlands . In the road race she was part of front group of four riders , together with countrywomen Anna van der Breggen . During the last lap it appeared that Van der Breggen rode for her Polish trade @-@ team mate Katarzyna Niewiadoma and not for the Netherlands . Van Dijk was the brunt of these tactics and finished fourth . Four days later , back in the Netherlands , she was not able to win the national time trial championships , finishing almost half a minute behind Van der Breggen .
During the La Course by Le Tour de France the rain poured down and made the course and cobbles slippery . Van Dijk was involved by one of the many crashes . She broke het collarbone and had to abandon the race . At home she had installed a high @-@ altitiude tent , and with a speedy recovery she went with Iris Slappendel to Switzerland to train at high altitude . Six weeks after her crash she could race again and started in the 2015 Boels Rental Ladies Tour on 1 September . She rode in the stage race stronger every day and finished second in the time trial , two seconds behind of Lisa Brennauer . She moved to the third place in the general classification and was able to keep this position .
At the 2015 UCI Road World Championships in Richmond , United States , she won the silver medal with her team in the team time trial . In the time trial she finished disappointingly seventh . A reason for her performance was that her rear wheal was not well attached in the frame . Her wheel ran into the frame , damaging her tire and puncturing her inner tube . For the road race she rode for Anna van der Breggen who won the silver medal and finished in tenth place herself .
= = = = 2016 = = = =
Van Dijk started the road race season also this year with the Ladies Tour of Qatar . It was very windy and Van Dijk lost some time in the second stage because she rode in the second echelon . In the third stage she was part of the front group . In the last few kilometres she was able to ride away and won the stage , in the same city as she won the year before . She moved up to the third place in the general classification and maintained this position , with team mate Romy Kasper finishing in second place overall . At the Omloop het Nieuwsblad at the end of February , Van Dijk attacked at the last climb . She was caught and finished the race in arrears due to a bike change . Due to a crash during the race she went to the hospital afterwards and it appears she had one broken and some bruised ribs .
= = Achievements = =
= = = Results at championships and Games = = =
OTL |
= over time limit , DNF =
did not finish , U23 = under 23
= = = Other major achievements = = =
= = Dutch national records , team pursuit = =
The women 's 3000 m team pursuit track cycling discipine was introduced at the 2007 – 08 track cycling season . The Dutch team consisting of Ellen van Dijk , Marlijn Binnendijk and Yvonne Hijgenaar rode the team pursuit for the first time at Round 4 at the 2007 – 08 UCI Track Cycling World Cup in Copenhagen in a time of 3 : 36 @.@ 901 ( 49 @.@ 792 km / h ) . They broke the record later that day . After have ridden the team pursuit for the first time , the record has been broken nine times . Van Dijk is the only woman who always has been part of the squad when a record was broken . The current record was settled during the 2012 Summer Olympics by Van Dijk , Kirsten Wild and Vera Koedooder in a time of 3 : 20 @.@ 013 ( 53 @.@ 996 km / h ) on 4 August 2012 . After the 2011 – 12 track cycling season the UCI changed the discipline into a 4000 m team pursuit with 4 riders .
= = Personal records = =
|
= Hugo Award =
The Hugo Awards are a set of awards given annually for the best science fiction or fantasy works and achievements of the previous year . The awards are named after Hugo Gernsback , the founder of the pioneering science fiction magazine Amazing Stories , and were officially named the Science Fiction Achievement Awards until 1992 . Organized and overseen by the World Science Fiction Society , the awards are given each year at the annual World Science Fiction Convention as the central focus of the event . They were first given in 1953 , at the 11th World Science Fiction Convention , and have been awarded every year since 1955 . Over the years that the award has been given , the categories presented have changed ; currently Hugo Awards are given in more than a dozen categories , and include both written and dramatic works of various types .
One of the most prestigious science fiction awards , the Hugo Awards have been termed as " among the highest honors bestowed in science fiction and fantasy writing " . Works that have won have been published in special collections , and the official logo of the Hugo Awards is often placed on the winning books ' cover as a promotional tool . The 2015 awards were presented at the 73rd Worldcon , Sasquan , in Spokane , United States , on August 22 , 2015 . The 2016 Hugos will be presented at the 74th Worldcon , MidAmeriCon II , in Kansas City , United States , on August 21 , 2016 .
For lists of winners and nominees for each category , see the list of award categories below .
= = Award = =
The World Science Fiction Society ( WSFS ) gives out the Hugo Awards each year for the best science fiction or fantasy works and achievements of the previous year . The award is named after Hugo Gernsback , who founded the pioneering science fiction magazine Amazing Stories and who is considered one of the " fathers " of the science fiction genre . Works are eligible for an award if they were published in English in the prior calendar year . There are no written rules as to which works qualify as science fiction or fantasy , and the decision of eligibility in that regard is left up to the voters , rather than to the organizing committee . Hugo Award nominees and winners are chosen by supporting or attending members of the annual World Science Fiction Convention , or Worldcon , and the presentation evening constitutes its central event . The selection process is defined in the WSFS constitution as instant @-@ runoff voting with five nominees per category , except in the case of a tie . The awards are split over more than a dozen categories , and include both written and dramatic works .
For each category of Hugo , the voter may rank " No Award " as one of their choices . Voters are instructed that they should do so if they feel that none of the nominees are worthy of the award , or if they feel the category should be abolished entirely . A vote for " No Award " other than as one 's first choice signifies that the voter believes the nominee ( s ) ranked higher than " No Award " are worthy of a Hugo in that category , while those ranked lower are not .
The five works on the ballot for each category are the most @-@ nominated by members that year , with no limit on the number of stories that can be nominated . From 1953 to 1958 the awards did not include any recognition of runner @-@ up novels , but since 1959 all of the candidates have been recorded . Initial nominations are made by members in January through March , while voting on the ballot of five nominations is performed roughly in April through July , subject to change depending on when that year 's Worldcon is held . Worldcons are generally held near the start of September , and take place in a different city around the world each year .
The idea of giving out awards at Worldcons was proposed by Harold Lynch for the 1953 convention . The idea was based on the Academy Awards , with the name " Hugo " being given by Robert A. Madle . The award itself was created by Jack McKnight and Ben Jason in 1953 , based on the design of hood ornaments of 1950s cars . It consisted of a finned rocket ship on a wooden base . Each subsequent award , with the exception of the 1958 award , has been similar to the original design . The rocket trophy was formally redesigned in 1984 , and since then only the base of the trophy has changed each year . There is no monetary or other remuneration associated with the Hugo , other than the trophy .
= = = Retro Hugos = = =
Retrospective Hugo Awards , or Retro Hugos , were added in the mid @-@ 1990s . These awards are given by Worldcons held 50 , 75 , or 100 years after a Worldcon where no Hugos had been awarded , which were the conventions in 1939 – 41 , 1946 – 52 , and 1954 , and are given for works that would have been eligible in that year , by the same process as the regular Hugos . Retro Hugos have only been given five times : in 1996 , 2001 , and 2004 for 50 years prior , and 2014 and 2016 for 75 years prior . The six Worldcons eligible in 1997 – 2000 , 2002 , and 2015 chose not to award them . The next opportunity will be in 2022 for 1947 .
= = History = =
= = = 1950s = = =
The first Hugo Awards were presented at the 11th Worldcon in Philadelphia in 1953 , which awarded Hugos in seven categories . The awards presented that year were initially conceived as a one @-@ off event , though the organizers hoped that subsequent conventions would also present them . At the time , Worldcons were completely run by their respective committees as independent events and had no oversight between years . Thus there was no mandate for any future conventions to repeat the awards , and no set rules for how to do so .
The 1954 Worldcon chose not to , but the awards were reinstated at the 1955 Worldcon , and thereafter became traditional . The award was called the Annual Science Fiction Achievement Award , with " Hugo Award " being an unofficial , but better known name . The nickname was accepted as an official alternative name in 1958 , and since the 1992 awards the nickname has been adopted as the official name of the award .
In 1959 , though there were still no formal guidelines governing the awards , several rules were instated which thereafter became traditional . These included having a ballot for nominating works earlier in the year and separate from the voting ballot ; defining eligibility to include works published in the prior calendar year , rather than the previous rule of the " preceding year " ; and allowing voters to select " no award " as an option , which then won that year in two categories : Dramatic Presentation and Best New Author . The eligibility change additionally sparked a separate rule , prohibiting the nomination of works which had been nominated for the 1958 awards , as the two time periods overlapped .
= = = 1960s = = =
In 1961 , after the formation of the WSFS to oversee each Worldcon committee , formal rules were set down in the WSFS constitution mandating the presenting of the awards as one of the responsibilities of each Worldcon organizing committee . The rules restricted voting to members of the convention that the awards would be given at , while still allowing anyone to nominate works ; nominations were restricted to members of the convention or the previous year 's convention in 1963 . The guidelines also specified the categories that would be awarded , which could only be changed by the World Science Fiction Society board . These categories were for Best Novel , Short Fiction ( short stories , broadly defined ) , Dramatic Presentation , Professional Magazine , Professional Artist , and Best Fanzine ( fan magazine ) . 1963 was also the second year in which " no award " won a category , again for Dramatic Presentation .
In 1964 the guidelines were changed to allow individual conventions to create additional categories , which was codified as up to two categories for that year . These additional awards were officially designated as Hugo Awards , but were not required to be repeated by future conventions . This was later adjusted to only allow one additional category ; while these extra Hugo Awards have been given out in several categories , only a few were ever awarded for more than one year .
In 1967 categories for Novelette , Fan Writer , and Fan Artist were added , and a category for Best Novella was added the following year ; these new categories had the effect of providing a definition for what word count qualified a work for what category , which was previously left up to voters . Novelettes had also been awarded prior to the codification of the rules . The fan awards were initially conceived as separate from the Hugo Awards , with the award for Best Fanzine losing its status , but were instead absorbed into the regular Hugo Awards by the convention committee .
= = = 1970s = = =
While traditionally five works had been selected for nomination in each category out of the proposed nominees , in 1971 this was set down as a formal rule , barring ties . In 1973 , the WSFS removed the category for Best Professional Magazine , and a Best Professional Editor award was instated as its replacement , in order to recognize " the increasing importance of original anthologies " .
After that year the guidelines were changed again to remove the mandated awards and instead allow up to ten categories which would be chosen by each convention , though they were expected to be similar to those presented in the year before . Despite this change no new awards were added or previous awards removed before the guidelines were changed back to listing specific categories in 1977 . 1971 and 1977 both saw " no award " win the Dramatic Presentation category for the third and fourth time ; " no award " did not win any categories afterwards until 2015 .
= = = 1980s and 90s = = =
In 1980 the category for Best Non @-@ Fiction Book ( later renamed Best Related Work ) was added , followed by a category for Best Semiprozine ( semi @-@ professional magazine ) in 1984 . In 1983 , members of the Church of Scientology were encouraged by people such as Charles Platt to nominate as a bloc Battlefield Earth , written by the organization 's founder L. Ron Hubbard , for the Best Novel award ; it did not make the final ballot . Another campaign followed in 1987 to nominate Hubbard 's Black Genesis ; it made the final ballot but finished behind " no award " . 1989 saw a work — The Guardsman by Todd Hamilton and P. J. Beese — withdrawn by its authors from the final ballot after a fan bought numerous memberships under false names , all sent in on the same day , in order to get the work onto the ballot .
In 1990 the Best Original Art Work award was given as an extra Hugo Award , and was listed again in 1991 , though not actually awarded , and established afterward as an official Hugo Award . It was then removed from this status in 1996 , and has not been awarded since . The Retro Hugos were created in the mid @-@ 1990s , and were first awarded in 1996 .
= = = Since 2000 = = =
In 2003 , the Dramatic Presentation award was split into two categories , Long Form and Short Form . This was repeated with the Best Professional Editor category in 2007 . 2009 saw the addition of the Best Graphic Story category , while the most recent change to the Hugo Awards was in 2012 , when an award for Best Fancast was added .
In 2015 , two groups of science fiction writers , the " Sad Puppies " led by Brad R. Torgersen and Larry Correia , and the " Rabid Puppies " led by Vox Day , each put forward a similar slate of suggested nominations which came to dominate the ballot . The Sad Puppies campaign had run for two years prior on a smaller scale , with limited success . The leaders of the campaigns characterized them as a reaction to " niche , academic , overtly [ leftist ] " nominees and winners in opposition to " an affirmative action award " that preferred female and non @-@ white authors and characters . In response , five nominees declined their nomination before and , for the first time , two after the ballot was published . Multiple @-@ Hugo @-@ winner Connie Willis declined to present the awards . The slates were characterized by some journalists as a " right wing " , " orchestrated backlash " by a " group of white guys " and were linked with the Gamergate controversy . Multiple Hugo winner Samuel R. Delany characterized the campaigns as a response to " socio @-@ economic " changes such as minority authors gaining prominence and thus " economic heft " . In all but the Best Dramatic Presentation , Long Form category , " no award " placed above all nominees that were on either slate , and it won all five categories that only contained slate nominees .
= = Categories = =
The only discontinued awards which were instated in the WSFS constitution as permanent categories were the Best Professional Magazine and Best Original Art Work Hugo Awards . Worldcon committees may also give out special awards during the Hugo ceremony , which are not voted on . Unlike the additional Hugo categories which Worldcons may present , these awards are not officially Hugo Awards and do not use the same trophy , though they once did . An additional award , the John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer , is presented at the Hugo Award ceremony and voted by the same process , but is not formally a Hugo Award .
= = Recognition = =
The Hugo Award is highly regarded by observers . The Los Angeles Times has termed it " among the highest honors bestowed in science fiction and fantasy writing " , a claim echoed by Wired , who said that it was " the premier award in the science fiction genre " . Justine Larbalestier , in The Battle of the Sexes in Science Fiction ( 2002 ) , referred to the awards as " the best known and most prestigious of the science fiction awards " , and Jo Walton , writing for Tor.com , said it was " undoubtedly science fiction ’ s premier award " . The Guardian similarly acknowledged it as " a fine showcase for speculative fiction " as well as " one of the most venerable , democratic and international " science fiction awards " in existence " . James Gunn , in The New Encyclopedia of Science Fiction ( 1988 ) , echoed The Guardian 's statement of the award 's democratic nature , saying that " because of its broad electorate " the Hugos were the awards most representative of " reader popularity " . Camille Bacon @-@ Smith , in Science Fiction Culture ( 2000 ) , said that at the time fewer than 1000 people voted on the final ballot ; she held , however , that this is a representative sample of the readership at large , given the number of winning novels that remain in print for decades or become notable outside of the science fiction genre , such as The Demolished Man or The Left Hand of Darkness . The 2014 awards saw over 1900 nomination submissions and over 3500 voters on the final slate , while the 1964 awards received 274 votes . The 2015 awards saw 2122 nominating ballots and 5950 votes .
Brian Aldiss , in his book Trillion Year Spree : The History of Science Fiction , claimed that the Hugo Award was a barometer of reader popularity , rather than artistic merit ; he contrasted it with the panel @-@ selected Nebula Award , which provided " more literary judgment " , though he did note that the winners of the two awards often overlapped . Along with the Hugo Award , the Nebula Award is also considered one of the premier awards in science fiction , with Laura Miller of Salon.com terming it " science fiction 's most prestigious award " .
The official logo of the Hugo Awards is often placed on the winning books ' cover as a promotional tool . Gahan Wilson , in First World Fantasy Awards ( 1977 ) , claimed that noting that a book had won the Hugo Award on the cover " demonstrably " increased sales for that novel , though Orson Scott Card said in his 1990 book How to Write Science Fiction & Fantasy that the award had a larger effect on foreign sales than in the United States . Spider Robinson , in 1992 , claimed that publishers were very interested in authors that won a Hugo Award , more so than for other awards such as the Nebula Award . Literary agent Richard Curtis said in his 1996 Mastering the Business of Writing that having the term Hugo Award on the cover , even as a nominee , was a " powerful inducement " to science fiction fans to buy a novel , while Jo Walton claimed in 2011 that the Hugo is the only science fiction award " that actually affects sales of a book " .
There have been several anthologies collecting Hugo @-@ winning short fiction . The series The Hugo Winners , edited by Isaac Asimov , was started in 1962 as a collection of short story winners up to the previous year , and concluded with the 1982 Hugos in Volume 5 . The New Hugo Winners , edited originally by Asimov , later by Connie Willis and finally by Gregory Benford , has four volumes collecting stories from the 1983 to the 1994 Hugos . The most recent anthology is The Hugo Award Showcase ( 2010 ) , edited by Mary Robinette Kowal , which contains most of the short stories , novelettes , and novellas that were nominated for the 2009 award .
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= SpongeBob SquarePants ( season 4 ) =
The fourth season of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants , created by former marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg , aired on Nickelodeon from May 6 , 2005 to July 24 , 2007 , and contained 20 episodes , beginning with the episodes " Fear of a Krabby Patty " and " Shell of a Man " . The series chronicles the exploits and adventures of the title character and his various friends in the fictional underwater city of Bikini Bottom . The season was executive produced by series creator Hillenburg , while writer Paul Tibbitt acted as the showrunner . The show underwent a hiatus on television as Hillenburg halted the production in 2002 to work on the film adaptation of the series , The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie . Once the film was finalized and the previous season had completed broadcast on television , Hillenburg wanted to end the show , but the success of the series led to more episodes , so Tibbitt took over Hillenburg 's position as showrunner and began working on a fourth season for broadcast in 2005 .
The show itself received several recognition , including the three Kids ' Choice Awards for Favorite Cartoon from 2005 to 2007 . The episodes " Fear of a Krabby Patty " and " Shell of a Man " were nominated at the 57th Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) . It also received a nomination for its episodes " Bummer Vacation " and " Wigstruck " at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards for the same category .
Several compilation DVDs that contained episodes from the season were released . The SpongeBob SquarePants : Season 4 , Volume 1 and 2 DVDs were released in Region 1 on September 12 , 2006 and January 9 , 2007 , respectively , while the complete set was released in Region 2 on November 3 , 2008 and Region 4 on November 7 , 2008 . On November 13 , 2012 , The Complete Fourth Season DVD was released in Region 1 .
= = Production = =
The season aired on Nickelodeon , which is owned by Viacom , and was produced by United Plankton Pictures and Nickelodeon . The season 's executive producer was series creator Stephen Hillenburg . In 2002 , Hillenburg and the show 's staff members decided to stop making episodes to work on the 2004 film The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie , after completing the third season . As a result , the show went into a two @-@ year " self @-@ imposed " production hiatus . During the break on television , Nickelodeon expanded the programming for the third season to cover the delay , however , according to network executive Eric Coleman , " there certainly was a delay and a built @-@ up demand . " Nickelodeon announced nine " as @-@ yet @-@ unaired " episodes would be shown during the break .
Once the production on the film was completed , Hillenburg wanted to end the series " so the show wouldn 't jump the shark " , but Nickelodeon wanted to do more episodes . Hillenburg said " Well , there was concern when we did the movie [ in 2004 ] that the show had peaked . There were concerns among executives at Nickelodeon . " Hillenburg resigned as the series ' showrunner , and appointed Paul Tibbitt , who previously served as the show 's supervising producer , writer , director , and storyboard artist , to overtake the role . Hillenburg considered Tibbitt one of his favorite members of the show 's crew , and " totally trusted him " . Tibbitt still helmed the showrunner position , until October 2015 when Vincent Waller & Marc Ceccarelli took his position , and also functions as an executive producer . Hillenburg no longer writes or runs the show on a day @-@ to @-@ day basis , but reviews each episode and delivers suggestions . He said , " I figure when I 'm pretty old I can still paint . I don 't know about running shows . "
In 2004 , Tom Kenny , Bill Fagerbakke , and the rest of the crew confirmed they have completed four new episodes for broadcast on Nickelodeon in early 2005 , and planned to finish about 20 total for the then @-@ fourth season . In particular , Kenny said , " Kids were happy watching them for the 3,000th time . It was the parents who 've been busting my chops for new episodes . " He remarked that it would be " the same show , the same sponge " . On May 6 , 2005 , the season premiered with the episodes " Fear of a Krabby Patty " and " Shell of a Man " . " Fear of a Krabby Patty " was the first episode to be broadcast after the show 's intermission . It was written by C.H. Greenblatt and Paul Tibbitt , while Alan Smart served as animation director .
Animation was handled overseas in South Korea at Rough Draft Studios . Animation directors credited with episodes in the fourth season included Larry Leichliter , Andrew Overtoom , Smart , and Tom Yasumi . Starting with the episode " Fear of a Krabby Patty , " this is the first season to use the 3 @-@ D computer cel shading rather than digital ink and paint or traditional cel animation . The show would continue to be animated like this until the end of the eighth season . Episodes were written by a team of writers , which consisted of Casey Alexander , Steven Banks , Mike Bell , Luke Brookshier , Nate Cash , Zeus Cervas , Greenblatt , Tom King , Tim Hill , Kyle McCulloch , Dani Michaeli , Chris Mitchell , Mike Mitchell , Aaron Springer , Tibbitt , Vincent Waller , and Erik Wiese . The season was storyboarded by Alexander , Bell , Brookshier , Cash , Cervas , Greenblatt , King , Chris Mitchell , Springer , Tuck Tucker , Brad Vandergrift , Waller , and Wiese .
= = Cast = =
The fourth season had a cast of six main actors . Tom Kenny provided the voice of the title character SpongeBob SquarePants and his pet snail Gary . SpongeBob 's best friend , a starfish named Patrick Star , was voiced by Bill Fagerbakke , while Rodger Bumpass played the voice of Squidward Tentacles , an arrogant and ill @-@ tempered octopus . Other members of the cast were Carolyn Lawrence as Sandy Cheeks , a squirrel from Texas ; Clancy Brown as Mr. Krabs , a miserly crab obsessed with money and SpongeBob 's boss at the Krusty Krab ; and Mr. Lawrence as Plankton , a small green copepod and Mr. Krabs ' business rival . The season had a number of secondary characters including Jill Talley as Plankton 's computer wife , Karen ; Mary Jo Catlett as Mrs. Puff , SpongeBob 's driving instructor ; Lori Alan as Pearl , Mr. Krabs ' daughter ; and Brian Doyle @-@ Murray as the Flying Dutchman .
In addition to the regular cast members , episodes feature guest voices from many ranges of professions , including actors , musicians , and artists . For instance , in the episode " Have You Seen This Snail ? " , American comedian and actress Amy Poehler guest starred as the voice of Grandma , a sweet old woman who adopted Gary after he ran away . Musician Stew also appeared as a voice , performing the song " Gary , Come Home " . Show writer C.H. Greenblatt made an appearance in the episode " Selling Out " as Carl . Ernest Borgnine and Tim Conway returned in the episode " Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy : VI The Motion Picture " , reprising their roles as Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy , respectively . In " Mrs. Puff , You 're Fired " , English actor Robin Sachs voiced Sergeant Sam Roderick , a driving instructor who took over Mrs. Puff in teaching SpongeBob . Christopher Ryan , Nigel Planer and Rik Mayall appeared in the episode " Chimps Ahoy " as Sandy 's bosses — Professor Percy , Dr. Marmalade and Lord Reginald , respectively . In the entry " Karate Island " , Happy Days and The Karate Kid actor Pat Morita guest starred as Master Udon , a scammer who kidnaps SpongeBob to make him buy real estate . Morita died in November 2005 , and the May 2006 episode was dedicated to Morita 's memory .
= = Reception = =
The season was well received by media critics and fans . Paul Mavis of DVD Talk gave both of the season 's volumes 4 1 / 2 stars . The episodes " Fear of a Krabby Patty " and " Shell of a Man " were nominated at the 57th Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) , but lost to South Park 's " Best Friends Forever " . The show was also nominated at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards for the same category for the episodes " Bummer Vacation " and " Wigstruck " . At the 33rd Annie Awards , C.H. Greenblatt , Paul Tibbitt , Mike Bell and Tim Hill were also nominated for Best Writing in an Animated Television Production for the episode " Fear of a Krabby Patty " . " Fear of a Krabby Patty " won for a Special Award at the 2005 Annecy International Animated Film Festival . At the 2006 Golden Reel Awards , the episode " Have You Seen This Snail ? " was nominated for Best Sound Editing in Television : Animated . The show itself received several recognition , including the three Kids ' Choice Awards for Favorite Cartoon from 2005 to 2007 . It also received a nomination at the 21st TCA Awards for Outstanding Achievement in Children 's Programming , but lost to Degrassi : The Next Generation , and at the 23rd TCA Awards for the same category . However , the series did not win .
= = Episodes = =
Key
The following episodes listed in the chart are arranged according to their production order , rather than by their original air dates .
= = DVD release = =
The first ten episodes of the fourth season were released on DVD by Paramount Home Entertainment in the United States and Canada on September 12 , 2006 . The " Volume 1 " DVD release features bonus material including animatics and featurettes . The remaining ten episodes of the season were also released under the title " Volume 2 " in the United States and Canada on January 9 , 2007 . The DVD release also features bonus material including music videos , shorts and featurettes . In Region 2 and 4 , the DVD release for the season was a complete set . On November 13 , 2012 , The Complete Fourth Season DVD was released in Region 1 , five years after the season had completed broadcast on television .
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= HMS Dainty ( H53 ) =
HMS Dainty was a D @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the early 1930s . The ship was initially assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet before she was transferred to the China Station in early 1935 . She was temporarily deployed in the Red Sea during late 1935 during the Abyssinia Crisis , before returning to her assigned station where she remained until mid @-@ 1939 . Dainty was transferred back to the Mediterranean Fleet just before World War II began in September 1939 . She briefly was assigned to West Africa for convoy escort duties in 1940 before returning to the Mediterranean . The ship participated in the Battle of Calabria in July 1940 and was assigned to convoy escort and patrol duties until she was sunk by German bombers off Tobruk on 24 February 1941 .
= = Description = =
Dainty displaced 1 @,@ 375 long tons ( 1 @,@ 397 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 890 long tons ( 1 @,@ 920 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Dainty carried a maximum of 473 long tons ( 481 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 870 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 870 km ; 6 @,@ 760 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 145 officers and men .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre QF 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mark IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Dainty had a single 12 @-@ pounder ( 3 @-@ inch ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) ) gun and two quadruple Mark I mounts for the QF 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
= = Career = =
Dainty was ordered on 2 February 1931 under the 1930 Naval Estimates and was laid down at the yards of the Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Company , Govan , Scotstoun on 20 April 1931 . She was launched on 3 May 1932 and completed on 22 December 1932 , at a total cost of £ 229 @,@ 378 , excluding equipment supplied by the Admiralty , such as weapons , ammunition and wireless equipment .
The ship was initially assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla in the Mediterranean and made a brief deployment to the Persian Gulf and Red Sea in October – November 1933 . Dainty was refitted at Portsmouth between 3 September and 23 October 1934 for service on the China Station with the 8th ( later the 21st ) Destroyer Flotilla and arrived there on 3 January 1935 . She was attached to the Mediterranean Fleet in the Red Sea from 30 September 1935 to June 1936 during the Abyssinian Crisis . The ship was refitted afterwards in Hong Kong between 21 September and 15 October and conducted anti @-@ piracy patrols after her refit was complete . On 21 January 1937 , the merchant ship SS Hsin Pekin grounded on the Nemesis Rock off Ningbo and Dainty posted a guard aboard her until she was refloated . The ship made a number of port visits in Sarawak , Singapore and the Philippines in January – March 1938 . As war loomed , she was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet , arriving at Alexandria with her sister Duncan on 30 September 1939 , after the outbreak of World War II .
Dainty was assigned to search for contraband being shipped across the Mediterranean throughout October and November , before undergoing a refit at Malta from 8 – 30 December . On its completion she was transferred to the 2nd Destroyer Division , based in Freetown , Sierra Leone to search for German commerce raiders operating in the South Atlantic . The ship was transferred back to the Mediterranean Fleet in April and was given another refit at Malta from 21 April to 2 June 1940 . On its completion , Dainty was assigned to the 10th Destroyer Flotilla .
On 12 June , she rescued over 400 survivors from the light cruiser Calypso , which had been sunk off Crete . Eight days later , the ship , and three other destroyers , escorted the French battleship Lorraine and three British cruisers as they bombarded Bardia during the night of 20 / 21 June . On 27 June , Dainty , her sister Defender and the destroyer Ilex attacked the Italian submarine Console Generale Liuzzi and damaged her badly . The crew then scuttled Liuzzi . Two days later , Dainty and Ilex attacked the submarines Uebi Scebeli and Salpa , sinking Uebi Scebeli , although Salpa was able to escape . The British ships were able to salvage important encryption material , including the latest codebook . They may also have been responsible for the sinking of the Italian submarine Argonauta on 29 June as she returned from Tobruk .
Dainty participated in the Battle of Calabria on 9 July as an escort for the heavy ships of Force C and unsuccessfully engaged Italian destroyers and suffered no damage . Together with her sisters Defender and Diamond , the Australian destroyer Stuart , and the light cruisers Capetown and Liverpool , she escorted Convoy AN.2 from Egypt to various ports in the Aegean Sea in late July . On 29 August Dainty , Diamond and the destroyers Jervis , Juno escorted the Royal Fleet Auxiliary tanker Plumleaf and two merchant ships , SS Cornwall and SS Volo , from Egypt to Malta with relief supplies . Dainty and Ilex escorted the Australian light cruiser Sydney as she bombarded the Italian airfield on Scarpanto on 4 September .
Together with three Australian destroyers and two British anti @-@ aircraft cruisers , the ship escorted a convoy from Egypt to Suda Bay , Crete and then to Malta in early November . In December she was assigned to intercept enemy supply convoys along the North African coast and captured two schooners off Bardia on 31 December . In early January 1941 , Dainty escorted the capital ships of Force A during Operation Excess . She towed the disabled tanker Desmoulea to Suda Bay after the latter had been torpedoed by the Italian torpedo boat Lupo off Crete on 31 January .
= = = Sinking = = =
Shortly afterwards , Dainty returned to patrol the North African coast . In the late afternoon of 24 February she left Tobruk on a patrol , accompanied by the destroyer Hasty . The ships were attacked by 13 Junkers Ju 88 bombers of III . / Lehrgeschwader 1 and Dainty was hit by a 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 450 kg ) bomb which passed through the captain 's cabin and detonated in the fuel tanks . This started a big fire , which caused her after magazine to explode and the ship to sink . 16 of Dainty 's crew were killed in the attack and 18 were wounded .
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= Panggilan Darah =
Panggilan Darah ( Indonesian for Call of Blood ) is a 1941 film from the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) written and directed by Sutan Usman Karim and produced by Tjho Seng Han for Oriental Film . The black @-@ and @-@ white film starred Dhalia and Soerip as orphaned sisters trying to make a living in the colonial capital of Batavia ( now Jakarta ) before moving to Kudus to work at a clove cigarette factory .
Shot on location at an orphanage and two factories in central Java , Panggilan Darah was a modest commercial success in the Indies and Singapore . Its soundtrack , which featured nine kroncong songs , received popular acclaim , and the film 's acting received critical praise . Despite this success , Oriental was unable to recoup its expenses , and merged into Multi Film soon afterwards . Panggilan Darah , which was screened as late as 1952 , may now be lost .
= = Plot = =
Orphaned sisters Dhalia and Soerip ( themselves ) leave their village in an attempt to make a living in the colonial capital of Batavia ( now Jakarta ) . After a long period of misery , they are accepted as housemaids at the home of Hajji Iskak ( Mochtar Widjaja ) . Although initially elated , they find that Iskak 's wife ( Wolly Sutinah ) is a cruel mistress who often beats them . Meanwhile , Iskak 's would @-@ be son @-@ in @-@ law is constantly flirting with Dhalia , much to his fiancée 's dismay .
The sisters decide to run away from Iskak 's home . They make their way to Kudus and find work at the Nitisemito clove cigarette factory with the help of their friend ( S. Poniman ) . Not long after their escape , Iskak receives a guest who reveals that the two were his nieces . This revelation spurs Iskak to take out advertisements in newspapers , looking for the young women and asking them to return to Batavia .
Iskak 's search has little success until the sisters receive news that he is looking for them , and they quickly return to Batavia . There , the sisters are greeted with open arms . Iskak 's wife regrets her earlier treatment of the girls and repents , treating them splendidly and supporting Dhalia 's plans to open an orphanage .
= = Production = =
Panggilan Darah was the directorial debut of Sutan Usman Karim , commonly known as Suska , a journalist and former member of the touring theatrical group Bolero under Andjar Asmara . With Panggilan Darah , which he also wrote , Suska became one of several reporters who entered the film industry in the 1940s . He directed the film for the Batavia @-@ based film company Oriental , run by the ethnic Chinese producer Tjho Seng Han . The production house had previously released three films , all directed by Njoo Cheong Seng , but after Njoo departed for Fred Young 's Majestic , Oriental had required a new director .
The film was shot in black @-@ and @-@ white by the Indo cameraman J. J. W. Steffens , with editing handled by Soemardjan . Scenes were shot at an orphanage for Muslims owned by S. Z. Gunawan ( who played herself in the film ) , as well as at the Nitisemito cigarette factory in Kudus and at a batik factory in Pekalongan owned by Tan Jauw Lin . Writing in 2009 , the Indonesian film historian Misbach Yusa Biran suggested that the film may have been partly sponsored by Nitisemito — one of the largest cigarette factories in the Indies in the 1940s — based on the factory 's prominence in the plot .
Dhalia , Soerip , and S. Poniman , already known for their singing prowess , starred in Panggilan Darah , which featured nine kroncong songs . Additional roles were taken by Wolly Sutinah and Mochtar Widjaja . The film marked Sutinah 's debut for the company ; the other cast members had previous screen credits with Oriental .
= = Release and reception = =
Panggilan Darah debuted at the Orion Theatre in Batavia on 30 June 1941 . It was reported as a modest success , making most of its money from lower class audiences . It was screened in Surabaya , East Java , by August , and by September it had been shown in Singapore , then part of British Malaya . A novelisation by Roestam Sutan Palindih was published by the Yogyakarta @-@ based Kolff @-@ Buning Publishers that year .
Reviews of Panggilan Darah were mixed to positive . The journalist Soerono , writing in the entertainment magazine Pertjatoeran Doenia dan Film , was pleased with the film 's depiction of the Islamic mandate to take care of orphans . An anonymous review in the Surabaya @-@ based daily Soerabaijasch Handelsblad found the film " something special " and praised Soerip 's spontaneity in her role . Biran wrote that lower @-@ class audiences enjoyed the film 's music , while the intelligentsia scoffed at the idea that a factory supervisor would bring a guitar to work . He found the plot illogical , asking why the sisters would not have worked in their own home village and how the destitute sisters could have made the journey from Batavia to Kudus , over 400 kilometres ( 250 mi ) away .
= = Legacy = =
Unable to recoup its expenses , Oriental later merged into the Dutch @-@ owned Multi Film and ceased producing works of fiction . Suska left the company and joined The Teng Chun 's Java Industrial Film , for which he directed Ratna Moetoe Manikam . Most of the cast remained active in cinema for the remainder of their lives . Both Dhalia and Soerip remained in the film industry for the next fifty years ; they acted in their last feature films , Pendekar Jagad Kelana ( Warrior of Jagad Kelana ) and Sejak Cinta Diciptakan ( Since Love was Created ) respectively , in 1990 . Poniman and Sutinah would remain active in the industry until 1975 and 1986 . Only Widjaja is not recorded as performing in any more films .
Panggilan Darah was screened as late as August 1952 , but may now be lost . Movies in the Indies were recorded on highly flammable nitrate film , and after a fire destroyed much of Produksi Film Negara 's warehouse in 1952 , old films shot on nitrate were deliberately destroyed . The American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider writes that all Indonesian films from before 1950 are lost . However , J. B. Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia ( Indonesian Film Catalogue ) records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia 's archives , and Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service .
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= Sega v. Accolade =
Sega Enterprises Ltd. v. Accolade , Inc . , 977 F.2d 1510 ( 9th Cir . 1992 ) , is a case in which the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit applied American intellectual property law to the reverse engineering of computer software . Stemming from the publishing of several Sega Genesis games by video game publisher Accolade , which had disassembled Genesis software in order to publish games without being licensed by Sega , the case involved several overlapping issues , including the scope of copyright , permissible uses for trademarks , and the scope of the fair use doctrine for computer code .
The case was filed in the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of California , which ruled in favor of Sega and issued an injunction against Accolade preventing them from publishing any more games for the Genesis and requiring them to recall all the existing Genesis games they had for sale . Accolade appealed the decision to the Ninth Circuit on the grounds that their reverse engineering of the Genesis was protected under fair use . The Ninth Circuit reversed the district court 's order and ruled that Accolade 's use of reverse engineering to publish Genesis titles was protected under fair use , and that its alleged violation of Sega trademarks was the fault of Sega . The case is frequently cited in matters involving reverse engineering and fair use under copyright law .
= = Background = =
In March 1984 , Sega Enterprises Ltd. was purchased by its former CEO , David Rosen , along with a group of backers . Hayao Nakayama , one of these backers , was named the new CEO of Sega . Following the crash of the arcade industry , Nakayama decided to focus development efforts on the home console market . During this time , Sega became concerned about software and hardware piracy in Southeast Asia , and particularly in Taiwan . Taiwan was not a signatory of the Berne Convention on copyright , limiting Sega 's legal options in that region . However , Taiwan did allow prosecution for trademark infringement . Though Sega had created security systems in their consoles to keep their software from being pirated and to keep unlicensed publishers out , much like its competitor Nintendo , counterfeiters had discovered ways to prevent the Sega trademark from appearing on their games , bypassing the trademark altogether .
After the release of the Sega Genesis in 1989 , video game publisher Accolade began exploring options to release some of their PC game titles onto the console . At the time , however , Sega had a licensing deal in place for third @-@ party developers that increased the costs to the developer . According to Accolade co @-@ founder Alan Miller , " One pays them between $ 10 and $ 15 per cartridge on top of the real hardware manufacturing costs , so it about doubles the cost of goods to the independent publisher . " In addition to this , Sega required that it would be the exclusive publisher of Accolade 's games if Accolade were to be licensed , preventing Accolade from releasing its games to other systems . To get around licensing , Accolade chose to seek an alternative way to bring their games to the Genesis by purchasing a console in order to decompile the executable code of three Genesis games and use it to program their new cartridges in a way that would allow them to disable the security lockouts that prevented playing of unlicensed games . This was done successfully to bring Ishido : The Way of Stones to the Genesis in 1990 . In doing so , Accolade had also copied Sega 's copyrighted game code multiple times in order to reverse engineer the software of Sega 's licensed Genesis games .
As a result of the piracy and unlicensed development issues , Sega incorporated a technical protection mechanism into a new edition of the Genesis released in 1990 , referred to as the Genesis III . This new variation of the Genesis included code known as the Trademark Security System ( TMSS ) , which , when a game cartridge was inserted into the console , would check for the presence of the string " SEGA " at a particular point in the memory contained in the cartridge . If and only if the string was present , the console would run the game , and would briefly display the message : " PRODUCED BY OR UNDER LICENSE FROM SEGA ENTERPRISES LTD . " This system had a twofold effect : it added extra protection against unlicensed developers and software piracy , and it forced the Sega trademark to display when the game was powered up , making a lawsuit for trademark infringement possible if unlicensed software were to be developed . Accolade learned of this development at the Winter Consumer Electronics Show in January 1991 , at which Sega showed the new Genesis III and demonstrated it screening and rejecting an Ishido game cartridge . With more games planned for the following year , Accolade successfully identified the TMSS file . They later added this file to the games HardBall ! , Star Control , Mike Ditka Power Football , and Turrican .
= = Lawsuit = =
On October 31 , 1991 , Sega filed suit against Accolade in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California , on charges of trademark infringement and unfair competition in violation of the Lanham Act . Copyright infringement , a violation of the Copyright Act of 1976 , was added a month later to the list of charges . In response , Accolade filed a counterclaim for falsifying the source of its games by displaying the Sega trademark when the game was powered up . The case was heard by Judge Barbara A. Caulfield .
Sega argued that Accolade had infringed upon its copyrights because Accolade 's games contained Sega 's material . Accolade insisted that their use of Sega 's material constituted fair use . However , Judge Caulfield did not accept this explanation since Accolade was a game manufacturer , their works were for financial gain , and because their works competed directly with Sega 's licensed games , likely resulting in a sales decrease for Sega 's games . Accolade 's case was further hurt by a presentation by a Sega engineer named Takeshi Nagashima , who showed two Sega game cartridges that were able to run on the Genesis III without the trademark @-@ displaying TMSS , and offered them to Accolade 's defense team but would not reveal how that was possible . Ultimately , this would result in Accolade 's defeat on April 3 , 1992 , when Judge Caulfield ruled in favor of Sega and issued an injunction prohibiting future sales by Accolade of Genesis @-@ compatible games incorporating the Sega message or using the results of the reverse engineering . Almost a week later , Accolade was also required by the court to recall all of their Genesis @-@ compatible games .
= = Appeal = =
The decision in the district court ruling had been very costly to Accolade . According to Accolade co @-@ founder Alan Miller , " Just to fight the injunction , we had to pay at least half a million dollars in legal fees . " On April 14 , 1992 , Accolade filed for a stay on the injunction pending appeal in the district court , but when the court did not rule by April 21 , Accolade appealed the verdict to the Ninth Circuit of the U.S. Court of Appeals . A stay was granted on the mandate to recall all of Accolade 's Genesis games , but the injunction preventing further reverse engineering and development of Genesis software was maintained until August 28 , when the Ninth Circuit ordered it dissolved pending the appeal review .
In support of the appeal , the Computer & Communications Industry Association submitted an amicus curiae brief claiming that the district court had made errors in concluding that Accolade had infringed upon Sega 's copyright by reverse engineering its software , extending copyright protection to method of operation , and failing to consider whether Accolade 's games were substantially similar to Sega 's copyrighted material . Amicus briefs were also submitted by the American Committee for Interoperable Systems , the Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturers Association , and copyright law professor Dennis S. Karjala from Arizona State University .
In reviewing the case , the court considered several factors in its own analysis , examining trademark and copyright issues separately . As in the district court trial , Nagashima showed the court a game cartridge that ran on the Genesis that did not display the trademark logo . However , the court was not moved by this , deciding that Nagashima 's cartridges showed what one could do with knowledge of the TMSS , which Accolade did not possess . According to the court , because knowledge of how to avoid displaying the trademark on the Genesis III was not information that was public to the industry , Sega 's attempt to prove that the display of their trademark was not required for games to be played on the console was insufficient . Writing for the opinion of the court , Judge Stephen Reinhardt stated , " Sega knowingly risked two significant consequences : the false labeling of some competitors ' products and the discouraging of other competitors from manufacturing Genesis @-@ compatible games . Under the Lanham Act , the former conduct , at least , is clearly unlawful . " The court then went on to cite Anti @-@ Monopoly v. General Mills Fun Group , which states in reference to the Lanham Act , " The trademark is misused if it serves to limit competition in the manufacture and sales of a product . That is the special province of the limited monopolies provided pursuant to the patent laws . " The judges in the case had decided that Sega had violated this provision of the act by utilizing its trademark to limit competition for software for its console .
To determine the status of Accolade 's claim of fair use of Sega 's copyrighted game code , the court reviewed four criteria of fair use : the nature of the copyrighted work , the amount of the copyrighted work used , the purpose of use , and the effects of use on the market for the work . Of note to the judges in reviewing Sega 's copyright claim was the difference in size between the TMSS file and the sizes of Accolade 's games . As noted by Judge Reinhardt in writing the opinion of the court , the TMSS file " contains approximately twenty to twenty @-@ five bytes of data . Each of Accolade 's games contains a total of 500 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 bytes . According to Accolade employees , the header file is the only portion of Sega 's code that Accolade copied into its own game programs . " This made the games overwhelmingly original content , and according to Judge Reinhardt , to the benefit of the public to be able to compete with Sega 's licensed games , especially if the games were dissimilar as contended in the appeal . The court did not accept the argument that Accolade 's games competed directly with Sega 's , noting that there was no proof that any of Accolade 's published games had diminished the market for any of Sega 's games . Despite claims from Sega 's attorneys that the company had invested much time and effort into developing the Genesis , and that Accolade was capitalizing on this time and energy , the court rejected these claims under the notion that the console was largely functional , and its functional principles were not protected under the Copyright Act of 1976 . On the matter of reverse engineering as a process , the court concluded that " where disassembly is the only way to gain access to the ideas and functional elements embodied in a copyrighted computer program and where there is a legitimate reason for seeking such access , disassembly is a fair use of the copyrighted work , as a matter of law . "
On August 28 , 1992 , the Ninth Circuit overturned the district court 's verdict and ruled that Accolade 's decompilation of the Sega software constituted fair use . The court 's written opinion followed on October 20 and noted that the use of the software was non @-@ exploitative , despite being commercial , and that the trademark infringement , being required by the TMSS for a Genesis game to run on the system , was inadvertently triggered by a fair use act and the fault of Sega for causing false labeling . As a result of the verdict being overturned , the costs of the appeal were assessed to Sega . The injunction remained in force , however , because Sega petitioned the appeals court to rehear the case .
= = Settlement = =
On January 8 , 1993 , with Sega 's petition for a rehearing still pending , the court took the unusual step of amending its October 20 , 1992 opinion and lifted the injunction preventing Accolade from developing or selling Genesis software . This was followed by a formal denial of Sega 's petition for a rehearing on January 26 . As Accolade 's counterclaim for false labeling under the Lanham Act was declined by the Ninth Circuit , this essentially left " each party as free to act as it was before the issuance of preliminary injunctive relief " while the district court considered the counterclaim . Sega and Accolade ultimately settled on April 30 , 1993 . As a part of this settlement , Accolade became an official licensee of Sega , and later developed and released Barkley Shut Up and Jam ! while under license . The terms of the licensing , including whether or not any special arrangements or discounts were made to Accolade , were not released to the public . The financial terms of the settlement were also not disclosed , although both companies agreed to pay their own legal costs .
In an official statement , Sega of America chairman David Rosen expressed satisfaction with the settlement . According to Rosen , " This settlement is a satisfactory ending to what was a very complex set of issues . Not only are we pleased to settle this case amicably , we 've also turned a corner in our association with Accolade and now look forward to a healthy and mutually beneficial relationship in the future . " Accolade 's Alan Miller expressed more excitement with the settlement and the opportunities it presented for the company , saying in his statement , " We are very pleased with the settlement , and we 're excited about the new markets it opens to Accolade . Accolade currently experiences strong demand for its Sega Genesis products in North America and Europe . We will now be able to publish our products on the Sega Genesis and Game Gear systems throughout the world . " Despite the settlement , however , Accolade had lost somewhere between $ 15 million and $ 25 million during the injunction period , according to Miller .
= = Impact = =
Sega v. Accolade has been an influential case in matters involving reverse engineering of software and copyright infringement , and has been cited in numerous cases since 1993 . The case has redefined how reverse engineering with unlicensed products is seen in legal issues involving copyright . Legally , the decision concurred that the nature of Accolade 's work in reverse engineering the Sega Genesis was to access ideas that were deemed unprotected by copyright law , and could only be accessed by decompiling . By the verdict , the console 's functional principles were established not to be protected by copyright , and that when no other means were available , reverse engineering the copyrighted software to access information about the console 's functional principles is protected by the fair use doctrine . One such example of the precedent set by this case is Sony Computer Entertainment , Inc. v. Connectix Corporation , which cited Sega v. Accolade in deciding that reverse engineering the Sony PlayStation BIOS was protected by fair use and was non @-@ exploitative .
Among the influences of the verdict include Sega v. Accolade 's effect on the criteria for fair use and the responsibilities of trademark holders in legal examinations . Although Accolade had copied entire Genesis games in order to identify the TMSS , the court gave little weight to the criterion on the amount of the copyrighted work being copied , in light of the fact that Accolade had done so in order to create their own compatible software . Likewise , the nature of the work was also given less weight , essentially establishing a two @-@ factor approach to evaluating fair use in the purpose of use and impact on the market . It was also the first time that the Lanham Act was interpreted to mean that confusion resulting from the placement of one 's trademark on another work by means of a security program is the fault of the original registrant of the trademark .
Sega v. Accolade also served to help establish that the functional principles of computer software cannot be protected by copyright law . Rather , the only legal protection to such principles can be through holding a patent or by trade secret . This aspect of the verdict has received criticism as well , citing that though the functional principles are not protectable under copyright law , the TMSS code is protectable , and that by allowing reverse engineering as fair use despite this security , the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals has encouraged the copying of legally protected programs for the exploration of unprotected functionality .
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= I Shall Not Be Moved ( poetry ) =
I Shall Not Be Moved is author and poet Maya Angelou 's fifth collection of poetry , published by Random House in 1990 . Angelou had written four autobiographies and published four other volumes of poetry up to that point . Angelou considered herself a poet and a playwright and her poetry has also been successful , but she is best known for her seven autobiographies , especially her first , I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings . She began , early in her writing career , of alternating the publication of an autobiography and a volume of poetry . Most critics agree that Angelou 's poems are more interesting when she recites them .
The poems in I Shall Not Be Moved focus on themes of hard work , universal experiences of humans , the struggle of African Americans , and love and relationships . Like most of her poetry , the collection has received little serious critical attention , although most reviews have been positive .
= = Background = =
I Shall Not Be Moved is Maya Angelou 's fifth volume of poetry . She studied and began writing poetry at a young age . After her rape at the age of eight , as recounted in her first autobiography I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings ( 1969 ) , she dealt with her trauma by memorizing and reciting great works of literature , including poetry , which helped bring her out of her self @-@ imposed muteness .
Although Angelou considered herself a playwright and poet when her editor Robert Loomis challenged her to write Caged Bird , she has been best known for her autobiographies , and many critics consider her autobiographies more important than her poetry . Critic William Sylvester agrees , and states that although her books have been best @-@ sellers , her poetry has " received little serious critical attention " . Bloom also believes that Angelou 's poems are more interesting when she recites them . Bloom calls her performances " characteristically dynamic " , and says that Angelou " moves exuberantly , vigorously to reinforce the rhythms of the lines , the tone of the words . Her singing and dancing and electrifying stage presence transcend the predictable words and phrases " .
Early in her writing career she began alternating the publication of an autobiography and a volume of poetry . By the time I Shall Not Be Moved was published in 1990 , she had published five autobiographies , eventually going on to publish seven . Her publisher , Random House , placed the poems in I Shall Not Be Moved in her first collection of poetry , The Complete Collected Poems of Maya Angelou ( 1994 ) , perhaps to capitalize on her popularity following her reading of her poem " On the Pulse of Morning " at President Bill Clinton 's inauguration in 1993 . Also in the 1994 collection were her four previous collections , Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' fore I Diiie ( 1971 ) , Oh Pray My Wings Are Gonna Fit Me Well ( 1975 ) , And Still I Rise ( 1978 ) , and Shaker , Why Don 't You Sing ? ( 1983 ) . Angelou 's publisher placed four poems in a smaller volume entitled Phenomenal Woman in 1995 .
= = Themes = =
Critic Lyman B. Hagen states that much of Angelou 's poetry and most of her writings , especially " Worker 's Song " , the first poem in I Shall Not Be Moved , praises the laborer . He says , " In Angelou 's writings , rarely is there anyone who does not work . Everyone of her characters — singers , dancers , railway workers , etc . — works hard " . Critic Hazel Rochman , who calls the poem an " exquisitely simple worksong " , states that Angelou connects physical action with wit and longing . She compares it to the performances of singer Paul Robeson and to Langston Hughes ' poem " Florida Road Workers " . Michele Howe calls I Shall Not Be Moved " a collection that testifies to the undaunted spirit of oppressed people everywhere " , and states that it " relates a history of hard work , pain , joy , and the affection and heartbreak often associated with love " . She also mentions " Worker 's Song " in her article in the New Jersey newspaper The Star @-@ Ledger , stating that it describes the struggles of the workers that " keep the whole world running " .
Howe says that although Angelou writes about the Black experience , she draws from the experiences of all ethnic backgrounds . Howe considers the poem " Our Grandmothers " , which relates the struggle of a woman attempting to overcome her enslavement and oppression , one of the most poignant poems in the volume and its focal point . The poem uses the title phrase ; according to Howe , Angelou 's use of the personal pronoun signifies the universal experience of mothers and grandmothers and their struggles to overcome obstacles . Howe also discusses the poem " Coleridge Jackson " , which she considers another significant poem in I Shall Not Be Moved . The poem describes a man who " wouldn 't take tea for the fever " — someone incapable of creatively dealing with his suffering at the hands of his employer . Angelou informed Howe that she believed that " Coleridge Jackson " was one of the most powerful poems she had ever recited in public .
In the poem " Love Letter " , Angelou describes the power of love to empower people to be themselves in their relationships , and to be equal with their partners . Angelou 's poem " Human Family " focuses on the similarities of all people , especially the line " We are more alike , my friends , than we are unalike " . According to Howe , this line sums the themes found throughout the volume .
= = Reviews = =
Rochman , when she compares " Worker 's Song " to Hughes ' " Florida Road Workers " , states that like Hughes , Angelou 's poem combines rhythm and sense . She considers the poem the best in the volume , calling many of the other poems in I Shall Not Be Moved " too polemical " . Rochman says that the sensuous details in Angelou 's best poems enlivens her abstractions , and finds no false sentiments in them . She also states , " The dying fall of many lines combined with the strong beat reinforces the feeling of struggle and uncertainty " .
= = Poems = =
The volume 's title , according to Angelou , comes from her desire to encourage young people to " have a moral stance " and never give up , despite the tendency for people in power to ignore , deny , or neglect their duty to use their positions and abilities to change the world . It is dedicated to her mother Vivian Baxter and Mildred Garris Tuttle .
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= Newfoundland expedition ( 1702 ) =
The Newfoundland expedition was a naval raiding expedition led by English Captain John Leake between August and October 1702 that targeted French colonial settlements on the North Atlantic island of Newfoundland and its satellite Saint Pierre . The expedition occurred in the early days of Queen Anne 's War , as the North American theater of the War of the Spanish Succession is sometimes known .
Leake 's fleet descended on French settlements on the southern shore of Newfoundland , destroying fishing stages and other infrastructure . They captured fishing and trade ships , and destroyed most of the settlement at Saint Pierre . In a final flurry of activity before returning to England , Leake captured several ships from the French merchant convoy as it headed for Europe . More than 50 ships were taken in total , and six seasonal settlements were destroyed . The strongly fortified French base at Plaisance was not attacked .
= = Background = =
Hostilities in the War of the Spanish Succession had begun in 1701 , but England did not get involved until 1702 , planning a major naval expedition against targets in Spain . On 9 June 1702 ( Old Style ) Newfoundland also became a target when George Churchill , chief advisor to the Lord High Admiral , Prince George , informed Captain John Leake , " I have proposed to the Prince , your going to command a squadron to Newfoundland ; you will be a Chief of Squadron " . Leake 's commission , issued on 24 June , came with instructions to investigate the military strength of the French in Newfoundland , and to " annoy them there in their fishing harbours and at sea " . He was also to convoy merchant ships in both directions , report on the conditions of the English settlements and fisheries , and act as governor of the territory while he was there . To accomplish this he was given command of HMS Exeter and a small fleet of ships . On 22 July 1702 , he departed from Plymouth with a fleet of nine ships , including six ships of the line . His ships included ( in addition to Exeter ) the fourth rates HMS Assistance , HMS Montagu , HMS Lichfield , HMS Medway , and HMS Reserve .
Newfoundland had been the site of much conflict during King William 's War ( 1689 – 1697 ) . The most ambitious expedition had been conducted by French and Indian forces led by Pierre Le Moyne d 'Iberville in 1696 . His raiding expedition was highly destructive : it completely destroyed almost all of the English settlements on the island . Many of these were rebuilt shortly afterwards , and the chief English port at St. John 's was strongly fortified .
Permanent French settlements on Newfoundland were relatively few . Most of their settlements , such as those in Trepassey Bay and St. Mary 's , were only used in the summertime by fishermen who returned to Europe at the end of the season . The principal town of Plaisance was permanently settled , and its fortifications housed a small garrison . In 1702 it was temporarily under the command of Philippe Pastour de Costebelle , a captain of the colonial troupes de la marine , who was awaiting the arrival of the next governor , Daniel d 'Auger de Subercase ( who did not arrive until 1703 ) . The permanent French population of Newfoundland was fairly small — only 180 French settlers left Newfoundland when the colony was abandoned in 1713 .
The French also had a small settlement on the island of Saint Pierre , just south of Newfoundland in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence . Its governor , Sébastien Le Gouès , Sieur de Sourdeval , had only arrived in July 1702 , and erected a crude wooden fort armed with a few guns .
= = Raids = =
= = = Newfoundland = = =
Leake 's fleet arrived in late August at Bay Bulls . From the inhabitants they learned that two French fishing ships were loading at Trepassey Bay , and that two French warships were at anchor near the French capital at Plaisance . He also learned that the French routinely posted spies to observe activities at Bay Bulls , and were likely to report the fleet 's presence to Plaisance — a three @-@ day overland trek .
Leake consequently moved with speed , heading south and west toward the French settlements . On 28 August the fleet made its first captures , taking a French ship recently arrived from the French West Indian isle of Martinique , did battle with those at Trepassey Bay , and two more that Lichfield chased down . The next day Leake captured another French ship in St. Mary 's Bay , and was rejoined by Montagu , which had taken three prizes the day before . Ordering Montagu , Lichfield , and Charles Galley to make for Colinet , Leake took the rest of the fleet to St. Mary 's , where he chased a ship aground , and then sent out boats to refloat her . Landing parties were sent ashore , where they destroyed fishing stages , houses , shipbuilding equipment and unfinished ships , and many small boats .
After destroying the facilities at Colinet , the fleet regrouped on the 30th . Leake ordered a few of his ships to escort the captured prizes to St. John 's , and then to cruise off Cape Race for 14 days looking for prizes . Leake detached Montagu and Lichfield to destroy St. Lawrence while he sailed for Saint Pierre .
= = = Saint Pierre = = =
Leake 's account places his first arrival off Saint Pierre on 1 September . Bad weather prevented him from entering the harbour until the next day . He was therefore only able to capture two of the eight ships that had been in the harbour , because the rest got away through a shallow channel . On the 3rd he again approached the harbour , but did not report landing , and left then Saint Pierre to head for St. John 's .
Leake 's fleet reassembled at St. John 's on 7 September . He then detached about half the fleet , led by the Medway and Charles Galley , to return to Saint Pierre to destroy it , while he took the other half north toward Bonavista . There he hoped to acquire experienced pilots with knowledge of other French harbours . Failing in this endeavour ( none of the pilots he found had the needed experience , and also expressed concerns over the advancing winter conditions ) , he returned to St. John 's . He was met there on 2 October by the other half of the fleet , which had completed the destruction of Saint Pierre .
Saint Pierre 's Governor Sourdeval reported in a letter dated 11 October ( presumably New Style , thus 30 September Old Style ) that the English had twice landed men , on 7 and 8 October . He reported the second landing to consist of 400 men , who besieged him in his small fort . He surrendered after they exchanged gunfire for several hours , after which the English destroyed most of the facilities . They then deposited 52 French prisoners captured earlier in the expedition , and left .
= = = Cruising for the French convoy = = =
Leake then divided the fleet to begin the return to Europe . Montagu and Looe were assigned to convoy merchants and prizes destined for Portugal , while Reserve , Charles Galley , and Firebrand were set to escort those destined for England . Leake took the rest of the fleet and cruised off Cape Race for several weeks , hoping to intercept the French convoy that would have to pass nearby before winter set it . Weather conditions were often quite stormy , but Leake managed to take eight prizes before he finally sailed for England in mid @-@ October .
= = Aftermath = =
Leake reported taking 51 ships . Sixteen were sent to England , six to Portugal , and five were sold at St. John 's . He left two ships at St. John 's as part of its defence force . The remaining ships , including their cargoes and trade goods that had not been loaded before they were taken , were destroyed . Six French settlements were destroyed : Trepassey , St. Mary 's , Colinet , Great and Little St. Lawrence , and Saint Pierre . Upon his return to England , Leake was received with favour by Queen Anne . He was promoted to rear admiral for his actions , and went on to have a distinguished career for the rest of the war , serving in European waters .
Newfoundland continued to be contested throughout the war , with each side waging economic war against the other 's settlements , destroying fishing stages and other infrastructure . The main English settlement at St. John 's was besieged in 1705 and captured in 1709 by French forces from Plaisance . Sovereignty of the entire island passed to Great Britain with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht , although the French were granted some rights to dry fish on shore . Saint Pierre also came under British control , but it and neighboring Miquelon were eventually given to France after the War of the Austrian Succession .
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= Manchester ( The West Wing ) =
" Manchester " is the two @-@ part third season premiere of the American political drama television series The West Wing . The episodes deal with President Bartlet 's decision to run for re @-@ election , and the activities of the weeks leading up to his official announcement . Both parts were written by Aaron Sorkin and directed by Thomas Schlamme , and the episodes contain the first appearances by Ron Silver , Evan Handler and Connie Britton . These episodes also mark the first episode where Stockard Channing is added to opening credits , marking that she became a regular character this season . The second episode was an Emmy nominee for Outstanding Art Direction For A Single @-@ Camera Series . It also earned a Golden Reel Award nomination for Best Sound Editing in a Television Series .
= = Plot = =
The episode picks up at the press conference immediately where last season 's cliff @-@ hanger ( Two Cathedrals ) left off , and what was then only implicit is here made clear : President Bartlet is running for a second term . When asked if he plans to seek re @-@ election , he answers " Yeah , and I 'm gonna win . " From that point on the story develops in dual storylines , one following immediately upon the press conference , the other taking place four weeks later , as the staff is preparing for the official campaign announcement in Manchester , New Hampshire .
Leo decides to bring in Bruno Gianelli ( Silver ) , a highly accomplished political consultant , to help with the re @-@ election campaign , but conflict soon arises between Gianelli 's and Bartlet 's respective staffs . The conflict is particularly intense between the idealistic Communications Director Toby and the more pragmatic Doug Wegland ( Handler ) . A problem appears when it becomes clear that RU @-@ 486 – an emergency contraception – will receive government approval on the same day as the announcement ceremony . This will not only take attention away from the event , but also give political ammunition to the Right , and raise questions about the professionalism of the campaign . Josh strongly wants to " wave off the FDA " on the release , and it later appears that his underlying motive for this is to rectify a previous mistake . In the early part of the story , he applied pressure to pass a bill on anti @-@ tobacco measures , but Gianelli points out the error in passing a bill that could have given them political leverage against the Republicans in the upcoming election .
In the ongoing conflict in Haiti , a rescue mission is staged to save American citizens . Bartlet decides to send in peacekeeping troops , in spite of political consequences . CJ then , when announcing the decision to the press , makes a grave mistake by saying that she thinks " the president 's relieved to be focusing on something that matters " , implying both that the MS incident was unimportant and that the President was happy to use an incident in which American lives are at risk to deflect attention away from his illness . Leo responds by sitting her out for the next press briefing , and she reacts by offering her resignation . Yet she is eventually persuaded to stay by the president 's heartfelt assurance that he considers her a vital member of the administration .
Bartlet 's wife Abbey is not pleased with the president making his bid for re @-@ election without consulting her . Later on she still decides to join him in Manchester . She tells him that he needs to reach out to his staff , some of whom believe that he should make a public apology for concealing his MS. In the end he makes the apology , not publicly , but privately to his nearest advisors . He assures them that , even though Gianelli 's help is much needed , they will still run a campaign that does not shrink from handling controversial issues . In a final speech he tells them that " We 're gonna write a new book . Right here . Right now . "
= = Production and cultural references = =
The scenes purporting to be in Manchester were not shot in New Hampshire , in spite of lobbying from local residents . John Spencer , who played Leo McGarry on the show , said : " I certainly understand where the people from New Hampshire are coming from . But I think it 's logistics . New Hampshire is not close enough " . For financial reasons the producers decided to film the outside parts of the episodes in Bluemont , Virginia instead . The town was said to have the " quiet streets , a mix of mostly older architectural styles , fieldstone fences , and breathtaking views of rolling countryside " that the show was looking for . The house chosen – out of 55 contenders – to pass as the president 's farmhouse , was the home of Purcellville mayor John Marsh . Marsh 's friends and neighbours also appear as extras in the crowd scenes .
For the sub @-@ plot about the morning @-@ after pill , former Clinton economic advisor Gene Sperling was brought in for consultation . Such a drug , called Mifepristone , was in fact approved in the United States in September 2000 ; one of the last months of the Clinton presidency . Also the political issues related to Haiti have close parallels to an episode in the Clinton presidency : the return of President Jean @-@ Bertrand Aristide to power by the United States in 1994 .
= = Reception = =
The second episode was an Emmy nominee for Outstanding Art Direction For A Single @-@ Camera Series . It also earned a Golden Reel Award nomination for Best Sound Editing in Television Series . The two episodes were also nominated for Series Storyline at the 2002 SHINE Awards , a prize awarded for " accurate and honest portrayals of sexuality " .
Jenny Halper , writing for UGO , was less than impressed with the pre @-@ season special episode , and wrote that " the season really kicks off " with the " flashback intensive " " Manchester " -episodes . Britt Gillette , of The DVD Report , counted " Manchester Part I " among the more dramatic episodes on the show , with special reference to C.J. ' s blunder , and the debate over the president 's apology . Deborah of Television Without Pity gave both episodes the grade " A " . The A.V. Club 's Steve Heisler gave the two episodes a B + . He believed these two episodes were " meant to center the characters and the audience " after the previous season , ending in the season finale " Two Cathedrals " . " And like most things on The West Wing , " he continued , " it ’ s a long , messy , spectacular road to a perfect ( likely quippy ) end . "
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