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= Freedom Monument =
The Freedom Monument ( Latvian : Brīvības piemineklis , pronounced [ ˈbriːviːbas ˈpiɛmineklis ] ) is a memorial located in Riga , Latvia , honouring soldiers killed during the Latvian War of Independence ( 1918 – 1920 ) . It is considered an important symbol of the freedom , independence , and sovereignty of Latvia . Unveiled in 1935 , the 42 @-@ metre ( 138 ft ) high monument of granite , travertine , and copper often serves as the focal point of public gatherings and official ceremonies in Riga .
The sculptures and bas @-@ reliefs of the monument , arranged in thirteen groups , depict Latvian culture and history . The core of the monument is composed of tetragonal shapes on top of each other , decreasing in size towards the top , completed by a 19 @-@ metre ( 62 ft ) high travertine column bearing the copper figure of Liberty lifting three gilded stars . The concept for the monument first emerged in the early 1920s when the Latvian Prime Minister , Zigfrīds Anna Meierovics , ordered rules to be drawn up for a contest for designs of a " memorial column " . After several contests the monument was finally built at the beginning of the 1930s according to the scheme " Shine like a star ! " submitted by Latvian sculptor Kārlis Zāle . Construction works were financed by private donations .
Following the Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940 Latvia was annexed by the Soviet Union and the Freedom Monument was considered for demolition , but no such move was carried out . Soviet sculptor Vera Mukhina is sometimes credited for rescuing the monument , because she considered it to be of high artistic value . Soviet propaganda attempted to alter the symbolic meaning of the monument to better fit with Communist ideology , but it remained a symbol of national independence to the general public . Indeed , on June 14 , 1987 , about 5 @,@ 000 people gathered at the monument to commemorate the victims of the Soviet regime and to lay flowers . This rally renewed the national independence movement , which culminated three years later in the re @-@ establishment of Latvian sovereignty after the fall of the Soviet regime .
= = Design = =
The sculptures and bas @-@ reliefs of the Freedom Monument , arranged in thirteen groups , depict Latvian culture and history . The core of the monument is composed of tetragonal shapes on top of each other , decreasing in size towards the top . A red granite staircase of ten steps , 1 @.@ 8 meters ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) in height , winds around the base of the monument between two travertine reliefs 1 @.@ 7 meters ( 5 @.@ 6 ft ) high and 4 @.@ 5 meters ( 15 ft ) wide , " Latvian riflemen " ( 13 ; Latvian : Latvju strēlnieki ) and " Latvian people : the Singers " ( 14 ; Latvian : Latvju tauta – dziedātāja ) , which decorate its 3 meters ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) thick sides . Two additional steps form a round platform , which is 28 meters ( 92 ft ) in diameter , on which the whole monument stands . At the front of the monument this platform forms a rectangle , which is used for ceremonial proposes . The base of the monument , also made of red granite , is formed by two rectangular blocks : the lower one is a monolithic 3 @.@ 5 meters ( 11 ft ) high , 9 @.@ 2 meters ( 30 ft ) wide and 11 meters ( 36 ft ) long , while the smaller upper block is 3 @.@ 5 meters ( 11 ft ) high , 8 @.@ 5 meters ( 28 ft ) wide and 10 meters ( 33 ft ) long and has round niches in its corners , each containing a sculptural group of three figures . Its sides are also paneled with travertine .
On the front of the monument , in between the groups " Work " ( 10 ; depicting a fisherman , a craftsman and a farmer , who stands in the middle holding a scythe decorated with oak leaves and acorns to symbolize strength and manhood ) and " Guards of the Fatherland " ( 9 ; depicting an ancient Latvian warrior standing between two kneeling modern soldiers ) , a dedication by the Latvian writer Kārlis Skalbe is inscribed on one of the travertine panels : For Fatherland and Freedom ( 6 ; Latvian : Tēvzemei un Brīvībai ) . On the sides the travertine panels bear two reliefs : " 1905 " ( 7 ; Latvian : 1905.gads in reference to the Russian Revolution of 1905 ) , and " The Battle against the Bermontians on the Iron Bridge " ( 8 ; Latvian : Cīņa pret bermontiešiem uz Dzelzs tilta , referring to the decisive battle in Riga during the Latvian War of Independence ) . On the back of the monument are another two sculptural groups : " Family " ( 12 ; Latvian : Ģimene ) ( a mother standing between her two children ) and " Scholars " ( 11 ; Latvian : Gara darbinieki ( a Baltic pagan priest , holding a crooked stick standing between figures of modern scientist and writer ) . On the red granite base there is yet another rectangular block , 6 meters ( 20 ft ) high and wide , and 7 @.@ 5 meters ( 25 ft ) long , encircled by four 5 @.@ 5 – 6 meters ( 18 – 20 ft ) high gray granite sculptural groups : " Latvia " ( 2 ; Latvian : Latvija ) , " Lāčplēsis " ( 3 ; English : Bear @-@ Slayer , an epic Latvian folk hero ) , " Vaidelotis " ( 5 ; a Baltic pagan priest ) and " Chain breakers " ( 4 ; Latvian : Važu rāvēji ) ( three chained men trying to break free from their chains ) .
The topmost block serves also as the foundation for the 19 meters ( 62 ft ) high monolithic travertine column , which is 2 @.@ 5 meters ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) by 3 meters ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) at the base . To the front and rear a line of glass runs along the middle of the column . The column is topped by a copper figure of Liberty ( 1 ) , which is 9 meters ( 30 ft ) tall and in the form of a woman lifting three gilded stars , symbolizing the constitutional districts of Latvia : Vidzeme , Latgale and Courland . The whole monument is built around a frame of reinforced concrete and was originally fastened together with lead , bronze cables and lime mortar . However , some of the original materials were replaced with polyurethane filler during restoration . There is a room inside the Monument , accessed through a door in its rear side , which contains a staircase leading upwards in the Monument that is used for electrical installation and to provide access to the sewerage . The room cannot be accessed by the public and is used mainly as storage , however it has been proposed that the room could be redesigned forming a small exhibition , which would be used to introduce foreign officials visiting Latvia with the history of the Monument after the flower @-@ laying ceremony .
= = Location = =
The monument is located in the center of Riga on Brīvības bulvāris ( English : Freedom Boulevard ) , near the old town of Riga . In 1990 a section of the street around the monument , about 200 meters ( 660 ft ) long , between Rainis and Aspazija boulevards , was pedestrianized , forming a plaza . Part of it includes a bridge over the city 's canal , once a part of the city 's fortification system , which was demolished in the 19th century to build the modern boulevard district . The canal is 3 @.@ 2 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 0 mi ) long and surrounded by parkland for half of its length . The earth from the demolition of the fortifications was gathered in the park and now forms an artificial hill with a cascade of waterfalls to the north of the monument . The Boulevard district east of the park is the location of several embassies and institutions , of which the closest to the Freedom Monument are the German and French embassies , the University of Latvia and Riga State Gymnasium No.1.
Situated in the park near the monument to the south is the National Opera House with a flower garden and a fountain in front of it . Opposite the opera house on the western part of plaza near the old town , is a small café and the Laima clock . The clock was set up in 1924 , and in 1936 it was decorated with an advertisement for the Latvian confectionery brand " Laima " , from which it took its name ; it is a popular meeting spot .
Originally it was planned that an elliptical plaza would be built around the foot of the monument , enclosed by a granite wall 1 @.@ 6 meters ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) high , with benches placed inside it , while a hedge of thujas was to be planted around the outside . This project was however not carried out in the 1930s . The idea was reconsidered in the 1980s but shelved again .
= = Construction = =
The idea of building a memorial to honor soldiers killed in action during the Latvian War of Independence first emerged in the early 1920s . On July 27 , 1922 , the Prime Minister of Latvia , Zigfrīds Anna Meierovics , ordered rules to be drawn up for a contest for designs of a " memorial column " . The winner of this contest was a scheme proposing a column 27 meters ( 89 ft ) tall with reliefs of the official symbols of Latvia and bas @-@ reliefs of Krišjānis Barons and Atis Kronvalds . It was later rejected after a protest from 57 artists . In October 1923 , a new contest was announced , using for the first time the term " Freedom Monument " . The contest ended with two winners , and a new closed contest was announced in March 1925 , but , due to disagreement within the jury , there was no result .
Finally in October 1929 , the last contest was announced . The winner was the design " Shine like a star ! " ( Latvian : " Mirdzi kā zvaigzne ! " ) by sculptor Kārlis Zāle , who had had success in the previous contests as well . After minor corrections made by the author and supervising architect Ernests Štālbergs , construction began on November 18 , 1931 . Financed by private donations , the monument was erected by the entrance to the old town , in the same place where the previous central monument of Riga , a bronze equestrian statue of the Russian Emperor Peter the Great had stood from 1910 until the outbreak of World War I. It was calculated in 1935 , the year when the monument was unveiled , that in four years of construction 308 @,@ 000 man @-@ hours were required to work the stone materials alone : 130 years would have been required if one person were to carry out the work using the most advanced equipment of the time . The total weight of materials used was about 2 @,@ 500 tons : such a quantity of materials would have required about 200 freight cars if transported by railway .
= = Restoration = =
The monument is endangered by the climate ( which has caused damage by frost and rain ) and by air pollution . Although in 1990 the area around the monument was pedestrianized , there are still three streets carrying traffic around it . High concentrations of nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide have been recorded near the monument , which in combination with water cause corrosion of the fabric of the monument . In addition , water has caused cracking of the reinforced concrete core and rusting of its steel reinforcements and the fastenings of the monument , which also have been worn out by constant vibrations caused by traffic . The porous travertine has gradually crumbled over time and its pores have filled with soot and particles of sand , causing it to blacken and providing a habitat for small organisms , such as moss and lichens . Irregular maintenance and the unskillful performance of restoration work have also contributed to the weathering of the monument . To prevent its further decay some of the fastenings were replaced with polyurethane filler and water repellent was applied to the monument during the restoration in 2001 . It was also determined that maintenance should be carried out every 2 years .
The monument was restored twice during the Soviet era ( 1962 and 1980 – 1981 ) . In keeping with tradition the restorations and maintenance after the renewal of Latvia 's independence are financed partly by private donations . The monument underwent major restoration in 1998 – 2001 . During this restoration the statue of Liberty and its stars were cleaned , restored and gilded anew . The monument was formally re @-@ opened on July 24 , 2001 . The staircase , column , base and inside of the monument were restored , and the stone materials were cleaned and re @-@ sealed . The supports of the monument were fixed to prevent subsidence . Although the restorers said at the time that the monument would withstand a hundred years without another major restoration , it was discovered a few years later that the gilding of the stars was damaged , due to the restoration technique used . The stars were restored again during maintenance and restoration in 2006 ; however , this restoration was rushed and there is no warranty of its quality .
= = Guard of honor = =
The guard of honor was present from the unveiling of the monument until 1940 , when it was removed shortly after the occupation of Latvia . It was renewed on November 11 , 1992 . The guards are soldiers of The Company of Guard of Honor of the Headquarters Battalion of the National Armed Forces ( Latvian : Nacionālo Bruņoto spēku Štāba bataljona Goda sardzes rota ) . The guard is not required to be on duty in bad weather conditions and if the temperatures are below − 10 ° C ( 14 ° F ) or above 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) . The guards work in two weekly shifts , with three or four pairs of guards taking over from each other hourly in a ceremony commanded by the chief of the guard . Besides them there also are two watchmen in each shift , who look out for the safety of the guards of honor .
Normally the guard changes every hour between 9 a.m. and 6 p.m. After an hour on watch the guards have two hours free that they spend in their rooms at the Ministry of Defence . Since September 2004 the guards also patrol every half hour during their watch : they march off from the base of the monument and march twice along each side of it and then return to their posts . The guards are required to be at least 1 @.@ 82 meters ( 6 @.@ 0 ft ) tall and in good health , as they are required to stand without moving for half an hour .
= = Political significance = =
After the end of World War II , there were plans to demolish the monument , although little written evidence is available to historians and research is largely based on oral testimony . On September 29 , 1949 ( although according to oral testimony , the issue was first raised as early as October 1944 ) the Council of People 's Commissars of the Latvian SSR proposed the restoration of the statue of the Russian Emperor Peter the Great . While they did not expressly call for the demolition of the Freedom Monument , the only way to restore the statue to its original position would have been to tear down the monument . The result of the debate is unrecorded , but since the monument still stands the proposition was presumably rejected . The Soviet sculptor Vera Mukhina ( 1889 – 1953 ; designer of the monumental sculpture Worker and Kolkhoz Woman ) is sometimes credited with the rescue of the monument , although there is no written evidence to support the fact . According to her son , she took part in a meeting where the fate of the monument was discussed , at which her opinion , as reported by her son , was that the monument was of very high artistic value and that its demolition might hurt the most sacred feelings of the Latvian people .
The Freedom Monument remained , but its symbolism was reinterpreted . The three stars were said to stand for the newly created Baltic Soviet Republics – Estonian SSR , Latvian SSR , and Lithuanian SSR – held aloft by Mother Russia , and the monument was said to have been erected after World War II as a sign of popular gratitude toward the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin for the liberation of the Baltic States . In the middle of 1963 , when the issue of demolition was raised again , it was decided that the destruction of a structure of such artistic and historic value , the building of which had been funded by donations of the residents of Latvia , would only cause deep indignation , which in turn would cause tension in society . Over time the misinterpretation of symbolism also was toned down and by 1988 the monument was said , with somewhat more accuracy , to have been built to " celebrate the liberation from bondage of the autocracy of the tsar and German barons " , although withholding the fact that the Bolshevik Red Army and the Red Latvian Riflemen were also adversaries in the Latvian War of Independence .
Despite the Soviet government 's efforts , on June 14 , 1987 , about 5 @,@ 000 people rallied to commemorate the victims of Soviet deportations . This event , organized by the human rights group Helsinki @-@ 86 , was the first time after the Soviet occupation that the flower @-@ laying ceremony took place , as the practice was banned by the Soviet authorities . In response the Soviet government organized a bicycle race at the monument at the time when the ceremony was planned to take place . Helsinki @-@ 86 organized another flower @-@ laying ceremony on August 23 in the same year to commemorate the anniversary of the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact , at which the crowd was dispersed using jets of water . Yet the independence movement grew in size , amounting in some events to more than half a million participants ( about one quarter of Latvia 's population ) and three years later , on May 4 , 1990 , the re @-@ establishment of the independence of Latvia was declared .
Since the re @-@ establishment of independence the monument has become a focal point for a variety of events . One of these – on March 16 , the commemoration day of veterans of the Latvian Legion of the Waffen @-@ SS , who fought the Soviet Union during World War II – has caused controversy . The date was first celebrated by Latvians in exile before being brought to Latvia in 1990 and for a short time ( 1998 – 2000 ) was the official remembrance day . In 1998 the event drew the attention of the foreign mass media and in the following year the Russian government condemned the event as a glorification of Nazism . The event evolved into a political conflict between Latvians and Russians , posing a threat to public safety .
The Latvian government took a number of steps in order to try to bring the situation under control , and in 2006 not only were the events planned by right wing organizations not approved , but the monument was fenced off , according to an announcement by Riga city council , for restoration . The monument was indeed restored in 2006 , but this statement was later questioned , as politicians named various other reasons for the change of date , the enclosed area was much larger than needed for restoration , and the weather appeared inappropriate for restoration work . Therefore , the government was criticized by the Latvian press for being unable to ensure public safety and freedom of speech . The unapproved events took place despite the ban . On November 23 , 2006 , the law requiring the approval of the authorities for public gatherings was ruled unconstitutional . In the future years the government mobilized the police force to guard the neighborhood of the monument and the events were relatively peaceful .
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= Junior Hemingway =
Kenneth Earl " Junior " Hemingway , Jr . ( born December 27 , 1988 ) is an American football wide receiver who is currently a free agent . He was drafted by the Kansas City Chiefs in the 2012 NFL Draft . He completed his redshirt senior season in 2011 for the Michigan Wolverines football team . He led the 2011 team in receptions and receiving yards , and was tied for the lead in receiving touchdowns . Hemingway was the 2010 and 2011 Big Ten Conference leader in yards per reception , ranking third in all of Division I Football Bowl Subdivision as a senior . He received 2011 All @-@ Big Ten honorable mention and was the 2012 Sugar Bowl Most Outstanding Player .
After totaling 593 receiving yards in 2010 , Hemingway surpassed this yardage total in his senior season , finishing with a career @-@ best 699 yards . The improvement resulted in Hemingway 's league @-@ leading 2010 average of 18 @.@ 5 yards per reception improving to 20 @.@ 6 yards per reception in 2011 , which was the third @-@ best average per catch in the nation ( up from 15th in 2010 ) .
= = High school = =
In high school , he was rated as the 4th , 26th and 38th best high school football wide receiver in the country by ESPN , Scout.com , and Rivals.com respectively . He was regarded as the 12th best player in the state of South Carolina by Rivals . ESPN rated him as the 19th best player in the national class of 2007 , while Sports Illustrated regarded him as the 83rd best player in the class . Prior to his 2006 senior season , USA Today listed him as one of six players to watch in the state of South Carolina based on his 56 receptions for 846 yards and 10 touchdowns . He was the second highest rated recruit in Michigan 's class of 2007 ( behind Ryan Mallett ) according to ESPN . He posted 12 receptions in the 2006 Class 4A Division 2 South Carolina High School League championship game against Greenwood High School . He participated in the North @-@ South Game of the Carolinas .
= = College = =
As a true freshman on the 2007 Michigan team , he appeared in 10 games , making his first start September 22 against Penn State . His first receptions came during an October 6 game against Eastern Michigan when he recorded 3 catches for 33 yards . He also recorded a reception in the January 1 , 2008 Capital One Bowl against the Florida Gators . He was limited as a true sophomore by mononucleosis which caused him to miss the final eight games of the season for the 2008 team , but did make one start . He received a medical redshirt as a result of the illness .
Hemingway posted his first 100 @-@ yard reception game , first two @-@ touchdown performance and a career @-@ high five @-@ reception effort in the September 5 season opener for the 2009 team against Western Michigan , during his third career start . He missed the following week 's rivalry game against Notre Dame due to an ankle sprain . In November , he played through back problems . As a redshirt sophomore , he totaled 16 receptions and 268 total yards from scrimmage as a receiver . He also served as a punt returner making 10 returns for 86 yards .
As a fourth @-@ year junior for the 2010 Wolverines , he posted three 100 @-@ yard games and another two @-@ touchdown performance . He did this despite missing the first two games of the season due to a hamstring injury as well as the November 27 regular season finale against Ohio State due to an injury . On October 2 , his then career @-@ high 129 @-@ yard , three @-@ reception effort included a 70 @-@ yard touchdown on the second play of the second half which gave the team a 28 – 21 lead . It also included a 42 @-@ yard reception with 21 seconds left to put the ball on the four @-@ yard @-@ line before the game winning score on the next play in the 42 – 35 contest against Indiana . Two weeks later , he broke his career highs for both yards and receptions in a nine @-@ catch 134 @-@ yard effort against Iowa . On November 6 , he recorded 104 yards and two touchdowns in a six @-@ catch performance against Illinois . For the season he totaled 593 yards on 32 receptions . This ranked third on the team behind Roy Roundtree and Darryl Stonum . However , he led the Big Ten Conference in yards / reception with an 18 @.@ 5 average . This ranked him 15th in the nation .
When Brady Hoke replaced Rich Rodriguez as Michigan 's head coach , AnnArbor.com predicted that Hemingway would be the biggest individual beneficiary on the team , as Hoke was expected to change the team 's offensive schemes from the spread offense to a pro @-@ style offense . He was also expected to help pick up the slack created by the full @-@ season suspension of Stonum . As a fifth @-@ year senior , he established a new career high on September 10 , 2011 , against Notre Dame in the rivalry game and during the first night game ever played at Michigan Stadium , when he recorded three receptions for 165 yards . Before the game , Desmond Howard , who had worn number 21 before Hemingway at Michigan , was honored for his enshrinement in the College Football Hall of Fame , and the jersey number was designated to be adorned with a " Desmond Howard : Michigan Legend " patch on the upper @-@ right chest . On October 8 , against the Northwestern , Hemingway had 5 receptions for a total of 124 yards . Following the 2011 Big Ten Conference football season , he earned All @-@ Big Ten Conference honorable mention recognition from the coaches . In the January 3 , 2012 Sugar Bowl , 23 – 20 overtime victory over Virginia Tech he recorded the team 's only two touchdowns , earning 2012 Sugar Bowl Most Outstanding Player honors . He concluded the season with team highs of 34 receptions , 699 yards and four receiving touchdowns , giving him a conference leading 20 @.@ 6 yards per reception . His receiving average ranked third in all of Division I FBS . Hemingway was invited to the January 21 , 2012 East – West Shrine Game , and he was an early invite to the February 22 — 28 , 2012 NFL Scouting Combine .
In the September 3 , 2011 season opener against Western Michigan at Michigan Stadium , Hemingway recorded a 37 @-@ yard reception . The game was ended by mutual agreement in the third quarter due to inclement weather . At first , the stats for the game were considered official by the Big Ten Conference and the University of Michigan , but the NCAA vacated the statistics for this game because three quarters were not completed . However , at the conclusion of the regular season , the NCAA reversed course and announced that the statistics from the game would be counted in the season totals .
= = = Pre @-@ draft = = =
Hemingway was one of 47 wide receivers that participated in the February 22 — February 28 , 2012 NFL Scouting Combine . He ranked first among the wide receivers ( 26 participated in this event ) and 3rd at the combine in the 3 cone drill with a time of 6 @.@ 59 . He ranked first among the wide receivers ( 26 participated in this event ) and seventh overall in the 20 @-@ yard shuttle with a time of 3 @.@ 98 . He ranked second among wide receivers ( 13 participated in this event ) and seventh overall in the 60 @-@ yard shuttle with a time of 11 @.@ 16 . He ranked 3rd among the wide receivers in the bench press with 21 reps . He ranked 8th among the wide receivers in the standing long jump with a distance of 10 feet 4 inches ( 3 @.@ 15 m ) . His time of 4 @.@ 53 ranked 19th of the 40 wide receivers who participated in the 40 @-@ yard dash .
= = Professional career = =
He was selected by the Kansas City Chiefs in the seventh round of the 2012 NFL Draft with the 238th selection overall . He is one of three Michigan Wolverines and 41 Big Ten players drafted . On May 11 , 2012 , he signed a four @-@ year contract . On August 31 , Hemingway was cut . He was initially signed to the practice squad but was released to make room for Rich Ranglin on September 3 before being resigned to replace Ranglin on September 8 . On December 29 ( the day before the last game of the 2012 NFL season ) , the Chiefs placed Terrance Copper on injured reserve and elevated Hemingway from injured reserve .
During the 2013 preseason , Hemingway led the Chiefs in receptions and touchdowns . He seemed to have moved into the fourth wide receiver position behind Dwayne Bowe , Donnie Avery and Dexter McCluster . In the 2013 Chiefs season opener , he caught a touchdown against the Jacksonville Jaguars , who had his college freshman season quarterback Chad Henne and his redshirt senior season quarterback Denard Robinson on their roster . The reception , which came from Alex Smith , was Hemingway 's first in the NFL . Hemingway had a three @-@ reception game that included the game 's opening score on December 1 against the Denver Broncos . In the final game of the season , he had 5 receptions for 45 yards , giving him 13 receptions and 125 yards for the season . Hemingway also posted 2 receptions for the Chiefs in the 2013 – 14 NFL playoffs against Indianapolis .
Hemingway injured his hamstring in week 7 of the 2014 NFL season against the San Diego Chargers on October 19 . On September 1 , 2015 , the Chiefs cut Hemingway . He announced his retirement in 2016 .
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= Special Boat Service =
The Special Boat Service ( SBS ) is the special forces unit of the Naval Service of the United Kingdom . Together with the Special Air Service , Special Reconnaissance Regiment and the Special Forces Support Group , they form the United Kingdom Special Forces and come under joint control of the same Director Special Forces .
The Special Boat Service is described as the naval special forces of the United Kingdom and the sister unit of the SAS . The operational capabilities of both units are broadly similar , however , the SBS ( being the principal Royal Navy contribution to UKSF ) has the additional training and equipment to lead in the maritime , amphibious and riverine environments . Both units come under the operational command of HQ Directorate of Special Forces ( DSF ) and undergo an identical selection process , enjoy significant interoperability in training and on operations .
In times of armed conflict and war , the Special Boat Service ( SBS ) and 22 Special Air Service Regiment ( 22 SAS ) are required to operate in small parties in enemy @-@ controlled territory . Operations of this nature require men of courage and high morale who have excellent tactical awareness be it knowledge of special tactics or simply knowing one 's place in a polyvalent unit . Self @-@ discipline neatly ties into this . Intelligence , reliability , determination and also being physically fit are key skills . These men possess mental , moral and physical stamina .
Principal roles of the SBS are Surveillance Reconnaissance ( SR ) , including information reporting and target acquisition ; Offensive Action ( OA ) , including direction of air strikes , artillery and naval gunfire , designation for precision guided munitions , use of integral weapons and demolitions ; and Support and Influence ( SI ) , including overseas training tasks . The SBS also provide immediate response Military Counter Terrorism ( CT ) and Maritime Counter Terrorism ( MCT ) teams .
The SBS can trace its origins to the Second World War , when they were formed as the Special Boat Section in 1940 . They became the Special Boat Squadron after the Second World War and the Special Boat Service in the 1980s .
The SBS is manned by ranks drawn mostly from the Royal Marines and carries out a role that is similar to the Special Air Service , but with a traditionally stronger focus on amphibious operations . Their training involves parachute exercises , helicopter training and boat training , which recruits will get the chance to earn their licence for .
All of the SBS 's four squadrons , C , Z , M and X , are configured for general operations. and rotate through the Maritime Counter Terrorism Role , also known as Black Role . The SBS also operates on land , with recent operations in the mountains of landlocked Afghanistan and in the deserts of Iraq . Their main tasks include intelligence gathering , counter @-@ terrorism operations ( surveillance or offensive action ) , sabotage and the disruption of enemy infrastructure , capture of specific individuals , close protection of senior politicians and military personnel , plus reconnaissance and direct action in foreign territory .
= = History = =
= = = Second World War = = =
The Special Boat Section was founded in July 1940 by a Commando officer , Roger Courtney . Courtney became a commando recruit in mid @-@ 1940 , and was sent to the Combined Training Centre in Scotland . He was unsuccessful in his initial attempts to convince Admiral of the Fleet Sir Roger Keyes and later Admiral Theodore Hallett , commander of the Combined Training Centre , that his idea of a folding kayak brigade would be effective . He decided to infiltrate HMS Glengyle , a Landing Ship , Infantry anchored in the River Clyde . Courtney paddled to the ship , climbed aboard undetected , wrote his initials on the door to the captain 's cabin , and stole a deck gun cover . He presented the soaking cover to a group of high @-@ ranking Royal Navy officers meeting at a nearby Inveraray hotel . He was promoted to captain , and given command of twelve men , the first Special Boat Service / Special Boat Section .
It was initially named the Folboat Troop , after the type of folding canoe employed in raiding operations , and then renamed No. 1 Special Boat Section in early 1941 . Attached to Layforce , they moved to the Middle East , they later worked with the 1st Submarine Flotilla based at Alexandria and carried out beach reconnaissance of Rhodes , evacuated troops left behind on Crete and a number of small @-@ scale raids and other operations . In December 1941 Courtney returned to the United Kingdom where he formed No2 SBS , and No1 SBS became attached to the Special Air Service ( SAS ) as the Folboat Section . In June 1942 , they took part in the Crete airfield raids . In September 1942 , they carried out Operation Anglo , a raid on two airfields on the island of Rhodes , from which only two men returned . Destroying three aircraft , a fuel dump and numerous buildings , the surviving SBS men had to hide in the countryside for four days before they could reach the waiting submarine . After the Rhodes raid , the SBS was absorbed into the SAS due to the casualties they had suffered .
In April 1943 , 1st SAS was divided into two with 250 men from the SAS and the Small Scale Raiding Force , forming the Special Boat Squadron under command Major the Earl Jellicoe . They moved to Haifa and trained with the Greek Sacred Regiment for operations in the Aegean .
They later operated among the Dodecanese and Cyclades groups of islands in the Dodecanese Campaign and took part in the Battle of Leros and the Battle of Kos . They with Greek Sacred Band took part in the successful Raid on Symi in July 1944 in which the entire German garrison was either killed or captured . In August 1944 , they joined with the Long Range Desert Group in operations in the Adriatic , on the Peloponnese , in Albania , and , finally , Istria . So effective were they that , by 1944 , 200 – 300 SBS men held down six German divisions .
Throughout the war , No.2 SBS did not use the Special Boat Squadron name , but instead retained the name Special Boat Section . They accompanied Major General Mark Clark ashore before the Operation Torch landings in November 1942 . Later , one group , Z SBS , which was based in Algiers from March 1943 , carried out the beach reconnaissance for the Salerno landings and a raid on Crete , before moving to Ceylon to work with the Special Operations Executives , Force 136 and later with Special Operations Australia . The rest of No. 2 SBS became part of South @-@ East Asia Command 's Small Operations Group , operating on the Chindwin and Irrawaddy rivers , and in the Arakan , during the Burma campaign .
= = = Postwar = = =
In 1946 , the SBS , whether of Commando or SAS parentage , were disbanded . The functional title SBS was adopted by the Royal Marines . It became part of the school of Combined Operations under the command of " Blondie " Hasler . Their first missions were in Palestine ( ordnance removal ) and in Haifa ( limpet mine removal from ships ) . The SBS went on to serve in the Korean War deployed on operations along the North Korean coast as well as operating behind enemy lines destroying lines of communication , installations and gathering intelligence . It was during the Korean War that the SBS first started operating from submarines . In 1952 , SBS teams were held at combat readiness in Egypt in case Gamal Abdel Nasser 's coup turned more violent than it did . The SBS were also alerted during the Suez Crisis of 1956 and coup against King Idris I of Libya ( 1959 ) , but in both cases they did not see action . In 1961 , SBS teams carried out reconnaissance missions during the Indonesian Confrontation ( see Operation Claret ) . In the same year , Iraq threatened to invade Kuwait for the first time , and the SBS put a detachment at Bahrain . In 1972 , the SBS and SAS came into prominence when members of a combined SBS and SAS team parachuted into the Atlantic Ocean after a bomb threat on board the cruise liner RMS Queen Elizabeth 2 . A thorough search of the ship found no evidence of any device drawing the conclusion that it was a hoax .
= = = Special Boat Squadron = = =
In 1977 , their name was changed to the Special Boat Squadron and in 1980 the SBS relinquished North Sea oil rig protection to Comacchio Company . In 1982 , after the Argentinian invasion of the Falkland Islands , they deployed to South Georgia . The only losses to the SBS during the Falklands War occurred when the SBS and SAS were operating behind the lines and two members of the SBS were shot by an SAS patrol , who had mistaken them for Argentinians .
= = = Special Boat Service = = =
In 1987 , they were renamed Special Boat Service , and became part of the United Kingdom Special Forces Group alongside the Special Air Service and 14 Intelligence Company . In the Gulf War , there was no amphibious role assigned to the SBS , an " area of operations line " was drawn down the middle of Iraq , the SAS would operate west of the line and the SBS to the east . As well as searching for mobile scuds , their area contained a mass of fibre @-@ optic cable that provided Iraq with intelligence , the location of the main junction was 32 miles from Baghdad ; On 22 January 1991 , 36 SBS operators were inserted by 2 chinook helicopters from No. 7 Squadron RAF , into an area full of Iraqi ground and air forces as well as spies and nomands , they avoided them and destroyed a 40 @-@ yard section of the cable with explosives @-@ destroying what was left of the Iraqi communication grid . The SBS carried out one of its most high profile operations when it liberated the British Embassy in Kuwait , abseiling from helicopters hovering above the embassy . They were also responsible for carrying out diversionary raids along the Kuwaiti coast which in effect diverted a number of Iraqi troops to the SBS area of operations and away from the main thrust of the coalition build up . In September 1999 the SBS were involved in operations in East Timor . A small SBS team landed and drove out the back of a C @-@ 130 Hercules transport aircraft in Land Rover Defenders at Presidente Nicolau Lobato International Airport in Dili .
= = = 21st century = = =
In September 2000 , the SBS was involved in Operation Barras , a hostage rescue operation in Sierra Leone . In November 2001 the SBS had an extensive role in the invasion of Afghanistan and were involved in the Battle of Tora Bora . The SBS was used in vital phases of the invasion of Afghanistan . A small SBS contingent secured Bagram Airbase prior to the deployment of larger forces that would become the main staging area for allied forces during Operation Enduring Freedom . Members of the SBS helped quell an Afghan prison revolt during the Battle of Qala @-@ i @-@ Jangi near Mazar @-@ i @-@ Sharif , in November 2001 .
In the invasion of Iraq in 2003 , M squadron was involved in a fierce firefight , which has since been commended by senior British officials . Sixty Men from M squadron with the call sign Zero Six Bravo travelled 1 @,@ 000 km ( 620 mi ) into Iraq to take the surrender of the Iraqi 5th Corps . The call @-@ sign was engaged in a fierce firefight that saw most of its vehicles destroyed . The SBS squadron escaped by splitting up , two men escaped on quad bikes to Syria . C squadron also had a 3 @-@ month tour in early 2003 . Corporal Ian Plank , an SBS operator attached to the SAS was killed by Iraqi insurgents during a house @-@ to @-@ house search for a wanted high @-@ ranking Islamist terrorist in an insurgent compound in Ramadi on 31 October 2003 , he was the first UKSF combat casualty of the Iraq War . The SBS was also very active as part of Task Force Black , C squadron deployed to Baghdad as part of the task force in 2004 , in its four @-@ month deployment it mounted 22 raids .
In Spring 2005 , the Director of Special Forces rebalanced British special forces deployments so that Afghanistan would be the responsibility of the SBS and Iraq would be the 22nd SAS Regiment 's . In Spring 2006 , the British military deployed over 4 @,@ 000 troops to southern Afghanistan and the SBS were assigned to take the lead in supporting the deployment . The main objective of the SBS ( and later on other British special forces units with Afghan forces ) was targeting Taliban leaders and drug barons using " Carrot and stick " tactics . On 27 June 2006 , Captain David Patten , SAS ( other sources say SRR ) and Sergeant Paul Bartlett , SBS , were killed and another serviceman seriously injured in a Taliban ambush in Helmand province , southern Afghanistan . They were part of an SBS patrol that had arrested 4 Taliban organisers when they were ambushed by a large Taliban force , their vehicles were destroyed and the team were pursued by at least 70 Taliban insurgents , they were rescued by a platoon of Gurkhas who were supported by US and British aircraft , however in the chaos ; Bartlett and Patten became separated from the main group , their bodies were later found . One SBS member was awarded the MC On 12 May 2007 , an SBS team killed the Taliban leader Mullah Dadullah in Helmand province after a raid on a compound where his associates were meeting . On 24 September 2007 , members of the SBS and Italian commando 's rescued two Italian intelligence officers who were kidnapped by the Taliban in Herat province near Farah , they had been kidnapped 2 days before ; the mission was successful the officers were rescued and all 8 or 9 Taliban were killed . On 18 February 2008 , Taliban leader Mullah Abdul Matin and one of his sub @-@ commanders , Mullah Karim Agha , were travelling through the desert in Helmand province on motorbikes when they were ambushed and killed by an SBS unit dropped into his path by helicopter . In February 2009 , members of the SBS took part in Operation Diesel , which resulted in the seizure of £ 50 million of heroin and the killing of at least 20 Taliban insurgents . On 9 September 2009 , a joint SAS @-@ SBS team supported by the SFSG rescued Times journalist Stephen Farrell after he was captured by the Taliban in Kunduz Province . On 1 July 2010 whilst carrying out an operation against insurgents in Haji Wakil , Helmand Province , Corporal Seth Stephens of the SBS was killed during a heavy firefight whilst clearing a compound , as a result of his actions during that operation , he was awarded the Conspicuous Gallantry Cross . On 15 April 2012 , during the Taliban attack on Kabul SBS operators cleared Taliban militants from a central location overlooking foreign embassies .
On 27 February 2011 , during the Libyan Civil War , the BBC reported that C Squadron assisted in the evacuation of 150 oil workers in three flights by RAF C @-@ 130 Hercules from an airfield near Zella to Valletta .
On 8 March 2012 , a small Special Boat Service ( SBS ) team , attempted to rescue two hostages , Chris McManus ( British ) and Franco Lamolinara ( Italian ) , being held in Nigeria by members of the Boko Haram terrorist organisation loyal to al @-@ Qaeda . The two hostages were killed before or during the rescue attempt . All the hostage takers were reportedly killed . In 2013 , Captain Richard Holloway was serving with the SBS when he was killed by two Taliban bullets while conducting an operation to suppress the Taliban in a joint SBS @-@ Afghan forces raid ( with air support ) on Taliban insurgents in a valley east of Kabul ahead of the Afghanistan elections .
= = Present day = =
= = = Organisation = = =
The Ministry of Defence does not comment on special forces matters , therefore little verifiable information exists in the public domain . The SBS is under the Operational Command of Director Special Forces and are based in Hamworthy barracks , Poole , Dorset .
In 1987 , when renamed the Special Boat Service , the SBS was also reformed along SAS lines , with 16 man troops instead of the traditional sections . About 200 – 250 men make up the SBS at any one time , and once qualified , personnel are known as " Swimmer Canoeists " . They are experts in swimming , diving , parachuting , navigation , demolition and reconnaissance .
There are four active squadrons and a reserve unit :
Since the SBS joined the UKSF Group in the 1980s it has been restructured . Instead of one squadron being tasked with a permanent role the unit adopted the same system of squadron rotation as the SAS . Each Squadron rotates through Counter Terrorism Duties and Conventional Operations and tasking . For example , in December 2001 it was C squadron who were on MCT Role and were called in to intercept the MV Nisha while M and Z Squadron were deployed in Afghanistan .
C Squadron
X Squadron
Z Squadron
M Squadron
SBS Reserve or SBS ( R ) – provides individual reservists to augment the regular SBS , rather than forming independent teams . Only candidates with previous military experience are eligible to enlist . The SBS ( R ) is located at locations throughout the United Kingdom , but training is carried out in the South of England .
= = = Recruitment , selection and training = = =
In the past , the SBS was staffed almost entirely by the Royal Marines . Volunteers for the SBS are now taken from all branches of the British Armed Forces , although volunteers still predominantly come from the Royal Marines Commandos . Candidates wishing to serve with the SBS must have completed two years regular service and will only be accepted into the SBS after completion of the selection process .
Until recently , the SBS had its own independent selection programme in order to qualify as a Swimmer Canoeist , but its selection program has now been integrated into a joint UKSF selection alongside candidates for the SAS . All male members of the United Kingdom armed forces can be considered for special forces selection , but historically the majority of candidates have an airborne forces background . There are two selections a year , one in winter and the other in summer , and all the instructors are full members of the Special Air Service Regiment .
Before being loaded on to a UKSF Selection course , a candidate must complete a two @-@ week Special Forces Briefing Course . The course tests the candidates physical fitness and looks of their willingness to conduct water @-@ borne operations .
The UKSF course is broken down into two main parts , Selection and Continuation Training .
Selection
Aptitude Phase ( hill phase ) – 4 weeks . This phase is conducted in the Brecon Beacons , South Wales .
The Aptitude Phase is designed to select those individuals who are suitable for Special Forces training . The initial three weeks are devoted to gradual physical training and progressive exercises designed to develop physical and navigational ability . Volunteers will be expected to complete the Basic Combat Fitness Test ( Infantry ) on the first day of the course . Exercise HIGH WALK ( Fan dance ) will take place on Day 6 and takes the form of an escorted hill march over approximately 23 km ( 14 mi ) . As with all assessment marches , additional time may be added for inclement weather conditions . Exercise HIGH WALK identifies those individuals that are not adequately prepared to continue on the course . All other training during this initial period is directed at preparing volunteers for " Test Week " which is the fourth and final week of Aptitude . " Test Week " consists of five timed marches of between 23 – 28 km ( 14 – 17 mi ) conducted on consecutive days followed by a final Endurance march of 64 km ( 40 mi ) ; this must be completed within 20 hours . Bergen weights carried during " Test Week " increase from 40 lb ( 18 kg ) to 55 lb ( 25 kg ) for the Endurance march ; in addition a rifle is carried on all marches . Volunteers are also required to pass the UKSF swimming test that consists of ; high water entry ( 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) ) , treading water for nine minutes followed immediately by a swim of 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) wearing Combat 95 . The test finishes with an underwater swim of 10 m ( 33 ft ) including a retrieval of a small weight .
Continuation Training
Tactics , Techniques and Procedures ( TTPs ) – 9 weeks
Those who pass the Aptitude Phase will undertake an intensive period of instruction and assessment of Special Forces Tactics , Techniques and Procedures ( TTPs ) , including SF weapons and Standard Operation Procedures . The majority of this period is spent in the jungle , an environment that is suitable for SF training and ideal to achieve the purpose of this phase . Much of the training is aimed at discovering an individual 's qualities . Continuation training , which consists of SOP and Tactical training in temperate and jungle environments , lasts nine weeks . This is conducted in the UK and Brunei .
Employment Training – 14 weeks
Employment Training consists of surveillance and reconnaissance training ( 2 weeks ) , army combat survival ( 2 weeks ) , SF parachute training ( 4 weeks ) , counter terrorist course ( 3 weeks ) , signals training ( 1 week ) , patrol training and squadron induction training ( 2 weeks ) , and 1 week officers week for potential officers . At the end of the resistance to interrogation phase the surviving candidates are transferred to an operational squadron .
When accepted into an operational squadron , the candidates must complete the SBS Swimmer Canoeist Course , SC3 Course . The course lasts for several months and covers long distance Dives , Swims and Kayaks in open sea , often in poor weather . Underwater demolitions , Maritime counter terrorism , are also practised . On completing SBS troopers will be put on one year probation .
Reserve selection
For SBS ( R ) selection , only candidates with previous military experience are eligible to enlist . Training is carried out in the South of England and candidates are required to complete the following tests over the four @-@ day initial selection course :
Combat Fitness Test ( CFT ) – 12 @.@ 8 km ( 8 mi ) carrying 25 kg ( 55 lb ) within 1 hour 50 minutes .
Swim test – 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) using any stroke in uniform and retrieve an object from 5 m ( 16 ft ) .
Gym tests .
Advanced CFT 1 – 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) carrying 25 kg ( 55 lb ) .
Advanced CFT 2 – 24 km ( 15 mi ) carrying 30 kg ( 66 lb ) .
The Special Boat Service wear the green commando beret , but with their own cap badge .
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= The Obvious Child =
" The Obvious Child " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Paul Simon . It was the lead single from his eighth studio album , The Rhythm of the Saints ( 1990 ) , released by Warner Bros. Records . Written by Simon , its lyrics explore mortality and aging . The song is accompanied by a performance from Brazilian drumming collective Olodum in a live recording . Simon wrote his lyrics to complement the song 's rhythm ; in following this approach he wrote many passages that could be considered nonsensical .
The single , released in September 1990 , was commercially successful , performing well on charts worldwide . In the United States , it was mainly successful on the Album Rock Tracks chart , where it peaked at number 21 . Outside the US , " The Obvious Child " was a top 15 hit in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands . The song received highly positive reviews upon its release . Simon promoted the song alongside Olodum in a performance on Saturday Night Live . The song also influenced popular culture ; it is the namesake of the 2014 film Obvious Child .
= = Background = =
The rhythm tracks are performed by Grupo Cultural Olodum , a drumming collective ( " bloco afro " ) directed by " Neguinho do Samba " ( Alves de Souza ) and also signed to Warner Bros. It , like many songs on The Rhythm of the Saints , was recorded live in the streets of Pelourinho Square of Salvador , Brazil in February 1988 . Microphones were hung from windows or on telephone poles to capture the performances . According to Simon , " Hundreds of people gathered . It was an amazing day — an amazing recording experience . " The vocal track was recorded at the Hit Factory in New York City .
= = Composition = =
The song 's drum introduction is indebted to " Madagascar " , a song by Olodum from their 1987 LP Egito Madagáscar . Writer Steve Sullivan writes that the figure is a " standard device " for the group , who also employ abbreviated versions of it elsewhere on the album : " Salvador Nao Inerte " and " Vinheta Cuba @-@ Brasil " . Following this , the song breaks into an instrumental fragment that , according to Stephen Holden of The New York Times , echoes the Silhouettes ' 1957 doo @-@ wop hit , " Get a Job " . Holden also compared the song 's conclusion to another doo @-@ wop song , the Charts ' " Desirie " ( 1957 ) .
The song 's lyrics thematically relate to a fear of aging and leaving behind the " boldness of youth , " according to Sullivan . Holden considered it a story of an everyman pondering the uncertainty of life whilst navigating his high school yearbook . Rolling Stone 's John Mcalley too found it an everyman battling the fact that his " days have become defined by their limitations and dogged ordinariness . " For The Rhythm of the Saints , Simon was inspired by poet Derek Walcott , and would base first @-@ draft lyrics on his poems . Simon attempted to match the rhythmic quality of the composition with his lyrics , whether that meant a lyric was meaningless or not . A lyric relating to " the cross is in the ballpark , " for example , has no meaning ; Simon said , " I found [ it ] to be a satisfying rhythmic phrase against the drums . "
= = Chart performance = =
" The Obvious Child " performed well on singles charts in several territories worldwide . In the United States , the song reached a peak of number 92 on the Billboard Hot 100 on January 5 , 1991 ; it spent five weeks on the chart as a whole . It performed better on the magazine 's Mainstream Rock Tracks chart , where it placed at number 21 on November 10 , 1990 , and on the Modern Rock Tracks chart , where it reached a peak of number 24 a week earlier on November 3 . It had more longevity on the former chart , where it spent ten weeks total . In Canada , the song first debuted on the RPM 100 on October 20 , 1990 at position 98 . It peaked at number 28 during the week of December 8 , 1990 , and remained at that peak for two weeks .
Internationally , the single performed better . In the United Kingdom , the song premiered on the UK Singles Chart on September 30 , 1990 at number 61 , and rose over the following weeks to a peak of number fifteen on November 4 , 1990 . It charted best in the Netherlands ' Nationale Top 100 , where it reached a peak of number 12 . On Belgium 's Ultratop 50 , it hit number 29 . In Australasian territories , it charted right outside the top 40 : in Australia , the song reached number 42 , and in New Zealand , it peaked at number 46 .
= = Reception = =
Upon its release , " The Obvious Child " received positive reviews from music critics of the time . Stephen Holden of The New York Times was perhaps the most effusive :
Greg Sandow of Entertainment Weekly praised the song 's " confident drums that resound with special exuberant zing . " A reviewer for People felt that " the more exotic musical elements are subsumed by Simon 's pretty pop structures [ ... ] You never get the impression that Paul has truly gone native or even considered it . He 's more like a kid camping under the stars in his own backyard . "
Reviews have continued to be very positive over time . Writer Steve Sullivan , in his book Encyclopedia of Great Popular Song Recordings , Volume 1 ( 2013 ) , calls the song " an extraordinary work that surpasses any individual song Paul Simon had ever produced as a solo artist . " Cameron Scheetz , in a 2014 article for The A.V. Club , examined the song ; he called it " the perfect confluence of the wild , frenetic drumming and Simon 's folksy melodies . "
= = Promotion and use in media = =
Simon performed the song , accompanied by Olodum and Neguinho do Samba , on Saturday Night Live on November 17 , 1990 .
The song is the namesake for the 2014 film Obvious Child ; it appears in a scene in which two characters drunkenly dance together . Director Gillian Robespierre titled the film with hope that its meaning would be ambiguous .
= = Formats and track listing = =
All songs written by Paul Simon , except where noted .
= = Charts = =
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= Renown @-@ class battlecruiser =
The Renown class comprised a pair of battlecruisers built during the First World War for the Royal Navy . They were originally laid down as improved versions of the Revenge @-@ class battleships . Their construction was suspended on the outbreak of war on the grounds they would not be ready in a timely manner . Admiral Lord Fisher , upon becoming First Sea Lord , gained approval to restart their construction as battlecruisers that could be built and enter service quickly . The Director of Naval Construction ( DNC ) , Eustace Tennyson @-@ D 'Eyncourt , quickly produced an entirely new design to meet Admiral Lord Fisher 's requirements and the builders agreed to deliver the ships in 15 months . They did not quite meet that ambitious goal , but they were delivered a few months after the Battle of Jutland in 1916 . They were the world 's largest and fastest capital ships upon completion .
Repulse was the only ship of her class to see combat in the First World War when she participated in the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight in 1917 . Both ships were reconstructed twice between the wars ; the 1920s reconstruction increased their armour protection and made lesser improvements , while the 1930s reconstruction was much more thorough , especially for Renown . Repulse accompanied the battlecruiser Hood during the Special Service Squadron 's round @-@ the @-@ world cruise in 1923 – 24 and protected British interests during the Spanish Civil War between 1936 – 39 . Renown frequently conveyed royalty on their foreign tours and served as flagship of the Battlecruiser Squadron when Hood was refitting .
Both ships served during the Second World War ; they searched for the Admiral Graf Spee in 1939 , participated in the Norwegian Campaign of April – June 1940 and searched for the German battleship Bismarck in 1941 . Repulse was sunk on 10 December 1941 in the South China Sea off Kuantan , Pahang by Japanese aircraft . Renown spent much of 1940 and 1941 assigned to Force H at Gibraltar , escorting convoys and she fought in the inconclusive Battle of Cape Spartivento . She was briefly assigned to the Home Fleet and provided cover to several Arctic convoys in early 1942 . The ship was transferred back to Force H for Operation Torch and spent much of 1943 refitting or transporting Winston Churchill and his staff to and from various conferences with various Allied leaders . In early 1944 Renown was transferred to the Eastern Fleet in the Indian Ocean where she supported numerous attacks on Japanese @-@ occupied facilities in Indonesia and various island groups in the Indian Ocean . The ship returned to the Home Fleet in early 1945 and was refitted before being placed in reserve after the end of the war . Renown was sold for scrap in 1948 .
= = Genesis = =
= = = Improved Revenge @-@ class battleships = = =
The battleships of the 1914 Naval Programme consisted of three improved Revenge @-@ class ships , named Renown , Repulse and Resistance , and one further member of the Queen Elizabeth class , called Agincourt . Resistance and Agincourt were to be built in Royal dockyards while Renown was awarded to Fairfield and Repulse to Palmers . The design was approved on 13 May 1914 and the improvements over the Revenge class consisted of :
A consistent thickness of 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) for the protective wing bulkheads .
An enlarged torpedo control tower .
An enlarged conning tower with the armour rearranged for better access .
A protected spotting position in the bow .
The width of the keel was increased to provide a more rigid structure amidships to resist stress while docking .
Shell stowage for the main guns was increased from 80 rounds per gun to 100 .
These changes would have done little to change the size of the ships in comparison to their predecessors other than a decrease in draught to 28 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 7 m ) , 1 foot 6 inches ( 45 @.@ 7 cm ) less than the older ships . They would , however , have been 2 knots ( 3 @.@ 7 km / h ; 2 @.@ 3 mph ) slower than the Revenge @-@ class ships as they were to be provided with only 31 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 23 @,@ 000 kW ) rather than the 40 @,@ 000 shp ( 30 @,@ 000 kW ) of their predecessors .
Work on all four ships was suspended at the beginning of the First World War and the two ships to be built in the Royal dockyards were cancelled on 26 August 1914 , as it was believed that they could not be completed before the end of the war . Admiral Lord Fisher , once he returned to office as First Sea Lord in October , began pressuring Winston Churchill , then First Lord of the Admiralty , to allow him to convert the suspended contracts for Renown and Repulse into a new class of battlecruisers capable of the very high speed of 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) . Churchill argued that their construction would interfere with other construction programmes , absorb too many resources , and still could not be finished in time . Fisher countered by arguing he could keep the building time to a minimum , as he had done with Dreadnought , by using as much material ordered for the battleships as possible , including their 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) gun turrets . Churchill was unmoved , however , until the experiences of Battle of Heligoland Bight in August and the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December , seemed to demonstrate that high speed and heavy gun power was a potent combination and vindicated Fisher 's long @-@ held belief on the viability of the battlecruiser . These actions , plus pressure from Admiral Jellicoe , commander of the Grand Fleet , and Vice Admiral Beatty , commander of the Battlecruiser Force , caused Churchill to gain approval from the Cabinet to build two ships on 28 December .
= = = Battlecruisers = = =
Admiral Lord Fisher first presented his requirements for the new ships to the DNC on 18 December , before they had even been approved . He wanted a long , high , flared bow , like that on the pre @-@ dreadnought HMS Renown , but higher , four 15 @-@ inch guns in two twin turrets , an anti @-@ torpedo boat armament of twenty 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns mounted high up and protected by gun shields only , speed of 32 knots using oil fuel , and armour on the scale of the battlecruiser Indefatigable . Within a few days , however , Fisher increased the number of guns to six and added two torpedo tubes . Minor revisions in the initial estimate were made until 26 December , and a preliminary design was completed on 30 December .
During the following week the DNC 's department examined the material delivered for the two battleships and decided what could be used in the new design and the contract for Repulse was transferred from Palmers to John Brown & Company because the former lacked a slipway long enough to use for the new ship . The usable material was transferred to John Brown and both builders had received enough information from the DNC 's department to lay the keels of both ships on 25 January 1915 , well before the altered contracts were completed on 10 March !
= = Description = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
The Renown @-@ class ships had an overall length of 794 feet 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 242 @.@ 0 m ) , a beam of 90 feet 1 @.@ 75 inches ( 27 @.@ 5 m ) , and a draught of 30 feet 2 inches ( 9 @.@ 2 m ) at deep load . They displaced 27 @,@ 320 long tons ( 27 @,@ 760 t ) at standard load and 32 @,@ 220 long tons ( 32 @,@ 740 t ) at deep load . While 90 feet ( 27 @.@ 4 m ) longer than their predecessor , Tiger , they displaced 2 @,@ 780 long tons ( 2 @,@ 820 t ) less than the older ship at deep load .
The ships proved to be good sea boats , but had to be reinforced while under construction with additional stiffening and pillars under the forecastle deck to cure some minor structural problems forward . They had a metacentric height of 6 @.@ 2 feet ( 1 @.@ 9 m ) at deep load as built as well as a complete double bottom .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The original plan for these ships was to use lightweight machinery producing a total of 110 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 82 @,@ 000 kW ) , but that would have required a considerable amount of time to complete its design . Rather than risk delaying the completion of the ships the machinery from HMS Tiger was duplicated with the addition of three extra boilers to provide the required power needed for the additional speed . Each ship had two paired sets of Brown @-@ Curtis direct @-@ drive steam turbines , housed in separate engine @-@ rooms . Each set comprised high @-@ pressure ahead and astern turbines driving an outboard shaft and low @-@ pressure ahead and astern turbines , housed in the same casing , driving an inner shaft . Their three @-@ bladed propellers were 13 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 11 m ) in diameter . The turbines were powered by 42 Babcock & Wilcox water @-@ tube boilers in six boiler rooms at a working pressure of 235 psi ( 1 @,@ 620 kPa ; 17 kgf / cm2 ) . They were designed to produce a total of 112 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 84 @,@ 000 kW ) , but achieved more than 126 @,@ 000 shp ( 93 @,@ 958 kW ) during Renown 's trials , when she reached a speed of 32 @.@ 58 knots ( 60 @.@ 34 km / h ; 37 @.@ 49 mph ) . They were the fastest capital ships in existence until the arrival of Hood in 1920 .
They were designed to normally carry 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 016 t ) of fuel oil , but had a maximum capacity of 4 @,@ 289 long tons ( 4 @,@ 358 t ) . At full capacity , the Renown @-@ class ships could steam at a speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) for 4 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 410 km ; 4 @,@ 600 mi ) . The ships had two reciprocating steam @-@ driven 200 @-@ kilowatt ( 270 hp ) dynamos , one oil @-@ driven 150 @-@ kilowatt ( 200 hp ) dynamo , and one turbine @-@ driven 200 @-@ kilowatt ( 270 hp ) dynamo that supplied the common ring main at 220 volts .
= = = Armament = = =
The Renown @-@ class ships mounted six 42 @-@ calibre BL 15 @-@ inch Mk I guns in three twin hydraulically powered gun turrets , designated " A " , " B " , and " Y " from front to rear . The guns could be depressed to − 3 ° and elevated to 20 ° ; they could be loaded at any angle up to 20 ° , although loading at high angles tended to slow the gun 's return to battery ( firing position ) . The ships carried 120 shells per gun . They fired 1 @,@ 910 @-@ pound ( 866 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 575 ft / s ( 785 m / s ) ; this provided a maximum range of 23 @,@ 734 yd ( 21 @,@ 702 m ) with armour @-@ piercing shells .
The ships were designed with seventeen 45 @-@ calibre BL 4 @-@ inch Mark IX guns , fitted in five triple and two single mounts . These were manually powered and quite cumbersome in use as they required a crew of thirty @-@ two men to load and train the triple gun mounts . The gun 's rate of fire was only 10 to 12 rounds per minute as the loaders kept getting in each other 's way . They had a maximum depression of − 10 ° and a maximum elevation of 30 ° . They fired a 31 @-@ pound ( 14 kg ) high @-@ explosive shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 625 ft / s ( 800 m / s ) . At maximum elevation the guns had a maximum range of 13 @,@ 500 yards ( 12 @,@ 344 m ) . The ships carried 200 rounds for each gun .
Each ship mounted a pair of QF 3 inch 20 cwt anti @-@ aircraft guns on single high @-@ angle mountings . These were mounted on the shelter deck abreast the rear funnel . The gun had a maximum depression of 10 ° and a maximum elevation of 90 ° . It fired a 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 500 ft / s ( 760 m / s ) at a rate of fire of 12 – 14 rounds per minute . They had a maximum effective ceiling of 23 @,@ 500 ft ( 7 @,@ 200 m ) . Both ships carried ten torpedoes and mounted two 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes fitted just forward of " A " barbette .
= = = Fire control = = =
The main guns of the Renown @-@ class ships could be controlled from either of the two fire @-@ control directors . The primary director was mounted above the conning tower in an armoured hood and the other was in the fore @-@ top on the foremast . Data from a rangefinder in the armoured hood was input into a Mk IV * Dreyer Fire Control Table located in the Transmitting Station ( TS ) where it was converted into range and deflection data for use by the guns . The target 's data was also graphically recorded on a plotting table to assist the gunnery officer in predicting the movement of the target . The secondary armament was controlled by directors mounted on platforms on each mast . Each turret was provided with a 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) rangefinder in an armoured housing on the turret roof .
During the war the number and size of rangefinders increased . By 1918 Renown carried two 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) rangefinders , one on " Y " turret and the other in the armoured hood above the conning tower . Fifteen @-@ foot rangefinders were mounted on " A " and " B " turrets , the torpedo control tower abaft the mainmast , and the armoured hood . The fore @-@ top was equipped with a 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) rangefinder and the anti @-@ aircraft guns were controlled by a simple 6 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 98 m ) rangefinder mounted on the aft superstructure . Two 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) rangefinders were mounted on the bridge .
= = = Armour = = =
The armour protection of the Renown @-@ class ships was similar to that of Indefatigable ; her waterline belt of Krupp cemented armour measured 6 inches ( 152 mm ) thick amidships . It ran from the midpoint of " A " barbette to the midpoint of " Y " barbette , a length of 462 feet ( 140 @.@ 8 m ) , and was 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) high . Strakes of three @-@ inch armour aft and four @-@ inch armour forward continued the belt towards the ends of the ship , although neither reached the bow or the stern . The strakes were enclosed by transverse bulkheads of the same thickness . For much of the length of the main belt there was an upper belt of high @-@ tensile steel , 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) thick , intended as splinter protection .
The gun turrets were 9 inches ( 229 mm ) thick on the face and front sides , 7 inches ( 178 mm ) thick on the rear side plates while their roofs were 4 @.@ 25 inches ( 108 mm ) thick . The barbettes were protected by 7 inches ( 178 mm ) of armour above the upper deck , but it thinned to 4 – 5 inches ( 102 – 127 mm ) below the deck . The conning tower sides were 10 inches ( 254 mm ) thick and it had a three @-@ inch roof . The walls of the communication tube were three inches thick . The torpedo control tower had 3 @-@ inch walls and a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch cast steel roof .
As designed the high @-@ tensile @-@ steel decks ranged from 0 @.@ 75 to 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 19 to 38 mm ) in thickness . After the Battle of Jutland in 1916 , while the ships were still completing , an extra inch of high @-@ tensile steel was added on the main deck over the magazines . Despite these additions , the ships were still felt to be too vulnerable to plunging fire and each ship was refitted in Rosyth in 1916 – 17 with additional horizontal armour , weighing approximately 504 long tons ( 512 t ) , added to the decks over the magazines and over the steering mechanism .
The Renown @-@ class ships were fitted with a shallow anti @-@ torpedo bulge integral to the hull which was intended to explode the torpedo before it hit the hull proper and vent the underwater explosion to the surface rather than into the ship . However , later testing proved that it was not deep enough to accomplish its task as it lacked the layers of empty and full compartments that were necessary to absorb the force of the explosion .
= = Construction = =
= = Service = =
= = = First World War = = =
Both ships spent much of the remainder of 1916 and early 1917 in the hands of dockyards having their armour upgraded and conducting routine patrols of the North Sea . They were assigned to the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron ( BCS ) for the duration of the war . Repulse relieved Lion as flagship of the 1st BCS .
= = = = Second Battle of Heligoland Bight = = = =
Over the course of 1917 the Admiralty became more concerned about German efforts in the North Sea to sweep paths through the British @-@ laid minefields intended to restrict the actions of the High Seas Fleet and German submarines . A preliminary raid on German minesweeping forces on 31 October by light forces destroyed ten small ships and the Admiralty decided on a larger operation to destroy the minesweepers and their escorting light cruisers . Based on intelligence reports the Admiralty decided on 17 November 1917 to allocate two light cruiser squadrons , the 1st Cruiser Squadron covered by the reinforced 1st BCS ( less Renown ) and , more distantly , the battleships of the 1st Battle Squadron to the operation .
The German ships , four light cruisers of II Scouting Force , eight destroyers , three divisions of minesweepers , eight sperrbrechers ( cork @-@ filled trawlers , used to detonate mines without sinking ) and two trawlers to mark the swept route , were spotted at 7 : 30 a.m. , silhouetted by the rising sun . The light battlecruiser Courageous and the light cruiser Cardiff opened fire with their forward guns seven minutes later . The Germans responded by laying an effective smoke screen . The British continued in pursuit , but lost track of most of the smaller ships in the smoke and concentrated fire on the light cruisers as opportunity permitted . Repulse was detached not long after and raced forward at full speed to engage the enemy ships . She opened fire at about 9 : 00 , scoring a single hit on the light cruiser SMS Königsberg during the battle . When the German battleships SMS Kaiser and SMS Kaiserin were spotted about 9 : 50 the British broke off their pursuit and Repulse covered their retreat , aided by a heavy fog that came down around 10 : 40 .
In September 1917 Repulse became the first capital ship to be fitted with aircraft flying @-@ off platforms on her turrets . A Sopwith Pup successfully took off from the platform mounted on " B " turret on 1 October and repeated his achievement on 9 October from " Y " turret . Renown received her platforms in early 1918 .
On 12 December 1917 Renown put to sea with other elements of the fleet in an unsuccessful attempt to intercept the German 3rd Half @-@ Flotilla of destroyers that had destroyed the Scandinavian convoy and most of its escorts . For the rest of the war the two ships patrolled the North Sea uneventfully . Both ships were present at the surrender of the High Seas Fleet at Scapa Flow on 21 November 1918 .
= = = Inter @-@ war service = = =
Repulse began a major refit at Portsmouth on 17 December 1918 intended to drastically improve her armour protection . Her existing 6 @-@ inch armour belt was replaced by 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) armour plates made surplus by the conversion of the battleship Almirante Cochrane ( originally ordered by Chile and purchased after the war began ) to the aircraft carrier Eagle . The old armour was fitted between the main and upper decks , above the new armour belt . Additional high @-@ tensile plating was added to the decks over the magazines . The ship 's anti @-@ torpedo bulge was deepened and reworked along the lines of that installed on the battleship Ramillies . The bulge covered her hull from the submerged torpedo room to " Y " magazine and the inner compartments of which were filled with crushing tubes . The bulges added 12 feet 8 inches ( 3 @.@ 9 m ) to her beam and 1 foot 4 inches ( 0 @.@ 4 m ) to her draught . The refit added about 4 @,@ 500 long tons ( 4 @,@ 600 t ) to her displacement and raised her metacentric height to 6 @.@ 4 feet ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) at deep load . Three 30 @-@ foot rangefinders were also added as well as eight torpedo tubes in twin mounts on the upper deck . Both flying @-@ off platforms were removed .
When the Grand Fleet was disbanded in April 1919 Renown was assigned to the Battlecruiser Squadron of the Atlantic Fleet . In June she was refitted in preparation for a tour of Canada , Newfoundland and the United States by Edward , the Prince of Wales , and both flying @-@ off platforms were removed . From January to March 1920 Renown was refitted more extensively as a " royal yacht " . Her aft 4 @-@ inch mounting and both 3 @-@ inch AA guns were removed so that extra accommodation and a promenade deck could be built . A large deckhouse was built on the shelter deck between the funnels . The port side housed a squash court while the starboard side was a cinema . The ship sailed in March for Australia and New Zealand with the Prince of Wales and his entourage aboard and made many stops en route . She returned to Portsmouth in October and was placed in reserve in November .
Renown was recommissioned in September 1921 for a tour of India and Japan by the Prince of Wales and sailed from Portsmouth in October . The ship arrived back in Portsmouth in June 1922 and she was placed in reserve the following month . The ship began a reconstruction that same month along the lines of her sister , although changes were made based on the experiences with Repulse . Renown 's main armour belt was removed and a new 9 @-@ inch belt was installed , using up the remaining plates leftover from Almirante Cochrane as well as new armour , but installed about 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) higher than on Repulse to offset any increase in draught . A strake of tapered armour was fitted underneath the main belt to deflect any shell that dived beneath the water 's surface ; it was 9 @-@ inches thick at top and thinned to 2 inches ( 51 mm ) at the bottom . The ship 's deck armour was heavily reinforced adjacent to its machinery spaces and magazines . Two longitudinal bulkheads were added between the upper and main decks that ran from the base of the conning tower to the end of the boiler rooms . The bulges were reworked and based on those used in the Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships although crushing tubes were only used abreast the magazines . The rear triple 4 @-@ inch gun mount was replaced . The flying @-@ off platform on " B " turret was reinstated and a high @-@ angle control position ( HACP ) was added to the fore @-@ top . The pair of 3 @-@ inch AA guns and her two single four @-@ inch gun mounts were removed and replaced with four QF four @-@ inch Mark V anti @-@ aircraft guns . They had a maximum depression of -5 ° and a maximum elevation of 80 ° . They fired a 31 @-@ pound ( 14 kg ) high explosive shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 387 ft / s ( 728 m / s ) at a rate of ten to fifteen rounds per minute . The guns had a maximum ceiling of 31 @,@ 000 ft ( 9 @,@ 400 m ) , but an effective range of much less . The reconstruction only added 3 @,@ 500 long tons ( 3 @,@ 600 t ) to the ship 's displacement and three inches to her draught .
Repulse was recommissioned on 1 January 1921 and joined the Battlecruiser Squadron . In November 1923 , Hood , accompanied by Repulse and a number of Danae @-@ class cruisers of the 1st Light Cruiser Squadron , set out on a world cruise from west to east via the Panama Canal . They returned home ten months later in September 1924 . Shortly after her return the ship 's pair of 3 @-@ inch AA guns and her two single four @-@ inch gun mounts were removed and replaced with four QF four @-@ inch Mark V AA guns . The Battlecruiser Squadron visited Lisbon in February 1925 to participate in the Vasco da Gama celebrations before continuing on the Mediterranean for exercises . A squash court was added on the starboard side between the funnels for the Prince of Wales ' tour of Africa and South America that lasted from March to October . Upon her return she was refitted from November 1925 to July 1926 and had a HACP added to her fore @-@ top .
Renown finished her reconstruction in September 1926 and she was assigned to the Battlecruiser Squadron until the ship was detached to convey Prince Albert of York to Australia between January and July 1927 . Upon her return she rejoined the Atlantic Fleet . Renown became the flagship of the BCS when Hood was refitting between 1929 and 1931 . Hood reassumed the role as flagship after she was recommissioned and Renown was paid off for a refit of her own . A High @-@ Angle Control System Mark I was fitted with a director on the roof of the fore @-@ top that replaced the high @-@ angle rangefinder and the conning tower platform was enlarged to accommodate a pair of Mk V octuple mountings for the QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk VIII gun The Mk V mounts could depress to − 10 ° and elevate to a maximum of 80 ° . The Mark VIII 2 @-@ pounder gun fired a 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) .91 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 41 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 920 ft / s ( 590 m / s ) to a distance of 3 @,@ 800 yards ( 3 @,@ 500 m ) . The gun 's rate of fire was approximately 96 – 98 rounds per minute . Only one mount was initially available , however , and it , along with its director , was fitted on the starboard side . Renown had her midships triple 4 @-@ inch mount removed to make room for an aircraft catapult that was not fitted until 1933 . The port Mark V 2 @-@ pounder mount was finally fitted , albeit without its director , that same year . The ship now carried a Fairey III floatplane for reconnaissance purposes . The flying @-@ off platform was also removed .
= = = = 1930s reconstructions = = = =
After Repulse completed her 1926 refit she remained in commission , aside from a brief refit in July – September 1927 , with the BCS of the Atlantic Fleet until she was paid off in June 1932 prior to beginning her reconstruction in April 1933 . Most of the existing layers of high @-@ tensile steel that constituted the ship 's horizontal armour were replaced by non @-@ cemented armour plates 2 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 – 89 mm ) in thickness and the torpedo control tower was removed from the aft superstructure . A fixed catapult replaced the midships 4 @-@ inch triple mount and a hangar was built on each side of the rear funnel to house two of the ship 's Fairey III aircraft . One additional aircraft could be carried on the deck and another on the catapult itself . Electric cranes were mounted above each hangar to handle the aircraft . The four 4 @-@ inch AA guns were moved , one pair abreast the rear funnel at the level of the hangar roof and the other pair abreast the fore funnel on the forecastle deck . Four prototype QF 4 @-@ inch Mark XV dual @-@ purpose guns were added in twin @-@ gun Mark XVIII mounts abreast the mainmast . Two octuple Mark VI 2 @-@ pounder mounts were fitted on extensions of the conning @-@ tower platform abreast the fore funnel . Above these a pair of quadruple Mark II * mountings for the 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Vickers Mark III machine gun were added . These mounts could depress to − 10 ° and elevate to a maximum of 70 ° . The machine guns fired a 1 @.@ 326 @-@ ounce ( 37 @.@ 6 g ) bullet at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 520 ft / s ( 770 m / s ) . This gave the gun a maximum range of about 5 @,@ 000 yd ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) , although its effective range was only 800 yd ( 730 m ) Repulse received two HACS directors , one Mark II on the fore @-@ top and a Mark I * mounted on a pedestal above the rear superstructure . The two submerged torpedo tubes were removed and the vacant spaces sub @-@ divided and turned into store @-@ rooms .
Renown began her own even more thorough reconstruction in September 1936 , based on that of the battleship Warspite . Her superstructure and funnels were razed to the level of the upper deck , her masts taken out and the ship 's main and secondary armament was removed . A large splinter @-@ proof tower superstructure was built , topped with a director @-@ control tower for the main armament and two HACS Mark IV directors . The armoured hood formerly mounted above the conning tower was reinstalled on the rear superstructure . The ship 's engines and boilers were replaced by Parsons geared turbine sets and eight Admiralty three @-@ drum boilers . This saved some 2 @,@ 800 long tons ( 2 @,@ 800 t ) of weight and allowed the two forward boiler rooms to be converted to 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 110 mm ) magazines and other uses . Renown 's deck protection was somewhat upgraded by adding non @-@ cemented armour where it had not been added earlier and protecting the new 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch magazines . As in Repulse hangars were built abreast her rear funnel and a catapult was fitted between the rear funnel and the aft superstructure .
The ship 's 15 @-@ inch gun turrets were modified to the Mark I ( N ) standard with their elevation increased to 30 ° . Twenty dual @-@ purpose QF 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mark III guns in twin BD Mark II mountings replaced all of the 4 @-@ inch guns . Six of the gun turrets , three on each side , were abreast the forward funnel while the remaining four were mounted on abreast the main mast . The BD Mark II mounts had elevation limits of − 5 ° to + 80 ° . The Mark III gun fired a 55 @-@ pound ( 25 kg ) high explosive shell at a muzzle velocity of about 2 @,@ 350 ft / s ( 720 m / s ) . Its rate of fire was 12 rounds per minute . They had a maximum effective ceiling of 41 @,@ 000 ft ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) . The guns were controlled by four dual @-@ purpose Mark IV directors , two mounted on the rear of the bridge structure and the remaining two on the aft superstructure . They fed tracking data to a HACS Mark IV analog computer for high @-@ angle targets and an Admiralty Fire Control Clock Mark VII for low @-@ angle targets . Each gun was provided with 400 round of ammunition . Three octuple Mark VI 2 @-@ pounder mounts were fitted , two on a platform between the funnels and the third at the rear of the aft superstructure . Each was provided with a Mark III * director . Four quadruple Vickers .50 @-@ calibre Mark III mounts were also added , two each on the forward and rear superstructures . The submerged torpedo tubes were removed and eight above @-@ water torpedo tubes added .
Repulse was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet when she recommissioned in April 1936 . She transported 500 refugees from Palma , Majorca to Marseilles , France in late 1936 after the start of the Spanish Civil War . The ship was present at the Coronation Fleet Review at Spithead on 20 May 1937 for George VI . Repulse was sent to Haifa in July 1938 to maintain order during the Arab Revolt . She was selected to convey the King and Queen during their May 1939 Canadian Tour and she was refitted between October 1938 and March 1939 for this role . The twin 4 @-@ inch AA guns were replaced by two more Mark V guns and two additional quadruple .50 @-@ calibre mounts were added . The King and Queen ultimately traveled aboard the liner RMS Empress of Australia while Repulse escorted them on the first half of the journey .
= = = Second World War = = =
The beginning of the Second World War found Repulse assigned to the Battlecruiser Squadron of the Home Fleet . She patrolled off the Norwegian coast and in the North Sea in search of German ships and to enforce the blockade . Early in the war Repulse had her aft triple 4 @-@ inch mount replaced by an 8 @-@ barrel 2 @-@ pounder mount . In late October she was transferred to Halifax with the aircraft carrier Furious to protect convoys and search for German raiders . She escorted the convoy bringing most of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division to Britain in mid @-@ December 1939 and was reassigned to the Home Fleet . The ship supported Allied operations during the Norwegian Campaign in April – June 1940 . Accompanied by Renown and the 1st Cruiser Squadron , Repulse attempted to intercept the German battleship Gneisenau as it sailed from Trondheim to Germany in July . Until May 1941 the ship escorted convoys and unsuccessfully searched for German ships . On 22 May Repulse was diverted from escorting Convoy WS8B to assist in the search for the German battleship Bismarck , but she had to break off the search early on 25 May as she was running low on fuel . The ship was refitted from June to August and received eight Oerlikon 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) autocannon as well as a Type 284 surface gunnery radar . Repulse escorted a troop convoy around the Cape of Good Hope from August to October and was transferred to East Indies Command .
To deter Japanese aggression in the Far East in late 1941 , Winston Churchill was determined to send a small group of fast capital ships , along with one modern aircraft carrier to Singapore . Repulse was already in the Indian Ocean and was ordered to Colombo in November to rendezvous with the battleship Prince of Wales where they would form Force Z. The carrier Indomitable was supposed to join them , but she was delayed when she ran aground while working up in the Caribbean . The two ships , and their escorting destroyers , arrived in Singapore on 2 December . Force Z departed on the evening of 8 December in an attempt to destroy Japanese troop convoys and protect the army 's seaward flanks from any Japanese landings in their rear . They were spotted by a Japanese reconnaissance aircraft during the following afternoon and shadowed for the rest of the day . Admiral Sir Tom Phillips decided to cancel the operation as the Japanese were now alerted . Force Z turned back during the evening , but was spotted again early on the morning of 10 December . About four hours later Japanese bombers arrived and attacked Repulse from high altitude ; she was slightly damaged by one bomb hit in her port hangar . The second wave consisted of torpedo bombers which missed Repulse , but scored at least one hit on Prince of Wales . The third wave again consisted of high @-@ altitude level bombers that missed Repulse entirely . The fourth wave of torpedo bombers managed to hit Repulse once amidships on her port side . The final wave of torpedo bombers hit Repulse with three more torpedoes and the ship capsized with the loss of 508 officers and men . The sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse contributed to the rapid fall of Singapore and Malaya to the Japanese , and demonstrated the dominance of air power over the capital ships that had been the backbone of naval power since the 1600s .
Renown was recommissioned on 28 August 1939 as part of the Home Fleet . Much like her sister , she spent September patrolling in the North Sea , but was transferred to Force K in the South Atlantic to help search for the " pocket battleship " Admiral Graf Spee . The ship joined Force H at the Cape of Good Hope in November to prevent Admiral Graf Spee from breaking into the South Atlantic . She was unsuccessful in this , but sank the blockade runner SS Watussi on 2 December . She remained in the South Atlantic even after Admiral Graf Spee was scuttled on 13 December and did not return to the Home Fleet until March 1940 . The ship became flagship of the Battlecruiser Squadron when Hood was paid off to refit that month . Renown also supported British forces during the Norwegian Campaign and briefly engaged the German battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau on 9 April . Renown opened fire first , but she was hit first by two 28 @-@ centimetre ( 11 in ) shells that only slightly damaged her . A few minutes later she hit Gneisenau with one 15 @-@ inch and two 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch shells that knocked out the main fire @-@ control director and damaged the rangefinder on " A " turret . The German ships were faster than Renown in the heavy weather and were able to successfully disengage . The ship was repaired from 20 April to 18 May and provided cover during the evacuation from Norway in early June . Renown was transferred to Force H at Gibraltar in August and relieved Hood as flagship .
In November 1940 Force H covered the small aircraft carrier Argus as she flew off Hurricane fighters bound for Malta from a position south of Sardinia . Later that month Force H participated in the inconclusive Battle of Cape Spartivento . Renown bombarded Genoa on 9 February 1941 with little effect . Renown and Force H escorted convoys both inside and outside the Mediterranean in March – May 1941 before being summoned into the Atlantic to search for the Bismarck . Force H escorted another convoy to Malta in July and Renown returned home for repairs the next month . The ship was transferred to the Home Fleet in November when her repairs were complete . She provided cover for the inbound and outbound convoys to the Soviet Union in early March 1942 . She became flagship of Force W which was formed to escort carriers carrying fighters to be flown @-@ off for Malta in April – May .
Renown rejoined Home Fleet once those missions were completed , but was transferred to Force H in October 1942 to participate in Operation Torch . She returned to Britain to refit from February to June 1943 . The ship brought Winston Churchill and his staff back from the Quebec Conference in September and conveyed them to the Cairo Conference in November . She rejoined the Home Fleet in December , just in time to be transferred to the Eastern Fleet a few weeks later . Renown arrived in Colombo at the end of January 1944 where she was flagship of the 1st Battle Squadron . In April she participated in Operation Cockpit , an airstrike against port and oil facilities on Sabang , off the island of Sumatra . The ship bombarded Japanese @-@ occupied facilities on Car Nicobar in the Nicobar Islands and Port Blair in the Andaman Islands on 30 April – 1 May . Renown supported the airstrike against Surabaya , Java ( Operation Transom ) on 17 May as well as follow @-@ on attack against Port Blair on 21 June . After another airstrike on 25 July on Sabang the ship bombarded the city . She bombarded facilities in the Nicobar Islands from 17 – 19 October . On 22 November Renown was replaced as flagship by Queen Elizabeth and the ship began a refit at Durban from December to February 1945 . She was recalled to home waters in March , lest the remaining German heavy ships make a final sortie , and reached Rosyth on 15 April . She was given a brief refit when this concern proved illusory and was placed in reserve in May 1945 . Renown was partially disarmed in July when six of her 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch turrets were removed , as well as all of her light guns . The ship hosted a meeting between King George VI and President Truman on 3 August when the latter was en route home aboard the heavy cruiser USS Augusta . The decision to dispose of the ship was announced on 21 January 1948 and she was towed to Faslane for scrapping on 3 August .
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= I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings =
I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings is a 1969 autobiography about the early years of American writer and poet Maya Angelou . The first in a seven @-@ volume series , it is a coming @-@ of @-@ age story that illustrates how strength of character and a love of literature can help overcome racism and trauma . The book begins when three @-@ year @-@ old Maya and her older brother are sent to Stamps , Arkansas , to live with their grandmother and ends when Maya becomes a mother at the age of 16 . In the course of Caged Bird , Maya transforms from a victim of racism with an inferiority complex into a self @-@ possessed , dignified young woman capable of responding to prejudice .
Angelou was challenged by her friend , author James Baldwin , and her editor , Robert Loomis , to write an autobiography that was also a piece of literature . Reviewers often categorize Caged Bird as autobiographical fiction because Angelou uses thematic development and other techniques common to fiction , but the prevailing critical view characterizes it as an autobiography , a genre she attempts to critique , change , and expand . The book covers topics common to autobiographies written by Black American women in the years following the Civil Rights Movement : a celebration of Black motherhood ; a critique of racism ; the importance of family ; and the quest for independence , personal dignity , and self @-@ definition .
Angelou uses her autobiography to explore subjects such as identity , rape , racism , and literacy . She also writes in new ways about women 's lives in a male @-@ dominated society . Maya , the younger version of Angelou and the book 's central character , has been called " a symbolic character for every black girl growing up in America " . Angelou 's description of being raped as an eight @-@ year @-@ old child overwhelms the book , although it is presented briefly in the text . Rape is used as a metaphor for the suffering of her race . Another metaphor , that of a bird struggling to escape its cage , is a central image throughout the work , which consists of " a sequence of lessons about resisting racist oppression " . Angelou 's treatment of racism provides a thematic unity to the book . Literacy and the power of words help young Maya cope with her bewildering world ; books become her refuge as she works through her trauma .
Caged Bird was nominated for a National Book Award in 1970 and remained on The New York Times paperback bestseller list for two years . It has been used in educational settings from high schools to universities , and the book has been celebrated for creating new literary avenues for the American memoir . However , the book 's graphic depiction of childhood rape , racism , and sexuality has caused it to be challenged or banned in some schools and libraries .
= = Background = =
Before writing I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings at the age of forty , Angelou had a long and varied career , holding jobs such as composer , singer , actor , civil rights worker , journalist , and educator . In the late 1950s , she joined the Harlem Writers Guild , where she met a number of important African @-@ American authors , including her friend and mentor James Baldwin . After hearing civil rights leader Dr. Martin Luther King , Jr. speak for the first time in 1960 , she was inspired to join the Civil Rights Movement . She organized several benefits for him , and he named her Northern Coordinator of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference . She worked for several years in Ghana , West Africa , as a journalist , actress , and educator . She was invited back to the US by Malcolm X to work for him shortly before his assassination in 1965 . In 1968 , King asked her to organize a march , but he too was assassinated on April 4 , which also happened to be her birthday . For many years , Angelou responded to King 's murder by not celebrating her birthday , choosing to meet with , call , or send flowers to his widow , Coretta Scott King .
Angelou was deeply depressed in the months following King 's assassination , so to help lift her spirits , Baldwin brought her to a dinner party at the home of cartoonist Jules Feiffer and his wife Judy in late 1968 . The guests began telling stories of their childhoods and Angelou 's stories impressed Judy Feiffer . The next day she called Robert Loomis at Random House , who became Angelou 's editor throughout her long writing career until he retired in 2011 , and " told him that he ought to get this woman to write a book " . At first , Angelou refused , since she thought of herself as a poet and playwright . According to Angelou , Baldwin had a " covert hand " in getting her to write the book , and advised Loomis to use " a little reverse psychology " , and reported that Loomis tricked her into it by daring her : " It 's just as well " , he said , " because to write an autobiography as literature is just about impossible " . Angelou was unable to resist a challenge , and she began writing Caged Bird . After " closeting herself " in London , it took her two years to write it . She shared the manuscript with her friend , writer Jessica Mitford , before submitting it for publication .
Angelou subsequently wrote six additional autobiographies , covering a variety of her young adult experiences . They are distinct in style and narration , but unified in their themes and stretch from Arkansas to Africa , and back to the US , from the beginnings of World War II to King 's assassination . Like Caged Bird , the events in these books are episodic and crafted as a series of short stories , yet do not follow a strict chronology . Later books in the series include Gather Together in My Name ( 1974 ) , Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas ( 1976 ) , The Heart of a Woman ( 1981 ) , All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes ( 1986 ) , A Song Flung Up to Heaven ( 2002 ) , and Mom & Me & Mom ( 2013 , at the age of 85 ) . Critics have often judged Angelou 's later autobiographies " in light of the first " , and Caged Bird generally receives the highest praise .
Beginning with Caged Bird , Angelou used the same " writing ritual " for many years . She would get up at five in the morning and check into a hotel room , where the staff were instructed to remove any pictures from the walls . She wrote on yellow legal pads while lying on the bed , with a bottle of sherry , a deck of cards to play solitaire , Roget 's Thesaurus , and the Bible , and left by the early afternoon . She averaged 10 – 12 pages of material a day , which she edited down to three or four pages in the evening . Lupton stated that this ritual indicated " a firmness of purpose and an inflexible use of time " . Angelou went through this process to give herself time to turn the events of her life into art , and to " enchant " herself ; as she said in a 1989 interview with the British Broadcasting Corporation , to " relive the agony , the anguish , the Sturm und Drang " . She placed herself back in the time she wrote about , even during traumatic experiences like her rape in Caged Bird , to " tell the human truth " about her life . Critic Opal Moore says about Caged Bird : " ... Though easily read , [ it ] is no ' easy read ' " . Angelou stated that she played cards to reach that place of enchantment , to access her memories more effectively . She has stated , " It may take an hour to get into it , but once I 'm in it — ha ! It 's so delicious ! " She did not find the process cathartic ; rather , she found relief in " telling the truth " .
= = = Title = = =
When selecting a title , Angelou turned to Paul Laurence Dunbar , an African @-@ American poet whose works she had admired for years . Jazz vocalist and civil rights activist Abbey Lincoln suggested the title . According to Lyman B. Hagen , the title pulls Angelou 's readers into the book while reminding them that it is possible to both lose control of one 's life and to have one 's freedom taken from them . Angelou has credited Dunbar , along with Shakespeare , with forming her " writing ambition " . The title of the book comes from the third stanza of Dunbar 's poem " Sympathy " :
I know why the caged bird sings , ah me ,
When his wing is bruised and his bosom sore ,
When he beats his bars and would be free ;
It is not a carol of joy or glee ,
But a prayer that he sends from his heart 's deep core ,
But a plea , that upward to Heaven he flings –
I know why the caged bird sings .
= = Plot summary = =
I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings follows Marguerite 's ( called " My " or " Maya " by her brother ) life from the age of three to 17 and the struggles she faces – particularly with racism – in the Southern United States . Abandoned by their parents , Maya and her older brother Bailey are sent to live with their paternal grandmother ( Momma ) and crippled uncle ( Uncle Willie ) in Stamps , Arkansas . Maya and Bailey are haunted by their parents ' abandonment throughout the book – they travel alone and are labeled like baggage .
Many of the problems Maya encounters in her childhood stem from the overt racism of her white neighbors . Although Momma is relatively wealthy because she owns the general store at the heart of Stamps ' Black community , the white children of their town hassle Maya 's family relentlessly . One of these " powhitetrash " girls , for example , reveals her pubic hair to Momma in a humiliating incident . Early in the book , Momma hides Uncle Willie in a vegetable bin to protect him from Ku Klux Klan raiders . Maya has to endure the insult of her name being changed to Mary by a racist employer . A white speaker at her eighth grade graduation ceremony disparages the Black audience by suggesting that they have limited job opportunities . A white dentist refuses to treat Maya 's rotting tooth , even when Momma reminds him that she had loaned him money during the Depression . The Black community of Stamps enjoys a moment of racial victory when they listen to the radio broadcast of Joe Louis 's championship fight , but generally they feel the heavy weight of racist oppression .
A turning point in the book occurs when Maya and Bailey 's father unexpectedly appears in Stamps . He takes the two children with him when he departs , but leaves them with their mother in St. Louis , Missouri . Eight @-@ year @-@ old Maya is sexually abused and raped by her mother 's boyfriend , Mr. Freeman . He is found guilty during the trial , but escapes jail time and is murdered , presumably by Maya 's uncles . Maya feels guilty and withdraws from everyone but her brother . Even after returning to Stamps , Maya remains reclusive and nearly mute until she meets Mrs. Bertha Flowers , " the aristocrat of Black Stamps " , who encourages her through books and communication to regain her voice and soul . This coaxes Maya out of her shell .
Later , Momma decides to send her grandchildren to their mother in San Francisco , California , to protect them from the dangers of racism in Stamps . Maya attends George Washington High School and studies dance and drama on a scholarship at the California Labor School . Before graduating , she becomes the first Black female streetcar conductor in San Francisco . While still in high school , Maya visits her father in southern California one summer , and has some experiences pivotal to her development . She drives a car for the first time when she must transport her intoxicated father home from an excursion to Mexico . She experiences homelessness for a short time after a fight with her father 's girlfriend .
During Maya 's final year of high school , she worries that she might be a lesbian ( which she equates with being a hermaphrodite ) , and initiates sexual intercourse with a teenage boy . She becomes pregnant , which on the advice of her brother , she hides from her family until her eighth month of pregnancy in order to graduate from high school . Maya gives birth at the end of the book .
= = Style and genre = =
Angelou 's prose works , while presenting a unique interpretation of the autobiographical form , can be placed in the long tradition of African @-@ American autobiography . Her use of fiction @-@ writing techniques such as dialogue , characterization , and thematic development , however , often lead reviewers to categorize her books , including I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , as autobiographical fiction . Other critics , like Lupton , insist that Angelou 's books should be categorized as autobiographies because they conform to the genre 's standard structure : they are written by a single author , they are chronological , and they contain elements of character , technique , and theme . In a 1983 interview with African @-@ American literature critic Claudia Tate , Angelou calls her books autobiographies .
At first , Angelou intended to return to poetry and play @-@ writing after completing Caged Bird and write no more autobiographies , but she chose the genre as her primary mode of expression because of its challenge and so that she could " change it , to make it bigger , richer , finer , and more inclusive in the twentieth century " . In a 1989 interview , she stated , " I think I am the only serious writer who has chosen the autobiographical form to carry my work , my expression " . As she told journalist George Plimpton during a 1990 interview , " Autobiography is awfully seductive ; it ’ s wonderful " . She also told Plimpton that like the tradition begun by Frederick Douglass in slave narratives , she used the literary technique of " speaking in the first @-@ person singular talking about the first @-@ person plural , always saying I meaning ' we ' " . As critic Susan Gilbert states , Angelou was reporting not one person 's story , but the collective 's . Scholar Selwyn R. Cudjoe agrees , and sees Angelou as representative of the convention in African @-@ American autobiography as a public gesture that speaks for an entire group of people .
Scholar Joanne M. Braxton sees Caged Bird as " the fully developed black female autobiographical form that began to emerge in the 1940s and 1950s " . The book presents themes that are common in autobiography by Black American women : a celebration of Black motherhood ; a criticism of racism ; the importance of family ; and the quest for independence , personal dignity , and self @-@ definition . Angelou introduces a unique point of view in American autobiography by revealing her life story through a narrator who is a Black female from the South , at some points a child , and other points a mother . Writer Hilton Als calls Angelou one of the " pioneers of self @-@ exposure " , willing to focus honestly on the more negative aspects of her personality and choices . For example , Angelou was worried about her readers ' reactions to her disclosure in her second autobiography , Gather Together in My Name , that she was a prostitute . She went through with it , anyway , after her husband Paul Du Feu advised her to be honest about it .
Angelou has recognized that there are fictional aspects to her books , and that she tends to " diverge from the conventional notion of autobiography as truth " . Angelou discussed her writing process with Plimpton , and when asked if she changed the truth to improve her story , she admitted that she had . She stated , " Sometimes I make a diameter from a composite of three or four people , because the essence in only one person is not sufficiently strong to be written about . " Although Angelou has never admitted to changing the facts in her stories , she has used these facts to make an impact with the reader . As Hagen states , " One can assume that ' the essence of the data ' is present in Angelou 's work " . Hagen also states that Angelou " fictionalizes , to enhance interest " . For example , Angelou uses the first @-@ person narrative voice customary with autobiographies , told from the perspective of a child that is " artfully recreated by an adult narrator " .
Angelou uses two distinct voices , the adult writer and the child who is the focus of the book , whom Angelou calls " the Maya character " . Angelou reports that maintaining the distinction between herself and the Maya character is " damned difficult " , but " very necessary " . Scholar Liliane Arensberg suggests that Angelou " retaliates for the tongue @-@ tied child 's helpless pain " by using her adult self 's irony and wit . As such , Caged Bird has been called a Bildungsroman or coming @-@ of @-@ age story ; critic Mary Jane Lupton compares it to other Bildungsromans like George Eliot 's novel The Mill on the Floss . According to Lupton , the two books share the following similarities : a focus on young strong @-@ willed heroines who have solid relationships with their brothers , an examination of the role of literature in life , and an emphasis on the importance of family and community life .
= = Form = =
When Angelou wrote I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings at the end of the 1960s , one of the necessary and accepted features of literature , according to critic Pierre A. Walker , was thematic unity . One of Angelou 's goals was to create a book that satisfied this criterion , in order to achieve her political purposes , which were to demonstrate how to resist racism in America . The structure of the text , which resembles a series of short stories , is not chronological but rather thematic . Walker , in his 1993 article about Caged Bird , " Racial Protest , Identity , Words , and Form " , focuses on the book 's structure , and describes how it supports her presentation of racism . According to Walker , critics had neglected analyzing its structure , choosing to focus instead on its themes , which he feels neglects the political nature of the book . He states , " One serves Angelou and Caged Bird better by emphasizing how form and political content work together " . Angelou structures her book so that it presents a series of lessons about how to resist racism and oppression . The progression Maya goes through thematically unifies the book , something that " stands in contrast to the otherwise episodic quality of the narrative " . The way in which Angelou constructs , arranges , and organizes her vignettes often undermined the chronology of her childhood by " juxtaposing the events of one chapter with the events of preceding and following ones so that they too comment on each other " .
For example , the incident with the " powhitetrash " girls takes place in chapter 5 , when Maya was ten years old , well before Angelou 's recounting of her rape in chapter 12 , which occurred when Maya was 8 . Walker explains that Angelou 's purpose in placing the vignettes in this way is that it followed her thematic structure . Angelou 's editor , Robert Loomis , agrees , stating that Angelou could rewrite any of her books by changing the order of her facts to make a different impact on the reader . Hagen sees Angelou 's structure somewhat differently , focusing on Maya 's journey " to establish a worthwhile self @-@ concept " , and states that she structures the book into three parts : arrival , sojourn , and departure , which occur both geographically and psychologically . However , Hagen notes that instead of beginning Caged Bird chronologically , with Maya and Bailey 's arrival in Stamps , Angelou begins the book much later chronologically by recounting an embarrassing experience at church , an incident that demonstrates Maya 's diminished sense of self , insecurity , and lack of status . Hagen explains that Angelou 's purpose is to demonstrate Maya 's journey from insecurity to her feelings of worth gained by becoming a mother at the end of the book .
= = Themes = =
= = = Identity = = =
In the course of Caged Bird , Maya , who has been described as " a symbolic character for every black girl growing up in America " , goes from being a victim of racism with an inferiority complex to a self @-@ aware individual who responds to racism with dignity and a strong sense of her own identity . Feminist scholar Maria Lauret states that the " formation of female cultural identity " is woven into the book 's narrative , setting Maya up as " a role model for Black women " . Scholar Liliane Arensberg calls this presentation Angelou 's " identity theme " and a major motif in Angelou 's narrative . Maya 's unsettled life in Caged Bird suggests her sense of self " as perpetually in the process of becoming , of dying and being reborn , in all its ramifications " . African @-@ American literature scholar Dolly McPherson agrees , stating that Angelou creatively uses Christian mythology and theology to present the Biblical themes of death , regeneration , and rebirth .
As Lauret indicates , Angelou and other female writers in the late 1960s and early 1970s used autobiography to reimagine ways of writing about women 's lives and identities in a male @-@ dominated society . Up until this time , Black women were not depicted realistically in African @-@ American fiction and autobiography , meaning that Angelou was one of the first Black autobiographers to present , as Cudjoe put it , " a powerful and authentic signification of [ African @-@ American ] womanhood in her quest for understanding and love rather than for bitterness and despair " . Lauret sees a connection between Angelou 's autobiographies , which Lauret calls " fictions of subjectivity " and " feminist first @-@ person narratives " , and fictional first @-@ person narratives ( such as The Women 's Room by Marilyn French and The Golden Notebook by Doris Lessing ) written during the same period . As French and Lessing do in their novels , Angelou employs the narrator as protagonist and depends upon " the illusion of presence in their mode of signification " .
As a displaced girl , Maya 's pain is worsened by an awareness of her displacement . She is " the forgotten child " , and must come to terms with " the unimaginable reality " of being unloved and unwanted ; she lives in a hostile world that defines beauty in terms of whiteness and that rejects her simply because she is a Black girl . Maya internalizes the rejection she has experienced – her belief in her own ugliness was " absolute " . McPherson believes that the concept of family , or what she calls " kinship concerns " , in Angelou 's books must be understood in the light of the children 's displacement at the beginning of Caged Bird . Being sent away from their parents was a psychological rejection , and resulted in a quest for love , acceptance , and self @-@ worth for both Maya and Bailey .
Angelou uses her many roles , incarnations , and identities throughout her books to illustrate how oppression and personal history are interrelated . For example , in Caged Bird , Angelou demonstrates the " racist habit " of renaming African Americans , as shown when her white employer insists on calling her " Mary " . Angelou describes the employer 's renaming as the " hellish horror of being ' called out of [ one 's ] name ' " . Scholar Debra Walker King calls it a racist insult and an assault against Maya 's race and self @-@ image . The renaming emphasizes Maya 's feelings of inadequacy and denigrates her identity , individuality , and uniqueness . Maya understands that she is being insulted and rebels by breaking Mrs. Cullinan 's favorite dish , but feels vindicated when , as she leaves her employer 's home , Mrs. Cullinan finally gets her name right . Another incident in the book that solidifies Maya 's identity is her trip to Mexico with her father , when she has to drive a car for the first time . Contrasted with her experience in Stamps , Maya is finally " in control of her fate " . This experience is central to Maya 's growth , as is the incident that immediately follows it , her short period of homelessness after arguing with her father 's girlfriend . These two incidents give Maya a knowledge of self @-@ determination and confirm her self @-@ worth .
Scholar Mary Burgher believes that female Black autobiographers like Angelou have debunked the stereotypes of African @-@ American mothers as " breeder [ s ] and matriarch [ s ] " , and have presented them as having " a creative and personally fulfilling role " . Lupton believes that Angelou 's plot construction and character development were influenced by the same mother / child motif as is found in the work of Harlem Renaissance poet Jessie Fauset . For the first five years of her life , Maya thinks of herself as an orphan and finds comfort in the thought that her mother is dead . Maya 's feelings for and relationship with her own mother , whom she blames for her abandonment , express themselves in ambivalence and " repressed violent aggression " . For example , Maya and her brother destroy the first Christmas gifts sent by their mother . These strong feelings are not resolved until the end of the book , when Maya becomes a mother herself , and her mother finally becomes the nurturing presence for which Maya has longed . The two main maternal influences on Maya 's life change as well ; Vivian becomes a more active participant , while Momma becomes less effective as Maya , by becoming a mother herself , moves from childhood to adulthood .
= = = Racism = = =
Stamps , Arkansas , as depicted in Caged Bird , has very little " social ambiguity " : it is a racist world divided between Black and white , male and female . Als characterizes the division as " good and evil " , and notes how Angelou 's witness of the evil in her society , which was directed at Black women , shaped Angelou 's young life and informed her views into adulthood . Angelou uses the metaphor of a bird struggling to escape its cage , described in Paul Laurence Dunbar 's poem , as a prominent symbol throughout her series of autobiographies . Like elements within a prison narrative , the caged bird represents Angelou 's confinement resulting from racism and oppression . The caged bird metaphor also invokes the " supposed contradiction of the bird singing in the midst of its struggle " . Scholar Ernece B. Kelley calls Caged Bird a " gentle indictment of white American womanhood " ; Hagen expands it further , stating that the book is " a dismaying story of white dominance " .
Caged Bird has been called " perhaps the most aesthetically satisfying autobiography written in the years immediately following the Civil Rights era " . Critic Pierre A. Walker expresses a similar sentiment , and places it in the African @-@ American literature tradition of political protest . Angelou demonstrates , through her involvement with the Black community of Stamps , as well as her presentation of vivid and realistic racist characters and " the vulgarity of white Southern attitudes toward African Americans " , her developing understanding of the rules for surviving in a racist society . Angelou 's autobiographies , beginning with Caged Bird , contain a sequence of lessons about resisting oppression . The sequence she describes leads Angelou , as the protagonist , from " helpless rage and indignation to forms of subtle resistance , and finally to outright and active protest " .
Walker insists that Angelou 's treatment of racism is what gives her autobiographies their thematic unity and underscores one of their central themes : the injustice of racism and how to fight it . For example , in Angelou 's depiction of the " powhitetrash " incident , Maya reacts with rage , indignation , humiliation , and helplessness , but Momma teaches her how they can maintain their personal dignity and pride while dealing with racism , and that it is an effective basis for actively protesting and combating racism . Walker calls Momma 's way a " strategy of subtle resistance " and McPherson calls it " the dignified course of silent endurance " .
Angelou portrays Momma as a realist whose patience , courage , and silence ensured the survival and success of those who came after her . For example , Maya responds assertively when subjected to demeaning treatment by Mrs. Cullinan , her white employer , and , later on in the book , breaks the race barrier to become the first black streetcar operator in San Francisco . In addition , Angelou 's description of the strong and cohesive black community of Stamps demonstrates how African Americans subvert repressive institutions to withstand racism . Arensberg insists that Angelou demonstrates how she , as a Black child , evolves out of her " racial hatred " , common in the works of many contemporary Black novelists and autobiographers . At first Maya wishes that she could become white , since growing up Black in white America is dangerous ; later she sheds her self @-@ loathing and embraces a strong racial identity .
= = = Rape = = =
Angelou 's description of being raped as an eight @-@ year @-@ old child overwhelms the autobiography , although it is presented briefly in the text . Scholar Mary Vermillion compares Angelou 's treatment of rape to that of Harriet Jacobs in her autobiography Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl . Jacobs and Angelou both use rape as a metaphor for the suffering of African Americans ; Jacobs uses the metaphor to critique slaveholding culture , while Angelou uses it to first internalize , then challenge , twentieth @-@ century racist conceptions of the Black female body ( namely , that the Black female is physically unattractive ) . Rape , according to Vermillion , " represents the black girl 's difficulties in controlling , understanding , and respecting both her body and her words " .
Arensberg notes that Maya 's rape is connected to the theme of death in Caged Bird , as Mr. Freeman threatens to kill Maya 's brother Bailey if she tells anyone about the rape . After Maya lies during Freeman 's trial , stating that the rape was the first time he touched her inappropriately , Freeman is murdered ( presumably by one of Maya 's uncles ) and Maya sees her words as a bringer of death . As a result , she resolves never to speak to anyone other than Bailey . Angelou connects the violation of her body and the devaluation of her words through the depiction of her self @-@ imposed , five @-@ year @-@ long silence . As Angelou later stated , " I thought if I spoke , my mouth would just issue out something that would kill people , randomly , so it was better not to talk " .
African @-@ American literature scholar Selwyn R. Cudjoe calls Angelou 's depiction of the rape " a burden " of Caged Bird : a demonstration of " the manner in which the Black female is violated in her tender years and ... the ' unnecessary insult ' of Southern girlhood in her movement to adolescence " . Vermillion goes further , maintaining that a Black woman who writes about her rape risks reinforcing negative stereotypes about her race and gender . When asked decades later how she was able to survive such trauma , Angelou explained it by stating , " I can 't remember a time when I wasn 't loved by somebody . " When asked by the same interviewer why she wrote about the experience , she indicated that she wanted to demonstrate the complexities of rape . She also wanted to prevent it from happening to someone else , so that anyone who had been raped might gain understanding and not blame herself for it .
= = = Literacy = = =
As Lupton points out , all of Angelou 's autobiographies , especially Caged Bird and its immediate sequel Gather Together in My Name , are " very much concerned with what [ Angelou ] knew and how she learned it " . Lupton compares Angelou 's informal education with the education of other Black writers of the twentieth century , who did not earn official degrees and depended upon the " direct instruction of African American cultural forms " . Angelou 's quest for learning and literacy parallels " the central myth of black culture in America " : that freedom and literacy are connected . Angelou is influenced by writers introduced to her by Mrs. Flowers during her self @-@ imposed muteness , including Edgar Allan Poe and William Shakespeare . Angelou states , early in Caged Bird , that she , as the Maya character , " met and fell in love with William Shakespeare " . Critic Mary Vermillion sees a connection between Maya 's rape and Shakespeare 's " The Rape of Lucrece " , which Maya memorizes and recites when she regains her speech . Vermillion maintains that Maya finds comfort in the poem 's identification with suffering . Maya finds novels and their characters complete and meaningful , so she uses them to make sense of her bewildering world . She is so involved in her fantasy world of books that she even uses them as a way to cope with her rape , writing in Caged Bird , " ... I was sure that any minute my mother or Bailey or the Green Hornet would bust in the door and save me " .
According to Walker , the power of words is another theme that appears repeatedly in Caged Bird . For example , Maya chooses to not speak after her rape because she is afraid of the destructive power of words . Mrs. Flowers , by introducing her to classic literature and poetry , teaches her about the positive power of language and empowers Maya to speak again . The importance of both the spoken and written word also appears repeatedly in Caged Bird and in all of Angelou 's autobiographies . Referring to the importance of literacy and methods of effective writing , Angelou once advised Oprah Winfrey in an 1993 interview to " do as West Africans do ... listen to the deep talk " , or the " utterances existing beneath the obvious " . McPherson says , " If there is one stable element in Angelou 's youth it is [ a ] dependence upon books " . The public library is a " quiet refuge " to which Maya retreats when she experiences crisis . Hagen describes Angelou as a " natural story @-@ teller " , which " reflect [ s ] a good listener with a rich oral heritage " . Hagen also insists that Angelou 's years of muteness provided her with this skill .
Angelou was also powerfully affected by slave narratives , spirituals , poetry , and other autobiographies . Angelou read through the Bible twice as a young child , and memorized many passages from it . African @-@ American spirituality , as represented by Angelou 's grandmother , has influenced all of Angelou 's writings , in the activities of the church community she first experiences in Stamps , in the sermonizing , and in scripture . Hagen goes on to say that in addition to being influenced by rich literary form , Angelou has also been influenced by oral traditions . In Caged Bird , Mrs. Flowers encourages her to listen carefully to " Mother Wit " , which Hagen defines as the collective wisdom of the African @-@ American community as expressed in folklore and humor .
Angelou 's humor in Caged Bird and in all her autobiographies is drawn from Black folklore and is used to demonstrate that in spite of severe racism and oppression , Black people thrive and are , as Hagen states , " a community of song and laughter and courage " . Hagen states that Angelou is able to make an indictment of institutionalized racism as she laughs at her flaws and the flaws of her community and " balances stories of black endurance of oppression against white myths and misperceptions " . Hagen also characterize Caged Bird as a " blues genre autobiography " because it uses elements of blues music . These elements include the act of testimony when speaking of one 's life and struggles , ironic understatement , and the use of natural metaphors , rhythms , and intonations . Hagen also sees elements of African American sermonizing in Caged Bird . Angelou 's use of African @-@ American oral traditions creates a sense of community in her readers , and identifies those who belong to it .
= = Reception and legacy = =
= = = Critical reception and sales = = =
I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings is the most highly acclaimed of Angelou 's autobiographies . The other volumes in her series of seven autobiographies are judged and compared to Caged Bird . It became a bestseller immediately after it was published . Angelou 's friend and mentor , James Baldwin , maintained that her book " liberates the reader into life " and called it " a Biblical study of life in the midst of death " . According to Angelou 's biographers , " Readers , especially women , and in particular Black women , took the book to heart " .
By the end of 1969 , critics had placed Angelou in the tradition of other Black autobiographers . Poet [ [ James Bertolino ] ] asserts that Caged Bird " is one of the essential books produced by our culture " . He insists that " [ w ] e should all read it , especially our children " . It was nominated for a National Book Award in 1970 , has never been out of print , and has been published in many languages . It has been a Book of the Month Club selection and an Ebony Book Club selection . In 2011 , Time Magazine placed the book in its list of 100 best and most influential books written in English since 1923 .
Critic Robert A. Gross called Caged Bird " a tour de force of language " . Edmund Fuller insisted that Angelou 's intellectual range and artistry were apparent in how she told her story . Caged Bird catapulted Angelou to international fame and critical acclaim , was a significant development in Black women 's literature in that it " heralded the success of other now prominent writers " . Other reviewers have praised Angelou 's use of language in the book , including critic E. M. Guiney , who reported that Caged Bird was " one of the best autobiographies of its kind that I have read " . Critic R. A. Gross praised Angelou for her use of rich and dazzling images .
By the mid @-@ 1980s , Caged Bird had gone through 20 hardback printings and 32 paperback printings . The week after Angelou recited her poem " On the Pulse of Morning " at President Bill Clinton 's 1993 inauguration , sales of the paperback version of Caged Bird and her other works rose by 300 – 600 percent . Caged Bird had sold steadily since its publication , but it increased by 500 percent . The 16 @-@ page publication of " On the Pulse of Morning " became a best @-@ seller , and the recording of the poem was awarded a Grammy Award . The Bantam Books edition of Caged Bird was a bestseller for 36 weeks , and they had to reprint 400 @,@ 000 copies of her books to meet demand . Random House , which published Angelou 's hardcover books and the poem later that year , reported that they sold more of her books in January 1993 than they did in all of 1992 , marking a 1 @,@ 200 percent increase .
The book 's reception has not been universally positive ; for example , author Francine Prose considers its inclusion in the high school curriculum as partly responsible for the " dumbing down " of American society . Prose calls the book " manipulative melodrama " , and considers Angelou 's writing style an inferior example of poetic prose in memoir . She accuses Angelou of combining a dozen metaphors in one paragraph and for " obscuring ideas that could be expressed so much more simply and felicitously " . Many parents throughout the U.S. have sought to ban the book from schools and libraries for being inappropriate for younger high school students , for promoting premarital sex , homosexuality , cohabitation , and pornography , and for not supporting traditional values . Parents have also objected to the book 's use of profanity and to its graphic and violent depiction of rape and racism .
= = = Influence = = =
When Caged Bird was published in 1969 , Angelou was hailed as a new kind of memoirist , one of the first African @-@ American women who was able to publicly discuss her personal life . Up to that point , Black women writers were marginalized to the point that they were unable to present themselves as central characters . Writer Julian Mayfield , who called Caged Bird " a work of art that eludes description " , has insisted that Angelou 's autobiographies set a precedent for African @-@ American autobiography as a whole . Als insisted that Caged Bird marked one of the first times that a Black autobiographer could , as Als put it , " write about blackness from the inside , without apology or defense " . Through the writing of her autobiography , Angelou became recognized as a respected spokesperson for blacks and women . Caged Bird made her " without a doubt ... America 's most visible black woman autobiographer " . Although Als considers Caged Bird an important contribution to the increase of Black feminist writings in the 1970s , he attributes its success less to its originality than to " its resonance in the prevailing Zeitgeist " of its time , at the end of the American Civil Rights movement . Angelou 's writings , more interested in self @-@ revelation than in politics or feminism , freed many other women writers to " open themselves up without shame to the eyes of the world " .
Angelou 's autobiographies , especially the first volume , have been used in narrative and multicultural approaches to teacher education . Jocelyn A. Glazier , a professor at George Washington University , has used Caged Bird and Gather Together in My Name when training teachers to appropriately explore racism in their classrooms . Angelou 's use of understatement , self @-@ mockery , humor , and irony causes readers of Angelou 's autobiographies to wonder what she " left out " and to be unsure how to respond to the events Angelou describes . These techniques force white readers to explore their feelings about race and their privileged status in society . Glazier found that although critics have focused on where Angelou fits within the genre of African @-@ American autobiography and her literary techniques , readers react to her storytelling with " surprise , particularly when [ they ] enter the text with certain expectations about the genre of autobiography " .
Educator Daniel Challener , in his 1997 book Stories of Resilience in Childhood , analyzed the events in Caged Bird to illustrate resiliency in children . Challener states that Angelou 's book provides a useful framework for exploring the obstacles many children like Maya face and how a community helps these children succeed as Angelou did . Psychologist Chris Boyatzis has used Caged Bird to supplement scientific theory and research in the instruction of child development topics such as the development of self @-@ concept and self @-@ esteem , ego resilience , industry versus inferiority , effects of abuse , parenting styles , sibling and friendship relations , gender issues , cognitive development , puberty , and identity formation in adolescence . He has called the book a highly effective tool for providing real @-@ life examples of these psychological concepts .
= = = Censorship = = =
Caged Bird has been criticized by many parents , causing it to be removed from school curricula and library shelves . The book was approved to be taught in public schools and was placed in public school libraries through the U.S. in the early 1980s , and was included in advanced placement and gifted student curricula , but attempts by parents to censor it began in 1983 . It has been challenged in 15 U.S. states . Educators have responded to these challenges by removing it from reading lists and libraries , by providing students with alternatives , and by requiring parental permission from students . Some have been critical of its sexually explicit scenes , use of language , and irreverent religious depictions .
Caged Bird appeared third on the American Library Association ( ALA ) list of the 100 Most Frequently Challenged Books of 1990 – 2000 , sixth on the ALA 's 2000 – 2009 list , and one of the ten books most frequently banned from high school and junior high school libraries and classrooms .
= = = Film version = = =
A made @-@ for @-@ TV movie version of I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings was filmed in Mississippi and aired on April 28 , 1979 on CBS . Angelou and Leonora Thuna wrote the screenplay ; the movie was directed by Fielder Cook . Constance Good played young Maya . Also appearing were actors Esther Rolle , Roger E. Mosley , Diahann Carroll , Ruby Dee , and Madge Sinclair . Two scenes in the movie differed from events described in the book . Angelou added a scene between Maya and Uncle Willie after the Joe Louis fight ; in it , he expresses his feelings of redemption and hope after Louis defeats a white opponent . Angelou also presents her eighth grade graduation differently in the film . In the book , Henry Reed delivers the valedictory speech and leads the Black audience in the Negro national anthem . In the movie , Maya conducts these activities .
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= One Meridian Plaza =
One Meridian Plaza was a 38 @-@ story high @-@ rise office building in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , United States . The 492 feet ( 150 m ) tower was designed by Vincent Kling & Associates and completed in 1972 . The building was demolished in 1999 as a result of damage of a fire that began on February 23 , 1991 . The fire began on the 22nd floor after linseed oil soaked rags ignited a blaze that raged out of control for hours . Philadelphia firefighters fought the blaze , but struggled due to a lack of power in the skyscraper and insufficient water pressure from the building 's standpipes . Three firefighters died in the twelve alarm fire after becoming disoriented by heavy smoke . Firefighting efforts inside One Meridian Plaza eventually were abandoned due to fears the structure would collapse . The fire was only brought under control once it reached the 30th floor which was one of the few floors that had automatic sprinklers installed . Ten sprinklers held back the fire until it started burning itself out and was finally brought under control almost a full day after it started . The blaze seriously damaged the building destroying eight floors and damaged neighboring buildings .
For eight years after the fire , One Meridian Plaza sat vacant and damaged right in the center of Philadelphia 's business district . The building was caught in litigation between the owners and the insurance company over how much the insurers would pay the owners and how repairs or demolition would proceed . Businesses near the empty high @-@ rise closed or moved and the city sued the owners to do something with the building . After lawsuits were settled , the building was declared a total loss and began to be dismantled in 1998 . At the time of its demolition in 1999 , One Meridian Plaza was the third @-@ tallest destroyed building in the world .
= = Building = =
One Meridian Plaza was a 38 @-@ story high @-@ rise office building designed by Vincent Kling & Associates . Construction on the 492 feet ( 150 m ) tower began in 1968 , was completed in 1972 and approved for occupancy in 1973 . Built at the corner of 15th Street and South Penn Square in Center City , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , the US $ 40 million high @-@ rise was built adjacent to the Girard Trust Building , now the Ritz @-@ Carlton Philadelphia , and the front faced Philadelphia City Hall across the street . The rectangular One Meridian Plaza was 243 feet ( 74 m ) long and 92 feet ( 28 m ) wide and contained 756 @,@ 000 square feet ( 70 @,@ 000 m2 ) . Of the 38 floors , 36 were occupiable and 2 were mechanical floors . The structure also had 3 underground levels . The building 's structure was composed of steel and concrete and the facade was a granite curtain wall . There were two helipads on the roof . One Meridian Plaza 's eastern stairwell connected the building to the adjacent Girard Trust Building . At one point there were plans to build a structure on the south side of One Meridian Plaza that would share one of the elevator banks in the high @-@ rise , but nothing came of the plans mainly due to neither site having the same owner . On the northwest corner of the property is a bronze sculpture called " Triune . " Designed by Robert Engman the abstract sculpture was not damaged in the 1991 fire and is still there .
When One Meridian Plaza was built Philadelphia was enforcing a building code from 1949 that made no distinction between high @-@ rises and other buildings . In 1984 Philadelphia adopted new codes that required automatic sprinkler systems in all new buildings . At the time of construction , sprinklers were only built on the service levels below ground . In 1988 plans were put in place to have automatic sprinklers placed throughout the building by November 1993 . By 1991 four floors were completely protected by sprinklers and in part on three other floors . The sprinklers had been installed during floor renovations at the request of tenants and the building 's owners had plans to install more as other floors were renovated .
The high @-@ rise was originally known as the Fidelity Mutual Life Building , named for Fidelity Mutual Life Insurance Co. who developed the building in a joint venture with Girard Bank . The high @-@ rise was the tallest building built in Philadelphia since the early 1930s . Girard Bank sold its share of the property , which was also known as Three Girard Plaza , to Fidelity Mutual Life in 1982 . Fidelity Mutual Life , which had moved its offices out of the building to Radnor Township , Pennsylvania earlier that year , subsequently sold the building to E / R Partners in 1983 . A joint venture of the Rubin Organization and Equitable Life Assurance Company of America , E / R Partners bought the property for US $ 143 million . In 1989 a Dutch pension fund , Algemeen Burgerlijk Pensioenfonds , paid US $ 120 million to enter E / R Partners with a sixty @-@ five percent stake in the building . In 1984 Three Girard Plaza became the Three Mellon Bank Center after Girard Bank was bought by Mellon Bank , and in 1990 was renamed again to One Meridian Plaza after Meridian Bank replaced Mellon Bank as the lead tenant . Another major tenant was Comcast , who made 81 @,@ 000 square feet ( 7 @,@ 500 m2 ) of One Meridian Plaza its corporate headquarters in 1989 .
= = Fire = =
On February 23 , 1991 , at about 8 : 23 PM , a fire began on the 22nd floor of the building . It was a Saturday night and there were only three people in the building at the time , an engineer and two security guards . Workers had been refinishing woodwork in a vacant office earlier in the day and workers left a pile of rags soaked in linseed oil on the floor . The linseed oil oxidized and generated enough heat to ignite the rags which then set fire to other solvents nearby . Smoke detectors did not cover the entire floor and by the time the fire alarm went off the fire was already well established . After the fire alarm sounded in the building the engineer went up to the 22nd floor to investigate . When the elevator reached the 22nd floor the engineer found heavy smoke and heat which prevented him from reaching the elevator controls he needed to return to the lobby . The engineer escaped after radioing to a security guard in the lobby to recall the elevator using fire safety controls there . The second security guard was on the 30th floor when the alarm went off and used the stairwell to get to the ground floor .
The lobby guard returned a call to the alarm monitoring service which had called when the alarm initially went off to confirm that there was a fire , but never called the Philadelphia Fire Department . The first call came from someone on the street who saw smoke coming from the building . During the first 911 call , at about 8 : 27 PM , the alarm company alerted the fire department to the fire . Engine 43 was the first firefighting unit to arrive at the scene and reported seeing heavy smoke and flames in one of the windows . As firefighters started fighting the fire it had grown with flames breaking through windows and lapping up the side of the building .
= = = Problems = = =
Firefighters began experiencing problems before they even reached the fire . By the time firefighters reached the 11th floor the building had lost power after the heat from the blaze damaged electrical cables . The emergency generator never began producing electricity , and despite efforts to restore power the building was without electricity for the entirety of the event . This forced firefighters to work in darkness and without the aid of elevators . In addition , the transformers that provided power to the neighboring Girard Trust Building were in the basement of One Meridian Plaza . The transformers were eventually shut down due to water accumulation in the basement and firefighters directing water streams from that building had to do so without the aid of elevators .
Firefighters were again hampered when it was discovered the pressure relief valves on the standpipes were improperly adjusted when installed in the building . The Philadelphia Fire Department nozzles allowed 100 psi nozzle pressure while One Meridian Plaza 's pressure relief valves were giving less than 60 psi discharge pressure , which was not sufficient to fight the fire . It was several hours into the fire before a technician who could adjust the valves arrived at the scene .
The area around the building was cleared of pedestrians and firefighting personnel because of falling glass and debris . The falling debris was dangerous for firefighters because they often had to cross the perimeter around the building to enter and leave the high @-@ rise . Hose lines stretched into the building were damaged by falling debris and one firefighter was struck by debris and seriously injured while tending to the lines .
= = = Lost firefighters = = =
During the second hour of the fire it spread onto the 23rd and 24th floors . Heavy smoke was building up in the stairwells and a captain and two firefighters from Engine 11 were assigned to go to the top level to ventilate the stairwell . The three firefighters went up a center staircase from the 22nd floor and soon radioed that they were disoriented by heavy smoke on the 30th floor . There were attempts to direct the firefighters through the radio , and soon after the captain requested permission to break a window for ventilation , which was followed by a message that the captain was down . Permission to break the window was given and a search and rescue effort was initiated .
Search teams were sent from the lower floors and searched the 30th floor , but did not find the missing firefighters . The teams then moved onto the upper levels where one team got lost on the 38th floor and ran out of air in their self @-@ contained breathing apparatus ( SCBA ) . That team was rescued by a search team that had been placed on the roof by a helicopter . Rescue attempts continued until helicopter operations were suspended due to heavy smoke and thermal drafts caused by the blaze .
Using a searchlight the helicopter crew searched the exterior of the building and at 1 : 17 AM February 24 , the helicopter spotted a broken window on the 28th floor located in an area that could not be seen from the street . At about 2 : 15 AM a rescue team was sent to the spot and found the three missing firefighters unconscious and out of air in their SCBAs . The firefighters were brought to a medical triage set up on the 20th floor . There were attempts at resuscitation , but they were unsuccessful and the firefighters were pronounced dead .
= = = Fire Companies on Scene = = =
1st / Box Alarm Assignment - Box 495 - 15th & Chestnut Streets
Squirt 43 , Engine 1 , Engine 20 ( Water Supply @-@ LDH ) Engine 11 ( 3 Firefighter Line of Duty Deaths from this Company )
Ladder 9 , Snorkel 5
Medic 7
Battalion Chief 5 , Battalion Chief 4
2nd Alarm Assignment :
Squirt 8 , Engine 10 , Engine 24 , Engine 44 , Engine 13 ( Lobby Control )
Ladder 23 , Ladder 1
Medic 13
Battalion Chief 3 ( Lobby Officer ) , Battalion Chief 11
Division ( Deputy ) Chief 1
Air Unit 2
3rd Alarm Assignment :
Engine 49 ( Water Supply @-@ LDH ) , Engine 40 ( Water Supply @-@ LDH ) , Engine 60
Battalion Chief 1
Chemical Unit 1 , Chemical Unit 2
4th Alarm Assignment :
Engine 5 ( Water Supply @-@ LDH ) , Engine 29 , Engine 16 , Engine 3 ( Water Supply @-@ LDH ) , Engine 34 ( Water Supply @-@ LDH )
Snorkel 2
Medic 21B , Medic 25B
Battalion Chief 8
Air Unit 1
5th Alarm Assignment :
Engine 33 , Engine 27 , Engine 53 , Engine 25
Ladder 11
Car 1 ( Chief of Department )
Light Wagon 1
6th Alarm Assignment :
Engine 12 , Engine 22 , Engine 50 ( Water Supply @-@ LDH ) , Engine 59
Medic 3
ES @-@ 10 ( Decontamination Trailer )
7th Alarm Assignment :
Squirt 57 , Engine 63 , Engine 14 , Engine 28 ( Water Supply @-@ LDH )
8th Alarm Assignment :
Engine 61 ( Water Supply @-@ LDH ) , Squirt 9 , Engine 56 , Engine 41
Ladder 13
Medic 16 , Medic 1
Battalion Chief 2 , Battalion Chief 10
Car 6
9th Alarm Assignment :
Engine 38 , Engine 66 , Engine 45 , Engine 68
Ladder 18 , Tower Ladder 6
Battalion Chief 1102 ( Call @-@ Back for Battalion Chief 2 )
10th Alarm Assignment :
Engine 72 , Engine 18 , Engine 7 , Engine 2
Ladder 25
11th Alarm Assignment :
Engine 71 , Engine 35 , Engine 103 ( Reserve ) , Engine 119 ( Reserve )
12th Alarm Assignment :
Engine 125 ( Reserve ) , Engine 181 ( Reserve ) , Engine 36 , Engine 52 ( Water Supply @-@ LDH ) , Engine 180 ( ARFF @-@ Reserve @-@ LDH ) , Engine 19 ( Water Supply @-@ LDH )
Ladder 14
Rescue 1 ( Reactivated Company for Incident )
Medic 15 , Medic 14
Battalion Chief 13 , Battalion Chief 9
Division ( Deputy ) Chief 1A
= = = Fire 's end = = =
As the fire was going into its sixth hour it had spread up to the 26th floor . With inadequate water pressure coming from the standpipes , firefighters stretched hoses up the building 's stairwells to help fight the fire . While hoses were being taken up to the fire a sprinkler technician arrived to fix the water pressure . This improved the hose streams , but the fire had engulfed several floors and could not be contained with just hoses . By 7 : 00 AM , almost eleven hours into the fire , firefighters were able to get control of the fire on the 22nd through 24th floors , but the fire was still out of control on the 25th and 26th floors and was spreading upwards . Structural damage observed inside the building by firefighters and consultations with a structural engineer led to fears that the damaged floors might collapse . At 7 : 00 AM an order to evacuate the building was issued by Fire Commissioner Roger Ulshafer and the building was completely evacuated by 7 : 30 AM . After the evacuation , the only fire suppression efforts left were water streams being directed to the building from the neighboring Girard Trust Building and One Centre Square .
The fire 's spread only stopped when it reached the 30th floor which was the first fire affected floor to have automatic sprinklers . Ten sprinklers extinguished the fire on the 30th floor and prevented continued spread . Contained by the automatic sprinklers and running out of fuel , the fire was declared under control at 3 : 01 PM . The fire lasted over nineteen hours , destroyed eight floors , and killed three firefighters and injured twenty @-@ four . Twelve alarms were called which brought fifty @-@ one engine companies , fifteen ladder companies , eleven specialized units , and over three hundred firefighters . The fire caused an estimated US $ 100 million in direct property loss .
= = After the fire = =
By February 26 city officials had determined One Meridian Plaza was not in danger of collapse . There was structural damage to horizontal steel beams and floor sections on most of the fire damaged floors . Under extreme fire exposure the beams and girders sagged and twisted and cracks appeared in the concrete floors . However , the overall structure was stable and able to support the weight of the building . Thermal expansion of the steel frame caused some of the granite panels to be dislodged from the building 's facade . The streets and buildings around One Meridian Plaza were closed and cordoned off . The 20 @-@ story Morris Building and several three @-@ story shops behind One Meridian Plaza on Chestnut Street were damaged by falling debris and sat unused for years until they were demolished in 2000 . The neighboring Girard Trust Building , then called Two Mellon Plaza , experienced extensive water damage forcing the closure of the building . A bank in the building reopened a month later but the rest of the tower remained vacant for years . The roads around the building were closed for months after the fire , including a portion of two of Philadelphia 's major streets , Broad and Market .
The removal of the uninhabitable One Meridian Plaza from the real estate market and the sudden relocation of the building 's tenants to other offices in Philadelphia took 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 square feet ( 140 @,@ 000 m2 ) of real estate off the market . The city 's office vacancy rate was 14 @.@ 3 percent at the end of 1990 ; in the two months after the fire , the vacancy rate lowered to 10 @.@ 7 percent . On December 18 Mayor Wilson Goode signed a law requiring every nonresidential building 75 feet ( 23 m ) tall or taller have sprinklers installed by 1997 . An estimated three hundred buildings in the city were affected by the law .
= = = Vacant eyesore = = =
In the years after the fire One Meridian Plaza stood in the middle of Philadelphia vacant . The fate of the building was up in the air as the building 's owners and the insurance company prepared for ligation on how to proceed with repairs , who would control those repairs , and at what cost . E / R Partners were proposing deconstructing the building down to the 19th floor and rebuilding from there . Aetna Corporation , the fire insurer , claimed that girders above the 19th level could be repaired and used cutting US $ 115 million in repair costs from the owner 's US $ 250 million estimate . Aetna also proposed taking over the reconstruction . E / R Partners spent US $ 50 million securing one Meridian Plaza and spent up to US $ 500 @,@ 000 a month on security guards , utilities and inspections by engineers as the building stood empty .
Lawsuits on behalf of sixteen people and businesses claiming losses as a result of the blaze were filed shortly after the fire in 1991 . In February 1995 a US $ 15 million agreement was reached to reimburse workers and businesses affected by the fire . While not admitting any liability , the US $ 15 million minus legal fees was paid by E / R Partners and was meant for uninsured losses for businesses and workers in One Meridian and the surrounding damaged buildings .
Declared " eyesore of the year " by The Philadelphia Inquirer in 1994 , the burned , empty tower was an embarrassment to the city according to an editorial in The Inquirer . The editorial said the feeling only became worse after One Meridian Plaza could be seen in the background in the film Philadelphia . The One Meridian Plaza fire left the area around it a commercial void . Nearly every major store in the area closed and property values fell . Neighboring property owners , such as the owner of the damaged buildings behind One Meridian Plaza , were waiting for a decision on the future of the building before going through with their own development plans . In 1996 the city of Philadelphia sued E / R Partners saying One Meridian Plaza was an environmental hazard and should be demolished or repaired . The city and Mayor Ed Rendell were afraid that when E / R Partners settled with Aetna they would take the money and leave the building unfixed .
= = = Deconstruction = = =
In March 1997 E / R Partners settled with Aetna receiving around US $ 300 million . After the legal issues were settled E / R Partners announced the building would be dismantled . With the announcement of the demolition the city dropped its lawsuit against the owners . Unable to implode the building because of the building density of the area , E / R Partners began an eighteen @-@ month , US $ 23 million process to dismantle the building . Early in the process , which began in 1998 , the owners hoped someone would buy the property as is or with the damaged portion of the structure removed , but that hope was soon abandoned . The process was finished in 1999 . At the time of the demolition it was the third tallest habitable building destroyed and is currently the seventh , ranking after the World Trade Center 's twin towers , the Singer Building , and the original Seven World Trade Center in New York , the Morrison Hotel in Chicago , and 130 Liberty Street in New York .
= = Replacement = =
The site of One Meridian Plaza was bought by the Arden Group in 2000 . The site was converted into a parking lot as construction on a new building was held up in a zoning feud with the neighboring site , 1441 Chestnut Street . 1441 Chestnut Street was the site of the Morris Building and other smaller buildings that sat behind One Meridian Plaza . The feud between Arden Group 's chief executive Craig Spencer and 1441 Chestnut Street developer Tim Mahoney began in 2003 . Spencer and Mahoney settled their dispute in March 2006 and construction on One Meridian 's 48 @-@ story replacement , the Residences at the Ritz @-@ Carlton began in May . The Residences at The Ritz @-@ Carlton opened in January 2009 . A memorial was unveiled on October 21 , 2009 at the skyscraper honoring the three firefighters who died in the fire . The memorial features plaques with the firefighter 's names .
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= 1948 Bermuda – Newfoundland hurricane =
The 1948 Bermuda hurricane ( Air Weather Service designation : Dog ) was an intense and long @-@ lived Cape Verde @-@ type tropical cyclone that wrought significant damage to Bermuda and areas of Newfoundland in September 1948 . The storm was the eighth named storm and third hurricane of the annual hurricane season . Originating as a tropical wave off the coast of Africa on September 4 , the cyclone tracked a general westward path for much of its initial stages as it gradually intensified , reaching tropical storm intensity shortly after development and then hurricane intensity a day later . After reaching a longitude roughly equal to that of the Lesser Antilles , the hurricane began to curve northward on a parabolic track , bringing it near Bermuda at peak intensity as a Category 4 hurricane on September 13 . Afterwards , the hurricane began to accelerate northeastwards and weaken . The waning tropical cyclone grazed Cape Race before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone on September 15 ; these remnants persisted for an additional day .
Despite never making landfall , the tropical cyclone disrupted numerous shipping lanes and inflicted damage on Bermuda and Newfoundland . In the former , the hurricane brought winds in excess of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , downing power lines and felled trees . Property damage also resulted from the strong winds . Overall damage on the island totaled $ 400 @,@ 000 . After passing west of Bermuda , the tropical cyclone tracked across numerous shipping lanes . Two ships , the Leicester and Gaspar , encountered the hurricane and became stricken in open waters . Though most people were rescued from both ships , six people perished on the former while one died on the latter . Beginning on September 15 , the hurricane tracked east of Newfoundland , producing heavy rainfall on land . The precipitation flooded roads and caused streams to overflow , inundating additional areas . On the island , two people were killed . Overall , the hurricane caused eight fatalities .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 3 , the tropical wave from which the resulting hurricane would develop from was detected just off the coast of western Africa near Dakar . This marked the second consecutive year in which a tropical cyclone could be traced back as far east as Africa . In HURDAT – the official database for tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic dating back to 1851 Atlantic hurricane season – the area of disturbed weather is estimated to have organized into a tropical storm by 0600 UTC the following day . Over the course of the succeeding week , the tropical cyclone moved in a general westward direction as it gradually intensified , reaching hurricane intensity by 0000 UTC on September 5 and then attaining the equivalent of a modern @-@ day Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale at 0600 UTC on September 8 . Up until this time , its existence and trek across the central Atlantic was only inferred , however , aircraft reconnaissance detected and as such confirmed the existence of the tropical cyclone the following day while the hurricane was situated approximately 900 mi ( 1 @,@ 400 km ) east of Antigua . Operationally , however , the reconnaissance flight significantly underestimated the winds of the tropical cyclone , with estimates of tropical storm @-@ force winds at the storm 's center .
Thereafter , the hurricane began curving northward as it continued to intensify , reaching the equivalent of a modern @-@ day Category 3 hurricane – a major hurricane – by September 11 . Two days later , the storm strengthened further into a Category 4 hurricane . As no reasonably quantifiable strengthening occurred afterwards , this also marked the storm 's official peak intensity as maximum sustained winds were analyzed at 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) . However , aircraft reconnaissance estimated wind speeds of at least 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) at roughly the same time frame . The storm 's northward recurvature caused it to track just west of Bermuda late on September 13 . Afterwards , a weakening trend began as the hurricane tracked northeastward into more northerly latitudes . By September 15 , the storm had been downgraded to minimal hurricane intensity . After passing south of Cape Race later that day , the hurricane transitioned into an extratropical cyclone , and continued to track northward until it was last noted by 1800 UTC the next day near Greenland . During the storm 's twelve @-@ day trek , the hurricane tracked approximately 3 @,@ 500 mi ( 5 @,@ 600 km ) , roughly equidistant to the distance between New York and London .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Central Atlantic and Bermuda = = =
As the hurricane traversed the Central Atlantic , the United States Weather Bureau indicated that the storm would not be a threat to continental land masses due to its isolated position . However , ships in the storm 's vicinity and to the northwest of the hurricane were advised caution . Other shipping lanes in the forecast path of the hurricane were also warned . After recurving in the direction of Bermuda , the British overseas colony was advised to begin prompt precautionary measures against storm surge and strong winds , which were expected from the hurricane . Aircraft from the United States Air Force and Navy stationed in Bermuda were sent to airfields in the United States to avoid the hurricane , while a Navy task force of twelve ships including the escort carrier USS Mindoro ( CVE @-@ 120 ) were dispatched from the island . The U.S. naval operating base moved boats from exposed areas into safer parts of the base . Similar precautionary measures were undertaken by the British naval operating base .
On Bermuda , the hurricane brought sustained winds estimated between 93 – 103 mph ( 150 – 166 km / h ) , with higher gusts . A minimum pressure of 958 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 30 inHg ) was recorded , though a lower pressure may have occurred on the island as the barometer had been falling at the time . The strong winds downed power lines and felled trees , littering insular streets with debris . As a result , power outages occurred and loss of telecommunications was reported . Radio stations based on the island went silent due to the power loss . An emergency backup power generator at King Edward Memorial Hospital was used to restore electrical power to the facility . However , oil lamps were still used in place of any form of electrical lighting . Several slate roofs were torn from their buildings from the strong winds . Heavy rainfall associated with the hurricane flooded long stretches of roadway . Some roads were blocked and rendered impassable by the rainfall . At the local harbor , six vessels were inundated by the strong offshore wave action . Overall , property damage on the island was estimated at $ 400 @,@ 000 .
= = = Mid @-@ Atlantic and Newfoundland = = =
After sweeping past Bermuda , the Weather Bureau continued to advise caution to shipping lanes in the storm 's proximity . Two coastal railway steamers destined for a Newfoundland port were delayed as a result of the approaching storm . All flights headed for Torbay Airport were suspended until the storm 's passage . Before affecting Newfoundland , however , the hurricane impacted numerous shipping lanes in the open Atlantic . The freighter Leicester , which had departed from London and was headed for New York City , was caught in the hurricane late on September 14 while situated roughly 400 mi ( 640 km ) southwest of Cape Race , Newfoundland . As weather conditions deteriorated , the ship began to list , and as such the crew abandoned the ship late the following day . The American steamship Cecil N. Bean and the Argentinian steamship Tropero both assisted in rescue operations and rescued 39 crew members . However , six other remained unaccounted for and were presumed dead . The Portuguese fishing schooner Gaspar was also caught in the storm roughly 300 mi ( 480 km ) off of Newfoundland , and although initial reports presumed that it had already sunk , the United States Coast Guard indicated that the ship was in no need of assistance . However , the ship was still abandoned and 41 crewmen were rescued , though one person was lost .
Much of the effects from the hurricane on Newfoundland occurred on September 15 and continued until September 18 . With winds equivalent to that of a Category 1 hurricane , the cyclone brushed east of the island , bringing extensive flooding . Offshore , a ship estimated winds in excess of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) off of Grand Bank . Precipitation peaked at a record 4 @.@ 5 in ( 110 mm ) at Fort Pepperrell . In St. John 's , train traffic was effectively halted because of the hurricane . Silt kicked up by the strong winds covered railroad tracks in the southern portions of the city , while heavy rainfall flooded several city streets . Similar problems occurred in Avondale . The nearby Rennie River overflowed its banks , inundating adjacent land . The urban flooding damaged adjacent infrastructure . A three @-@ year @-@ old girl died on September 16 after a landslide triggered by the rain filled the first floor of her home . This was the only death associated with the hurricane on the island . In Holyrood , the local highway was washed out in areas . A small trestle with two concrete abutments were swept off into the adjacent bay . Another road leading to Cape Saint Francis suffered wash outs as deep as 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) . Small bridges were also damaged , and some were washed away . As with the Rennie River , the Waterford River also overflowed its banks due to excessive recharge , and as such inundated 13 homes . Another river near Kilbride overflowed , flooding adjacent plots of land and tearing apart pavement . In this manner , several roads were rendered impassable and were cut off to traffic .
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= Russian cruiser Gromoboi =
Gromoboi ( Russian : Громобой , meaning : " Thunderer " ) was an armoured cruiser built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the late 1890s . She was designed as a long @-@ range commerce raider and served as such during the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 . When the war broke out , she was based in Vladivostok and made several sorties in search of Japanese shipping in the conflict 's early months without much success .
Gromoboi , with the other armoured cruisers of the Vladivostok Cruiser Squadron , attempted to rendezvous in the Strait of Tsushima with the main portion of the Russian Pacific Fleet sailing from Port Arthur in August 1904 . The Fleet was delayed , and the squadron returned to port alone . On the return , the squadron encountered a Japanese squadron of four armoured cruisers blocking their passage to base . The Japanese sank the oldest Russian ship , Rurik , and damaged Gromoboi and Rossia during the subsequent Battle off Ulsan . Both Russian ships were repaired within two months . Gromoboi ran aground immediately after completing her repairs and was out of action for four months . Three months after the damage from the grounding incident was repaired , she struck a mine , but successfully returned to port . Her armament was reinforced while under repair , but she saw no further action during the war .
Gromoboi was transferred to the Russian Baltic Fleet after the end of the war and began a lengthy refit that was completed in 1911 . She was mostly inactive during World War I , but had her armament and protection upgraded during the war . She was placed into reserve in 1918 and sold to a German company in 1922 for scrapping . She was forced aground near Liepāja during a storm en route to Germany and was scrapped in place .
= = Design and description = =
Gromoboi was originally intended to be a repeat of Rossia , but a design modification for thicker armour and improved engines made that unfeasible . The use of Rossia 's hull design meant that the ships looked alike .
Gromoboi was 481 feet ( 146 @.@ 6 m ) long overall . She had a maximum beam of 68 @.@ 6 feet ( 20 @.@ 9 m ) and a draught of 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) . The ship displaced 12 @,@ 455 long tons ( 12 @,@ 655 t ) , only 95 long tons ( 97 t ) more than designed . She was sheathed in wood and copper to reduce biofouling . As completed Gromoboi trimmed badly by the bow , which reduced her speed and made her very wet forward . Loads had to be shifted aft and ballast added to the rear of the ship to correct her trim , but she was regarded as a good sea boat afterward with an easy , although rapid , roll .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Gromoboi dispensed with Rossia 's cruising engine on the centre shaft . Three equally powerful vertical triple expansion steam engines were used with a designed total of 14 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 813 kW ) , but they developed 15 @,@ 496 ihp ( 11 @,@ 555 kW ) on trials and drove the ship to a maximum speed of 20 @.@ 1 knots ( 37 @.@ 2 km / h ; 23 @.@ 1 mph ) . Thirty @-@ two Belleville water @-@ tube boilers provided steam for the engines . She could carry a maximum of 2 @,@ 400 long tons ( 2 @,@ 439 t ) of coal . This gave her a radius of action of 8 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 320 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Gromoboi 's main armament consisted of four 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) 45 @-@ calibre Pattern 1892 guns ; the forward pair was mounted in casemates above the forward main @-@ deck 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) gun 's casemate . The two rear guns were situated in sponsons abreast the mizzenmast , protected by gun shields . The guns could be depressed to − 5 ° and elevated to 18 ° . They fired 193 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 87 @.@ 8 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 950 feet per second ( 900 m / s ) which gave a range of 12 @,@ 000 yd ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) at 13 ° elevation .
Her secondary armament consisted of sixteen 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) / 45 Pattern 1892 guns . One gun was mounted under the forecastle and another in the stern ; neither gun could fire to the side . Most of the remaining guns were mounted in casemates , the forward pair in front of the eight @-@ inch guns on the upper deck and the rest on the main deck . One pair was mounted on the upper deck protected by gun shields . In their pivot mounts the guns could depress to -6 ° and elevate to + 20 ° . They fired 91 @.@ 4 @-@ pound ( 41 @.@ 5 kg ) Pattern 1907 high explosive projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 600 feet per second ( 790 m / s ) . This gave a range of 12 @,@ 600 yd ( 11 @,@ 500 m ) at maximum elevation . 240 rounds per gun were carried by Gromoboi .
Defence against torpedo boats was provided by a variety of light @-@ calibre weapons . Gromoboi had 24 75 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) Canet Pattern 1892 50 @-@ caliber guns mounted in sponsons on the upper deck , protected by gun shields . The gun fired 10 @.@ 8 @-@ pound ( 4 @.@ 9 kg ) shells to a range of about 8 @,@ 600 yards ( 7 @,@ 864 m ) at its maximum elevation of 21 ° with a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ( 820 m / s ) . The rate of fire was between twelve and fifteen rounds per minute .
The ship carried twelve 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns . They fired a 3 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 1 @.@ 5 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 476 ft / s ( 450 m / s ) at a rate of 20 rounds per minute to a range of 2 @,@ 020 yards ( 1 @,@ 850 m ) . The ship also carried 18 37 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss guns . These fired a 1 @.@ 1 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 50 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 450 ft / s ( 440 m / s ) at a rate of 20 rounds per minute to a range of 3 @,@ 038 yards ( 2 @,@ 778 m ) .
Gromoboi also had four submerged 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes , with two mounted on each broadside .
= = = Armour = = =
The Naval Ministry had hoped to increase the Gromoboi 's armour thickness and increase the armour protection of the armament , but still use Rossia 's hull design . The Ministry also hoped to use the new , more resistant Krupp armour , but Russian plants had proven unable to manufacture it when it was ordered and Harvey armour was used instead . In fact , for Gromoboi , the waterline belt was reduced in thickness by 2 inches ( 51 mm ) from the older ship to six inches to better protect her guns . The belt was shortened by 100 feet ( 30 @.@ 5 m ) in length to only 300 feet ( 91 @.@ 4 m ) . It was reduced in height by 9 inches ( 229 mm ) as well to a total of 7 feet 9 inches ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) ; it extended 2 feet 9 inches ( 0 @.@ 8 m ) above the waterline and 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) below the waterline . The belt was closed off by six @-@ inch bulkheads fore and aft .
The Gromoboi casemates were 4 @.@ 7 inches ( 119 mm ) thick , with two @-@ inch backs and 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) roofs . The two @-@ inch thick transverse bulkhead fore and aft protected them from raking fire . The armour deck was 1 @.@ 5 inches thick on the flat and 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) thick where it sloped down to meet the belt . The protective deck extended fore and aft of the armour deck and ranged from 2 @.@ 5 – 3 inches ( 64 – 76 mm ) in thickness . The change in the machinery allowed Gromoboi to dispense with Rossia 's glacis armour that had been necessary to protect the tops of the engine cylinders . The conning tower had walls 12 inches ( 305 mm ) thick , made of Krupp armour . The funnel uptakes and ammunition hoists were protected by 1 @.@ 5 inches of armour between the lower and middle decks .
= = Service = =
Gromoboi was built by the Baltic Works in Saint Petersburg . Construction began on 14 June 1897 , although she was not formally laid down until 7 May 1898 , and the ship was launched on 8 May 1899 . She was transferred to Kronstadt on 24 November 1899 to finish fitting out , but was forced aground by sea ice . She was freed three days later , but needed repairs to her sheathing . She left Liepāja on 10 December 1900 en route to the Far East and stopped briefly at Kiel , where she was inspected by Prince Henry of Prussia , and at Plymouth where the officers visited the Devonport naval base . She represented Russia at the granting of the constitution to Australia , visiting Sydney and Melbourne in April – May 1901 , before visiting Nagasaki in July . Gromoboi finally reached Port Arthur on 29 July 1901 . She remained in the Pacific until the beginning of the Russo @-@ Japanese War in 1904 . During this voyage she was commanded by Karl Petrovich Jessen .
= = = Russo @-@ Japanese War = = =
By this time , Gromoboi was assigned of the Vladivostok Cruiser Squadron under the command of Rear Admiral Karl Jessen . The other ships were the armoured cruisers Rossia and Rurik as well as the protected cruiser Bogatyr . The squadron made a number of sorties against Japanese shipping early in the war . Only one was reasonably successful : in June 1904 the squadron sank the Hitachi Maru , carrying eighteen 28 @-@ centimetre ( 11 in ) siege howitzers and over 1000 troops intended for the siege of Port Arthur .
= = = = Battle off Ulsan = = = =
During the war the bulk of the Russian Pacific Fleet was located in Port Arthur where it was blockaded by the Japanese . On 10 August , the ships at Port Arthur attempted breakout to Vladivostok , but were turned back in the Battle of the Yellow Sea . Admiral Jessen was ordered to rendezvous with them , but the order was delayed . His ships had to raise steam , so he did not sortie until the evening of 13 August . Bogatyr had been damaged earlier when she grounded and did not sail with the squadron . By dawn he had reached the island of Tsushima in the Tsushima Strait between Korea and Japan . He turned back for Vladivostok when he failed to see any ships from the Port Arthur squadron . 36 miles ( 58 km ) north of the island he encountered the Japanese squadron commanded by Vice Admiral Kamimura Hikonojō tasked to patrol the Tsushima Strait . The Japanese force had four modern armoured cruisers , Iwate , Izumo , Tokiwa , and Azuma . The two squadrons had passed during the night without spotting one another and each had reversed course around first light . This put the Japanese ships astride the Russian route to Vladivostok .
Jessen turned to the northeast when he spotted the Japanese at 05 : 00 and they followed suit , albeit on a slightly converging course . Both sides opened fire around 05 : 23 at a range of 8 @,@ 500 metres ( 9 @,@ 300 yd ) . The Japanese ships concentrated their fire on Rurik , the rear ship of the Russian formation . She was hit fairly quickly and began to fall astern of the other two ships . Jessen turned southeast in an attempt to open the range , but this blinded the Russian gunners with the rising sun and prevented any of their broadside guns from bearing on the Japanese . About 06 : 00 , Jessen turned 180 ° to starboard in an attempt to reach the Korean coast and to allow Rurik to rejoin the squadron . Kamimura followed suit around 06 : 10 , but turned to port , which opened the range between the squadrons . Azuma then developed engine problems and the Japanese squadron slowed to conform with her best speed . Firing recommenced at 06 : 24 and Rurik was hit three times in the stern , flooding her steering compartment ; she had to be steered with her engines . Her speed continued to decrease , further exposing her to Japanese fire , and her steering jammed to port around 06 : 40 .
Jessen made another 180 ° turn in an attempt to interpose his two ships between the Japanese and Rurik , but the latter ship suddenly turn to starboard and increased speed and passed between Jessen 's ships and the Japanese . Kamimura turned 180 ° as well so that both squadrons were heading southeast on parallel courses , but Jessen quickly made another 180 ° turn so that they headed on opposing courses . Iwate was hit around this time , which knocked out three 6 @-@ inch and one 12 @-@ pounder guns , killing 32 and wounding 43 . The Japanese squadron opened the range again when it made a 180 ° another turn to port . The Russians reversed course for the third time around 07 : 45 in another attempt to support Rurik although Rossia was on fire herself ; her fires were extinguished about twenty minutes later . Kamimura circled Rurik to the south at 08 : 00 and allowed the other two Russian ships to get to his north and gave them an uncontested route to Vladivostok . Despite this , Jessen turned back once more at 08 : 15 and ordered Rurik to make her own way back to Vladivostok before turning north at his maximum speed , about 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
About this time Kamimura 's two elderly protected cruisers , Naniwa and Takachiho , were approaching from the south . Their arrival allowed Kamimura to pursue Jessen with all of his armoured cruisers while the two new arrivals dealt with Rurik . They fought a running battle with the Russians for the next hour and a half ; scoring enough hits on them to force their speed down to 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . Azuma 's engines again broke down during this chase and she was replaced in the line by Tokiwa . The Japanese closed to a minimum of about 5 @,@ 000 metres ( 5 @,@ 500 yd ) , but Kamimura then opened the range up to 6 @,@ 500 metres ( 7 @,@ 100 yd ) .
About 10 : 00 , Kamimura 's gunnery officer erroneously informed him that Izumo had expended three @-@ quarters of her ammunition and he turned back after a five @-@ minute rapid @-@ fire barrage . He did not wish to leave the Tsushima Strait unguarded and thought that he could use his remaining ammunition on Rurik . By this time she had been sunk by Naniwa and Takachiho which had closed to 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 yd ) of Rurik in order to finish her off . They had radioed Kamimura that she was sunk , but he did not receive the message . Shortly after the Japanese turned back , Gromoboi and Rossia were forced to heave @-@ to to make repairs .
Gromoboi suffered 87 dead and 170 wounded ; far more than Rossia 's 44 dead and 156 wounded . This was attributable to Rossia 's captain 's policy of ordering the gun crews for his quick @-@ firing guns on the engaged side to lie down and those on the unengaged side to go below , in contrast to the Gromoboi keeping her light guns manned at all times . Gromoboi was hit fifteen times on the starboard side of her hull and seven times on her port side , plus other hits in her funnels , boats and decks . She also suffered a fire caused by the ignition of excess propellant charges . Despite this number of hits , she was not badly damaged because her waterline belt was not penetrated . She was repaired within two months by the rudimentary facilities available at Vladivostok .
Immediately following her repairs she ran aground outside Vladivostok on 13 October and was not ready for sea until February 1905 . The Russians took this opportunity to reinforce her armament with six more 6 @-@ inch guns mounted on her upper deck , protected by lightly armoured casemates . Her armament was rearranged as well with her foremost six @-@ inch guns moved from their casemates to the forecastle and the rearmost six @-@ inch guns moved forward . Room for these changes was made by removing many of her lighter guns ; she retained only nineteen 75 mm and two 37 mm guns . She also received several Barr and Stroud rangefinders at this time . While testing her new Telefunken radio equipment on 24 May she struck a mine near her forward boiler room . She was able to return to Vladivostok for repairs , but took no further part in the war .
= = = Interwar period = = =
Gromoboi returned to the Baltic Fleet after the war . There she was given a lengthy refit that was finished in 1911 . Her engines and boilers were reconditioned , and her rear torpedo tubes were removed . The forward 15 @-@ inch torpedo tubes were replaced by 18 @-@ inch ( 460 mm ) tubes . Her foremast was removed and replaced by her mizzenmast ; her mainmast was moved aft in place of the mizzenmast and searchlights were installed on a platform on each mast . A casemate with 3 @-@ inch sides and a 1 @-@ inch roof was built around the rear eight @-@ inch guns and the rear six @-@ inch guns were moved aft and protected by a casemate with two @-@ inch sides and a .75 @-@ inch ( 19 mm ) roof . The thickness of the upper @-@ deck casemates was increased to two inches . Armoured towers fore and aft were built for her rangefinders . Her light armament was reduced to four 75 mm and four 47 mm guns . Engine trials were conducted in late 1910 and were unsatisfactory as they were overheating while delivering only 9 @,@ 979 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 441 kW ) . The trials were run again on 27 July 1911 and were more satisfactory as they developed 13 @,@ 337 indicated horsepower ( 9 @,@ 945 kW ) while Gromoboi reached 18 @.@ 5 knots ( 34 @.@ 3 km / h ; 21 @.@ 3 mph ) .
= = = World War I = = =
Gromoboi served in the 2nd Cruiser Brigade of the Baltic Fleet during World War I. She was modified to serve as a fast minelayer with a capacity of two hundred mines .
She engaged the German battlecruiser SMS Von der Tann at the entrance to the Gulf of Finland on August 10 , 1915 .
Her armament was changed in 1916 – 17 as well ; she exchanged the six @-@ inch guns on the bow and stern for eight @-@ inch guns . These additions increased her broadside to four eight @-@ inch and eleven six @-@ inch guns . All of her remaining light guns were removed and she received two 2 @.@ 5 @-@ inch and two 47 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns . All of these additions raised her displacement to about 13 @,@ 200 long tons ( 13 @,@ 412 t ) .
Gromoboi came under control of the Soviet Red Fleet in September 1917 . The Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk required the Soviets to evacuate their base at Helsinki in March 1918 or have them interned by newly independent Finland even though the Gulf of Finland was still frozen over . Gromoboi sailed to Kronstadt in what became known as the ' Ice Voyage ' and was placed into reserve shortly after her arrival . She was sold to a German company for scrapping on 1 July 1922 and ran aground near Liepāja while under tow to Germany . She was scrapped in place .
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= Star Wars : Episode III – Revenge of the Sith =
Star Wars : Episode III – Revenge of the Sith is a 2005 American epic space opera film written and directed by George Lucas . It is the third and final installment of the Star Wars prequel trilogy and stars Ewan McGregor , Natalie Portman , Hayden Christensen , Ian McDiarmid , Samuel L. Jackson , Christopher Lee , Anthony Daniels , Kenny Baker and Frank Oz .
The film begins three years after the onset of the Clone Wars . The Jedi Knights are spread across the galaxy , leading a massive war against the Separatists . The Jedi Council dispatches Jedi Master Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi to eliminate the notorious General Grievous , leader of the Separatist Army . Meanwhile , Jedi Knight Anakin Skywalker grows close to Palpatine , the Supreme Chancellor of the Galactic Republic and , unknown to the public , a Sith Lord . Their deepening friendship threatens the Jedi Order , the Republic , and Anakin himself .
Lucas began writing the script before production of Star Wars : Episode II – Attack of the Clones ended . Production of Revenge of the Sith started in September 2003 , filming in Australia with additional locations in Thailand , Switzerland , China , Italy and the United Kingdom . Revenge of the Sith premiered on May 15 , 2005 at the Cannes Film Festival , then released worldwide on May 19 , 2005 . The film received generally positive reviews from critics , especially in contrast to the less positive reviews of the previous two prequels , receiving praise for its storyline , action scenes , John Williams ' musical score , the visual effects , and the performances of Ewan McGregor , Ian McDiarmid , Frank Oz , Jimmy Smits , and Samuel L. Jackson . It is the last film in the Star Wars franchise to be distributed by 20th Century Fox before the acquisition of Lucasfilm by The Walt Disney Company in 2012 .
Revenge of the Sith broke several box office records during its opening week and went on to earn over $ 848 million worldwide , making it , at the time , the third @-@ highest @-@ grossing film in the Star Wars franchise , unadjusted for inflation . It was the highest @-@ grossing film of 2005 in the U.S. and the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of 2005 behind Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire . As of 2016 , it is the 50th highest @-@ grossing film . The Star Wars saga continued with the release of Star Wars : The Force Awakens , the first installment of the sequel trilogy , in 2015 .
= = Plot = =
During a space battle over the planet Coruscant , Jedi Knights Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi and Anakin Skywalker lead a mission to rescue the kidnapped Supreme Chancellor Palpatine from Separatist commander General Grievous . After infiltrating Grievous 's flagship , the Jedi battle the Sith Lord Count Dooku . Anakin subdues Dooku and , on Palpatine 's urging , kills him . Grievous flees the battle @-@ torn cruiser , which the Jedi crash @-@ land on Coruscant . There , Anakin reunites with his wife , Padmé Amidala , who reveals she is pregnant . While initially excited , Anakin begins to have prophetic visions of Padmé dying in childbirth , and his worry steadily grows .
Palpatine appoints Anakin to the Jedi Council as his representative , but the Council refuses to grant Anakin the rank of Jedi Master and orders him to spy on Palpatine , which diminishes Anakin 's faith in the Jedi . Palpatine tantalizes Anakin with secret knowledge of the dark side of the Force , including the power to save his loved ones from dying . Meanwhile , Obi @-@ Wan is dispatched to the planet Utapau to deal with General Grievous , and Yoda is dispatched to Kashyyyk to defend the planet from invasion .
Tempting Anakin , Palpatine eventually reveals that he is the Sith Lord Darth Sidious , saying that only he has the knowledge to save Padmé from dying . Anakin reports Palpatine 's treachery to Mace Windu , who confronts and subdues the Sith Lord . Fearing that he will lose Padmé , Anakin intervenes on Palpatine 's behalf , allowing Palpatine to kill Windu . Anakin pledges himself to Palpatine , who dubs him Darth Vader .
Palpatine issues an order for the clone troopers to kill their Jedi commanders and dispatches Vader and a legion of clones to kill everyone in the Jedi Temple . Vader massacres the remaining Separatist leaders hiding on the volcanic planet Mustafar , while Palpatine addresses the Senate , transforming the Republic into the Galactic Empire and declaring himself Emperor . Having survived the attack , Obi @-@ Wan and Yoda return to Coruscant and uncover Anakin 's treachery .
Unable to convince Padmé about Anakin 's turn to the dark side , Obi @-@ Wan stows aboard her ship . Padmé travels to Mustafar and implores Vader to leave the dark side . Vader refuses , and when he witnesses Obi @-@ Wan , he chokes Padmé into unconsciousness . Obi @-@ Wan duels and defeats Vader , leaving him for dead on the bank of a lava flow . On Coruscant , Yoda fights Palpatine ; their duel reaches a stalemate and Yoda flees . Palpatine , sensing that his apprentice is in danger , travels to Mustafar .
On the asteroid Polis Massa , Obi @-@ Wan regroups with Yoda and Padmé gives birth to twins , Luke and Leia , as she dies . A funeral is held for Padmé on Naboo . On Mustafar , Palpatine finds Vader badly burnt but alive . After returning to Coruscant , he rebuilds Vader 's mutilated body and outfits him in a black armored suit . Palpatine tells Vader that he killed Padmé in his anger . Meanwhile , Obi @-@ Wan and Yoda decide to hide the twins from the Sith . Yoda exiles himself to the planet Dagobah . Bail Organa adopts Leia as his own daughter and takes her to Alderaan , while Obi @-@ Wan delivers Luke to his step @-@ family Owen and Beru Lars on Tatooine , where Obi @-@ Wan intends to watch over Luke until the time is right to challenge the Empire .
= = Cast = =
Ewan McGregor as Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi : a Jedi Master and general for the Galactic Republic .
Natalie Portman as Padmé Amidala : a senator of Naboo and secretly Anakin 's wife .
Hayden Christensen as Anakin Skywalker / Darth Vader : a recently knighted Jedi hero of the Clone Wars who turns to the dark side of the Force .
Ian McDiarmid as Palpatine / Darth Sidious : the Supreme Chancellor of the Galactic Republic who is secretly a Sith lord .
Samuel L. Jackson as Mace Windu : a senior member of the Jedi Council .
Christopher Lee as Count Dooku / Darth Tyranus : Darth Sidious ' Sith apprentice , who was selected by his master to lead the Separatists .
Anthony Daniels as C @-@ 3PO : Padmé 's personal humanoid protocol droid , created by Anakin .
Kenny Baker as R2 @-@ D2 : Anakin 's astromech droid .
Frank Oz voices Yoda : the leader of the Jedi Council .
Jimmy Smits , Peter Mayhew , Oliver Ford Davies , Ahmed Best and Silas Carson reprise their roles as Senator Bail Organa , Chewbacca , Sio Bibble , Jar Jar Binks , Nute Gunray and Ki @-@ Adi @-@ Mundi , respectively from the previous films . Joel Edgerton and Bonnie Piesse also reprise their roles as Owen Lars and Beru Lars , respectively from Attack of the Clones . Matthew Wood provides the voice of General Grievous , the fearsome cyborg commander of the Separatists ' droid army ; Temuera Morrison portrays the Clone Troopers and Commander Cody , who are clones of the bounty hunter , Jango Fett ; Bruce Spence portrays Tion Medon , local administrator of Utapau ; Jeremy Bulloch , who played Boba Fett in The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi , appears as Captain Colton , the pilot of the Rebel Blockade Runner Tantive IV , Wayne Pygram appears as a younger Grand Moff Tarkin ; and stunt coordinator Nick Gillard appears as a Jedi named Cin Drallig ( his name spelled backward , without the k ) . Editor Roger Barton 's son Aidan Barton portrays Luke Skywalker and Leia Organa as infants . James Earl Jones possibly provides the uncredited voice of Darth Vader ; when specifically asked if he had supplied the voice — either newly or from a previous recording — Jones answered , " You 'd have to ask Lucas about that . I don 't know " .
Director George Lucas cameos as Baron Papanoida , a blue @-@ faced being attending the Coruscant Opera House . Lucas ' son Jett portrays a young Jedi @-@ in @-@ training named Zett Jukassa . Lucas ' daughter Amanda appears as a character called Terr Taneel , seen in the security hologram ; while his other daughter Katie plays a blue @-@ skinned Pantoran named Chi Eekway , visible when Palpatine arrives at the Senate after being saved by the Jedi , and talking to Baron Papanoida at the Opera House ( she also has a brief speaking role in one of the deleted scenes where Padmé is meeting in secret with other senators ) . Christian Simpson appeared as a stunt double for Hayden Christensen . When Anakin , Obi @-@ Wan , and Palpatine arrive via shuttle to the Senate docks after crash landing on Coruscant , the Millennium Falcon can be seen landing on one of the lower platforms as the shuttle approaches .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Lucas stated that he conceived the Star Wars saga 's story in the form of a plot outline in 1973 . However , he later clarified that , at the time of the saga 's conception , he had not fully realized the details — only major plot points . He began working on Episode III even before the previous film , Attack of the Clones , was released , proposing to concept artists that the film would open with a montage of seven battles on seven planets . Michael Kaminski , in The Secret History of Star Wars , surmises that Lucas found flaws with Anakin 's fall to the dark side and radically re @-@ organized the plot . For instance , instead of opening the film with various Clone Wars battles , Lucas decided instead to focus on Anakin , ending the film 's first act with his killing of Count Dooku , an action that signals his descent to the dark side .
A significant number of fans speculated online about the film 's subtitle ; rumored titles included Rise of the Empire , The Creeping Fear ( which was also named as the film 's title on the official website on April Fool 's 2004 ) , and Birth of the Empire . Eventually , Revenge of the Sith also became a " guessed title " that George Lucas would later announce to be true . The title is a reference to Revenge of the Jedi , the original title of Return of the Jedi ; Lucas changed the title scant weeks before the premiere of Return of the Jedi , declaring that Jedi do not seek revenge .
Since Lucas refocused the film on Anakin , he had to sacrifice certain extraneous plot points relating to Attack of the Clones . Lucas had previously promised fans that he would explain the mystery behind the erasure of the planet Kamino from the Jedi Archives . However , Lucas abandoned this plot thread in order to devote more time to Anakin 's story , leaving the matter unresolved on film . As a compromise , Lucas permitted author James Luceno to explain the mystery of Kamino 's erasure and the origins of the Clone army in his expanded universe novel Labyrinth of Evil .
Lucas had originally planned to include even more ties to the original trilogy , and wrote early drafts of the script in which a 10 @-@ year @-@ old Han Solo appeared on Kashyyyk , but the role was not cast or shot . He also wrote a scene in which Palpatine reveals to Anakin that he created him from midichlorians , and is thus his " father " , a clear parallel to Vader 's revelation to Luke in The Empire Strikes Back , but Lucas ejected this scene as well .
After principal photography was complete in 2003 , Lucas made even more changes in Anakin 's character , sharpening Anakin 's motivations for turning to the dark side . Lucas accomplished this " rewrite " through editing the principal footage and filming new scenes during pick @-@ ups in London in 2004 . In the previous versions , Anakin had a myriad of reasons for turning to the dark side , one of which was his sincere belief that the Jedi were plotting to take over the Republic . Although this is still intact in the finished film , by revising and refilming many scenes , Lucas emphasized Anakin 's desire to save Padmé from death . Thus , in the version that made it to theatres , Anakin falls to the dark side primarily to save Padmé .
= = = Art design = = =
After the screenplay 's earliest draft was submitted , the art department began designing the various ways that each element could appear on screen .
For the Kashyyyk environment , the art department turned to the much derided Star Wars Holiday Special for inspiration . Over a period of months , Lucas would approve hundreds of designs that would eventually appear in the film . He would later rewrite entire scenes and action sequences to correspond to certain designs he had chosen . The designs were then shipped to " pre @-@ visualization " to create moving CGI versions known as " animatics " . Ben Burtt would edit these scenes with Lucas in order to previsualize what the film would look like before the scenes were even filmed . The pre @-@ visualization footage featured a basic raw CGI environment with equally unprocessed CGI characters performing a scene ( typically an action sequence ) . Steven Spielberg was also allowed to assist both the art and pre @-@ visualization department 's designs for several action sequences in Revenge of the Sith . Later , the pre @-@ visualization and art department designs were sent to the production department to begin " bringing the film out of the concept phase " by building the various sets , props and costumes . To determine the required sets , Lucas analyzed each scene with the staff to see which moments the actors would come in most contact with the set , warranting the set to be constructed .
= = = Filming = = =
Although the first scene filmed was the final scene to appear in the film ( shot during the filming of Attack of the Clones in 2000 ) , principal photography on the film occurred from June 30 , 2003 to September 17 , 2003 , with additional photography occurring at Shepperton Studios and Elstree Studios in London from August 2004 to January 31 , 2005 . The initial filming took place on sound stages at Fox Studios Australia in Sydney , although practical environments were shot as background footage later to be composited into the film . These included the limestone mountains depicting Kashyyyk , which were filmed in Phuket , Thailand ( they were later damaged by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami ) . The production company was also fortunate enough to be shooting at the same time that Mount Etna erupted in Italy . Camera crews were sent to the location to shoot several angles of the volcano that were later spliced into the background of the animatics and the final film version of the planet Mustafar .
While shooting key dramatic scenes , Lucas would often use an " A camera " and " B camera " , or the " V technique " , a process that involves shooting with two or more cameras at the same time in order to gain several angles of the same performance . Using the HD technology developed for the film , the filmmakers were able to send footage to the editors the same day it was shot , a process that would require a full 24 hours had it been shot on film . Footage featuring the planet Mustafar was given to editor Roger Barton , who was on location in Sydney , Australia cutting the climactic duel . All other footage was forwarded to lead editor Ben Burtt at Skywalker Ranch in California .
Actors Hayden Christensen and Ewan McGregor began rehearsing their climactic lightsaber duel long before Lucas would shoot it . They trained extensively with stunt coordinator Nick Gillard to memorize and perform their duel together . As in the previous two prequel films , McGregor and Christensen performed their own lightsaber fighting scenes without the use of stunt doubles . The speed at which Vader and Obi @-@ Wan engage in their duel is mostly the speed at which it was filmed , although there are instances where single frames were removed to increase the velocity of particular strikes . An example of this occurs as Obi @-@ Wan strikes down on Vader after applying an armlock in the duel 's first half .
Revenge of the Sith eventually became the first Star Wars film in which Anakin Skywalker and the suited Darth Vader were played by the same actor in the same film . As Christensen recounted , it was originally intended to simply have a " tall guy " in the Darth Vader costume , but after " begging and pleading " Christensen persuaded Lucas to have the Vader costume used in the film created specifically to fit him . The new costume featured shoe lifts and a muscle suit . It also required Christensen ( who is 6 feet 1 inch or 1 @.@ 85 metres tall ) to look through the helmet 's mouthpiece .
In 2004 , Gary Oldman was originally approached to provide the voice of General Grievous ; however , complications arose during contract negotiations after Oldman learned the film was to be made outside of the Screen Actors Guild , of which he is a member . He backed out of the role rather than violate the union 's rules . Matthew Wood , who ultimately voiced Grievous , disputed this story at Celebration III , held in Indianapolis . According to him , Oldman is a friend of producer Rick McCallum , and thus recorded an audition as a favor to him , but was not chosen . Wood , who was also the supervising sound editor , was in charge of the auditions and submitted his audition anonymously in the midst of 30 others , under the initials " A.S. " for Alan Smithee . Days later he received a phone call asking for the full name to the initials " A.S. " An internet hoax said John Rhys @-@ Davies was considered for the role .
= = = Visual effects = = =
The post @-@ production department began work during filming and continued until weeks before the film was released in 2005 . Special effects were created using almost all formats , including model work , CGI and practical effects . The same department later composited all such work into the filmed scenes — both processes taking nearly two years to complete . Revenge of the Sith has 2 @,@ 151 shots that use special effects , a world record .
As the DVD featurette Within a Minute illustrates , the film required 910 artists and 70 @,@ 441 man @-@ hours to create 49 seconds of footage for the Mustafar duel alone . Members of Hyperspace , the Official Star Wars Fan Club , received a special look into the production . Benefits included not only special articles , but they also received access to a webcam that transmitted a new image every 20 seconds during the time it was operating in Fox Studios Australia . Many times the stars , and Lucas himself , were spotted on the webcam .
= = = Deleted scenes = = =
During the process of shaping the film for its theatrical release , Lucas and his editors dropped many scenes , and even an entire subplot , from the completed film .
Lucas excised all the scenes of a group of Senators ( including Padmé , Bail Organa , and Mon Mothma ( Genevieve O 'Reilly ) ) organizing an alliance to prevent the Chancellor from receiving any more emergency powers . Though this is essentially the Rebel Alliance 's birth , the scenes were discarded to achieve more focus on Anakin 's story . The scene where Yoda arrives on Dagobah to begin his self @-@ imposed exile was also cut , but is featured in a deleted scene in the DVD release , although McCallum stated he hopes Lucas may add it to the release if Lucas releases a six @-@ episode DVD box set .
Many scenes concerning Jedi deaths during the execution of Order 66 were cut . The deaths of Barriss Offee and Luminara Unduli were either cut from the film or not filmed in the first place .
Bai Ling filmed minor scenes for the film playing a senator , but her role was cut during editing . She claimed this was because she posed for the June 2005 issue of Playboy , whose appearance on newsstands coincided with the film 's May release . Lucas denied this , stating that the cut had been made more than a year earlier , and that he had cut his own daughter 's scenes as well .
= = = Music = = =
The film 's soundtrack was released by Sony Classical on May 3 , 2005 , more than two weeks before the film 's release . The music was composed and conducted by John Williams ( who composed and conducted the score for the other six films in the Star Wars saga ) , and performed by the London Symphony Orchestra and London Voices . A music video titled A Hero Falls was created for the film 's theme , " Battle of the Heroes " , featuring footage from the film and was also available on the DVD .
The soundtrack also came with a collectors ' DVD , Star Wars : A Musical Journey , at no additional cost . The DVD , hosted by McDiarmid , features 16 music videos set to remastered selections of music from all six film scores , set chronologically through the saga . This album was chosen as one of Amazon.com 's Top 100 Editors ' Picks of 2005 ( # 83 ) .
= = Releases = =
Star Wars : Episode III – Revenge of the Sith charity premieres took place in Seattle , Los Angeles , Chicago , Washington D.C. , Boston , Denver , Atlanta , San Francisco , and Miami on Thursday , May 12 , 2005 ; and on May 13 , 2005 , there were two additional charity premiere screenings in George Lucas 's hometown of Modesto.The official premiere was at the 2005 Cannes Film Festival ( out of competition ) on May 16 . Its theatrical release in most other countries took place on May 19 to coincide with the 1999 release of The Phantom Menace ( the 1977 release of A New Hope and the 1983 release of Return of the Jedi were also released on the same day and month , six years apart ) . The global outplacement firm Challenger , Gray & Christmas claimed one week before the premiere that it may have cost the U.S. economy approximately US $ 627 million in lost productivity because of employees who took a day off or reported in sick . Grauman 's Chinese Theatre , a traditional venue for the Star Wars films , did not show it . However , a line of people stood there for more than a month hoping to convince someone to change this . Most of them took advantage of an offer to see the film at a nearby cinema , ArcLight Cinemas ( formerly the " Cinerama Dome " ) . On May 16 , the Empire Cinema in London 's Leicester Square hosted a day @-@ long Star Wars marathon showing of all six films ; an army of Imperial stormtroopers " guarded " the area , and the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra gave a free concert of Star Wars music .
= = = Leaked workprint = = =
A copy of the film leaked onto peer @-@ to @-@ peer file sharing networks just hours after opening in theaters . The film was a time @-@ stamped workprint , suggesting it may have come from within the industry rather than from someone who videotaped an advance screening . Eight people were later charged with copyright infringement and distributing material illegally . Documents filed by the Los Angeles District Attorney allege that a copy of the film was taken from an unnamed Californian post @-@ production office by an employee , who later pleaded guilty to his charges . The illegal copy was passed among seven people until reaching an eighth party , who also pleaded guilty to uploading to an unnamed P2P network .
Shortly after the above @-@ mentioned print was leaked , it was released in Shanghai as a bootleg DVD with Chinese subtitles . The unknown producer of this DVD also chose to include English subtitles , which were in fact translated back into English from the Chinese translation , rather than using the original English script . One error in translation that recurs several times in the film is that the phrase " it seems " ( 好象 ) was rendered as " good elephant " . Jedi Council becomes Presbyterian Church . The mis @-@ translation also caused the word " fuck " ( a mis @-@ translation of " work " ) to appear four times in the subtitles , and rendered Darth Vader 's cry of " Noooooooo " ( 不要 ) as " Do not want . " This last translation error would later be popularized as an internet meme .
= = = Rating = = =
Revenge of the Sith is the first Star Wars film to receive a PG @-@ 13 rating from the Motion Picture Association of America ( MPAA ) , officially for " sci @-@ fi violence and some intense images " , namely for the scene in which Darth Vader is set aflame by lava and molten rock . Lucas had stated months before the MPAA 's decision that he felt the film should receive a PG @-@ 13 rating , because of Anakin 's final moments and the film 's content being the darkest and most intense of all six films . Some critics , including Roger Ebert and Richard Roeper , later responded that children would be able to handle the film as long as they had parental guidance , hence a " PG rating " . All previously released films in the series were rated PG . The PG @-@ 13 rating had not existed when the films in the original trilogy were released ; however , the original trilogy 's films were later re @-@ submitted to the MPAA due to changes in the re @-@ released versions and once again received PG ratings . When Revenge of the Sith was released in Canada , it was given a PG rating in most provinces , excluding Quebec , where it was rated G. In the United Kingdom it received a 12A rating by the British Board of Film Classification ( BBFC ) . In Australia , the film was rated M for mature audiences by the Australian Classification Board ( ACB ) .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released on DVD on October 31 , 2005 ( Halloween ) , in the United Kingdom , on November 1 , 2005 , in the United States and Canada and on November 3 , 2005 , in Australia . It was also released in most major territories on or near the same day . The DVD was a two @-@ disc set , with picture and sound mastered from the original digital source material .
The DVD included a number of documentaries including a new full @-@ length documentary as well as two featurettes , one which explores the prophecy of Anakin Skywalker as the Chosen One , the other looking at the film 's stunts and a 15 @-@ part collection of web @-@ documentaries from the official web site . Like the other DVD releases , included is an audio commentary track featuring Lucas , producer Rick McCallum , animation director Rob Coleman , and ILM visual effects supervisors John Knoll and Roger Guyett . Six deleted scenes were included with introductions from Lucas and McCallum . An Xbox game demo for Star Wars : Battlefront II along with a trailer for the Star Wars : Empire at War PC game was featured on the second disc .
Also , a special two @-@ pack exclusive , sold only at Wal @-@ Mart stores , included another bonus DVD , The Story of Star Wars .
This release is notable because , due to marketing issues , it was the first Star Wars film never to be released on VHS in the United States . However , the film was released on VHS in Australia , the U.K. and other countries in the world .
The DVD was re @-@ released in a prequel trilogy box set on November 4 , 2008 .
The Star Wars films were released by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment on Blu @-@ ray Disc on September 16 , 2011 in three different editions .
On April 7 , 2015 , Walt Disney Studios , 20th Century Fox , and Lucasfilm jointly announced the digital releases of the six released Star Wars films . Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released Revenge of the Sith through the iTunes Store , Amazon Video , Vudu , Google Play , and Disney Movies Anywhere on April 10 , 2015 .
= = = 3D re @-@ release = = =
On September 28 , 2010 , it was announced that all six films in the series were to be stereo @-@ converted to 3D . The films would be re @-@ released in chronological order beginning with The Phantom Menace on February 10 , 2012 . Revenge of the Sith was originally scheduled to be re @-@ released in 3D on October 11 , 2013 ( later pushed up to October 4 , 2013 ) . However , on January 28 , 2013 , Lucasfilm announced that it was postponing the 3D release of episodes II and III in order to " focus 100 percent of our efforts on Star Wars : The Force Awakens " and that further information about 3D release plans would be issued at a later date . The premiere of the 3D version was shown on April 17 , 2015 , at Star Wars Celebration Anaheim .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave Revenge of the Sith a 79 % approval rating and average rating of 7 @.@ 3 / 10 based on 282 reviews from critics , with the consensus being " With Episode III : Revenge of the Sith , George Lucas brings his second Star Wars trilogy to a suitably thrilling and often poignant – if still a bit uneven – conclusion . " Metacritic gave the film a 68 out of 100 , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " .
Most critics have considered the film to be the best of the prequels . A. O. Scott of The New York Times concluded that it was " the best of the four episodes Mr. Lucas has directed " , and equal to The Empire Strikes Back as " the richest and most challenging movie in the cycle " . In a 2007 summary of the 100 Best Science @-@ Fiction Films on Rotten Tomatoes , Revenge of the Sith was placed 51 out of 100 , making it the only prequel film in the Star Wars series to earn a ranking . Jonathan Rosenbaum , a critic who disliked A New Hope and The Empire Strikes Back , gave the film a positive review saying that it had a " relatively thoughtful story " . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four , writing " If [ Lucas ] got bogged down in solemnity and theory in Episode II : Attack of the Clones , the Force is in a jollier mood this time , and Revenge of the Sith is a great entertainment . "
In 2012 , art critic Camille Paglia praised the film in Glittering Images , comparing some of its scenes to works by modern painters and calling it " the greatest work of art in recent memory " . Paglia explained " The long finale of Revenge of the Sith has more inherent artistic value , emotional power , and global impact than anything by the artists you name . It 's because the art world has flat @-@ lined and become an echo chamber of received opinion and toxic over @-@ praise . It 's like the emperor 's new clothes -- people are too intimidated to admit what they secretly think or what they might think with their blinders off . Episode III epitomizes the modern digital art movement , more so than other piece from the last 30 years . I had considered using Japanese anime for the digital art chapter of the book , but it lacked the overwhelming operatic power and yes , seriousness of Lucas 's Revenge of the Sith . "
Though many critics and fans saw it as the strongest of the three prequels , some saw it as more or less on par with The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones . Much of the criticism for the film was directed towards the dialogue , particularly the film 's romantic scenes , and for Hayden Christensen 's performance ( which won him his second Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actor ) . Critics and fans alike were quick to jump on such lines as " Hold me , Ani . Hold me , like you did by the lake on Naboo ... where there was nothing but our love ... " Critics have claimed this demonstrated Lucas ' weakness as a writer of dialogue , a subject with which Lucas openly agreed when receiving the Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Film Institute .
Some American conservatives criticized the film , claiming it has a liberal bias and is a commentary on the George W. Bush administration and the Iraq War . Some websites went so far as to propose a boycott of the film . Lucas defended the film , stating that the film 's storyline was written during the Vietnam War and was influenced by that conflict rather than the war in Iraq . Lucas did note , however , that " The parallels between Vietnam and what we 're doing in Iraq now are unbelievable " .
= = = Box office performance = = =
The film was released in 115 countries . Its worldwide gross eventually reached $ 849 million — making it the second most financially successful film of 2005 , behind Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire . The film earned an estimated $ 16 @.@ 91 million from 2 @,@ 900 midnight screenings in North America upon its release . In total , it earned a record $ 50 million on its opening day . It was surpassed the following year by Pirates of the Caribbean : Dead Man 's Chest , which earned $ 55 @.@ 5 million on its opening day .
With only the May 19 earnings , the film broke four box office records : midnight screenings gross ( previously held by The Lord of the Rings : The Return of the King , $ 8 million ) , opening day gross ( Spider @-@ Man 2 , with $ 40 @.@ 4 million ) , single day gross ( Shrek 2 with $ 44 @.@ 8 million ) and Thursday gross ( The Matrix Reloaded with $ 37 @.@ 5 million ) . Its single day and opening day gross records were later surpassed by Pirates of the Caribbean : Dead Man 's Chest on July 7 , 2006 , when that movie grossed $ 55 @.@ 5 million on its opening day , and its midnight screening gross was broken by The Dark Knight on July 18 , 2008 with $ 18 @.@ 5 million . It still retains its record for Thursday gross , however . According to box office analysis sites , the film set American records for highest gross in a given number of days for each of its first 12 days of release except for the seventh and eighth , where the record is narrowly held by Spider @-@ Man 2 . On its fifth day , it became the highest @-@ grossing film of 2005 , surpassing Hitch ( $ 177 @.@ 6 million ) . The film earned $ 158 @.@ 5 million in its first four @-@ day period , surpassing the previous four @-@ day record held by The Matrix Reloaded ( $ 134 @.@ 3 million ) , and joining Spider @-@ Man , The Matrix Reloaded and Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire as one the only films to make $ 100 million in three days . In eight days , it reached the $ 200 million mark ( a record tied with Spider @-@ Man 2 ) and by its 17th day , the film had passed $ 300 million ( surpassing the record of 18 days of Shrek 2 ) . It was eventually the third @-@ fastest film ( after Shrek 2 and Spider @-@ Man ) to reach $ 350 million .
The film ended its run in American theaters on October 20 , 2005 , finishing with a total gross of $ 380 @,@ 270 @,@ 577 . It ranks 27th in all @-@ time domestic grosses and is the highest @-@ grossing U.S. of 2005 , outgrossing second @-@ place The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe by nearly $ 90 million . The film sold an estimated 59 @,@ 324 @,@ 600 tickets in the US .
International grosses that exceeded $ 10 million include those Australia ( $ 27 @.@ 2 million ) , France and Algeria ( $ 56 @.@ 9 million ) , Germany ( $ 47 @.@ 3 million ) , Italy ( $ 11 @.@ 3 million ) , Japan ( $ 82 @.@ 7 million ) , Mexico ( $ 15 @.@ 3 million ) , South Korea ( $ 10 @.@ 3 million ) , Spain ( $ 23 @.@ 8 million ) , and the United Kingdom and Ireland ( $ 72 @.@ 8 million ) .
= = = Accolades = = =
Post the release of Revenge of the Sith — the completion of the original and prequel Star Wars series — on June 9 , 2005 , George Lucas was presented with the 33rd American Film Institute Lifetime Achievement Award . The institute honored his " astonishing contributions to the art and technology of filmmaking , as well as the impact of the epic Star Wars series " .
Despite being the prequel trilogy 's best reviewed and received film , it received fewer award nominations than the previous films . It became the only Star Wars film not to be nominated for an Academy Award for Best Visual Effects ; however , it was nominated for Best Makeup ( Dave Elsey and Nikki Gooley ) , losing to The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe . It also won " Favorite Motion Picture " and " Favorite Dramatic Motion Picture " awards at the People 's Choice Awards , " Hollywood Movie of the Year " award at the Hollywood Film Festival , Empire Awards ( Sci @-@ Fi / Fantasy Film ) , and the Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie - Action . It also was nominated for Best Score Soundtrack Album at the 48th Grammy Awards in 2006 .
As every film of the original trilogy , the film won the Saturn Award for Best Science Fiction Film . Williams also won Best Music . The film was nominated for ten Saturn Awards overall , including Best Director and Best Writing for Lucas , Best Actor for Christensen , Best Actress for Natalie Portman and Best Supporting Actor for Ian McDiarmid .
The film did , however , receive the fewest Golden Raspberry Awards nominations : only one , for Christensen as Worst Supporting Actor , which he won . ( The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones received seven nominations each , with one and two wins , respectively . ) It is the only Star Wars prequel not to receive a Razzie nomination for " Worst Picture " . Christensen further won the " Best Villain " award at the MTV Movie Awards .
= = Themes = =
Throughout Revenge of the Sith , Lucas refers to a wide range of films and other sources , drawing on political , military , and mythological motifs to enhance his story 's impact . Perhaps the most media coverage was given to a particular exchange between Anakin and Obi @-@ Wan , which led to the aforementioned controversy : " If you 're not with me , then you 're my enemy " , Anakin declares . Despite Lucas ' insistence to the contrary , The Seattle Times concluded , " Without naming Bush or the Patriot Act , it 's all unmistakable no matter what your own politics may be . "
McDiarmid , Lucas , and others have also called Anakin 's journey to the dark side Faustian in the sense of making a " pact with the devil " for short @-@ term gain , with the fiery volcano planet Mustafar representing hell . Midway through the film , Lucas intercuts between Anakin and Padmé by themselves , thinking about one another in the Jedi Temple and their apartment , respectively , during sunset . The sequence is without dialog and complemented by a moody , synthesized soundtrack . Lucas ' coverage of the exterior cityscapes , skylines and interior isolation in the so @-@ called " Ruminations " sequence is similar to the cinematography and mise @-@ en @-@ scène of Rosemary 's Baby , a film in which a husband makes a literal pact with the devil .
As with the previous film and its allusions to The Empire Strikes Back , some deliberately placed references have been made to draw allusions with Return of the Jedi . The title is similar in style to the original planned " Revenge of the Jedi " . Some dialog is mirrored in both films especially the line " I can feel your anger ! " spoken by Palpatine , who also orders his personal entourage / bodyguards to " Leave us " at important moments in both films . Darth Vader attempts to play on Luke 's fear of loss by taunting him with threats against Leia . His own fear of the loss of Padme is what draws him to the dark side . Prior to settling on the Ewoks as the main helpers , the Wookiee race was originally planned to be in Jedi .
= = Other media = =
= = = Novelization = = =
The film 's novelization was written by Matthew Stover . It includes much more dialogue than the film , including : a conversation between Count Dooku and Darth Sidious , where the reader learns Palpatine lied to Dooku about what the Empire would truly be ; a conversation between Mace Windu and Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi where Obi @-@ Wan expresses self @-@ doubt about whether he is the right Jedi to battle General Grievous ; and a conversation between Anakin and Palpatine in which Palpatine promises to give Anakin anything he wants — whether it be a new speeder or the star system Corellia . The novel includes many minor details . For example , during the Battle of Coruscant , Anakin 's callsign is Red 5 , a reference to Luke 's callsign in the climactic battle of A New Hope , and one of the Republic capital ships is commanded by Lieutenant Commander Lorth Needa , who becomes Captain Needa in The Empire Strikes Back . There are also references to the Star Wars : Republic comic book series , such as the Battle of Jabiim ( Volume 3 ) . In addition to this , the siege of the Jedi Temple is much more violent and far more graphically explained than the cinematic version .
Some unseen or unheard @-@ of elements of the story were fleshed out in the course of the novel . Such examples include more discussions between Anakin and Palpatine , in which Palpatine explicitly says that Darth Plagueis was his master ; in the film , it is merely hinted at . Additionally , it is revealed that the primary reason for Anakin 's outrage over not becoming a Jedi Master is that only Masters have access to the holocrons in the Temple Archives , which is where Anakin had hoped to find information about how to prevent Padme 's death . Not only is Saesee Tiin revealed to be a telepath , but his horn , lost in the Clone Wars , is revealed to have grown back . The book explains that Palpatine purposely manipulated the Council into sending Obi @-@ Wan to fight General Grievous , because he knew he needed to get Obi @-@ Wan off Coruscant before he could turn Anakin to the dark side . The novel also reveals Mace Windu 's rationale for not bringing Anakin along to the fight with Palpatine : he can sense Anakin 's fear and distress , and does not believe the young Jedi is in any mental state to fight a Sith Lord . These are a few examples of many descriptions of characters ' feelings and inner narrative . There are even some humorous lines added in , including extra dialogue in the battle between Grievous and Obi Wan - Grievous says , " I was trained by Count Dooku , " and Obi @-@ Wan replies , " What a coincidence ; I trained the man who killed him . "
= = = Video game = = =
A video game based on the film was released on May 5 , 2005 , two weeks before the film . The game followed the film 's storyline for the most part , integrating scenes from the film . However , many sections of the game featured scenes cut from the film , or entirely new scenes for the game . The style of the game was mostly lightsaber combat and fighting as Obi @-@ Wan or Anakin . It also has a form of multiplayer mode , which includes both " VS " and " Cooperative " mode . In the first mode , two players fight with characters of their choice against each other in a lightsaber duel to the death . In the latter mode , two players team up to combat increasingly difficult waves of enemies .
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= Halo : Ghosts of Onyx =
Halo : Ghosts of Onyx is a military science fiction novel by Eric Nylund , based on the Halo series of video games . The book was released in October 2006 and is the fourth Halo novel ; Nylund 's third contribution to the series . Onyx was also the first of three Halo novels to be published by Tor Books , rather than the previous publisher , Del Rey .
Ghosts of Onyx details the creation of a group of supersoldiers known as the SPARTAN @-@ IIIs to defend humanity against the alien collective known as the Covenant . After the events of Halo 2 , the SPARTAN 's training world of Onyx is beset by robotic attackers . The SPARTANs and their trainers must fight the robots and the Covenant as they work to uncover the planet 's secrets .
Upon release , Ghosts of Onyx garnered generally positive reviews . The novel debuted on The New York Times bestseller list and became an international bestseller .
= = Background and writing = =
Ghosts of Onyx author Eric Nylund had previously written two of the three past Halo novels , The Fall of Reach and First Strike , and went to Halo 's developer Bungie with an outline of what he wanted to do next . According to Nylund , Bungie gave him room to write the story as long as he accomplished some " very specific [ story ] goals " , sometimes making changes to the Halo universe to incorporate his ideas . However , he acknowledged the difficulty of fitting his story into the rest of the Halo universe was far greater for Ghosts of Onyx than the other novels as more of the story had been made public and was no longer able to be modified . Nylund mentioned in an interview with IGN that writing a Halo novel had both its positive aspects and drawbacks . " It 's better because I have all these great toys and characters to play with , " Nylund stated in an interview , " It 's not so good because I have to work and play well with other parts of the intellectual property so everything meshes . "
Ghosts of Onyx , originally known as Ghosts of Coral , was the first Halo novel to be published by Tor Books instead of Del Rey . Nylund had 15 weeks to write the book , as opposed to the 7 weeks for The Fall of Reach , but he claimed he still " lost sleep ... ate a bunch of chocolate and drank too much coffee . " Tor 's editors also had more time than those of Del Rey and helped " untangle " the complicated plot of Onyx . On writing , Nylund pointed out that " tension is the cornerstone of any good story " , and that Ghosts of Onyx would be no different .
IGN 's reviewer , Douglass C. Perry , found that by using short paragraphs and many jumps in time " [ the novel 's ] style of writing keeps the pace going , even when nothing much is going on . " This technique is used deliberately by Nylund to hasten the pace to avoid " fatiguing the reader and losing them . "
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Ghosts of Onyx takes place in the 26th century , where humanity , under the auspices of the United Nations Space Command , has developed faster @-@ than @-@ light travel and colonized hundreds of worlds . Without warning , an alien collective known as the Covenant attacks the outer human colony of Harvest . The Covenant begin to hunt down human colonies , vitrifying the surface of each world . Humanity 's best weapon against the technologically superior Covenant are the SPARTAN @-@ IIs , supersoldiers equipped with powerful armor ; unfortunately , there are too few of the SPARTANs to turn the tide of the war .
= = = Characters = = =
Kurt @-@ 051
Kurt is a SPARTAN @-@ II who serves in John @-@ 117 's squad . Kurt is known for his sense of intuition , which saves his team on several occasions . Recruited to train a new series of Spartans , Kurt is devastated by the massive casualties his trainees suffer . In response , Kurt begins instituting illegal brain modifications to give his soldiers a better chance at survival . Due to the secretive lengths taken by his superiors to recruit him to the program , none of Kurt 's former colleagues know he is alive .
Franklin Mendez
Mendez is one of the SPARTAN @-@ III project 's trainers . In Nylund 's previous novel , Halo : The Fall of Reach , Mendez is the SPARTAN @-@ II 's trainer and leaves shortly after humanity 's first encounter with the Covenant to train the next generation of Spartans . After the next batch of SPARTAN @-@ IIs are postponed , Mendez returns to active duty fighting against the Covenant before training the SPARTAN @-@ IIIs .
Catherine Halsey
Halsey is the creator behind the SPARTAN @-@ II project . In order to train the young recruits whom she has selected for the program , Halsey abducts the children and replaces them with clones . Though her soldiers are phenomenally successful , Halsey abruptly leaves with the injured SPARTAN Kelly in Halo : First Strike on an unspecified mission . After years of willingly manipulating her " children " , Halsey decides to attempt to save them all instead of throwing them into a war she believes humanity will lose .
James Ackerson
Ackerson is a Colonel in the Army , and a fierce opponent of the SPARTAN @-@ II program ; during The Fall of Reach , Ackerson goes as far as attempting to kill John @-@ 117 in a training exercise . Ackerson proposes his own SPARTAN program , which would attempt to duplicate the SPARTAN @-@ II 's operational record at a lower cost — creating " disposable Spartans . " The existence of this program is kept a secret from the public and much of the UNSC , especially Halsey .
= = = Plot summary = = =
The story begins with a group of SPARTAN @-@ IIIs being deployed to a Covenant fleet refueling depot in the year 2545 . The soldiers destroy the facility , but all save two of the three hundred SPARTANs are killed . The narrative then moves back to 2531 , where SPARTAN @-@ IIs are deployed against human insurrectionists ; though the team is almost captured , the timely intervention of Kurt @-@ 051 allows the team to complete their mission . Meanwhile , Colonel James Ackerson meets with the Office of Naval Intelligence ( ONI ) . Ackerson announces his plan to create a new breed of SPARTANs which retains much of the supersoldiers ' effectiveness , without the high price tag of the SPARTAN @-@ II program . These SPARTAN @-@ IIIs are trained by Franklin Mendez , as well as Kurt @-@ 051 . With his death staged by ONI , Kurt @-@ 051 is placed in full charge of SPARTAN @-@ III training , under the name and rank of Lieutenant Kurt Ambrose . The SPARTAN @-@ III project is carried out on a secret ONI planet named Onyx , where there is also an archaeological excavation of ancient Forerunner ruins in an area known as " Zone 67 " . When a company of SPARTAN @-@ IIIs goes missing in Zone 67 , it is declared off @-@ limits to all personnel .
Like the SPARTAN @-@ IIs , the SPARTAN @-@ III candidates undergo radical cybernetic and biological enhancements and are outfitted with special armor to increase their abilities . The first SPARTAN @-@ III company proves highly successful , but is wiped out when ordered to destroy a Covenant orbital shipyard in 2537 . Shaken by the massacre of his troops , Kurt improves the training regimen for his next batch of SPARTAN @-@ III recruits , but they too are all killed in action so Kurt , in an effort to reduce casualties , institutes illegal biological modifications on the third company of SPARTANs . While conducting a training exercise near Zone 67 , UNSC personnel find themselves under attack by alien robotic drones .
Meanwhile , Dr. Catherine Halsey , the SPARTAN @-@ II project 's creator , along with the SPARTAN Kelly @-@ 087 arrive in the Onyx system . As they near the surface of the planet they are attacked by more robot drones and crash , meeting up with the human survivors of the attacks . Halsey identifies the robotic drones as Forerunner Sentinels from the artificial intelligence Cortana 's logs of the events of Halo : Combat Evolved . Halsey sends a message back to Earth , which is under attack by Covenant ; in response , Lord Hood sends the SPARTAN @-@ IIs Fred @-@ 104 , Linda @-@ 058 , and Will @-@ 043 to Onyx .
At the Forerunner ringworld Delta Halo , the Covenant are in the midst of a civil war . Elites intercept Halsey 's distress signal and learn of the existence of Onyx and its Forerunner technology . Both the Covenant and the UNSC forces which arrive at Onyx are attacked by Sentinels . The entire UNSC fleet at Onyx is destroyed by the ensuing battle , save for one stealth ship , the Dusk , which stays hidden , observing the events .
The remaining human forces on Onyx discover a Forerunner city being rapidly uncovered by the Sentinels , and are guided into a massive sphere by Dr. Halsey . She determines that the entire planet is actually a " Shield World " constructed by the Forerunners to protect themselves from the firing of the Halo ringworlds , which are designed to eradicate all sentient life . Fighting off Covenant pursuers , the humans discover an entrance leading to a Dyson Sphere . Kurt remains behind in order to detonate two nuclear weapons to stop the Covenant from following the humans into the Sphere . Hiding at a distance from Onyx , the Dusk watches as Onyx 's surface rips apart to reveal that the entire world is constructed of Sentinels , all connected together to provide an impenetrable defense around the Dyson Sphere at the heart of the planet . The Sentinels annihilate the remaining Covenant fleet vessels orbiting the planet and the Prowler retreats . Fred , now inside the Dyson Sphere , takes command of the survivors and orders everyone to search for method of escape .
= = Reception = =
IGN gave Ghosts of Onyx good marks , praising Nylund 's writing style and how Onyx managed to tie up many plot threads that were left hanging from both the novels and the games . The publication did note , however , that the Master Chief made only a cameo appearance , and that Ghosts of Onyx is " about the supporting cast of characters " , rather than the heroes of the video game . Offering a less positive outlook on the book were publications like Subnova.com , which blasted the novel as being much worse than Halo : First Strike , introducing characters the reader didn 't care about and using too much jargon . The reviewer stated that " It 's a good book . Honest . It just doesn 't measure up to the standard set by the other books in the series . " In response to complaints about typographical errors , Nylund responded that a reprint of the book fixing these issues would appear .
Ghosts of Onyx debuted as The New York Times bestseller , remaining on the list for eleven weeks . The novel would go on to become an international bestseller ; a mass @-@ market paperback would be released on April 7 , 2007 .
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= William Harper ( Rhodesian politician ) =
William John Harper ( 22 July 1916 – 8 September 2006 ) was a politician , general contractor and Royal Air Force fighter pilot who served as a Cabinet minister in Rhodesia ( or Southern Rhodesia ) from 1962 to 1968 , and signed that country 's Unilateral Declaration of Independence ( UDI ) from Britain in 1965 . Born into a prominent Anglo @-@ Indian merchant family in Calcutta , Harper was educated in India and England and joined the RAF in 1937 . He served as an officer throughout the Second World War and saw action as one of " The Few " in the Battle of Britain , during which he was wounded in action . Appalled by Britain 's granting of independence to India in 1947 , he emigrated to Rhodesia on retiring from the air force two years later .
Harper contended that British rule in the subcontinent should never have ended , and took a similar stance regarding his adopted homeland , reportedly declaring that it , South Africa and the neighbouring Portuguese territories would " be under white rule forever " . He entered politics with the Dominion Party in 1958 and became Minister of Irrigation , Roads and Road Traffic in the Rhodesian Front ( RF ) government in 1962 . The head of a far @-@ right group within the RF , he called for Rhodesia to abolish black representation in parliament and adopt " a form of political apartheid " . When the Prime Minister Winston Field resigned in 1964 , Harper was a front @-@ runner to succeed him , but lost out to Ian Smith , who moved him to the Ministry of Internal Affairs .
Each breakdown or setback during the early years of Smith 's premiership prompted press speculation that Harper might replace him . In 1966 , when Smith brought a working document back from the HMS Tiger talks with the British Prime Minister Harold Wilson , Harper led opposition to the terms in Cabinet , contributing to their rejection . Harper resigned from the Rhodesian Front in 1968 , soon after Smith dismissed him from the Cabinet , reportedly because Harper had had an extramarital affair with a British agent . He subsequently became a vocal critic of the Prime Minister , greeting each step Smith made towards settlement with black nationalists during the Bush War with public indignation . By the time majority rule began in Zimbabwe Rhodesia in 1979 , following the Internal Settlement of the previous year , Harper had left for South Africa . He died in 2006 at the age of 90 .
= = Early life = =
William John Harper was born on 22 July 1916 in Calcutta , British India , scion of an old and prominent Anglo @-@ Indian merchant family that had been based in the subcontinent for generations , working with the East India Company during the 18th and 19th centuries . He was educated at North Point in Darjeeling , India , and in the English town of Windsor . He grew into a short but tough man who spoke with clipped diction . Nathan Shamuyarira wrote of him in 1966 that " his tight mouth rarely relaxes into a smile , so ... he seems always on the point of losing his temper " .
= = Second World War ; Royal Air Force pilot = =
Harper joined the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) in 1937 , and was commissioned as an acting pilot officer on 5 September . He was promoted to flying officer on 12 February 1940 , and attached to No. 17 Squadron . On 18 May 1940 he shared in the destruction of a Messerschmitt Bf 110 heavy fighter , and a week later he destroyed a Ju 87 " Stuka " dive bomber . He was appointed B Flight commander , with the rank of acting flight lieutenant , on 26 May . He destroyed another Bf 110 over Dunkirk three days later , during the evacuation of Allied forces , and continued as flight commander until 8 June 1940 , reverting to the rank of flying officer . He was again promoted to acting flight lieutenant on 4 July , when he was given command of A Flight .
From July 1940 , still flying with No. 17 Squadron , Harper was one of " The Few " , the Allied pilots of the Battle of Britain . On 11 August he shared in the probable destruction of a Bf 110 and damaged a Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter . Four days later , after taking off as part of a group of six Hawker Hurricanes assigned to intercept more than 20 Luftwaffe aircraft , Harper contacted the German planes alone and probably destroyed a Bf 109 before being shot down . He crash @-@ landed in a field near the Suffolk seaside town of Felixstowe , and convalesced in hospital there with wounds to his face and leg . He soon rejoined No. 17 Squadron and continued his command of A Flight from the ground — he returned to the skies on 1 November 1940 . A week later he destroyed a Ju 87 and probably another . Harper received the war substantive rank of flight lieutenant on 12 February 1941 . A month later he was posted to No. 57 Operational Training Unit RAF , based at RAF Hawarden in Wales , as an instructor .
In September 1941 , Harper was seconded to the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) to command No. 453 Squadron RAAF , which was based at Singapore and operated Brewster Buffalo fighters . After suffering heavy losses during the Malayan Campaign in December , No. 453 Squadron was temporarily amalgamated with another Buffalo unit , No. 21 Squadron RAAF , to form No. 21 / 453 Squadron under Harper 's command . By February 1942 , No. 453 Squadron was denuded of aircraft and its remaining personnel were evacuated to Australia . Harper assumed command of No. 135 Squadron RAF in India in April 1942 . In January 1943 he took command of No. 92 ( East India ) Squadron RAF in North Africa , and was promoted to temporary squadron leader with seniority backdated to March 1942 . He was transferred to England in September 1943 and commanded the University Air Squadron at Leeds until 1944 . He remained with the RAF following the end of hostilities .
= = Political career = =
= = = Emigration to Rhodesia = = =
Harper was appalled when Britain made India independent in 1947 — he held that the British government had unnecessarily caved in to Indian nationalist demands and should have continued in the subcontinent indefinitely . He retained this view for years afterwards . He retired from the RAF in April 1949 with the rank of wing commander , and the same year emigrated to Southern Rhodesia , a British colony in southern Africa that had been self @-@ governing since 1923 . He settled in the central town of Gatooma , where he farmed , mined and set up an earth @-@ moving contractor 's business . In 1953 , Southern Rhodesia became a territory of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland alongside Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland . Each territory retained its own political status and government , and Southern Rhodesia 's constitutional status was unaltered .
= = = Dominion Party = = =
Harper entered politics when he contested the Gatooma seat in the 1958 general election , running for the opposition Dominion Party ( which called for full " dominion " or Commonwealth realm status ) . The Southern Rhodesian electoral system allowed only those who met certain financial and educational qualifications to vote — the criteria were applied equally regardless of race , but since most black citizens did not meet the set standards , the electoral roll and colonial Legislative Assembly were overwhelmingly drawn from the white minority ( about 5 % of the population ) . Harper won in Gatooma with 717 out of 1 @,@ 300 votes . Holding strongly conservative views , he soon became seen as the voice of the party 's right wing . He was elected president of the Dominion Party 's Southern Rhodesian arm in October 1959 , and by 1960 he was the official Leader of the Opposition in the Southern Rhodesian parliament .
Amid decolonisation and the Wind of Change , the Federation was looking ever more tenuous and the idea of " no independence before majority rule " was gaining considerable ground in British political circles . Harper called for Southern Rhodesia to abandon the Federation and " go it alone " . In June 1960 he and the Southern Rhodesian branch of the Dominion Party adopted the policy of " Southern Rhodesia first " , prompting strong protests from the party 's Northern Rhodesian division ; the Dominion Party splintered into separate Federal and territorial entities a month later . When black nationalist riots broke out in the townships in October 1960 , Harper condemned the Southern Rhodesian Prime Minister Sir Edgar Whitehead and the governing United Federal Party ( UFP ) as too lenient on the protesters , and argued that giving concessions following political violence would make black Rhodesians believe that " trouble pays dividends " . Arguing against black representation in the Legislative Assembly , he said that if there were black MPs " they will share the restaurant with us and they will share the bars with us . We will be living cheek by jowl with them , and what sort of legislation can the people of this country expect when we ourselves are being conditioned to living cheek by jowl with Africans ? "
= = = Rhodesian Front = = =
In 1962 Harper was a founding member of the Rhodesian Front ( RF ) , an alliance of conservative voices centred around the former Dominion Party and defectors from the UFP . The party 's declared goal was independence for Southern Rhodesia without radical constitutional change and without any set timetable for the introduction of majority rule . After the RF won a surprise victory in the November 1962 general election — Harper comfortably retained his seat in Gatooma , and elsewhere the country 's first black MPs were elected — the new Prime Minister Winston Field made him Minister of Irrigation , Roads and Road Traffic in the new government . Over the next few years , Harper became one of the main agitators in the Cabinet for a unilateral declaration of independence ( UDI ) ; equating Southern Rhodesia to India , he saw this as a way to prevent a repeat of " the same mistake " .
The RF grew dissatisfied with Field during late 1963 and early 1964 because of his failure to win independence on Federal dissolution at the end of 1963 . Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland , by contrast , were both independent under black majority governments within a year , respectively renamed Zambia and Malawi . Harper , who had been assigned the additional portfolios of Transport and Power in November 1963 , was one of two frontrunners to replace Field . The other was the Deputy Prime Minister Ian Smith , formerly of the UFP , who was also Minister of the Treasury . Harper , described in The Spectator as " an ambitious politician and single @-@ minded upholder of white supremacy " , was generally considered the more hardline choice , and the man more likely to go through with UDI . When the Cabinet forced Field to resign in April 1964 , it was Smith who was nominated by the ministers to become the new Prime Minister . Accepting the premiership , Smith reshuffled the Cabinet a few days later and moved Harper to the Ministry of Internal Affairs . Harper was deeply disappointed not to have succeeded Field .
As Minister of Internal Affairs , Harper oversaw the indaba ( conference ) of chiefs and headmen at Domboshawa in October 1964 , at the end of which the tribal leaders unanimously announced their support for the government 's line on independence . He continued to be linked with the premiership . During Smith 's negotiations with the British government , each breakdown or setback was accompanied by speculation in Rhodesia ( " Southern " was dropped in late 1964 ) that Harper might step up to take his place . As the dispute with Britain intensified and white Rhodesians clamoured for independence , Harry Franklin reported in The Spectator in August 1965 that if Smith proved unwilling to go through with UDI , " it is widely believed that ... Harper will emerge from the wings , no longer an understudy , to dare what Mr Smith dare not " . Harper was one of four ministers chosen by Smith to accompany him to London for talks in October 1965 , the others being John Wrathall ( Finance ) , Desmond Lardner @-@ Burke ( Justice ) and the Deputy Minister of Information P K van der Byl . Agreement was not reached and a month later , on 11 November 1965 , Smith and his Cabinet declared Rhodesia independent .
At the time of UDI , Harper reportedly kept a map of southern Africa on the wall of his office , on which he had coloured South Africa , South @-@ West Africa , Rhodesia , Mozambique south of the Zambezi and Angola red ; he told visitors that " the red area will be under white rule forever " . While insisting that Rhodesia would continue regardless of international opinion , he publicly demonised the UK government , describing it in January 1966 as " an enemy ... [ that ] must be brought down " . He also vilified black nationalist guerrilla fighters opposed to the Rhodesian government , calling them " gangs of terrorists " and " criminals " . Comments such as these helped to cement Harper 's reputation as a hardline right @-@ winger and rival to Smith 's leadership . The strong personalities of Harper and other ministers such as the Duke of Montrose ( generally known in Rhodesia by his former title Lord Graham ) were perceived by the British Prime Minister Harold Wilson and his compatriots as a great influence on Smith 's political decision @-@ making , an opinion also expressed by Harper himself .
Although Harper was considered an intelligent and capable minister by peers and reporters — a 1965 report in The Economist called him " by far the best brain " in the Rhodesian Cabinet — his views were often perceived as overly reactionary . He led a phalanx of far @-@ right voices within the RF calling for " a form of political apartheid " in Rhodesia , and while the party line was gradual advancement of black political representation , Harper called not only for the cessation of such moves , but for the abolition of black MPs altogether . He thus became something of an obstacle to an Anglo @-@ Rhodesian settlement . Indeed , when Smith brought a working document back from the HMS Tiger talks with Wilson in October 1966 , it was Harper who led opposition to the terms in Cabinet , contributing to its ultimate rejection . Harper considered himself to have been overlooked when Smith gave the office of Deputy Prime Minister ( which had been vacant since UDI ) to the more moderate Wrathall the month before the Tiger conference . The South African newspaper Die Beeld reported in December 1966 that the RF 's right wing was poised to oust Smith in favour of Harper , but this did not occur .
= = = Resignation = = =
On 4 July 1968 , Harper resigned from the Cabinet at Smith 's request . He was the first minister to be dismissed during Smith 's premiership . The government released a statement explaining that Harper had been removed " for reasons entirely unrelated to differences of opinion over constitutional or other political issues " , and saying simply that Harper had been deemed " a security risk " . Harper publicly claimed that he had been fired for political reasons and because of the threat he posed to Smith 's leadership . Smith was reticent but told reporters he was prepared to tell " the whole sorry tale " if Harper wished .
According to the memoirs of Ken Flower , then the director of Rhodesia 's Central Intelligence Organisation ( CIO ) , Harper 's downfall was the result of an extramarital affair with a young secretary in the Rhodesian civil service who the CIO discovered was an agent for MI6 . Flower informed Smith of this on 3 July and the Prime Minister demanded Harper 's resignation that afternoon ; Harper acquiesced the next day . Because this was kept secret ( presuming it is true ) , Harper 's sudden departure from the Cabinet was interpreted by many observers at the time as the culmination of the personal and political rivalry between Smith and Harper , or the result of disagreements over the new constitution .
Harper officially resigned his parliament seat and left the Rhodesian Front on 11 July 1968 . Wilson publicly welcomed his departure as a " step in the right direction " , prompting a retort from Smith that he did not appoint or sack ministers to please the British government . Smith said that Harper had been depicted as more extreme than he really was , and denied that he had obstructed a settlement . In retrospect , Smith said he had been glad to be rid of Harper , who he considered underhand and devious . Harper ignored an approach from the ultra @-@ right @-@ wing Rhodesian National Party , offering the leadership , and for a time withdrew from public affairs . Montrose and the ministers A P Smith and Phillip van Heerden briefly threatened to follow Harper out of the government , but backed down within a few days . After a fresh dispute Montrose resigned on 11 September 1968 in protest against Smith 's proposed constitutional and racial policies , which he deemed too liberal . A week later the RF 's Albert Mells easily won the by @-@ election to fill Harper 's former seat in Gatooma .
= = = Later career = = =
By the time of the July 1974 general election , amid the Bush War , Harper had formed a small bloc of independents called the " Harper Group " . In an attempt to co @-@ ordinate opposition to the Rhodesian Front , the group made an election agreement with the Rhodesia Party ( RP ) , which had been formed two years earlier ; according to The Bulletin it was " seriously hampered by lack of established leadership " but nevertheless " the only real resistance [ to the RF ] in the polls " . Shortly before election day , Harper told a meeting of 300 people that under the present system , which was geared to eventually bring parity between black and white Rhodesians , racial tension would increase and " the white man will be forced out of the country " . He said that while he was not prepared to let black Rhodesians take control of the government , he understood that some form of power @-@ sharing between the races was imperative to the country 's future . The RF won all 50 white roll seats , denying the RP any representation in parliament ; Harper himself lost decisively in the southern Salisbury constituency of Hatfield .
By the end of 1974 , Harper had formed the United Conservative Party , which called for separate black and white legislatures . He subsequently reacted with revulsion each time Smith moved towards settlement with black nationalist factions . In December that year he described Smith 's announcement of a ceasefire in the run @-@ up to the Victoria Falls Conference as a " ghastly capitulation " . In 1976 , when Smith announced his acceptance of unconditional majority rule by 1978 , Harper accused the Prime Minister of " selling us out " . " The mind boggles at the enormous impertinence and audacity of this man Smith , " he said .
In December 1975 , two months after the disappearance of the prominent lawyer and black nationalist leader Edison Sithole from the middle of Salisbury , along with his secretary Miriam Mhlanga , Harper stepped forward claiming that the Rhodesian state had kidnapped them . In what became known as the " Harper Memorandum " , the ex @-@ minister stated that Special Branch had interrogated Sithole at Goromonzi prison and then shuttled him between holding points around the country . The Rhodesian government denied that it was holding Sithole , adding that he was not under any form of restriction . Sithole and Mhlanga were never seen again , and their fate has never been explained .
= = Emigration to South Africa and death = =
Smith and non @-@ militant nationalists agreed what became the Internal Settlement in March 1978 , and in January the following year whites backed the new majority rule constitution by 85 % in a national referendum . Multiracial elections were held in April 1979 with the country due to be reconstituted as Zimbabwe Rhodesia afterwards . By this time Harper had already left the country ; The Guardian reported shortly before the elections that he was " already settled in South Africa " . Zimbabwe Rhodesia , with Bishop Abel Muzorewa as Prime Minister , failed to win international acceptance and following the Lancaster House Agreement of December 1979 , the UK oversaw a process leading to fresh elections in which the guerrilla leader Robert Mugabe was elected Prime Minister . Britain granted independence to the country as Zimbabwe in April 1980 . Harper died on 8 September 2006 , at the age of 90 .
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= Stephen Newton =
Stephen Cox Newton ( 21 April 1853 – 16 August 1916 ) was an English cricketer who represented , and captained , Somerset County Cricket Club in the late 19th century . During a 14 @-@ year first @-@ class cricket career , he also represented Cambridge University , Middlesex and the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) .
He made his debut in first @-@ class cricket for Cambridge University , where he was awarded his Blue . He then spent nine seasons playing for Somerset , and captained the side for the last five of those seasons . Working as a schoolmaster at Highgate School in London from 1876 – 1884 , his playing opportunities for the south @-@ western county were limited , and from 1885 he only played first @-@ class cricket at Lord 's cricket ground , representing Middlesex in three matches that season , and appearing for the MCC on nine occasions over six years . He returned to play for Somerset in 1887 and 1890 when they had lost their first @-@ class status . He worked as headmaster of Loudon House School in London for some years from 1888 , and died following an operation in 1916 in Ipswich .
= = Early life = =
Stephen Cox Newton was born on 21 April 1853 in Nailsea , Somerset to Robert Newton and Elizabeth Catherine Cox . He attended Victoria College , Jersey , where he played in the school cricket team for seven summers , from 1866 to 1872 , and topped the batting averages in five of those years ( 1867 , 1868 , 1869 , 1870 , and 1872 ) . He also captained the side during his last three years at the school .
On completion of his time at Victoria College , Newton continued his education at Cambridge University , attending Corpus Christi College . He played in the Freshman 's match in 1873 , in which made scores of two and twelve and took two wickets . A report in the Cambridge Independent Press concluded that very few of the players competing showed promise , and that they would " be surprised if more than two will be awarded their Blues " . Accordingly , Newton was not selected for the University team until final year at Cambridge . Despite this , he appeared a number of times during the summer vacation , known at Cambridge as the " long vacation " , for the eponymous Cambridge Long Vacation Club , captaining the team in 1875 .
He played five first @-@ class matches for the university , all in 1876 . His highest score during these matches was the 33 not out that he scored in the second innings of his first @-@ class debut , against an England XI . He was awarded his cricketing Blue , scoring seven runs at number ten during a nine wicket Cambridge victory over Oxford University .
= = Somerset County Cricket Club = =
= = = Pre @-@ first @-@ class years = = =
Newton assisted Somerset from 1876 until 1890 . The county cricket club had only been formally set @-@ up the previous year , and was seeking first @-@ class status . The majority of matches played by Newton for the county between 1876 and 1878 are recorded by CricketArchive as being for the ' Gentlemen of Somerset ' , and are not categorised as first @-@ class cricket , and although those from 1879 onwards are recorded as being for ' Somerset ' , they are generally regarded as remaining a ' second @-@ class ' of cricket .
During these pre @-@ first @-@ class seasons , Newton made a name for himself , and in his official history of the club , Peter Roebuck describes him as one of the talents of the side . He took on the captaincy of the club in 1880 , a season in which he passed 30 runs in five of the recorded seven innings in which he played . His highest score recorded on CricketArchive during these years for Somerset was the 91 which he scored in 1876 against the Gentlemen of Dorset . Team @-@ mate Bill Roe described Newton as a useful batsman who favoured playing balls on his pads . In his obituary , Newton was described as being " a most excellent field " , particularly strong at cover @-@ point , while Haygarth 's Scores and Biographies characterised him as " a fine and free hitter , and a most excellent field " . He was the county 's top run @-@ scorer in 1877 , accumulating 285 runs at an average of 25 @.@ 90 , and he was also one of their principle bowlers , collecting 21 wickets during the season . He remained near the top of the batting charts for the club the following year , scoring the second @-@ most runs behind Edward Sainsbury , 146 at an average of 18 @.@ 25 . He was used less as a bowler than in the previous year , taking just six wickets . He once again trailed only Sainsbury amongst batsmen in 1880 , scoring 278 runs at an average of 30 @.@ 88 . He was appointed as the club captain for 1881 , though he was not able to play as frequently for the club , and finished the season with 93 runs from five innings at an average of 18 @.@ 3 .
= = = First @-@ class cricket = = =
Somerset gained first @-@ class status in 1882 , and retained it for four seasons . Newton was the club captain for the first three of these seasons , becoming the county 's first official captain . He did not , however , appear in Somerset 's first three matches : as a schoolmaster in London , he only played for the county in late @-@ July and August . In his first match as a first @-@ class cricket captain , he top @-@ scored in both innings , with 57 and 67 , as Somerset lost to MCC by one wicket . He then made 80 in the side 's next match , a victory over Hampshire . He fared less well in the remainder of the 1882 season , failing to reach a half @-@ century in any of his other three matches . Newton 's batting average of 34 @.@ 44 from his five first @-@ class matches in 1882 was the highest he achieved during his first @-@ class career , and both his total number of runs scored ( 310 ) and his number of half @-@ centuries ( 3 ) during the season were also career highs .
Newton suffered a slow start to his 1883 campaign , failing to pass 10 runs in his first five innings . His improvements improved in his next three matches , highlighted by a half @-@ century against Gloucestershire , scored during a 135 run partnership with Edward Sainsbury . His batting average for the season was almost half that of the previous year , and despite playing two additional innings he scored two less half @-@ centuries than in 1882 . In his first match for Somerset in 1884 , Newton claimed his only wickets in first @-@ class cricket . Bowling with a style that is not recorded on CricketArchive or Cricinfo , he claimed the wickets of Hampshire 's Arthur Richards and HH Armstrong , both batsmen being caught off his bowling . Newton utilised himself as a bowler only after using every other member of the side , with the exception of wicket @-@ keeper Francis Terry . In his next match , Newton avoided a pair against Lancashire by top @-@ scoring in Somerset 's second innings with 62 . That score was to be the last half @-@ century of Newton 's season , and his last in first @-@ class cricket for Somerset . He added two further scores above 30 against Kent , scoring 46 and 31 , He played three less innings than in the previous season , but surpassed his total runs from that season , and improved his average to 24 @.@ 22 . In his three years of first @-@ class cricket for Somerset , he scored no centuries , five half @-@ centuries , and averaged 24 @.@ 56 with the bat , higher than he finished with any other first @-@ class cricket side .
= = Playing at Lord 's = =
From the 1885 season , all of Newton 's first @-@ class appearances were made for either Middlesex or the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) at Lord 's cricket ground in St John 's Wood , London . Having been a member of the MCC since 1878 , Newton made his debut for the club in first @-@ class competition against Nottinghamshire in May 1885 . He appeared for the club five times during 1885 . In contrast to his time at Somerset , he did not restrict himself to playing only during late @-@ July and August . Playing for the side against Lancashire , Newton made his highest total in first @-@ class cricket , scoring 86 in the second @-@ innings of the match . This score was the only half @-@ century that Newton scored for a side other than Somerset . Newton appeared three times for Middlesex during 1885 , for whom he qualified under the residential criterion . He averaged 5 @.@ 33 for the county with the bat , and did not appear again after 1885 . He appeared once for the MCC in first @-@ class cricket in each of the 1887 , 1888 , 1889 and 1890 seasons , after which he did not play first @-@ class cricket again . His final first @-@ class match was in May 1890 when he scored 1 and 21 during a seven wicket loss to Lancashire .
= = Later playing days = =
Newton returned to play three further matches for Somerset in 1887 and 1890 , when they did not hold first @-@ class status . He opened the innings for the county twice in 1887 , passing 20 on three out of four occasions . During Somerset 's successful 1890 season , when they remained unbeaten against other county opposition , Newton batted at number four , scoring 3 and 0 , his final recorded appearance for Somerset . CricketArchive records one further appearance for Newton , playing in Felixstowe for the MCC against Suffolk in 1905 , aged 52 . Opening the batting , he scored 87 to help his side to a nine wicket victory .
= = Teaching and later life = =
On graduating Newton worked as a schoolmaster at Highgate School in Highgate , London from 1876 – 1884 and from 1888 he was headmaster of Loudon House School in St John 's Wood , London . He died on 16 August 1916 in a nursing home in Ipswich , Suffolk after an operation .
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= Hillsboro Civic Center =
The Hillsboro Civic Center is a government @-@ built , mixed @-@ use development in downtown Hillsboro , Oregon , United States . The development includes the city hall for the county seat of Washington County , located west of Portland , Oregon . Covering 6 acres ( 24 @,@ 000 m2 ) , the Civic Center has a total of over 165 @,@ 000 square feet ( 15 @,@ 300 m2 ) in the complex . The total of six stories for the main structure makes the building the tallest in the city , tied with Tuality Community Hospital . In addition to government offices , the Civic Center includes retail space , public plazas , and residential housing . The complex was built to centralize city government functions under one roof .
Design of the complex began in 2002 , with construction beginning in 2003 . After completion in 2005 , the building was awarded the LEED Gold certification for sustainability , the second city hall in the United States to earn that distinction . Environmentally friendly technologies used include occupancy sensors , ventilation that monitors carbon dioxide levels to determine when to activate , high performance exterior glass to reduce heat loss , and solar panels to generate electricity .
= = History = =
Plans for the 6 @-@ acre ( 24 @,@ 000 m2 ) complex began as part of the city ’ s 2020 comprehensive plan . Development plans from six teams of developers and architects were submitted to the city in October 2001 . These plans included designs for public plazas , a library branch , residential units , retail space , and a new city hall . Formal design proposals were submitted in early 2002 . The project was designed to consolidate city government and to anchor redevelopment of the downtown core that would reinvigorate downtown . This included the plan to turn the area into a zone with 18 hours of activity each day , instead of businesses closing at 5 : 00 pm when the city and county governments closed . Additionally , conference space was planned to accommodate use by both city and county governments , and by private groups .
In April 2002 , Specht Properties was selected as the developer of the project after scoring higher with the council appointed committee formed to rate each of three developer 's proposals , with Gerding / Edlen Development and Trammell Crow Company losing out to Specht . Construction on the complex began in June 2003 when an old grain store at the site was demolished to make room for the center . A total of eight buildings were torn down to make room the complex as part of a redevelopment of a brownfield site .
Plans also called for retail space , housing units , and a library branch . Though the library section was built , a library branch did not open at the site . LRS Architects designed the complex with Skanska USA serving as the general contractor . The structural engineering was done by KPFF Consulting Engineers , services engineering was completed by Interface Engineering , and civil engineering for the project was handled by WRG Design .
The building was finished in January 2005 with city officials and employees moving into the buildings by the end of March . A public grand opening was held on July 16 , 2005 , to officially open the center . Total cost of the public portion of the project was $ 34 million , with construction totaling $ 23 @.@ 5 million . Prior to completion the city leased space in several downtown buildings , including the county 's Public Services Building where Hillsboro also held city council meetings . Later in 2005 a coffee shop was added as a tenant in part of the retail space , and in 2007 the restaurant space in the building was leased to NW Hayden Enterprises for a restaurant scheduled to open in 2008 . In April 2009 , the plaza was renamed as the Tom Hughes Civic Center Plaza in honor of former mayor Tom Hughes who was mayor when the building was constructed .
= = Architecture = =
Hillsboro 's Civic Center is a modern glass building with a stone base and brick highlights . There are two main buildings , the Civic Center housing government offices and the Plaza Building housing retail space . The plazas surrounding the structures contain an inlaid quartzite river , basalt planters , and Victorian style benches . Additionally , it was designed with large windows facing the north in order to reflect the giant sequoia trees located across the street at the Washington County Courthouse , with the trees dating back to the 1880s .
At a total of six stories tall , the building is tied for the tallest building in Hillsboro with Tuality Community Hospital standing 78 feet ( 24 m ) tall . Inside the building features high ceilings on the first floor and a large , open public space . Daylight and exterior views are present in 90 % of the offices in city hall .
= = = Awards = = =
Hillsboro Civic Center won the award for Best Public Project in the state of Oregon for 2005 from Northwest Construction magazine for the general contractor Skanska USA . It is the first municipal headquarters in Oregon to meet all its energy needs with renewable sources . During development , the project first aimed for attaining a Silver certification from the United States Green Building Council . Instead , the project was awarded the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Gold certification for environmental sustainability by the U.S. Green Building Council 's Leadership . This was the second Gold rating given to a city hall in the U.S. after Seattle ’ s city hall earned the distinction , and the seventh building in Oregon to earn that level of certification .
Contributing factors leading to this award included that during construction , 92 % of construction waste was recycled , and non @-@ wood wheat board was used in some of the walls . Additionally , 18 solar panels were installed on the building to generate power for use in the building , with the city purchasing all additional power through renewable power sources , funded in part by Portland General Electric and the Bonneville Environmental Foundation , while the building is 42 % more energy efficient than comparable buildings . Other environmental friendly amenities include occupancy sensors , ventilation that monitors carbon dioxide levels to determine when to activate , high performance exterior glass to reduce heat loss , infrared bathroom fixtures , and the use of recycled building materials among other items .
= = Amenities and use = =
The Civic Center was built over three city blocks in downtown . The complex has a total of 168 @,@ 436 square feet ( 15 @,@ 648 @.@ 2 m2 ) . The complex has two plazas , with the northern plaza designed to create an outdoor amphitheater with seating for 700 . Dedicated as the Tom Hughes Civic Center Plaza , the buildings of the Civic Center serve as a backdrop to the amphitheater , and by using Main Street to increase the space , the amphitheater can accommodate crowds of 5 @,@ 000 people . South Plaza connects the government portions of the complex to the 120 unit residential component of the development to the south . Both plazas have water features , including a fountain in the 24 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 200 m2 ) North Plaza .
On the ground floor is a Starbucks coffee shop in a 1 @,@ 600 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 150 m2 ) space , while the 20 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 900 m2 ) designed for the library branch remain open for future government use . In the government areas there is a 3 @,@ 800 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 350 m2 ) conference center and the city council chambers . This includes a 250 @-@ seat auditorium . The Civic Center hosts the seasonal , weekly farmer ’ s market on Saturdays , and a marketplace on Tuesdays that features various vendors , both utilizing the center ’ s plaza area . Plans call for an upscale restaurant in a 3 @,@ 800 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 350 m2 ) space . City services at the site include the Administration Department , city planning , the office of the city recorder , and the municipal court among others . The Civic Center also houses the office of the mayor and is the site of the twice @-@ monthly city council meetings .
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= Tropical Depression One ( 1993 ) =
Tropical Depression One was a weak tropical cyclone that struck Cuba and the Bahamas in May and June 1993 . It formed in the western Caribbean Sea on May 31 and produced heavy rainfall along its path . In Cuba , the precipitation reached 12 @.@ 4 inches ( 31 @.@ 5 cm ) , which caused widespread flooding and damage in nine provinces . Over 16 @,@ 500 houses were damaged , and a further 1 @,@ 860 were destroyed . At least seven people were killed in the country . In neighboring Haiti , the flooding killed thirteen people , as well as thousands of livestock . Rainfall was also reported in southern Florida , which eased drought conditions . The depression eventually crossed the Bahamas and became extratropical .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of the tropical depression were from a tropical wave that exited the coast of Africa on May 13 . It crossed the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea , reaching a position east of the Yucatan Peninsula by May 25 . The system interacted with a monsoon @-@ type circulation over Central America , and a broad low @-@ level circulation developed near Cozumel , Mexico . Atmospheric pressure in the region fell gradually as the system organized , and on May 31 , the National Hurricane Center classified it as Tropical Depression One near the Isle of Youth . At the time of being upgraded , the circulation was located on the northwest side of the convection due to wind shear .
Throughout its duration , the depression maintained a northeast track , due to an approaching shortwave trough to its north . Late on May 31 , the poorly organized center crossed western Cuba , accompanied by heavy rainfall but light winds . By the time the circulation reached the Florida Straits , it was exposed and removed from the convection , although slight intensification was anticipated . The depression accelerated northeastward through the Bahamas , passing near Nassau . Based on Hurricane Hunters observations , it maintained stronger winds in squalls away from the center , and the pressure deepened to 999 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) . By June 2 , reconnaissance flights into the system had difficulty discerning a circulation . Later that day , the National Hurricane Center discontinued advisories , as the depression had become extratropical . It strengthened slightly to reach gale force winds as an extratropical storm , and persisted until early on June 3 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
In its first advisory on the depression , the National Hurricane Center emphasized the threat for heavy rainfall in Jamaica , Cuba , Haiti , south Florida , and the Bahamas . The agency also advised small craft in Cuba and the Cayman Islands to remain at port . The depression was the first tropical cyclone threat to south Florida since Hurricane Andrew nine months prior , although officials noted the depression 's winds were no cause for concern .
The precursor to the disturbance brought locally heavy rainfall to the Yucatán Peninsula , with a maximum of 7 @.@ 09 inches ( 18 cm ) in Lázaro Cárdenas , Quintana Roo . The depression produced intense precipitation across central and eastern Cuba , peaking at 12 @.@ 4 inches ( 31 @.@ 5 cm ) in Topes de Collantes . In Victoria de Las Tunas , a rainfall total of 8 @.@ 6 inches ( 21 @.@ 8 cm ) set the new record most rainfall in 24 hours . The rainfall caused flooding of rivers and lakes behind dams , and in some places , residents required rescue from the roofs of their houses . Officials forced the evacuation of 40 @,@ 000 people in several provinces , and across the country , the storm destroyed 1 @,@ 860 homes and damaged 16 @,@ 500 more . The flooding blocked mountainous highways in Santiago de Cuba Province , and in Las Tunas Province railway lines were damaged . Widespread crop damage occurred just two months after the Storm of the Century left similar heavy damage . The flooding damaged 87 sugar production centers . The depression killed seven people in the country with another five missing , as reported by a newspaper on the day after the depression left the island . After the storm passed , the Cuban government activated the Civil Defense , while National Relief Services worked to rescue all people affected by the flooding .
Elsewhere along its path , heavy rainfall was reported in Jamaica , Hispaniola , and southern Florida . In Haiti , the rainfall caused 13 deaths and left thousands of livestock killed . In Florida , the precipitation peaked at 9 @.@ 99 inches ( 25 @.@ 4 cm ) in Canal Point near Lake Okeechobee . Another high total was 9 @.@ 4 inches ( 23 @.@ 9 cm ) in Tavernier , and the precipitation as a whole alleviated drought conditions .
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= Abyssal plain =
An abyssal plain is an underwater plain on the deep ocean floor , usually found at depths between 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) and 6 @,@ 000 metres ( 20 @,@ 000 ft ) . Lying generally between the foot of a continental rise and a mid @-@ ocean ridge , abyssal plains cover more than 50 % of the Earth ’ s surface . They are among the flattest , smoothest and least explored regions on Earth . Abyssal plains are key geologic elements of oceanic basins ( the other elements being an elevated mid @-@ ocean ridge and flanking abyssal hills ) . In addition to these elements , active oceanic basins ( those that are associated with a moving plate tectonic boundary ) also typically include an oceanic trench and a subduction zone .
Abyssal plains were not recognized as distinct physiographic features of the sea floor until the late 1940s and , until very recently , none had been studied on a systematic basis . They are poorly preserved in the sedimentary record , because they tend to be consumed by the subduction process . The creation of the abyssal plain is the end result of spreading of the seafloor ( plate tectonics ) and melting of the lower oceanic crust . Magma rises from above the asthenosphere ( a layer of the upper mantle ) and as this basaltic material reaches the surface at mid @-@ ocean ridges it forms new oceanic crust . This is constantly pulled sideways by spreading of the seafloor . Abyssal plains result from the blanketing of an originally uneven surface of oceanic crust by fine @-@ grained sediments , mainly clay and silt . Much of this sediment is deposited by turbidity currents that have been channelled from the continental margins along submarine canyons down into deeper water . The remainder of the sediment is composed chiefly of pelagic sediments . Metallic nodules are common in some areas of the plains , with varying concentrations of metals , including manganese , iron , nickel , cobalt , and copper . These nodules may provide a significant resource for future mining ventures .
Owing in part to their vast size , abyssal plains are currently believed to be a major reservoir of biodiversity . The abyss also exerts significant influence upon ocean carbon cycling , dissolution of calcium carbonate , and atmospheric CO2 concentrations over timescales of 100 – 1000 years . The structure and function of abyssal ecosystems are strongly influenced by the rate of flux of food to the seafloor and the composition of the material that settles . Factors such as climate change , fishing practices , and ocean fertilization are expected to have a substantial effect on patterns of primary production in the euphotic zone . This will undoubtedly impact the flux of organic material to the abyss in a similar manner and thus have a profound effect on the structure , function and diversity of abyssal ecosystems .
= = Oceanic zones = =
The ocean can be conceptualized as being divided into various zones , depending on depth , and presence or absence of sunlight . Nearly all life forms in the ocean depend on the photosynthetic activities of phytoplankton and other marine plants to convert carbon dioxide into organic carbon , which is the basic building block of organic matter . Photosynthesis in turn requires energy from sunlight to drive the chemical reactions that produce organic carbon .
The stratum of the water column nearest the surface of the ocean ( sea level ) is referred to as the photic zone . The photic zone can be subdivided into two different vertical regions . The uppermost portion of the photic zone , where there is adequate light to support photosynthesis by phytoplankton and plants , is referred to as the euphotic zone ( also referred to as the epipelagic zone , or surface zone ) . The lower portion of the photic zone , where the light intensity is insufficient for photosynthesis , is called the dysphotic zone ( dysphotic means " poorly lit " in Greek ) . The dysphotic zone is also referred to as the mesopelagic zone , or the twilight zone . Its lowermost boundary is at a thermocline of 12 ° C ( 54 ° F ) , which , in the tropics generally lies between 200 and 1000 metres .
The euphotic zone is somewhat arbitrarily defined as extending from the surface to the depth where the light intensity is approximately 0 @.@ 1 – 1 % of surface sunlight irradiance , depending on season , latitude and degree of water turbidity . In the clearest ocean water , the euphotic zone may extend to a depth of about 150 metres , or rarely , up to 200 metres . Dissolved substances and solid particles absorb and scatter light , and in coastal regions the high concentration of these substances causes light to be attenuated rapidly with depth . In such areas the euphotic zone may be only a few tens of metres deep or less . The dysphotic zone , where light intensity is considerably less than 1 % of surface irradiance , extends from the base of the euphotic zone to about 1000 metres . Extending from the bottom of the photic zone down to the seabed is the aphotic zone , a region of perpetual darkness .
Since the average depth of the ocean is about 4300 metres , the photic zone represents only a tiny fraction of the ocean ’ s total volume . However , due to its capacity for photosynthesis , the photic zone has the greatest biodiversity and biomass of all oceanic zones . Nearly all primary production in the ocean occurs here . Life forms which inhabit the aphotic zone are often capable of movement upwards through the water column into the photic zone for feeding . Otherwise , they must rely on material sinking from above , or find another source of energy and nutrition , such as occurs in chemosynthetic archaea found near hydrothermal vents and cold seeps .
The aphotic zone can be subdivided into three different vertical regions , based on depth and temperature . First is the bathyal zone , extending from a depth of 1000 metres down to 3000 metres , with water temperature decreasing from 12 ° C ( 54 ° F ) to 4 ° C ( 39 ° F ) as depth increases . Next is the abyssal zone , extending from a depth of 3000 metres down to 6000 metres . The final zone includes the deep oceanic trenches , and is known as the hadal zone . This , the deepest oceanic zone , extends from a depth of 6000 metres down to approximately 11000 metres . Abyssal plains are typically located in the abyssal zone , at depths ranging from 3000 to 6000 metres .
The table below illustrates the classification of oceanic zones :
= = Formation = =
Oceanic crust , which forms the bedrock of abyssal plains , is continuously being created at mid @-@ ocean ridges ( a type of divergent boundary ) by a process known as decompression melting . Plume @-@ related decompression melting of solid mantle is responsible for creating ocean islands like the Hawaiian islands , as well as the ocean crust at mid @-@ ocean ridges . This phenomenon is also the most common explanation for flood basalts and oceanic plateaus ( two types of large igneous provinces ) . Decompression melting occurs when the upper mantle is partially melted into magma as it moves upwards under mid @-@ ocean ridges . This upwelling magma then cools and solidifies by conduction and convection of heat to form new oceanic crust . Accretion occurs as mantle is added to the growing edges of a tectonic plate , usually associated with seafloor spreading . The age of oceanic crust is therefore a function of distance from the mid @-@ ocean ridge . The youngest oceanic crust is at the mid @-@ ocean ridges , and it becomes progressively older , cooler and denser as it migrates outwards from the mid @-@ ocean ridges as part of the process called mantle convection .
The lithosphere , which rides atop the asthenosphere , is divided into a number of tectonic plates that are continuously being created and consumed at their opposite plate boundaries . Oceanic crust and tectonic plates are formed and move apart at mid @-@ ocean ridges . Abyssal hills are formed by stretching of the oceanic lithosphere . Consumption or destruction of the oceanic lithosphere occurs at oceanic trenches ( a type of convergent boundary , also known as a destructive plate boundary ) by a process known as subduction . Oceanic trenches are found at places where the oceanic lithospheric slabs of two different plates meet , and the denser ( older ) slab begins to descend back into the mantle . At the consumption edge of the plate ( the oceanic trench ) , the oceanic lithosphere has thermally contracted to become quite dense , and it sinks under its own weight in the process of subduction . The subduction process consumes older oceanic lithosphere , so oceanic crust is seldom more than 200 million years old . The overall process of repeated cycles of creation and destruction of oceanic crust is known as the Supercontinent cycle , first proposed by Canadian geophysicist and geologist John Tuzo Wilson .
New oceanic crust , closest to the mid @-@ oceanic ridges , is mostly basalt at shallow levels and has a rugged topography . The roughness of this topography is a function of the rate at which the mid @-@ ocean ridge is spreading ( the spreading rate ) . Magnitudes of spreading rates vary quite significantly . Typical values for fast @-@ spreading ridges are greater than 100 mm / yr , while slow @-@ spreading ridges are typically less than 20 mm / yr . Studies have shown that the slower the spreading rate , the rougher the new oceanic crust will be , and vice versa . It is thought this phenomenon is due to faulting at the mid @-@ ocean ridge when the new oceanic crust was formed . These faults pervading the oceanic crust , along with their bounding abyssal hills , are the most common tectonic and topographic features on the surface of the Earth . The process of seafloor spreading helps to explain the concept of continental drift in the theory of plate tectonics .
The flat appearance of mature abyssal plains results from the blanketing of this originally uneven surface of oceanic crust by fine @-@ grained sediments , mainly clay and silt . Much of this sediment is deposited from turbidity currents that have been channeled from the continental margins along submarine canyons down into deeper water . The remainder of the sediment comprises chiefly dust ( clay particles ) blown out to sea from land , and the remains of small marine plants and animals which sink from the upper layer of the ocean , known as pelagic sediments . The total sediment deposition rate in remote areas is estimated at two to three centimeters per thousand years . Sediment @-@ covered abyssal plains are less common in the Pacific Ocean than in other major ocean basins because sediments from turbidity currents are trapped in oceanic trenches that border the Pacific Ocean .
Abyssal plains are typically covered by very deep sea , but during parts of the Messinian salinity crisis much of the Mediterranean Sea 's abyssal plain was exposed to air as an empty hot dry salt @-@ floored sink .
= = Discovery = =
The landmark scientific expedition ( December 1872 – May 1876 ) of the British Royal Navy survey ship HMS Challenger yielded a tremendous amount of bathymetric data , much of which has been confirmed by subsequent researchers . Bathymetric data obtained during the course of the Challenger expedition enabled scientists to draw maps , which provided a rough outline of certain major submarine terrain features , such as the edge of the continental shelves and the Mid @-@ Atlantic Ridge . This discontinuous set of data points was obtained by the simple technique of taking soundings by lowering long lines from the ship to the seabed .
The Challenger expedition was followed by the 1879 – 1881 expedition of the Jeannette , led by United States Navy Lieutenant George Washington DeLong . The team sailed across the Chukchi Sea and recorded meteorological and astronomical data in addition to taking soundings of the seabed . The ship became trapped in the ice pack near Wrangel Island in September 1879 , and was ultimately crushed and sunk in June 1881 .
The Jeannette expedition was followed by the 1893 – 1896 Arctic expedition of Norwegian explorer Fridtjof Nansen aboard the Fram , which proved that the Arctic Ocean was a deep oceanic basin , uninterrupted by any significant land masses north of the Eurasian continent .
Beginning in 1916 , Canadian physicist Robert William Boyle and other scientists of the Anti @-@ Submarine Detection Investigation Committee ( ASDIC ) undertook research which ultimately led to the development of sonar technology . Acoustic sounding equipment was developed which could be operated much more rapidly than the sounding lines , thus enabling the German Meteor expedition aboard the German research vessel Meteor ( 1925 – 27 ) to take frequent soundings on east @-@ west Atlantic transects . Maps produced from these techniques show the major Atlantic basins , but the depth precision of these early instruments was not sufficient to reveal the flat featureless abyssal plains .
As technology improved , measurement of depth , latitude and longitude became more precise and it became possible to collect more or less continuous sets of data points . This allowed researchers to draw accurate and detailed maps of large areas of the ocean floor . Use of a continuously recording fathometer enabled Tolstoy & Ewing in the summer of 1947 to identify and describe the first abyssal plain . This plain , located to the south of Newfoundland , is now known as the Sohm Abyssal Plain . Following this discovery many other examples were found in all the oceans .
The Challenger Deep is the deepest surveyed point of all of Earth 's oceans ; it is located at the southern end of the Mariana Trench near the Mariana Islands group . The depression is named after HMS Challenger , whose researchers made the first recordings of its depth on 23 March 1875 at station 225 . The reported depth was 4 @,@ 475 fathoms ( 8184 meters ) based on two separate soundings . On 1 June 2009 , sonar mapping of the Challenger Deep by the Simrad EM120 multibeam sonar bathymetry system aboard the R / V Kilo Moana indicated a maximum depth of 10971 meters ( 6 @.@ 82 miles ) . The sonar system uses phase and amplitude bottom detection , with an accuracy of better than 0 @.@ 2 % of water depth ( this is an error of about 22 meters at this depth ) .
= = Terrain features = =
= = = Hydrothermal vents = = =
A rare but important terrain feature found in the abyssal and hadal zones is the hydrothermal vent . In contrast to the approximately 2 ° C ambient water temperature at these depths , water emerges from these vents at temperatures ranging from 60 ° C up to as high as 464 ° C. Due to the high barometric pressure at these depths , water may exist in either its liquid form or as a supercritical fluid at such temperatures .
At a barometric pressure of 218 atmospheres , the critical point of water is 375 ° C. At a depth of 3 @,@ 000 meters , the barometric pressure of sea water is more than 300 atmospheres ( as salt water is denser than fresh water ) . At this depth and pressure , seawater becomes supercritical at a temperature of 407 ° C ( see image ) . However the increase in salinity at this depth pushes the water closer to its critical point . Thus , water emerging from the hottest parts of some hydrothermal vents , black smokers and submarine volcanoes can be a supercritical fluid , possessing physical properties between those of a gas and those of a liquid .
Sister Peak ( Comfortless Cove Hydrothermal Field , 4 ° 48 ′ S 12 ° 22 ′ W , elevation − 2996 m ) , Shrimp Farm and Mephisto ( Red Lion Hydrothermal Field , 4 ° 48 ′ S 12 ° 23 ′ W , elevation − 3047 m ) , are three hydrothermal vents of the black smoker category , located on the Mid @-@ Atlantic Ridge near Ascension Island . They are presumed to have been active since an earthquake shook the region in 2002 . These vents have been observed to vent phase @-@ separated , vapor @-@ type fluids . In 2008 , sustained exit temperatures of up to 407 ° C were recorded at one of these vents , with a peak recorded temperature of up to 464 ° C. These thermodynamic conditions exceed the critical point of seawater , and are the highest temperatures recorded to date from the seafloor . This is the first reported evidence for direct magmatic @-@ hydrothermal interaction on a slow @-@ spreading mid @-@ ocean ridge .
= = = Cold seeps = = =
Another unusual feature found in the abyssal and hadal zones is the cold seep , sometimes called a cold vent . This is an area of the seabed where seepage of hydrogen sulfide , methane and other hydrocarbon @-@ rich fluid occurs , often in the form of a deep @-@ sea brine pool . The first cold seeps were discovered in 1983 , at a depth of 3200 meters in the Gulf of Mexico . Since then , cold seeps have been discovered in many other areas of the World Ocean , including the Monterey Submarine Canyon just off Monterey Bay , California , the Sea of Japan , off the Pacific coast of Costa Rica , off the Atlantic coast of Africa , off the coast of Alaska , and under an ice shelf in Antarctica .
= = Biodiversity = =
Though the plains were once assumed to be vast , desert @-@ like habitats , research over the past decade or so shows that they teem with a wide variety of microbial life . However , ecosystem structure and function at the deep seafloor have historically been very poorly studied because of the size and remoteness of the abyss . Recent oceanographic expeditions conducted by an international group of scientists from the Census of Diversity of Abyssal Marine Life ( CeDAMar ) have found an extremely high level of biodiversity on abyssal plains , with up to 2000 species of bacteria , 250 species of protozoans , and 500 species of invertebrates ( worms , crustaceans and molluscs ) , typically found at single abyssal sites . New species make up more than 80 % of the thousands of seafloor invertebrate species collected at any abyssal station , highlighting our heretofore poor understanding of abyssal diversity and evolution . Richer biodiversity is associated with areas of known phytodetritus input and higher organic carbon flux .
Abyssobrotula galatheae , a species of cusk eel in the family Ophidiidae , is among the deepest @-@ living species of fish . In 1970 , one specimen was trawled from a depth of 8370 meters in the Puerto Rico Trench . The animal was dead , however , upon arrival at the surface . In 2008 , the hadal snailfish ( Pseudoliparis amblystomopsis ) was observed and recorded at a depth of 7700 meters in the Japan Trench . These are , to date , the deepest living fish ever recorded . Other fish of the abyssal zone include the fishes of the Ipnopidae family , which includes the abyssal spiderfish ( Bathypterois longipes ) , tripodfish ( Bathypterois grallator ) , feeler fish ( Bathypterois longifilis ) , and the black lizardfish ( Bathysauropsis gracilis ) . Some members of this family have been recorded from depths of more than 6000 meters .
CeDAMar scientists have demonstrated that some abyssal and hadal species have a cosmopolitan distribution . One example of this would be protozoan foraminiferans , certain species of which are distributed from the Arctic to the Antarctic . Other faunal groups , such as the polychaete worms and isopod crustaceans , appear to be endemic to certain specific plains and basins . Many apparently unique taxa of nematode worms have also been recently discovered on abyssal plains . This suggests that the very deep ocean has fostered adaptive radiations . The taxonomic composition of the nematode fauna in the abyssal Pacific is similar , but not identical to , that of the North Atlantic . A list of some of the species that have been discovered or redescribed by CeDAMar can be found here .
Eleven of the 31 described species of Monoplacophora ( a class of mollusks ) live below 2000 meters . Of these 11 species , two live exclusively in the hadal zone . The greatest number of monoplacophorans are from the eastern Pacific Ocean along the oceanic trenches . However , no abyssal monoplacophorans have yet been found in the Western Pacific and only one abyssal species has been identified in the Indian Ocean . Of the 922 known species of chitons ( from the Polyplacophora class of mollusks ) , 22 species ( 2 @.@ 4 % ) are reported to live below 2000 meters and two of them are restricted to the abyssal plain . Although genetic studies are lacking , at least six of these species are thought to be eurybathic ( capable of living in a wide range of depths ) , having been reported as occurring from the sublittoral to abyssal depths . A large number of the polyplacophorans from great depths are herbivorous or xylophagous , which could explain the difference between the distribution of monoplacophorans and polyplacophorans in the world 's oceans .
Peracarid crustaceans , including isopods , are known to form a significant part of the macrobenthic community that is responsible for scavenging on large food falls onto the sea floor . In 2000 , scientists of the Diversity of the deep Atlantic benthos ( DIVA 1 ) expedition ( cruise M48 / 1 of the German research vessel RV Meteor III ) discovered and collected three new species of the Asellota suborder of benthic isopods from the abyssal plains of the Angola Basin in the South Atlantic Ocean . In 2003 , De Broyer et al. collected some 68 @,@ 000 peracarid crustaceans from 62 species from baited traps deployed in the Weddell Sea , Scotia Sea , and off the South Shetland Islands . They found that about 98 % of the specimens belonged to the amphipod superfamily Lysianassoidea , and 2 % to the isopod family Cirolanidae . Half of these species were collected from depths of greater than 1000 meters .
In 2005 , the Japan Agency for Marine @-@ Earth Science and Technology ( JAMSTEC ) remotely operated vehicle , KAIKO , collected sediment core from the Challenger Deep . 432 living specimens of soft @-@ walled foraminifera were identified in the sediment samples . Foraminifera are single @-@ celled protists that construct shells . There are an estimated 4 @,@ 000 species of living foraminifera . Out of the 432 organisms collected , the overwhelming majority of the sample consisted of simple , soft @-@ shelled foraminifera , with others representing species of the complex , multi @-@ chambered genera Leptohalysis and Reophax . Overall , 85 % of the specimens consisted of soft @-@ shelled allogromids . This is unusual compared to samples of sediment @-@ dwelling organisms from other deep @-@ sea environments , where the percentage of organic @-@ walled foraminifera ranges from 5 % to 20 % of the total . Small organisms with hard calciferous shells have trouble growing at extreme depths because the water at that depth is severely lacking in calcium carbonate .
While similar lifeforms have been known to exist in shallower oceanic trenches ( > 7 @,@ 000 m ) and on the abyssal plain , the lifeforms discovered in the Challenger Deep may represent independent taxa from those shallower ecosystems . This preponderance of soft @-@ shelled organisms at the Challenger Deep may be a result of selection pressure . Millions of years ago , the Challenger Deep was shallower than it is now . Over the past six to nine million years , as the Challenger Deep grew to its present depth , many of the species present in the sediment of that ancient biosphere were unable to adapt to the increasing water pressure and changing environment . Those species that were able to adapt may have been the ancestors of the organisms currently endemic to the Challenger Deep .
Polychaetes occur throughout the Earth 's oceans at all depths , from forms that live as plankton near the surface , to the deepest oceanic trenches . The robot ocean probe Nereus observed a 2 – 3 cm specimen ( still unclassified ) of polychaete at the bottom of the Challenger Deep on 31 May 2009 . There are more than 10 @,@ 000 described species of polychaetes ; they can be found in nearly every marine environment . Some species live in the coldest ocean temperatures of the hadal zone , while others can be found in the extremely hot waters adjacent to hydrothermal vents .
Within the abyssal and hadal zones , the areas around submarine hydrothermal vents and cold seeps have by far the greatest biomass and biodiversity per unit area . Fueled by the chemicals dissolved in the vent fluids , these areas are often home to large and diverse communities of thermophilic , halophilic and other extremophilic prokaryotic microorganisms ( such as those of the sulfide @-@ oxidizing Beggiatoa genus ) , often arranged in large bacterial mats near cold seeps . In these locations , chemosynthetic archaea and bacteria typically form the base of the food chain . Although the process of chemosynthesis is entirely microbial , these chemosynthetic microorganisms often support vast ecosystems consisting of complex multicellular organisms through symbiosis . These communities are characterized by species such as vesicomyid clams , mytilid mussels , limpets , isopods , giant tube worms , soft corals , eelpouts , galatheid crabs , and alvinocarid shrimp . The deepest seep community discovered thus far is located in the Japan Trench , at a depth of 7700 meters .
Probably the most important ecological characteristic of abyssal ecosystems is energy limitation . Abyssal seafloor communities are considered to be food limited because benthic production depends on the input of detrital organic material produced in the euphotic zone , thousands of meters above . Most of the organic flux arrives as an attenuated rain of small particles ( typically , only 0 @.@ 5 – 2 % of net primary production in the euphotic zone ) , which decreases inversely with water depth . The small particle flux can be augmented by the fall of larger carcasses and downslope transport of organic material near continental margins .
= = Exploitation of resources = =
In addition to their high biodiversity , abyssal plains are of great current and future commercial and strategic interest . For example , they may be used for the legal and illegal disposal of large structures such as ships and oil rigs , radioactive waste and other hazardous waste , such as munitions . They may also be attractive sites for deep @-@ sea fishing , and extraction of oil and gas and other minerals . Future deep @-@ sea waste disposal activities that could be significant by 2025 include emplacement of sewage and sludge , carbon @-@ dioxide sequestration , and disposal of dredge spoils .
As fish stocks dwindle in the upper ocean , deep @-@ sea fisheries are increasingly being targeted for exploitation . Because deep sea fish are long @-@ lived and slow growing , these deep @-@ sea fisheries are not thought to be sustainable in the long term given current management practices . Changes in primary production in the photic zone are expected to alter the standing stocks in the food @-@ limited aphotic zone .
Hydrocarbon exploration in deep water occasionally results in significant environmental degradation resulting mainly from accumulation of contaminated drill cuttings , but also from oil spills . While the oil gusher involved in the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico originates from a wellhead only 1500 meters below the ocean surface , it nevertheless illustrates the kind of environmental disaster that can result from mishaps related to offshore drilling for oil and gas .
Sediments of certain abyssal plains contain abundant mineral resources , notably polymetallic nodules . These potato @-@ sized concretions of manganese , iron , nickel , cobalt , and copper , distributed on the seafloor at depths of greater than 4000 meters , are of significant commercial interest . The area of maximum commercial interest for polymetallic nodule mining ( called the Pacific nodule province ) lies in international waters of the Pacific Ocean , stretching from 118 ° – 157 ° , and from 9 ° – 16 ° N , an area of more than 3 million km ² . The abyssal Clarion @-@ Clipperton Fracture Zone ( CCFZ ) is an area within the Pacific nodule province that is currently under exploration for its mineral potential .
Eight commercial contractors are currently licensed by the International Seabed Authority ( an intergovernmental organization established to organize and control all mineral @-@ related activities in the international seabed area beyond the limits of national jurisdiction ) to explore nodule resources and to test mining techniques in eight claim areas , each covering 150 @,@ 000 km ² . When mining ultimately begins , each mining operation is projected to directly disrupt 300 – 800 km ² of seafloor per year and disturb the benthic fauna over an area 5 – 10 times that size due to redeposition of suspended sediments . Thus , over the 15 @-@ year projected duration of a single mining operation , nodule mining might severely damage abyssal seafloor communities over areas of 20 @,@ 000 to 45 @,@ 000 km ² ( a zone at least the size of Massachusetts ) .
Limited knowledge of the taxonomy , biogeography and natural history of deep sea communities prevents accurate assessment of the risk of species extinctions from large @-@ scale mining . Data acquired from the abyssal North Pacific and North Atlantic suggest that deep @-@ sea ecosystems may be adversely affected by mining operations on decadal time scales . In 1978 , a dredge aboard the Hughes Glomar Explorer , operated by the American mining consortium Ocean Minerals Company ( OMCO ) , made a mining track at a depth of 5000 meters in the nodule fields of the CCFZ . In 2004 , the French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea ( IFREMER ) conducted the Nodinaut expedition to this mining track ( which is still visible on the seabed ) to study the long @-@ term effects of this physical disturbance on the sediment and its benthic fauna . Samples taken of the superficial sediment revealed that its physical and chemical properties had not shown any recovery since the disturbance made 26 years earlier . On the other hand , the biological activity measured in the track by instruments aboard the manned submersible bathyscaphe Nautile did not differ from a nearby unperturbed site . This data suggests that the benthic fauna and nutrient fluxes at the water – sediment interface has fully recovered .
= = List of abyssal plains = =
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= Did I Stutter ? =
" Did I Stutter ? " is the 16th episode of the fourth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's sixty @-@ ninth episode overall . Written by Brent Forrester and Justin Spitzer , and directed by Randall Einhorn , the episode first aired in the United States on May 1 , 2008 on NBC .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) is shocked when Stanley Hudson ( Leslie David Baker ) yells at him , and is unsure how to handle the situation . Michael tries to assert his power over Stanley , by pretending to fire him , but that only makes matters worse . The two eventually end up alone in the office . Meanwhile , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) receives a warning about his job performance , Pam Beesley ( Jenna Fischer ) is forced to wear her glasses , and Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) buys Andy Bernard 's ( Ed Helms ) car .
Originally , episode writers Justin Spitzer and Brent Forrester were supposed to write two separate episodes . However , the effects of the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike forced the two to share an episode . " Did I Stutter ? " contained several pop culture references . It received largely positive reviews from critics , who praised the interaction between Carell and Baker . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 3 @.@ 9 in the 18 – 49 demographic , being viewed by 7 @.@ 76 million viewers .
= = Plot = =
Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) calls an emergency meeting asking everyone to come up with an idea to " re @-@ invigorate " the office . Michael asks Stanley Hudson ( Leslie David Baker ) for ideas , but Stanley is preoccupied with a crossword puzzle and says he 's busy . Michael keeps asking him , and Stanley finally snaps at Michael , and says the titular " Did I stutter ? " in a very loud , threatening tone . Michael , who is visibly shaken , ends the meeting . Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) encourages Michael to take disciplinary action against Stanley , and Michael , initially resistant , decides to pretend to fire him to teach him a lesson . Michael first tells everyone in the office that he is not really firing him , and does so in front of all of them . Stanley responds by threatening to sue him and tell corporate of Michael 's antics . When Michael tells Stanley that the firing was actually an attempt at teaching him a lesson , Stanley is angered and goes on a rant , yelling and insulting Michael . Michael suddenly barks at him to stop it , and tells everyone to leave the office , making everyone think he 's about to berate Stanley . The camera crew sneak back in to film the exchange , where Michael tearfully ( much to Stanley 's annoyance ) but calmly asks Stanley why he picks on him . Stanley states that he simply does not respect him , and when Michael suggests that Stanley doesn 't know him very well he replies " Michael , I 've known you for a very long time . And the more I 've gotten to know you , the less I 've come to respect you . " Michael then takes an uncharacteristically professional tone with Stanley , and says that , while he accepts that Stanley doesn 't respect him , he can 't take such a disrespectful tone with him , because he is his boss . Stanley responds by saying , " Fair enough , " and the two shake hands .
Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) , after spending the night at " a friend 's " ( Jim 's ) house , forgot her contact lens solution , so she must wear her glasses all day . She finds it difficult to handle Michael 's criticism and Kevin 's sexual advances , and spends the rest of the day without her glasses , reducing her productivity . Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) comes to Dunder Mifflin 's Scranton branch , and after a talk with Toby , Ryan tells Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) that he is giving him an official warning about his job performance . Ryan denies that his action is motivated by Jim 's previous complaints to David Wallace , saying he thrives on constructive criticism ( while Toby 's comments to the documentary crew indicate he 's not upset about the warning , owing to his envy of Jim 's relationship with Pam ) . Meanwhile , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) is selling his 2001 Nissan Xterra for $ 8 @,@ 700 , and Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) pressures him into selling it for $ 1 @,@ 500 less than the asking price , because according to Dwight , " ( the ) car is crap " . Dwight assures Andy that he will only use it as a wagon and dragged by a mule on Dwight 's beet farm . Andy then sells it to Dwight , who , in a passive @-@ aggressive method of getting back at him for dating Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) , washes it and posts a sign asking for $ 9 @,@ 995 for the vehicle , which upsets Andy when he finds Dwight 's advertisement posted on the cabinet in the office kitchen . Dwight declares that it is already on Ebay which he claims is the subject of a three @-@ way bidding war .
= = Production = =
The episode was the fourth episode of the series directed by Randall Einhorn . Einhorn had previously directed the third season episodes " Initiation " , " Ben Franklin " and " Product Recall " , as well as the ten summer webisodes " The Accountants " . It was Einhorn 's idea to show the cameramen sneaking back into the office after Michael told everyone to leave . This aspect of the episode was praised by fans as wells as the cast and crew . Brent Forrester , the co @-@ writer of the episode , noted that Einhorn 's " energy doubled when shooting that " scene .
" Did I Stutter ? " was written by Justin Spitzer and Brent Forrester . Although the two writers initially planned to write separate episodes , the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike forced the two to share an episode . Forrester and Spitzer initially disagreed about what the episode 's title should be . Forrester wanted to name it " Did I Stutter ? " — a phrase popularized by Judd Nelson 's character Bender in the 1985 film The Breakfast Club — while Spitzer wanted a name like " The Reprimand " or " Insubordination " . Gene Stupnitsky and Lee Eisenberg wrote the scenes featuring Andy and Angela playing Mad Libs . Justin Spitzer called the sequence " amazing " .
In the opening scene in which Michael puts his face in cement , the wet cement that was used was actually putty . The crew was planning to do only one take of Steve Carell putting his face in the putty , so he was instructed to hold his breath as long as he possibly could . But the crew forgot to tell the other actors about that , so during the filming of the scene , the actors thought he was actually stuck and there was a rush to pull him out . Kim M. Ferry , owner of the Nissan Xterra featured in the episode , is the show 's Department Head Hairstylist . After it was used on the show , she decided to sell it on eBay . The listing was first put up on eBay on May 1 , 2008 , the night the episode aired .
The Season Four DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Michael trying to convince Jim , Pam , and Kelly , while they are in the break room having lunch that Stanley talks badly about everyone behind their backs , Michael making Pam stand up during the meeting and confessing that she wears glasses , Jim talking to Toby about the warning ( in contrast to how Toby seems happy that Jim is getting in trouble during the broadcast episode , here the HR head makes it clear that Jim 's sales performance is good and that Ryan is the sole person who isn 't happy with his work ) , and Ryan saying that " going after Jim " is " a risky move " , since CFO David Wallace likes Jim .
= = Cultural references = =
Andy and Angela play Mad Libs , a phrasal template word game where one player prompts another for a list of words to substitute for blanks in a story , usually with funny results . Ryan chides Jim for being a fan of the Philadelphia Eagles , a professional American football team . While Daryl is telling Michael how gang members deal with problems , he mentions that he was a member of the Newsies ( the name of a 1992 musical drama ) and The Warriors ( the gang in the 1979 cult action film of the same name ) . Near the end of the episode , Michael does a succession of comedian impressions . These include badly performed spoofs of Rodney Dangerfield , Henny Youngman , Jeff Foxworthy , Sacha Baron Cohen as Borat , and Jerry Seinfeld .
= = Reception = =
" Did I Stutter ? " originally aired on NBC in the United States on May 1 , 2008 . The episode received 3 @.@ 9 / 10 in the ages 18 – 49 demographic in the Nielsen ratings . This means that 3 @.@ 9 percent of all households with an 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old living in it watched the episode , and ten percent had their televisions tuned to the channel at any point . The episode was watched by 7 @.@ 67 million viewers .
The episode was highly acclaimed by critics , with many praising the performance from Leslie David Baker . Nathan Rabin of the A.V. Club gave the episode an " A " , citing the dynamic between Michael and Stanley as its main strengths . He was also complimentary towards the cold opening and the realistic way in which Michael and Stanley 's confrontation was filmed . Ultimately , Rabin concluded that the interaction between Carell and Baker was reason to " love the Stanley / Michael dynamic " and that the episode " was all about rage and conflict " . M. Giant of Television Without Pity awarded the episode an " A – " .
Rick Porter of Zap2It said that even though " it ( the episode ) was long on uncomfortable and even disturbing behavior " and " only out @-@ and @-@ out funny in a few spots " he found himself " respecting it a fair amount at the end " . BuddyTV Senior Writer Oscar Dahl said that " the insubordination of Stanley was a necessary plot point to cover " because " without it , too much Stanley being Stanley becomes unbelievable " . Furthermore , he wrote that there " was a lot of really funny stuff tonight " and highlighted " the scene between Darryl and Michael " due to Robinson 's acting . Aubry D 'Arminio from Entertainment Weekly stated that " Mike 's embarrassment , and his unwillingness at first to admit he is disliked , was very very well played on Carell 's part . " Furthermore , D 'Arminio praised several of the episode 's lines of dialogue and wrote " I cannot even come near to picking a favorite quote [ ... ] for this episode "
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= Gwen Stefani =
Gwen Renée Stefani ( / stəˈfɑːni / ; born October 3 , 1969 ) is an American singer , songwriter , fashion designer , and actress . She is the co @-@ founder and lead vocalist of the rock band No Doubt . During the band 's hiatus , Stefani embarked on a solo career in 2004 by releasing her debut studio album Love . Angel . Music . Baby . Inspired by pop music from the 1980s , the album was met with both critical and commercial success . It spawned three major worldwide hit singles : " What You Waiting For ? , " " Rich Girl , " and " Hollaback Girl , " the latter becoming the first US download to sell one million copies . In 2006 Stefani released her second studio album The Sweet Escape . The album produced two successful singles : " Wind It Up " and the album 's title track " The Sweet Escape . " Including her work with No Doubt , Stefani has sold more than 30 million albums worldwide . Her third solo album This Is What the Truth Feels Like was released in March 2016 and became her first solo number one album on the Billboard 200 .
Stefani has won three Grammy Awards . As a solo artist , she has received several accolades , including a World Music Award , an American Music Award , a Brit Award , and two Billboard Music Awards . In 2003 , she debuted her clothing line L.A.M.B. and expanded her collection with the 2005 Harajuku Lovers line , drawing inspiration from Japanese culture and fashion . Stefani performs and makes public appearances with four back @-@ up dancers known as the Harajuku Girls . She was married to British musician Gavin Rossdale from 2002 to 2015 and they have three sons . Billboard magazine ranked Stefani the 54th most successful artist and 37th most successful Hot 100 artist of the 2000 – 09 decade . VH1 ranked her 13th on their " 100 Greatest Women in Music " list in 2012 .
= = Early life = =
Stefani was born on October 3 , 1969 , in Fullerton , California , and raised Roman Catholic in Anaheim , California . She was named after a stewardess in the 1968 novel Airport , and her middle name , Renée , comes from The Four Tops ' 1968 cover of The Left Banke 's 1966 hit song " Walk Away Renée " . Her father , Dennis Stefani , is Italian American and worked as a Yamaha marketing executive . Her mother is Patti ( née Flynn ) . descent , and worked as an accountant before becoming a housewife . Gwen 's parents were fans of folk music and exposed her to music by artists like Bob Dylan and Emmylou Harris . She is the second oldest of four children : she has a younger sister , Jill ; a younger brother , Todd ; and an older brother , Eric . Eric was the keyboardist for No Doubt , but left the band to pursue a career in animation on The Simpsons .
= = Career = =
= = = 1986 – 2004 : No Doubt = = =
Her brother Eric introduced Gwen to 2 Tone music by Madness and The Selecter , and in 1986 , he invited her to provide vocals for No Doubt , a ska band he was forming . Finally , in 1991 , the band was signed to Interscope Records . The band released its self @-@ titled debut album in 1992 , but its ska @-@ pop sound was unsuccessful due to the popularity of grunge . Before the mainstream success of both No Doubt and Sublime , Stefani contributed guest vocals to " Saw Red " on Sublime 's 1994 album Robbin ' the Hood . Stefani rejected the aggressiveness of female grunge artists and cited Blondie singer Debbie Harry 's combination of power and sex appeal as a major influence . No Doubt 's third album , Tragic Kingdom ( 1995 ) , which followed the self @-@ released The Beacon Street Collection ( 1995 ) , took more than three years to make . Five singles were released from Tragic Kingdom ' , including " Don 't Speak , " which led the Hot 100 Airplay year @-@ end chart of 1997 . Stefani left college for one semester to tour for Tragic Kingdom but did not return when touring lasted two and a half years . The album sold more than 16 million copies worldwide , and received several Grammy Award nominations in 1997 and 1998 . In late 2000 , Rolling Stone magazine named her " The Queen of Confessional Pop . "
During the time when No Doubt was receiving mainstream success , Stefani collaborated on the singles " You 're the Boss " with the Brian Setzer Orchestra , " South Side " with Moby , and " Let Me Blow Ya Mind " with Eve . No Doubt released the less popular Return of Saturn in 2000 , which expanded upon the new wave influences of Tragic Kingdom . Most of the lyrical content focused on Stefani 's often rocky relationship with then @-@ Bush frontman Gavin Rossdale and her overall insecurities , including indecision on settling down and having a child . The band 's 2001 album , Rock Steady , explored more reggae and dancehall sounds , while maintaining the band 's new wave influences , and generally received positive reviews . The album generated career @-@ highest singles chart positions in the United States , and " Hey Baby " and " Underneath It All " received Grammy Awards . A greatest hits collection , The Singles 1992 – 2003 , which includes a cover of Talk Talk 's " It 's My Life " , was released in 2003 to moderate sales . In 2002 , Eve and Stefani won a Grammy Award for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration for " Let Me Blow Ya Mind " .
= = = 2004 – 06 : Love . Angel . Music . Baby. and acting debut = = =
Stefani 's debut solo album Love . Angel . Music . Baby. was released in November 2004 . The album features a large number of collaborations with producers and other artists , including Tony Kanal , Tom Rothrock , Linda Perry , André 3000 , Nellee Hooper , The Neptunes and New Order . Stefani created the album to modernize the music to which she listened when in high school , and L.A.M.B. takes influence from a variety of music styles of the 1980s and early 1990s such as new wave , synthpop and electro . Stefani 's decision to use her solo career as an opportunity to delve further into pop music instead of trying " to convince the world of [ her ] talent , depth and artistic worth " was considered unusual . As a result , reviews of the album were mixed , and it was described as " fun as hell but [ ... ] not exactly rife with subversive social commentary . " The album debuted on the US Billboard 200 albums chart at number seven , selling 309 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . L.A.M.B. was a commercial success reaching multi @-@ platinum status in the United States , the United Kingdom , Australia , and Canada . At the 2005 Grammy Awards , Stefani was nominated for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for " What You Waiting For ? " , and at the next year 's awards , Stefani received five nominations for Album of the Year , Record of the Year , Best Female Pop Vocal Performance , Best Pop Vocal Album , and Best Rap / Sung Collaboration .
The first single released from the album was " What You Waiting For ? " , which debuted atop the ARIA Singles Chart , charted at number 47 on the US and reached the top ten on most other charts . The song served to explain why Stefani produced a solo album and discusses her fears in leaving No Doubt for a solo career as well as her desire to have a baby . " Rich Girl " was released as the album 's second single . A duet with rapper Eve , and produced by Dr. Dre , it is an adaptation of a 1990s pop song by British musicians Louchie Lou & Michie One , which itself is a very loose cover lyrically but closer melodically of " If I Were a Rich Man " , from the musical Fiddler on the Roof . " Rich Girl " proved successful on several formats , and reached the US and UK top ten . The albums third single " Hollaback Girl " became Stefani 's first US and second Australian number @-@ one single ; it reached top ten elsewhere . The song was the first US music download to sell more than one million copies , and its brass @-@ driven composition remained popular throughout 2005 . The fourth single " Cool " was released shortly following the popularity of its predecessor , reaching the top 20 in US and UK . The song 's lyrics and its accompanying music video , filmed in Lake Como , Italy , depict Stefani 's former relationship with Kanal . " Luxurious " was released as the album 's fifth single , but did not perform as well as its predecessors . " Crash " was released in early 2006 as the album 's sixth single in lieu of Love . Angel . Music . Baby . ' s sequel , which Stefani postponed because of her pregnancy .
In 2004 , Stefani showed interest in making film appearances and began auditioning for films such as Mr. & Mrs. Smith . She made her acting debut playing Jean Harlow in Martin Scorsese 's The Aviator in 2004 . Scorsese , whose daughter was a No Doubt fan , showed reciprocal interest in casting Stefani after seeing her picture from a Marilyn Monroe @-@ inspired photo shoot for Teen Vogue in 2003 . To prepare for the role , Stefani read two biographies and watched 18 of Harlow 's films . Shooting her part took four to five days , and Stefani had few lines . Stefani lent her voice to the title character of the 2004 video game Malice ; before completion , however , the company opted not to use No Doubt band members ' voices .
= = = 2006 – 08 : The Sweet Escape = = =
Stefani 's second studio album , The Sweet Escape , was recorded by Guy Charbonneau 's Le Mobile Remote Recording Studio and released in December 2006 . Stefani recollaborated with Kanal , Perry , and The Neptunes , along with Akon and Tim Rice @-@ Oxley from English rock band Keane . The album focuses more heavily on electronic and dance music for clubs than its predecessor . Stefani commented that it differed from L.A.M.B. because " I just wasn 't inspired to do another album and ... I was a lot more relaxed making it . " Its release coincided with the DVD release of Stefani 's first tour , entitled Harajuku Lovers Live . The album received mixed reviews by critics , who found that it " has a surprisingly moody , lightly autobiographical feel ... [ but ] Stefani isn 't convincing as a dissatisfied diva " and called the album a " hasty return " that repeats Love . Angel . Music . Baby. with less energy .
" Wind It Up " , the album 's lead single , received mixed reviews by critics for its use of yodeling and an interpolation of The Sound of Music , but was moderately successful , peaking inside the top 10 in the US and the UK . The title track was well received and was a major hit , reaching the top 10 in over 15 nations , including number two peaks in the US , Australia and the UK . To promote The Sweet Escape , Stefani was a mentor on the sixth season of American Idol and performed the song with Akon . The song earned her a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals . Three more singles were released from the album ; " 4 in the Morning " , " Now That You Got It " which featured Damian Marley and " Early Winter " . To promote the album , Stefani embarked on a worldwide tour , The Sweet Escape Tour , which covered North America , Europe , Asia and the Pacific and part of Latin America . In an interview with Entertainment Weekly on June 6 , 2011 , Stefani stated that she had no plans to continue work as a solo artist , adding , " That was a moment in time [ ... ] It went on a little longer than we all thought it would , because it was inspired and you have to go with wherever you 're at in that time in your life ... [ But ] everything works out how it should . "
= = = 2008 – 13 : Return to No Doubt = = =
With Stefani promoting The Sweet Escape , No Doubt began work on a new album without her and planned to complete it after Stefani 's The Sweet Escape Tour was finished . In March 2008 , the band started making posts concerning the progression of the album on their official fan forum . Stefani made a post on March 28 , 2008 stating that songwriting had commenced but was slow on her end because she was , at the time , pregnant with her second child . The Singles 1992 – 2003 became available on December 9 , 2008 for the video game Rock Band 2 . Adrian Young played drums on Scott Weiland 's album " Happy " in Galoshes . No Doubt announced on their official website they wanted to tour in 2009 while finishing their upcoming album , which was set for release in 2010 . On November 24 , 2008 , it was announced that No Doubt would be headlining the Bamboozle 2009 festival in May , along with Fall Out Boy . The band completed a national tour in the summer of 2009 . In 2010 , they resumed writing their record , which was later recorded in 2011 .
On June 11 , 2012 , the band announced on their official website that the new album would be out on September 25 , preceded by the first single in July 16 . The album was titled Push and Shove and the first single was a song called " Settle Down " . The music video for " Settle Down " was directed by Sophie Muller ( who has previously directed numerous music videos for No Doubt ) . Also around this time No Doubt were guest mentors for the UK version of the X Factor . " Settle Down " peaked at 34 on the Billboard Hot 100 with the album peaking at number three on the US Billboard 200 . On November 3 , 2012 , the band pulled its music video " Looking Hot " from the Internet after receiving complaints that it was insensitive towards Native Americans . In October 2013 , Tom revealed on social networking site Twitter that the band were once again on hiatus , also hinting that the band would regroup in 2014 .
= = = 2014 – present : The Voice and This Is What the Truth Feels Like = = =
On April 12 , 2014 , Stefani made a surprise appearance at the Coachella festival , where she joined Pharrell Williams onstage during his set to perform " Hollaback Girl " . She and Williams were coaches for season 7 of The Voice . After nine years since the last time , she attended the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards , and during an interview on the red carpet she said , " I didn 't know I was gonna have a baby , I didn 't know I was gonna be on The Voice , I didn 't know I was gonna be writing new music , so I 'm just like , what 's gonna be next ? " . Stefani appears as a featured artist on " My Heart Is Open " , co @-@ written by Sia Furler , from Maroon 5 's V , which was performed for the first time with Adam Levine and an orchestra at the 2015 Grammy Awards . Gwen also appeared on " Together " , from Calvin Harris ' Motion . Both albums were released in 2014 . A collaboration with Snoop Dogg , entitled " Run Away " , was released on his 2015 studio album , Bush .
On September 8 , 2014 , Stefani told MTV News during New York Fashion Week that she was working on both a No Doubt album and a solo album . She also revealed that she was working with Williams . Stefani released her comeback single " Baby Don 't Lie " on October 20 , 2014 , co @-@ written with producers Ryan Tedder , Benny Blanco , and Noel Zancanella . Billboard magazine revealed that her third studio album was set to be released in December and Benny Blanco is set to executive produce it . In late October , a sneak peek of a new track from Stefani 's third album , named " Spark the Fire " , was premiered . The song was produced by Pharrell Williams . On November 23 , the full song was uploaded online and was made available for download on December 1 . Both " Baby Don 't Lie " and " Spark the Fire " were later scrapped from Stefanis third album . On January 13 , 2015 , Stefani and Williams also recorded a song titled " Shine " , for the Paddington soundtrack . Stefani and Sia Furler worked together on a ballad , called " Start a War " that is expected to be released on Stefani 's third studio album as well . On July 10 , 2015 , American rapper Eminem featured Stefani on his single " Kings Never Die " , from the Southpaw soundtrack . The track debuted and peaked at # 80 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart .
On October 17 , 2015 , Stefani performed a one @-@ night concert at the Hammerstein Ballroom in New York City , where she performed a new song , reportedly about her breakup with ex @-@ husband Gavin Rossdale , titled " Used to Love You " . It was released as a download on October 20 , 2015 . The video was released later that same day . The song was released to Mainstream radio in the U.S. on October 27 , 2015 . The track is the first official single off her third solo album This Is What the Truth Feels Like , which she has been working on since summer 2015 . Stefani said much of the previous material she worked on in 2014 felt forced and inauthentic , while the songs written since she returned to the studio in June 2015 were more natural and better described where she was in her life . The album 's second single , " Make Me Like You " , was released on February 12 , 2016 . This Is What the Truth Feels Like was released on March 18 , 2015 and debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 , it was Stefanis first number one album in the US as a solo artist . To further promote the album , Stefani will embark on her This Is What the Truth Feels Like Tour with rapper Eve in the United States .
= = Other ventures = =
Stefani made most of the clothing that she wore on stage with No Doubt , resulting in increasingly eclectic combinations . Stylist Andrea Lieberman introduced her to haute couture clothing , which led to Stefani launching a fashion line named L.A.M.B. in 2004 . The line takes influence from a variety of fashions , including Guatemalan , Japanese , and Jamaican styles . The line achieved popularity among celebrities and is worn by stars such as Teri Hatcher , Nicole Kidman , and Stefani herself . In June 2005 , she expanded her collection with the less expensive Harajuku Lovers line , which she referred to as " a glorified merchandise line " , with varied products including a camera , mobile phone charms , and undergarments . In late 2006 , Stefani released a limited edition line of dolls called " Love . Angel . Music . Baby . Fashion dolls " . The dolls are inspired by the various fashion that Stefani and the Harajuku Girls wore while touring for the album .
In 2014 , Stefani announced she is producing an animated series about her and the Harajuku Girls . Along with Vision Animation and Moody Street Kids , Stefani has helped create the show which features her , Love , Angel , Music , and Baby as the band , HJ5 , who fight evil whilst trying to pursue their music career . Mattel have signed on as the global toy licensee . Kuukuu Harajuku will be distributed worldwide by DHX Media .
In late summer 2007 , Stefani launched a perfume , L , as a part of her L.A.M.B. collection of clothing and accessories . The perfume has high notes of sweet pea and rose . In September 2008 , Stefani released a fragrance line as a part of her Harajuku Lovers product line . There are five different fragrances based on the four Harajuku Girls and Stefani herself called Love , Lil ' Angel , Music , Baby and G ( Gwen ) . As of January 2011 , Stefani has become the spokesperson for L 'Oréal Paris .
= = Personal life = =
Soon after Stefani joined No Doubt , she and bandmate Tony Kanal began dating . Stefani stated that she was heavily invested in the relationship , commenting that " ... all I ever did was look at Tony and pray that God would let me have a baby with him . " During this time , the band almost split up because of the failed romantic relationship between Stefani and Kanal . Kanal ended the relationship . Their break @-@ up inspired Stefani lyrically , and many of the album 's songs , such as " Don 't Speak " , " Sunday Morning " , and " Hey You " , chronicle the ups and downs of their relationship .
During mid @-@ 1995 , No Doubt and rock band Goo Goo Dolls went on tour opening for alternative rock band Bush . Stefani met Bush guitarist and lead singer Gavin Rossdale . They married on September 14 , 2002 , with a wedding in St Paul 's , Covent Garden , London . A second wedding was held in Los Angeles two weeks later . According to Stefani , it was held so that she could wear her custom @-@ designed wedding dress by John Galliano twice .
Stefani has three sons with Rossdale ; Kingston James McGregor Rossdale born on May 26 , 2006 , Zuma Nesta Rock Rossdale born on August 21 , 2008 , and Apollo Bowie Flynn Rossdale born February 28 , 2014 . On August 3 , 2015 , Stefani filed for divorce from Rossdale , citing " irreconcilable differences " . The divorce was finalized in October 2015 . On November 4 , 2015 , Stefani and her The Voice co @-@ star , country music artist Blake Shelton , announced that they were dating .
= = Artistry = =
Stefani possesses a mezzo @-@ soprano , which can span three octaves . Stefani 's unusual and dynamic vocals have been noted for their " deep vibrato " and Stefani has been described as having a " unique vocal prowess " . The Chicago Tribune stated that Stefani had a " brash alto . " In the single " Cool " , her vocal range covers around one and a half octaves . Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times joked that as Stefani grew as a musician , she kicked her " addiction " to vibrato . Stefani received five nominations at the 2006 Grammy Awards , including Best Female Pop Vocal Performance and Best Pop Vocal Album .
Stefani 's debut album Love . Angel . Music . Baby. took influence from a variety of 1980s genres Which included electropop , new wave , dance @-@ rock , hip hop , R & B , soul , and disco music . Stefani cited early Madonna , Lisa Lisa , Club Nouveau , Depeche Mode , Prince , New Order and The Cure as major influences for the album . Her second studio album The Sweet Escape resembles musically its predecessor while exploring more modern pop sounds , dabbling heavily into genres such as dance @-@ pop , electropop , and rap .
Stefani 's work has influenced a number of new artists including Best Coast , Hayley Williams , Rihanna , Katy Perry , Marina and the Diamonds , Cover Drive , Sky Ferreira , and Rita Ora .
= = Public image = =
Stefani began wearing a bindi in the mid @-@ 1990s after attending several family gatherings for Tony Kanal , who is of Indian heritage . During No Doubt 's breakthrough , Stefani wore the forehead decoration in several of the band 's music videos and briefly popularized the accessory in 1997 . First attracting attention in the 1995 music video for " Just a Girl " , Stefani is known for her midriff and frequently wears shirts that expose it . Stefani 's makeup design generally includes light face powder , bright red lipstick , and arched eyebrows ; she wrote about the subject in a song titled " Magic 's in the Makeup " for No Doubt 's Return of Saturn , asking " If the magic 's in the makeup / Then who am I ? " . Stefani is a natural brunette , though her hair has not been its natural color since she was in ninth grade . Since late 1994 , she has had usually platinum blond hair . Stefani discussed this in the song " Platinum Blonde Life " on Rock Steady and played original blond bombshell Jean Harlow in the 2004 biopic The Aviator . Despite appearing mostly with blonde hair , she also dyed her hair blue in 1998 and pink in 2000 , notably appearing on the cover of Return of Saturn with pink hair .
In 2006 , Stefani modified her image , inspired by that of Michelle Pfeiffer 's character in the 1983 film Scarface . The reinvented image included a symbol consisting of two back @-@ to @-@ back ' G 's , which appears on a diamond @-@ encrusted key she wears on a necklace and which became a motif in the promotion of The Sweet Escape . Stefani raised concerns in January 2007 about her rapid weight loss following her pregnancy . She stated she lost the weight through diet and exercise but admitted to obsessing over her weight due to the size zero trend . She later stated that she had been on a diet since the sixth grade to fit in size 4 clothing , commenting , " It 's an ongoing battle and it 's a nightmare . But I like clothes too much , and I always wanted to wear the outfits I would make . " A wax figure of Stefani was unveiled at Madame Tussauds Las Vegas at The Venetian on September 22 , 2010 . The release of Stefani 's first solo album brought attention to her entourage of four Harajuku Girls , who appear in outfits influenced by Gothic Lolita fashion , and are named for the area around the Harajuku Station of Tokyo , Japan . Stefani 's clothing also took influence from Japanese fashion , in a style described as a combination between Christian Dior and Japan . The dancers are featured in her music videos , press coverage , and on the album cover for Love . Angel . Music . Baby . , with a song named for and dedicated to them on the album . They were also featured in , and the namesake for , Stefani 's Harajuku Lovers Tour . Forbes magazine reported Stefani 's earnings in 2008 , calculating that she earned $ 27 million between June 2007 to June 2008 for her tour , fashion line and commercials , making her the world 's 10th highest paid music personality at the time .
= = Awards and accolades = =
As a solo artist , Gwen has won several music awards , including one Grammy Award , four MTV Video Music Awards , one American Music Award , one Brit Award , and two Billboard Music Awards . With No Doubt , she has won two Grammy Awards . In 2005 , Rolling Stone called her " the only true female rock star left on radio or MTV " and featured her on the magazine 's cover . Stefani received the Style Icon Award at the first People Magazine Awards in 2014 .
= = Philanthropy = =
Following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami , Stefani donated $ 1 million to Save the Children 's Japan Earthquake – Tsunami Children in Emergency Fund . Stefani also ran an auction on eBay from April 11 to April 25 , 2011 , allowing participants to bid on vintage clothing items from her personal wardrobe and custom T @-@ shirts designed and signed by her , as well as on admission to a private Harajuku @-@ themed tea party hosted by her on June 7 , 2011 at Los Angeles ' first @-@ ever Japanese @-@ style maid café and pop art space , Royal / T , with proceeds from the auction going to Save the Children 's relief effort .
At the amfAR gala during the 2011 Cannes Film Festival , Stefani auctioned off the lacy black dress she wore at the event for charity , raising over $ 125 @,@ 000 . The dress sparked controversy after a representative for designer Michael Angel — who helped Stefani with the design and worked as a stylist — alleged that it was Angel who created the gown , not Stefani . In response , Angel released a statement confirming that the dress was designed by Stefani for L.A.M.B. to wear and be auctioned off at the amfAR gala , adding , " I 'm disappointed that the focus has shifted away from what Gwen and I originally intended , which was to create a custom outfit for a great cause . We both were thrilled with the outcome and enjoyed the process . I have nothing but respect for her and look forward to working with her on more projects in the future . " Stefani hosted a fundraiser with First Lady Michelle Obama in August 2012 at the singer 's Beverly Hills home .
= = Discography = =
Love . Angel . Music . Baby . ( 2004 )
The Sweet Escape ( 2006 )
This Is What the Truth Feels Like ( 2016 )
= = Tours = =
Harajuku Lovers Tour ( 2005 )
The Sweet Escape Tour ( 2007 )
MasterCard Priceless Surprises Presents Gwen Stefani ( 2015 – 16 )
This Is What the Truth Feels Like Tour ( 2016 )
= = Filmography = =
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= We Can Do It ! =
" We Can Do It ! " is an American wartime propaganda poster produced by J. Howard Miller in 1943 for Westinghouse Electric as an inspirational image to boost worker morale .
The poster was seen very little during World War II . It was rediscovered in the early 1980s and widely reproduced in many forms , often called " We Can Do It ! " but also called " Rosie the Riveter " after the iconic figure of a strong female war production worker . The " We Can Do It ! " image was used to promote feminism and other political issues beginning in the 1980s . The image made the cover of the Smithsonian magazine in 1994 and was fashioned into a US first @-@ class mail stamp in 1999 . It was incorporated in 2008 into campaign materials for several American politicians , and was reworked by an artist in 2010 to celebrate the first woman becoming prime minister of Australia . The poster is one of the ten most @-@ requested images at the National Archives and Records Administration .
After its rediscovery , observers often assumed that the image was always used as a call to inspire women workers to join the war effort . However , during the war the image was strictly internal to Westinghouse , displayed only during February 1943 , and was not for recruitment but to exhort already @-@ hired women to work harder . Feminists and others have seized upon the uplifting attitude and apparent message to remake the image into many different forms , including self empowerment , campaign promotion , advertising , and parodies .
After she saw the Smithsonian cover image in 1994 , Geraldine Hoff Doyle said that she was the subject of the poster . Doyle thought that she had also been captured in a wartime photograph of a woman factory worker , and she innocently assumed that this photo inspired Miller 's poster . Conflating her as " Rosie the Riveter " , Doyle was honored by many organizations including the Michigan Women 's Historical Center and Hall of Fame . However , in 2015 , the woman in the wartime photograph was identified as 20 @-@ year @-@ old Naomi Parker , working in early 1942 before Doyle had graduated high school . Doyle 's notion that the photograph inspired the poster cannot be proved or disproved , so first Doyle and then Parker cannot be confirmed as the model for " We Can Do It ! "
= = Background = =
After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , the US government called upon manufacturers to produce greater amounts of war goods . The workplace atmosphere at large factories was often tense because of resentment built up between management and labor unions throughout the 1930s . Directors of companies such as General Motors ( GM ) sought to minimize past friction and encourage teamwork . In response to a rumored public relations campaign by the United Auto Workers union , GM quickly produced a propaganda poster in 1942 showing both labor and management rolling up their sleeves , aligned toward maintaining a steady rate of war production . The poster read , " Together We Can Do It ! " and " Keep ' Em Firing ! " In creating such posters , corporations wished to increase production by tapping popular pro @-@ war sentiment , with the ultimate goal of preventing the government from exerting greater control over production .
= = = Westinghouse Electric = = =
In 1942 , Pittsburgh artist J. Howard Miller was hired by Westinghouse Electric 's internal War Production Coordinating Committee , through an advertising agency , to create a series of posters to display to the company 's workers . The intent of the poster project was to raise worker morale , to reduce absenteeism , to direct workers ' questions to management , and to lower the likelihood of labor unrest or a factory strike . Each of the more than 42 posters designed by Miller was displayed in the factory for two weeks , then replaced by the next one in the series . Most of the posters featured men ; they emphasized traditional roles for men and women . One of the posters pictured a smiling male manager with the words " Any Questions About Your Work ? ... Ask your Supervisor . "
No more than 1 @,@ 800 copies of the 17 @-@ by @-@ 22 @-@ inch ( 559 by 432 mm ) " We Can Do It ! " poster were printed . It was not initially seen beyond several Westinghouse factories in East Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , and the Midwest , where it was scheduled to be displayed for two five @-@ day work weeks starting Monday , February 15 , 1943 . The targeted factories were making plasticized helmet liners impregnated with Micarta , a phenolic resin invented by Westinghouse . Mostly women were employed in this enterprise , which yielded some 13 million helmet liners over the course of the war . The slogan " We Can Do It ! " was probably not interpreted by the factory workers as empowering to women alone ; they had been subjected to a series of paternalistic , controlling posters promoting management authority , employee capability and company unity , and the workers would likely have understood the image to mean " Westinghouse Employees Can Do It " , all working together . The upbeat image served as gentle propaganda to boost employee morale and keep production from lagging . The pictured red , white and blue clothing was a subtle call to patriotism , one of the frequent tactics of corporate war production committees .
= = Rosie the Riveter = =
During World War II , the " We Can Do It ! " poster was not connected to the 1942 song " Rosie the Riveter " , nor to the widely seen Norman Rockwell painting called Rosie the Riveter that appeared on the cover of the Memorial Day issue of the Saturday Evening Post , May 29 , 1943 . The Westinghouse poster was not associated with any of the women nicknamed " Rosie " who came forward to promote women working for war production on the home front . Rather , after being displayed for two weeks in February 1943 to some Westinghouse factory workers , it disappeared for nearly four decades . Other " Rosie " images prevailed , often photographs of actual workers . The Office of War Information geared up for a massive nationwide advertising campaign to sell the war , but " We Can Do It ! " was not part of it .
Rockwell 's emblematic Rosie the Riveter painting was loaned by the Post to the US Treasury Department for use in posters and campaigns promoting war bonds . Following the war , the Rockwell painting gradually sank from public memory because it was copyrighted ; all of Rockwell 's paintings were vigorously defended by his estate after his death . This protection resulted in the original painting gaining value — it sold for nearly $ 5 million in 2002 . Conversely , the lack of protection for the " We Can Do It ! " image is one of the reasons it experienced a rebirth .
Ed Reis , a volunteer historian for Westinghouse , noted that the original image was not shown to female riveters during the war , so the recent association with " Rosie the Riveter " was unjustified . Rather , it was targeted at women who were making helmet liners out of Micarta . Reis joked that the woman in the image was more likely to have been named " Molly the Micarta Molder or Helen the Helmet Liner Maker . "
= = Rediscovery = =
In 1982 , the " We Can Do It ! " poster was reproduced in a magazine article , " Poster Art for Patriotism 's Sake " , a Washington Post Magazine article about posters in the collection of the National Archives .
In subsequent years , the poster was re @-@ appropriated to promote feminism . Feminists saw in the image an embodiment of female empowerment . The " We " was understood to mean " We Women " , uniting all women in a sisterhood fighting against gender inequality . This was very different from the poster 's 1943 use to control employees and to discourage labor unrest . History professor Jeremiah Axelrod commented on the image 's combination of femininity with the " masculine ( almost macho ) composition and body language . "
Smithsonian magazine put the image on its cover in March 1994 , to invite the viewer to read a featured article about wartime posters . The US Postal Service created a 33 ¢ stamp in February 1999 based on the image , with the added words " Women Support War Effort " . A Westinghouse poster from 1943 was put on display at the National Museum of American History , part of the exhibit showing items from the 1930s and ' 40s .
= = Wire service photograph = =
In 1984 , former war worker Geraldine Hoff Doyle came across an article in Modern Maturity magazine which showed a wartime photograph of a young woman working at a lathe , and she assumed that the photograph was taken of her in mid @-@ to @-@ late 1942 when she was working briefly in a factory . Ten years later , Doyle saw the " We Can Do It ! " poster on the front of the Smithsonian magazine and assumed the poster was an image of herself . Without intending to profit from the connection , Doyle decided that the 1942 wartime photograph had inspired Miller to create the poster , making Doyle herself the model for the poster . Subsequently , Doyle was widely credited as the inspiration for Miller 's poster . From an archive of Acme news photographs , Professor James J. Kimble obtained the original photographic print , including its yellowed caption identifying the woman as Naomi Parker . The photo is one of a series of photographs taken at Naval Air Station Alameda in California , showing Parker and her sister working at their war jobs during March 1942 . These images were published in various newspapers and magazines beginning in April 1942 , during a time when Doyle was still attending high school in Michigan . In February 2015 , Kimble interviewed the Parker sisters , now named Naomi Fern Fraley , 93 , and her sister Ada Wyn Morford , 91 , and found that they had known for five years about the incorrect identification of the photo , and had been rebuffed in their attempt to correct the historical record .
Although many publications have repeated Doyle 's unsupported assertion that the wartime photograph inspired Miller 's poster , Westinghouse historian Charles A. Ruch , a Pittsburgh resident who had been friends with J. Howard Miller , said that Miller was not in the habit of working from photographs , but rather live models . Penny Coleman , the author of Rosie the Riveter : Women working on the home front in World War II , said that she and Ruch could not determine whether the wartime photo had appeared in any of the periodicals that Miller would have seen .
= = Legacy = =
Today , the image has become very widely known , far beyond its narrowly defined purpose during WWII . It has adorned T @-@ shirts , tattoos , coffee cups and refrigerator magnets — so many different products that the Washington Post called it the " most over @-@ exposed " souvenir item available in Washington , D.C. It was used in 2008 by some of the various regional campaigners working to elect Sarah Palin , Ron Paul and Hillary Clinton . Michelle Obama was worked into the image by some attendees of the 2010 Rally to Restore Sanity and / or Fear . The image has been employed by corporations such as Clorox who used it in advertisements for household cleaners , the pictured woman provided in this instance with a wedding ring on her left hand . Parodies of the image have included famous women , men , animals and fictional characters . A bobblehead doll and an action figure toy have been produced . The Children 's Museum of Indianapolis showed a 4 @-@ by @-@ 5 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 2 by 1 @.@ 5 m ) replica made by artist Kristen Cumings from thousands of Jelly Belly candies .
After Julia Gillard became the first female prime minister of Australia in June 2010 , a Melbourne street artist calling himself Phoenix pasted Gillard 's face into a new monochrome version of the " We Can Do It ! " poster . AnOther Magazine published a photograph of the poster taken on Hosier Lane , Melbourne , in July 2010 , showing that the original " War Production Co @-@ ordinating Committee " mark in the lower right had been replaced with a URL pointing to Phoenix 's Flickr photostream . In March 2011 , Phoenix produced a color version which stated " She Did It ! " in the lower right , then in January 2012 he pasted " Too Sad " diagonally across the poster to represent his disappointment with developments in Australian politics .
Geraldine Doyle died in December 2010 . Utne Reader went ahead with their scheduled January – February 2011 cover image : a parody of " We Can Do It ! " featuring Marge Simpson raising her right hand in a fist . The editors of the magazine expressed regret at the passing of Doyle , " the likely inspiration for the Rosie character " .
A stereoscopic ( 3D ) image of " We Can Do It ! " was created for the closing credits of the 2011 superhero film Captain America : The First Avenger . The image served as the background for the title card of English actress Hayley Atwell .
The Ad Council claimed the poster was developed in 1942 by its precursor , the War Advertising Committee , as part of a " Women in War Jobs " campaign , helping to bring " over two million women " into war production . In February 2012 during the Ad Council 's 70th anniversary celebration , an interactive application designed by Animax 's HelpsGood digital agency was linked to the Ad Council 's Facebook page . The Facebook app was called " Rosify Yourself " , referring to Rosie the Riveter ; it allowed viewers to upload images of their faces to be incorporated into the " We Can Do It ! " poster , then saved to be shared with friends . Ad Council President and CEO Peggy Conlon posted her own " Rosified " face on Huffington Post in an article she wrote about the group 's 70 @-@ year history . The staff of the television show Today posted two " Rosified " images on their website , using the faces of news anchors Matt Lauer and Ann Curry . However , Seton Hall University professor James J. Kimble and University of Pittsburgh professor Lester C. Olson researched the origins of the poster and determined that it was not produced by the Ad Council nor was it used for recruiting women workers .
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= So Under Pressure =
" So Under Pressure " is a dance @-@ pop song performed by Australian singer Dannii Minogue . The song was written by Minogue , Terry Ronald and LMC , and produced by Lee Monteverde for Minogue 's fifth album Club Disco ( 2007 ) and was also used as the lead single for her greatest hits compilation The Hits & Beyond ( 2006 ) . The song 's lyrics discuss the cancer diagnoses of Minogue 's sister Kylie .
The song was released as a single on 12 June 2006 in the United Kingdom . It entered the top forty in Australia , Ireland and the UK and became Minogue 's tenth consecutive Upfront Club Chart number one . The song 's music video , directed by Phil Griffin , features Minogue in a variety of high pressure situations . She has described it as " the hardest video I 've ever done " .
= = Background and reception = =
In 2005 , Minogue began writing and recording material with longtime collaborator Terry Ronald and British dance group LMC . During one of their sessions , they penned " So Under Pressure " , which was inspired by the cancer diagnoses of her sister Kylie as well as that of an unnamed friend . Minogue has described the recording of " So Under Pressure " as a " real achievement " as she was " brave enough to put all [ her feelings ] into words " . Allmusic reviewer John Lucas called the track one of " Minogue 's more inventive moments " .
= = Chart performance = =
" So Under Pressure " was officially released in the United Kingdom and Ireland on 12 June 2006 . The song debuted on the UK Singles Chart on 19 June 2006 at number twenty . The following week , " So Under Pressure " fell to number sixty and exited the chart in its third week of release . The track became Minogue 's seventh consecutive Upfront Club Chart number one in the UK . In Ireland , the song reached number thirty @-@ one , remaining on the singles chart for one week . " So Under Pressure " proved popular in Irish dance clubs where it reached number six on the Dance Singles Chart .
The track was released in Australia on 29 July 2006 . It debuted on 8 August 2006 at number sixteen and became Minogue 's eighth top twenty single . The song remained on the singles chart for five weeks , exiting on 5 September 2006 . It was the 30th highest selling dance single in Australia for 2006 .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Phil Griffin in mid @-@ 2006 . Minogue described the video :
" I tried to put different things in the video that made me feel under pressure and it really did ! It was the hardest video I`ve ever done so I kept thinking , why on earth did I come up with this concept ? People don ’ t realise but I definitely have that Australian tomboy side to me . I love snakes and sharks and jumping out of planes and stuff . Growing up it never occurred to me that it wasn ’ t a girly thing to ride a bike , covered in mud holding frogs and collecting lizards ! " .
The music video 's crew did not believe that Minogue could work with the python , but she said that it did not bother her at all . The music video was released commercially on The Hits & Beyond special edition companion DVD , released in June 2006 .
The video opens with a scene of Minogue in a white room dressed in a black swimsuit . She is then shown lying on top of a white platform with a python wrapped around her body . Scenes of Minogue and her three dancers walking a catwalk , posing for photographs and dancing are intercut throughout the music video . The video concludes with Minogue trapped inside a spinning perspex box .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of " So Under Pressure " .
= = Personnel = =
The following people contributed to " So Under Pressure " :
Dannii Minogue – lead vocals
Justine Riddock – backing vocals
Lee Monteverde – keyboards
Chris Martin – guitar
Terry Ronald – backing vocals , additional vocal production
Recorded and mixed at AATW Studios
= = Charts = =
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= Let 's Stay Together ( 30 Rock ) =
" Let 's Stay Together " is the third episode of the fifth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 83rd overall episode of the series . It was directed by co @-@ executive producer John Riggi and written by co @-@ executive producer Jack Burditt . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on October 7 , 2010 . Guest stars in this episode include John Amos , Todd Buonopane , Reg E. Cathey , Queen Latifah and Rob Reiner .
In the episode , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) must appear before Congress to discuss NBC 's merger with the fictitious company network KableTown ( a parody of Comcast ) . He hopes that he will charm celebrity members for the deal to go through , but one Congresswoman ( Latifah ) demands more diversity in the NBC programming lineup . As a result , Jack enlists Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) to come up with some new development ideas . Meanwhile , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) , the head writer of the fictitious sketch show The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan ( TGS ) is fed up with the criticism her writing staff gives her , and finally Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) helps Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) reapply in the competitive NBC page program .
This episode of 30 Rock was generally , though not universally , well received among television critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , it was watched by 4 @.@ 90 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 1 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
NBC executive Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) attends a Congressional hearing in Washington D.C. regarding the Kabletown @-@ NBC merger deal . He is able to consolidate support for the deal , until Representative Regina Bookman ( Queen Latifah ) calls out NBC for being racist and demands that there be more diversity in the programming lineup . Following the hearing , Jack goes back to New York and asks Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) and " Dot Com " Slattery ( Kevin Brown ) to produce a program for the African @-@ American community . Dot Com suggests a show called Let 's Stay Together , about an African @-@ American family in the 1970s , but when Grizz Griswold ( Grizz Chapman ) suggests that a talking dog be added to the show , Tracy orders Dot Com to incorporate it into the rewrite , much to Dot Com 's dismay .
Meanwhile , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) , the head writer of the sketch show TGS with Tracy Jordan , is unhappy about the lack of respect she gets from her writing staff and complains to Jack , her boss , about the situation . Jack asks her if staff writer James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Keith Powell ) can be promoted to co @-@ head writer in an effort to diversify NBC . Liz accepts , seeing this as an opportunity for someone else to get the lack of respect and complaints she does . She gets upset , though , when Toofer gets a television interview as head writer , and insists that she herself should also be there as she is co @-@ head writer . The two appear on Rutherford Rice 's ( Reg E. Cathey ) talk show Right On , a show aimed toward African @-@ American audiences . Liz gets visibly upset when Rice gives Toofer all of the credit she deserves , and as a result of her behavior she is escorted off the set by a security guard .
At the same time , Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) , a former NBC page , is back at NBC and wants to reapply to the page program , but notes that it has become a pageant . When Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) hears of this , she volunteers to help him win the pageant using her own pageant experience . Jenna treats Kenneth as her mother Verna ( Jan Hooks ) treated her during her pageant years . After a failed , over @-@ the @-@ top performance in front of Human resources mediator Jeffrey Weinerslav ( Todd Buonopane ) , Jenna vows to get Kenneth his job back . She goes to Jack to ask him for his help , and Jack orders Jeffrey to hire Kenneth back .
When Representative Bookman makes an unexpected visit to New York , Jack tries to show NBC 's commitment to diversity , but is thwarted when Bookman sees signs next to two bathrooms that read " Colored " and " White " that were really intended for the paper recycling bins that had been removed only moments ago , and Jeffrey informing Jack and Bookman that the minority slot in the page program was filled by Kenneth . Jack tries to improve the situation by giving " head writer " Toofer a medal for his work , but Bookman sees right through this , and discovers that Liz is the only one that truly deserves her respect , and congratulates her . After more grandstanding , Bookman tells Jack she will vote no on the Kabletown @-@ NBC deal unless he gives her reason not to .
The episode ends with a taping of the Let 's Stay Together rewrite , including the talking dog .
= = Production = =
" Let 's Stay Together " was written by co @-@ executive producer Jack Burditt and directed by co @-@ executive producer and staff writer John Riggi . This was Burditt 's thirteenth writing credit after " Jack Meets Dennis " , " The Baby Show " , " The Fighting Irish " , " Cleveland " , " Rosemary 's Baby " , " Subway Hero " , " Sandwich Day " , " The One with the Cast of Night Court " , " St. Valentine 's Day " , " The Ones " , " Kidney Now ! " , and " Don Geiss , America and Hope " . This was Riggi 's fourth helmed episode , having directed " Goodbye , My Friend " , " The Problem Solvers " and " The Moms " . This episode of 30 Rock originally aired on NBC in the United States on October 7 , 2010 , as the third episode of the show 's fifth season and the 83rd overall episode of the series .
In September 2010 , it was announced that actress and singer Queen Latifah would guest star on the show as a Congresswoman named Regina Bookman who demands from Alec Baldwin 's character , Jack Donaghy , more diversity in its NBC programming lineup . Latifah is a fan of the show and big fan of Baldwin and series creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey . She said in an interview she was " out of my mind " excited to guest star . Latifah is due to appear in a future episode of 30 Rock . In addition , it was also confirmed that actor / director Rob Reiner would appear as himself , and in " Let 's Stay Together " he played a Congressman . Michael Ausiello of Entertainment Weekly reported in August 2010 that the show set a casting call " for an African @-@ American male in the 30s @-@ 60s age range " to play a fictitious host named Rutherford Rice , a well @-@ spoken host of Right On , a fictitious talk show focusing on African @-@ American issues . In this episode , Rutherford Rice was played by actor Reg E. Cathey , best known for his role on the HBO drama The Wire as Norman Wilson . Actor John Amos made a brief appearance in the episode in which he stars in one scene from the Let 's Stay Together show alongside a talking dog named Stanley the Dog . This was actor Todd Buonopane 's fourth appearance as the character Jeffrey Weinerslav , an NBC Human resource mediator . Buonopane previously appeared in the season three episodes " Believe in the Stars " , " Cutbacks " , and " Jackie Jormp @-@ Jomp " .
In an August 2010 interview , co @-@ showrunner and executive producer Robert Carlock was asked if the series would continue to make reference of the real @-@ life acquisition of NBC Universal by cable company Comcast — which occurred in November 2009 — to which Carlock replied that their version of the acquisition was in the " works " . Carlock noted that the NBC @-@ Comcast deal would not change the show 's " reason for existence " , explaining that since the merger has occurred it has made things " even funnier " for the staff writers . " To us it 's great , we 've been able to do our version of ' ripped from the headlines , ' which a lot of comedies don 't get to do . " In the episode , Representative Bookman called out NBC for being racist in regards to its programming lacking diversity . This subplot was based on real @-@ life in which Jeff Zucker , then @-@ President and CEO of NBC Universal , who attended the House Judiciary Committee hearing in February 2010 in discussions of the NBC @-@ Comcast deal , was asked by United States Representative Maxine Waters why the NBC network had not attempted to create shows that would appeal to the black community .
= = Cultural references = =
In the beginning of the episode , Liz tells Jack that her writing staff have been replacing her name @-@ plate title with various names including " F. Krueger . " She explains that the name refers to a time in which she got a chemical peel , wore a red and green sweater with a fedora . This is a reference to the fictional horror villain from the A Nightmare on Elm Street series Freddy Krueger 's appearance . During the hearing in Washington D.C. , Representative Rob Reiner says " The acclaimed director of When Harry Met Sally ... would never do that ! " , a reference to Reiner who directed the 1989 romantic comedy When Harry Met Sally ....
One of the applicants to become an NBC page plays a keyboard and sings in the tune of musician Billy Joel 's 1989 song " We Didn 't Start the Fire " . After returning from the hearing in Washington , in which Representative Bookman accused NBC of being racist , Jack tells Liz that during the hearing he did not pay attention to Bookman 's heartfelt speech as he was too busy trying to remember the name " of the black kid on Community " , a reference to actor Donald Glover who stars in Community — another NBC program — and who Jack is referring to . In addition , Glover was a former writer on 30 Rock . Coincidentally , guest star Queen Latifah executive produces the romantic comedy television series Let 's Stay Together that airs on BET .
30 Rock and Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip — both of which debuted on 2006 – 07 NBC lineup — revolved around the off @-@ camera happenings on a sketch comedy series . The first season episode " Jack the Writer " contained a self @-@ referencing walk and talk sequence , which was commonly used on Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip and Sorkin 's previous series The West Wing . In this episode , the walk and talk sequence is seen here in which Jack , before departing to Washington , has a discussion with Liz .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Let 's Stay Together " was watched by 4 @.@ 90 million households , according to the Nielsen Media Research . It received a 2 @.@ 1 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic , that is 2 @.@ 1 percent of all people in that group , and 7 percent of all people from that group watching television at the time , watched the episode . This was a decrease from the previous episode , " When It Rains , It Pours " , which was watched by 5 @.@ 688 million American viewers .
Andy Greenwald of New York magazine called " Let 's Stay Together " a " pretty great episode for a show that ... seems to have gotten its groove back . " Television columnist Alan Sepiwall for HitFix who enjoyed the previous week 's episode as he believed the show was back in peak , noted that the show " was back to more uneven , but still funny , territory " with this episode . Sepinwall felt that parts of the episode " worked just fine " , and enjoyed Liz 's disastrous appearance on Right On . He , however , did not like Jenna and Kenneth 's pageant story . A contributor from The Huffington Post said the episode had a " ton of hilarious moments " , and that Queen Latifah " was the highlight of the show " . Vanity Fair 's Juli Weiner enjoyed Maulik Pancholy 's appearance as Jack 's assistant Jonathan , writing that Jonathan is " perhaps the most underutilized character on the show , and we were happy to see him get some screen time this episode . " Further in her recap , Weiner said " Thank you , Jenna and Jack , for mercifully putting an end to the tension @-@ less Kenneth 's @-@ rehiring narrative . " Meredith Blake from the Los Angeles Times deemed it a " wildly clever and satiric episode " that also " delivered an important critique about the limitations of diversity programs . " Blake said that Jane Krakowski 's Jenna was on fire in " Let 's Stay Together " . Scott Eidler of The Cornell Daily Sun commented that the show has always dealt with racism issues " pretty well " and that the issue featured here " was no exception . " Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad reported that " Let 's Stay Together " was one of his favorite episodes of the season , and that it was a " massively pleasing episode . " Caitlan Smith of The Atlantic wrote that Latifah " stole the show " and " drove the action " as her character Regina Bookman in this episode of 30 Rock .
The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin called this episode " clumsy and tired " , explaining it was " misfiring on all cylinders . The satire was toothless , the playing strained and the whole enterprise reeked of mild desperation . " He continued in his recap that " Let 's Stay Together " had a " golden opportunity to comment insightfully and hilariously about the tricky intersection of politics , power , race and privilege " , however " it recycled jokes that were unfunny and overly familiar the first time around " . In conclusion , Rabin gave it a C grade rating . Brad Sanders of the Indiana Daily Student opined that the show 's writing " is still sharp – not ' as sharp as ever , ' but sharp – but a lot of the most interesting plots have already played out , and a lot of the new plots aren 't interesting . " Sanders said that the stories featured here had " a few big laughs ... but they 're assembled so haphazardly and put into such a bulky framework that the train just never gets enough steam to salvage the episode . "
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= West Virginia Mountaineers football =
The West Virginia Mountaineers football team represents West Virginia University ( also referred to as " WVU " or " West Virginia " ) in the NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) of college football . Dana Holgorsen is WVU 's current head coach , the 33rd in the program 's history . West Virginia plays its home games on Mountaineer Field at Milan Puskar Stadium on the campus of West Virginia University in Morgantown , West Virginia . The Mountaineers compete in the Big 12 Conference .
With a 727 – 482 – 45 record as of the conclusion of the 2015 season , WVU ranks 14th in victories among NCAA FBS programs , as well as the most victories among those programs that never claimed nor won a National Championship . West Virginia was originally classified as a College Division school in the 1937 season , and joined the University Division , forerunner of Division I , in 1939 . It has been a member of Division I FBS since 1978 ( known as Division I @-@ A until 2006 ) . The Mountaineers have registered 81 winning seasons in their history , including one unbeaten season ( 10 – 0 – 1 in 1922 ) and five 11 @-@ win seasons ( 1988 , 1993 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 ) . The Mountaineers have won or shared a total of 15 conference championships , including eight Southern Conference titles and seven Big East Conference titles .
= = History = =
= = = Early years ( 1891 – 1920 ) = = =
The West Virginia University football program traces its origin back to November 28 , 1891 when its first team fell to Washington & Jefferson 72 – 0 on a converted cow pasture . Despite its humble beginning , West Virginia enjoyed a 25 – 23 – 3 overall record prior to 1900 , which proved to be a fruitful century of Mountaineer football . The early 1900s brought about early successes for the program , namely during the 1903 and 1905 seasons when WVU posted records of 7 – 1 and 8 – 1 respectively . WVU produced a 6 – 3 record in the 1904 season , despite losing to Penn State , Pitt , and Michigan by a combined score of 217 – 0 . The 1908 – 20 period produced the four @-@ year head coaching tenures of C.A. Lueder ( 1908 – 11 ) and Mont McIntire ( 1916 – 17 , 1919 – 20 ) , representing the longest coaching tenures during this early period of Mountaineer football . Lueder 's Mountaineers produced a 17 – 13 – 3 record , while McIntire 's teams produced the most success of any Mountaineer team prior to 1921 , compiling a 24 – 11 – 4 record including an 8 – 2 finish in 1919 . That same Mountaineer team also produced West Virginia 's first ever Consensus All @-@ American and potential College Football Hall of Fame inductee , Ira Errett Rodgers . Rodgers scored 19 touchdowns and kicked 33 extra points for WVU in 1919 season , leading the nation with 147 total points . Rodgers also threw 11 touchdown passes that season , an unheard of feat at the time and a Mountaineer record until 1949 .
= = = The Spears and Rodgers years ( 1921 – 31 ) = = =
The Mountaineers enjoyed their first period of success during the 1920s , coinciding with the successful coaching tenures of Clarence Spears ( 1921 – 24 ) and Ira Errett Rodgers ( 1925 – 30 , 1943 – 45 ) . Under the tutelage of Spears , West Virginia compiled a 30 – 6 – 3 record with its best performance coming in the 1922 season . The 1922 edition of the Mountaineers remains the only team in West Virginia history to produce an unbeaten season , finishing with a 10 – 0 – 1 mark . Spears 's Mountaineers surrendered only 34 total points in 1922 , posting six consecutive shutouts to finish the regular season . The 1922 season also produced notable victories against rival Pitt and against Gonzaga in the East @-@ West Bowl , the program 's first bowl game appearance . Offensive tackle Russell Meredith garnered First @-@ Team All @-@ American honors . In homage to the successes of the 1922 season , West Virginia University undertook construction of what became the first incarnation of Mountaineer Field .
The Mountaineers continued their success under Spears in posting subsequent one @-@ loss seasons in 1923 ( 7 – 1 – 1 ) and in 1924 ( 8 – 1 ) , with Spears departing the program for Minnesota thereafter . Ira Errett Rodgers replaced Spears and the Mountaineers posted an 8 – 1 record in 1925 . After a 6 @-@ 4 finish in 1926 and a 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 3 record in 1927 , the program produced a 8 – 2 finish in 1928 . Rodgers 's first tenure as West Virginia coach ended with records of 4 – 3 – 3 in 1929 and 5 @-@ 5 in 1930 .
= = = The Neale , Tallman and Glenn years ( 1931 – 39 ) = = =
Taking over for Rodgers in 1931 was Earle " Greasy " Neale , but his tenure was short @-@ lived as the Mountaineers failed to produce a single winning season under his guise , going a combined 12 – 16 – 3 over Neale 's three years as coach . Charles Tallman , an End who achieved All @-@ American status with the Mountaineers in 1923 with the Mountaineers , replaced Neale in 1934 and produced immediate results as the program posted 6 – 4 records in 1934 and 1936 . Although West Virginia posted a 3 – 4 – 2 record in 1935 , the program produced an All @-@ American in Joe Stydahar , an offensive tackle . " Jumbo Joe " later became both a College Football Hall of Fame and Pro Football Hall of Fame inductee . Despite his winning record , Tallman resigned after the 1936 season to pursue his career in law enforcement as Superintendent of the West Virginia State Police .
Marshall Glenn picked up right where Tallman left off , leading West Virginia to an 8 – 1 – 1 record in 1937 . The season concluded with an upset of Texas Tech in the 1938 Sun Bowl . Running back Harry Clarke led the way for the Mountaineers that season , rushing for a then school record 921 yards and 10 touchdowns . Glenn 's success was short @-@ lived , however , as subsequent WVU teams posted losing records of 4 – 5 – 1 in 1938 and 2 – 6 – 1 in 1939 , leading to his ouster .
= = = The split tenures of Rodgers and Kern , and the DeGroot years ( 1940 – 49 ) = = =
West Virginia experienced a lag in success during much of the 1940s , producing only three winning seasons while witnessing the split coaching tenures of Bill Kern ( 1940 – 42 , 1946 – 47 ) and the second appearance of Ira Errett Rodgers ( 1943 – 45 ) . Under the direction of head coach Dudley DeGroot in the 1948 season , the Mountaineers returned to prominence with a 9 – 3 finish , adding another Sun Bowl victory to its resume with a 21 – 12 defeat of Texas Western ( now known as UTEP ) . Despite that successful first season at the program 's helm , DeGroot resigned after a disappointing 4 – 6 – 1 finish in 1949 .
= = = The Lewis , Corum and Carlen years ( 1950 – 69 ) = = =
When Art " Pappy " Lewis became West Virginia 's head coach in 1950 , he remarked that it was the job that he had always wanted . Known by his peers as an exceptional recruiter and by his players as a father figure , Lewis established a family @-@ like atmosphere within the Mountaineer football program . Lewis 's Mountaineer teams held true to form , experiencing their most consistent success during the 1950s as it ever had previously . After forgettable campaigns in 1950 and ' 1951 , the 1952 season brought WVU its first winning season since 1948 . The Mountaineers finished with a 7 – 2 record , highlighted by a 16 – 0 upset victory of No. 18 Pitt in Pittsburgh . It was this winning season that would set the tone for the halcyon days of Art Lewis 's program .
Beginning with the 1953 season , the Mountaineers would reel off three consecutive eight @-@ win seasons and five Southern Conference ( SoCon ) championships in six seasons . Led by three All @-@ Americans — running back Tommy Allman , guard Gene Lamone , and center Bob Orders — the Mountaineers finished with an 8 – 2 record , their first SoCon championship , a No. 10 ranking in the Associated Press ( AP ) Poll , and a berth in the 1953 Sugar Bowl with Georgia Tech . The 1954 edition of the Mountaineers also finished the regular season with an 8 – 1 mark , losing their only game to Pitt by a 13 – 10 score . The Mountaineers did not earn a bowl bid , however , despite winning their second consecutive SoCon title and earning a No. 12 ranking in the AP Poll . In 1955 , the Mountaineers engineered yet another eight @-@ win season and SoCon championship , but upset losses to Pitt and Syracuse doomed West Virginia 's shot at a bowl bid . Despite its disappointing finish , WVU produced two All @-@ American offensive linemen and future College Football Hall of Fame inductees in Bruce Bosley and Sam Huff . Bosley earned Consensus All @-@ American status that season , becoming the first Mountaineer to do so since Ira Errett Rodgers in 1919 .
Despite finishing with a modest 6 – 4 record in 1956 , West Virginia won its fourth consecutive SoCon title with a 5 – 0 record in conference play . The 1957 season was yet another winning endeavor for Lewis and WVU , finishing with a 7 – 2 – 1 record and a 3 – 0 mark in Southern Conference play . Although the Mountaineers once again compiled an undefeated SoCon record , Mountaineers were not awarded the conference championship , as VMI earned the title with a 9 – 0 – 1 overall record and 6 – 0 record in SoCon play . In 1958 , the Mountaineers had their first losing season in eight years , but their 4 – 0 record in SoCon play earned them a 5th conference title in six seasons . Unfortunately for Art Lewis and his Mountaineers , 1958 was the final season that West Virginia would win a conference championship under his tenure . The Mountaineers finished 3 – 7 in 1959 , losing the final five games of the season by a combined score of 24 – 140 . Lewis resigned as head coach afterward . Despite the program 's drop off in success in his final two seasons as coach , Lewis produced 58 victories overall during his tenure at West Virginia , placing him third overall in the program 's history .
After Lewis 's departure , the program hit an all @-@ time low in 1960 under first @-@ year head coach Gene Corum , posting its worst season to date : 0 – 8 – 2 . The Mountaineers were simply outclassed by their opponents , being outscored 40 – 259 on the season . The Mountaineers rebounded , however , and by 1962 were back to their winning ways , posting an 8 – 2 record and 4 – 0 conference record . Despite their undefeated conference record , once again the SoCon crown eluded the Mountaineers in favor of the VMI Keydets and their 6 – 0 record in conference play . West Virginia did not have to wait long for its next SoCon title , however , as the program won the title in the 1964 and 1965 seasons consecutively . The Mountaineers finished 7 – 4 in 1964 and participated in the Liberty Bowl against Utah , West Virginia 's first bowl game in 11 years as well as the first major college football bowl game ever played indoors and to be broadcast nationwide in the United States . Corum 's tenure ended thereafter , posting a 29 – 30 – 2 record over his six seasons as head coach . Corum 's legacy went well beyond wins and losses , however , as he integrated WVU football in 1963 with the program 's first African @-@ American recruits in Roger Alford and Dick Leftridge .
Following the 1965 season , Jim Carlen took over for Corum as head coach . After a 3 – 5 – 2 finish in 1966 , Carlen guided the Mountaineers to their 8th and final SoCon championship in 1967 . West Virginia left the Southern Conference thereafter , participating as an independent until 1991 . Carlen 's Mountaineers would produce subsequent winning seasons in 1968 and 1969 , posting records of 7 – 3 and 10 – 1 , respectively . The 1969 edition of the Mountaineers was the most successful West Virginia team since the 1922 season . Not only did the Mountaineers win 10 games , but they earned their first bowl game victory since 1948 with a Peach Bowl victory over No. 19 South Carolina , as well as a No. 18 final ranking in the Coaches Poll . The dynamic rushing tandem of running back Bob Gresham ( 1 @,@ 155 yards and 9 touchdowns ) and fullback Jim Braxton ( 843 yards , 12 touchdowns ) led the Mountaineers . Gresham became the second Mountaineer to ever rush for more than 1 @,@ 000 yards ( Garrett Ford , Sr. was the first with 1 @,@ 068 yards in 1966 ) . At the conclusion of the 1969 season , Carlen departed West Virginia for Texas Tech . The Mountaineers responded by hiring Bobby Bowden .
= = = The Bowden years ( 1970 – 75 ) = = =
It appeared that the Bobby Bowden era of Mountaineer football could not have begun more smoothly early in the 1970 season , or so it seemed . The Mountaineers were 4 – 1 to start the season and led arch rival Pitt 35 – 8 at halftime in week six . What transpired was one of the most infamous collapses in Backyard Brawl and West Virginia football history . The Mountaineers surrendered 28 unanswered points , losing to the Panthers 36 – 35 and leading Bowden to remark that he had " embarrassed the whole state of West Virginia " in the process . Despite the disappointment of the Pitt defeat , West Virginia went on to finish the 1970 season with a 8 – 3 record.Fullback Jim Braxton and linebacker Dale Farley earned All @-@ American honors .
The Mountaineers continued their winning ways under Bowden in 1971 and 1972 , posting records of 7 – 4 and 8 – 4 respectively . The 1972 West Virginia team earned the program 's first trip back to a bowl game in three years , participating once again in the Peach Bowl against North Carolina State . The season also witnessed the offensive prowess of running back Kerry Marbury and wide receiver Danny Buggs . Marbury ran for 16 touchdowns in 1972 , a record that remained unbroken until 2002 . Buggs recorded 35 receptions for 791 yards and eight touchdowns , ran for four touchdowns , and returned two punts for touchdowns to amass 14 total touchdowns .
The 1973 and 1974 seasons , however , were not successful campaigns for the Mountaineers , as they finished with lackluster records of 6 – 5 and 4 – 7 . Despite the disappointment of those seasons , Danny Buggs earned All @-@ American status for his contributions in both campaigns . His 69 @-@ yard punt return for a touchdown with 36 seconds remaining to beat Maryland in the 1973 season opener remains one of the greatest moments in Mountaineer history . The 1975 season , however , was successful . The Mountaineers compiled a 9 – 3 record , a 13 – 10 Peach Bowl victory over North Carolina State , and a final ranking of No. 17 in the Coaches Poll and # 20 in the AP Poll . Additionally , the Mountaineers upset the No. 20 Pitt Panthers 17 – 14 on a game @-@ winning field goal in the closing seconds in yet another memorable chapter of the Backyard Brawl . Bowden later described the victory as one of the most exciting ones of his coaching career . Following the 1975 season , Bowden left WVU to become the head coach at Florida State , where he would become the second winningest coach in NCAA Division I @-@ A / FBS history . In just six seasons with the Mountaineers , Bowden produced a 42 – 26 record , good for fifth all @-@ time in the program . Bowden 's departure not only signaled the end of his tenure at West Virginia , but to the end of WVU 's winning ways in the 1970s .
= = = The Cignetti years ( 1976 – 79 ) = = =
Under the direction of Frank Cignetti , the Mountaineers endured four consecutive losing seasons . West Virginia completed the 1976 season with a 5 – 6 record , losing four of its final six games . The disappointment of 1976 was realized again the following season , as the Mountaineers posted another 5 – 6 finish in 1977 . After a promising 4 – 1 start to the season , including an upset road victory over No. 11 Maryland , WVU lost five of its final six games . The Mountaineers finished 2 @-@ 9 in 1978 , being outscored 364 – 167 . It was later revealed that Cignetti had suffered from a rare form of cancer during the season , nearly losing his life on the operating table during a procedure to remove his spleen in the winter of 1978 . The 1979 season was Cignetti 's final with the program . The Mountaineers produced another 5 – 6 finish , losing their first three games and later dropping three out of their final four games .
Despite the program 's losing seasons during Cignetti 's tenure , Cignetti managed to land prized recruit and future Consensus All @-@ American linebacker Darryl Talley , as well as standout quarterback and future Athletic Director Oliver Luck and running back Robert Alexander . Cignetti ’ s coaching staffs also consisted of some of the best coaches in college football , including Nick Saban , Joe Pendry and Rick Trickett ( who , along with Rich Rodriguez , was later credited as an innovator in utilizing the zone blocking scheme in conjunction with the run @-@ based spread offense at WVU ) . However , with a 17 – 27 record during his four years with the program , and in having to follow in the footsteps of the great Bobby Bowden ( who later became the second all @-@ time leader in victories amongst NCAA FBS coaches ) , Cignetti 's legacy is one of the most conflicted in the program 's history .
= = = The Nehlen years , part one ( 1980 – 90 ) = = =
In the wake of Frank Cignetti 's firing , the West Virginia Athletic Department determined that a full rebuild was in order . On December 10 , 1979 , West Virginia introduced Don Nehlen as its new head coach , the 30th coach in the program 's history . Coinciding with Nehlen 's hire was the construction of the second incarnation of Mountaineer Field , the program 's current home stadium . Nehlen brought several changes to the Mountaineer football program , including a new logo and color scheme that remains in use to this day . The result was consistency and success for the program during his two @-@ decade tenure at West Virginia . After a 6 – 6 campaign in 1980 , Nehlen 's 1981 Mountaineer team produced the first of 15 winning seasons under his direction . It also marked the first of three consecutive nine @-@ win seasons and four consecutive bowl game appearances for the Mountaineers . Led by senior quarterback Oliver Luck 's 2 @,@ 448 yards passing and 16 touchdowns , the 1981 team posted a 9 – 3 record and earned a trip back to the Peach Bowl , where they defeated the Florida Gators 26 – 6 . WVU also finished ranked in the polls for the first time since 1975 , coming in at No. 17 and No. 18 in the AP and Coaches Polls , respectively .
The 1982 Mountaineers experienced similar success . Sparked by their come @-@ from @-@ behind upset victory over No. 9 Oklahoma to open the season , the Mountaineers finished with a 9 – 2 record , remaining ranked in the AP poll throughout the season en route to a Gator Bowl berth with Bobby Bowden and Florida State . Despite its Gator Bowl loss , West Virginia once again finished the season 9 – 3 and ranked 19th in both final polls . The team also produced the program 's first Consensus All @-@ American since 1955 in senior linebacker Darryl Talley . The Mountaineers won their first six games at the outset of the 1983 season , attaining a No. 4 ranking in the AP Poll . With a 41 – 23 upset loss to 1983 in week 8 , however , West Virginia 's hopes of an undefeated season collapsed . WVU lost three of its final five regular season games before defeating Kentucky in the Hall of Fame Classic to finish the season at 9 – 3 . It was the third consecutive season for WVU to finish ranked , coming in at No. 16 in both the AP and Coaches Polls . Quarterback Jeff Hostetler led the offensive attack with 2 @,@ 345 yards passing and 16 touchdowns , while Kicker Paul Woodside received All @-@ American honors in converting 21 of 25 field goal attempts and all 37 of his extra point attempts en route to a team @-@ leading 100 points .
Although the 1984 season had all off the makings of a memorable one for West Virginia , the Mountaineers experienced another letdown . WVU started the season with a 7 – 1 record , posting an upset victory over No. 4 Boston College and its first victory over Penn State in 25 meetings along the way . The Mountaineers were upset in each of their final three regular season games , however , losing to Virginia , Rutgers and Temple . WVU rebounded to defeat Texas Christian in the Bluebonnet Bowl , finishing the season at 8 – 4 with a No. 21 ranking in the final Coaches poll . The Mountaineers also produced three All @-@ Americans in return specialist Willie Drewrey , kicker Paul Woodside , and tight end Rob Bennett .
After four consecutive seasons of bowl berths and finishes in at least one of the polls , West Virginia went on a two @-@ year drought in 1985 and 1986 , finishing those seasons with records of 7 – 3 – 1 and 4 – 7 ( Nehlen 's first of only four losing seasons ) respectively . The shortcomings of those seasons came to a head in 1987 , where the Mountaineers endured a season of growing pains and near @-@ misses . Despite a 1 – 3 start , West Virginia rallied to finish the regular season at 6 – 5 with four of its five losses coming by deficits of 5 points or less . Freshman quarterback Major Harris led the way for the Mountaineers , compiling 16 total touchdowns and providing glimpses of what was to come in his illustrious collegiate career . The season culminated in a 35 – 33 loss to No. 11 Oklahoma State in the Sun Bowl , a game in which the Mountaineers led 24 – 14 at halftime and lost on a failed two @-@ point conversion attempt with 1 : 13 remaining .
The 1988 edition of the Mountaineers featured gifted sophomore quarterback Major Harris and a stifling defense . Entering the season at No. 16 in the AP Poll , West Virginia achieved an undefeated regular season , compiling 11 wins for the first time in its history . The Mountaineers averaged 43 points and 483 yards per game during the regular season , rolling up 30 or more points in 10 of their games , including a 51 – 30 rout of rival Penn State , the most points ever surrendered by a Joe Paterno @-@ coached team . The success of the regular season culminated in West Virginia 's first and only trip to a National Championship Game in its history , where the No. 3 Mountaineers met No. 1 Notre Dame in the Fiesta Bowl . On the third play of the game , Harris separated his left shoulder , an injury that diminished his scrambling ability as he amassed only 11 yards rushing . Despite the injury and with WVU trailing 26 – 13 in the 3rd quarter , Harris and the Mountaineers were in position to mount a comeback at the Irish 26 @-@ yard line . The WVU offense sputtered , however , and Notre Dame 's Tony Rice put the game out of reach with his second touchdown pass of the contest . Notre Dame went on to win 34 – 21 and claimed the National Championship . The once prolific Mountaineer offense amassed only 282 total yards against the Irish defense . West Virginia finished the 1988 campaign ranked No. 5 in both the AP and Coaches Polls . Major Harris compiled 610 yards rushing , 1 @,@ 915 yards passing , and 20 total touchdowns on the season .
Coming off of its first ever 11 @-@ win season and with junior Major Harris returning to lead a potent offense , West Virginia entered the 1989 season with high expectations and a No. 17 ranking in the AP Poll . The Mountaineers raced to a 4 – 0 record and to No. 9 in the AP Poll . In Week 5 against No. 10 Pitt , however , West Virginia fell victim to another memorable collapse in the Backyard Brawl . Trailing 31 – 9 in the 4th quarter , Pitt scored 22 unanswered points and kicked a game @-@ tying field goal as time expired to force a 31 – 31 tie . The Mountaineers suffered another defeat the following week with a 12 – 10 home loss to Virginia Tech , followed by a 19 – 9 loss to No. 16 Penn State in State College . Despite those defeats , WVU finished the regular season at 8 – 2 – 1 , a No. 17 ranking in the AP Poll , and a trip to the Gator Bowl to face No. 14 Clemson . The Mountaineers faltered , however , losing 27 – 7 and finished the season at 8 – 3 – 1 with a No. 21 ranking in the final AP Poll . The 1990 season , West Virginia 's final as a NCAA Division I @-@ A Independent , coincided with a lackluster 4 – 7 finish .
= = = The Nehlen years , part two ( 1991 – 2000 ) = = =
West Virginia entered the 1991 season as new members of the Big East in what became a 20 @-@ year affiliation with the conference . After finishes of 6 – 5 in 1991 and 5 – 4 – 2 in 1992 , the Mountaineers returned to ranks of the college football elite in the 1993 season . For the second time in six seasons , West Virginia produced an undefeated , 11 @-@ win regular season in 1993 . The Mountaineers engineered several close victories , beginning with a 36 – 34 upset of No. 17 Louisville at home in Morgantown . In its final two regular season games , WVU twice erased 4th quarter deficits to defeat No. 4 Miami and No. 11 Boston College . Despite finishing the regular season undefeated and ranked No. 2 in the Coaches Poll and No. 3 in the AP Poll , West Virginia was not selected to play in the Orange Bowl for a possible National Championship . The Bowl Coalition system , designed to place the top two ranked teams in a bowl to determine the National Champion , slotted the Mountaineers at No. 3 behind 11 – 1 Florida State . The Seminoles were selected to play No. 1 Nebraska in the Orange Bowl for the National Championship , while West Virginia settled for a Sugar Bowl berth against SEC Champion Florida . The Gators routed the Mountaineers 41 – 7 , denying West Virginia its perfect season . WVU finished the season at 11 – 1 , ranked No. 6 in the Coaches Poll and No. 7 in the AP Poll . Robert Walker amassed a then @-@ school record 1 @,@ 250 rushing yards , along with 11 touchdowns on the season .
Unfortunately for Nehlen , the 1993 season was his final season with double @-@ digit victories as his subsequent Mountaineer teams failed to recapture that level of success . After posting a 7 – 6 record in 1994 and a 5 – 6 mark in 1995 , the 1996 Mountaineers showed promise of returning the program to national prominence . West Virginia began the 1996 season with a 7 – 0 record , only to lose three of its final four regular season games en route to an 8 – 3 record and a 20 – 13 defeat in the Gator Bowl at the hands of No. 12 North Carolina to finish 8 – 4 . The Mountaineers put together another strong start in 1997 , taking a 7 – 2 record into the final two weeks of the season . Once again , the Mountaineers faltered as they lost 21 – 14 at Notre Dame and 41 – 38 in triple overtime to a 5 – 5 Pitt team to finish the regular season at 7 – 4 . The late season collapse culminated in another bowl game defeat , this time to Georgia Tech in the Carquest Bowl . Despite the disappointing conclusion to the season , quarterback Marc Bulger emerged as a capable leader throwing for 2 @,@ 465 yards and 14 touchdowns . Running back Amos Zereoué shattered Robert Walker 's rushing record with 1 @,@ 589 yards , and his 18 rushing touchdowns are the second most in a single season at WVU .
The 1998 season brought high expectations for the Mountaineers , as WVU entered the season ranked No. 11 in the AP Poll . Despite dropping its opening game to No. 1 Ohio State , West Virginia rebounded to win its next four games and went on to finish the season with an 8 – 3 record and 5 – 2 mark in Big East conference play . The Mountaineers failed to attain nine wins , however , as they lost their 8th consecutive bowl game in the Insight.com Bowl to Missouri . Bulger set two WVU records with 3 @,@ 607 yards passing and 31 touchdown passes , while Zereoué amassed 1 @,@ 462 yards rushing and 13 touchdowns in his final season as a Mountaineer . Receivers Shawn Foreman and David Saunders finished with eight touchdown receptions each . After a 4 – 7 finish in 1999 , Don Nehlen 's final season with the Mountaineers in 2000 culminated in a 7 – 5 record with a victory in the Music City Bowl over Ole Miss , ending West Virginia 's streak of futility in bowl games .
Overall , Nehlen posted a 149 – 93 – 4 record during his tenure at West Virginia , making him both the longest @-@ serving and most successful head coach in Mountaineer history . While his coaching tenure contained numerous successes , Nehlen 's time at WVU also included its share of shortcomings as his Mountaineer teams often struggled against ranked opponents and in bowl games . However , as the man responsible for shaping the Mountaineer football program and bringing it to national relevancy in his 21 seasons in Morgantown , Nehlen was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 2005 . Most importantly , his tenure laid the foundation for the program 's most successful and prominent era .
= = = The Rodriguez years ( 2001 – 2007 ) = = =
After Nehlen 's retirement , WVU welcomed its first new head coach in 20 years and the 31st coach in its history : Rich Rodriguez . Rodriguez 's tenure began ignominiously , as the 2001 edition of the Mountaineers finished 3 – 8 , its worst record since 1978 . The failures of 2001 , however , set the stage for the emergence of the most successful era in Mountaineer football history .
The 2002 season represented the biggest single @-@ season turnaround in program history . Despite a 5 – 3 record through the season 's first eight games , the Mountaineers reeled off four consecutive victories , including upset road wins over then @-@ ranked rivals Virginia Tech ( No. 13 ) and Pitt ( No. 17 ) .West Virginia finished the regular season at 9 – 3 overall , with a 6 – 1 conference record for second place in the Big East , and a berth in the Continental Tire Bowl with Virginia . Despite losing its bowl game , West Virginia finished with a 9 – 4 record and was ranked in both the final Coaches ( No. 20 ) and AP ( No. 25 ) polls for the first time since 1993 . The momentum generated from the 2002 campaign was short @-@ lived as the Mountaineers stumbled to a 1 – 4 record early in the 2003 season . In similar fashion to the previous season , West Virginia rebounded and recorded seven wins in a row , including upsets of No. 3 Virginia Tech and No. 16 Pitt . The Mountaineers ended the regular season at 8 – 4 with a 6 – 1 conference mark , earning them a share of their first Big East title since 1993 . West Virginia earned a trip to the Gator Bowl for a rematch with rival Maryland . The result for the Mountaineers was a near duplicate of their 34 – 7 defeat to the Terrapins earlier in the season , as they fell 41 – 7 and finished the season 8 – 5 .
In contrast to 2002 and 2003 , the 2004 season may best be remembered for what the Mountaineers failed to accomplish . West Virginia , ranked No. 10 in the AP Poll to begin the season , carried an 8 – 1 record through its first nine games . The Mountaineers collapsed in the final two games of the regular season , however , losing to No. 21 Boston College and to Pitt . West Virginia squandered its opportunity to win the Big East outright , leading to a four @-@ way tie for first place and the BCS Fiesta Bowl nomination going to Pitt by tiebreaker . The disappointing season drew to a close with 30 – 18 loss to Florida State in the Gator Bowl , giving WVU an 8 – 4 record .
The 2005 season was a noteworthy one for the Mountaineers . After a 5 – 1 ( albeit offensively sluggish ) start to the season , the Mountaineers came alive in Week 7 against No. 19 Louisville . Quarterback Pat White and running back Steve Slaton helped to erase a 24 – 7 4th quarter deficit en route to a thrilling 46 – 44 triple overtime victory . From that point forward , the Mountaineers outscored their opponents 156 – 39 en route to a 10 – 1 finish and a 7 – 0 record in conference play for their second outright Big East championship . The Mountaineers also earned their first ever BCS bowl game berth , facing No. 8 Georgia in the Sugar Bowl . West Virginia scored 21 points in the 1st quarter , holding on for a 38 – 35 upset victory . The Mountaineers finished the 2005 season with their third 11 @-@ win season and achieved rankings of No. 5 and No. 6 in the AP and Coaches Polls , respectively .
The Mountaineers once again posted 11 wins in the 2006 season , narrowly missing out on another Big East championship after losses to Louisville and South Florida . The Mountaineers produced another triple @-@ overtime thriller with a 41 – 39 victory over No. 13 Rutgers in the final game of the regular season . West Virginia remained ranked in the top 15 in both polls throughout the season , earning another New Year 's Day bowl game as they met Georgia Tech in the Gator Bowl . The Mountaineers came away with another 38 – 35 victory , winning consecutive bowl games for the first time since the 1983 and 1984 seasons . Additionally , center Dan Mozes and running back Steve Slaton earned Consensus All @-@ American honors . Slaton 's 1 @,@ 744 yards rushing set the WVU single @-@ season rushing record .
The 2007 season may well be regarded as the most infamous season in West Virginia football history . The Mountaineers attained a preseason ranking of No. 3 and had National Championship aspirations . WVU raced to a 10 – 1 record , including a 66 – 21 victory over UConn to secure its fifth Big East title and its second BCS bowl appearance . The Mountaineers rose to as high as No. 2 in the AP Poll and No. 1 in the Coaches Poll , needing only a victory at home over a 4 – 7 , 28 @-@ point underdog Pitt team in the 100th installment of the Backyard Brawl to secure its second ever National Championship Game appearance . That victory did not come , as The Mountaineer offense sputtered against an inspired Pitt defense to the tune of a devastating 13 – 9 defeat .
= = = The Stewart years ( 2007 @-@ 2011 ) = = =
The fallout of the Pitt defeat reached beyond National Championship implications for the program , as it culminated in the departure of Rich Rodriguez to Michigan . Rodriguez left prior to West Virginia 's meeting with No. 3 Oklahoma in the Fiesta Bowl . The Mountaineers proved resilient , however , as they put together a 48 – 28 victory over the heavily favored Sooners . Long @-@ time assistant coach Bill Stewart , named as interim head coach for the game , was rewarded afterward with a five @-@ year contract to become West Virginia 's 32nd head coach . The Mountaineers concluded the 2007 season with an 11 – 2 record and were ranked at No. 6 in both of the final AP and Coaches Polls .
The Mountaineers transitioned into the Bill Stewart era in the 2008 season . It was also the final season of Pat White 's decorated collegiate career . WVU amassed a 9 – 4 record and a second @-@ place finish in the Big East , closing the season Meineke Car Care Bowl victory over North Carolina and a No. 23 ranking in the AP Poll . The bowl victory was West Virginia 's fourth in a row , giving White a postseason record of 4 – 0 as a starting quarterback , a feat never before accomplished in collegiate play . White 's biggest accomplishment came in Week 13 , however , when he set the NCAA rushing yardage record for quarterbacks with a 200 @-@ yard performance in a 35 – 21 win over Louisville .
The 2009 season culminated in another nine @-@ win campaign and second @-@ place finish in the Big East for the Mountaineers . Most notably , WVU ended its two @-@ year losing streak in the Backyard Brawl and exacted a measure of revenge for the 2007 defeat with an upset victory over No. 8 Pitt on Tyler Bitancurt 's game @-@ winning 43 @-@ yard field goal in the closing seconds . West Virginia 's season ended on a sour note , however , as it lost the Gator Bowl to a 6 – 6 Florida State team in Bobby Bowden 's final game . The 2010 season brought the program its third consecutive nine @-@ win season . Nonetheless , the season was ultimately a disappointment for the Mountaineers . Despite assembling arguably the strongest defense in program history ( surrendering only 176 total points , an average of 13 @.@ 5 per game ) and having a talented offense , West Virginia struggled with consistency all season . The Mountaineers lost to No. 15 LSU , Syracuse and UConn by a combined 14 points , while the Mountaineer defense did not surrender more than 23 points scored against in a single game throughout the season . The most glaring defeat of the season came against Connecticut in Week 9 where West Virginia lost four fumbles , including one at Connecticut 's 1 @-@ yard line in overtime , in a 16 @-@ 13 loss . The loss came back to haunt the Mountaineers as they once again lost out on a BCS Bowl bid by virtue of a tiebreaker to Connecticut .
Prior to West Virginia 's Champs Sports Bowl match up with North Carolina State , Athletic Director Oliver Luck announced the hiring of Dana Holgorsen as the " coach @-@ in @-@ waiting , " serving as offensive coordinator during the 2011 season and replacing Stewart as head coach in 2012 . Luck reasoned that he did not believe that the Mountaineers had an opportunity to win a national championship with the program under Stewart 's guise . Nearly six months later , the coach @-@ in @-@ waiting arrangement imploded as Stewart resigned amid accusations of initiating a smear campaign against Holgorsen .
= = = The Holgorsen years ( 2011 @-@ 2016 ) = = =
The onset of the Dana Holgorsen era brought about heightened expectations for the program as the Mountaineers entered the 2011 season as the odds @-@ on favorite to win the Big East title . The Mountaineers finished the regular season with a 9 – 3 record ( 5 – 2 in Big East play ) and a share of its 7th Big East title . The Mountaineers were the only Big East team ranked in the final BCS standings ( No. 23 ) , earning the BCS bid by tiebreaker and an Orange Bowl berth against ACC champion No. 14 Clemson . West Virginia 's first ever appearance in the Orange Bowl was a memorable one , as the Mountaineers soundly defeated Clemson 70 – 33 , setting a NCAA record for points scored in a bowl game . The Mountaineers finished the season at 10 – 3 and ranked No. 17 in the AP Poll and No. 18 in the Coaches Poll . Stedman Bailey and Tavon Austin produced the two most prolific single @-@ season receiving yard totals in WVU history , finishing with 1 @,@ 279 yards and 1 @,@ 186 yards , respectively .
From 2002 – 2011 , the Mountaineer football program yielded its most prolific era to date , producing a 95 – 33 record . During that span WVU participated in ten bowl games , finished ranked in at least one of the AP or Coaches Polls on seven occasions , won six Big East Conference titles , and produced three BCS bowl game victories .
In the midst of continued college football conference realignment , WVU received an invitation to join the Big 12 Conference beginning July 1 , 2012 . West Virginia subsequently expressed its intention to leave the Big East prior to the 27 @-@ month waiting period stipulated by the conference 's by @-@ laws . The resulting litigation between WVU and the Big East produced a $ 20 million settlement , allowing the Mountaineers to depart from the Big East for the 2012 season . Despite starting its inaugural season in the Big 12 at 5 – 0 and climbing into the top 5 in the AP and Coaches Polls after upsetting No. 11 Texas in Austin , WVU lost six of its final eight games en route to a 7 – 6 finish . The season culminated in a loss to rival Syracuse in the Pinstripe Bowl . The season ended WVU 's run of 10 consecutive seasons with at least eight victories .
The 2013 season brought WVU 's first losing campaign since 2001 . After a 4 – 5 start and an opportunity to secure bowl eligibility with two victories , WVU faltered in its final three games to finish 4 – 8 . The Mountaineers rebounded in the 2014 season , posting a 7 – 6 record against a schedule featuring five opponents ranked in the top 15 . WVU raced to a 6 – 2 start , highlighted by an upset of eventual Big 12 champion Baylor , only to lose four of its final five games . The Mountaineers returned to a bowl game in 2014 , losing to Texas A & M in the Liberty Bowl . WVU returned to the eight @-@ win plateau in 2015 season , posting a 7 @-@ 5 record during the regular season and winning the Cactus Bowl , to finish at 8 @-@ 5 .
= = Facilities = =
See also : Mountaineer Field at Milan Puskar Stadium , Mountaineer Field ( 1924 )
= = = Mountaineer Field = = =
Since 1891 , the Mountaineers have played their home games in Morgantown , West Virginia along with neutral @-@ site games at numerous locations throughout West Virginia , most notably in Charleston , Clarksburg , Fairmont , Parkersburg and Wheeling . The construction of Old Mountaineer Field in 1924 gave WVU its first permanent home facility . Located next to Woodburn Hall in what is now considered the Downtown portion of the WVU campus , the first incarnation of Mountaineer Field consisted of a horseshoe @-@ type seating arrangement . The stadium eventually grew in capacity to its peak of 38 @,@ 000 by 1979 . The physical location of the stadium made it impossible for further expansion to take place , however , and led to the relocation of the football program to the new Mountaineer Field in 1980 . The old stadium was razed in 1987 . At the southwest corner where the stadium once stood , there is a horseshoe @-@ shaped monument commemorating the stadium . From 1924 – 1979 the Mountaineers played 267 games at Old Mountaineer Field , compiling a 171 – 82 – 14 record .
The Mountaineers have played their home games at the second incarnation of Mountaineer Field since 1980 . The bowl @-@ shaped stadium is located on the Evansdale portion of the WVU campus . Originally constructed with an east @-@ west configuration of the seating areas and a capacity of 50 @,@ 000 , subsequent seating additions at the north and south ends of the facility increased the capacity to over 63 @,@ 000 by 1986 through the 2003 season . Suites were first introduced to Mountaineer Field in 1994 , with 12 suites being constructed in the first row of the press box on the stadium 's west end . General admission seating in the north end zone was replaced with 19 suites in 2004 to create the " Touchdown Terrace " section , while four additional suites were added in the south end zone in 2007 . The construction of Touchdown Terrace in 2004 brought the stadium 's capacity to 60 @,@ 000 , where it currently stands .
As of November 29 , 2003 , the stadium has been named " Milan Puskar Stadium " in honor of Milan Puskar , the founder of Morgantown @-@ based Mylan Pharmaceuticals , in recognition of his $ 20 million donation to the University .
Due to Mountaineer Field 's capacity and the relatively smaller populations of West Virginia 's largest cities , it has been suggested that Morgantown becomes the largest " city " in the state on game days due to the influx of spectators at the stadium . Crowds at Mountaineer Field have earned the reputation of being loud and boisterous , creating a hostile atmosphere for opposing teams .
The largest crowd to ever attend a game at the stadium was 70 @,@ 222 , set on November 20 , 1993 . The Mountaineers have enjoyed relative success in their 33 seasons at Mountaineer Field , compiling a 154 – 58 – 4 home record .
= = = Milan Puskar Center = = =
Also constructed in 1980 was the " Facilities Building " ( now the Milan Puskar Center ) to house the program 's football offices . Originally located south of Mountaineer Field , in 1985 the facility was connected to the stadium when a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ seat expansion enclosed the South end zone bowl . The 39 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot facility houses the team 's locker room and training facilities , including a 23 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot weight training facility on the first floor of the complex . The second floor of the Puskar Center houses the offensive and defensive wings for the coaching staffs , the team meeting room , player position rooms , the football staff conference room , and the Reynolds Family Academic Performance Center . Also located on the second floor of the Puskar Center is the Donald J. Brohard Hall of Traditions . Made possible through a gift by WVU alumnus and Datatel , Inc. founder Ken Kendrick , the Hall of Traditions opened in 2006 to honor the history of the WVU football program . The Hall of Traditions houses interactive displays , videos , photos , records and information on the program , including featured displays of the 2005 Sugar Bowl and 2007 Fiesta Bowl seasons . The Hall is open to the public on weekdays throughout the year . The Puskar Center is also home to the Robert and Erma Hartley Club Level , featuring upscale amenities for Mountaineer fans on game days . The facility underwent significant renovations in 2012 and 2013 , aimed specifically at improving the weight room , the aesthetics of the facility 's interior , and the coaches ' meeting areas . The renovation also included the construction of a lounge area for WVU 's football players .
= = Traditions = =
See also : WVU Pageantry , WVU Sports Traditions , and WVU Band Traditions
= = = Pregame show = = =
Performed by the Pride of West Virginia marching band , the pregame show includes such traditions as the 220 @-@ beat per minute run @-@ on introductory drum cadence , the formation of the " Flying WV " logo to the tune of " Fight Mountaineers , " and the forming of the state of West Virginia while playing the university fight song " Hail , West Virginia . " The band also performs the University 's theme song , John Denver 's " Take Me Home , Country Roads , " as well as Aaron Copland 's " Simple Gifts . " The fans participate in several cheers during the pregame show , notably chanting " W @-@ V @-@ U " to the roll of the band 's drum line prior to the playing of " Fight Mountaineers , " as well as chanting " Let 's Go Mountaineers " in between playings of " Hail , West Virginia . "
= = = Stadium chants = = =
WVU students encompassing the " Mountaineer Maniacs " section and fans alike participate in several chants during WVU home games . The " Let 's Go ... Mountaineers " chant , with the east end of the stadium shouting " Let 's Go ... " and the west end responding with " Mountaineers , " is the most popular amongst those in attendance . West Virginia fans also participate in the " 1st Down " and " 3rd Down " cheers . The " 1st Down " cheer can be heard at both home and away games prior to the announcement of a Mountaineer first down . Mountaineer fans raise their hands and hold a cheer of " OH ! " in unison until the first down call is made by the public address announcer . Following the call , the fans lift their arms up and down three times to a chant of " W @-@ V @-@ U , " clap and then signal to the end zone chanting " first down ! " The " 3rd Down " cheer is similar , with Mountaineer fans raising their arms and waving three fingers upon the announcement of " third down " by the public address . After every home win , West Virginia fans link arm @-@ in @-@ arm and sing along to an audio version of " Take Me Home , Country Roads . "
= = = The Mountaineer = = =
WVU incorporated the Mountaineers nickname in 1905 after the coining of West Virginia 's state motto , " Mountaineers are Always Free . " Prior to 1905 , the team was referred to as the " Snakes . " The Mountaineer mascot first appeared at WVU sporting events during the 1934 – 35 school year and has been a fixture ever since . The Mountaineer is selected each year by the Mountain Honorary , composed of members of West Virginia University 's senior class . The Mountaineer 's costume is tailored to fit each winner , and male Mountaineers customarily grow beards during their tenure to go along with the coonskin cap and rifle , although the beard is not a requirement for the mascot position . The mascot is modeled after the Mountaineer bronze statute located in front of the Mountainlair student union building on the WVU campus . During football games , the Mountaineer mascot will fire his musket upon the team 's entrance prior to kickoff , at the conclusion of each quarter and following every score .
= = = Gold Rush = = =
Introduced by head coach Rich Rodriguez during the 2007 season , the " Gold Rush " is an ongoing tradition with WVU fans at Mountaineer Field . Partially inspired by the Penn State " whiteout " tradition , as well as the " black @-@ out " effect created by Louisville Cardinals fans dressed in black during their game against WVU in 2006 , Rodriguez encouraged Mountaineer fans to dress entirely in gold for the rematch between WVU and Louisville in 2007 . WVU 's home schedule has featured a Gold Rush home game in each of its subsequent seasons . Since 2008 , West Virginia University has worked in conjunction with the United Way to promote the event , selling gold T @-@ shirts to fans with the proceeds benefiting the WVU United Way Campaign . As of the 2013 season , the Mountaineers are 5 – 2 in Gold Rush games .
= = = Mountaineer Mantrip = = =
Instituted during the 2011 season by head coach Dana Holgorsen , the Mountaineer Mantrip is a recent addition to WVU 's game day football traditions as well as a recognition of the significance of West Virginia 's coal industry . Named for the shuttle that transports coalminers into and out of an underground mine at the start and end of their shift , the Mountaineer players and coaching staff walk along the pathway dividing the parking lot outside of Mountaineer Field . They are accompanied by the Mountaineer mascot , the Pride of West Virginia Marching Band , and the Mountaineer cheerleaders . WVU students and fans line the path to create a tunnel @-@ like effect for the passing team members , providing for an interactive and enthusiastic environment . When the team reaches the east end of Mountaineer Field , they stop to rub a 350 @-@ pound chunk of coal donated by Alpha Natural Resources from the Upper Big Branch coal mine .
= = Logos = =
Beginning in 1970 , the Mountaineers donned the program 's first official logo — the WVU " state outline " — on their helmets through the 1979 season . West Virginia used a white helmet with the state outline logo from 1970 – 72 , a gold helmet with the same logo from 1973 – 78 , and reverted to the white helmet and state outline logo in 1979 .
The " Flying WV " is the trademark logo for West Virginia Mountaineer football , adorning the team 's helmet and uniform . It debuted in 1980 along with the current gold and blue color scheme as a part of a football uniform redesign by head coach Don Nehlen , and has since become one of the most widely recognized logos in collegiate athletics . In adopting the Flying WV logo on the team 's helmets , Nehlen wanted to create a distinct image for the football program that could be easily identified . When Nehlen began his tenure as head coach in 1980 , he initially had difficulty in distinguishing between WVU and its opponents while watching game film . The logo itself was created by sports artist John Martin , brother of then @-@ Athletic Director Dick Martin . John Martin 's primary inspiration for the logo was the depiction of mountains created with the combination of the state initials ' W ' and ' V ' . The surge in the logo 's popularity led to its adoption as the official logo of West Virginia University in 1985 .
= = Uniforms = =
Since 1980 , West Virginia 's standard uniform has consisted of a dark blue jersey ( home ) or a white jersey ( away ) with gold pants and a dark blue helmet adorned by the gold " Flying WV " logo on both sides . West Virginia 's uniform scheme has also included a gold helmet , white helmet , gold jersey , dark blue pants , and white pants at various stages throughout its history . WVU also added a gray uniform and helmet combination to its rotation exclusively for the 2012 season .
WVU introduced new uniforms for the 2013 season . The helmets , jerseys , and pants each feature blue , gold , and white primary color sets , creating 27 different possible uniform combinations . The reintroduction of the gold and white helmets to the uniform scheme marked the first time each have been used since the late 1970s . All of the helmets feature a matte , non @-@ glossy paint finish and the " Flying WV " logo adorned on each side . WVU introduced a white throwback helmet during the 2013 season , featuring the 1970s " state outline " logo . The West Virginia state motto , Montani Semper Liberi , ( “ Mountaineers are Always Free ” ) , is stitched inside the back collar of all three jerseys . A canary image is stitched inside the front collar , representative of West Virginia ’ s coal mining heritage for their use in testing toxicity levels in the mines . The jerseys also have a unique number style exclusive to WVU , featuring sharp points and edges inspired by a miner ’ s pickaxe .
The Mountaineers wore a Nike Pro Combat uniform , specifically designed to pay tribute to West Virginia 's coal mining industry , for the 2010 season edition of the Backyard Brawl . The uniform consisted of a shade of white accented by a layer of coal dust , along with accents of university gold that referenced canaries utilized in coal mining . The helmet also implemented the coal dust accent , along with a yellow line down the center designed to embody the beam of light emitted by a miner 's headlamp . West Virginia also donned the Pro Combat uniforms later that season for its Champs Sports Bowl match up with North Carolina State .
= = Rivalries = =
= = = Traditional = = =
In terms of competitiveness , intensity and longevity , the Backyard Brawl with the Pittsburgh Panthers is West Virginia 's fiercest and most storied rivalry . Separated by only 70 miles , the two universities have competed on a mostly annual basis since 1895 ( beginning in 1920 and resuming again in 1943 after World War II ) , generating some of the most exciting and memorable games in college football history . Although Pitt holds a 61 – 40 – 3 series lead , more than half of its victories in the Backyard Brawl came prior to 1952 when the Panthers dominated the series 34 – 9 – 1 . The Mountaineers hold a 26 – 22 – 2 edge over the Panthers since 1962 when the series began to interchange annually between Morgantown and Pittsburgh . West Virginia has also won seven of the last ten meetings . Put on hiatus following the 2011 season due to conference realignment , the series will resume with four games running from 2022 @-@ 2025 .
West Virginia also enjoyed a long @-@ standing rivalry with the Syracuse Orange . The schools have competed annually since 1955 , with the 1993 addition of the Ben Schwartzwalder Trophy being awarded to the victor . The significance of the trophy resides in the fact that Ben Schwartzwalder was a West Virginia native , former WVU player , and legendary head coach at Syracuse . While Syracuse holds a 33 – 27 lead in the series , WVU has won eight of the last ten games between the schools . Much like the status of the Backyard Brawl , Syracuse 's departure from the Big East for the Atlantic Coast Conference and WVU 's joining of the Big 12 Conference casts doubt over the future of the series .
The Mountaineers and Maryland Terrapins have met on a semi @-@ annual basis since 1919 , recently rekindling a cross @-@ border rivalry that was once the longest continuous non @-@ conference series for these geographical neighbors . The Mountaineers lead the series 28 – 22 – 2 .
The Mountaineers also once enjoyed a fierce rivalry with their Appalachia counterparts , the Virginia Tech Hokies . The schools once competed on an annual basis from 1973 to 2005 , doing so as Big East Conference rivals starting in 1991 . Beginning in 1997 , West Virginia and Virginia Tech competed for the Black Diamond Trophy , symbolizing the Appalachian region ’ s rich coal heritage . While West Virginia held a 28 – 22 – 1 advantage in the series , Virginia Tech won nine of the last twelve meetings between the schools . Since the Hokies departed the Big East for the ACC in 2004 and ended the series in 2006 , the rivalry has been dormant . The rivalry is set to be renewed with a neutral @-@ site game in 2017 and with a set of games for the 2021 and 2022 seasons .
= = = Other = = =
Much less competitive was the one @-@ sided series between West Virginia and Penn State . They met annually from 1947 – 1992 . Penn State leads the series 48 – 9 – 2 . At one point , from 1959 to 1983 , Penn State had won 25 consecutive meetings between the two . Mountaineer victories in the series were so rare that any defeat of the Nittany Lions was cause for celebration amongst the West Virginia faithful . The series ended in 1992 with Penn State commencing Big Ten Conference play in 1993 . On Sept . 19 , 2013 , the schools announced that they would renew the series with two games in 2023 and 2024 .
The Friends of Coal Bowl between West Virginia and the Marshall Thundering Herd has also been uncompetitive . Rather , the series traces its origin back to West Virginia governmental intervention by former state Governor Joe Manchin , coupled with supposed political pressure . It is debatable as to whether the series constitutes a true " rivalry " ( Marshall has never beaten the Mountaineers in twelve meetings ) . Consequently , there is considerable doubt for the future of the Friends of Coal Bowl as the final game of the series was played in 2012 and there are no plans to renew the series .
= = Coaches = =
= = = Current coaching staff = = =
Head Coach
Dana Holgorsen
Assistant Coaches
Blue Adams - Cornerbacks
Matt Caponi - Safeties
Tyron Carrier - Receivers
Ron Crook - Offensive Line
Tony Gibson - Defensive Coordinator , Linebackers
Mark Scott - Defense , Special Teams
Ja 'Juan Seider - Running Backs
Bruce Tall - Defensive Line
Joe Wickline - Offensive Coordinator
= = = Head coaches = = =
The West Virginia Mountaineers have had 33 head coaches throughout the program 's history . With 149 victories , Don Nehlen is first overall in the program 's history , followed by Rich Rodriguez ( 60 wins ) and Art Lewis ( 58 ) .
= = Team accomplishments = =
= = = Championships = = =
West Virginia has won or shared a conference championship on 15 occasions , including eight Southern Conference ( SoCon ) titles and seven Big East Conference titles . As members of the SoCon and the Big East , the Mountaineers have amassed a record of 154 – 64 – 3 ( .703 winning percentage ) in conference play .
The ECAC Lambert @-@ Meadowlands Trophy is an annual award given to the best team in the Eastern Region of FBS @-@ level college football . West Virginia has received the award as Eastern Champion on four occasions .
= = = Bowl games = = =
West Virginia has participated in 34 bowl games throughout its history , compiling a 15 – 19 record . The Mountaineers endured a dubious string of post @-@ season futility from 1987 to 2004 , losing 11 of 12 bowl games including eight consecutive losses between 1987 and 1998 . As of 2012 , however , WVU has won five of its last seven bowl games . Of those 32 bowl appearances , the Mountaineers have participated in 12 " major " Division I @-@ A / FBS bowl games , including three BCS Bowl Games , one Bowl Coalition Game and one National Championship Game .
= = = Rankings = = =
West Virginia has finished a season ranked in at least one of the Associated Press ( AP ) or Coaches polls on 19 occasions . The Mountaineers have finished ranked amongst the top 10 in college football on five occasions . West Virginia attained its highest @-@ ever ranking in the polls during week 14 of the 2007 season , when they were ranked # 1 in the Coaches Poll and # 2 in the AP Poll . Since the implementation of the Bowl Championship Series ( BCS ) in 1998 , West Virginia has finished the regular season ranked seven times in the final BCS standings . The Bowl Coalition , a predecessor to the current BCS system , ranked WVU at # 3 in its final standings at the conclusion of the 1993 regular season . While the Mountaineers are 43 – 101 – 2 against opponents ranked in the AP Poll , they have an all @-@ time record of 146 – 67 – 1 when ranked in the AP Poll themselves .
= = Individual accolades = =
= = = Retired numbers = = =
Ira Errett Rodgers - # 21
Sam Huff - # 75
= = = Heisman Trophy candidates = = =
West Virginia has produced six Heisman Trophy candidates . Major Harris is the only Mountaineer to be considered as a finalist for the award , garnering consideration in the 1988 and 1989 seasons .
= = = National award winners and finalists = = =
A total of 20 Mountaineer players and coaches have been finalists for numerous college football awards . Don Nehlen and Calvin Magee have won awards as coaches , while Dan Mozes , Pat White , and Tavon Austin have earned awards as players .
= = = All @-@ Americans = = =
A total of 38 Mountaineers have been recognized as First @-@ Team All @-@ Americans by various media selectors . Among those selections , eleven have achieved Consensus All @-@ American status . Of those consensus All @-@ Americans , four were unanimous selections .
= = = Conference award winners = = =
During WVU 's 18 @-@ season tenure in the Southern Conference , a total of seven Mountaineers were recognized with superlative conference honors . Art Lewis received Coach of the Year distinction on consecutive occasions ( 1953 & 1954 ) while Bruce Bosley was named the SoCon Player of the Year and Jacobs Blocking Award winner in 1955 . During WVU 's 21 seasons in the Big East , a total of 12 Mountaineers were recognized with superlative conference honors . Don Nehlen ( 1993 ) and Rich Rodriguez ( 2003 ) were unanimous selections for Big East Coach of the Year , while Todd Sauerbrun was the unanimous selection for Big East Special Teams Player of the Year in 1994 and Amos Zereoué was the unanimous selection for Big East Rookie of the Year in 1996 . Tavon Austin was WVU 's first Big 12 Conference award recipient , garnering Co @-@ Special Teams Player of the Year honors in 2012 .
= = = All @-@ Conference selections = = =
= = = = Southern Conference = = = =
From 1950 to 1967 , West Virginia competed in the Southern Conference . During their 18 seasons in the SoCon , a total of 35 Mountaineers were recognized as First @-@ Team All @-@ Southern Conference selections .
= = = = Big East = = = =
The Mountaineers competed in the Big East Conference from 1991 to 2011 . During their 21 seasons in the Big East , a total of 61 Mountaineers were recognized as First @-@ Team All @-@ Big East selections . Among those players , Tavon Austin ( as a Return Specialist , 2011 ) , Noel Devine , Pat White ( 2007 ) , Eric Wicks ( 2006 ) , Adam " Pac @-@ Man " Jones ( as a Cornerback , 2004 ) , Grant Wiley ( 2003 ) , Barrett Green , Canute Curtis , Aaron Beasley ( 1995 ) , Todd Sauerbrun ( 1994 ) and Adrian Murrell ( 1992 ) were unanimous selections by the conference .
= = = = Big 12 = = = =
Since joining the Big 12 Conference in 2012 , eight Mountaineers have been recognized as First @-@ Team All @-@ Big 12 selections .
= = Hall of Fame inductees = =
= = = College Football Hall of Fame = = =
The National Football Foundation , overseer of the College Football Hall of Fame , recognizes ten individuals as WVU inductees . Conversely , the Mountaineer football program recognizes 13 individuals as inductees .
= = = Pro Football Hall of Fame = = =
Two Mountaineers hold the distinguished title of Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees . Joe Stydahar , an offensive tackle , was inducted in 1967 . Despite Stydahar 's impressive collegiate career , Chicago Bears owner / coach George Halas took a chance in selecting the little @-@ known tackle with the Bears ' first ever draft selection in the 1936 NFL Draft . Halas 's gamble paid off as " Jumbo Joe " produced an illustrious playing career with the Bears , earning four NFL All @-@ Star selections , six All @-@ Pro selections , three NFL championships , and an induction into the NFL 's All @-@ Decade Team for the 1930s . Stydahar also served as head coach of the Los Angeles Rams and the Chicago Cardinals , winning the 1951 NFL Championship with the Rams . During his Hall of Fame enshrinement speech , Stydahar thanked his family and friends from his " dear state , West Virginia . "
Sam Huff , a linebacker , was inducted in 1982 . Originally a third round selection by the New York Giants in the 1956 NFL Draft , Huff played for the Giants from 1956 – 1963 and later for the Washington Redskins from 1964 @-@ 1969 . Huff 's football career , let alone his future in the NFL , almost never came to pass , however . As a junior in high school , WVU head coach Art Lewis came to Huff 's town to look at another prospect . Luckily for Huff ( and for the Mountaineers ) , Lewis wound up recruiting Sam instead . Fate intervened once more for Huff at the end of his collegiate career , as Giants scout Al DeRogatis came to Morgantown to look at All @-@ American guard Bruce Bosley . DeRogatis instead discovered Huff , proclaiming that " there 's another guard here who will be even greater . His name is Sam Huff . " Huff became a five @-@ time Pro Bowl selection , a four @-@ time First @-@ Team All @-@ Pro selection , an inductee in the NFL 1950s All @-@ Decade Team , and was named as one of the 70 Greatest Redskins of all @-@ time . Huff was also recognized as the NFL 's Top Linebacker in 1959 .
= = = WVU Sports Hall of Fame = = =
Since 1991 , the West Virginia University Sports Hall of Fame recognizes outstanding Mountaineer athletes . Former athletes , coaches and administrators are eligible for selection 10 years following their association with WVU athletics . The following individuals have been inducted into the WVU Sports Hall of Fame for their contributions to the Mountaineer football program :
= = Mountaineers in the NFL = =
WVU has produced a total of 180 NFL draft selections . This section accounts for past and present West Virginia University football players that have participated in the National Football League .
= = = Active alumni = = =
As of June 2016 , a total of 29 Mountaineers were listed on team rosters in the NFL .
= = = All @-@ star and Pro Bowl honorees = = =
Among the numerous Mountaineers that have participated in the NFL , a total of 32 have received all @-@ star or Pro Bowl recognition .
= = = NFL first round draft selections = = =
Of West Virginia 's 181 players selected in the NFL draft , 12 Mountaineers have been selected in the first round .
= = Future non @-@ conference opponents = =
Announced schedules as of September 10 , 2015
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= You Really Got Me =
" You Really Got Me " is a song written by Ray Davies for English rock band the Kinks . The song , originally performed in a more blues @-@ oriented style , was inspired by artists such as Lead Belly and Big Bill Broonzy . Two versions of the song were recorded , with the second performance being used for the final single . Although it was rumoured that future Led Zeppelin guitarist Jimmy Page had performed the song 's guitar solo , the myth has since been proven false .
" You Really Got Me " was built around power chords ( perfect fifths and octaves ) and heavily influenced later rock musicians , particularly in the genres of heavy metal and punk rock . Built around a guitar riff played by Dave Davies , the song 's lyrics were described by Dave as " a love song for street kids . "
" You Really Got Me " was released on 4 August 1964 as the group 's third single , and reached number one on the UK singles chart the next month , remaining for two weeks . The song became the group 's breakthrough hit ; it established them as one of the top British Invasion acts in the United States , reaching number seven there later in the year . " You Really Got Me " was later included on the Kinks ' debut album , Kinks . The song was covered by American rock band Van Halen in 1978 , reaching the Billboard Top 40 .
= = Background = =
" You Really Got Me " was written by Ray Davies , the Kinks ' vocalist and main songwriter , sometime between 9 and 12 March 1964 . Created on the piano in the front room of the Davies ' home , the song was stylistically very different from the finished product , being much lighter and somewhat jazz @-@ oriented . Ray said of the song 's writing , " When I came up with [ ' You Really Got Me ' ] I hadn 't been writing songs very long at all . It was one of the first five I ever came up with . "
During the spring of 1964 , Ray Davies played an early version of " You Really Got Me " on piano to rock photographer Allan Ballard during a photo shoot . Ballard later remembered , " It was quite a small , pokey , Victorian Terrace , a bit scruffy , and in the hallway they had an upright piano . Ray sat down and plonked out , ' Der @-@ der , der , Der @-@ der ! ' He said , ' What do you reckon to this ? ' It meant nothing to me at the time , but it ended up as ' You Really Got Me ' . "
Ray , initially planning for the song to be a " more laid @-@ back number " , later played the chords of the song to brother Dave Davies , the Kinks ' lead guitarist . However , upon hearing the track , Dave decided that the riff would be much more powerful on a guitar . Ray said of the track 's change to a guitar @-@ centred track , " I wanted it to be a jazz @-@ type tune , because that 's what I liked at the time . It 's written originally around a sax line ... Dave ended up playing the sax line in fuzz guitar and it took the song a step further . " The band then began to perform the new track in some of their live shows , where it was well received .
In 1998 , Ray said , " I 'd written ' You Really Got Me ' as tribute to all those great blues people I love : Lead Belly and Big Bill Broonzy . " Dave cited Gerry Mulligan as an inspiration , saying , " Ray was a great fan of Gerry Mulligan , who was in [ the Jazz on a Summer 's Day movie ] , and as he sat at the piano at home , he sort of messed around in a vein similar to Mulligan and came up with this figure based on a 12 @-@ bar blues " . Dave has also said that song had been inspired by Jimmy Giuffre 's song " The Train and the River " . According to the band 's manager , Larry Page , the song 's characteristic riff came about while working out the chords of the Kingsmen 's " Louie Louie " . Lyrically , the song was said to be influenced by an encounter with one of the band 's " first serious female fans . "
= = Recording = =
The song was recorded by the Kinks at least twice in the summer of 1964 . The band 's demo was in a " bluesy " style , while a full studio version recorded in June was slower and less emphatic than the final single . Although the band wanted to rerecord the song , their record company Pye refused to fund another session on the ground that the band 's first two singles had failed to chart . Ray Davies , however , hated the original recording of the track , threatening that he would refuse to perform or promote the single unless it was rerecorded . Manager Larry Page also refused to publish the original recording . When Pye stood its ground , the band 's own management broke the stalemate by funding the session themselves . Ray Davies ' adamant attitude on behalf of the career @-@ making song effectively established him as the leader and chief songwriter of the Kinks . Davies later said , " I was floundering around trying to find an identity . It was in 1964 that I managed to do that , to be able to justify myself and say , ' I exist , I 'm here . ' I was literally born when that song hit . "
The influential distortion sound of the guitar track was created after guitarist Dave Davies sliced the speaker cone of his guitar amplifier with a razor blade and poked it with a pin . The amplifier was affectionately called " little green " , after the name of the amplifier made by the Elpico company , and purchased in Davies ' neighbourhood music shop , linked to a Vox AC @-@ 30 . In 2014 , Dave Davies accused brother Ray of lying about participating in Dave 's guitar distortion sound . Dave wrote on his Facebook page , " My brother is lying . I don 't know why he does this but it was my Elpico amp that I bought and out of frustration I cut the speaker cone up with a razor blade and I was so shocked and surprised and excited that it worked that I demonstrated the sound to Ray and [ Kinks bassist ] Pete [ Quaife ] … Ray liked the sound and he had written a riff on the piano which formed the basis of the song ' You Really Got Me ' and I played the riff on my guitar with my new sound . I alone created this sound . "
According to recent Kinks ' releases that give full official performance credits of the track , group members Ray Davies ( vocals and rhythm guitar ) , Dave Davies ( lead guitar ) , Pete Quaife ( bass ) are joined by session men Bobby Graham ( drums ) , and Arthur Greenslade ( piano ) . Regular Kinks drummer Mick Avory plays the tambourine .
= = Guitar solo = =
The guitar solo on the recording has been the subject of the persistent myth that it was not played by the Kinks ' lead guitarist Dave Davies , but by then @-@ session player Jimmy Page , who later joined the Yardbirds and Led Zeppelin . Among those claiming Page played lead guitar was Jon Lord of Deep Purple , who also claimed to play piano on the track . Page has always denied playing the song 's guitar solo , going so far as to state in a 1970s interview cited in Sound on Sound magazine that " I didn 't play on ' You Really Got Me ' and that 's what pisses him [ Ray Davies ] off . " Rock historian and author Doug Hinman makes a case that the rumour was begun and fostered by the established British rhythm and blues community , many of whose members were resentful that an upstart band of teenagers such as the Kinks could produce such a powerful and influential blues @-@ based recording , seemingly out of nowhere .
Shel Talmy , the producer on the track , has gone on record and put the controversy to rest in an interview with The Guardian , saying " contrary to myth , Jimmy didn 't play on ' You Really Got Me ' . " In a 7 November 2014 interview with SiriusXM 's ' Town Hall ' , Page finally confirmed that he did not play on the song , saying " Oh , Crikey ! I wasn 't on ' You Really Got Me , ' but I did play on the Kinks ' records . That 's all I 'm going to say about it . But every time I do an interview , people ask me about ' You Really Got Me . ' So maybe somebody can correct Wikipedia so people won 't keep asking me . "
In his 1998 autobiographical release The Storyteller , Ray Davies discusses the guitar solo . He confirms that his brother Dave played the solo and it was preceded by some bantering between the two :
Halfway through the song it was time for Dave 's guitar solo . This moment had to be right . So I shouted across the studio to Dave , give him encouragement . But I seemed to spoil his concentration . He looked at me with a dazed expression . ' Fuck off . ' If you doubt me , if you doubt what I 'm saying , I challenge you to listen to the original Kinks recording of ' You Really Got Me ' . Halfway through the song , after the second chorus , before the guitar solo , there 's a drum break . Boo ka , boo boo ka , boo ka , boo boo . And in the background you can hear ' fuck off ' . You can , you can . When I did the vocal I tried to cover it up by going ' Oh no ' , but in the background you still hear it ' fuck off ' . And it 's even clearer on CD , it 's really embarrassing .
= = Music and lyrics = =
While Ray Davies had been instructed at the time to write " Beatle @-@ type " material for commercial reasons , " You Really Got Me " was written as a more R & B @-@ based composition . The song is centred on a guitar riff by Dave Davies , which has since been referred to as " instantly identifiable . " American musicologist Robert Walser described " You Really Got Me " as " the first hit song built around power chords . " The song has since been labeled as an early influence of the heavy metal genre , with critic Denise Sullivan of AllMusic writing , " ' You Really Got Me ' remains a blueprint song in the hard rock and heavy metal arsenal . " However , Dave Davies has since rejected the idea that the song is heavy metal , saying " I 've never really like that term , heavy metal . I think , in all humility , it was the first heavy guitar riff rock record . Just because of the sound — if you played it on a ukulele , it might not have been so powerful . "
The lyrics of the song are about lust and sex . Dave Davies said of the song 's lyrics , " ' You Really Got Me ' [ is ] such a pure record , really . It 's a love song for street kids . They 're not going to wine and dine you , even if they knew how to chat you up . [ They say ] ' I want you — come here . ' "
= = Release and reception = =
" You Really Got Me " was released as the band 's third single on 4 August 1964 , backed with " It 's Alright " . Within three days of the single 's release , " You Really Got Me " began to appear on local charts . Eventually , the song climbed to the top of the British charts , the band 's first single to do so . Ray Davies later claimed that , due to the single 's high demand , Pye Records put all their other records on hold to solely produce copies of " You Really Got Me " . Due to the high level of success the single achieved in the UK , a rush @-@ release of " You Really Got Me " was put out in America on 2 September 1964 , despite being delayed from its initial release date of 26 August . Although it did not enter the charts until 26 September , the record rose to number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 . The song later appeared on the band 's debut album , Kinks , with the title of the American release of the album being changed to You Really Got Me . Plans for Ray to sing versions of the song in French , German , Spanish , and Japanese for their respective markets were proposed by Shel Talmy , but they never materialized .
Upon release , the single received a positive review from Record Mirror , which said , " Highly promising group with strong guitar sound and a compact sort of vocal performance . Mid @-@ tempo but bustling song should sell well . " In Melody Maker , singer Dave Berry was featured in a blindfold test of the song , with Berry at first guessing the song was by the Kingsmen . He said , " It 's fabulous , this one . I like these records that sound as if they 've gone into a recording studio and done what they wanted to on the spot . It 's a good chance of being a big hit . " The Melody Maker review had a lasting impact on Ray Davies , who said that Berry " had a few hits – so he mattered " and that Berry 's belief that the band had " done what they wanted " had " said it all " for him .
The Kinks ' use of distorted guitar riffs continued with songs like " All Day and All of the Night " , " Tired of Waiting for You " , and " Set Me Free " , among others . Pete Townshend of the Who , a band also produced by Talmy at that time , has stated that their first single , " I Can 't Explain " , was influenced by the Kinks ' work at the time . Other artists influenced by " You Really Got Me " include Tom Petty , John Lydon , Chris Bell of Big Star , and Jimi Hendrix , who , according to Dave Davies , describing the song as " a landmark record . "
In 1999 , " You Really Got Me " was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame . Rolling Stone magazine placed the song at number 82 on their list of the 500 greatest songs of all time and at number four on their list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time . In early 2005 , the song was voted the best British song of the 1955 – 1965 decade in a BBC radio poll . In March 2005 , Q magazine placed it at number nine in its list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Tracks . In 2009 , it was named the 57th Greatest Hard Rock Song by VH1 .
= = Live history = =
Prior to its release , the Kinks performed " You Really Got Me " in some of their early concerts . It was a crowd favourite , with Ray Davies later claiming to feel a connection with the crowd as he performed the song . Ray later said , " Our success came from playing [ the song ] live . When we played ' You Really Got Me ' people actually took notice . They realised we had something original . "
The Kinks continued to perform successfully for over 30 years through many musical styles , but " You Really Got Me " remained a mainstay in concert . During some shows , the song was played in a medley with its follow @-@ up single " All Day and All of the Night , " while in 1977 , a performance on Saturday Night Live featured a four song medley of " You Really Got Me , " " All Day and All of the Night , " " A Well Respected Man , " and " Lola . " In a live performance on the Don Lane Show in 1982 , " You Really Got Me " was featured in a medley with the band 's 1981 song , " Destroyer . " In 1984 , Dave Davies claimed that , even after twenty years of performing " You Really Got Me , " the track was " still fun to play live . "
A live version of " You Really Got Me " was released on the band 's 1980 live album , One for the Road . This version , following the minor success of the same album 's live version of " Lola " , was released as a single in America , backed with the live take of Low Budget 's " Attitude " . However , the single failed to chart . This version was later included on the 1986 compilation album , Come Dancing with the Kinks : The Best of the Kinks 1977 @-@ 1986 .
Other live renditions of " You Really Got Me " have also been released . A version on Live at Kelvin Hall recorded at Kelvin Hall in Glasgow , Scotland was released in 1967 , while a performance at the Mann Music Center in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania appeared on 1994 's To the Bone . The Davies brothers also performed a live version in Boston , Massachusetts with the Smithereens in November 1991 , which later appeared on the latter band 's 1995 compilation album Attack of the Smithereens . Both Ray and Dave Davies still perform the song in solo shows , generally as a closing number .
In December 2015 , Ray Davies joined brother Dave onstage at one of his concerts to perform " You Really Got Me . " The event marked the first time the brothers performed on stage together in nearly twenty years , sparking rumors of a possible Kinks reunion .
= = Charts = =
= = Van Halen version = =
The American hard rock band Van Halen released a cover of " You Really Got Me " for their 1978 debut album , Van Halen in 1978 . As the band 's first single , it was a popular radio hit which helped jump @-@ start the band 's career , as it had done for the Kinks 14 years earlier . This version , which was cited by Eddie Van Halen as an " updated " version of the original , featured " histrionic " guitar playing by Eddie Van Halen and " vocal shenanigans " by David Lee Roth . The song had been played by the band live for years before its studio release . On the radio , it is often featured with " Eruption " , the instrumental that precedes it on the album , as an intro .
The song was released as a single as a result of an encounter between Eddie Van Halen and members of the band Angel . Eddie Van Halen and Angel drummer Barry Brandt had both been bragging about their new material to one another , resulting in Eddie Van Halen showing a demo of " You Really Got Me " to Brandt . On the following day , the band 's producer , Ted Templeman told Van Halen that Angel was recording their own cover of " You Really Got Me " to release before Van Halen 's version . As a result , the song was rush @-@ released as a single before Angel could do so .
Eddie Van Halen has since expressed dissatisfaction with the use of " You Really Got Me " as the band 's debut single . He said , " It kind of bummed me out that Ted [ Templeman ] wanted our first single to be someone else 's tune . I would have maybe picked " Jamie 's Cryin ' " , just because it was our own . "
The Kinks ' Dave Davies has claimed to dislike Van Halen 's rendition of the song , saying " There 's the thing : good art isn 't always about having the comfiest technique . I shouldn 't encourage him , but I 'm sure Eddie Van Halen played better when he was drunk . " He also told of how a concert @-@ goer approached him after a live show and congratulated him on performing a " great cover of the Van Halen song . " Ray Davies , on the other hand , claimed to like the track because it made him laugh .
= = = Personnel = = =
David Lee Roth – lead vocals
Eddie Van Halen – guitar , backing vocals
Alex Van Halen – drums
Michael Anthony – bass guitar , backing vocals
= = = Charts = = =
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= Hurricane Linda ( 1997 ) =
Hurricane Linda was the second @-@ strongest eastern Pacific hurricane on record . Forming from a tropical wave on September 9 , 1997 , Linda steadily intensified and reached hurricane status within 36 hours of developing . It rapidly intensified , reaching winds of 185 mph ( 295 km / h ) and an estimated central pressure falling to 902 millibars ( 26 @.@ 6 inHg ) ; both were records for the eastern Pacific until Hurricane Patricia surpassed it in 2015 . The hurricane was briefly forecast to move toward southern California , but instead , it turned out to sea and dissipated on September 17 . It was the fifteenth tropical cyclone , thirteenth named storm , seventh hurricane , and fifth major hurricane of the 1997 Pacific hurricane season .
While near peak intensity , Hurricane Linda passed near Socorro Island , where it damaged meteorological instruments . The hurricane produced high waves along the southwestern Mexican coastline , forcing the closure of five ports . If Linda had made landfall on southern California as predicted , it would have been the strongest storm to do so since a storm in 1939 . Though it did not hit the state , the hurricane produced light to moderate rainfall across the region , causing mudslides and flooding in the San Gorgonio Wilderness ; two houses were destroyed and 77 others were damaged , and damage totaled $ 3 @.@ 2 million ( 1997 USD , $ 4 @.@ 3 million 2008 USD ) . Despite the intensity , the name was not retired .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Linda are believed to have been in a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on August 24 . The wave tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea without development . An area of convection developed to the west of Panama in the Pacific Ocean on September 6 , which is believed to have been related to the tropical wave . The system continued westward , and within three days of entering the basin , a poorly defined circulation formed . Banding features began to develop , and at around 1200 UTC on September 9 , the system organized into Tropical Depression Fourteen @-@ E. At the time , it was approximately 460 miles ( 740 km ) south of the Mexican city of Manzanillo .
On becoming a tropical cyclone , the depression moved northwestward at 6 and 12 miles per hour ( 9 @.@ 7 and 19 @.@ 3 km / h ) , partially under the influence of a mid- to upper @-@ level low near the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula . Deep convection and banding features increased , and the depression intensified into a tropical storm early on September 10 . Upon being designated , the cyclone was named Linda by the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) . As upper @-@ level outflow became well @-@ established , the storm began to strengthen quickly . By September 11 , an intermittent eye appeared , by which time the NHC estimated that Linda reached hurricane status . The storm began to rapidly intensify ; its small eye became well @-@ defined and surrounded by very cold convection . In a 24 ‑ hour period , the minimum pressure dropped 81 millibars ( 2 @.@ 4 inHg ) , or an average drop of 3 @.@ 38 millibars ( 0 @.@ 100 inHg ) per hour . Such intensification met the criterion for explosive deepening , an average hourly pressure decrease of at least 2 @.@ 5 millibars ( 0 @.@ 074 inHg ) . By early September 12 , Hurricane Linda reached Category 5 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale , and around 0600 UTC , Linda attained estimated peak winds of 185 mph ( 295 km / h ) about 145 mi ( 235 km ) southeast of Socorro Island . Its maximum sustained winds were estimated between 180 mph ( 285 km / h ) and 195 mph ( 315 km / h ) , based on Dvorak T @-@ numbers of 7 @.@ 5 and 8 @.@ 0 respectively , and gusts were estimated to have reached 220 mph ( 350 km / h ) . The hurricane 's pressure is estimated at 902 millibars ( 26 @.@ 6 inHg ) , making Linda the most intense Pacific hurricane at the time . When the storm was active , its pressure was estimated to have been slightly lower , at 900 millibars ( 27 inHg ) .
Shortly after reaching peak intensity , Hurricane Linda passed near Socorro Island as a Category 5 hurricane . Around that time , tropical cyclone forecast models suggested that the hurricane would turn toward southern California due to an approaching upper @-@ level trough . Had Linda struck the state , it would have been much weaker at that time , possibly moving ashore as a tropical storm . Instead , Hurricane Linda turned west @-@ northwestward away from land in response to a building ridge to the north of the hurricane . Despite remaining away from land , moisture from the storm reached southern California to produce rainfall . On September 14 , the Hurricane Hunters and airplanes from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration investigated the hurricane to provide better data on the powerful hurricane . Hurricane Linda quickly deteriorated as it tracked toward cooler waters , weakening to tropical storm status on September 15 . Two days later , when located about 1 @,@ 105 miles ( 1 @,@ 778 km ) west of the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula , it weakened to tropical depression status . Linda no longer met the criteria for a tropical cyclone by September 18 , although its remnant circulation persisted for a few more days before dissipating .
Forecasters and computer models did not anticipate how quickly Linda would strengthen ; in one advisory , the NHC under @-@ forecast how strong the winds would be in 72 hours by 115 miles per hour ( 185 km / h ) . The maximum potential intensity for Linda was 880 millibars ( 26 inHg ) , 22 millibars ( 0 @.@ 65 inHg ) lower than its actual intensity . The 1997 season was affected by the 1997 @-@ 98 El Niño event , which brought warmer than normal water temperatures and contributed to the high intensity of several storms . Hurricane Linda occurred about a month after the similarly powerful Hurricane Guillermo , which also reached Category 5 status . The passage of Linda cooled the waters in the region , causing Hurricane Nora to weaken when it passed through the area on September 21 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Although the eye of Hurricane Linda did not make landfall , the hurricane passed near Socorro Island while near peak intensity . The hurricane cut power to wind and pressure instruments . A station on the island recorded a pressure of 986 millibars ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) before it stopped producing data . No tropical cyclone warnings or watches were issued for the hurricane . However , the threat for high tides and strong winds in Mexico prompted officials to issue coastal flood warnings and to close five ports . Waves of up to 7 @.@ 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) were reported along the coastline , causing flooding in the states of Michoacán , Jalisco , Nayarit , and Sinaloa .
When Linda was predicted to turn towards the northeast , it was forecast to move ashore in southern California as a weak tropical storm , which would have made Linda the first to do so since a tropical storm in 1939 . The Oxnard , California National Weather Service office issued public information and special weather statements that discussed the possible impact of Linda on southern California . The advisories mentioned forecasting uncertainty , and advised the media not to exaggerate the storm . The office noted a threat for significant rainfall — possibly causing flash flooding — as well as high surf . To prepare for possible flooding , workers cleaned storm drains and prepared sandbags for coastal properties .
Although the storm did not make the turn , 15 and 18 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 and 5 @.@ 5 m ) waves reached southern California . In Newport Beach , a wave swept five people off a jetty and carried them 900 feet ( 270 m ) out to sea , although all were rescued by a passing boat . Moisture from the hurricane moved across the state , producing heavy rainfall and golfball @-@ sized hail . A station in Forrest Falls , located within the San Gorgonio Wilderness , recorded rainfall rates of 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) per hour . The rainfall caused severe flooding and mudslides which destroyed two houses , damaged 77 others , and inflicted $ 3 @.@ 2 million in damage ( 1997 USD , $ 4 @.@ 3 million 2008 USD ) . San Diego recorded 0 @.@ 05 inches ( 1 @.@ 3 mm ) of rain , the first measurable precipitation in 164 days ; this tied the record for the longest duration without rainfall at the station , previously set in 1915 and 1924 . Moisture from Linda extended into the Upper Midwest , contributing to a record daily rainfall total of 1 @.@ 97 inches ( 50 mm ) in Minneapolis , Minnesota .
= = Records = =
With an estimated pressure of 902 millibars ( 26 @.@ 6 inHg ) , Hurricane Linda became the most intense Pacific hurricane since reliable records began in the 1966 season . Until Hurricane Patricia of 2015 , Linda was also believed to have been the strongest since overall records began in the basin in 1949 . The previous most intense hurricane was Hurricane Ava in 1973 , which contained a confirmed pressure of 915 millibars ( 27 @.@ 0 inHg ) . Since no observations recorded the pressure during Linda 's peak , its peak intensity was estimated . As such , Ava remained the strongest measured hurricane in the basin at that time .
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= G. Ledyard Stebbins =
George Ledyard Stebbins Jr . ( January 6 , 1906 – January 19 , 2000 ) was an American botanist and geneticist who is widely regarded as one of the leading evolutionary biologists of the 20th century . Stebbins received his Ph.D. in botany from Harvard University in 1931 . He went on to the University of California , Berkeley , where his work with E. B. Babcock on the genetic evolution of plant species , and his association with a group of evolutionary biologists known as the Bay Area Biosystematists , led him to develop a comprehensive synthesis of plant evolution incorporating genetics .
His most important publication was Variation and Evolution in Plants , which combined genetics and Darwin 's theory of natural selection to describe plant speciation . It is regarded as one of the main publications which formed the core of the modern evolutionary synthesis and still provides the conceptual framework for research in plant evolutionary biology ; according to Ernst Mayr , " Few later works dealing with the evolutionary systematics of plants have not been very deeply affected by Stebbins ' work . " He also researched and wrote widely on the role of hybridization and polyploidy in speciation and plant evolution ; his work in this area has had a lasting influence on research in the field .
From 1960 , Stebbins was instrumental in the establishment of the Department of Genetics at the University of California , Davis , and was active in numerous organizations involved in the promotion of evolution , and of science in general . He was elected to the National Academy of Science , was awarded the National Medal of Science , and was involved in the development of evolution @-@ based science programs for California high schools , as well as the conservation of rare plants in that state .
= = Early life and education = =
Stebbins was born in Lawrence , New York , the youngest of three children . His parents were George Ledyard Stebbins , a wealthy real estate financier who developed Seal Harbor , Maine and helped to establish Acadia National Park , and Edith Alden Candler Stebbins ; both parents were native New Yorkers and Episcopalians . Stebbins was known throughout his life as Ledyard , to distinguish himself from his father . The family encouraged their sons ' interest in natural history during their periodic journeys to Seal Harbor . In 1914 , Edith contracted tuberculosis and the Stebbins moved to Santa Barbara , California to improve her health . In California , Stebbins was enrolled at the Cate School in Carpinteria where he became influenced by Ralph Hoffmann , an American natural history instructor and amateur ornithologist and botanist . After graduating from high school , he embarked on a major in political studies at Harvard . By the third year of his undergraduate study , he had decided to major in botany .
Stebbins started graduate studies at Harvard in 1928 , initially working on flowering plant taxonomy and biogeography — particularly that of the flora of New England — with Merritt Lyndon Fernald . He completed his MA in 1929 and continued to work toward his Ph.D. He became interested in using chromosomes for taxonomic studies , a method that Fernald did not support . Stebbins chose to concentrate his doctoral work on the cytology of plant reproductive processes in the genus Antennaria , with cytologist E. C. Jeffrey as his supervisor and Fernald on his supervisory panel . During his Ph.D. candidature , Stebbins sought advice and supervision from geneticist Karl Sax . Sax identified several errors in Stebbins 's work and disapproved of his interpretation of results that , while in accordance with Jeffrey 's views , were inconsistent with the work of contemporary geneticists . Jeffrey and Sax argued over Stebbins 's dissertation , and the thesis was revised numerous times to accommodate their differing views .
Stebbins 's Ph.D. was granted by Harvard in 1931 . In March that year , he married Margaret Chamberlin , with whom he had three children . In 1932 , he took a teaching position in biology at Colgate University . While at Colgate , he continued his work in cytogenetics ; in particular , he continued to study the genetics of Antennaria and began to study the behaviour of chromosomes in hybrid peonies bred by biologist Percy Saunders . Saunders and Stebbins attended the 1932 International Congress of Genetics in Ithaca , New York . Here , Stebbins 's interest was captured by talks given by Thomas Hunt Morgan and Barbara McClintock , who spoke about chromosomal crossover . Stebbins reproduced McClintock 's crossover experiments in the peony , and published several papers on the cytogenetics of Paeonia , which established his reputation as a geneticist .
= = UC Berkeley = =
In 1935 , Stebbins was offered a genetics research position at the University of California , Berkeley working with geneticist E. B. Babcock . Babcock needed assistance with a large Rockefeller @-@ funded project characterizing the genetics and evolutionary processes of plants from the genus Crepis and was interested in developing Crepis into a model plant , to enable genetic investigations similar to those possible in the model insect Drosophila melanogaster . Like the genera that Stebbins had previously studied , Crepis commonly hybridized , displayed polyploidy ( chromosome doubling ) , and could make seed without fertilization ( a process known as apomixis ) . The collaboration between Babcock and Stebbins produced numerous papers and two monographs . The first monograph , published in 1937 , resulted in splitting off the Asiatic Crepis species into the genus Youngia . The second , published in 1938 , was titled The American Species of Crepis : their interrelationships and distribution as affected by polyploidy and apomixis .
In The American Species of Crepis , Babcock and Stebbins described the concept of the polyploid complex , and its role in plant evolution . Some genera , such as Crepis , have a complex of reproductive forms that center on sexually diploid populations that have also given rise to polyploid ones . Babcock and Stebbins also observed that allopolyploid types formed from the hybridization of two different species always have a wider distribution than diploid or autotetraploid species , and proposed that polyploids formed through hybridization have a greater potential to exploit varied environments , because they inherit all traits from both parents . They also showed that hybridization in the polyploid complex could provide a mechanism for genetic exchange between diploid species that were otherwise unable to breed . Their observations offered insight into species formation and knowledge of how all these complex processes could provide information on the history of a genus . This monograph was described by Swedish botanist Åke Gustafsson as the most important work on the formation of species during that period .
Stebbins 's review , " The significance of polyploidy in plant evolution " , published in American Naturalist in 1940 , demonstrated how work done on artificial polyploids and natural polyploid complexes had shown that polyploidy was important in developing large , complex , and widespread genera . However , by looking at the history of polyploidy in plant families , he argued that polyploidy was only common in herbaceous perennials and infrequent in woody plants and annuals . As such , polyploids played a conservative role in evolution since problems with fertility prevented the acquisition and replication of new genetic material that might lead to a new line of evolution . This work continued with the 1947 paper " Types of polyploids : their classification and significance " , which detailed a system for the classification of polyploids and described Stebbins ' ideas about the role of paleopolyploidy in angiosperm evolution , where he argued that chromosome number may be a useful tool for the construction of phylogenies . These reviews were highly influential and provided a basis for others to study the role of polyploidy in evolution .
In 1939 , with Babcock 's support , Stebbins was made a full professor in the Department of Genetics at UC Berkeley , after the Department of Botany failed to promote him . Stebbins was required to teach a course on evolution , and during his preparation he became excited by contemporary research combining genetics and evolution . He became associated with a group known as the Bay Area Biosystematists , which included botanist Jens Clausen , taxonomist David D. Keck , physiologist William Hiesey and the evolutionary geneticist Theodosius Dobzhansky . During this time he also became friends with the botanist Herbert Baker . With the encouragement of this group of scientists , Stebbins directed his research towards evolution . He became involved with the Society for the Study of Evolution in 1946 , and was one of the few botanists involved with the new organization .
His research on plant evolution also progressed during this period ; he worked on the genetics of forage grasses , looking at polyploidy and the evolution of the Poaceae and publishing numerous papers on the subject though the 1940s . He produced an artificial autotetraploid grass from the diploid species Ehrharta erecta through treatment with the chromosome doubling agent colchicine . He was able to establish the plant in the field , and after 39 years of field trials was able to show that the autopolyploid was not as successful as its diploid parent in an unchanging environment .
= = Variation and Evolution in Plants = =
Columbia University 's Jesup Lectures were the starting point for many of the most important works of the modern evolutionary synthesis . The presenters introduced the connection between two important discoveries — the units of evolution ( genes ) with selection as the primary mechanism of evolution . In 1941 , Edgar Anderson ( whose work on hybridization in the genus Iris had interested Stebbins since they met in 1930 ) and Ernst Mayr co @-@ presented the lecture series and Mayr later published his lectures as Systematics and the Origin of Species . In 1946 , Stebbins was invited on Dobzhansky 's recommendation to present the prestigious lectures . Stebbins ' lectures drew together the otherwise disparate fields of genetics , ecology , systematics , cytology , and paleontology . In 1950 , these lectures were published as Variation and Evolution in Plants , which proved to be one of the most important books in 20th @-@ century botany . The book brought botanical science into the new synthesis of evolutionary theory , and became part of the canon of biological works written between 1936 and 1950 that formed the modern synthesis of evolution .
Variation and Evolution in Plants was the first book to provide a wide @-@ ranging explanation of how evolutionary mechanisms operated in plants at the genetic level . It brought concepts related to plant evolution into line with animal evolution as it emerged from Dobzhansky 's 1937 Genetics and the Origin of Species and provided the conceptual framework to organize a disparate set of disciplines into a new field : plant evolutionary biology . In the book Stebbins argued that evolution needed to be studied as a dynamic problem and that evolution must be considered on three levels : first , that of individual variation within an interbreeding population ; second , that of the distribution and frequency of this variation ; and third , that of the separation and divergence of populations as the result of the building up of isolating mechanisms leading to the formation of species . He used the work of biosystematists Clausen , Keck , Hiesey , and Turesson to show that it was possible to distinguish between genotypic and phenotypic variation — that is , genetically identical plants could have different phenotypes in different environments . One of the book 's most original chapters used the cytogenetics work of C. D. Darlington to show that genetic systems like hybridization and polyploidy were also subject to selection .
The book offered few original hypotheses , but Stebbins hoped that by summarising the available research on plant evolution the book would " help to open the way towards a deeper understanding of evolutionary problems and more fruitful research in the direction of their solution . " The book effectively ended any serious belief in alternative mechanisms of evolution in plants , such as Lamarckian evolution or soft inheritance , which were still upheld by some botanists . Following that publication , Stebbins was regarded as an expert on modern evolutionary theory and is widely credited with the founding of the science of plant evolutionary biology . Variation and Evolution in Plants continues to be widely cited in contemporary scientific botanical literature more than 50 years after its publication .
Stebbins regarded his contribution to the modern synthesis as the application of genetic principles already established by other workers to botany . " I didn 't add any new elements [ to the modern synthetic theory ] to speak of . I just modified things so that people could understand how things were in the plant world . "
= = UC Davis and later life = =
Stebbins took an appointment at the University of California , Davis in 1950 , where he was a key figure in the establishment of the University 's Department of Genetics ; he was the Department 's first chairman and held the position from 1958 to 1963 . At Davis , the focus of his research changed to incorporate newer areas , such as developmental morphology and genetics in crop plants , including barley . He continued to publish widely and extensively on plant evolution , writing over 200 papers and several books after 1950 .
Stebbins and Edgar Anderson wrote a paper in 1954 on the importance of hybridization in adapting to new environments . They proposed novel adaptations would facilitate the invasion of habitats not utilized previously by either parent and that novel adaptations may facilitate the formation of stabilized hybrid species . Following this paper , Stebbins developed the first model of adaptive radiation . He proposed that a high degree of genetic variability was necessary for major evolutionary advances , that because of slow mutation rates , genetic recombination was the most likely source of this variation , and that variation could be maximised though hybridization . As of 2006 , research is ongoing regarding whether hybridization is an accidental consequence of evolution or if it is necessary for the creation and evolution of plant species ; it has been argued that contemporary studies are part of an intellectual lineage that started with the work of Stebbins and Anderson .
Stebbins wrote several books during his time at UC Davis . These included his follow @-@ up to Variation and Evolution , Flowering Plants : Evolution Above the Species Level , which was published in 1974 , following his delivery of the Prather Lectures at Harvard . Stebbins discusses the origins , genetics and developmental biology of the angiosperms . He argues for the role of adaptive radiation in the diversification of the angiosperms and the usefulness of applying our current understanding of species ' genetics and ecology to gain knowledge about the evolution of ancient species . He also wrote Processes of Organic Evolution , The Basis of Progressive Evolution , Chromosomal Evolution in Plants and the textbook Evolution with co @-@ authors Dobzhansky , Francisco Ayala and James W. Valentine . His last book , Darwin to DNA , Molecules to Humanity was published in 1982 .
Stebbins was passionate about teaching evolution , advocating during the 1960s and 70s the teaching of Darwinian evolution in public schools . He worked closely with the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study to develop high school curricula based on evolution as the central unifying principle in biology . He also opposed scientific creationism groups . Stebbins was active in numerous science organizations — including the International Union of Biological Sciences , the Western Society of Naturalists , the Botanical Society of America , and the Society for the Study of Evolution — and served as President of the American Society of Naturalists . He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1952 . Stebbins received numerous awards for his contributions to science : the National Medal of Science , the Gold Medal from the Linnean Society of London , the Addison Emery Verrill Medal from the Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History , and the John Frederick Lewis Award from the American Philosophical Society . He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1952 . He was awarded the 1983 Leidy Award from the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia .
Stebbins was active in conservation issues in California during his later life . He established a California Native Plant Society branch in Sacramento in the early 1960s . Through the society , he created an active field trip program to increase interest in the native flora of California and to document rare plants . Stebbins was the state President of the Society during 1966 . The society was instrumental in preventing the destruction of a beach on the Monterey Peninsula that he referred to as " Evolution Hill " — the area is now known as the S.F.B. Morse Botanical Area and is managed by the Del Monte Forest Foundation . He was a major contributor to the Society 's 1996 book California 's Wild Gardens : A Living Legacy . Stebbins was instrumental in the establishment of the Inventory of Rare and Endangered Vascular Plants of California by the California Native Plant Society ; it is still used by state and federal bodies in the United States for conservation policy @-@ making . Stebbins was also a member of the Sierra Club .
During his tenure at UC Davis , he trained more than 30 graduate students in genetics , developmental biology and agricultural science . In 1973 , Stebbins gave his last lectures at UC Davis and was made professor emeritus . Following his retirement , he travelled widely , taught , and visited colleagues for the next 20 years . His last paper , " A brief summary of my ideas on evolution " , was published in the American Journal of Botany in 1999 . The same year he was co @-@ recipient with Ernst Mayr of the Distinguished Service award from the American Institute of Biological Sciences . A colloquium was held by the National Academies of Science in 2000 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the publication of Variation and Evolution in Plants . Stebbins died in his home in Davis the same year from a cancer @-@ related illness . Stebbins was honored at a Unitarian memorial service — he had been active in the church in his later years following his 1958 marriage to his second wife , Barbara Monaghan Stebbins . His ashes were scattered at Stebbins Cold Canyon Reserve .
= = Legacy = =
Stebbins made an enormous contribution to scientific thought and botany by developing an intellectual framework for studying plant evolution including modern concepts of plant species and plant speciation . His contributions to the literature of plant evolutionary biology , in addition to his seven books , include more than 280 journal articles and book chapters , a compilation of which were published in 2004 — The Scientific Papers of G. Ledyard Stebbins ( 1929 – 2000 ) ( ISBN 3 @-@ 906166 @-@ 15 @-@ 5 ) . Betty Smocovitis , a historian of science who is preparing a book @-@ length biography on Stebbins , described Stebbins 's scientific contribution as follows :
In science as in everything , small @-@ scale synthesizers usually get credit from all constituent parties , but truly great synthesizers can fall between the cracks in the cycle of scientific credit . Ledyard Stebbins was in the latter category ; neither fish nor fowl , he frequently failed to receive credit for work in some areas , usually at the hands of narrower colleagues . Few , however , have challenged his contributions to plant evolutionary biology , nor questioned his ability to synthesize disparate literature into a coherent framework . His ability to read quickly , recognize novel insights , digest new material , and then integrate the knowledge were the hallmarks of his scientific work style . He was a masterful synthesizer and master of the review essay or synthetic thought piece .
In 1980 , the University of California , Davis , named a parcel of land near Lake Berryessa , California , the Stebbins Cold Canyon Reserve in recognition of his contributions to conservation and evolutionary science . The reserve is part of the University of California Natural Reserve System . The UC Davis Herbarium maintains a G. Ledyard Stebbins student grant program , established in celebration of his 90th birthday .
Calystegia stebbinsii , Lomatium stebbinsii , Harmonia stebbinsii , Elymus stebbinsii , Lewisia stebbinsii and others are named in honor of Stebbins .
= = Key publications = =
Variation and Evolution in Plants ( 1950 )
Processes of Organic Evolution ( 1966 )
The Basis of Progressive Evolution ( 1969 )
Chromosomal Evolution in Higher Plants ( 1971 ) ( ISBN 0 @-@ 7131 @-@ 2287 @-@ 0 )
Flowering plants : evolution above the species level ( 1974 ) . Cambridge , Mass . : Harvard University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 30685 @-@ 6 .
Evolution ( 1977 ) with Dobzhansky , Ayala and Valentine
Darwin to DNA , Molecules to Humanity ( 1982 ) ( ISBN 0 @-@ 7167 @-@ 1331 @-@ 4 )
= = = General biographical references = = =
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= The Man with Two Brians =
" The Man with Two Brians " is the fifth episode of the seventh season of the animated series Family Guy . It premiered on Fox in the United States on November 9 , 2008 . The episode centers on anthropomorphic dog Brian after he is injured during a stunt being enacted by his owner , Peter , after he watches Jackass with his friends . The family comes to realize that Brian may be getting too old , so Peter brings home an optimistic new dog . Brian is prompted to leave when his family begins to favor New Brian over him .
The episode was written by John Viener and marked the directorial debut of Dominic Bianchi . It received generally favorable reviews from critics for its storyline and various cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , the episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 60 million households in its original airdate . Johnny Knoxville , Will Sasso and Camille Guaty provided guest performances in the episode .
= = Plot = =
After watching Jackass , Peter and his friends , Cleveland , Quagmire , and Joe are impressed into filming their own highly dangerous stunts . In one stunt , Peter attempts to jump a lake but instead crashes into a tree , causing him to fall into the lake and become incapacitated . Brian swims out to save him from drowning , but strains his back during the rescue and also ends up stranded in the water along with Peter , before being rescued by Joe . Lois berates Peter for his actions , since Brian is becoming old and has been smoking and drinking . Peter begins to grow upset about Brian 's age so he obtains another dog and names him New Brian . His positive attitude and desirable personality make Brian feel like an outcast and Brian becomes sad that he is now unloved , and rejected . For example in one scene , when the Griffins hear New Brian fart , they think it is cute and when Brian does it , they get furious and kick him out . He ultimately decides to leave the residence , while his family begins to miss him .
Meanwhile , New Brian 's constant cheerfulness begins to aggravate Stewie . Stewie pleads for Brian to return , but he informs him that as long as New Brian is there , he has no place in the Griffin household . Stewie reveals to New Brian that they do not like several of his traits , including how he humps the leg of one of their chairs , but New Brian replies by boasting about how he violated Rupert , Stewie 's teddy bear . Stewie then stabs New Brian to death off @-@ screen and forges a suicide note . The Griffins then ultimately accept Brian back , while Stewie , traumatized by what happened to Rupert , frantically washes him in the shower while comforting him .
= = Production = =
" The Man with Two Brians " was written by John Viener and directed by Dominic Bianchi . In the storyboard animatic scene of Brian 's rescue of a drowning Peter , music from Rambo : First Blood Part II was used . The scene in which Peter broke his neck and the design of New Brian were both based on drawings by creator Seth MacFarlane . New Brian was supposed to be a Golden Retriever , but his color was changed so that he would stand out from the yellow kitchen . In the scene when Peter wears the costume from The Greatest American Hero , the theme from E.T. was originally used . Several scenes were cut when the episode aired on television , mostly due to lack of time . The song New Brian sang to Peter was written by series writer Alec Sulkin . The original ending for the episode was a Beverly Hills , 90210 basketball joke , but it was cut .
" The Man with Two Brians " , along with the first eight episodes of the seventh season were released on DVD by 20th Century Fox in the United States and Canada on June 16 , 2009 . The " Volume 7 " DVD release features bonus material including deleted scenes , animatics , and commentaries for every episode .
Johnny Knoxville , star of Jackass , provided his own voice in this episode , and Will Sasso and Camille Guaty guest starred as various characters . The episode 's writer , John Viener , provided the voice of New Brian . Recurring voice actors and writers Kirker Butler , Mark Hentemann , Danny Smith and Alec Sulkin made minor appearances in the episode .
= = Cultural references = =
The television series Jackass is referred to frequently by Peter and his neighbors , and is the principal reason that they try to do stunts . Johnny Knoxville cameoes and takes a shotgun blast which blows off part of his face . In the episode , while being launched off a ramp and flying through the air , Peter wears the costume from The Greatest American Hero and sings that series ' theme song .
Peter dresses up like a stereotypical adolescent bully featured in 1980s films , and makes references to Pretty in Pink , No Retreat , No Surrender and The Karate Kid . He then looks at the ocean on a pier as Howard Jones ' song , " No One Is to Blame " , plays . In one scene , Stewie refers to " aging supermodel Carol Alt . " Before New Brian and Lois sing " Summer Nights " as featured in Grease , Peter sings R.E.M. ' s " Everybody Hurts " . Stewie reads and then rips apart Nancy Reagan 's memoir , My Turn . Mumm @-@ Ra , the antagonist from the 1980s cartoon Thundercats and its 2011 remake , appears in the scene where Cleveland Brown is making Brian go to the bathroom on a leash whilst staying at his house . Mumm @-@ Ra watches through his cauldron and laughs evilly before remarking , " I 'm watching you make stool ! "
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " The Man with Two Brians " was watched by 8 @.@ 60 million households according to the Nielsen ratings . The episode acquired a 4 @.@ 3 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , and was the most @-@ watched show in the Animation Domination block that night . Family Guy finished fourth in its timeslot , after NBC 's Sunday Night Football , ABC 's Desperate Housewives and CBS 's The Amazing Race .
The episode received generally favorable reviews from television sources and critics . Ahsan Haque of IGN gave the episode 7 @.@ 5 / 10 and said : " While it featured more than [ ... ] a couple of genuinely unfunny ideas , this episode succeeds for the most part . [ ... ] While this episode definitely won 't make anyone 's top ten list of great Family Guy , there was a much better balance between random humor and storytelling in this outing " . Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club gave the episode an A- , and said that Family Guy " started things out on the wrong foot with an oh @-@ so @-@ relevant Jackass storyline . [ ... ] Most of the Jackass stuff was way too stale – Peter jackknifing Quagmire into the crate of bees notwithstanding – but thankfully it was just setup for a far superior storyline , the introduction of a younger ' New Brian ' " .
Robin Pierson of The TV Critic was more critical about the episode , and gave it 32 / 100 and said : " As usual the problem with this episode is that there is no point to it . [ The episode had ] some needless jokes but others which were bearable and a logical enough story even though it addressed nothing .
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= Community Trolls =
Community Trolls was the group name of a short @-@ lived musical duo between Michael Stipe of R.E.M. and Matthew Sweet . In 1983 , they collaborated as part of the Athens , Georgia music scene , writing and recording three songs together . One of the compositions , " Tainted Obligation " , was nearly released on a compilation album in 1986 , and later appeared on bootlegs ; it was released officially in 2002 . Another Community Trolls ' song , " Six Stock Answers " , appeared in an unreleased indie film featuring Stipe , Sweet and some of their friends .
Community Trolls , who may have at times included additional band members , performed in public at least twice . By sometime in 1984 , however , Sweet began distancing himself from the Athens music scene , and in 1985 he got a record deal and moved to New York . While some people accused him of using his Athens music connections to get ahead and then desert the scene , R.E.M. did not hold any hard feelings towards him .
= = Background = =
As a teenager in Lincoln , Nebraska , Sweet was a big fan of Mitch Easter . Easter produced R.E.M. ' s first single , the Hib @-@ Tone version of " Radio Free Europe " . Sweet loved its B @-@ side , " Sitting Still " , and became a fan of the band . When R.E.M. performed in Lincoln in September 1982 , Sweet went to the show . At that point R.E.M. were still relatively unknown , so there was almost nobody at the concert . Sweet met the band and gave Michael Stipe a tape of songs he had been working on . R.E.M. was from Athens , Georgia , which was becoming famous for its vibrant music scene . Sweet had also read about Athens in New York Rocker magazine .
R.E.M. put Sweet in touch with Easter , who wrote Sweet a number of long letters , and suggested he move to Athens after graduating from high school . Meanwhile , Stipe really liked Sweet 's tape , and he also played it for his sister , Lynda , and friend Linda Hopper , who were both in the band Oh @-@ OK . All three sent Sweet postcards saying he should come perform in Athens , with Lynda and Linda inviting him to open for Oh @-@ OK there . Sweet told his parents that he wanted to study at the University of Georgia , in Athens . Within weeks of moving there , he had become a member of Oh @-@ OK , who recorded their EP Furthermore What in August 1983 with him on board . While a member of Oh @-@ OK , Sweet also began collaborating with Michael Stipe as the band Community Trolls .
= = Songs = =
Sometime in the autumn of 1983 , Stipe and Sweet wrote at least three songs together . Of their songwriting process , Sweet has said : " [ Stipe ] was the real powerhouse behind it . I was pretty tentative in those days . We just sat around , Michael went through the little book he wrote lyrics in , with me just kind of strumming along behind . "
= = = " Tainted Obligation " = = =
They recorded their three compositions with producer John Keane that fall , but only one of the tracks from the session , " Tainted Obligation " , has been officially released . Stipe plays accordion on the song , and Sweet acoustic guitar , with vocals by both .
In 1986 , " Tainted Obligation " was planned for inclusion on the Zippo / Demon Records compilation album Don 't Shoot , but ultimately was left off . It was included on a UK cassette advance version of the compilation , but was removed before the album was officially released . In the early 1990s , the song surfaced as " Tainted Obligations " on R.E.M. bootlegs such as Stab It and Steer It and Chestnut . The track was released officially on the 2002 Matthew Sweet compilation To Understand : The Early Recordings of Matthew Sweet . In a review of the album , Rolling Stone critic Gavin Edwards describes the song as " enchanting " and as having " harmonies as pretty as you can imagine " .
= = = " Six Stock Answers " and " My Roof to Your Roof " = = =
Two other documented Community Trolls ' songs are entitled " Six Stock Answers " and " My Roof to Your Roof " . " Six Stock Answers " , whose vocals are by Stipe , was used in an unreleased low @-@ budget forty @-@ five @-@ minute Super @-@ 8 film called Just Like a Movie . It was shot in September 1983 in Athens by New York Rocker photographer Laura Levine , a friend of the members of R.E.M. Those with acting roles included Levine , Michael Stipe , Sweet , Hopper , Lynda Stipe , and R.E.M. ' s Bill Berry . One scene in the film , a parody of the " Subterranean Homesick Blues " sequence in D. A. Pennebaker 's Bob Dylan documentary Dont Look Back , shows Michael Stipe wearing a skirt and tights flipping placards with the song 's lyrics , " Six stock answers to 74 @,@ 000 questions " repeated ad nauseam . Just Like a Movie 's plot has two rival bands performing on the same night , leading up to the climax question of " Which band is everybody going to go see ? "
= = Live performances = =
Community Trolls ' first public performance was busking outside the 40 Watt Club in Athens in September , 1983 . On September 30 , Community Trolls played a set between two R.E.M. sets at the Stitchcraft in Athens , performing four songs : " Six Stock Answers " , " My Roof to Your Roof " , " Tainted Obligation " and the Velvet Underground 's " Pale Blue Eyes " . ( R.E.M. biographer Marcus Gray believes it is likely that footage of the show , including the Trolls ' set , was used in Just Like a Movie . ) Part of R.E.M. ' s performance , and the Trolls ' four songs , have been released on the R.E.M. bootleg 20th Century Boys Volume 1 . Sweet performed with members of R.E.M. at least one other time while he was in Athens : When R.E.M. shared a bill with Oh @-@ OK on October 3 , 1983 , at the University of Georgia 's Legion Field , Sweet joined R.E.M. onstage and played guitar .
= = Possible other band members = =
Although only Stipe and Sweet performed in the studio on " Tainted Obligation " , it is not clear whether other musicians may have sometimes been included in the band . Gray writes that " the line @-@ up of the Community Trolls remains elusive , but Sweet was guitarist and singer " . In the book Rolling Stone 's Alt @-@ Rock @-@ A @-@ Rama , their line @-@ up is described as an " Athens @-@ based , looseknit ensemble , which included Matthew Sweet , [ and which ] featured Michael Stipe 's vocals on a handful of tracks " .
= = Aftermath = =
Around the time as he was collaborating with Stipe , and while still a member of Oh @-@ OK , Sweet began writing songs for another project , the Buzz of Delight , which consisted of Sweet and former Oh @-@ OK drummer David Pierce . In October 1983 , they recorded a six @-@ song EP , Soundcastles , released in the spring of 1984 on DB Records , and performed in New York , Florida and Georgia State to promote it . In the summer and November 1984 , the Buzz of Delight recorded more songs , none of which were immediately released . ( In 1990 , one previously unreleased Buzz of Delight track appeared on the DB Records compilation Squares Blot out the Sun , and , in 2002 , three others on To Understand . ) Meanwhile , Stipe continued his work with R.E.M. , who were getting acclaim and success with their album Murmur . In 1983 , it was named album of the year by Rolling Stone and Trouser Press , and by the middle of 1984 , it had sold 200 @,@ 000 copies . In November 1983 , R.E.M. began recording their follow @-@ up , Reckoning .
Sweet began distancing himself from other people in the Athens music scene and in 1984 quit Oh @-@ OK ; by 1985 , the Buzz of Delight had broken up . That year , Sweet got a record deal with CBS Records and moved to New York City . He was accused of being opportunistic and using his Athens connections to get a record deal and leave . Sweet maintains that when he went to CBS , he never claimed to have anything to do with Athens , so that nobody could say he used the town . He says that after months of living in Athens , he realized things weren 't as happy there as everyone pretended , and that there was backstabbing going on . In 1993 , he said , " Things really turned dark there when R.E.M. got famous , because everyone wanted that fame so bad . Maybe I wanted it too , but I had this musical goal all of my own and wasn 't going to go along with the way it was done there . " Everybody was telling him that he should be touring and building up a following before doing his record , like R.E.M. had done . However , more than making the record itself and becoming a rock star , Sweet 's main motivation was to get money to buy studio gear .
R.E.M. , for their part , held no hard feelings towards Sweet . Peter Buck has said , " The guy wanted to make records . I don 't see anything wrong with that . " Years later , Sweet recorded with R.E.M. ' s Mike Mills on the song " The Ballad of El Goodo " , on the Big Star tribute Big Star , Small World . It was originally scheduled to come out in 1998 , but its release was delayed until 2006 . On March 26 , 2011 , Sweet and Mills performed the Big Star song " September Gurls " together live at a tribute to Big Star singer Alex Chilton ; Stipe also performed at this concert , singing " The Letter " , by Chilton 's 1960s group , the Box Tops .
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= McKinley Birthplace Memorial dollar =
The McKinley Birthplace Memorial dollar was a commemorative coin struck in gold by the United States Bureau of the Mint in 1916 and 1917 , depicting the 25th President of the United States , William McKinley . The coin 's obverse was designed by Mint Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber , and the reverse by his assistant , George T. Morgan . As McKinley had appeared on a version of the 1903 @-@ dated Louisiana Purchase Exposition dollar , the 1916 release made him the first person to appear on two issues of U.S. coins .
The coins were to be sold at a premium to finance the National McKinley Birthplace Memorial at Niles , Ohio , and were vended by the group constructing it . The issue was originally proposed as a silver dollar ; this was changed when it was realized it would not be appropriate to honor a president who had supported the gold standard with such a piece . The coins were poorly promoted , and did not sell well . Despite an authorized mintage of 100 @,@ 000 , only about 20 @,@ 000 were sold , many of these at a reduced price to Texas coin dealer B. Max Mehl . Another 10 @,@ 000 pieces were returned to the Mint for melting .
= = Background = =
William McKinley was born in Niles , Ohio , in 1843 . He left college to work as a teacher , and enlisted in the Union Army when the American Civil War broke out in 1861 . He served throughout the war , ending it as a brevet major . Afterwards , he attended law school and was admitted to the bar . He settled in Canton , Ohio , and after practicing there , was elected to Congress in 1876 . In 1890 , he was defeated for re @-@ election , but was elected governor the following year , serving two two @-@ year terms .
With the aid of his close adviser Mark Hanna , he secured the Republican nomination for president in 1896 , amid a deep economic depression . He defeated his Democratic rival , William Jennings Bryan , after a front porch campaign in which he advocated " sound money " , that is , the gold standard unless modified by international agreement . This contrasted to " free silver " , pushed by Bryan in his campaign .
McKinley was president during the Spanish – American War of 1898 , in which the U.S. victory was quick and decisive . As part of the peace settlement , Spain turned over to the United States its overseas colonies of Puerto Rico , Guam , and the Philippines . With the nation prosperous , McKinley defeated Bryan again in the 1900 presidential election . President McKinley was assassinated by Leon Czolgosz in September 1901 , and was succeeded by Vice President Theodore Roosevelt .
In the years after McKinley 's death , several memorials were built to him , including a large structure housing his remains at Canton . Another memorial was built at his birthplace in Niles under the auspices of the National McKinley Birthplace Memorial Association ( the Association ) . Designed by the firm of McKim , Mead , and White , the Greek Classic memorial was built of Georgia marble and was dedicated in 1917 . Housing a museum , library , and auditorium , as well as a statue of McKinley and busts of his associates , it remains open to the public , free of charge .
= = Inception and preparation = =
The McKinley Birthplace Memorial dollar was proposed as a fundraiser for the construction of the site in Niles . In February 1915 , the Association 's head , Joseph G. Butler , Jr . , met with Ohio Congressman William A. Ashbrook , chairman of the House Committee on Coinage , Weights , and Measures , to propose a silver dollar in honor of McKinley . Ashbrook was willing , and the two men saw Treasury Secretary William G. McAdoo and Acting Director of the Mint Frederic Dewey , who envisioned no difficulty . Accordingly , Ashbrook introduced a bill in the final days of the 63rd Congress , which took no action on it . When the 64th Congress opened in December 1915 , Ashbrook reintroduced his bill , H.R. 2 .
A hearing was held before Ashbrook 's committee on January 13 . Originally , the bill called for mintage of 100 @,@ 000 silver dollars in commemoration of McKinley , but at the hearing , Butler requested that they be gold instead , stating , " if you will recall the fact , McKinley was elected in 1896 mainly on the question of the gold standard . " The gold dollar had not been struck as a circulating coin since 1889 . Asked a question from New York Congressman James W. Husted as to whether a gold dollar would be too small to be a souvenir , Butler responded , " No ; I do not think so . I think , on the other hand , a silver dollar might be too large . I think we can dispose of gold dollars very much easier . Mr. Husted , and you know gold dollars are rather scarce just now . " Ashbrook agreed , and stated :
my understanding is that these dollars will be sold at not less than $ 2 each which would make a profit of at least $ 100 @,@ 000 . I think there will be no trouble about disposing of them at that price . I understand they will be on sale in this memorial , and visitors who go to see it very largely will not leave the building without buying one , and will be willing to pay at least $ 2 . I might say in that connection that any gold dollar coined by the United States is worth at least $ 2 at this time . They all command a premium , and there is no reason why this dollar would not sell for at least $ 2 and likely more .
Ohio Senator Warren G. Harding was present at the House committee meeting and spoke in favor of the bill , arguing that " this assistance on the part of the Federal Government will cost nothing more than the making of the dies " . On being told that the dies , per the legislation , would be at the Association 's expense , Harding replied , " I did not notice that . Then , it essentially costs the Government nothing whatever to render this mark of tribute and assistance . " The committee reported the bill favorably on January 18 , amending the bill to allow for the 100 @,@ 000 gold dollars , to be purchased by the Association at par and sold at a profit to help build the memorial . The report indicated that the committee members " believe it is a deserved testimonial to the worth and service of a great man who lost his life while serving our Nation as its Chief Executive " . The bill passed the House on February 7 , 1916 , and the Senate on February 15 . It was enacted when President Woodrow Wilson signed it on February 23 , 1916 .
The act provided that no more than 100 @,@ 000 pieces be struck , with the necessary gold bullion to be acquired in the open market . The Association could purchase the coins at face value . The act required that the pieces be struck at the Philadelphia Mint , one of only two pieces of authorizing legislation in the classic commemorative coin series ( through 1954 ) that specified the place of striking ( the Panama @-@ Pacific issue of 1915 had to be struck in San Francisco ) . The act also required that the dies be destroyed after the coining was done , something numismatists Anthony Swiatek and Walter Breen questioned as duplicating provisions in the Coinage Act of 1873 .
The designs were prepared in @-@ house at the Philadelphia Mint by Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber , who designed the obverse and his assistant , George T. Morgan , who prepared the reverse . They did not seek outside artists to submit proposals . Numismatic author Q. David Bowers suggested that this was because Secretary McAdoo had sought non @-@ employees to propose designs for the five Panama @-@ Pacific coins along with those sketches prepared by Barber and his assistants , and the Mint 's engravers had prepared only two of the five , and that because the artist assigned one , Evelyn Longman , had fallen ill . When the McKinley designs were submitted to the Commission of Fine Arts on March 31 , 1916 , it recommended changes , though Don Taxay , who so stated , does not say what they were . In any event , no alteration was made , and the designs were approved .
= = Design = =
The obverse of the dollar features an unadorned bust of McKinley , facing left , with the name of the country above and " McKinley Dollar " ( in all capitals ) below . McKinley , who had appeared on one version of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition dollar ( issued beginning in 1903 ) , thus became the first person to appear on two different issues of American coinage . The earlier pieces had also been designed by Barber , and the later coins , according to Bowers , " present an image so different that the uninformed observer would not know that the same man was being depicted " . Bowers suggested that Barber might have been trying to create " a distinctively new version " . Taxay agreed , opining that Barber 's " chief concern seems to have been in making the portrait of McKinley as different as possible from that on the Louisiana Purchase coins " .
The reverse , designed by Morgan , is intended to be a facing view of the McKinley birthplace memorial in Niles , but according to Swiatek and Breen , " the most charitable view must characterize it as inaccurate and incompetently done " . Above the building is " McKinley Birthplace / Niles Ohio " , and beneath it the date and " Memorial " .
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule , in his volume on U.S. coins , disliked the McKinley pieces . " When Barber and Morgan collaborated ... the results were almost always oppressive . The McKinley Memorial dollars of 1916 and 1917 bear witness to these stylistic judgments , the unclothed bust on the obverse looking tastelessly Roman and the classical , colonnaded Memorial Building placed across a reverse further constricted by too much , too large lettering . "
= = Distribution and collecting = =
The Philadelphia Mint struck 20 @,@ 000 gold dollars in August and October 1916 , plus 26 extra reserved for inspection and testing at the 1917 meeting of the United States Assay Commission . In February 1917 , 10 @,@ 000 more ( plus 14 assay coins ) were minted , again at Philadelphia . The Association sold these to the public at $ 3 each , the same price at which the Louisiana Purchase pieces , which sold poorly , had been vended . The McKinley Memorial pieces were ill @-@ publicized , and few were sold at full price . Texas coin dealer B. Max Mehl purchased 10 @,@ 000 pieces at an unknown price , selling them for years afterwards at $ 2 @.@ 50 each .
The Washington Post reported on July 30 , 1916 that the gold dollars had been released and were being " gobbled up as souvenirs " . Nevertheless , according to Mehl in his 1937 volume on commemoratives , " the Committee in charge apparently realized that the number of collectors in the country could not and would not absorb an issue of 100 @,@ 000 coins at $ 3 @.@ 00 each " and some 10 @,@ 000 coins " were disposed of at a greatly reduced price to the ' Texas Dealer ' [ that is , himself ] who in turn distributed them extensively among collectors of the country at a reduced price " . A total of 10 @,@ 023 were returned by the Committee to the Mint for melting . It is uncertain how many of each year were melted , as the Mint did not keep records of this . Mehl estimated that the Committee sold 15 @,@ 000 of the 1916 and 5 @,@ 000 of the 1917 ( including the sale to him ) , meaning that about 5 @,@ 000 of each were melted . Bowers deemed these figures " probably correct " , given Mehl 's personal dealings with the Committee . Bowers calculated that 8 @,@ 000 of the 1916 were sold by the Committee to collectors and the public , plus 7 @,@ 000 to Mehl . He opined that 2 @,@ 000 of the 1917 were sold by the Committee at full price , plus 3 @,@ 000 to Mehl . Swiatek , in his 2012 book on commemoratives , estimated that between a third and half of the melted pieces were dated 1917 .
According to R. S. Yeoman 's 2015 edition of A Guide Book of United States Coins , the 1916 is catalogued for $ 500 in slightly @-@ worn AU @-@ 50 ( almost uncirculated ) to $ 1 @,@ 850 in near @-@ pristine MS @-@ 66 . The 1917 is listed at $ 550 in AU @-@ 50 and $ 3 @,@ 250 in MS @-@ 66 . A 1916 in MS @-@ 68 condition was sold by Heritage Auctions in 2009 for $ 16 @,@ 100 .
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= Hammersmith & City line =
The Hammersmith & City line of the London Underground runs between Hammersmith and Barking . Coloured salmon pink on the tube map , it serves 29 stations in 15 @.@ 8 miles ( 25 @.@ 5 km ) . It runs below ground in the central section between Paddington and Bow Road ; between Farringdon and Aldgate East it skirts the City of London , the capital 's financial heart . The tunnels are just below the surface and are a similar size to those on British main lines . Most of the track and all stations are shared with the District , Circle or Metropolitan lines , the other parts of London Underground 's sub @-@ surface railway , and over 114 million passenger journeys are made each year on this line and the Circle line . Of the 29 stations served , 14 are below ground .
In 1863 the Metropolitan Railway began the world 's first underground railway service between Paddington and Farringdon with wooden carriages and steam locomotives . The following year a railway west from Paddington to Hammersmith opened and this soon became operated and owned jointly by the Metropolitan and Great Western railways . The line was extended to the east in stages , reaching the East London Railway in 1884 . The line was electrified in 1906 , and in 1936 , after the Metropolitan Railway had been absorbed by London Passenger Transport Board , some Hammersmith & City trains were extended over the former District Railway line to Barking . The Hammersmith & City route was shown on the tube map as part of the Metropolitan line until 1990 , when it appeared as a separate line .
The track and signalling systems are being upgraded , and the old 6 @-@ car C Stock trains have been replaced by new 7 @-@ car S Stock trains in a programme to increase capacity by 65 per cent by 2019 .
The line runs parallel to the Great Western Main Line between Paddington and Westbourne Park , and parallel to the London , Tilbury and Southend Railway between West Ham and Barking .
= = History = =
= = = Metropolitan Railway = = =
The first line built by the Metropolitan Railway ( Met ) was from Paddington to near Smithfield , near London 's financial heart in the City ; with gas @-@ lit wooden carriages hauled by steam locomotives opened on 10 January 1863 it was the world 's first underground railway . The line was built mostly under the New Road using the " cut @-@ and @-@ cover " method between Paddington and King 's Cross and then in tunnel and cuttings beside Farringdon Road . Supported by the Met and the Great Western Railway ( GWR ) , the Hammersmith & City Railway ( H & CR ) was built from the GWR 's main line a mile west of Paddington station to the developing suburbs of Shepherd 's Bush and Hammersmith . Built on viaduct largely across open fields , the line opened on 13 June 1864 with a GWR service from Farringdon to Hammersmith , services to Addison Road ( now Kensington ( Olympia ) ) on the West London Railway via a link at Latimer Road starting a few weeks later . From 1865 the Met ran trains to Hammersmith and the GWR trains to Addison Road . In 1867 the line became jointly owned by the two companies . In 1871 two additional tracks parallel to the GWR between Westbourne Park and Paddington were brought into use for the H & CR , and in 1878 the flat crossing at Westbourne Park was replaced by a dive @-@ under . A year earlier some services had been extended via London & South Western Railway 's Hammersmith ( Grove Road ) railway station and their line to Richmond .
The railway was extended east of Farringdon and a terminus opened at Aldgate on 18 November 1876 . The Met wished to access the South Eastern Railway via the East London Railway ( ELR ) and jointly with the District Railway built lines from their Mansion House station to the Met 's Aldgate station and east from Aldgate to reach the ELR at Whitechapel . In October 1884 the Met extended some Hammersmith services over the ELR to New Cross .
In 1902 the Whitechapel & Bow Railway was opened , linking the District Railway at Whitechapel to the London , Tilbury and Southend Railway ( LT & SR ) at an above @-@ ground junction at Bow , to the west of Bromley @-@ by @-@ Bow station , and some District services were extended from Whitechapel to East Ham . When the line was electrified in 1906 services to Richmond were withdrawn and the western termini became Hammersmith and Kensington ( Addison Road ) , and to the east services were diverted from the ELR to Whitechapel , until the ELR was electrified in 1914 and services ran from Hammersmith to New Cross and New Cross Gate . The 6 @-@ car electric multiple units were jointly owned by the Met and GWR until 1923 when the GWR sold theirs to the Met .
= = = London Transport = = =
On 1 July 1933 the Metropolitan Railway was amalgamated with other Underground railways , tramway companies and bus operators to form the London Passenger Transport Board . To relieve congestion on the District line east of Whitechapel from 1936 some trains from Hammersmith were diverted from the East London line to Barking . Through trains to New Cross and New Cross Gate were withdrawn in November 1939 , the Hammersmith & City line trains terminating at Whitechapel while the longer 8 @-@ car Uxbridge line trains ran to Barking . However , this caused operational problems and from 1941 Barking was again served by trains from Hammersmith .
From 1937 new steel O stock trains , with doors remotely operated by the guard , replaced the wooden @-@ bodied trains dating from 1906 . It had been intended to operate the new trains with four or six cars , but after initial problems with the traction current only six @-@ car formations were used . Services to Kensington ( Olympia ) via the curve at Latimer Road were suspended in 1940 after bomb damage to the West London line and not restarted after the war . When the similar trains running on the Circle line were lengthened to six cars in 1959 and 1960 , the stock of the two lines was integrated with maintenance at Hammersmith depot . Aluminium C Stock trains , with public address systems and originally unpainted , replaced these trains from 1970 . One person operation was proposed in 1972 , but due to conflict with the trade unions was not introduced until 1984 .
= = = A separate identity = = =
The route between Hammersmith and Barking was shown on the tube map as part of the Metropolitan line , but since 1990 has been shown separately , the Metropolitan line becoming the route from Aldgate to Baker Street and northwards through " Metro @-@ Land " to Uxbridge , Watford and Amersham . In 2003 , the infrastructure of the Hammersmith & City line was partly privatised in a public – private partnership , managed by the Metronet consortium . Metronet went into administration in 2007 and the local government body Transport for London took over responsibilities . The reconstruction of Whitechapel station for the new Crossrail underground line required the reversing platforms to be taken out of use and since December 2009 all services have been extended to Plaistow or Barking .
The C Stock trains have recently been replaced by S7 Stock ; the first new train entered service on the Hammersmith & City line on 6 July 2012 , running a shuttle service between Hammersmith and Moorgate before operating between Hammersmith and Barking on 9 December 2012 . By March 2014 all services were provided by S7 Stock trains .
= = Route = =
The line is 15 @.@ 8 miles ( 25 @.@ 5 km ) long with 29 stations . Almost all of its track is shared with the other London Underground sub @-@ surface lines : from Hammersmith to Baker Street with the Circle line , from Baker Street to Aldgate with the Circle and Metropolitan lines , and from Aldgate East station to Barking with the District line . All its stations are shared with other lines .
The line is electrified with a four @-@ rail DC system : a central conductor rail is energised at − 210 V and a rail outside the running rails at + 420 V , giving a potential difference of 630 V. Much of the 2 @-@ mile @-@ 35 @-@ chain ( 3 @.@ 9 km ) double @-@ track railway from the Hammersmith terminus to Westbourne Park station is on a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) high brick viaduct . After Westbourne Park the line passes beneath the Great Western main line re @-@ surfacing at Royal Oak station and running alongside the main lines to Paddington station . The line enters a cut @-@ and @-@ cover tunnel at the end of the platforms and meets the Circle line from Bayswater at Praed Street Junction before passing through Edgware Road station in a cutting . After King 's Cross St Pancras the line is in cutting , passing under the Ray Street Gridiron that carries the City Widened Lines used for Thameslink services . There are bay platforms at Moorgate . Just before Aldgate the line diverges from the Circle and Metropolitan lines to Aldgate East . The line passes over the London Overground at Whitechapel station continuing on the 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) former Whitechapel & Bow Railway to Bow Road where it surfaces , and then to Bromley @-@ by @-@ Bow , where it runs alongside the London , Tilbury and Southend line from Fenchurch Street . At the next station , West Ham , there is interchange with the Jubilee line , the Docklands Light Railway and c2c . There is a bay platform at the next station , Plaistow , and the line terminates after two more stations at Barking .
= = Services = =
As of December 2012 off @-@ peak there are six trains per hour , calling at all stations , and requiring 15 trains for the peak @-@ hour service . Together with the Circle line , over 114 million passenger journeys are made each year . The journey from Hammersmith to Barking takes 61 minutes off @-@ peak . The central section from Paddington to Aldgate East is in Fare Zone 1 , to the west to Hammersmith and east to Bromley @-@ by @-@ Bow in Zone 2 . Barking and East Ham are in Zone 4 .
= = Rolling stock = =
Services are provided by seven @-@ car S Stock , part of Bombardier 's Movia family , with air @-@ conditioning as the sub @-@ surface tunnels ( unlike those on the deep @-@ level tube lines ) are able to disperse the exhausted hot air . These trains have regenerative brakes , returning around 20 per cent of their energy to the network . With a top speed of 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) , a 7 @-@ car S Stock train has a capacity of 865 passengers , compared to 739 for the six @-@ car C Stock train it replaced . With a length of 384 feet ( 117 m ) , S Stock trains are 79 feet ( 24 m ) longer than 305 @-@ foot ( 93 m ) long C Stock trains and station platforms have been lengthened . It is planned to increase the traction voltage from the present nominal 630 V to 750 V to give better performance and allow the trains to return more energy to the network through their regenerative brakes .
= = Depot = =
The line 's depot is at Hammersmith , close to Hammersmith station , built by the Great Western Railway to be operated by the Metropolitan Railway when the joint railway was electrified in the early 20th century . Sidings at Barking and near High Street Kensington ( Triangle Sidings ) stable trains overnight . Sidings at Farringdon were used during the C stock era ; due to the greater length of the new S stock trains , these are no longer in use .
= = Upgrade programme = =
Together with the introduction of S Stock trains , the track , electrical supply and signalling systems are being upgraded in a programme planned to increase peak @-@ hour capacity on the Circle and Hammersmith & City lines by 65 per cent by the end of 2018 . A single control room for the sub @-@ surface railway is to be established in Hammersmith and an automatic train control ( ATC ) system will replace signalling equipment installed from the 1940s . The cross @-@ London Crossrail line , planned to open in 2018 , is expected to reduce crowding between Paddington and Whitechapel .
= = List of stations = =
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= Gustav Holst =
Gustav Theodore Holst ( born Gustavus Theodore von Holst ; 21 September 1874 – 25 May 1934 ) was an English composer , arranger and teacher . Best known for his orchestral suite The Planets , he composed a large number of other works across a range of genres , although none achieved comparable success . His distinctive compositional style was the product of many influences , Richard Wagner and Richard Strauss being most crucial early in his development . The subsequent inspiration of the English folksong revival of the early 20th century , and the example of such rising modern composers as Maurice Ravel , led Holst to develop and refine an individual style .
There were professional musicians in the previous three generations of Holst 's family , and it was clear from his early years that he would follow the same calling . He hoped to become a pianist , but was prevented by neuritis in his right arm . Despite his father 's reservations , he pursued a career as a composer , studying at the Royal College of Music under Charles Villiers Stanford . Unable to support himself by his compositions , he played the trombone professionally and later became a teacher — a great one , according to his colleague Ralph Vaughan Williams . Among other teaching activities he built up a strong tradition of performance at Morley College , where he served as musical director from 1907 until 1924 , and pioneered music education for women at St Paul 's Girls ' School , where he taught from 1905 until his death in 1934 . He was the founder of a series of Whitsun music festivals , which ran from 1916 for the remainder of his life . Holst 's works were played frequently in the early years of the 20th century , but it was not until the international success of The Planets in the years immediately after the First World War that he became a well @-@ known figure . A shy man , he did not welcome this fame , and preferred to be left in peace to compose and teach .
In his later years his uncompromising , personal style of composition struck many music lovers as too austere , and his brief popularity declined . Nevertheless , he was a significant influence on a number of younger English composers , including Edmund Rubbra , Michael Tippett and Benjamin Britten . Apart from The Planets and a handful of other works , his music was generally neglected until the 1980s , since when recordings of much of his output have been available .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early years = = =
= = = = Family background = = = =
Holst was born in Cheltenham , Gloucestershire , the elder of the two children of Adolph von Holst , a professional musician , and his wife , Clara Cox , née Lediard . She was of mostly British descent , daughter of a respected Cirencester solicitor ; the Holst side of the family was of mixed Swedish , Latvian and German ancestry , with at least one professional musician in each of the previous three generations .
Holst 's great @-@ grandfather , Matthias Holst , born in Riga , Latvia , was of German origin ; he served as composer and harp @-@ teacher to the Imperial Russian Court in St Petersburg . Matthias 's son Gustavus , who moved to England with his parents as a child in 1802 , was a composer of salon @-@ style music and a well @-@ known harp teacher . He appropriated the aristocratic prefix " von " and added it to the family name in the hope of gaining enhanced prestige and attracting pupils .
Holst 's father , Adolph von Holst , became organist and choirmaster at All Saints ' Church , Cheltenham ; he also taught , and gave piano recitals . His wife , Clara , a former pupil , was a talented singer and pianist . They had two sons ; Gustav 's younger brother , Emil Gottfried , became known as Ernest Cossart , a successful actor in the West End , New York and Hollywood . Clara died in February 1882 , and the family moved to another house in Cheltenham , where Adolph recruited his sister Nina to help raise the boys . Gustav recognised her devotion to the family and dedicated several of his early compositions to her . In 1885 Adolph married Mary Thorley Stone , another of his pupils . They had two sons , Matthias ( known as " Max " ) and Evelyn ( " Thorley " ) . Mary von Holst was absorbed in theosophy and not greatly interested in domestic matters . All four of Adolph 's sons were subject to what one biographer calls " benign neglect " , and Gustav in particular was " not overburdened with attention or understanding , with a weak sight and a weak chest , both neglected — he was ' miserable and scared ' . "
= = = = Childhood and youth = = = =
Holst was taught to play the piano and the violin ; he enjoyed the former very much more than the latter . At the age of twelve he took up the trombone at Adolph 's suggestion , thinking that playing a brass instrument might improve his asthma . Holst was educated at Cheltenham Grammar School between 1886 and 1891 . He started composing in or about 1886 ; inspired by Macaulay 's poem Horatius he began , but soon abandoned , an ambitious setting of the work for chorus and orchestra . His early compositions included piano pieces , organ voluntaries , songs , anthems and a symphony ( from 1892 ) . His main influences at this stage were Mendelssohn , Chopin , Grieg and above all Sullivan . Adolph tried to steer his son away from composition , hoping that he would have a career as a pianist . Holst 's health played a decisive part in his musical future ; he had never been strong , and in addition to his asthma and poor eyesight he suffered from neuritis , which made playing the piano difficult . He said that the affected arm was " like a jelly overcharged with electricity " .
After Holst left school in 1891 , Adolph paid for him to spend four months in Oxford studying counterpoint with George Frederick Sims , organist of Merton College . On his return Holst obtained his first professional appointment , aged seventeen , as organist and choirmaster at Wyck Rissington , Gloucestershire . The post brought with it the conductorship of the Bourton @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Water Choral Society , which offered no extra remuneration but provided valuable experience that enabled him to hone his conducting skills . In November 1891 Holst gave what was perhaps his first public performance as a pianist ; he and his father played the Brahms Hungarian Dances at a concert in Cheltenham . The programme for the event gives his name as " Gustav " rather than " Gustavus " ; he was called by the shorter version from his early years .
= = = Royal College of Music = = =
In 1892 Holst wrote the music for an operetta in the style of Gilbert and Sullivan , Lansdown Castle , or The Sorcerer of Tewkesbury . The piece was performed at Cheltenham Corn Exchange in February 1893 ; it was well received and its success encouraged him to persevere with composing . He applied for a scholarship at the Royal College of Music ( RCM ) in London , but the composition scholarship for that year was won by Samuel Coleridge @-@ Taylor . Holst was accepted as a non @-@ scholarship student , and Adolph borrowed £ 100 to cover the first year 's expenses . Holst left Cheltenham for London in May 1893 . Money was tight , and partly from frugality and partly from his own inclination he became a vegetarian and a teetotaller . Two years later he was finally granted a scholarship , which slightly eased his financial difficulties , but he retained his austere personal regime .
Holst 's professors at the RCM were Frederick Sharpe ( piano ) , William Stephenson Hoyte ( organ ) , George Case ( trombone ) , George Jacobi ( instrumentation ) and the director of the college , Hubert Parry ( history ) . After preliminary lessons with W. S. Rockstro and Frederick Bridge , Holst was granted his wish to study composition with Charles Villiers Stanford . To support himself during his studies Holst played the trombone professionally , at seaside resorts in the summer and in London theatres in the winter . His daughter and biographer , Imogen Holst , records that from his fees as a player " he was able to afford the necessities of life : board and lodging , manuscript paper , and tickets for standing room in the gallery at Covent Garden Opera House on Wagner evenings " . He secured an occasional engagement in symphony concerts , playing in 1897 under the baton of Richard Strauss at the Queen 's Hall .
Like many musicians of his generation , Holst came under Wagner 's spell . He had recoiled from the music of Götterdämmerung when he heard it at Covent Garden in 1892 , but encouraged by his friend and fellow @-@ student Fritz Hart he persevered and quickly became an ardent Wagnerite . Wagner supplanted Sullivan as the main influence on his music , and for some time , as Imogen put it , " ill @-@ assimilated wisps of Tristan inserted themselves on nearly every page of his own songs and overtures . " Stanford admired some of Wagner 's works , and had in his earlier years been influenced by him , but Holst 's sub @-@ Wagnerian compositions met with his disapprobation : " It won 't do , me boy ; it won 't do " . Holst respected Stanford , describing him to a fellow @-@ pupil , Herbert Howells , as " the one man who could get any one of us out of a technical mess " , but he found that his fellow students , rather than the faculty members , had the greater influence on his development .
In 1895 , shortly after celebrating his twenty @-@ first birthday , Holst met Ralph Vaughan Williams , who became a lifelong friend and had more influence on Holst 's music than anybody else . Stanford emphasised the need for his students to be self @-@ critical , but Holst and Vaughan Williams became one another 's chief critics ; each would play his latest composition to the other while still working on it . Vaughan Williams later observed , " What one really learns from an Academy or College is not so much from one 's official teachers as from one 's fellow @-@ students ... [ we discussed ] every subject under the sun from the lowest note of the double bassoon to the philosophy of Jude the Obscure . In 1949 he wrote of their relationship , " Holst declared that his music was influenced by that of his friend : the converse is certainly true . " The year 1895 was also the bicentenary of Henry Purcell , which was marked by various performances including Stanford conducting Dido and Aeneas at the Lyceum Theatre ; the work profoundly impressed Holst , who over twenty years later confessed to a friend that his search for " the ( or a ) musical idiom of the English language " had been inspired " unconsciously " by " hearing the recits in Purcell 's Dido " .
Another early influence was William Morris . In Vaughan Williams 's words , " It was now that Holst discovered the feeling of unity with his fellow men which made him afterwards a great teacher . A sense of comradeship rather than political conviction led him , while still a student , to join the Kelmscott House Socialist Club in Hammersmith . " At Kelmscott House , Morris 's home , Holst attended lectures by his host and Bernard Shaw . His own socialism was moderate in character , but he enjoyed the club for its good company and his admiration of Morris as a man . His ideals were influenced by Morris 's but had a different emphasis . Morris had written , " I do not want art for a few any more than education for a few , or freedom for a few . I want all persons to be educated according to their capacity , not according to the amount of money which their parents happen to have " . Holst said , " ' Aristocracy in art ' — art is not for all but only for the chosen few — but the only way to find those few is to bring art to everyone — then the artists have a sort of masonic signal by which they recognise each other in the crowd . " He was invited to conduct the Hammersmith Socialist Choir , teaching them madrigals by Thomas Morley , choruses by Purcell , and works by Mozart , Wagner and himself . One of his choristers was ( Emily ) Isobel Harrison ( 1876 – 1969 ) , a beautiful soprano two years his junior . He fell in love with her ; she was at first unimpressed by him , but she came round and they were engaged , though with no immediate prospect of marriage given Holst 's tiny income .
= = = Professional musician = = =
In 1898 the RCM offered Holst a further year 's scholarship , but he felt that he had learned as much as he could there and that it was time , as he put it , to " learn by doing " . Some of his compositions were published and performed ; the previous year The Times had praised his song " Light Leaves Whisper " , " a moderately elaborate composition in six parts , treated with a good deal of expression and poetic feeling " . Occasional successes notwithstanding , Holst found that " man cannot live by composition alone " ; he took posts as organist at various London churches , and continued playing the trombone in theatre orchestras . In 1898 he was appointed first trombonist and répétiteur with the Carl Rosa Opera Company and toured with the Scottish Orchestra . Though a capable rather than a virtuoso player he won the praise of the leading conductor Hans Richter , for whom he played at Covent Garden . His salary was only just enough to live on , and he supplemented it by playing in a popular orchestra called the " White Viennese Band " , conducted by Stanislas Wurm . Holst enjoyed playing for Wurm , and learned much from him about drawing rubato from players . Nevertheless , longing to devote his time to composing , Holst found the necessity of playing for " the Worm " or any other light orchestra " a wicked and loathsome waste of time " . Vaughan Williams did not altogether agree with his friend about this ; he admitted that some of the music was " trashy " but thought it had been useful to Holst nonetheless : " To start with , the very worst a trombonist has to put up with is as nothing compared to what a church organist has to endure ; and secondly , Holst is above all an orchestral composer , and that sure touch which distinguishes his orchestral writing is due largely to the fact that he has been an orchestral player ; he has learnt his art , both technically and in substance , not at second hand from text books and models , but from actual live experience . "
With a modest income secured , Holst was able to marry Isobel ; the ceremony was at Fulham Register Office on 22 June 1901 . Their marriage lasted until his death ; there was one child , Imogen , born in 1907 . In 1902 Dan Godfrey and the Bournemouth Municipal Orchestra premiered Holst 's symphony The Cotswolds ( Op. 8 ) , the slow movement of which is a lament for William Morris who had died in October 1896 , three years before Holst began work on the piece . In 1903 Adolph von Holst died , leaving a small legacy . Holst and his wife decided , as Imogen later put it , that " as they were always hard up the only thing to do was to spend it all at once on a holiday in Germany " .
= = = Composer and teacher = = =
While in Germany , Holst reappraised his professional life , and in 1903 he decided to abandon orchestral playing to concentrate on composition . His earnings as a composer were too little to live on , and two years later he accepted the offer of a teaching post at James Allen 's Girls ' School , Dulwich , which he held until 1921 . He also taught at the Passmore Edwards Settlement , where among other innovations he gave the British premieres of two Bach cantatas . The two teaching posts for which he is probably best known were director of music at St Paul 's Girls ' School , Hammersmith , from 1905 until his death , and director of music at Morley College from 1907 to 1924 . Vaughan Williams wrote of the former establishment : " Here he did away with the childish sentimentality which schoolgirls were supposed to appreciate and substituted Bach and Vittoria ; a splendid background for immature minds . " Several of Holst 's pupils at St Paul 's went on to distinguished careers , including the soprano Joan Cross , and the oboist and cor anglais player Helen Gaskell . Of Holst 's impact on Morley College , Vaughan Williams wrote : " [ A ] bad tradition had to be broken down . The results were at first discouraging , but soon a new spirit appeared and the music of Morley College , together with its offshoot the ' Whitsuntide festival ' ... became a force to be reckoned with " . Before Holst 's appointment , Morley College had not treated music very seriously ( Vaughan Williams 's " bad tradition " ) , and at first Holst 's exacting demands drove many students away . He persevered , and gradually built up a class of dedicated music @-@ lovers .
According to the composer Edmund Rubbra , who studied under him in the early 1920s , Holst was " a teacher who often came to lessons weighted , not with the learning of Prout and Stainer , but with a miniature score of Petrushka or the then recently published Mass in G minor of Vaughan Williams " . He never sought to impose his own ideas on his composition pupils . Rubbra recalled that he would divine a student 's difficulties and gently guide him to finding the solution for himself . " I do not recall that Holst added one single note of his own to anything I wrote , but he would suggest — if I agreed ! — that , given such and such a phrase , the following one would be better if it took such and such a course ; if I did not see this , the point would not be insisted upon ... He frequently took away [ because of ] his abhorrence of unessentials . "
As a composer Holst was frequently inspired by literature . He set poetry by Thomas Hardy and Robert Bridges and , a particular influence , Walt Whitman , whose words he set in " Dirge for Two Veterans " and The Mystic Trumpeter ( 1904 ) . He wrote an orchestral Walt Whitman Overture in 1899 . While on tour with the Carl Rosa company Holst had read some of Max Müller 's books , which inspired in him a keen interest in Sanskrit texts , particularly the Rig Veda hymns . He found the existing English versions of the texts unconvincing , and decided to make his own translations , despite his lack of skills as a linguist . He enrolled in 1909 at University College , London to study the language . Imogen commented on his translations : " He was not a poet , and there are occasions when his verses seem naïve . But they never sound vague or slovenly , for he had set himself the task of finding words that would be ' clear and dignified ' and that would ' lead the listener into another world ' . " His settings of translations of Sanskrit texts included Sita ( 1899 – 1906 ) , a three @-@ act opera based on an episode in the Ramayana ( which he eventually entered for a competition for English opera set by the Milan music publisher Tito Ricordi ) ; Savitri ( 1908 ) , a chamber opera based on a tale from the Mahabharata ; four groups of Hymns from the Rig Veda ( 1908 – 14 ) ; and two texts originally by Kālidāsa : Two Eastern Pictures ( 1909 – 10 ) and The Cloud Messenger ( 1913 ) .
Towards the end of the nineteenth century , British musical circles had experienced a new interest in national folk music . Some composers , such as Sullivan and Elgar , remained indifferent , but Parry , Stanford , Stainer and Alexander Mackenzie were founding members of the Folk @-@ Song Society . Parry considered that by recovering English folk song , English composers would find an authentic national voice ; he commented , " in true folk @-@ songs there is no sham , no got @-@ up glitter , and no vulgarity " . Vaughan Williams was an early and enthusiastic convert to this cause , going round the English countryside collecting and noting down folk songs . These had an influence on Holst . Though not as passionate on the subject as his friend , he incorporated a number of folk melodies in his own compositions and made several arrangements of folk songs collected by others . The Somerset Rhapsody ( 1906 – 07 ) , was written at the suggestion of the folk @-@ song collector Cecil Sharp and made use of tunes that Sharp had noted down . Holst described its performance at the Queen 's Hall in 1910 as " my first real success " . A few years later Holst became excited by another musical renaissance — the rediscovery of English madrigal composers . Weelkes was his favourite of all the Tudor composers , but Byrd also meant much to him .
Holst was a keen rambler . He walked extensively in England , Italy , France and Algeria . In 1908 he travelled to Algeria on medical advice as a treatment for asthma and the depression that he suffered after his opera Sita failed to win the Ricordi prize . This trip inspired the suite Beni Mora , which incorporated music he heard in the Algerian streets . Vaughan Williams wrote of this exotic work , " if it had been played in Paris rather than London it would have given its composer a European reputation , and played in Italy would probably have caused a riot . "
= = = 1910s = = =
In June 1911 Holst and his Morley College students gave the first performance since the seventeenth century of Purcell 's The Fairy @-@ Queen . The full score had been lost soon after Purcell 's death in 1695 , and had only recently been found . Twenty @-@ eight Morley students copied out the complete vocal and orchestral parts . There were 1 @,@ 500 pages of music and it took the students almost eighteen months to copy them out in their spare time . A concert performance of the work was given at The Old Vic , preceded by an introductory talk by Vaughan Williams . The Times praised Holst and his forces for " a most interesting and artistic performance of this very important work " .
After this success , Holst was disappointed the following year by the lukewarm reception of his choral work The Cloud Messenger . He again went travelling , accepting an invitation from H. Balfour Gardiner to join him and the brothers Clifford and Arnold Bax in Spain . During this holiday Clifford Bax introduced Holst to astrology , an interest that later inspired his suite The Planets . Holst cast his friends ' horoscopes for the rest of his life and referred to astrology as his " pet vice " .
In 1913 , St Paul 's Girls ' School opened a new music wing , and Holst composed St Paul 's Suite for the occasion . The new building contained a sound @-@ proof room , handsomely equipped , where he could work undisturbed . Holst and his family moved to a house in Brook Green , very close to the school . For the previous six years they had lived in a pretty house overlooking the Thames at Barnes , but the river air , frequently foggy , affected his breathing . For use at weekends and during school holidays , Holst and his wife bought a cottage in Thaxted , Essex , surrounded by mediaeval buildings and ample rambling opportunities . In 1917 they moved to a house in the centre of the town , where they stayed until 1925 .
At Thaxted , Holst became friendly with the Rev Conrad Noel , known as the " Red Vicar " , who supported the Independent Labour Party and espoused many causes unpopular with conservative opinion . Noel also encouraged the revival of folk @-@ dancing and processionals as part of church ceremonies , innovations which caused controversy among traditionally @-@ minded churchgoers . Holst became an occasional organist and choirmaster at Thaxted Parish Church ; he also developed an interest in bell @-@ ringing . He started an annual music festival at Whitsuntide in 1916 ; students from Morley College and St Paul 's Girls ' School performed together with local participants . Holst 's a cappella carol , " This Have I Done For My True Love " , was dedicated to Noel in recognition of his interest in the ancient origins of religion ( the composer always referred to the work as " The Dancing Day " ) . It received its first performance during the Third Whitsun Festival at Thaxted in May 1918 . During that festival , Noel , a staunch supporter of Russia 's October Revolution , demanded in a Saturday message during the service that there should be a greater political commitment from those who participated in the church activities ; his claim that several of Holst 's pupils ( implicitly those from St Paul 's Girls ' School ) were merely " camp followers " caused offence . Holst , anxious to protect his students from being embroiled in ecclesiastical conflict , moved the Whitsun Festival to Dulwich , though he himself continued to help with the Thaxted choir and to play the church organ on occasion .
= = = First World War = = =
At the outbreak of the First World War , Holst tried to enlist but was rejected as unfit for military service . He felt frustrated that he could not contribute to the war effort . His wife became a volunteer ambulance driver ; Vaughan Williams went on active service to France as did Holst 's brother Emil ; Holst 's friends the composers George Butterworth and Cecil Coles were killed in battle . He continued to teach and compose ; he worked on The Planets and prepared his chamber opera Savitri for performance . It was first given in December 1916 by students of the London School of Opera at the Wellington Hall in St John 's Wood . It attracted no attention at the time from the main newspapers , though when professionally staged five years later it was greeted as " a perfect little masterpiece . " In 1917 he wrote The Hymn of Jesus for chorus and orchestra , a work which remained unperformed until after the war .
In 1918 , as the war neared its end , Holst finally had the prospect of a job that offered him the chance to serve . The music section of the YMCA 's education department needed volunteers to work with British troops stationed in Europe awaiting demobilisation . Morley College and St Paul 's Girls ' School offered him a year 's leave of absence , but there remained one obstacle : the YMCA felt that his surname looked too German to be acceptable in such a role . He formally changed " von Holst " to " Holst " by deed poll in September 1918 . He was appointed as the YMCA 's musical organiser for the Near East , based in Salonica .
Holst was given a spectacular send @-@ off . The conductor Adrian Boult recalled , " Just before the Armistice , Gustav Holst burst into my office : ' Adrian , the YMCA are sending me to Salonica quite soon and Balfour Gardiner , bless his heart , has given me a parting present consisting of the Queen 's Hall , full of the Queen 's Hall Orchestra for the whole of a Sunday morning . So we 're going to do The Planets , and you 've got to conduct ' . " There was a burst of activity to get things ready in time . The girls at St Paul 's helped to copy out the orchestral parts , and the women of Morley and the St Paul 's girls learned the choral part in the last movement . The performance was given on 29 September to an invited audience including Sir Henry Wood and most of the professional musicians in London . Five months later , when Holst was in Greece , Boult introduced The Planets to the general public , at a concert in February 1919 ; Holst sent him a long letter full of suggestions , but failed to convince him that the suite should be played in full . The conductor believed that about half an hour of such radically new music was all the public could absorb at first hearing , and he gave only five of the seven movements on that occasion .
Holst enjoyed his time in Salonica , from where he was able to visit Athens , which greatly impressed him . His musical duties were wide @-@ ranging , and even obliged him on occasion to play the violin in the local orchestra : " it was great fun , but I fear I was not of much use " . He returned to England in June 1919 .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
On his return from Greece , Holst resumed his teaching and composing . In addition to his existing work he accepted a lectureship in composition at the University of Reading and joined Vaughan Williams in teaching composition at their alma mater the RCM . Inspired by Adrian Boult 's conducting classes at the RCM , Holst tried to further pioneer music education for women by proposing to the High Mistress of St Paul 's Girls ' School that he should invite Boult to give classes at the school : " It would be glorious if the SPGS turned out the only women conductors in the world ! " In his soundproof room at SPGS he composed the Ode to Death , a setting of a poem by Whitman , which according to Vaughan Williams is considered by many to be Holst 's most beautiful choral work .
Holst , in his forties , suddenly found himself in demand . The New York Philharmonic and Chicago Symphony Orchestra vied to be the first to play The Planets in the US . The success of that work was followed in 1920 by an enthusiastic reception for The Hymn of Jesus , described in The Observer as " one of the most brilliant and one of the most sincere pieces of choral and orchestral expression heard for some years . " The Times called it " undoubtedly the most strikingly original choral work which has been produced in this country for many years . " To his surprise and dismay Holst was becoming famous . Celebrity was something wholly foreign to his nature . As the music scholar Byron Adams puts it , " he struggled for the rest of his life to extricate himself from the web of garish publicity , public incomprehension and professional envy woven about him by this unsought @-@ for success . " He turned down honours and awards offered to him , and refused to give interviews or autographs .
Holst 's comic opera The Perfect Fool ( 1923 ) was widely seen as a satire of Parsifal , though Holst firmly denied it . The piece , with Maggie Teyte in the leading soprano role and Eugene Goossens conducting , was enthusiastically received at its premiere in the Royal Opera House . At a concert in Reading in 1923 , Holst slipped and fell , suffering concussion . He seemed to make a good recovery , and he felt up to accepting an invitation to the US , lecturing and conducting at the University of Michigan . After he returned he found himself more and more in demand , to conduct , prepare his earlier works for publication , and , as before , to teach . The strain caused by these demands on him was too great ; on doctor 's orders he cancelled all professional engagements during 1924 , and retreated to Thaxted . In 1925 he resumed his work at St Paul 's Girls ' School , but did not return to any of his other posts .
= = = Later years = = =
Holst 's productivity as a composer benefited almost at once from his release from other work . His works from this period include the First Choral Symphony to words by Keats ( a Second Choral Symphony to words by George Meredith exists only in fragments ) . A short Shakespearian opera , At the Boar 's Head , followed ; neither had the immediate popular appeal of A Moorside Suite for brass band of 1928 .
In 1927 Holst was commissioned by the New York Symphony Orchestra to write a symphony . Instead , he wrote an orchestral piece Egdon Heath , inspired by Thomas Hardy 's Wessex . It was first performed in February 1928 , a month after Hardy 's death , at a memorial concert . By this time the public 's brief enthusiasm for everything Holstian was waning , and the piece was not well received in New York . Olin Downes in The New York Times opined that " the new score seemed long and undistinguished " . The day after the American performance , Holst conducted the City of Birmingham Orchestra in the British premiere . The Times acknowledged the bleakness of the work but allowed that it matched Hardy 's grim view of the world : " Egdon Heath is not likely to be popular , but it says what the composer wants to say , whether we like it or not , and truth is one aspect of duty . " Holst had been distressed by hostile reviews of some of his earlier works , but he was indifferent to critical opinion of Egdon Heath , which he regarded as , in Adams 's phrase , his " most perfectly realized composition " .
Towards the end of his life Holst wrote the Choral Fantasia ( 1930 ) and he was commissioned by the BBC to write a piece for military band ; the resulting prelude and scherzo Hammersmith was a tribute to the place where he had spent most of his life . The composer and critic Colin Matthews considers the work " as uncompromising in its way as Egdon Heath , discovering , in the words of Imogen Holst , ' in the middle of an over @-@ crowded London ... the same tranquillity that he had found in the solitude of Egdon Heath ' " . The work was unlucky in being premiered at a concert that also featured the London premiere of Walton 's Belshazzar 's Feast , by which it was somewhat overshadowed .
Holst wrote a score for a British film , The Bells ( 1931 ) , and was amused to be recruited as an extra in a crowd scene . Both film and score are now lost . He wrote a " jazz band piece " that Imogen later arranged for orchestra as Capriccio . Having composed operas throughout his life with varying success , Holst found for his last opera , The Wandering Scholar , what Matthews calls " the right medium for his oblique sense of humour , writing with economy and directness " .
Harvard University offered Holst a lectureship for the first six months of 1932 . Arriving via New York he was pleased to be reunited with his brother , Emil , whose acting career under the name of Ernest Cossart had taken him to Broadway ; but Holst was dismayed by the continual attentions of press interviewers and photographers . He enjoyed his time at Harvard , but was taken ill while there : a duodenal ulcer prostrated him for some weeks . He returned to England , joined briefly by his brother for a holiday together in the Cotswolds . His health declined , and he withdrew further from musical activities . One of his last efforts was to guide the young players of the St Paul 's Girls ' School orchestra through one of his final compositions , the Brook Green Suite , in March 1934 .
Holst died in London on 25 May 1934 , at the age of 59 , of heart failure following an operation on his ulcer . His ashes were interred at Chichester Cathedral in Sussex , close to the memorial to Thomas Weelkes , his favourite Tudor composer . Bishop George Bell gave the memorial oration at the funeral , and Vaughan Williams conducted music by Holst and himself .
= = Music = =
= = = Style = = =
Holst 's absorption of folksong , not only in the melodic sense but in terms of its simplicity and economy of expression , helped to develop a style that many of his contemporaries , even admirers , found austere and cerebral . This is contrary to the popular identification of Holst with The Planets , which Matthews believes has masked his status as a composer of genuine originality . Against charges of coldness in the music , Imogen cites Holst 's characteristic " sweeping modal tunes mov [ ing ] reassuringly above the steps of a descending bass " , while Michael Kennedy points to the 12 Humbert Wolfe settings of 1929 , and the 12 Welsh folksong settings for unaccompanied chorus of 1930 – 31 , as works of true warmth .
Many of the characteristics that Holst employed — unconventional time signatures , rising and falling scales , ostinato , bitonality and occasional polytonality — set him apart from other English composers . Vaughan Williams remarked that Holst always said in his music what he wished to say , directly and concisely ; " He was not afraid of being obvious when the occasion demanded , nor did he hesitate to be remote when remoteness expressed his purpose " . Kennedy has surmised that Holst 's economy of style was in part a product of the composer 's poor health : " the effort of writing it down compelled an artistic economy which some felt was carried too far " . However , as an experienced instrumentalist and orchestra member , Holst understood music from the standpoint of his players and made sure that , however challenging , their parts were always practicable . According to his pupil Jane Joseph , Holst fostered in performance " a spirit of practical comradeship ... none could know better than he the boredom possible to a professional player , and the music that rendered boredom impossible " .
= = = Early works = = =
Although Holst wrote a large number of works — particularly songs — during his student days and early adulthood , almost everything he wrote before 1904 he later classified as derivative " early horrors " . Nevertheless , the composer and critic Colin Matthews recognises even in these apprentice works an " instinctive orchestral flair " . Of the few pieces from this period which demonstrate some originality , Matthews pinpoints the G minor String Trio of 1894 ( unperformed until 1974 ) as the first underivative work produced by Holst . Matthews and Imogen Holst each highlight the " Elegy " movement in The Cotswold Symphony ( 1899 – 1900 ) as among the more accomplished of the apprentice works , and Imogen discerns glimpses of her father 's real self in the 1899 Suite de ballet and the Ave Maria of 1900 . She and Matthews have asserted that Holst found his genuine voice in his setting of Whitman 's verses , The Mystic Trumpeter ( 1904 ) , in which the trumpet calls that characterise Mars in The Planets are briefly anticipated . In this work , Holst first employs the technique of bitonality — the use of two keys simultaneously .
= = = Experimental years = = =
At the beginning of the 20th century , according to Matthews , it appeared that Holst might follow Schoenberg into late Romanticism . Instead , as Holst recognised afterwards , his encounter with Purcell 's Dido and Aeneas prompted his searching for a " musical idiom of the English language " ; the folksong revival became a further catalyst for Holst to seek inspiration from other sources during the first decade or so of the new century .
= = = = Indian period = = = =
Holst 's interest in Indian mythology , shared by many of his contemporaries , first became musically evident in the opera Sita ( 1901 – 06 ) . During the opera 's long gestation , Holst worked on other Indian @-@ themed pieces . These included Maya ( 1901 ) for violin and piano , regarded by the composer and writer Raymond Head as " an insipid salon @-@ piece whose musical language is dangerously close to Stephen Adams " . Then , through Vaughan Williams , Holst discovered and became an admirer of the music of Ravel , whom he considered a " model of purity " on the level with Haydn , another composer he greatly admired . The combined influence of Ravel , Hindu spiritualism and English folk tunes enabled Holst to get beyond the once all @-@ consuming influences of Wagner and Richard Strauss and to forge his own style . Imogen Holst has acknowledged Holst 's own suggestion ( written to Vaughan Williams ) : " [ O ] ne ought to follow Wagner until he leads you to fresh things " . She notes that although much of his grand opera , Sita , is " ' good old Wagnerian bawling ' ... towards the end a change comes over the music , and the beautifully calm phrases of the hidden chorus representing the Voice of the Earth are in Holst 's own language . "
According to Rubbra , the publication in 1911 of Holst 's Rig Veda Hymns was a landmark event in the composer 's development : " Before this , Holst 's music had , indeed , shown the clarity of utterance which has always been his characteristic , but harmonically there was little to single him out as an important figure in modern music . " Dickinson describes these vedic settings as pictorial rather than religious ; although the quality is variable the sacred texts clearly " touched vital springs in the composer 's imagination " . While the music of Holst 's Indian verse settings remained generally western in character , in some of the vedic settings he experimented with Indian raga ( scales ) .
The chamber opera Savitri ( 1908 ) is written for three solo voices , a small hidden female chorus , and an instrumental combination of two flutes , a cor anglais and a double string quartet . The music critic John Warrack comments on the " extraordinary expressive subtlety " with which Holst deploys the sparse forces : " ... [ T ] he two unaccompanied vocal lines opening the work skilfully convey the relationship between Death , steadily advancing through the forest , and Savitri , her frightened answers fluttering round him , unable to escape his harmonic pull " . Head describes the work as unique in its time for its compact intimacy , and considers it Holst 's most successful attempt to end the domination of Wagnerian chromaticism in his music . Dickinson considers it a significant step , " not towards opera , but towards an idiomatic pursuit of [ Holst 's ] vision " . Of the Kālidāsa texts , Dickinson dismisses The Cloud Messenger ( 1910 – 12 ) as an " accumulation of desultory incidents , opportunistic dramatic episodes and ecstatic outpourings " which illustrate the composer 's creative confusion during that period ; the Two Eastern Pictures ( 1911 ) , in Dickinson 's view , provide " a more memorable final impression of Kālidāsa " .
= = = = Folksong and other influences = = = =
Holst 's settings of Indian texts formed only a part of his compositional output in the period 1900 to 1914 . A highly significant factor in his musical development was the English folksong revival , evident in the orchestral suite A Somerset Rhapsody ( 1906 – 07 ) , a work that was originally to be based around eleven folksong themes ; this was later reduced to four . Observing the work 's kinship with Vaughan Williams 's Norfolk Rhapsody , Dickinson remarks that , with its firm overall structure , Holst 's composition " rises beyond the level of ... a song @-@ selection " . Imogen acknowledges that Holst 's discovery of English folksongs " transformed his orchestral writing " , and that the composition of A Somerset Rhapsody did much to banish the chromaticisms that had dominated his early compositions . In the Two Songs without Words of 1906 , Holst showed that he could create his own original music using the folk idiom . An orchestral folksong fantasy Songs of the West , also written in 1906 , was withdrawn by the composer and never published , although it emerged in the 1980s in the form of an arrangement for wind band by James Curnow .
In the years before the First World War , Holst composed in a variety of genres . Matthews considers the evocation of a North African town in the Beni Mora suite of 1908 the composer 's most individual work to that date ; the third movement gives a preview of minimalism in its constant repetition of a four @-@ bar theme . Holst wrote two suites for military band , in E flat ( 1909 ) and F major ( 1911 ) respectively , the first of which became and remains a brass band staple . This piece , a highly original and substantial musical work , was a signal departure from what Short describes as " the usual transcriptions and operatic selections which pervaded the band repertoire " . Also in 1911 he wrote Hecuba 's Lament , a setting of Gilbert Murray 's translation from Euripides built on a seven @-@ beat refrain designed , says Dickinson , to represent Hecuba 's defiance of divine wrath . In 1912 Holst composed two psalm settings , in which he experimented with plainsong ; the same year saw the enduringly popular St Paul 's Suite ( a " gay but retrogressive " piece according to Dickinson ) , and the failure of his large scale orchestral work Phantastes .
= = = Full flowering = = =
= = = = The Planets = = = =
Holst conceived the idea of The Planets in 1913 , partly as a result of his interest in astrology , and also from his determination , despite the failure of Phantastes , to produce a large @-@ scale orchestral work . The chosen format may have been influenced by Schoenberg 's Fünf Orchesterstücke , and shares something of the aesthetic , Matthews suggests , of Debussy 's Nocturnes or La mer . Holst began composing The Planets in 1914 ; the movements appeared not quite in their final sequence ; " Mars " was the first to be written , followed by " Venus " and " Jupiter " . " Saturn " , " Uranus " and " Neptune " were all composed during 1915 , and " Mercury " was completed in 1916 .
Each planet is represented with a distinct character ; Dickinson observes that " no planet borrows colour from another " . In " Mars " , a persistent , uneven rhythmic cell consisting of five beats , combined with trumpet calls and harmonic dissonance provides battle music which Short asserts is unique in its expression of violence and sheer terror , " ... Holst 's intention being to portray the reality of warfare rather than to glorify deeds of heroism " . In " Venus " , Holst incorporated music from an abandoned vocal work , A Vigil of Pentecost , to provide the opening ; the prevalent mood within the movement is of peaceful resignation and nostalgia . " Mercury " is dominated by uneven metres and rapid changes of theme , to represent the speedy flight of the winged messenger . " Jupiter " is renowned for its central melody , in Dickinson 's view " a fantastic relaxation in which many retain a far from sneaking delight " . Dickinson and other critics have decried the later use of the tune in the patriotic hymn " I Vow to Thee , My Country " — despite Holst 's full complicity .
For " Saturn " , Holst again used a previously @-@ composed vocal piece , Dirge and Hymeneal , as the basis for the movement , where repeated chords represent the relentless approach of old age . " Uranus " , which follows , has elements of Berlioz 's Symphonie fantastique and Dukas 's The Sorcerer 's Apprentice , in its depiction of the magician who " disappears in a whiff of smoke as the sonic impetus of the movement diminishes from fff to ppp in the space of a few bars " . " Neptune " , the final movement , concludes with a wordless female chorus gradually receding , an effect which Warrack likens to " unresolved timelessness ... never ending , since space does not end , but drifting away into eternal silence " . Apart from his concession with " I Vow to Thee ... " ' , Holst insisted on the unity of the whole work , and opposed the performance of individual movements . Nevertheless , Imogen writes that the piece has " suffered from being quoted in snippets as background music " .
= = = = Maturity = = = =
During and after the composition of The Planets , Holst wrote or arranged numerous vocal and choral works , many of them for the wartime Thaxted Whitsun Festivals , 1916 – 18 . They include the Six Choral Folksongs of 1916 , based on West Country tunes , of which " Swansea Town " , with its " sophisticated tone " , is deemed by Dickinson to be the most memorable . Holst downplayed such music as " a limited form of art " in which " mannerisms are almost inevitable " ; the composer Alan Gibbs , however , believes Holst 's set at least equal to Vaughan Williams 's Five English Folk Songs of 1913 .
Holst 's first major work after The Planets was the Hymn of Jesus , completed in 1917 . The words are from a Gnostic text , the apocryphal Acts of St John , using a translation from the Greek which Holst prepared with assistance from Clifford Bax and Jane Joseph . Head comments on the innovative character of the Hymn : " At a stroke Holst had cast aside the Victorian and Edwardian sentimental oratorio , and created the precursor of the kind of works that John Tavener , for example , was to write in the 1970s " . Matthews has written that the Hymn 's " ecstatic " quality is matched in English music " perhaps only by Tippett 's The Vision of Saint Augustine " ; the musical elements include plainsong , two choirs distanced from each other to emphasise dialogue , dance episodes and " explosive chordal dislocations " .
In the Ode to Death ( 1918 – 19 ) , the quiet , resigned mood is seen by Matthews as an " abrupt volte @-@ face " after the life @-@ enhancing spirituality of the Hymn . Warrack refers to its aloof tranquillity ; Imogen Holst believed the Ode expressed Holst 's private attitude to death . The piece has rarely been performed since its premiere in 1922 , although the composer Ernest Walker thought it was Holst 's finest work to that date . The influential critic Ernest Newman considered The Perfect Fool " the best of modern British operas " , but its unusually short length ( about an hour ) and parodic , whimsical nature — described by The Times as " a brilliant puzzle " — put it outside the operatic mainstream . Only the ballet music from the opera , which The Times called " the most brilliant thing in a work glittering with brilliant moments " , has been regularly performed since 1923 . Holst 's libretto attracted much criticism , although Edwin Evans remarked on the rare treat in opera of being able to hear the words being sung .
= = = Later works = = =
Before his enforced rest in 1924 , Holst demonstrated a new interest in counterpoint , in his Fugal Overture of 1922 for full orchestra and the neo @-@ classical Fugal Concerto of 1923 , for flute , oboe and strings . In his final decade he mixed song settings and minor pieces with major works and occasional new departures ; the 1925 Terzetto for flute , violin and oboe , each instrument playing in a different key , is cited by Imogen as Holst 's only successful chamber work . Of the Choral Symphony completed in 1924 , Matthews writes that , after several movements of real quality , the finale is a rambling anticlimax . Holst 's penultimate opera , At the Boar 's Head ( 1924 ) , is based on tavern scenes from Shakespeare 's Henry IV , Parts 1 and 2 . The music , which is largely derived from old English melodies gleaned from Cecil Sharp and other collections , has pace and verve ; the contemporary critic Harvey Grace discounted the lack of originality , a facet which he said " can be shown no less convincingly by a composer 's handling of material than by its invention " .
Egdon Heath ( 1927 ) was Holst 's first major orchestral work after The Planets . Matthews summarises the music as " elusive and unpredictable [ with ] three main elements : a pulseless wandering melody [ for strings ] , a sad brass processional , and restless music for strings and oboe . " The mysterious dance towards the end is , says Matthews , " the strangest moment in a strange work " . Richard Greene in Music & Letters describes the piece as " a larghetto dance in a siciliano rhythm with a simple , stepwise , rocking melody " , but lacking the power of The Planets and , at times , monotonous to the listener . A more popular success was the Moorside Suite for brass band , written as a test piece for the National Brass Band Festival championships of 1928 . While written within the traditions of north @-@ country brass band music , the suite , Short says , bears Holst 's unmistakable imprint , " from the skipping 6 / 8 of the opening Scherzo , to the vigorous melodic fourths of the concluding March , the intervening Nocturne bearing a family resemblance to the slow @-@ moving procession of Saturn " .
After this , Holst tackled his final attempt at opera in a cheerful vein , with The Wandering Scholar ( 1929 – 30 ) , to a text by Clifford Bax . Imogen refers to the music as " Holst at his best in a scherzando ( playful ) frame of mind " ; Vaughan Williams commented on the lively , folksy rhythms : " Do you think there 's a little bit too much 6 / 8 in the opera ? " Short observes that the opening motif makes several reappearances without being identified with a particular character , but imposes musical unity on the work .
Holst composed few large @-@ scale works in his final years . A Choral Fantasia of 1930 was written for the Three Choirs Festival at Gloucester ; beginning and ending with a soprano soloist , the work , also involving chorus , strings , brass and percussion , includes a substantial organ solo which , says Imogen Holst , " knows something of the ' colossal and mysterious ' loneliness of Egdon Heath " . Apart from his final uncompleted symphony , Holst 's remaining works were for small forces ; the eight Canons of 1932 were dedicated to his pupils , though in Imogen 's view that they present a formidable challenge to the most professional of singers . The Brook Green Suite ( 1932 ) , written for the orchestra of St Paul 's School , was a late companion piece to the St Paul 's Suite . The Lyric Movement for viola and small orchestra ( 1933 ) was written for Lionel Tertis . Quiet and contemplative , and requiring little virtuosity from the soloist , the piece was slow to gain popularity among violists . Robin Hull , in Penguin Music Magazine , praised the work 's " clear beauty — impossible to mistake for the art of any other composer " ; in Dickinson 's view , however , it remains " a frail creation " . Holst 's final composition , the orchestral scherzo movement of a projected symphony , contains features characteristic of much of Holst 's earlier music — " a summing up of Holst 's orchestral art " , according to Short . Dickinson suggests that the somewhat casual collection of material in the work gives little indication of the symphony that might have been written .
= = Recordings = =
Holst made some recordings , conducting his own music . For the Columbia company he recorded Beni Mora , the Marching Song and the complete Planets with the London Symphony Orchestra ( LSO ) in 1922 , using the acoustic process . The limitations of early recording prevented the gradual fade @-@ out of women 's voices at the end of " Neptune " , and the lower strings had to be replaced by a tuba to obtain an effective bass sound . With an anonymous string orchestra Holst recorded the St Paul 's Suite and Country Song in 1925 . Columbia 's main rival , HMV , issued recordings of some of the same repertoire , with an unnamed orchestra conducted by Albert Coates . When electrical recording came in , with dramatically improved recording quality , Holst and the LSO re @-@ recorded The Planets for Columbia in 1926 .
In the early LP era little of Holst 's music was available on disc . Only six of his works are listed in the 1955 issue of The Record Guide : The Planets ( recordings under Boult on HMV and Nixa , and another under Sir Malcolm Sargent on Decca ) ; the Perfect Fool ballet music ; the St Paul 's Suite ; and three short choral pieces . In the stereo LP and CD eras numerous recordings of The Planets were issued , performed by orchestras and conductors from round the world . By the early years of the 21st century most of the major and many of the minor orchestral and choral works had been issued on disc . The 2008 issue of The Penguin Guide to Recorded Classical Music contained seven pages of listings of Holst 's works on CD . Of the operas , Savitri , The Wandering Scholar , and At the Boar 's Head have been recorded .
= = Legacy = =
Warrack emphasises that Holst acquired an instinctive understanding — perhaps more so than any English composer — of the importance of folksong . In it he found " a new concept not only of how melody might be organized , but of what the implications were for the development of a mature artistic language " . Holst did not found or lead a school of composition ; nevertheless , he exercised influences over both contemporaries and successors . According to Short , Vaughan Williams described Holst as " the greatest influence on my music " , although Matthews asserts that each influenced the other equally . Among later composers , Michael Tippett is acknowledged by Short as Holst 's " most significant artistic successor " , both in terms of compositional style and because Tippett , who succeeded Holst as director of music at Morley College , maintained the spirit of Holst 's music there . Of an early encounter with Holst , Tippett later wrote : " Holst seemed to look right inside me , with an acute spiritual vision " . Kennedy observes that " a new generation of listeners ... recognized in Holst the fount of much that they admired in the music of Britten and Tippett " . Holst 's pupil Edmund Rubbra acknowledged how he and other younger English composers had adopted Holst 's economy of style : " With what enthusiasm did we pare down our music to the very bone " .
Short cites other English composers who are in debt to Holst , in particular William Walton and Benjamin Britten , and suggests that Holst 's influence may have been felt further afield . Above all , Short recognises Holst as a composer for the people , who believed it was a composer 's duty to provide music for practical purposes — festivals , clebrations , ceremonies , Christmas carols or simple hymn tunes . Thus , says Short , " many people who may never have heard any of [ Holst 's ] major works ... have nevertheless derived great pleasure from hearing or singing such small masterpieces as the carol ' In the Bleak Midwinter ' " .
On 27 September 2009 , after a weekend of concerts at Chichester Cathedral in memory of Holst , a new memorial was unveiled to mark the 75th anniversary of the composer 's death . It is inscribed with words from the text of The Hymn of Jesus : " The heavenly spheres make music for us " . In April 2011 a BBC television documentary , Holst : In the Bleak Midwinter , charted Holst 's life with particular reference to his support for socialism and the cause of working people .
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= Hervey le Breton =
Hervey le Breton ( also known as Hervé le Breton ; died 30 August 1131 ) was a Breton cleric who became Bishop of Bangor in Wales and later Bishop of Ely in England . Appointed to Bangor by King William II of England , when the Normans were advancing into Wales , Hervey was unable to remain in his diocese when the Welsh began to drive the Normans back from their recent conquests . Hervey 's behaviour towards the Welsh seems to have contributed to his expulsion from his see . Although the new king , Henry I wished to translate Hervey to the see of Lisieux in Normandy , it was unsuccessful .
In 1109 , a new diocese was created in England , at Ely , and Hervey was appointed to the bishopric created . While bishop , Hervey ordered the compilation of a house chronicle , which later became the Liber Eliensis . He supervised the construction of a causeway between Ely and Exning , which allowed easier access to Ely .
= = Early life = =
Hervey was a native of Brittany , and some sources state a chaplain of King William II of England , while others are less certain that he was a chaplain for the king . He was appointed Bishop of Bangor in 1092 by King William . Bangor at the time was in the Kingdom of Gwynedd , which had recently been overrun by the Normans , and following the killing of Robert of Rhuddlan had been taken over by Hugh d 'Avranches , 1st Earl of Chester . The appointment of Hervey was probably intended to further consolidate the Norman hold on the area . Bangor was under the jurisdiction of the diocese of Canterbury , but Hervey was consecrated by Thomas of Bayeux , who was the Archbishop of York , since the see of Canterbury was vacant at the time .
= = Problems at Bangor = =
Relations between Hervey and the Welsh appear to have been very bad . The Liber Eliensis described the situation as follows :
Since they [ the Welsh ] did not show the respect and reverence due to a bishop , he [ Hervey ] wielded the sharp two @-@ edged sword to subdue them , constraining them both with repeated excommunications and with the host of his kinsmen and other followers . They resisted him nonetheless and pressed him with such dangers that they killed his brother and intended to deal with him the same way , if they could lay hands on him .
Hervey was forced to rely on his own armed bands for protection . In 1094 a Welsh revolt against Norman rule in Gwynedd began under the leadership of Gruffudd ap Cynan , and by the late 1090s Hervey had been driven from his diocese by the Welsh . William of Malmesbury , however , states that the reason Hervey left Bangor was that the revenues of the see were too low . He remained nominally Bishop of Bangor until 1109 . King Henry I of England tried to translate Hervey to the see of Lisieux in 1106 , but the attempt was unsuccessful . The main opposition came from Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury , who was the metropolitan of Bangor , and refused to allow Hervey to go to a Norman bishopric . Anselm had the ability to decide the issue as Pope Paschal II had turned the decision of whether to translate Hervey to another see over to Anselm in 1102 . While in exile , Hervey served as King Henry 's confessor . Bangor itself remained vacant until 1120 , when David the Scot was appointed .
= = Appointment to Ely = =
Before his death in 1107 , Richard the abbot of Ely had attempted to secure from the papacy the elevation of his abbey into a bishopric . After Richard 's death , Hervey was appointed to oversee the abbey during the vacancy . He convinced the monks of Ely to support Richard 's project , which received the conditional approval of Archbishop Anselm , contingent on papal approval . Paschal signalled his approval , and in 1109 the monastery became a bishopric . Ely still remained a monastic house , as the abbey itself became the cathedral and the monks of the abbey became the monks of the cathedral chapter . Also in 1109 , the pope approved Hervey 's translation to a new see , and he was made Bishop of Ely . He was enthroned at Ely in October 1109 .
While bishop , Hervey ordered the compilation of a history of the refounding of the abbey of Ely , which later became incorporated into the Liber Eliensis . This was a Latin reworking of an Old English book of grants compiled by Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester . He was energetic in recovering the feudal rights of the bishopric against knights who had intruded themselves on the lands , but were not rendering knight service to the bishop . As bishop , he attended a legatine council , or council held by a papal legate , in 1127 , and a royal council in 1129 , but otherwise his administrative actions remain obscure . The causeway between the island of Ely and Exning , which made it easier for pilgrims to visit the shrine of Saint Ethelreda , was built under Hervey 's orders . Insight into his activities as bishop is given in the Pipe Roll of 1130 , the first surviving Pipe Roll . In that record , Hervey is recorded as owing King Henry 45 pounds to provide an office for a nephew , 100 pounds on an old settlement with the king , another 100 pounds for the settlement of a case dealing with Ramsey Abbey , Bury St. Edmunds Abbey and the bishop , 240 pounds for the right to be rid of a surplus of knights , and finally 1000 pounds for the king to allow the bishop 's knights to serve castleguard at Ely instead of Norwich .
= = Death = =
Hervey died on 30 August 1131 . He was buried in Ely Cathedral on 31 August 1131 . He was disliked by Archbishop Anselm , and he was described as a man of " secular tastes " . His nephew , William Brito , was a royal chaplain and was appointed Archdeacon of Ely by 1110 . Another nephew was Richard , who in 1130 is recorded in the Pipe Roll as paying a fine to the king because of land that his uncle had given him . Another of Hervey 's relative was Gilbert Universalis , who was appointed to the see of London in 1128 by Henry I.
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= Too Much Too Soon ( album ) =
Too Much Too Soon is the second studio album by American hard rock band the New York Dolls , released on May 10 , 1974 , by Mercury Records . The group was dissatisfied with the sound of their 1973 self @-@ titled debut album , so frontman David Johansen enlisted veteran producer Shadow Morton for Too Much Too Soon . Morton had become disenchanted by the music industry , but was motivated by the band 's energy and agreed to work with them as a challenge . They recorded the album at A & R Studios in New York City .
Although the New York Dolls shared an affinity for Morton , they produced little original material with him . To complete Too Much Too Soon , they covered older songs and re @-@ recorded their past demos . Johansen impersonated different characters on some of the novelty covers , while Morton incorporated many studio sound effects and female backing vocals in his production . For the album , lead guitarist Johnny Thunders wrote and recorded " Chatterbox " , his first lead vocal track .
Too Much Too Soon was released to poor sales and only charted at number 167 on the Billboard 200 . After a problem @-@ ridden national tour , the New York Dolls were dropped by Mercury and disbanded in 1975 . The album received positive reviews from most critics , who felt Morton 's production highlighted the group 's raw sound and made it a better record than their first . Like their debut album , Too Much Too Soon became one of the most popular cult records in rock music and has since been viewed by music journalists as a predecessor to punk rock .
= = Background = =
After being signed by Mercury Records , the New York Dolls released their self @-@ titled debut album in 1973 to poor sales . Although it was praised by critics , the band members were not satisfied with producer Todd Rundgren 's sound for the album and had disagreements with him before recording Too Much Too Soon . Songwriting and production partners Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller were originally enlisted to produce their second album , while the band 's guitarist Johnny Thunders wanted to produce it himself . However , Leiber and Stoller withdrew shortly before recording was to begin . The group held a single session with Mercury A & R executive Paul Nelson at Media Sound Recording Studios , where they recorded 14 songs , most of which were cover songs .
At the recommendation of Leiber and Stoller , frontman David Johansen asked veteran producer Shadow Morton to work on Too Much Too Soon . Morton was best known for his work with the Shangri @-@ Las , of whom the New York Dolls were fans , and had also been Johansen 's original choice to produce their debut album . Morton had become disenchanted with the music industry and wanted to challenge himself by producing the band 's second album : " The Dolls had energy , sort of a disciplined weirdness . I took them into the room as a challenge . I was bored with the music and the business . The Dolls can certainly snap you out of boredom . "
= = Recording and production = =
With Morton , the New York Dolls recorded Too Much Too Soon in 1974 at A & R Studios in New York City . The album was later mastered at Sterling Sound and Masterdisk . During the sessions , Morton had Johansen record his vocals several times and incorporated sound effects such as gongs , gunshots , and feminine choruses . In a report on the album 's progress for Melody Maker , journalist Lenny Kaye wrote that they were taking more time than they had on their first record , " bringing in occasional strings and horns , following Shadow 's advice not ' to settle ' . " Morton and the band shared an affinity for each other , as he found the group 's energy in the studio refreshing , while Johansen was fond of Morton and the " looser " feel he provided for their music : " That man is completely unpretentious . He doesn 't think he ever did a marvellous thing in his life . "
The New York Dolls and Morton produced little original material together and had to record cover songs and re @-@ recorded some of the band 's earlier demos to complete Too Much Too Soon ; " Babylon " , " Who Are the Mystery Girls ? " , " It 's Too Late " , and " Human Being " had been recorded by the band in March 1973 as demos for Mercury before the label signed them . They had also recorded demos of two songs written by guitarist Sylvain Sylvain , " Teenage News " and " Too Much Too Soon " , before working with Morton , but neither were considered for the album . Sylvain said he confronted Morton about this decision , recalling he had been in a rush : " He was too quick with me and said that he 'd been told only to listen to David Johansen and Johnny Thunders . He didn 't want to tell me who had told him that but obviously it was the managers . I just walked out , it was all driving me nuts . "
According to journalist Tony Fletcher , Morton would have been more productive on Too Much Too Soon had it not been for his alcoholism and the lifestyles of the band members — bassist Arthur Kane was also an alcoholic , while Thunders and drummer Jerry Nolan had heroin addictions . Robert Christgau believed the New York Dolls relied more on cover songs for the album because , " like so many cocky songwriters , David Johansen overloaded his debut with originals and then found that record promotion wasn 't a life activity that inspired new ones . " English writer Clinton Heylin said their inability to sell enough records before may have discouraged them from writing original songs .
= = Music and lyrics = =
According to Billboard magazine , Too Much Too Soon was another hard rock record by the New York Dolls but with a more " sophisticated " production . Music journalist Nina Antonia wrote that because of the group 's " untamable wildness " , the record still sounded eccentric despite attempts by Morton to " polish " their sound , such as by subduing their otherwise unrefined guitar playing . The album featured covers of the Cadets ' 1956 hit " Stranded in the Jungle " , Archie Bell 's 1969 hit " There 's Gonna Be a Showdown " , and Sonny Boy Williamson 's " Don 't Start Me Talkin ' " . On the novelty cover songs , Johansen impersonated characters such as the high @-@ stepper in " ( There 's Gonna Be A ) Showdown " and Charlie Chan in " Bad Detective " , which has lyrics describing a nonsensical narrative set in China . On " Stranded in the Jungle " , he alternated between a comical reject and a lecherous man at lover 's lane . Journalist Ellen Willis remarked that , like the band 's 1973 song " Personality Crisis " , " Stranded in the Jungle " suggested a theme of " clashing cultures and the dilemma of preserving one 's uniqueness while reaching out to others " .
For " Babylon " , Johansen wrote the lyrics as a tribute to the New York Dolls ' following from outside New York City : " [ The song ] is about people who live in Babylon , Long Island , New York , who go into the city every night dressed to kill . These people have to get home before sun @-@ up , you know , like vampires that can 't get caught by the sun . " By contrast , Spin magazine 's Eric Weisbard and Craig Marks interpreted " Babylon " as a reference to the Biblical city of the same name because of how the song portrayed " the symbol of decadence as a sanctuary " . The song 's subject leaves Babylon for Manhattan , where she is then hired to work in a massage parlour .
" It 's Too Late " was a commentary on nostalgic fashions and made reference to actress Diana Dors in a lyric rebuking drug use . According to Antonia , the song criticized indifferent , decadent people who cannot , as Johansen sang , " parlez New York français " . On " Who Are the Mystery Girls ? " , he scolded those who abuse love , wanting to " kick it on the floor " and " beat it like a scatter rug " . " Puss ' n ' Boots " was titled after an illustrated , podoerotic magazine sold in adult book stores . Johansen said the song was about shoe fetishism , " or as Arthur [ Kane ] observed , it 's about ' the woofers in relationship with the woofee ' . " Its lyrics depicted adversities faced by the protagonist , " Little Rhinestone Target " , as he tried to change his name in pursuit of his shoe fetish before the music ended with a gunshot , a sound effect inspired by the Olympics ' 1958 song " Western Movies " . Willis interpreted a feminist subtext in the song , citing the lyrics " sometimes you gotta get away someway / and now you 're walkin ' just like you 're ten feet tall ... I hope you don 't get shot for tryin ' . "
" Chatterbox " was written and sung by Thunders , whom Willis felt " uses his voice as a wailing instrument " similarly to rock singer Robert Plant . The song was Thunders 's first time singing lead and featured vocals Weisbard and Marks said were delivered in a quavering but proud New York accent . His lyrics described the narrator 's growing frustration over a crossed @-@ wire phone connection with a female subject . On " Human Being " , an ode to self @-@ respect and personal liberty , Thunders introduced his guitar playing with a roughly performed variation on Bill Doggett 's 1956 song " Honky Tonk " . Johansen addressed critics of the band in the song , telling them if they found him objectionable they should instead find themselves " a saint " , " a boy who 's gonna be what I ain 't " , and a " plastic doll with a fresh coast of paint who 's gonna sit through the madness and always act so quaint " .
= = Release and promotion = =
Too Much Too Soon was titled after the biography of the same name on actress Diana Barrymore . According to music journalist Jon Savage , the title was " more than applicable to the Dolls themselves " because of alcoholism and other issues among the band members , including Thunders 's heroin use and Nolan 's contraction of hepatitis . A dedication to Barrymore was printed in the album 's gatefold LP . For its front cover , the group eschewed the drag image that their first album had presented and they had developed a reputation for in favor of a fake concert shot . During the shoot , Thunders held a doll in his arm as if to strike it against his guitar to add shock value .
Released on May 10 , 1974 , Too Much Too Soon was another commercial failure for the New York Dolls , as it only charted at number 167 on the Billboard 200 . It performed well below Mercury 's expectations and sold less than 100 @,@ 000 copies . Two double A @-@ sided , 7 " singles were released to promote the album — " Stranded in the Jungle " / " Who Are the Mystery Girls ? " in July and " ( There 's Gonna Be A ) Showdown " / " Puss ' n ' Boots " in September 1974 — but neither charted . According to Antonia , the selected singles demonstrated how " the Dolls were in need of a hit single and their current producer wanted to see them attain it " by accommodating radio audiences with toned @-@ down studio versions of songs the band had performed more rowdily in concert . Joe Gross wrote in The New Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) that the band 's attempt to garner more airplay by enlisting Morton did not work because , " with a slicker sound , background choruses , and cleaner riffs , the Dolls just sounded skankier " .
When Too Much Too Soon was released in Europe in July , the New York Dolls performed at the Buxton Festival in Derbyshire and the Rock Prom Festival at Olympia in London . They also embarked on their second tour of the United States , which lasted only a few months . It was marred by cancelled shows and conflicts between the band members stemming from their escalating addictions to alcohol and other drugs . Because of their alcoholism , they failed to set up a recording session for a scheduled third album after the tour had ended , and by 1975 , they were dropped by Mercury and disbanded .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Too Much Too Soon received positive reviews from critics . In a review of the album for Rolling Stone , Dave Marsh hailed the New York Dolls as the leading hard rock band in the US and noted what he felt was Nolan 's competent drumming , Johansen 's ability to add depth to his characters , and Thunders 's innovative guitar playing . Marsh especially praised his playing on " Chatterbox " , calling it " a classic " , and believed even the most brazen songs sounded successful because Morton 's production highlighted the group 's more unrefined musical qualities . Writing for Creem magazine , Christgau said the polished sound reproduction preserved the band 's raw qualities , especially in the case of Johansen 's vocals and Nolan 's drumming , and remarked that Rundgren " should be ashamed — Shadow Morton has gotten more out of the Dolls than they can give us live on any but their best nights . " Robert Hilburn from the Los Angeles Times felt Too Much Too Soon was a better @-@ produced album that proved the band to be " the real thing " , calling it the best record of derisive punk rock since Exile on Main St. ( 1972 ) by the Rolling Stones . In The New Yorker , Ellen Willis wrote that she learned to appreciate Too Much Too Soon more than New York Dolls after seeing the band perform songs from the former album in concert , particularly " Human Being " and " Puss ' n ' Boots " , while Ron Ross from Phonograph Record magazine said the group 's " easy going ironic sensibility " was expressed " far more amusingly and accessibly " here than on their debut album .
Some reviewers were critical of Too Much Too Soon for what they felt was a poorly recorded and overproduced sound . In a negative review for NME , Nick Kent said it sounded cluttered and " shot through with unfulfilled potential " , while Circus magazine panned the record as " cut after cut of annoying screeching " . It was nonetheless voted the tenth best album of 1974 in the Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of American critics nationwide , published in The Village Voice . Willis , one of the critics polled , listed it as her fifth favorite record of the year . Christgau , the poll 's creator and supervisor , named it third best , and in a decade @-@ end list for The Village Voice , he named it the fourth best album of the 1970s . Los Angeles Times critic Richard Cromelin included it in his list of favorite records from the decade and wrote that Morton 's production made it slightly better than New York Dolls .
Along with New York Dolls , Too Much Too Soon became one of the most popular cult albums in rock music . According to AllMusic senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine , the group predated punk rock with their " gleeful sleaziness and reckless sound " on the record , which he said was embellished by Morton 's production details and exemplified by " musically visceral and dangerous " songs such as " Human Being " . In 1986 , Sounds magazine ranked it sixtieth on its list of the 100 best albums of all time . After it was reissued by Mercury in 1987 , Don McLeese of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times wrote that Morton 's production highlighted the New York Dolls ' sense of humor and was rendered vividly by the CD remaster . However , he felt Too Much Too Soon was marred by inconsistent material and rated it lower than their first record . In a review of the reissue , Don Waller of the Los Angeles Times said the underappreciated album was just as much an " instant classic " as New York Dolls .
In 2005 , Too Much Too Soon was remastered and reissued by Hip @-@ O Select and Mercury , after which Christgau wrote in Blender that both it and New York Dolls make up " a priceless proto @-@ punk legacy " . He wrote that although Johansen 's best original songs are on the first record , Too Much Too Soon has consistent hooks , clever lyrics , and exceptional cover songs , including " two R & B novelties whose theatrical potential was barely noticed until the Dolls penetrated their holy essence " . That year , rock journalist Toby Creswell named " Babylon " as one of the greatest songs of all time in his book 1001 Songs . In the Encyclopedia of Popular Music ( 2006 ) , Colin Larkin felt the band 's issues with alcohol and other drugs affected their performance on the record , which he deemed " a charismatic collection of punk / glam @-@ rock anthems , typically delivered with ' wasted ' cool " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = = New York Dolls = = =
David Johansen – vocals , gong
Arthur " Killer " Kane – bass
Jerry Nolan – drums , percussion
Sylvain Sylvain – guitar , piano , vocals
Johnny Thunders – guitar , vocals
= = = Additional personnel = = =
Album Graphics – graphic supervision
Dennis Druzbik – engineering
Bob Gruen – photography
Gilbert Kong – mastering
Hans G. Lehmann – photography
Pieter Mazel – photography
Shadow Morton – production
Paul Nelson – A & R
Dixon Van Winkle – engineering
= = Release history = =
Information is adapted from Nina Antonia 's Too Much Too Soon : The New York Dolls ( 2006 ) .
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= Go Man Go =
Go Man Go ( 1953 – 1983 ) was an American Quarter Horse stallion and race horse . He was named World Champion Quarter Running Horse three times in a row , one of only two horses to achieve that distinction . Go Man Go was considered to be of difficult temperament . While waiting in the starting gate for his very first race , he threw his jockey , broke down the gate , and ran alone around the track ; he was eventually caught and went on to win the race . During his five years of competition until his retirement from racing in 1960 he had 27 wins , earning more than $ 86 @,@ 000 ( approximately $ 726 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) .
Neither of Go Man Go 's parents raced . His sire ( father ) , the Thoroughbred stallion Top Deck , was bred by the King Ranch . His dam ( mother ) hailed from Louisiana ; Go Man Go is thought to have gained his swiftness on the track from her . For the first years of Go Man Go 's racing career , his owner faced difficulty in registering him with the American Quarter Horse Association ( AQHA ) , a matter that remained unresolved until 1958 .
Go Man Go went on to sire two All American Futurity winners and seven Champion Quarter Running Horses . He was inducted into the American Quarter Horse Hall of Fame , as were two of his offspring . His daughters also produced , or were the mothers of , a number of race winners , including the Hall of Fame members Kaweah Bar and Rocket Wrangler . The director of racing for the AQHA once compared his impact on Quarter Horse racing and breeding to that of Man o ' War in Thoroughbred racing , or that of human athletes such as Ben Hogan and Babe Ruth .
= = Background and early life = =
Go Man Go was foaled in Wharton , Texas in 1953 , as a result of the second breeding between the Thoroughbred stallion Top Deck and the Appendix Quarter Horse mare Lightfoot Sis . Top Deck was bred by the King Ranch , and was unraced . J. B. Ferguson had purchased Lightfoot Sis when her then @-@ owner , Octave Fontenot of Prairie Ronde , Louisiana , decided to get out of the horse breeding business . Ferguson paid $ 350 for her ( approximately $ 3 @,@ 100 as of 2016 ) and bred her in 1952 to Top Deck ( TB ) , resulting in Go Man Go 's birth the next year . Ferguson also purchased Top Deck , after the stallion injured himself as a yearling .
Lightfoot Sis showed classic short speed in her pedigree , although she was unraced due to an injury as a filly that left her blind in one eye . Her sire was the Thoroughbred stallion Very Wise , and her dam was a Quarter Horse mare named Clear Track .
Scott Wells , a racing correspondent , wrote in The Speedhorse Magazine that Go Man Go " grew up lean and hard @-@ boned , long @-@ bodied and long @-@ hipped , but not the best looking horse in the world . Not the best looking , just the best . " Go Man Go had a reputation for being difficult to handle . His trainer once told Walt Wiggins , Sr. that Go Man Go was " jes plain mean as a bear most of the time " . Throughout his racing career , Go Man Go stayed mean . One of his jockeys , Robert Strauss , recalled later that Go Man Go " was ornery from the day I met him , but he was the greatest horse I ever rode " .
= = Racing career = =
In his five @-@ year racing career , Go Man Go competed in 47 races . He appeared to take naturally to racing ; during his training he ran off with his rider — his eventual jockey Robert Strauss — before he was supposed to run . As Strauss said , " When we were breaking him , he ran off with me before we ever wanted him to run . I mean , just flat ran off with me . " Robert 's brother Eldridge , who was the trainer , once worked the colt minus half a shoe and Go Man Go still managed a time of 18 @.@ 9 seconds for a 350 @-@ yard ( 320 m ) distance .
In the moments before his very first race began , Go Man Go flipped over in the starting gate , unseated his rider , crashed through the front , and ran around the whole track . He finally allowed himself to be caught and reloaded into the starting gate and went on to win that race . He won his next five races with a total lead of nine horse @-@ lengths . He faced Vandy 's Flash , himself a World Champion Quarter Racing Horse , twelve times . Their last meeting , on September 6 , 1959 at Ruidoso Downs , was also Go Man Go 's final race , and was the only one of their races won by Vandy 's Flash .
Go Man Go won 27 times , placed second 9 times and was third 3 times . Because he placed so regularly , by the end of his racing career tracks had difficulty filling races if other racing stables knew he was entered . His race earnings were $ 86 @,@ 151 ( approximately $ 725 @,@ 900 as of 2016 ) with 88 AQHA racing points , which earned him a Superior Race Horse award as well as a Race Register of Merit from the AQHA . The best speed rating , or racing grade , he achieved was AAAT , the highest grade awarded at the time . Go Man Go was named World Champion Quarter Running Horse for three years running , from 1955 to 1957 . He was the first two @-@ year @-@ old to win the title . He was a multiple stakes winner , and his wins included the Pacific Coast Quarter Racing Association Futurity , LA Autumn Championship , and the Clabbertown G Stakes , which he won three times in a row . At his retirement , he held the world records at 440 yards ( 400 m ) and 350 yards ( 320 m ) , as well as age and sex records at 400 yards ( 370 m ) . Go Man Go is still the only stallion who has been World Champion Quarter Running Horse three times , and , along with the mare Woven Web ( TB ) , is one of only two horses to be three @-@ time winners of the award .
= = Ownership and registration problems = =
In 1955 , when Go Man Go was a two @-@ year @-@ old , A.B. Green bragged that he intended to buy the horse from Ferguson . Although Ferguson did not want to sell , he felt he had to at least set a price . After hearing rumors that Green was prepared with a cashier 's check for $ 40 @,@ 000 ( approximately $ 353 @,@ 300 as of 2016 ) , Ferguson set the price at $ 42 @,@ 000 cash ( approximately $ 371 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) and twenty @-@ one breedings to the stallion . To Ferguson 's surprise , Green had that much cash available ; Ferguson felt compelled to sell Go Man Go . Two years later , at a Los Alamitos race meet , Green claimed that his newest horse , Double Bid , could outrace Go Man Go . This incensed Ferguson , who had just entered Go Man Go 's full brother Mr Mackay in a race with Double Bid . Ferguson bet Green $ 42 @,@ 000 ( approximately $ 353 @,@ 900 as of 2016 ) against Go Man Go that Mr Mackay would beat Double Bid in the upcoming race . Mr Mackay won the race , and Ferguson regained ownership of Go Man Go . Later in 1960 , because he also owned Go Man Go 's full brother , father , and mother , he sold Go Man Go to Frank Vessels Sr. and Bill and Harriet Peckham for $ 125 @,@ 000 ( approximately $ 999 @,@ 900 as of 2016 ) . Later , however , all three horses retained by Ferguson died prematurely .
Green ran into problems with Go Man Go 's registration . At that time , the AQHA had two types of registration , the Appendix and the Tentative . Appendix @-@ registered horses were the offspring of Thoroughbreds and either Tentative @-@ registered Quarter Horses or Appendix @-@ registered Quarter Horses . Go Man Go was originally registered in the Appendix , as his dam was an Appendix @-@ registered mare . The way to advance out of the Appendix into the Tentative registry was to qualify on performance grounds and pass a conformation examination conducted by the AQHA . Go Man Go certainly qualified under the performance criteria , but his conformation was such that he resembled a Thoroughbred more than he resembled a Quarter Horse . Green knew that in order to increase his stud fees — the price paid for the right to breed a mare to a stallion — Go Man Go needed to acquire a regular registration number instead of his Appendix number . So Green appealed to the Executive Committee of the AQHA , which had the authority to award Tentative numbers to horses regardless of conformation exam results . In both 1956 and 1957 , the committee declined to take action , waiting to evaluate the quality of Go Man Go 's first foals before making a decision . Finally , in 1958 , they awarded Go Man Go number 82 @,@ 000 in the Tentative registry .
= = Breeding career and legacy = =
Retired to the breeding shed , Go Man Go early on proved his worth as a stallion . Of his first foal crop , born in 1958 , three reached the finals of the All American Futurity : Mr Meyers , Dynago Miss and Angie Miss . His stud fee in 1960 was $ 500 ( approximately $ 3 @,@ 999 as of 2016 ) , but by 1963 it had risen to $ 2 @,@ 500 ( approximately $ 19 @,@ 323 as of 2016 ) . He sired 942 foals , of which 552 earned their Race Register of Merit . Seventy @-@ two of his offspring were awarded a Superior Race Horse award . Among his get , or offspring , were Go Josie Go , Dynago Miss , Duplicate Copy , Story Man , and Hustling Man . His daughter Goetta won the All American Futurity and was inducted into the American Quarter Horse Hall of Fame . Another daughter , Ought To Go was also inducted into the AQHA Hall of Fame . Two grandget were also inducted into the AQHA Hall of Fame : Kaweah Bar and Rocket Wrangler . Eight of his offspring won Champion Quarter Running Horse awards . His entry listing his offspring who won Race Register of Merits in the Quarter Racing Digest covers five full pages plus part of another . As a broodmare sire , or maternal grandsire , his daughters have produced Rocket Wrangler , Mr Kid Charge , Kaweah Bar , and Go Together . As of April 2008 , his offspring had earned over $ 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 on the racetrack .
As a breeding stallion , Go Man Go continued to have a reputation as a scoundrel , although Kathlyn Green , wife of A. B. Green , disputed that image . She said that he liked to have his lip tugged , and would lean over the stall door waiting for people to come along and tug on it for him . However , she said of him " he absolutely hated getting his feet dirty " . Go Man Go passed through a number of hands after Green owned him , including Les Gosselin , Frank Vessels , and Harriett Peckham , who was his owner by 1972 . In 1967 , when Vessels sold his half @-@ interest in Go Man Go to Briarwood Farms , the deal was said to be a record price for a Quarter Horse . Go Man Go died in 1983 and was buried near the headquarters of the Buena Suerte Ranch in Roswell , New Mexico . His crown @-@ shaped granite headstone is engraved : " Go Man Go , The King . "
Go Man Go was inducted into the American Quarter Horse Hall of Fame in 1990 . A further honor was the naming of a stakes race after him , the Grade I Go Man Go Handicap run in September at Los Alamitos . Walt Wiggins , a racing commentator and author , said of Go Man Go : " He was a brilliant speedhorse , some say the fastest ever . He was wild and reckless , a rogue at first , and often a clown who seldom saw the uniqueness of his talents or the seriousness of his commission . He had intrinsic greatness and couldn 't care less . " Dan Essary , who was Director of Racing for the AQHA for many years , described Go Man Go 's impact on the Quarter Horse breed as " He was to Quarter Horse racing what Babe Ruth was to baseball , what Ben Hogan was to Golf and what Man o 'War was to Thoroughbred racing . Horses may have run faster and horses have earned more money , but the fame of Go Man Go lingers . "
= = Pedigree = =
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= French ironclad Invincible =
The French ironclad Invincible was the second of the three wooden @-@ hulled Gloire @-@ class ironclads built for the French Navy in 1858 – 62 . The ships of the Gloire class were classified as armoured frigates because they only had a single gun deck and their traditional disposition of guns arrayed along the length of the hull also meant that they were broadside ironclads . Invincible had an uneventful career and was deployed in North American waters during the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 71 . The unseasoned timber of her hull rotted quickly and she was condemned in 1872 and scrapped in 1876 .
= = Design and description = =
Designed by the French naval architect Henri Dupuy de Lôme , the ships of the class were intended to fight in the line of battle , unlike the first British ironclads . The ship was 77 @.@ 25 metres ( 253 ft 5 in ) long , with a beam of 17 metres ( 55 ft 9 in ) . Invincible had a maximum draft of 8 @.@ 48 metres ( 27 ft 10 in ) , a depth of hold of 10 @.@ 67 metres ( 35 ft 0 in ) and displaced 5 @,@ 650 tonnes ( 5 @,@ 560 long tons ) . The ships of the class had a high metacentric height of 2 @.@ 1 metres ( 7 ft ) and consequently rolled badly . With their gun ports only 1 @.@ 88 metres ( 6 ft 2 in ) above the waterline , they proved to be very wet . She had a crew of 570 officers and enlisted men .
Invincible had a single horizontal return connecting @-@ rod compound steam engine that drove one propeller . The engine was powered by eight Indret oval boilers and was designed for a capacity of 2 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 900 kW ) . On sea trials , Invincible reached 13 @.@ 2 knots ( 24 @.@ 4 km / h ; 15 @.@ 2 mph ) . She carried a maximum of 675 tonnes ( 664 long tons ) of coal which allowed her to steam for 4 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 500 mi ) at a speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . The Gloire @-@ class ships were initially fitted with a light barquentine rig with three masts that had a sail area around 1 @,@ 100 square metres ( 11 @,@ 800 sq ft ) . This was later changed to a full ship rig of 2 @,@ 500 square metres ( 27 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , but later had to be reduced because of excessive rolling .
The Gloire @-@ class ships were armed with 36 Modèle 1858 164 @.@ 7 @-@ millimetre ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns , 34 of which were positioned on the single gun deck in the broadside . The remaining two guns were placed on the upper deck as chase guns . They fired a 44 @.@ 9 @-@ kilogram ( 99 @.@ 0 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of only 322 metres per second ( 1 @,@ 060 ft / s ) and proved to be ineffective against armour . They were replaced by rifled breech @-@ loading Modèle 1864 guns in 1868 . Six 240 @-@ millimetre ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns were mounted in the centre of the gun deck and a pair of 194 @-@ millimetre ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) guns replaced the original chase guns .
Invincible 's wooden hull was completely armoured with wrought iron plates 120 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) thick . Backed by the 760 @-@ millimetre ( 30 in ) sides of the hull , the armour extended 5 @.@ 4 metres ( 17 ft 9 in ) above the waterline and 2 @.@ 0 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) below . The Gloire @-@ class ships had an open @-@ topped conning tower with armour 100 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick and 10 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) of armour underneath the wooden upper deck .
= = Construction and service = =
Ordered on 4 March 1858 , Invincible was laid down at the Arsenal de Toulon on 1 May 1858 , launched on 4 April 1861 and completed in March 1862 . In September – October 1863 , she conducted tactical trials with other ironclads . While assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , the ship made a port visit in August 1865 to Brest where the fleet hosted the British Channel Fleet . As part of the festivities , Invincible put on a banquet for the midshipmen of both fleets that was reportedly the noisiest and most enjoyable of the visit . A few days later the French fleet made a reciprocal visit to Portsmouth where it was hosted by the Channel Fleet . During the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 71 , the ship was sent to defend the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon from Prussian commerce raiders . Built of unseasoned timber , Invincible was in poor shape upon her return and was decommissioned . Condemned on 12 August 1872 , the ship was scrapped in 1876 at Cherbourg .
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= No. 114 Mobile Control and Reporting Unit RAAF =
No. 114 Mobile Control and Reporting Unit is a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) radar surveillance and air defence unit . Located at RAAF Base Darwin , Northern Territory , it is controlled by No. 41 Wing , under Surveillance and Response Group . Its role is to " prepare for , conduct and sustain effective deployable Air Surveillance and Air Battle Management in the Unit 's designated area of responsibility " . The unit was formed during World War II , and deployed in the South West Pacific . Since the war it has seen service in the Malayan Emergency , the Konfrontasi between Indonesia and Malaysia in the mid @-@ 1960s , and the War in Afghanistan .
= = History = =
= = = World War II = = =
No. 114 Mobile Control and Reporting Unit was formed as No. 14 ( Mobile ) Fighter Sector Headquarters at Camden , New South Wales , on 23 May 1943 , under the command of Wing Commander Gordon Steege . The following month it deployed to Goodenough Island in New Guinea as part of No. 71 ( Fighter ) Wing , and became operational on 27 June . It controlled two radar stations , No. 401 of the US Army Signal Corps and No. 305 of the RAAF . On 8 August it moved to Kiriwina , under the aegis of No. 73 ( Fighter ) Wing . Steege relinquished command on 1 October to take charge of No. 73 Wing .
Responsible for controlling anti @-@ aircraft batteries and air @-@ to @-@ air interceptions of Japanese raiders , the unit was renamed No. 114 ( Mobile ) Fighter Sector on 18 October . It registered its first " kill " on 31 October , when it directed a Spitfire of No. 79 Squadron to intercept a Japanese " Tony " fighter north @-@ east of Kiriwina . On 2 March 1944 , No. 114 Fighter Sector began redeploying with No. 73 Wing from Goodenough to Los Negros Island . Charged with coordinating air defence during the Admiralty Islands campaign , it was renamed No. 114 Mobile Fighter Control Unit ( MFCU ) five days later . The redesignated unit became operational on 2 April , and controlled Nos. 337 , 340 , 345 , 346 and 347 Radar Stations .
In January 1945 , No. 114 MFCU was withdrawn to Brisbane , where it began preparations to participate in the Australian @-@ led liberation of Tarakan . In April , with a complement of over 800 officers and men , and Nos. 167 , 168 , 308 , 354 and 355 Radar Stations under its command , it embarked for Morotai in the Dutch East Indies . From there it departed for Tarakan , arriving with the main invasion force on 1 May . Controlled by No. 78 ( Fighter ) Wing under the Australian First Tactical Air Force ( No. 1 TAF ) , No. 114 MFCU became operational on the island four days after the landing . In addition to its regular duties , it temporarily took responsibility for maintaining contact with No. 1 TAF headquarters on Morotai and US Army Air Forces commands in the Philippines , when equipment belonging to the RAAF 's Mobile Telecommunications Unit failed to be unloaded at Tarakan before the departure of its transport ship .
= = = Cold War and after = = =
No. 114 MFCU was rapidly reduced in size following the end of the war . It departed Tarakan for Australia on 3 December 1945 with No. 78 Wing , arriving at RAAF Station Deniliquin , New South Wales , on the 14th . Still under the wing 's control , it relocated to RAAF Station Schofields on 31 May and then to RAAF Station Williamtown on 1 August , disbanding on 1 April 1948 . No. 114 MFCU was re @-@ established under a newly organised No. 78 Wing on 24 January 1949 — " in name only " , however , as it remained non @-@ operational . It began training in late 1955 prior to anticipated reactivation , and was renamed No. 114 Mobile Control and Reporting Unit ( MCRU ) on 12 March 1956 . It relocated to RAAF Dubbo and stood up as an independent unit on 14 November .
No. 114 MCRU deployed to Malaya in 1958 , becoming operational at RAAF Base Butterworth on 19 August . It took over responsibility for aerial surveillance and ground @-@ controlled interception from the Royal Air Force 's No. 487 Signals Unit on 1 December . From Butterworth , No. 114 MCRU directed the Sabre fighters of Nos. 3 and 77 Squadrons and the Canberra bombers of No. 2 Squadron in the last years of the Malayan Emergency . It also sent controllers on attachment to Ubon Air Base in Thailand , where No. 79 Squadron was based from 1962 . On 3 September 1964 , the unit went on to a 24 @-@ hour operational footing to support the Sidewinder @-@ armed Sabres of Nos. 3 and 77 Squadrons during the Konfrontasi between Indonesia and Malaysia , though no combat ensued . Konfrontasi having been declared over in August 1966 , No. 114 MCRU transferred its responsibilities to RAF Western Hill on 22 September , and disbanded at Butterworth on 31 October .
The unit was reactivated again at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , on 1 April 1968 , employing the Plessey " Hub Cap " automated air defence system , which utilised Westinghouse radar and Marconi computer programs . It was to have moved directly from Butterworth to Amberley but delivery of the Hub Cap system , ordered in 1965 , was delayed owing to programming issues . The system was also physically larger and heavier than had been anticipated , rendering it less easily transportable . In 1979 , No. 114 MCRU upgraded to the Westinghouse AN / TPS @-@ 43 radar system , improving both its mobility and its tactical capabilities . It inaugurated the RAAF 's Tactical Air Defence System ( TADS , subsequently Tactical Air Defence Radar System or TADRS ) on 10 July 1985 . No. 114 MCRU was presented with a Squadron Standard on 23 May 1990 , becoming the only non @-@ flying unit in the Air Force to receive such an honour . The standard displays battle honours for the Pacific ( 1943 – 45 ) , New Britain ( 1943 ) , New Guinea ( 1943 – 44 ) and Borneo ( 1945 ) . No. 114 MCRU was transferred to RAAF Base Tindal , Northern Territory , in May – June 1997 , and then to RAAF Base Darwin in December 1999 . The AN / TPS @-@ 43 was retired in September 2005 , and replaced by the AN / TPS @-@ 77 radar . In May 2007 , a detachment of 75 members of No. 114 MCRU deployed for active service at Kandahar Airfield in southern Afghanistan , utilising the AN / TPS @-@ 77 to coordinate coalition combat air operations . The detachment returned to Australia in August 2009 . No. 114 MCRU celebrated its 70th anniversary at Darwin on 23 May 2013 . It marked ten years service with the AN / TPS @-@ 77 radar in November 2015 .
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= The Proposal ( film ) =
The Proposal is a 2009 American romantic comedy film set in Sitka , Alaska . Directed by Anne Fletcher and written by Peter Chiarelli , the film features Ryan Reynolds and Sandra Bullock in the leading roles , with Betty White , Mary Steenburgen , and Craig T. Nelson in supporting roles . The film was produced by Mandeville Films and released on June 19 , 2009 , in North America by Touchstone Pictures . The plot centers on a Canadian executive , Margaret Tate , who learns that she may face deportation from the U.S. because of her expired visa . Determined to retain her position as editor in chief of a publishing house , Tate convinces her assistant , Andrew Paxton , to temporarily act as her fiancé . Initially planning on resuming their lives after Tate resolves her visa issues , they appear to abandon those plans as their relationship intensifies .
Development on the film began in 2005 , when Chiarelli wrote the film 's script . Principal filming occurred over a period of two months from March to May 2008 . The film received mixed reviews from critics , who criticized its script , but praised the chemistry between Bullock and Reynolds . The film was a box office success , grossing over $ 317 million worldwide , becoming the highest grossing romantic comedy film of 2009 .
= = Plot = =
Margaret Tate is an executive editor in chief of a book publishing company . After learning she is about to be deported to Canada because she violated the terms of her work visa , she persuades her assistant , Andrew Paxton , to marry her . She reminds Andrew that if she 's deported , the work he put in as her assistant will be lost , and he 'll be set back in his dream to become an editor . Mr. Gilbertson , a U.S. immigration agent , informs them that he suspects they are committing fraud to avoid Margaret 's deportation . Gilbertson tells them that they 'll be asked questions about each other separately . If their answers don 't match , Margaret will be deported to Canada permanently and Andrew will be convicted of a felony punishable by a $ 250 @,@ 000 fine and five years in prison . Andrew insists that Margaret make him an editor after their marriage and publish the book he 's been recommending to her . Margaret agrees .
The couple travels to Sitka , Alaska , Andrew 's hometown , to meet his family . Margaret meets Andrew 's mother Grace and grandmother Annie a.k.a. " Gammy " . During the trip to the family home , Margaret notices that nearly every shop in town carries the name Paxton and learns that Andrew 's family is in fact very wealthy . During a welcome home party , Andrew confronts his father , Joe , who is angry about Andrew 's dating the boss he has so long disliked and thinks he is using her to get ahead in his career . After their argument , Andrew announces the engagement to everyone . Margaret also meets Gertrude , Andrew 's ex @-@ girlfriend .
The next day , Grace and Annie take Margaret to a local bar to watch a strip dance by a locally famous but over @-@ the @-@ hill exotic dancer , Ramone . Stepping away from the show , Margaret learns from Gertrude that Andrew wanted to become an editor and make his own life and that Andrew had proposed to Gertrude . However , Gertrude refused because she didn 't want to leave Sitka for New York . Returning home , Margaret learns of the conflict between Andrew and Joe . That night , Margaret asks Andrew about his relationship with his father , but Andrew refuses to talk . Instead , Margaret opens up to Andrew .
The next day , the family convinces them to marry while they 're in Sitka . After Margaret realizes how close Andrew 's family is , she becomes upset , gets on Andrew 's boat , and speeds away with him . She tells him she has been alone since she was sixteen years old after her parents died and had forgotten what it felt like to have a family . She lets go of the helm and stumbles to the back of the boat . Andrew makes a sharp turn to avoid hitting a buoy , and Margaret falls out of the boat . Andrew quickly turns the boat around and saves her because she can 't swim . At the wedding ceremony , Margaret confesses the truth about the wedding to the guests , including Gilbertson , who informs her she has twenty @-@ four hours to leave for Canada . Margaret returns to the Paxton home to pack her things . Andrew rushes to their room only to find Margaret has already left , leaving the aforementioned book manuscript with a note of praise and a promise to publish it . Gertrude attempts to comfort Andrew and asks if he is going to go after her . As he rushes out to find Margaret , another argument arises between him and Joe . Annie fakes a heart attack and convinces them to reconcile before she " passes away " . After she succeeds in getting things moving again , she owns up to faking the heart attack . Andrew 's parents realize he really loves Margaret . He goes to New York and tells Margaret he loves her in front of the entire office staff . They kiss , then go to Gilbertson and inform him they are again engaged , but for real this time . The film ends with Gilbertson asking questions ( some of them irrelevant ) not only to Andrew and Margaret , but also Joe , Grace , Annie and Ramone .
= = Cast = =
Ryan Reynolds as Andrew Paxton , Margaret 's assistant whose ultimate career goal is to become an editor .
Sandra Bullock as Margaret Tate , a chief editor at a major New York City book publisher .
Mary Steenburgen as Grace Paxton , Andrew 's mother .
Craig T. Nelson as Joe Paxton , Andrew 's father who owns the family business that dominates the entire town of Sitka .
Betty White as Grandma Annie " Gammy " , Andrew 's grandmother and Joe 's mother .
Denis O 'Hare as Mr. Gilbertson , the immigration agent investigating Margaret 's case .
Oscar Nuñez as Ramone , a resident of Sitka who holds many jobs , including waiter , male stripper , shopkeeper and minister .
Malin Åkerman as Gertrude , Andrew 's ex @-@ girlfriend .
Michael Nouri as publisher Bergen , Tate 's superior .
Aasif Mandvi as Bob Spaulding , an editor .
Michael Mosley as Chuck , Andrew 's friend .
= = Production = =
Peter Chiarelli initially wrote the script for the film in 2005 . In May 2007 , it was announced that Sandra Bullock had been given a lead role for The Proposal . Julia Roberts was originally approached by producers for a lead role in the film , but later declined . Nearly two months after the announcement , it was reported that negotiations were being finalized for Ryan Reynolds to star opposite to Bullock . In January 2008 , Touchstone Pictures signed Anne Fletcher to direct the film . It premiered on June 1 , 2009 at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood , California .
Filming for The Proposal initiated in April 2008 in Rockport , Massachusetts . In the oncoming days leading to production , areas of the town were temporarily remodeled to represent Sitka , Alaska , the setting of most of the film . Principal photography officially began on April 9 at Bearskin Neck , where it continued over a period of 24 hours . Filming continued at the Motif Number One building on Bradley Wharf ( April 14 – 16 ) , the Haskins Building ( April 15 – 18 ) , and the central business district of Rockport ( April 17 ) . Principal photography relocated to Manchester @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea , Massachusetts on April 22 , where it resumed over an approximate period of two weeks . In response , city officials accommodated the producers by renting out all publicly owned parking lots . Filming for The Proposal was shortly delayed after Bullock and her husband were involved in a car accident . The wedding scene was filmed in a three @-@ story twentieth century Victorian home ; photography took place at the residence for three weeks . In an interview with the New York Times , the owners of the home stated that Nelson Coates knocked on their door asking for leaves . Initially , the owners directed Coates to other residences in the area ; however , they eventually gave the film 's producer a tour of the house . Production occurred on the first floor of the home . Outside of the Cape Ann area , filming took place in Boston , Massachusetts at the State Street Bank Building and in Lower Manhattan in New York City . The Proposal contained 350 special effect shots , and some parts were edited using computer @-@ generated imagery . The score to The Proposal was composed by Aaron Zigman , who recorded his score with the Hollywood Studio Symphony at the Sony Scoring Stage .
As part of an extensive advertising campaign , Reynolds discussed about taking part in the production of a nude scene . The scene was filmed in a period of three days , and took approximately twelve takes to complete . Expressing that she was initially nervous , Bullock stated in an interview with Sky News that " when everyone else acts like it 's just a normal day it really helps you relax . " Although she revealed that producers provided them with fig leaves , Bullock stated that they would continuously fall off . She added , " You could literally see everything . " Similar sentiments were expressed by Reynolds , who in an interview with People , stated , " Filming a scene that involves being entirely naked and takes a couple days can be a little awkward . " He continued : " Thankfully you 're there for so long and you 're doing it for so long that you dispense with the awkwardness pretty quickly and start to have mundane , normal conversations – the difference being you 're not wearing pants . "
= = Release = =
= = = Box office = = =
The Proposal was released in the United States on June 19 , 2009 . On its opening day , the film grossed an estimated $ 12 @.@ 7 million in 3 @,@ 056 theaters , becoming the highest grossing film of the day . It later went on to gross over $ 34 million during its opening weekend , beating out Year One , Up , and The Hangover . In an exit poll conducted by Disney , nearly 63 % of the opening audience consisted of female viewers , 78 % were eighteen or older , and 71 % were classified as couples . It marked the biggest opening weekend out of any film in Bullock 's career , nearly doubling from her previous holder , Premonition . As of October 2011 , the film had grossed over $ 164 million in the United States and Canada .
Box office performances showed similar numbers in international markets . The film was released in Australia on June 18 , 2009 , grossing over $ 2 @.@ 8 million on its opening weekend . In Russia , the film grossed over $ 2 @.@ 6 million on its opening weekend , accounting for 34 % of all total film revenue in that country . In South Africa the film debuted at number two , losing out to the new release Ice Age : Dawn of the Dinosaurs . It managed to gross over $ 2 @.@ 6 million as of October 2011 . In the United Kingdom , estimated first opening weekend grosses stand at £ 3 @.@ 2 million . The film has grossed over $ 317 million worldwide , with international grosses standing at $ 153 million . It is the twentieth highest @-@ grossing film of 2009 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The Proposal received mixed reviews . The film has a 44 % approval rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes , based on 180 reviews with an average rating of 5 @.@ 3 / 10 , with the consensus : " Sandra Bullock and Ryan Reynolds exhibit plenty of chemistry , but they 're let down by The Proposal 's devotion to formula . " Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score , gave the film a 48 out of 100 based on 30 reviews from critics .
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave a mixed review , giving the film three out of four stars despite complaining that the film " recycles a plot that was already old when Tracy and Hepburn were trying it out " . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone was very critical of the film , calling it insipid . He wrote , " Anne Fletcher directs Peter Chiarelli 's script like a manufacturer of hard plastic that is guaranteed to ward off intrusion from all recognizable human emotion . " New York Times writer Manohla Dargis felt that Bullock 's character was awkward in comparison to her previous work . She continued : " She ’ s always been better in fundamentally independent roles that allow her to grab the wheel [ ... ] and take the spotlight [ ... ] , an independence that persists all the way through the last @-@ act coupling . She can smile as brightly at a man as well as the next leading lady , though , like all genuinely big female stars , she ’ s really more of a solo act . " The Telegraph 's Tim Robey expressed disappointment towards the film , giving it a two out of five stars .
The interaction between Reynolds and Bullock was well received by critics . Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly opined that the chemistry between the two actors was " fresh and irresistible . " Zorianna Kit of The Huffington Post exclaimed that " what [ kept ] audiences of this lite @-@ fare comedy in their seats is the undeniable on @-@ screen chemistry between leads Sandra Bullock and Ryan Reynolds . " She continued : " The two are so adept at comedy and have so much fun with one another , viewers watching The Proposal won 't be able to resist their charms , even when some of the plot veers in to unnecessarily silliness . " Betsey Sharkley of the Los Angeles Times felt that their relationship was a " cheeky update of The Taming of the Shrew . " She opined , " Bullock 's deft physical comedy , one of her most endearing qualities , is given a full run . [ ... ] Reynolds ' ability to deliver a line , or a look , with withering , surgical precision is there at every turn . " Giving it a one out of five stars , The Guardian writer Peter Bradshaw gave a negative reaction to the interaction between Reynolds and Bullock . Bradshaw stated : " Their initial sparky detestation isn 't convincing , and neither is their later thawing and romance . In each scene , it looks as if they have never met before . And Margaret isn 't permitted to be a convincing cow , because that would make her unsympathetic [ ... ] . Andrew can 't be a total wimp , because that would be unsexy , so the fundamental comic premises of the film are fudged . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= = = Home media = = =
The Proposal was released by Touchstone Home Entertainment on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on October 13 , 2009 . It sold over 2 @.@ 4 million units within its first week , translating to an addition of $ 39 @.@ 3 million in the box office . In its second week , sales numbers declined by 70 % to 623 @,@ 744 units , ranking second among DVD sales of the week . By July 2013 , The Proposal had sold over 5 @.@ 6 million units and earned over $ 90 million in sales .
= = Remakes = =
The 2012 Malayalam – language Indian film My Boss is a remake of The Proposal . Set in Mumbai and Kerala , the remade version has many differences from the original although the basic storyline remains the same . Popular actors Dileep and Mamta Mohandas played the lead roles in this version . The remake was also a hit .
A Chinese remake co @-@ produced by Walt Disney Pictures and Linmon Pictures and directed by Yee Chin @-@ yen was announced in June 2016 .
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= 1960 South Vietnamese coup attempt =
On November 11 , 1960 , a failed coup attempt against President Ngô Đình Diệm of South Vietnam was led by Lieutenant Colonel Vương Văn Đông and Colonel Nguyễn Chánh Thi of the Airborne Division of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) .
The rebels launched the coup in response to Diệm 's autocratic rule and the negative political influence of his brother Ngô Đình Nhu and his sister @-@ in @-@ law Madame Nhu . They also bemoaned the politicisation of the military , whereby regime loyalists who were members of the Ngô family 's covert Cần Lao Party were readily promoted ahead of more competent officers who were not insiders . Đông was supported in the conspiracy by his brother @-@ in @-@ law Lieutenant Colonel Nguyen Trieu Hong , whose uncle was a prominent official in a minor opposition party . The main link in the coup was Đông 's commanding officer Thi , whom he persuaded to join the plot .
The coup caught the Ngô family completely off @-@ guard , but was also chaotically executed . The plotters neglected to seal the roads leading into the capital Saigon to seal off loyalist reinforcements , and they hesitated after gaining the initiative . After initially being trapped inside the Independence Palace , Diệm stalled the coup by holding negotiations and promising reforms , such as the inclusion of military officers in the administration . In the meantime , opposition politicians joined the fray , trying to exploit Diệm 's position . However , the president 's real aim was to buy time for loyalist forces to enter the capital and relieve him . The coup failed when the 5th and 7th Divisions of the ARVN entered Saigon and defeated the rebels . More than four hundred people — many of whom were civilian spectators — were killed in the ensuing battle . These included a group of anti @-@ Diệm civilians who charged across the palace walls at Thi 's urging and were cut down by loyalist gunfire .
Đông and Thi fled to Cambodia , while Diệm berated the United States for a perceived lack of support during the crisis . Afterwards , Diệm ordered a crackdown , imprisoning numerous anti @-@ government critics and former cabinet ministers . Those that assisted Diệm were duly promoted , while those that did not were demoted . A trial for those implicated in the plot was held in 1963 . Seven officers and two civilians were sentenced to death in absentia , while 14 officers and 34 civilians were jailed . Diệm 's regime also accused the Americans of sending Central Intelligence Agency members to assist the failed plot . When Diệm was assassinated after a 1963 coup , those jailed after the 1960 revolt were released by the new military junta .
= = Background = =
The revolt was led by 28 @-@ year @-@ old Lieutenant Colonel Vương Văn Đông , a northerner , who had fought with the French Union forces against the Viet Minh during the First Indochina War . Later trained at Fort Leavenworth in the United States , Đông was regarded by American military advisers as a brilliant tactician and the brightest military prospect of his generation and he served in the Airborne Division . Back in Vietnam , Đông became discontented with Diệm 's arbitrary rule and constant meddling in the internal affairs of the army . Diệm promoted officers on loyalty rather than skill , and played senior officers against one another in order to weaken the military leadership and prevent them from challenging his rule . Years after the coup , Đông asserted that his sole objective was to force Diệm to improve the governance of the country . Đông was clandestinely supported by his brother @-@ in @-@ law Lieutenant Colonel Nguyen Trieu Hong , the director of training at the Joint General Staff School , and Hong 's uncle Hoang Co Thuy . Thuy was a wealthy Saigon @-@ based lawyer , and had been a political activist since World War II . He was the secretary @-@ general of a minority opposition party called the Movement of Struggle for Freedom , which had a small presence in the rubber @-@ stamp National Assembly .
Many Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) officers were members of other anti @-@ communist nationalist groups that were opposed to Diệm , such as the Đại Việt Quốc dân đảng ( Nationalist Party of Greater Vietnam ) and the Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng ( VNQDĐ , Vietnamese Nationalist Party ) , which were both established before World War II . The VNQDĐ had run a military academy in Yunnan near the Chinese border with the assistance of their nationalist Chinese counterparts , the Kuomintang . Diệm and his family had crushed all alternative anti @-@ communist nationalists , and his politicisation of the army had alienated the servicemen . Officers were promoted on the basis of political allegiance rather than competence , meaning that many VNQDĐ and Đại Việt trained officers were denied such promotions . They felt that politically minded officers , who joined Diệm 's secret Catholic @-@ dominated Cần Lao Party , which was used to control South Vietnamese society , were rewarded with promotion rather than those most capable .
Planning for the coup had gone on for over a year , with Đông recruiting disgruntled officers . This included his commander , Colonel Nguyễn Chánh Thi . In 1955 , Thi had fought for Diệm against the Bình Xuyên organised crime syndicate in the Battle for Saigon . This performance so impressed Diệm — a lifelong bachelor — that he thereafter referred to Thi as " my son " . However , the Americans who worked with Thi were less impressed . The CIA described Thi as " an opportunist and a man lacking strong convictions " . An American military advisor described Thi as " tough , unscrupulous , and fearless , but dumb " . There is some dispute as to whether Thi participated in the coup of his free choice . According to some sources , Thi was still an admirer of Diệm and was forced at gunpoint by Đông and his supporters to join the coup at the last minute , having been kept unaware of the plotting . According to this story , Thi 's airborne units were initially moved into position for the coup without his knowledge .
Many months before the coup , Đông had met Diệm 's brother and adviser Ngô Đình Nhu , widely regarded as the brains of the regime , to ask for reform and de @-@ politicisation of the army . Đông said that the meeting went well and was hopeful that Nhu would enact change . However , a few weeks later , Dong and his collaborators were transferred to different commands and physically separated . Fearing that Diệm and Nhu were trying to throw their plans off balance , they accelerated their planning work , and decided to move on October 6 . However , they were then scheduled to go into battle against the communists near Kon Tum in the II Corps in the Central Highlands , forcing a postponement . According to the historian George McTurnan Kahin , Đông was without a command by the time the coup was held .
The Americans started to notice and become alarmed at increasing reports of political disillusionment in the military officer corps in August . An intelligence report prepared by the US State Department in late August claimed the " worsening of internal security , the promotion of incompetent officers and Diệm 's direct interference in army operations ... his political favoritism , inadequate delegation of authority , and the influence of the Can Lao " . It also claimed that discontent with Diệm among high @-@ ranking civil servants was at their highest point since the president had established in power , and that the bureaucrats wanted a change of leadership , through a coup if needed . It was said that Nhu and his wife were the most despised among the civil service . The report predicted that if a coup was to occur , the objective would probably be to force Nhu and his wife out of positions of power and allow Diệm to continue to lead the country with reduced power , should he be willing to do so . The intelligence analysis turned out to be correct .
The US Ambassador Elbridge Durbrow , who had been in the post since 1957 , had a long record of trying to pressure Diệm into political reforms . He felt that South Vietnam 's political problems were due to Diệm 's illiberalism and thought the communist insurgency would be more easily defeated if Diệm reached out to a broader cross @-@ section of society , cracked down on corruption , cronyism , abusive public servants , and implemented land reform . However , the South Vietnamese president saw authoritarianism as the solution to political problems and opposition , and the US military hierarchy in Vietnam agreed , leading to frequent disputes between Durbrow and the Military Assistance Advisory Group . Durbrow frequently reported to Washington that Diệm 's strong @-@ arm tactics against opposition only created more dissent and opportunities for the communists .
Around this time , Durbrow began to advise Diệm to remove Nhu and his wife from the government , basing his arguments on a need to cultivate broad popular support to make South Vietnam more viable in the long term . His key suggestions included Nhu being sent abroad as an ambassador and " altering the nature of the Cần Lao Party " . As Nhu and the Can Lao were a core means of his keeping power , Diệm did not follow Durbrow 's advice .
On September 16 , after another fruitless meeting with Diệm , Durbrow reported to Washington : " If Diệm 's position in [ the ] country continues to deteriorate ... it may become necessary for [ the ] US government to begin consideration [ of ] alternative courses of action and leaders in order [ to ] achieve our objective . " In another State Department Report , it was concluded that a coup would become more likely " if Diệm continued to remain uncompromising and if the opposition felt that the United States would not be unsympathetic to a coup or that U.S.-Vietnamese relations would not be seriously damaged . " As it turned out those in Vietnam discontented with Diệm reached the same conclusion , that the US would not mind them toppling the president .
The coup was organised with the help of some VNQDĐ and Đại Việt members , civilians and officers alike . Đông enlisted the cooperation of an armoured regiment , marine unit and three paratrooper battalions . The marine battalion was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Pham Van Lieu . The operation was scheduled to launch on November 11 at 05 : 00 . However , the airborne soldiers were not aware of what their officers had in store . They were told that they were heading into the countryside to attack the Viet Cong . Once they were on their way , the officers claimed that the Presidential Guard , who were meant to guard the presidential palace , had mutinied against Diệm .
= = Coup = =
According to Stanley Karnow , the Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning author of Vietnam : A History , the coup was ineffectively executed ; although the rebels captured the headquarters of the Joint General Staff at Tan Son Nhut Air Base , they failed to follow the textbook tactics of blocking the roads leading into Saigon . They also failed to disconnect phone lines into the palace , which allowed Diệm to call for aid from loyal units .
The paratroopers headed down the main thoroughfare of Saigon towards Independence Palace . At first , the forces encircled the compound without attacking , believing that Diệm would comply with their demands . Đông attempted to call on US ambassador Elbridge Durbrow to put pressure on Diệm . Durbrow , although a persistent critic of Diệm , maintained his government 's position of supporting Diệm , stating " We support this government until it fails " . Durbrow later recalled receiving a telephone call from an aide to Diệm who insisted that he call Diệm and tell him to surrender or face a howitzer attack on the palace . Durbrow refused and no attack took place . He consequently learned that the aide was forced to make the call .
Most of the rebel soldiers had been told that they were attacking in order to save Diệm from a mutiny by the Presidential Guard . Only one or two officers in any given rebel unit knew the true situation . A high wall , a fence and a few guard posts , surrounded the palace grounds . The mutinous paratroopers disembarked from their transport vehicles and moved into position for an attack on the main gate . Some ran forward and others raked automatic gunfire at the front of the palace , shattering most of the windows and puncturing the walls . Diệm was nearly killed in the opening salvoes . A rebel machine gun fired into Diệm 's bedroom window from the adjacent Palais de Justice and penetrated his bed , but the president had arisen just a few minutes earlier .
The paratroopers ' first assault on the palace met with surprising resistance . The Presidential Guardsmen who stood between the rebels and Diệm were estimated at between 30 and 60 , but they managed to repel the initial thrust and kill seven rebels who attempted to scale the palace walls and run across the grass . The rebels cordoned off the palace and held fire . They trucked in reinforcements and the attack restarted at 7 : 30 , but the Presidential Guard continued to resist . Half an hour later , the rebels brought in five armored vehicles and circumnavigated the palace . They fired at the perimeter posts , and mortared the palace grounds . However , the exchange had petered out by 10 : 30 . In the meantime , the rebels had captured the national police offices , Radio Saigon and the barracks of the Presidential Guard . They had also put most of the Saigon @-@ based generals under house arrest , meaning that Diệm 's saviours would have to come from outside Saigon . However , the rebels also suffered a setback when Hong was killed during the battle for the police headquarters . He had been sitting in his jeep behind the frontline when he was hit by stray gunfire .
Diệm headed for the cellar , joining his younger brother and confidant Ngô Đình Nhu , and his wife Madame Nhu . Brigadier General Nguyễn Khánh , at the time the Chief of Staff of the ARVN , climbed over the palace wall to reach Diệm during the siege . Khanh lived in the city center , close to the palace , and awoken by the gunfire , he drove towards the action . The plotters had tried to put him under house arrest at the start of the coup , but were unaware that he moved house . Khanh proceeded to coordinate the loyalist defenders , along with Ky Quan Liem , the deputy director of the Civil Guard .
At dawn , civilians began massing outside the palace gates , verbally encouraging the rebels and waving banners advocating regime change . Saigon Radio announced that a " Revolutionary Council " was in charge of South Vietnam 's government . Diệm appeared lost , while many Saigon @-@ based ARVN troops rallied to the insurgents . According to Nguyễn Thái Bình , an exiled political rival , " Diệm was lost . Any other than he would have capitulated . " However , the rebels hesitated as they decided their next move . There was debate on what Diệm 's role would be in future . Đông felt that the rebels should take the opportunity of storming the palace and capturing Diệm . Thi on the other hand , was worried that Diệm could be killed in an attack . Thi felt that despite Diệm 's shortcomings , the president was South Vietnam 's best available leader , believing that enforced reform would yield the best outcome . The rebels wanted Nhu and his wife out of the government , although they disagreed over whether to kill or deport the couple .
Thi demanded that Diệm appoint an officer as prime minister and that Diệm remove Madame Nhu from the palace . Saigon Radio broadcast a speech authorised by Thi 's Revolutionary Council , claiming that Diệm was being removed because he was corrupt and suppressed liberty . Worried by the uprising , Diệm sent his private secretary Vo Van Hai to negotiate with the coup leaders . In the afternoon , Khanh left the palace to meet with rebel officers to keep abreast of their demands , which they reiterated . The rebels ' negotiators were Đông and Major Nguyen Huy Loi . They wanted officers and opposition figures to be appointed to a new government to keep Diệm in check .
The plotters unilaterally named Brigadier General Lê Văn Kim , the head of the Vietnamese National Military Academy , the nation 's premier officer training school in Da Lat , would be their new prime minister . Kim was not a Can Lao member and was later put under house arrest after Diệm regained control . According to Kim 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Major General Trần Văn Đôn , Kim was willing to accept the post but was not going to say anything unless the coup succeeded . The rebels also suggested that Diệm appoint General Lê Văn Tỵ , the chief of the armed forces , be made defence minister . Diệm asked Ty , who had been put under house arrest by the plotters , if he was willing , but the officer was not . During the afternoon of November 11 , the rebels used Ty as an intermediary to pass on their demands to the president . A broadcast was made over Saigon Radio , during which Ty said he had consulted with Diệm and obtained his agreement for the " dissolution of the present government " and that " with agreement of the Revolutionary Council " had given the officers the task of constituting " a provisional military government " .
Phan Quang Đán joined the rebellion and acted as the rebels ' spokesman . The most prominent political critic of Diệm , Đán had been disqualified from the 1959 legislative election after winning his seat by a ratio of 6 : 1 despite Diệm having organised votestacking against him . He cited political mismanagement of the war against the Viet Cong and the government 's refusal to broaden its political base as the reason for the revolt . Đán spoke on Radio Vietnam and staged a media conference during which a rebel paratrooper pulled a portrait of the president from the wall , ripped it and stamped on it . In the meantime , Thuy went about organising a coalition of political parties to take over post @-@ Diệm . He had already lined up the VNQDĐ , Đại Việt , and the Hòa Hảo and Cao Đài religious movements , and was seeking more collaborators .
Khanh returned to the palace and reported the result of his conversation to the Ngos . He recommended that Diệm resign due to the demands of the rebel forces and protestors outside the palace . Madame Nhu railed against Diệm agreeing to a power @-@ sharing arrangement , asserting that it was the destiny of Diệm and his family to save the country . Madame Nhu 's aggressive stance and persistent calls for Khanh to attack , prompted the general to threaten to leave . This forced Diệm to silence his sister @-@ in @-@ law , and Khanh remained with the president .
During the standoff , Durbrow ambivalently noted " We consider it overriding importance to Vietnam and Free World that agreement be reached soonest in order avoid continued division , further bloodshed with resultant fatal weakening Vietnam 's ability [ to ] resist communists . " American representatives privately recommended to both sides to reach a peaceful agreement to share power .
In the meantime , the negotiations allowed time for loyalists to enter Saigon and rescue the president . Khanh used the remaining communication lines to message senior officers outside Saigon . The Fifth Division of Colonel Nguyễn Văn Thiệu , a future president , brought infantry forces from Biên Hòa , a town north of Saigon . The Seventh Division of Colonel Trần Thiện Khiêm brought in seven infantry battalions and tanks from the Second Armored Battalion from Mỹ Tho , a town in the Mekong Delta south of Saigon . Khiêm was a Catholic with ties to Diệm 's older brother , Archbishop Ngô Đình Thục . Khanh also convinced Lê Nguyên Khang , the acting head of the Republic of Vietnam Marine Corps to send the 1st and 2nd Marine Battalions . Rangers were called into Saigon from the western town of Tây Ninh . Assistant Secretary of Defense Nguyễn Đình Thuận phoned Durbrow and discussed the impending standoff between the incoming loyalists and the rebels . Durbrow said " I hope that the Revolutionary Committee and President Diệm can get together and agree to cooperate as a civil war could only benefit communists . If one side or the other has to make some concessions in order [ to ] reach an agreement , I believe that would be desirable to ensure unity against the communists . " Durbrow was worried that if he sided with one faction over the other , and that group was defeated , the United States would be saddled with a hostile regime .
Diệm advised Khanh to continue to negotiate with the paratroopers and seek a rapprochement . After consenting to formal negotiations , the parties agreed to a ceasefire . In the meantime , loyalist forces continued to head towards the capital , while the rebels publicly claimed on radio that Diệm had surrendered in an apparent attempt to attract more troops to their cause . Diệm promised to end press censorship , liberalise the economy , and hold free and fair elections . Diệm refused to sack Nhu , but he agreed to dissolve his cabinet and form a government that would accommodate the Revolutionary Council . In the early hours of November 12 , Diệm taped a speech detailing the concessions , which the rebels broadcast on Saigon Radio . In it he expressed his intention to " coordinate with the Revolutionary Council to establish a coalition government " .
As the speech was being aired , two infantry divisions and supporting loyal armour approached the palace grounds . Some of these had broken through the rebel encirclement by falsely claiming to be anti @-@ Diệm reinforcements , before setting up their positions next to the palace . The loyalists opened fire with mortars and machine guns , and both sides exchanged fire for a few hours . During the morning , Durbrow tried to stop the fighting , phoning Diệm to say that if the violence was not stopped , " the entire population will rise up against both loyalists and rebels , and the communists will take over the city . If a bloodbath is not avoided , all of Vietnam will go communist in a very short time . " Durbrow deplored the attempt to resolve the situation with force . Diệm blamed the rebels for causing the outbreak of fighting and the collapse of the power @-@ sharing deal . Some of the Saigon @-@ based units that had joined the rebellion sensed that Diệm had regained the upper hand and switched sides for the second time in two days . The paratroopers became outnumbered and were forced to retreat to defensive positions around their barracks , which was an ad hoc camp that had been set up in a public park approximately 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) away . After a brief but violent battle that killed around 400 people , the coup attempt was crushed . This included a large number of civilians , who had been engaging in anti @-@ Diệm protests outside the palace grounds . Thi exhorted them to bring down the Ngos by charging the palace , and 13 were gunned down by the loyalist soldiers from the 2nd Armored Battalion as they invaded the grounds . The others dispersed quickly .
= = Aftermath = =
After the failed coup , Đông , Thi , Lieu and several other prominent officers fled to Tan Son Nhut and climbed aboard a C @-@ 47 . They fled to Cambodia , where they were happily given asylum by Prince Norodom Sihanouk . Cambodia and South Vietnam had been on bad terms ; Cambodia turned a blind eye to Vietnamese communists using their territory as a staging ground , while Diệm and Nhu had tried to foment opposition and had supported attempts to overthrow the Cambodian leader . Nhu had failed in a 1959 attempt to assassinate Sihanouk with a parcel bomb , and both nations ' leaders despised one another .
Diệm promptly reneged on his promises , and began rounding up scores of critics , including several former cabinet ministers and some of the Caravelle Group of 18 who had released a petition calling for reform . One of Diệm 's first orders after re @-@ establishing command was to order the arrest of Dan , who was imprisoned and tortured .
For Diệm and his family , the failed coup was a turning point in relations with the US support , which had generally been unconditional and strong since 1955 . He felt the US had let him down and that some Americans had been encouraging his overthrow and undermining his rule . He had previously though the Americans had full support for him , but afterwards , he told his confidants that he felt like Syngman Rhee , the President of the anti @-@ communist South Korea who had been strongly backed by Washington until being deposed in a coup earlier in 1960 , a regime change Diệm saw as US @-@ backed . Diệm 's opponents felt the same way about the similarities to Korea . Lieu later told Kahin " We had no worry about getting continued American assistance if we were successful ; we felt we could count on it , just like Park did when he overthrew Rhee . " Kahin also wrote that several senior officers including a senior figure in the coup , whom he did not name , were " explicit in charging American encouragement of the rebels " .
In the wake of the failed coup , Diệm blamed Durbrow for a perceived lack of US support , while his brother Nhu further accused the ambassador of colluding with the rebels . Durbrow denied this in later years , saying that he had been " 100 % in support of Diệm " . In January 1961 , Diệm told Kahin of his belief the US had been involved , while Nhu told Karnow " the principal culprits in the revolt were the ' western embassies ' and individual Americans in particular ... American military advisers were helping the paratroopers during the revolt . " In May 1961 , Nhu said " [ t ] he least you can say ... is that the State Department was neutral between a friendly government and rebels who tried to put that government down ... and the official attitude of the Americans during that coup was not at all the attitude the President would have expected " . For Diệm , that Durbrow had called for restraint was an indication he saw Diệm and the rebels as equals , something Diệm saw as anathema . Durbrow called for Diệm to treat the remaining rebel leaders leniently , stressing the need for Diệm to " unify all elements of the country " , but Diệm was adamantly opposed to this , angrily rebuffing the ambassador , saying " You apparently do not understand that the rebels caused much blood @-@ letting " , accusing them having " duped " innocent people . Diệm also sent Gene Gregory , an American supporter who edited the Times of Vietnam — an English @-@ language newspaper operated as a mouthpiece for the Nhus and known for stridently attacking Ngô family opponents — to meet Durbrow with concrete evidence of " American support of and complicity in the coup " . From the coup onwards , Diệm became increasingly suspicious of Washington 's policies . He was also angry with US media coverage of the coup , which depicted Diệm as authoritarian and the revolt as a manifestation of widespread discontent . Diệm instead viewed opposition simply as troublemakers .
The American military establishment strongly backed Diệm . Colonel Edward Lansdale , a CIA agent who helped entrench Diệm in power in 1955 , ridiculed Durbrow 's comments and called on the Eisenhower administration to recall the ambassador . Lansdale said that " It is most doubtful that Ambassador Durbrow has any personal stature remaining . Diệm must feel that Durbrow sided with the rebels emotionally . Perhaps he feels that Durbrow 's remarks over the months helped incite the revolt . " Lansdale criticised Durbrow : " At the most critical moment of the coup , the U.S. Ambassador urged Diệm to give in to rebel demands to avoid bloodshed . " Lieutenant General Lionel McGarr , the new commander of the Military Assistance Advisory Group , agreed with Lansdale . McGarr had been in contact with both the rebel and loyalist units during the standoff and credited the failure of the coup to the " courageous action of Diệm coupled with loyalty and versatility of commanders bringing troops into Saigon " . McGarr asserted that " Diệm has emerged from this severe test in position of greater strength with visible proof of sincere support behind him both in armed forces and civilian population . " General Lyman Lemnitzer , the chairman of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff said that " When you have rebellious forces against you , you have to act forcibly and not restrain your friends . The main point is that sometimes bloodshed can 't be avoided and that those in power must act decisively . " The State Department advised President Dwight David Eisenhower to send Diệm a congratulatory message , but Durbrow objected , arguing that Diệm would interpret the message as an unqualified endorsement of his rule and prevent him from " grasping and heeding lessons of [ the ] coup " .
Diệm later implicated two Americans , George Carver and Russ Miller for involvement in the plot . Both had spent the coup attempt with the rebel officers . Durbrow had sent them there to keep track of the situation , but Diệm felt that they were there to encourage the uprising ; the coup group 's desired changes were very similar to those advocated by Durbrow in previous months . It was later revealed that Carver had friendly relations with the coup leaders and then arranged for Thuy to be evacuated from South Vietnam when the loyalists overwhelmed the paratroopers . Carver had also spent some of the coup period in a meeting with civilian rebel leaders at Thuy 's house , although it is not known if he pro @-@ actively encouraged Diệm opponents . The Ngô brothers indicated to the Americans that Carver should be deported , and soon after , Carver received a death warrant . The threat was supposedly signed by the coup leaders , who were ostensibly angry because Carver had abandoned them and withdrawn American support for them . The Americans thought that Nhu was the real culprit , but told the Ngô family that they were removing Carver from the country for his own safety , thereby allowing all parties to avoid embarrassment . Years later , Carver said he agreed with the rebels ' thinking that Diệm was doing poorly and needed to be replaced , saying he was " absolutely convinced " that a regime change was needed to " achieve American objective in Vietnam " . In his memoir , Don claimed Miller had cryptically encouraged him to overthrow Diệm a few months before the coup attempt .
The rift between American diplomatic and military representatives in South Vietnam began to grow . In the meantime , Durbrow continued his policy of pressuring Diệm to liberalize his regime . Durbrow saw the coup as a sign that Diệm was unpopular and with the South Vietnamese president making only token changes , the ambassador informed Washington that Diệm might have to be removed . However , in December , the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs J. Graham Parsons told Durbrow to stop , cabling " Believe for present Embassy has gone as far as feasible in pushing for liberalization and future exhortation likely to be counterproductive . " This was mirrored in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam and Diệm . The paratroopers had been regarded as the most loyal of the ARVN 's units , so Diệm intensified his policy of promoting officers based on loyalty rather than competence . Khiêm was made a general and appointed Army Chief of Staff . The Ngô brothers were so paranoid that they felt that Khanh was suspect as he had broken through the rebel lines too easily . Khanh 's action gained him a reputation of having helped the president , but he was later criticised for having a foot in both camps . Critics claimed that Khanh had been on good terms with the rebels and decided against rebelling when it was clear that Diệm would win . Khanh was later dispatched to the Central Highlands as the commander of the II Corps . General Dương Văn Minh , who did not come to Diệm 's defense during the siege and instead stayed at home , was demoted . During the revolt , the plotters had nominated Minh to become their Defence Minister , but he refused when Diệm contacted him , claiming that he would willingly fight for Diệm on the battlefield , but was neither interested in nor suited for politics . However , Minh did not come to assist Diệm , and the president responded by appointing him to the post of Presidential Military Advisor , where he had no influence or troops to command in case the thought of coup ever crossed his mind .
Lansdale continued to be critical of Durbrow , and wanted to replace him as ambassador . Two months later , the incoming US President John F. Kennedy started a review of Washington 's stance with regards to Saigon . Lansdale 's report predicted South Vietnam 's demise , and along with it , the rest of South East Asia and US preeminence in global affairs , unless a new direction was found . He blamed what he saw as Durbrow 's poor judgement for the problems in the alliance , and that the current ambassador could not work effectively anymore because he had " sympathized strongly " with the coup . Without explicitly suggesting himself , Lansdale said that Durbrow had to be replaced with someone " with marked leadership talents " and the ability to " influence Asians through understanding them sympathetically " . Lansdale called Diệm " the only Vietnamese with executive ability and the required determination to be an effective President " and said the new ambassador needed thus needed to have a rapport with him . Lansdale said Diệm was comfortable with MAAG and the CIA , but felt that diplomats were " very close to those who tried to kill him on November 11 " . During the meeting at which these matters were discussed , there was strong agreement that Durbrow 's position in Saigon had become untenable . Lansdale 's submissions were seen as being important in Kennedy 's decision to replace Durbrow with Frederick Nolting in May 1961 . Nolting was a mild man who was seen as unlikely to pressure Diệm to reform and therefore upset him . Kennedy was thought to have seriously contemplated the appointment of Lansdale , before encountering complaints from sections of the State and Defense Departments , among them Defense Secretary Robert McNamara . Kennedy also increased funding for Diệm immediately and made a show of support for the Vietnamese leader at the advice of Lansdale .
= = Trial = =
The trial of those charged with involvement in the coup occurred more than two years later in mid @-@ 1963 . Diệm scheduled the hearing in the middle of the Buddhist crisis , a move that was interpreted as an attempt to deter the populace from further dissent . Nineteen officers and 34 civilians were accused of complicity in the coup and called before the Special Military Court .
Diệm 's officials gave the Americans an unsubtle warning not to interfere . The official prosecutor claimed to have documents proving that a foreign power was behind the failed coup but said that he could not publicly name the nation in question . It was later revealed in secret proceedings that he pinpointed two Americans : George Carver , an employee of the United States Operations Mission ( an economic mission ) who was later revealed to be a CIA agent , and Howard C. Elting , described as the deputy chief of the American mission in Saigon .
One of the prominent civilians summoned to appear before the military tribunal was a well @-@ known novelist who wrote under the pen name of Nhat Linh . He was the VNQDĐ leader Nguyễn Tường Tam , who had been Ho Chi Minh 's foreign affairs minister in 1946 . Tam had abandoned his post rather than lead the delegation to the Fontainebleau Conference and make concessions to the French Union . In the 30 months since the failed putsch , the police had not taken the conspiracy claims seriously enough to arrest Tam , but when Tam learned of the trial , he committed suicide by ingesting cyanide . He left a death note stating " I also will kill myself as a warning to those people who are trampling on all freedom " , referring to Thích Quảng Đức , the monk who self @-@ immolated in protest against Diệm 's persecution of Buddhism . Tam 's suicide was greeted with a mixed reception . Although some felt that it upheld the Vietnamese tradition of choosing death over humiliation , some VNQDĐ members considered Tam 's actions to be romantic and sentimental .
The brief trial opened on July 8 , 1963 . The seven officers and two civilians who had fled the country after the failed coup were found guilty and sentenced to death in absentia . Five officers were acquitted , while the remainder were imprisoned for terms ranging from five to ten years . Another VNQDĐ leader Vũ Hồng Khanh was given six years in prison . Former Diệm cabinet minister Phan Khắc Sửu was sentenced to eight years , mainly for being a signatory of the Caravelle Group which called on Diệm to reform . Dan , the spokesman was sentenced to seven years . Fourteen of the civilians were acquitted , including Tam .
However , the prisoners ' time in prison was brief , as Diệm was deposed and killed in a coup in November 1963 . On November 8 , political opponents who had been imprisoned on the island of Poulo Condore were released by the military junta . Đán was garlanded and taken to military headquarters , and on November 10 , Suu was released and welcomed by a large crowd at the town hall . Suu later served as president for a brief period and Dan as a deputy prime minister . Thi , Đông and Lieu returned to South Vietnam and resumed their service in the ARVN .
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= Elmo Tanner =
William Elmo Tanner , known as Elmo Tanner ( August 8 , 1904 – December 20 , 1990 ) was an American whistler , singer , bandleader and disc jockey , best known for his whistling on the chart @-@ topping song “ Heartaches ” with the Ted Weems Orchestra . Tanner and Weems recorded the song for two different record companies within a period of five years . Neither recording was successful originally . The song became a hit for both record companies after a Charlotte , North Carolina disk jockey played it at random in 1947 .
Tanner was originally hired by Weems as a vocalist ; the bandleader discovered Tanner 's whistling ability while the band was traveling to an engagement . Like Bing Crosby , he was able to whistle from his throat due to the muscles in his larynx . He subsequently became a featured performer as a whistler , earning the nicknames " Whistler ’ s Mother ’ s Boy " , " The Whistling Troubador , " and " the nation ’ s best @-@ known whistler " . He began appearing in films as part of the Ted Weems Orchestra in 1936 ; his first film role was in The Hatfields and McCoys , and he later appeared in the movie Swing , Sister , Swing ( 1938 ) and the musical film short , Swing Frolic ( 1942 ) . Weems considered Tanner 's whistling important enough to his orchestra that in 1939 he insured Tanner 's throat for $ 10 @,@ 000 . Besides musical whistling , he also imitated birds for Disney .
After a failed attempt at running a restaurant in his native Nashville in the early 1950s , he toured with the Elmo Tanner Quartet until 1958 , when he found work as a disc jockey in Florida . After working as an auto dealer in the 1960s , in the early 1970s he resumed musical activity , singing with a St. Petersburg , Florida @-@ based quartet .
= = Early life = =
Tanner was born on August 8 , 1904 in Nashville , Tennessee . He grew up in Detroit , and moved to Memphis with his family by 1926 . As a young boy , Tanner studied the violin and was successful with it until eye trouble made it difficult for him to read notes . His musical training helped Tanner to develop the ability to scan music or lyrics quickly and then either sing or whistle what he had just read . On his walk home from work , Tanner passed a cemetery each night and started whistling as he passed by . Not everyone appreciated Tanner 's whistling in the evening ; he was once jailed in Albuquerque , New Mexico for whistling after 10pm . A graduate of the University of Tennessee , Tanner raced automobiles and worked as a mechanic in Memphis . While performing the duties of his employment he liked to whistle and sing . One day in 1928 , he had a repair job for a customer who happened to work at WMC radio . After hearing Tanner singing while working on his car , the announcer suggested Tanner audition for the radio station . His consequent on @-@ air appearance brought a call from Paramount Records , which had offices in Chicago .
= = Career = =
By the late 1920s , Elmo Tanner had moved to the Chicago area and had established himself as a professional musician . Although Elmo Tanner never gained a large reputation as a singer , he was occasionally featured as such with Weems . It was as a vocalist that he made his initial recordings . He recorded a few dozen sides as a soloist for Paramount and Vocalion in 1927 through 1929 . Interestingly , the Paramount discs appeared in the Race record series , and the Vocalion sides were likewise marketed to African Americans . His versatility was noted by Vocalion , who utilized him to provide vocals for jazz outfits such as Jimmie Noone and for more sedate recordings with the Victor Young orchestra and with organist Eddie House . Not having signed an exclusive contract with any recording company , he was able to appear on the prestigious Victor label with Nathaniel Shilkret . In 1928 he formed a duet with Fred Rose as " The Tune Peddlers " and appeared on radio stations WLS , KYW , and WBBM .
While working at KYW with Rose , Tanner received an offer from Ted Weems . Weems offered a higher salary than Tanner was making at the radio station , but Tanner was hesitant because the job with Weems involved substantial travel . The KYW station manager offered to match the $ 50 per week salary . A few days later , Weems made a higher offer which was met by the station manager 's offer to match it . This continued until only Fred Rose came to work . When he arrived , Rose told the station manager that Weems now offered Tanner $ 100 a week and he had accepted it .
= = = Ted Weems Orchestra and “ Heartaches ” = = =
Tanner joined the Ted Weems band as a singer in 1929 and became a prominent feature of the group . Tanner 's whistling talent was unveiled by accident . In high spirits on their way to their next performance , the band members were singing , yelling and whistling on the bus . When Tanner joined in , Weems was impressed enough to add a whistling segment to one of the band 's sets . Tanner whistled the Show Boat song , " Make Believe " ; the audience asked for an encore . Tanner 's whistling became so popular that Perry Como , another featured performer in the band , said “ The whistler was the whole band . ” On occasion , Tanner ’ s lips would pucker up , interfering with his whistling . Although generally noted for his graciousness as a bandleader , Weems would have fun at Tanner ’ s expense , running him through the most difficult songs in his repertoire when he noticed Tanner was struggling . Tanner became known as " Whistler ’ s Mother ’ s Boy " , " The Whistling Troubador , " and " the nation ’ s best @-@ known whistler " . Tanner was noted for the ease with which he hit high notes and performed trills . He had the ability to whistle while triple @-@ tonguing , and like Bing Crosby , he was able to whistle from his throat due to the muscles in his larynx . His range was from low G to high B ♭ . Professional whistler Joel Brandon has named Tanner as a " top pick " . Ted Weems considered Tanner 's whistling so important to his band , he insured the musician 's throat with Lloyd 's of London for $ 10 @,@ 000 in 1939 . The policy provided payment for any medical expenses related to Tanner 's possible inability to whistle and included payment to the holder if Tanner was unable to perform .
In an era when whistling was commonly featured on popular recordings , Tanner was often confused with Fred Lowery , who was blind and worked with Horace Heidt and his Musical Knights . People would come up to Tanner and ask if it was true that he was blind . “ Only on Saturday night , ” he would reply . When not singing or whistling , Elmo played guitar in the band . The primary purpose was evidently to show Tanner was " doing something " while keeping him in view , as it became a standard joke that the guitar he was playing had rubber bands in place of strings .
Tanner began appearing in films as part of the Ted Weems Orchestra in 1936 ; his first film role was in The Hatfields and McCoys , In 1938 he appeared in the movie Swing , Sister , Swing with the Weems outfit . Tanner also featured with Ted Weems and his Orchestra in a 1942 musical film short , Swing Frolic . During this time period Tanner appeared on the popular radio show Beat the Band with Weems ; the program ran from January 28 , 1940 until February 23 , 1941 .
Tanner , Ted Weems , and the rest of his orchestra joined the Merchant Marine in 1942 . At ( and intermittently before ) his discharge in 1944 he pursued a solo career . He headlined in various nightclubs and theaters such as Chicago ’ s Oriental and Colosimo ’ s and at the Orpheum in Los Angeles alongside the King Sisters and Maurice Rocco . Besides musical whistling , he also imitated birds for Disney . He continued to perform songs that were associated with Weems , such as “ Nola ” . Tanner announced he would be fronting a twelve @-@ piece band in September 1946 ; the band 's theme was " Heartaches " . He took over the Andy Anderson unit that was based in Atlanta and signed on with the William Morris Agency . His orchestra featured his whistling and vocals by Carol Bridges . However , this proved to be short @-@ lived because of the surprise success of an old recording .
= = = = The delayed success of " Heartaches " = = = =
“ Heartaches ” , composed by Al Hoffman and John Klenner in 1931 , was recorded as an unusual half @-@ rumba , half washboard rhythm . In 1933 , Victor had assigned the recording of the song to Ted Weems and his Orchestra , and wanted it recorded quickly . Weems and his band had time for only one rehearsal before recording the song . Initially , Weems did not like the song ; he decided to omit the lyrics by way of having Tanner whistle instead . While running through the song at rehearsal , someone thought of trying it with a speedier tempo than initially written . It was not a large seller , and the master was filed away . In 1938 , Weems was now working with Decca Records and was preparing to make another record . When someone had forgotten to assign a song for the " B " side of the record , Weems and Tanner made another recording of " Heartaches " ; the Decca version was not any more successful than the Victor one had been five years earlier .
In 1947 , a young disk jockey in Charlotte , North Carolina who worked the overnight shift had recently received some older records which he brought to work with him . He chose one at random and put it on the turntable . Shortly after the record had finished , the radio station 's telephones began ringing with people asking about the song and requesting to hear it again . By afternoon , the city 's music stores were calling the radio station , hoping to learn where they could order copies of " Heartaches " . Both Victor and Decca went into their vaults to find their masters of the record and began pressing them for southern United States sales . As disk jockeys in other parts of the US began obtaining copies of the record and playing it , the demand for " Heartaches " went from coast to coast . This older recording went to the top of all the main charts in 1947 , including sales , juke box play , and airplay .
Unusually , two separate recordings were given equal credit in the charts . Victor ’ s version was recorded on August 4 , 1933 and issued on Bluebird B5131 . Decca ’ s recording was made on August 23 , 1938 and originally appeared on catalog number 2020B . The hit records were credited to RCA Victor 20 @-@ 2175 and Decca 25017 , respectively . Altogether the recordings were credited with selling 8 @.@ 5 million copies . Tanner said in a 1960 interview that neither he nor Ted Weems received any compensation for the " Heartaches " re @-@ issue as they both had let the contracts on the song expire while they were in the Merchant Marine . Tanner and Weems missed collecting an estimated $ 250 @,@ 000 in royalties because of the expired contracts .
Because of the renewed success of “ Heartaches ” , Tanner joined the re @-@ formed Weems outfit in March 1947 , and both were signed to Mercury Records . This later outfit often received poor reviews , with the exception of Elmo ’ s “ outstanding ” whistling ; it was Tanner ’ s whistling that audiences most responded to . Tanner made one more recording of " Heartaches " in 1953 with Billy Vaughn for Dot Records .
= = = Later life = = =
Tanner left Weems in 1950 to open a restaurant in Nashville . This occupied him for a year and a half , but it proved to be a failure and Tanner suffered financially . He formed the Elmo Tanner Quartet and resumed touring for the next few years , until , tired of travel , he broke up his group in Seattle in 1958 . He spent the next fourteen months in Birmingham as a disk jockey and leading a musical combo . He reunited briefly with Weems , then settled in the St. Petersburg , Florida area in Treasure Island . In 1959 , Tanner began working as a disc jockey on radio station WILZ in St. Pete Beach , Florida , a position which lasted several years . During this time he continued to make recordings with orchestras such as David Carroll and Billy Vaughn to continued positive reviews . His association continued with Weems , making the occasional guest appearance with the band he was closely connected to . In the early 1960s , Tanner was also selling Datsuns at a local St. Petersburg auto dealership . In the early 1970s he resumed musical activity , singing with a St. Petersburg @-@ based quartet .
= = Personal life and death = =
In 1936 , while Tanner was living in Chicago , he was divorced from his first wife , Verne . Tanner married Eleanor Jones of Birmingham on January 31 , 1939 in Indianapolis . While playing an engagement with Weems , Tanner got his marriage license between the first and second acts on the bill , bought a wedding ring between the second and third acts and was married between the third and fourth acts . He met his second wife while working with the Weems band on Catalina Island . They had four children together : Elmo Jr . , twins Margaret and Patricia , and John Emmet . By 1969 he was retired . Tanner underwent gall bladder surgery in 1985 and was able to recover at his home in St. Petersburg . He died on December 20 , 1990 in St. Petersburg , Florida . Tanner is buried in Mount Olivet Cemetery , Nashville , Tennessee . He was posthumously inducted into the Whistlers ' Hall of Fame in 1991 , joining previous inductees Bing Crosby and Fred Lowery .
= = Discography = =
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= Poole =
Poole / puːl / is a large coastal town and seaport in the county of Dorset , on the south coast of England . The town is 33 kilometres ( 21 mi ) east of Dorchester , and adjoins Bournemouth to the east . The local council is Borough of Poole and was made a unitary authority in 1997 , gaining administrative independence from Dorset County Council . The borough had a population of 147 @,@ 645 at the 2011 census , making it the second largest in Dorset . Together with Bournemouth and Christchurch , the town forms the South East Dorset conurbation with a total population of over 465 @,@ 000 .
Human settlement in the area dates back to before the Iron Age . The earliest recorded use of the town 's name was in the 12th century when the town began to emerge as an important port , prospering with the introduction of the wool trade . In later centuries , the town had important trade links with North America and at its peak in the 18th century it was one of the busiest ports in Britain . In the Second World War , the town was one of the main departing points for the Normandy landings .
Poole is a tourist resort , attracting visitors with its large natural harbour , history , the Lighthouse arts centre and Blue Flag beaches . The town has a busy commercial port with cross @-@ Channel freight and passenger ferry services . The headquarters of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution ( RNLI ) are in Poole , and the Royal Marines have a base in the town 's harbour . Despite their names , Poole is the home of The Arts University Bournemouth , the Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra and a significant part of Bournemouth University .
= = History = =
The town 's name derives from a corruption of the Celtic word bol and the Old English word pool meaning a place near a pool or creek . Variants include Pool , Pole , Poles , Poll , Polle , Polman , and Poolman . The area around modern Poole has been inhabited for the past 2 @,@ 500 years . During the 3rd century BC , Celts known as the Durotriges moved from hilltop settlements at Maiden Castle and Badbury Rings to heathland around the River Frome and Poole Harbour . The Romans landed at Poole during their conquest of Britain in the 1st century and took over an Iron Age settlement at Hamworthy , an area just west of the modern town centre . In Anglo @-@ Saxon times , Poole was included in the Kingdom of Wessex . The settlement was used as a base for fishing and the harbour a place for ships to anchor on their way to the River Frome and the important Anglo @-@ Saxon town of Wareham . Poole experienced two large @-@ scale Viking invasions during this era : in 876 , Guthrum sailed his fleet through the harbour to attack Wareham , and in 1015 , Canute began his conquest of England in Poole Harbour , using it as a base to raid and pillage Wessex .
Following the Norman conquest of England , Poole rapidly grew into a busy port as the importance of Wareham declined . The town was part of the manor of Canford , but does not exist as an identifiable entry in the Domesday Book . The earliest written mention of Poole occurred on a document from 1196 describing the newly built St James 's Chapel in " La Pole " . The Lord of the Manor , Sir William Longspée , sold a charter of liberties to the burgesses of Poole in 1248 to raise funds for his participation in the Seventh Crusade . Consequently , Poole gained a small measure of freedom from feudal rule and acquired the right to appoint a mayor and hold a court within town . Poole 's growing importance was recognised in 1433 when it was awarded staple port status by King Henry VI , enabling the port to begin exporting wool and in turn granting a licence for the construction of a town wall . In 1568 , Poole gained further autonomy when it was granted legal independence from Dorset and made a county corporate by the Great Charter of Elizabeth I. During the English Civil War , Poole 's puritan stance and its merchants ' opposition to the ship money tax introduced by King Charles I led to the town declaring for Parliament . Poole escaped any large @-@ scale attack and with the Royalists on the brink of defeat in 1646 , the Parliamentary garrison from Poole laid siege to and captured the nearby Royalist stronghold at Corfe Castle .
Poole established successful commerce with the North American colonies in the 16th century , including the important fisheries of Newfoundland . The trade with Newfoundland grew steadily to meet the demand for fish from the Catholic countries of Europe . Poole 's share of this trade varied but the most prosperous period started in the early 18th century and lasted until the early 19th century . The trade was a three @-@ cornered route ; ships sailed to Newfoundland with salt and provisions , then carried dried and salted fish to Europe before returning to Poole with wine , olive oil , and salt . By the early 18th century Poole had more ships trading with North America than any other English port and vast wealth was brought to Poole 's merchants . This prosperity supported much of the development which now characterises the Old Town where many of the medieval buildings were replaced with Georgian mansions and terraced housing . The end of the Napoleonic Wars and the conclusion of the War of 1812 ended Britain 's monopoly over the Newfoundland fisheries and other nations took over services provided by Poole 's merchants at a lower cost . Poole 's Newfoundland trade rapidly declined and within a decade most merchants had ceased trading .
The town grew rapidly during the industrial revolution as urbanisation took place and the town became an area of mercantile prosperity and overcrowded poverty . At the turn of the 19th century , nine out of ten workers were engaged in harbour activities , but as the century progressed ships became too large for the shallow harbour and the port lost business to the deep water ports at Liverpool , Southampton and Plymouth . Poole 's first railway station opened in Hamworthy in 1847 and later extended to the centre of Poole in 1872 , effectively ending the port 's busy coastal shipping trade . The beaches and landscape of southern Dorset and south @-@ west Hampshire began to attract tourists during the 19th century and the villages to the east of Poole began to grow and merge until the seaside resort of Bournemouth emerged . Although Poole did not become a resort like many of its neighbours , it continued to prosper as the rapid expansion of Bournemouth created a large demand for goods manufactured in Poole .
During World War II , Poole was the third largest embarkation point for D @-@ Day landings of Operation Overlord and afterwards served as a base for supplies to the allied forces in Europe . Eighty @-@ one landing craft containing American troops from the 29th Infantry Division and the US Army Rangers departed Poole Harbour for Omaha Beach . Poole was also an important centre for the development of Combined Operations and the base for a US Coast Guard rescue flotilla of 60 cutters . Much of the town suffered from German bombing during the war and years of neglect in the post @-@ war economic decline . Major redevelopment projects began in the 1950s and 1960s and large areas of slum properties were demolished and replaced with modern public housing and facilities . Many of Poole 's historic buildings were demolished during this period , particularly in the Old Town area of Poole . Consequently , a 6 @-@ hectare ( 15 @-@ acre ) Conservation Area was created in the town centre in 1975 to preserve Poole 's most notable buildings .
= = Governance = =
= = = Council = = =
On 1 April 1997 , the town was made a unitary authority following a review by the Local Government Commission for England , and became once again administratively independent from Dorset . The borough reverted to its previous title of the Borough and County of the Town of Poole , which recalled its status as a county corporate before the implementation of the Local Government Act 1888 . For local elections , 42 councillors are elected across 16 wards and elections take place every four years . The last election took place in May 2015 , giving a Council made up of 32 Conservative , 6 Liberal Democrat , 3 Poole People and 1 UKIP councillors . Poole 's Mayor is Peter Adams ( Conservative ) .
= = = Parliamentary representation = = =
Poole is represented by three parliamentary constituencies in the House of Commons ; Poole , Mid Dorset and North Poole , and Bournemouth West , Alderney and Branksome East . The borough constituency of Poole has existed since 1950 . Previously the town had been a parliamentary borough , electing two members of parliament from 1455 until 1865 when representation was reduced to one member . In 1885 the constituency was abolished altogether and absorbed into the East Dorset constituency until its reintroduction in 1950 . Robert Syms ( Conservative ) has been the Member of Parliament since 1997 . At the 2010 general election , the Conservatives won a majority of 7 @,@ 541 and 47 @.@ 5 % of the vote . The Liberal Democrats won 31 @.@ 6 % of the vote , Labour 12 @.@ 7 % , the UK Independence Party 5 @.@ 3 % and the British National Party 2 @.@ 5 % . The county constituency of Mid Dorset and North Poole was created in 1997 and includes the north east of Poole , Wimborne Minster , Wareham and extends into rural Dorset . Annette Brooke ( Liberal Democrat ) has been the Member of Parliament since 2001 . At the 2010 general election , the Liberal Democrats won with a majority of 269 and 45 @.@ 1 % of the vote in Mid Dorset and North Poole . The Conservatives won 44 @.@ 5 % of the vote , Labour 5 @.@ 9 % and the UK Independence Party 4 @.@ 15 % . Poole is included in the South West England constituency for elections to the European Parliament .
= = = Coat of arms = = =
The design of the coat of arms originated in a seal from the late 14th century and were recorded by Clarenceux King of Arms during the heraldic visitation of Dorset in 1563 . The wavy bars of black and gold represent the sea and the dolphin is sign of Poole 's maritime interests . The scallop shells are the emblem of Saint James and are associated with his shrine at Santiago de Compostela – a popular destination for Christian pilgrims departing from Poole Harbour in the Middle Ages .
The arms were confirmed by the College of Arms on 19 June 1948 , and at the same time the crest ( a mermaid supporting an anchor and holding a cannonball ) was granted . Following local government reorganisation in 1974 , the 1948 arms were transferred to Poole Borough Council . In 1976 , the council received the grant of supporters for the coat of arms . The supporters refer to important charters given to the town ; to the left is a gold lion holding a long sword representing William Longespee who in 1248 granted the town 's first charter ; on the right is a dragon derived from the Royal Arms of Elizabeth I who granted Poole county corporate status in 1568 . The Latin motto – Ad Morem Villae De Poole , means : According to the Custom of the Town of Poole , and derives from the Great Charter of 1568 .
= = Geography = =
Poole is located on the shore of the English Channel and lies on the northern and eastern edges of Poole Harbour , 179 kilometres ( 111 mi ) west @-@ southwest of London , at 50 @.@ 72 ° N 1 @.@ 98 ° W / 50 @.@ 72 ; -1.98 . The oldest part of the town ( including the historic Old Town , Poole Quay and the Dolphin Shopping Centre ) lies to the south @-@ east of Holes Bay on a peninsula jutting into the harbour , although much of the land to the east of the peninsula has been reclaimed from the harbour since the mid 20th century . To the west is Upton and Corfe Mullen and across the northern border at the River Stour lies Wimborne Minster . At the eastern edge of Poole , the town abuts Bournemouth and the settlements of Kinson , Winton and Westbourne . To the south of Poole along the coast lies Poole Bay , featuring 4 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 0 mi ) of sandy beaches from Sandbanks in the west to Bournemouth in the east .
Urban areas and districts of the townPoole is made up of numerous suburbs and neighbourhoods , many of which developed from villages or hamlets that were absorbed into Poole as the town grew.Alderney – Bearwood – Branksome – Branksome Park – Broadstone – Canford Cliffs – Canford Heath – Creekmoor – Fleetsbridge – Hamworthy – Lilliput – Longfleet – Merley – Newtown – Oakdale – Parkstone – Penn Hill – Sandbanks – Sterte – Talbot Village – Wallisdown – Waterloo – Whitecliff
The natural environment of Poole is characterised by lowland heathland to the north and wooded chines and coastline to the south . The heathland habitat supports the six native British reptile species and provides a home for a range of dragonflies and rare birds . Development has destroyed much of the heath but scattered fragments remain to the north of Poole and have been designated Special Protection Areas . The town lies on unresistant beds of Eocene clays ( mainly London Clay and Gault Clay ) , sands and gravels . The River Frome runs through this weak rock , and its many tributaries have carved out a wide estuary . At the mouth of the estuary sand spits have been deposited , enclosing the estuary to create Poole Harbour .
The harbour is the largest natural harbour in Europe and the claimant of the title of second largest natural harbour in the world after Sydney Harbour . It is an area of international importance for nature conservation and is noted for its ecology , supporting salt marshes , mudflats and an internationally important habitat for several species of migrating bird . It has been designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) , a Special Protection Area and a Ramsar site as well as falling within an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty . The harbour covers an area of 38 square kilometres ( 15 sq mi ) and is extremely shallow : although the main shipping channels are 7 @.@ 5 metres ( 25 ft ) deep the average depth of the harbour is 48 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 57 ft ) . It contains several small islands , the largest is Brownsea Island , a nature reserve owned by the National Trust and the birthplace of the Scouting movement and location of the first Scout Camp . Britain 's largest onshore oil field operates from Wytch Farm on the south shore of the harbour . The oil reservoirs extend under the harbour and eastwards from Sandbanks and Studland for 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) under the sea to the south of Bournemouth .
Situated directly to the east of the Jurassic Coast , Poole is a gateway town to the UNESCO World Heritage Site , which includes 153 kilometres ( 95 mi ) of the Dorset and east Devon coast important for its geology , landforms and rich fossil record . The South West Coast Path stretches for 1 @,@ 014 kilometres ( 630 mi ) from Minehead in Somerset , along the coast of Devon and Cornwall and on to Poole . The path is the England 's longest national trail at 1 @,@ 014 kilometres ( 630 mi ) .
= = = Climate = = =
Due to its location on the south coast of England , Poole has a temperate climate with a small variation in daily and annual temperatures . The average annual mean temperature from 1971 to 2000 was 10 @.@ 2 to 12 ° C ( 50 @.@ 4 to 53 @.@ 6 ° F ) . The warmest months in Poole are July and August , which have an average temperature range of 12 to 22 ° C ( 54 to 72 ° F ) , and the coolest months are January and February , which have a range of 2 to 8 @.@ 3 ° C ( 35 @.@ 6 to 46 @.@ 9 ° F ) . Mean sea surface temperatures range from 6 @.@ 9 ° C ( 44 @.@ 4 ° F ) in February to 18 @.@ 5 ° C ( 65 @.@ 3 ° F ) in August . The average annual rainfall of 592 @.@ 6 millimetres ( 23 @.@ 33 in ) is well below the UK average of 1 @,@ 126 millimetres ( 44 @.@ 3 in ) .
= = Demography = =
Poole merges with several other towns to form the South East Dorset conurbation which has a combined population of over 465 @,@ 000 , forming one of the South Coast 's major urban areas . In the 2011 census the population of the borough of Poole was 147 @,@ 645 , an increase from 138 @,@ 288 in 2001 . The town has a built @-@ up area of 65 square kilometres ( 25 sq mi ) , giving an approximate population density of 2 @,@ 128 residents per square kilometre ( 5 @,@ 532 per sq mi ) in 60 @,@ 512 dwellings . The population has grown steadily since the 1960s , inward migration has accounted for most of the town 's growth and a significant part of this has been for retirement . Housing stock has increased by over 100 % in the past 40 years from 30 @,@ 000 in 1961 to approximately 62 @,@ 700 in 2004 . Compared to the rest of England and Wales , Poole has an above average number of residents aged 65 + ( 20 @.@ 3 % ) , but this is less than the Dorset average of 22 @.@ 2 % . The largest proportion of the population ( 24 @.@ 8 % ) is between the ages of 45 to 64 , slightly above the national average of 23 @.@ 8 % . Population projections have predicted a continual growth ; a population of 151 @,@ 481 is estimated by 2016 .
The district is overwhelmingly populated by people of a white ethnic background , 95 @.@ 98 % of residents are of White British ethnicity , well above the rest of England at 86 @.@ 99 % . Minority ethnic groups ( including those in white ethnic groups who did not classify themselves as British ) represent 4 @.@ 0 % of Poole 's population . The largest religion in Poole is Christianity , at almost 74 @.@ 34 % , slightly above the United Kingdom average of 71 @.@ 6 % . The next @-@ largest sector is those with no religion , at almost 16 @.@ 23 % , also above the UK average of 15 @.@ 5 % .
The average house price in Poole is high compared to the rest of the UK and the surrounding south west region . The average price of a property in Poole in 2008 was £ 274 @,@ 011 ; detached houses were on average £ 374 @,@ 150 , semi @-@ detached and terraced houses were cheaper at £ 226 @,@ 465 and £ 217 @,@ 128 respectively . An apartment or flat costs on average £ 216 @,@ 097 , more than any other part of Dorset . The average house prices in Poole are boosted by those in Sandbanks which had the fourth most expensive house prices in the world in 2000 ; in 2007 the average house price was £ 488 @,@ 761 . A study in 2006 by the National Housing Federation reported that Poole was the most unaffordable town in which to live in the UK .
= = Economy = =
Poole 's economy is more balanced than the rest of Dorset . In the 1960s prosperity was fuelled by growth in the manufacturing sector , whereas the 1980s and 1990s saw expansion in the service sector as office based employers relocated to the area . The importance of manufacturing has declined since the 1960s but still employed approximately 17 % of the workforce in 2002 and remains more prominent than in the economy of Great Britain as a whole . Sunseeker , the world 's largest privately owned builder of motor yachts and the UK 's largest manufacturer , is based in Poole and employs over 1 @,@ 800 people in its Poole shipyards . It was estimated in 2004 that Sunseeker generates £ 160 million for the local economy . Other major employers in the local manufacturing industry include Faerch Plast , Hamworthy Heating , Hamworthy Combustion , Lush , Mathmos , Penske Cars Ltd ( who build racing cars for Penske Racing ) , Kerry Foods , Transmission Developments , Precision Disc Casting , Siemens , Southernprint and Ryvita . Poole has the largest number of industrial estates in South East Dorset , including the Nuffield Industrial estate , Mannings Heath , Arena Business Park , Poole Trade Park and the Branksome Business Centre .
The service sector is the principal economy of Poole ; a large number of employees work for the service economy of local residents or for the tourist economy . During the 1970s , Poole 's less restrictive regional planning policies attracted businesses wishing to relocate from London . These included employers in the banking and financial sector , such as Barclays Bank ( who operate a regional headquarters in Poole ) , American Express Bank and the corporate trust division of Bank of New York Mellon . Other important service sector employers include the national headquarters and college of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution ( RNLI ) , the UK headquarters of Fitness First , Bournemouth University and Arts University Bournemouth . Poole is also the headquarters for clothing company Animal , cosmetics manufacturer , Lush , and Merlin Entertainments , the world 's second @-@ largest theme park operator after Disney . The Dolphin Shopping Centre is Poole 's main retail area , and the largest indoor shopping centre in Dorset . It opened in 1969 as an Arndale Centre , and underwent three major refurbishments in 1980 , 1989 and 2004 . The centre provides 47 @,@ 000 square metres ( 510 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of retail space with 110 stores and two multi @-@ storey car parks with 1 @,@ 400 parking spaces . A pedestrianised high street containing shops , bars , public houses and restaurants connects the Dolphin Centre with the historic Old Town area and Poole Quay . Tourism is important to the Poole 's economy and was worth an estimated £ 158 million in 2002 . Poole 's Harbour , Quay , Poole Pottery and the beaches are some of the main attractions for visitors . Visitor accommodation consists of hotels , guest houses and bed and breakfast rooms located around the town , particularly in Sandbanks and the town centre . Rockley Park , a large caravan site in Hamworthy , is owned and operated by Haven and British Holidays .
Since the 1970s , Poole has become one of Britain 's busiest ports . Investment in new port facilities in Hamworthy , and the deepening of shipping channels allowed considerable growth in cross @-@ channel freight and passenger traffic . The port is a destination for bulk cargo imports such as steel , timber , bricks , fertiliser , grain , aggregates and palletised traffic . Export cargoes include clay , sand , fragmented steel and grain . Commercial ferry operators run regular passenger and freight services from Poole to Cherbourg , St Malo and the Channel Islands . The Royal Marines operate out of the harbour at RM Poole , established in Hamworthy in 1954 . The base is home to 1 Assault Group Royal Marines ( responsible for landing craft and small boat training ) , a detachment of the Royal Marines Reserve and special forces unit the Special Boat Service . In 2008 , 105 fishing boats were registered and licensed to the port and held a permit issued by the Southern Sea Fisheries District Committee ( SSFDC ) to fish commercially . It is the largest port in terms of licences in the SSFDC district which covers the coastline of Dorset , Hampshire and the Isle of Wight , and one of the largest registered fishing fleets in the UK . However , the fleet is gradually declining because of rising fuel costs and restrictive fishing quotas introduced by the European Union . A large number of unlicensed boats also operate charted or private angling excursions .
= = Landmarks = =
Poole Quay is a visitor attraction to the south of the town centre lined with a mixture of traditional public houses , new bars , redeveloped warehouses , modern apartment blocks and historic listed buildings . Once the busy centre of Poole 's maritime industry , all port activities moved to Hamworthy in the 1970s as the Quay became increasingly popular with tourists . The Grade II * listed Customs House on the quay @-@ front was built in 1814 and now functions as a restaurant and bar . Nearby the Grade I listed Town Cellars , a medieval warehouse built in the 15th century on the foundations of a 14th @-@ century stone building , houses a local history centre . Scaplen 's Court , another Grade I listed building , also dates from the medieval era . The Poole Pottery production factory once stood on the eastern end of the Quay but the site was redeveloped into a luxury apartment block and marina in 2001 , although an outlet store remains on the site . Boats regularly depart from the quay during the summer and provide cruises around the harbour and to Brownsea Island , the River Frome and Swanage . Public artworks along the Quay include Sea Music – a large metal sculpture designed by Sir Anthony Caro , and a life @-@ size bronze sculpture of Robert Baden @-@ Powell created to celebrate the founding of the Scout Movement on Brownsea Island . At the western end of the quay near the mouth of Holes Bay is Poole Bridge . Built in 1927 , it is the third bridge to be located on the site since 1834 .
Poole 's Guildhall has played a varied part in the history of the town . A Grade II * listed building , the Guildhall was built in 1761 at a cost of £ 2 @,@ 250 . The new building included an open market house on the ground floor and a courtroom and offices for the town council on the first floor and has also been used as a Court of Record , Magistrates ' Court , Court of Admiralty and a venue for Quarter Sessions . Between 1819 and 1821 the building was consecrated as a Parish Church while the old St. James Church was pulled down and replaced with the present church . During the Second World War the building was used as a canteen and meeting room for American soldiers prior to the invasion of France . The showers and washing facilities installed at this time were later converted into public baths which were used until the 1960s . The building was converted for use as the town museum between 1971 and 1991 but stood empty for the next 16 years . After a renovation project funded by Poole Borough Council , the restored Guildhall opened in June 2007 as a Register Office for weddings , civil partnerships and other civic ceremonies .
Poole has several urban parks – the largest is Poole Park adjacent to Poole Harbour and the town centre . It opened in 1890 and is one of two Victorian parks in Poole . Designated a Conservation Area in 1995 and awarded a Green Flag in 2008 , the park comprises 44 @.@ 3 hectares ( 109 acres ) of which 24 hectares ( 59 acres ) include the park 's man @-@ made lake and ponds . The park contains two children 's play areas , a miniature railway , tennis courts , a bowling green , a miniature golf course , an Italian restaurant and an indoor ice rink for children . A cricket field and pavilion at the eastern end are home to Poole Town Cricket Club and water sport activities such as sailing , windsurfing , kayaking and rowing take place on the large lake . A war memorial stands in the centre of the park as a monument to Poole citizens killed during the First and Second World Wars . The park hosts several road races such as the Race for Life and the annual Poole Festival of Running .
Poole 's sandy beaches are a popular tourist destination extending 4 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 0 mi ) along Poole Bay from the Sandbanks peninsular to Branksome Dene Chine at the border with Bournemouth . The beaches are divided into four areas : Sandbanks , Shore Road , Canford Cliffs Chine and Branksome Chine . Poole 's beaches have been awarded the European Blue Flag for cleanliness and safety 21 times since 1987 , more than any other British seaside resort and in 2000 the Tidy Britain Group resort survey rated Poole 's beaches among the top five in the country . Along the seafront there are seaside cafés , restaurants , beach huts and numerous water @-@ sports facilities . Royal National Lifeboat Institution Beach Rescue lifeguards patrol the coastline in the busy summer season between May and September .
= = Religious sites = =
Poole falls within the Church of England Diocese of Salisbury and the Roman Catholic Diocese of Plymouth . Poole has many sites of Christian worship including five Grade II * and five Grade II listed churches , but no notable sites of worship for any other major religious groups . The Grade II * St James ' Church is a simplified Gothic Revival style Church of England parish church in the Old Town which was rebuilt in 1820 . The previous church on the site was first mentioned in documents from 1142 and had been extensively rebuilt in the 16th century , but in 1819 it was deemed structurally unsafe by a surveyors report . The United Reformed Church hall , also in the town centre , is a Grade II * building built in 1777 . The other Grade II * churches are : St. Peter 's Parish Church in Parkstone which was first built in 1833 and replaced in 1876 ; St Dunstan of Canterbury Orthodox Church , also in Parkstone , an Antiochian Orthodox church , formerly the Anglican Church of St Osmund , in a Neo @-@ Byzantine style building ; and the Parish Church of St. Aldhelm in Branksome , built by the architects Bodley and Garner in 1892 in the Gothic Revival style . Described by English Heritage as " one of Poole 's most important landmarks " , the Gothic Revival church of St Mary 's in Longfleet , built in 1833 , is one of Poole 's Grade II listed churches .
= = Sport and recreation = =
Poole Harbour and Poole Bay are popular areas for a number of recreational pursuits , including sailing , windsurfing , surfing , kitesurfing and water skiing . The harbour 's large areas of sheltered waters attract windsurfers , particularly around the northern and eastern shores . Water skiing takes place in the harbour in a special designated area known as the Wareham Channel . The waters around the harbour , Poole Bay and Studland Bay are also popular for recreational angling and diving .
Poole 's wide and sandy beaches are used for swimming , sunbathing , water sports and sailing . The beaches at Sandbanks are often used for sporting events such as the Sandbanks Beach Volleyball Festival , and the annual British Beach polo Championship .
Since 1999 the town 's Rossmore Leisure Centre has hosted the GMPD Poole Gymnastics Competition every October with the Holiday Inn Express hosting some of the competitors as well as a Disco on the Saturday evening , hundreds of competitors from across the country compete each year , the competition celebrates its 14th Anniversary in 2013 .
Dorset Dolphins VI Cricket Club - Est 2013 - Visually Impaired Cricket Team - Representing Dorset - Steve Bailey - Captain / Coach
= = = Sailing = = =
Poole Harbour is one of the largest centres for sailing in the UK with yacht clubs including Lilliput Sailing Club , Parkstone Yacht Club and Poole Yacht Club . Parkstone Yacht Club hosted the OK Dinghy World Championships in 2004 , the J / 24 National Championships in 2006 and the J / 24 European Championships in 2007 , and are the organisers of Youth Week and Poole Week – two of the largest annual dinghy regattas of their type in the country .
= = = Football = = =
Poole 's oldest football team is Poole Town F.C. , a semi @-@ professional team who play in the Southern League Premier Division – the seventh tier of the English football league system . Established in 1880 , the team has had erratic success at their level ; they have never risen above non @-@ League levels but once reached the third round of the FA Cup . They played at Poole Stadium until 1994 and have since settled at Tatnam Farm , sharing the school playing field with Oakdale Junior School . Poole 's other football teams are Hamworthy United , who formed in 1970 and also play in the Wessex Premier League , and amateur team Poole Borough F.C. who play in the Dorset Premier League . Poole is one of the largest towns in England without a professional football team .
= = = Speedway = = =
Poole 's motorcycle speedway team , the Poole Pirates , were established and began racing at Poole Stadium in 1948 in the National League Division Three . The team now races in the top tier of league racing ( the Elite League ) which they won in 2008 , 2011 , 2013 , and 2014 . Poole Stadium is also a venue for greyhound racing ; race nights occur three days a week throughout the year .
= = = Scouting = = =
Poole has three of the oldest Scout Association groups in the world . 1st Parkstone Air Scout Group holds records dating back to February 1908 and 1st Hamworthy Scout Group has records dating back to October 1908 ; both groups were formed out of the original Boys Brigade units that had members take part in the original Scout Camp in 1907 . Broadstone Group has records dating back to December 1908 and was home to the first King 's / Queen 's Scout .
= = Culture = =
The ' Beating of the bounds ' is an ancient annual custom first carried out in 1612 , which revives the traditional checking of the sea boundaries awarded to Poole by the Cinque Port of Winchelsea in 1364 . The Admiral of the Port of Poole ( the mayor ) and other dignitaries , and members of the public sail from the mouth of the River Frome to Old Harry Rocks to confirm the Mayor 's authority over the water boundaries of the harbour and check for any encroachments . As there are no physical landmarks that can be beaten at sea , traditionally children from Poole were encouraged to remember the bounds of their town by taking part in the ' Pins and Points ' ceremony involving the beating of a boy and pricking of a girl 's hand with a needle . In modern times , the acts have been symbolically carried out .
Poole 's Summertime in the South is an annual programme providing various events on Poole Quay and Sandbanks from May until September . During June and July , live music , street entertainment and a large firework display take place on Poole Quay every Thursday evening . In August , the entertainment moves to the beaches at Sandbanks .
Poole 's Lighthouse is the largest arts centre complex in the United Kingdom outside London . Built in 1978 , the centre contains a cinema , concert hall , studio , theatre , image lab and media suite and galleries featuring exhibitions of contemporary photography and modern digital art . The venue underwent an £ 8 @.@ 5 million refurbishment in 2002 , paid for by the Arts Council England , the Borough of Poole and private donations . The centre 's concert hall has been the residence of the Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra 's main concert series since their former base at the Bournemouth Winter Gardens closed in 1985 . Situated in the centre of the Old Town , Poole Museum illustrates the story of the area and its people and the collections reflect the cultural , social and industrial history of Poole . Displays include the Poole Logboat and a detailed history of Poole from the Iron Age to the present day . The museum has a floor devoted to the history of Poole Pottery and some of the company 's products are on display . Entrance to the museum is free .
= = Transport = =
The A350 road is Poole town centre 's main artery , running north from Poole Bridge along Holes Bay and on to the A35 , and as a single carriageway to Bath and Bristol . To the east , the A337 road leads to Lymington and the New Forest . The A35 trunk road runs from Devon to Southampton and connects to the A31 on the outskirts of the town . The A31 , the major trunk road in central southern England , connects to the M27 motorway at Southampton . From here the M3 motorway leads to London , and fast access may also be gained via the A34 to the M4 north of Newbury . A second bridge is being built to connect Poole and Hamworthy as the existing bridge is unsuitable for the traffic flow . The £ 34 million Twin Sails bridge project was given approval by the Department for Transport in 2006 but construction was initially held up due to a stalemate between the council and the land owners and delays by the Department for Transport in approving a £ 14 million grant . After negotiations between the council and the land owners were settled in August 2009 and the government grant was provided in March 2010 , construction began in May 2010 with completion due by early 2012 . A road link to Studland and the Isle of Purbeck across the narrow entrance of Poole Harbour is provided by the Sandbanks Ferry .
Most local bus services are run by More Bus who are based at the town 's bus station and have served Poole since 1983 . More Bus operate networks across Poole , Bournemouth , Christchurch and Salisbury , in addition to operations on the Isle of Purbeck and the New Forest . Other services are run by Bournemouth @-@ based Yellow Buses and Damory Coaches . Poole is connected to towns and villages along the Jurassic Coast by the First in Hampshire & Dorset X53 service , which runs along a route of 142 kilometres ( 88 mi ) to Weymouth , Bridport , Lyme Regis , Seaton and Exeter . Poole is also a calling point for National Express Coaches , which have frequent departures to London Victoria Coach Station . There are also direct services to the Midlands , the North of England and to Heathrow and Gatwick airports .
Poole has four railway stations on the South Western Main Line from London Waterloo to Weymouth . From east to west these are Branksome near the border with Bournemouth , Parkstone , Poole railway station in the town centre and Hamworthy . Services are operated by South West Trains and consist of up to three trains an hour ( fast , semi @-@ fast and stopping services ) to and from London , and twice an hour to and from Weymouth . Plans for a £ 50 million redevelopment of Poole railway station have stalled since 2006 due to contractual issues between land owners Network Rail and developers the Kier Group .
Poole is a cross @-@ Channel port for passengers and freight . Ferry services from Poole Harbour to Cherbourg are provided by Brittany Ferries who operate one round trip per day using the Barfleur The Condor Ferries catamarans Condor Express and Condor Vitesse run seasonal services to Guernsey , Jersey and St. Malo , Brittany . LD Lines run a year round passenger and freight service to Santander , Spain and in January 2014 will launch a service to Gijón , Spain using the ferry Norman Asturias . Bournemouth International Airport in Hurn , on the periphery of Bournemouth , is the nearest airport to Poole – 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) from Poole town centre . Ryanair , easyJet , Thomson Airways and Palmair operate from the airport and provide scheduled services to destinations in the UK and Europe .
= = Education = =
Poole has sixteen first schooleight a few junior school , middle schools , seven combined schools , eight secondary and grammar schools , five special schools , two independent schools and one college of further education . Canford School is an independent boarding school administered by Poole local education authority . Poole 's two grammar schools maintain a selective education system , assessed by the Twelve plus exam . Poole High School is the largest secondary school in Poole with 1 @,@ 660 pupils . The Bournemouth and Poole College attracts over 16 @,@ 000 students a year and is one of the largest further education colleges in the country and the leading provider of academic and vocational education in Dorset . It has two centrally located main campuses in Poole and Bournemouth . In 2008 , the college announced plans to refurbish and redevelop its campuses at an estimated cost of £ 120 million . However , the project stalled in 2009 when the Learning and Skills Council , which had promised to provide 80 % of the money , ran out of funds .
From the 2007 General Certificate of Secondary Education ( GCSE ) results , Poole was ranked 18th out of 148 local authorities in England based on the percentage of pupils attaining at least five A * to C grades at GCSE level including maths and English ( 54 @.@ 5 % compared with the national average of 46 @.@ 8 % ) . Parkstone Grammar School was the most successful secondary school in Poole for GCSE results in 2007 : 100 % of pupils gained five or more GCSEs at A * to C grade including maths and English . Canford School also achieved 100 % and Poole Grammar School was the next best performing school with 98 % . Poole High School achieved 39 % and the worst performing school was Rossmore Community College where only 19 % of students achieved five or more A * to C grade results . Poole 's grammar schools were also the best performing for A @-@ level results . Poole Grammar School was the 60th most successful school / sixth form in the country in 2007 : each student achieved on average 1071 @.@ 4 points compared to the national average of 731 @.@ 2 . Parkstone Grammar School students averaged 1017 @.@ 9 points .
Bournemouth University was designated as a university in 1992 and despite its name , the university 's main campus ( the Talbot Campus ) and buildings are within the boundaries of Poole Borough ; a smaller campus is situated in Bournemouth itself . Media courses are the university 's strength , and recent teaching quality assessments have resulted in ratings of ' excellent ' for courses in the areas of communication and media , business and management , catering and hospitality , archaeology and nursing and midwifery . The Arts University Bournemouth was designated as a university in 2012 and is located at Wallisdown . The AUB offers undergraduate , foundation degree , postgraduate and further education courses in contemporary arts , design and media .
= = Public services = =
Home Office policing in Poole is provided by the Poole and Bournemouth Division of Dorset Police which has two police stations in Poole : on Wimborne Road in the town centre , and on Gravel Hill in Canford Heath . Dorset Fire and Rescue Service provides statutory emergency fire and rescue services for Poole and are based at Poole Fire Station in Creekmoor which opened in 2008 . The former fire station on Wimborne Road was demolished in 2008 and was replaced with a new joint fire and police divisional headquarters which opened in 2009 .
Poole Hospital is a large NHS Foundation Trust hospital in Longfleet with 789 beds . It opened in 1969 as Poole General Hospital , replacing Poole 's Cornelia Hospital which had stood on the site since 1907 . The hospital is the major trauma center for East Dorset and provides core services such as child health and maternity for a catchment area including Bournemouth and Christchurch . Specialist services such as neurological care and cancer treatment are also provided for the rest of Dorset . The South Western Ambulance Service provides emergency patient transport .
Waste management and recycling are co @-@ ordinated by Poole Borough Council in partnership with Viridor Waste Management . Locally produced inert waste is sent to landfill for disposal . Recycle waste is taken to the recycling plant at the Allington Quarry Waste Management Facility in Kent for processing . Poole 's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is Scottish and Southern Energy . Drinking and waste water is managed by Wessex Water ; groundwater sources in Wiltshire and Dorset provide 80 % of drinking water , the rest comes from reservoirs fed by rivers and streams .
= = Media = =
Poole has two local newsbrands , the Daily Echo , which is owned by Newsquest . Published since 1900 , the newspaper and app features news from Poole , Bournemouth and the surrounding area . Issues appear Monday through Saturday with a daily circulation of 32 @,@ 441 . And the " Poole Post " , a community media hub supporting the work of ROC , and reporting Poole news , sport , business and entertainment . For local television , Poole is served by the BBC South studios based in Southampton , and by ITV Meridian from studios in Fareham . Radio stations broadcasting to the town include BBC Radio Solent , Wave 105 , Heart Dorset & New Forest ( formerly 2CR FM ) , Hopefm , Fire Radio and Hot Radio .
= = Notable people = =
The town has been the birthplace and home to notable people , of national and international acclaim . Former residents include British radio disc jockey Tony Blackburn , the artist Augustus John , John Lennon 's aunt and parental guardian Mimi Smith , and The Lord of the Rings author J. R. R. Tolkien who lived in Poole for four years during his retirement . Alfred Russel Wallace , the 19th century explorer , naturalist and co @-@ formulator of the theory of evolution by natural selection , moved to Poole in 1902 when he was 78 years old and is buried in Broadstone cemetery .
Notable people born in Poole include Greg Lake of the band Emerson , Lake & Palmer , the author John le Carré , the novelist Maggie Gee , stage actor Oswald Yorke , boxer Freddie Mills , the writer and actor David Croft , and James Stephen , the principal lawyer associated with the British abolitionist movement . Edgar Wright , the director of films such as Shaun of the Dead , Hot Fuzz and The World 's End was born in Poole and out of the five previous British winners of the Miss World title , two have hailed from Poole : Ann Sydney and Sarah @-@ Jane Hutt . Harry Redknapp , the former Tottenham Hotspur F.C. manager , and his son Jamie Redknapp , a former England national football team player , have owned homes in Sandbanks . Former Blue Peter presenter Katy Hill was also born in Poole .
= = Twin towns = =
Poole is twinned with :
Cherbourg in France ( since 1977 )
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= Commission to Assess the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States =
The Commission to Assess the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States , also called the Rumsfeld Commission , was an independent commission formed by the US Congress to evaluate the ballistic missile threat posed to the United States .
The group began work in January 1998 and issued their unanimous final report on July 15 , 1998 , within the six @-@ month mandate . The report warned of a growing threat of ballistic missiles and the inability for US intelligence to keep track of developments . This contrasted with the views of previous US intelligence estimates , which stated that the threat of ballistic missiles was still 10 to 20 years away . The commission further fueled the debate over a national missile defense system , and may have contributed to the coining of the phrase axis of evil .
= = Background = =
The argument for a national missile defense system in the United States was traditionally to protect the country from a Soviet missile attack . With the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 , proponents of a missile defense shield began instead to focus on the risk posed by rogue states developing ballistic missiles capable of eventually reaching the US .
This case was blunted by a 1995 National Intelligence Estimate ( NIE ) , which stated that no country besides the five major nuclear powers was capable of acquiring missiles that could reach Canada or the contiguous United States within the ensuing 15 years . Republican lawmakers intent on funding a defensive shield criticized the report and the Clinton administration for inaccurate assessments and distorted intelligence . Republican Congressman Curt Weldon of Pennsylvania walked out of a CIA briefing on the NIE , and later said that it was " the most outrageous politicisation of an intelligence document that I 've seen in the 10 years I 've been in Washington . "
From February to May 1996 , the House National Security Committee held hearings on the ballistic missile threat , and in a final report recommended that two reviews be created : one to investigate the NIE itself , and another to complete a new investigation of the ballistic missile threat . This process was also highly politicized , and the ranking Democrat on the committee , California Congressman Ronald Dellums , accused it of relying far too heavily on outside experts . Many of the witnesses called before the committee were in fact strong proponents of missile defense . The first review was conducted by former Director of Central Intelligence ( DCI ) and future Defense Secretary Robert Gates . He concluded that while there was evidence of faulty methodology in the NIE , there was no political bias in its conclusions . This conclusion again angered the missile defense supporters who had counted on this review to further their arguments .
= = Commission history = =
The second review was to be conducted by an outside commission , although it took lawmakers until 1997 to agree upon the commission 's membership . The commission eventually began to meet in mid @-@ January 1998 in the Old Executive Office Building and under the chairmanship of the once and future Secretary of Defense , Donald Rumsfeld . Although the commission was not formed to investigate the feasibility of a national missile defense shield , the reality that their conclusions would influence that debate led many in Washington to doubt that a unanimous conclusion was possible . Rumsfeld still wished to reach a consensus , and instituted a policy whereby any noted objection in the report needed to have the support of at least two commissioners .
The first weeks of deliberations and testimonies gleaned little new information on the threat being investigated , so in mid @-@ February , with their mandate supposedly giving them access to all necessary information from the executive branch , the commission complained in person to then DCI George Tenet . From that point on , the commission gained much greater access to the information and personnel of the US intelligence community .
The commission continued briefings until mid @-@ July 1998 . During that time they were frustrated by the compartmentalization of intelligence , the refusal of analysts to speculate or hypothesize on given information , and what they considered general inexperience in the intelligence personnel . The group did not limit their interviews to members of the government , but also spoke with employees of Boeing and Lockheed Martin , especially about how Scud missile designs could be used as the basis for a long @-@ range ballistic missile program .
= = Conclusions = =
There were two final reports of the commission : a 300 @-@ page classified report for Congress and a 27 @-@ page unclassified report . In the unclassified version , the group came to four unanimous conclusions :
The US is threatened by ballistic missiles tipped with biological or nuclear payloads from China , Russia , Iran , Iraq , and North Korea . Iran and North Korea could develop the capability to strike the US within five years of a decision to pursue ballistic missile technology ; Iraq would require ten years .
The US intelligence community has underestimated these growing threats .
The processes of the intelligence community to make estimates on this threat are causing an erosion of accurate assessments .
The US has a diminishing warning time before missile systems are operationally deployed , and may conceivably have no warning in the future .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Immediate = = =
The findings of the commission generated mixed reactions among lawmakers , intelligence officers , and experts . The intelligence community was privately angered by the harsh language the report used to describe their own assessments of the threat , although CIA Director George Tenet did not openly criticize it in public . Congressional proponents of a national missile shield , especially Republicans , used the findings to further push their case that such a shield was necessary . However , some experts in and out of government questioned the usefulness of the report , saying that it made general speculations without reaching any definite conclusions . Whereas the intelligence estimate focused on what was actually occurring , the commission focused on what might occur . This was labeled in one article " ' hypothesis @-@ based ' threat assessment " .
Many observers took a moderate tone in their reaction , acknowledging that funding should be provided for further national missile defense tests , but also saying that the US should not rush into developing technology that might prove ineffective and too costly .
Within months of the final report several events occurred which to some supporters reinforced the commission 's conclusions . In late July , Iran tested for the first time its new Shahab @-@ 3 missile , which traveled 620 miles ( 1 @,@ 000 km ) before exploding . Its basic design was modeled on the North Korean Rodong @-@ 1 . North Korea launched what it described as a three @-@ stage satellite launch on August 31 of that year , a surprise for US intelligence , which had expected a test of the two @-@ stage Taepodong @-@ 1 ( partially based on the Scud ) . While the third stage failed , it was nonetheless a major development in that introduced stage separation and solid fuel in North Korean rocketry .
= = = Bush Administration = = =
The commission reentered the public consciousness in 2000 when the former chairman of the commission , Donald Rumsfeld , was named by newly elected President George W. Bush to be Secretary of Defense , his second time in that office . On December 30 , 2000 , Richard Garwin , a former commissioner , praised Rumsfeld for his commission work in a New York Times op @-@ ed piece , although he reiterated that the commission never suggested whether or not the US should build a missile defense system . Other staffers and members of the commission were also appointed by the new Bush administration : Paul Wolfowitz was named Deputy Secretary of Defense , William Schneider , Jr. was appointed by Rumsfeld to the Defense Science Board , and in March 2003 Stephen Cambone was selected by Rumsfeld to fill the newly created Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence position . Robert Gates , the man who conducted the first review of the ballistic missile threat , was appointed Secretary of Defense after Rumsfeld 's November 2006 resignation .
The commission is thought by some foreign policy analysts to be the basis for President George W. Bush 's axis of evil line in his 2002 State of the Union Address , in which he accused Iraq , Iran , and North Korea of being state sponsors of terrorism and of pursuing weapons of mass destruction . The Rumsfeld Commission grouped the three countries together because they all were believed to be pursuing ballistic missile programs based on the Scud missile . In the pre @-@ 9 / 11 days of the Bush presidency , the administration had focused heavily on developing a national missile defense system to counter such threats . A month after the address , former Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich , who appointed Rumsfeld as head of the commission , mentioned the importance of the commission 's findings in relation to the US ability to predict the threat posed by the axis members .
= = Participants = =
The commission was chaired by former Secretary of Defense and Republican Donald Rumsfeld , and included the following members :
= = = Republicans = = =
William Graham
William Schneider , Jr .
General Larry Welch , US Air Force Ret .
Paul Wolfowitz
James Woolsey
= = = Democrats = = =
Barry Blechman
General Lee Butler , US Air Force Ret .
Richard Garwin
= = = Core Staff = = =
Stephen Cambone
Steven Maaranen
Eric Desautels
David Dunham
Jason Roback
Bernard Victory
Delonnie Henry
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= Covenant ( Millennium ) =
" ' Covenant " is the sixteenth episode of the first season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on March 21 , 1997 . The episode was written by Robert Moresco , and directed by Roderick J. Pridy . " Covenant " featured guest appearances by John Finn , Michael O 'Neill and Sarah Koskoff .
Millennium Group consultant Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) travels to Utah to construct a profile on a convicted murderer ( Finn ) who is asking for the death sentence . Reconstructing the crime , Black begins to doubt the man 's guilt .
Elements of " Covenant " were inspired by real @-@ life murderers Albert Fish , Susan Smith and Arthur Shawcross . The episode was viewed by approximately 6 @.@ 7 million households in its original broadcast . It has received positive reviews , with Moresco 's script praised for its subtlety .
= = Plot = =
Millennium Group member Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) travels to Provo , Utah to meet Calvin Smith ( Michael O 'Neill ) , the prosecutor in a local murder case ; and Didi Higgens ( Sarah Koskoff ) , a pathologist for the County Medical Examiner 's office . Smith and Higgens have been involved in the trial of former sheriff William Garry ( John Finn ) , who has been convicted of killing his three children and wife . Garry pleaded guilty to murders , and forensic evidence has linked him to a wood @-@ carving chisel used to commit the murders . Black has been asked to construct an offender profile for Garry , to determine whether the man is sufficiently dangerous to society for a judge to issue a death penalty . Garry himself is asking to be executed .
Black travels to Garry 's home with a deputy , Kevin Reilly ( Steve Bacic ) . Daubed in blood on the kitchen window are the numbers " 1 28 15 " , which Reilly notes no one has been able to understand . Black also listens to a recording of Garry 's confession , which details the murders meticulously . Black convinces Garry 's attorney to allow him an interview , insisting he will be entirely impartial . Garry tells Black he had planned the murders for some time , motivated by hatred for his wife and monetary concerns . Black refutes this , pointing out that Garry had carved a wooden angel as a gift for his wife that same day , using the chisel that was the murder weapon . Smith , realizing that Black does not believe Garry to be guilty , dismisses him from the case .
Black discovers that Garry had been having an affair , having previously believed that Mrs. Garry was the unfaithful one ; he also realizes that Garry was unaware that his wife was pregnant . Black has Higgens help him in getting the bodies exhumed , allowing the two to see that Mrs. Garry 's wounds were not defensive , but self @-@ inflicted . Black also determines that the message written in blood was in fact " I 28 15 " — Book of Isaiah , chapter 28 , verse 15 ; which is concerned with lies and falsehoods . Black pieces together the actual events of the night of the murders , realizing that Mrs. Garry killed her children before committing suicide ; before she died she blamed Garry for her actions , causing him to seek atonement by admitting to the crimes . Reilly admits to having helped Garry rearrange the crime scene to incriminate himself ; Black urges him to come forward with the real events to save his friend 's life .
= = Production = =
" Covenant " was written by Robert Moresco and directed by Roderick J. Pridy , and was the first contribution to the series by either of the two . Moresco would go on to write " Broken World " later in the first season , and also acted as a producer during the series ' run . Pridy would return to helm the second season episode " The Mikado " .
Guest star John Finn would go on to appear in Millennium 's sister show The X @-@ Files , playing the recurring character Michael Kritschgau in several episodes beginning with season four 's " Gethsemane " . Sarah Koskoff , who portrayed assistant pathologist Didi Higgens , also had a minor recurring role in The X @-@ Files , making several appearances as an alien abductee . " Covenant " featured the last appearance in the series by Don MacKay as the Black family 's neighbour Jack Meredith . MacKay had previously portrayed the character in " Pilot " , " Gehenna " and " Weeds " .
The premise of a repentant murderer seeking to atone for their actions appears to have been based on the real @-@ life case of Albert Fish , who practised severe self @-@ harm after killing twelve @-@ year @-@ old Grace Budd . Fish would insert needles into his perineum and force rose stems along his urethra to be forcibly pulled out . However , the actual murders may have been inspired by the case of Susan Smith , a mother of two who drowned her children by sinking her car in a lake . Mention is also made in the episode of Arthur Shawcross , whose recidivism is cited by Garry 's prosecutors as an example of why murder should warrant a death penalty . Shawcross was released from prison after serving a sentence for killing two children , only to kill eleven women while on parole .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Covenant " was first broadcast on the Fox Network on March 21 , 1997 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 6 @.@ 9 during its original broadcast , meaning that 6 @.@ 9 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented approximately 6 @.@ 7 million households , and left the episode the sixty @-@ third most @-@ viewed broadcast that week .
The episode received positive reviews from critics . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff rated the episode a B + , praising Moresco 's script for its subtlety . VanDerWerff noted the premise 's similarity to the Susan Smith case , and felt that the episode " actually gains strength from a certain distance from when it originally aired . Back then , it was just another ripped @-@ from @-@ the @-@ headlines tale of a murderous mother . Now , it ’ s a crafty mystery that doesn ’ t reveal its cards until late " . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 4 out of 5 , noting that the episode " broke clichés and trampled all over formulas " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " Covenant " four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , calling it " Millennium 's version of Twelve Angry Men " . Shearman praised Morseco 's writing , noting that the episode was " tightly plotted and boast [ ed ] extremely good dialogue " . Shearman felt that Koskoff 's acting showed a " naivety that isn 't as subtle as the script demands " , but overall felt that the episode was " fresh and exciting " .
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= Inon Zur =
Inon Zur ( Hebrew : ינון צור ; born July 4 , 1965 ) is an Israeli @-@ American music composer who has won several awards for his work . Originally writing for movies and television , he later moved into composing for video games . He has been described as being " internationally recognized as one of the A @-@ list orchestral composers in the video games industry " . During his career to date , Zur has composed the music to over 50 video games , 15 television shows , and 10 movies , as well as many movie trailers . He has been nominated for numerous awards , and has won three — a Telly Award in 1997 for Best Score on Power Rangers : Turbo , a Game Audio Network Guild award in 2004 for Best Original Instrumental track for Men of Valor , and a Hollywood Music in Media Award in 2009 for Best Original Song – Video Game for Dragon Age : Origins . He currently lives in Encino , California , in the United States , and is composing the scores for several unreleased games .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Inon Zur was born in Israel . As early as five years old , he was trying to compose harmonies with his mother 's singing , and became inspired by classical music . He learned to play french horn as a child , studied piano by the age of eight , and was studying composition by the age of ten . He graduated from the Music Academy of Tel Aviv , and spent four years in the Israeli military . He emigrated to the United States in 1990 to study at the Dick Grove School of Music for a year , and then under private tutor Jack Smalley , a television music composer , and others for two years at the University of California , Los Angeles .
= = = Career = = =
Zur began his career in 1994 by working on soundtracks for movies , such as Yellow Lotus , featured at the Sundance Film Festival . He then signed on to compose for Fox Family for six years , and made soundtracks for various children 's television shows , including Digimon and Power Rangers . By 2002 he estimated that he had composed the soundtrack to over 360 Power Rangers episodes alone . He won his first award during this period in his career , a Telly Award for his work on Power Rangers : Turbo . While he enjoyed the work , he began to want to go work somewhere " more intriguing , more advanced , and basically a place that people really appreciate music more " ; his agent overcame his initial reluctance and convinced him to work in the video games industry . His first video game soundtrack was 2000 's Star Trek : Klingon Academy , though he started composing for the game in 1997 . Zur quickly moved on to prestigious titles , composing for the award @-@ winning and critically acclaimed Baldur 's Gate II : Throne of Bhaal in 2001 and Icewind Dale II in 2002 , among many others . Icewind Dale II earned him the first of many nominations for video game music awards , that of the Game Audio Network Guild 's Music of the Year award . He continued to work on movies and television programs during these years , composing the soundtrack to Au Pair in 1999 and the English version of the 2000 anime series Escaflowne .
Zur 's latest movie soundtrack to date was that of 2001 's Au Pair II . He has worked on a few television series since then ; his last traditional television soundtrack was for The Bachelor in 2002 , though he has composed music for three webisode series since then . He continued to work on numerous best @-@ selling video games , including Prince of Persia : The Two Thrones in 2005 and Crysis in 2007 . He has also garnered several nominations for video game music awards , including his first win , for Men of Valor in the Best Original Instrumental track category of the 2004 Game Audio Network Guild awards . His latest released titles have been the highly successful Fallout 3 and Prince of Persia in 2008 , and 2009 's Dragon Age : Origins and the Nintendo DS version of James Cameron 's Avatar : The Game . He is currently working on the soundtracks to several unreleased video games , and continues to live in Encino , California . Dragon Age has earned Zur his third career award , that of Best Original Song – Video Game in the 2009 Hollywood Music In Media Awards .
Zur penned the original musical score for The Lord of the Rings : War in the North ( Warner Bros. ) video game , conducting and recording with the London Philharmonia Orchestra and the Pinewood Singers Choir at the legendary Abbey Road Studios in London . In an industry first , a dedicated concert of his music from THE LORD OF THE RINGS was performed each evening at the 2011 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) in Los Angeles . The one @-@ hour concert series was conducted by Zur and performed by The Hollywood Orchestra and Choir with the participation of The Lyris Quartet and solos from celebrated vocalist Aubrey Ashburn .
= = Performances = =
Zur 's compositions have been played several times in live concerts . The first of these was a concert held in Seoul , South Korea on May 30 , 2006 dedicated to his music for Lineage II : Chronicle V : Oath of Blood . On August 20 , 2008 , music from his soundtrack to Crysis was played in Leipzig , Germany at a Video Games Live concert . His music from Dragon Age : Origins and Prince of Persia was performed at the September 26 , 2009 " A Night in Fantasia 2009 " concert in Sydney , Australia by the Eminence Symphony Orchestra . Inon Zur was a special guest at the concert .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Zur 's compositions frequently are focused on full orchestras , choir and , in some games like Prince of Persia , ethnic instruments like Arabic flutes and the woodwind duduk . He has often collaborated with the Northwest Sinfonia orchestra from Seattle , though he has on occasion used other orchestras . Whenever Zur works with a real orchestra , he always conducts it himself . He has named some of his musical influences as classical artists such as Sergey Prokofiev , Igor Stravinsky , and Beethoven , movie composers like John Williams and Jerry Goldsmith , and jazz artists like George Gershwin and Henry McFeeny . While he would one day like to compose music not intended to be part of a larger piece of media , he finds that the pressure of a deadline and the feedback from the developers are crucial in his development process . He feels that his music sounds best when it is in the context given by the media it was made for , though he feels that performances of the music by itself transforms it " from just a soundtrack to an art form on its own " . Zur sometimes collaborates with other musicians while composing his game soundtracks ; for example , he worked with Florence and the Machine to create a unique rendition of " I ’ m Not Calling You A Liar " for the Dragon Age II soundtrack .
Zur typically is brought in to compose for a game once it is mostly complete , though he notes that that is earlier than for films and television — where nothing changes after he starts besides post @-@ production effects — making video game music composition a more " flexible " process . He finds that it is " crucial " for him to play a game before he can compose music for it , even if it only a development version . Rather than compose music based around the setting in the game where it will be played , Zur composes music around the emotion that he wants the player to feel at that point in the game . While he feels that music composition technology has come far enough in recent years to no longer be a limiting factor in his music , he does feel that the music budgets for games limit what he can create . Zur feels that he is considered in the industry to be a very fast composer , which he attributes to his tendency to compose music " intuitively " , rather than spending a lot of time planning it out . When not composing , Zur likes to play video games , especially those he has composed for , as well as play basketball and spend time with his family . The types of projects that he would like to work on in the future that he has not yet done are children 's games and soundtracks incorporating jazz music .
= = Works = =
= = = Films = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Video games = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= Dead Letters ( Millennium ) =
" ' Dead Letters " is the third episode of the first season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on November 8 , 1996 . The episode was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong , and directed by Thomas J. Wright . " Dead Letters " featured guest appearances by Chris Ellis , Ron Halder and James Morrison .
Millennium Group consultant Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) is sent to evaluate a prospective member of the group , who perform private investigative work and liaise with law enforcement . Meeting this hopeful member , Jim Horn ( Morrison ) , Black is drawn to investigate a serial killer operating in the area ; while Horn begins to unravel under the strain of the case .
Several of the cast and crew made their first contributions to the series in " Dead Letters " , with Wright , Morgan , Wong and Ellis all returning for future episodes . Production of " Dead Letters " impressed other series regulars — series writer Chip Johannessen praised the script 's attention to detail , while producer John Peter Kousaskis called positive attention to its physical and make @-@ up effects .
= = Plot = =
Jordan Black ( Brittany Tiplady ) is awakened by a nightmare , and is comforted by her father Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) . However , Black is soon called to investigate the body of a woman at a dog pound in Portland , Oregon . Black works for the Millennium Group , an organisation which offers private investigation services and consults with law enforcement on certain types of cases . He is asked by Group member Jim Penseyres ( Chris Ellis ) to help a local detective on the murder case , as he is being considered as prospective member of the Millennium Group . Black believes the murder to be the work of a serial killer , and is convinced there will be a message from him on the bodies .
Black meets up with the detective , Jim Horn ( James Morrison ) , and sees that he is a competent and experienced investigator , although his recent separation from his wife has left him distracted and on edge .
The killer murders another woman , disposing of the body in a post office 's dead letter office . Investigating , Black finds a human hair with a message etched into it — " hair today , gone tomorrow " — which he takes as an indication that the murderer is lashing out at a world that he feels has treated him as insignificant . Horn 's mental condition seems to deteriorate , and he begins to take the case personally , leading Black to doubt his ability .
A third victim turns up , with another message — " nothing ventured , nothing gained " . A lens from the killer 's glasses is also recovered . Black organises a press release in an attempt to draw out the killer , taunting his intelligence by including a falsified profile describing him as uneducated . Black and Horn feel this will tempt the killer to show up at the latest victim 's memorial service . Horn attacks an innocent man at the service , believing him to be the killer ; although a cross found at the memorial with " ventured " etched upon it proves the killer did attend . Surveillance footage of the service yields two leads — a local optician recognizes the suspect as a customer having a glasses lens replaced , and the killer 's vehicle is identified .
Black and Horn realize that the killer will have chosen the optician as his next victim , and agree to set another trap with her as the bait . Horn , more and more unhinged throughout the case , begins imagining the killer and his van at every turn . As he and Black wait for the killer to make an attempt on the optician 's life , Horn admits that he cannot trust himself to be there , and is told to go home . However , he parks his car on the route towards the trap , feigning a flat tyre . When the killer 's van attempts to pass , Horn attacks him , but the police arrive in time to stop him beating the killer to death . The attack renders any evidence found in the van inadmissible in court , although Black tells him enough evidence was found at the killer 's home to secure a conviction . Later , Horn asks Black how he can deal with cases like this on a regular basis . Black does not answer , but later comforts his daughter after another bad dream .
= = Production = =
" Dead Letters " is the first episode of Millennium to be written by James Wong and Glen Morgan , who would go on to write another fourteen episodes across the first and second seasons . The episode is also the first not to have been written by series creator Chris Carter , who had penned both of the preceding episodes , " Pilot " and " Gehenna " . " Dead Letters " also marked the first time Thomas J. Wright had directed an episode of the series . Wright would go on to direct twenty @-@ six episodes across all three seasons , as well as directing " Millennium " , the series ' crossover episode with its sister show The X @-@ Files . He had also previously worked with Morgan and Wong on their series Space : Above and Beyond .
The episode marked the second of three appearances by Chris Ellis as Millennium Group member Jim Penseyres ; Ellis had previously appeared in " Gehenna " , and would reappear in the next episode , " The Judge " . Guest star James Morrison , who portrayed the troubled Jim Horn , had also previously appeared as a main character in Morgan and Wong 's Space : Above and Beyond , playing Tyrus Cassius McQueen ; his character 's son in this episode is named TC as a reference to this . Lisa Vultaggio , who played the optician used to bait the killer , had previously worked with Morgan and Wong in The X @-@ Files , appearing in the first season episode " Beyond the Sea " .
Producer and writer Chip Johannessen felt that the scene in this episode in which a human hair is discovered with a message inscribed upon it was a " perfect " moment , in that it " told you everything about this guy [ the killer ] ... but you had no idea what he was or what he was going to do next ... you know what kind of crazy motherfucker would do that , but where he is or what he 's going to do next , who knows " . The episode 's opening nightmare sequence , in which Jordan Black ( Brittany Tiplady ) is terrified by a clown crawling along the ceiling , was inspired by the childhood nightmares of Morgan and Wong , and left Tiplady suffering from bad dreams herself for several nights after filming . Producer John Peter Kousakis recalls having visited the episode 's set late during production , having felt that make @-@ up effects supervisor Toby Lindala had been doing " fabulous " work on the series ' prosthetic body parts . Walking on set to find Lindala 's recreation of a quartered corpse , Kousakis remarked " we 're doing something special here , but we 're also doing something really outrageous " . Lance Henriksen also found this scene too graphic to film all at once , taking time between shots to compose himself .
= = Reception = =
" Dead Letters " was first broadcast on the Fox Network on November 8 , 1996 ; and earned a Nielsen rating of 8 , meaning that roughly 8 percent of all television @-@ equipped households were tuned in to the episode .
" Dead Letters " earned positive reviews from critics . Writing for The A.V. Club , Zack Handlen rated the episode a B + . Handlen felt that the episode is " not art , not yet , but it is deeply personal " , and praised the opening dream sequence , describing it as " flat @-@ out Lynchian nightmare territory " . However , he noted that the episode 's dialogue felt too " flat " and " expository " , adding that it serves to draw " attention to themes that were already plastered across the screen in blinding red and black " . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 4 out of 5 , describing it as being " one of the more horrifying episodes in Season 1 " . Gibron added that " seeing Jim Horn go through his mental breakdown gives us insight into where Frank Black is coming from " , although he felt that the lack of real insight into the killer 's personality let the episode down . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five , describing it as a " gripping and sincere portrait of human ugliness at its most banal " . Shearman and Pearson praised guest star James Morrison 's acting , noting that he was " the very humanity that the show is crying out for " .
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= Marburg 's Bloody Sunday =
Marburg 's Bloody Sunday ( German : Marburger Blutsonntag , Slovene : Mariborska krvava nedelja ) is the name of a massacre that took place on Monday , 27 January 1919 in the city of Maribor ( German : Marburg an der Drau ) in Slovenia . Soldiers from the army of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( later Yugoslavia ) , under the command of Slovene officer Rudolf Maister , killed between 9 and 13 civilians of German ethnic origin , wounding a further 60 , during a protest in a city centre square . Estimates of casualties differ between Slovene and Austrian sources .
In November 1918 , after the First World War ended , the territories of southern Carinthia and southern Styria , which had been claimed by the Republic of German Austria , were captured by military units under Maister 's command .
Maribor was the largest city of southern Styria , and had a predominately German population . A US delegation led by Sherman Miles visited Maribor on 27 January 1919 as part of a wider mission to resolve territorial disputes . On the same day , German citizens organised a protest proclaiming their desire for Maribor to be incorporated into the Republic of German Austria . The protest was interrupted by Meister 's soldiers firing at the people and causing numerous casualties . In response , German Austria launched a military offensive which expelled the Yugoslavs from several small towns in Upper Styria along the Mur River . A ceasefire was agreed under the mediation of France in February 1919 . According to the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye , signed on 10 September 1919 , Maribor and the rest of Lower Styria became part of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes . No @-@ one was ever charged over the Maribor massacre .
= = Background = =
The Republic of German Austria was created following the defeat of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire in the First World War and claimed areas with a predominantly German @-@ speaking population within the bounds of the former empire . In addition to the current area of the Republic of Austria , these included parts of South Tyrol and the town of Tarvisio , both now in Italy ; southern Carinthia and southern Styria , now in Slovenia ; and Sudetenland proper and German Bohemia ( later also part of Sudetenland ) , now in the Czech Republic .
The victorious Allied Powers divided the territories of the former Austro @-@ Hungarian empire between German Austria , Hungary and several other countries . Though the division of territories was conducted through a proclaimed principle of national self @-@ determination , populations of ethnic Germans and Hungarians remained resident in many of these territories , including Czechoslovakia , Romania and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia .
Control of the city of Maribor was disputed by Yugoslavia and German Austria . A Federal Act of German Austria , concerning " the Extent , the Borders and the Relations of the State Territories of November 22 , 1918 " , asserted a claim to the region of Lower Styria within which Marburg / Maribor was located , but excluded from its claim the predominantly Slav @-@ populated regions . To resolve the question of the ownership of Carinthia , the greater region of which Lower Styria formed a part , the U.S.-administered Coolidge Mission in Vienna proposed a demographic investigation of the territory . The mission was led by Archibald Cary Coolidge , professor of history at Harvard College , and operated under the American Commission to Negotiate Peace . The mission appointed a delegation to be led by Colonel Sherman Miles and including Lieutenant LeRoy King , professor of Slavic languages at the University of Missouri , and professors Robert Kerner and Lawrence Martin .
On the way to Carinthia , the delegation visited Maribor which , prior to the First World War , had a population comprising 80 % Austrian Germans and 20 % Slovenes . Most of Maribor 's capital and public life was in Austrian German hands and it was known mainly by its German @-@ language name Marburg an der Drau . According to the last Austro @-@ Hungarian census in 1910 , the city and its suburbs Studenci ( Brunndorf ) , Pobrežje ( Pobersch ) , Tezno ( Thesen ) , Radvanje ( Rothwein ) , Krčevina ( Kartschowin ) , and Košaki ( Leitersberg ) housed 31 @,@ 995 Austrian Germans ( including German @-@ speaking Jews ) , and 6 @,@ 151 ethnic Slovenes . The surrounding area however was populated almost entirely by Slovenes , although many Austrian Germans lived in smaller towns like Ptuj ( Pettau , 79 @.@ 39 % ) or Celje ( Cilli , 66 @.@ 80 % ) .
In November 1918 , the Slovene major ( later general ) Rudolf Maister seized the city of Maribor and surrounding areas of Lower Styria in the name of the newly formed State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs , a forerunner of Yugoslavia . On 23 November 1918 , Maister and his soldiers disarmed and disbanded the " Green Guard " ( German : Schutzwehr , Slovene : Zelena Garda ) security force maintained by the Maribor city council . Maister captured several villages and towns north of the Mur River , including Lichendorf , Bad Radkersburg , Mureck and Marenberg . On 31 December 1918 , Maister 's units imprisoned 21 notable Maribor citizens of ethnic German origin .
= = Massacre = =
Sources differ on the exact cause and extent of the massacre in Maribor . All agree that on 27 January 1919 , the Coolidge Mission 's delegation , led by Sherman Miles , visited Maribor and found thousands of citizens of German ethnic origin gathered in the main city square and waving flags of German Austria , many of which also decorated nearby buildings . German Austrian sources indicate that there were 10 @,@ 000 protesters singing songs and wearing patriotic dress . Twenty soldiers under Maister 's command were stationed in front of the city hall , armed with rifles mounted with bayonets .
German @-@ language sources assert that the soldiers began firing into the crowd without provocation , aiming for unarmed civilians . According to these sources the fatalities numbered 13 , and a further 60 protesters were wounded .
A Slovene account of the same event asserts that the soldiers began to fire only when an Austrian citizen discharged a revolver in the direction of the Slovene soldiers , striking the bayonet of one . The soldiers then returned fire : according to this account 11 were killed , and an unknown number wounded .
= = Aftermath = =
Subsequently , on 4 February 1919 , German Austria commenced a military offensive to recover the regions of Upper Styria controlled by Maister 's troops . A ceasefire was agreed on 10 February 1919 , under French mediation from their military mission located in Maribor . On 13 February 1919 , a ceasefire agreement was signed and Maister 's troops retreated from part of Upper Styria .
LeRoy King , one of the members of the Coolidge Mission , wrote in his report that the authorities in Maribor were suspicious of the work of the mission and apparently feared that it had uncovered information they would have preferred to conceal . He argued that there were Slovene populations in Styria who would have preferred the maintenance of Austrian rule .
The Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye , signed on 10 September 1919 observed that Maribor was firmly under the control of the Yugoslav army and that , since Slovenes constituted a majority in the region surrounding the city , Maribor should remain , with the rest of Lower Styria , within the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes .
Responsibility for the shooting in Maribor was never conclusively established . Austrian sources attributed blame to Rudolf Maister , and referenced him in some accounts as the Butcher of Maribor . In Slovenia , by contrast , Maister remains well @-@ regarded ; numerous societies institutions and streets are named in his honour and he is commemorated in several monuments .
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= Ian Craig =
Ian David Craig , OAM ( 12 June 1935 – 16 November 2014 ) was an Australian cricketer who represented the Australian national team in 11 Tests between 1953 and 1958 . A right @-@ handed batsman , Craig holds the records for being the youngest Australian to make a first @-@ class double century , appear in a Test match , and captain his country in a Test match . Burdened by the public expectation of being the " next Bradman " , Craig 's career did not fulfil its early promise . In 1957 , he was appointed Australian captain , leading a young team as part of a regeneration plan following the decline of the national team in the mid @-@ 1950s , but a loss of form and illness forced him out of the team after one season . Craig made a comeback , but work commitments forced him to retire from first @-@ class cricket at only 26 years of age .
A teenage prodigy , Craig made his first @-@ class debut for New South Wales in the last match of the 1951 – 52 Australian season , aged only 16 . The following summer , Craig earned comparisons to Don Bradman , generally regarded as the greatest batsman of all time , after becoming the youngest player to score a first @-@ class double century , an unbeaten 213 against the touring South African team . The innings secured Craig 's Test debut in the final match against South Africa , making him the youngest player to represent Australia in a Test , aged 17 years and 239 days . Craig started his Test career well , scoring 53 and 47 to ensure his selection for the 1953 Ashes tour , making him the youngest Australian player to tour England . Craig 's arrival precipitated media comparisons to the arrival and success of Bradman in 1930 , but he performed poorly and was not selected for any of the Tests .
Having missed a season due to national service and university studies , Craig returned to first @-@ class cricket in 1955 – 56 , earning a place in the 1956 Ashes touring squad . Craig regained a Test position for the final two Tests of the series . After the series , at which point Australia had suffered three consecutive Ashes series defeats , captain Ian Johnson and vice @-@ captain Keith Miller retired . The selectors focussed on young players to rebuild the team , appointing Craig as the captain for the 1957 – 58 tour of South Africa , although he had played just six Tests and was not an established member of the team . Aged 22 years and 194 days , Craig was , at the time , the youngest captain in Test history and led a team that critics dismissed as having no chance to a convincing 3 – 0 victory ; his own batting form was poor , and he averaged less than 20 . He contracted hepatitis before the start of the 1958 – 59 season and withdrew from cricket . Although he returned the following season for New South Wales , he could not regain his Test place . He retired from first @-@ class cricket at the age of just 26 : work commitments as a pharmacist increasingly restricted his ability to train . In later life , Craig was the managing director of the Australian subsidiary of the British pharmaceutical firm Boots . He had a continued involvement with cricket as an administrator , working with the New South Wales Cricket Association , the Sydney Cricket Ground Trust and the Bradman Museum . Craig was awarded the Medal of the Order of Australia in 1997 for his service to cricket .
= = Early life = =
= = = Birth and school success = = =
Ian Craig was the first son of John Craig and his wife Katherine ( née Dun ) . Shortly after Ian 's birth in the rural town of Yass , John jokingly told friends that " Australia 's second Don Bradman has just been born . " When John 's employers , the Bank of New South Wales , moved him to Sydney , the family relocated when Ian was just three ; John went on to be the chief manager of the Sydney office . Ian studied at North Sydney Boys High School , and showed an aptitude for ball games from an early age . He was a member of Australia 's schoolboy baseball team for three years , first playing at 13 years of age . He captained his school 's rugby union team and was a member of the state 's schoolboy team , but was only vice captain of the First XI cricket team behind Peter Philpott , another future Test player . At the time , cricket was only his third priority ; his obituary in the Sydney Morning Herald suggests that he was initially a better rugby player but was persuaded to focus on cricket when he broke his jaw playing rugby . He joined Mosman Cricket Club on Sydney 's North Shore and scored a first @-@ grade century at the age of 16 . Craig was not coached heavily ; the philosophy of the day was to supervise young players and to only intervene if mistakes were being made .
After good performances for Mosman , Craig was selected to make his first @-@ class debut for New South Wales at the age of 16 years and 249 days , during the 1951 – 52 season , making him the youngest ever Sheffield Shield player . He struck 91 against South Australia in his only first @-@ class innings of the season , before falling leg before wicket . He remained in the team for the following season ; in the first eight games he scored 350 runs at an average of 35 @.@ 00 , with three fifties . Given a chance to push his claims for Test selection after being selected for the Australian XI to play South Africa , he made only 38 and 11 .
= = = The " Next Bradman " = = =
Craig 's breakthrough came in January 1953 when , at the age of 17 years and 207 days , he became the youngest double centurion in the history of first @-@ class cricket at the time , in only his 13th first @-@ class innings . As of 2015 , he remains the youngest Australian to have achieved the feat . In a match for New South Wales against the touring South Africans , Craig came into bat on the second day and after a slow start reached 105 not out at the close of play . After play , he went to work at his job as an apprentice pharmacist . The next day , teammate Sid Barnes offered him a new bat if he reached 200 . When play resumed , he took his score to 213 not out , helping to build a total of 416 runs for the loss of seven wickets ( 7 / 416 ) . Hitting many cover drives , Craig scored quickly , making 98 of the 159 runs scored in a partnership with Keith Miller , a Test player known for his attacking strokeplay . Craig brought up his double century by sweeping Hugh Tayfield for a boundary .
The innings generated comparisons with Don Bradman , widely regarded as the finest batsman in cricket history . Bradman had dominated Australian sports media coverage for two decades until his retirement in 1948 and the Australian public were eager for another sporting hero of his magnitude . Bradman had not played first @-@ class cricket at the age of 17 and was 20 when he made his Test debut , so Craig 's quicker rise up the ranks caused much excitement . The Daily Telegraph said that Craig batted with " a grim purposefulness " that was " reminiscent of Bradman . " Miller cautioned against heaping so much media pressure on Craig , but the newspapers persisted , even comparing Craig 's batting grip to that of Bradman .
Craig 's innings also caught the eye of Australian selectors and he was selected for the Test team . He was named twelfth man for the Fourth Test , before making his debut in the Fifth Test after Miller and Ray Lindwall were rested due to mild injuries . Australia were leading the series 2 – 1 heading into the deciding match .
= = Test match career = =
= = = Debut = = =
Making his Test debut at the Melbourne Cricket Ground , Craig became , at the age of 17 years and 239 days , the youngest ever Australian to play Test cricket . Australia batted first and Craig received a standing ovation from the 47 @,@ 000 @-@ strong crowd as he walked out to bat amid high expectations from the public . As South African captain Jack Cheetham stopped proceedings to set his field , the crowd jeered . Australia were comfortably positioned at 3 / 269 with Craig 's partner Neil Harvey on his way to a double century . Craig cover drove his third ball , bowled by Percy Mansell , for four and quickly moved to 20 . In an innings marked by leg glances and fine cuts , Craig progressed to 53 before the new ball was taken . He hit a ball into the covers and was caught , ending the 148 @-@ run partnership with Harvey and silencing the crowd . Australia collapsed and ended at 520 but still took a first innings lead of 85 runs . Craig top @-@ scored in the second innings with 47 , giving him exactly 100 runs for the match as Australia collapsed to be all out for 209 and conceded defeat by six wickets . Given Bradman 's Test average of 99 @.@ 94 , Craig 's match aggregate prompted further press discussions of Bradmanesque similarities . However , his debut ended on a sour note as South Africa scored 4 / 297 to win by six wickets and level the series 2 – 2 .
= = = Ashes tour of 1953 = = =
Craig was selected for his first tour of England in 1953 as the last player to make the cut , after only 10 first @-@ class matches . The youngest Australian player ever to be sent to England , Craig was 15 months younger than Clem Hill in 1896 . He had been one of the leading batsmen of the summer , scoring 867 first @-@ class runs at a batting average of 54 @.@ 18 with seven half @-@ centuries in addition to his double century . This placed him fourth among Australian batsmen for the season in terms of run @-@ scoring , with only leading Test batsman Neil Harvey averaging higher . Craig had a strong preparation before departing for England , scoring fifties in three consecutive matches for the Australians on home soil .
Craig was again the centre of media speculation , with some media likening his arrival to Bradman 's first tour of England in 1930 . Bradman had scored a world Test series record of 974 runs in 1930 , a mark that remains unsurpassed . At a reception at the start of the tour , British judge and cricket enthusiast Lord Birkett said " If I know the English as I think I do , every Mother in the land will pray for him . " During the tour he was presented with a birthday cake on television . However , the trip was unsuccessful in terms of batting .
Craig began poorly ; in ten innings before the Tests started , he scored only 146 runs at 14 @.@ 60 without passing fifty . He was overlooked for the First Test , and continued to struggle for runs during the tour ; he ended with 429 runs in 27 innings with a top score of 71 not out and an average of 16 @.@ 50 . He was not selected for any Tests . Craig had difficulty adjusting to the English pitch conditions and his confidence plummeted . Craig had particular trouble against off cutters on the seaming pitches . In a reception at Lord 's , the home of cricket , Queen Elizabeth II asked him " I understand this is your first visit to England ? " , which prompted Craig to reply " Yes , your majesty , and unless my batting improves , it will be my last . " During the tour , tensions sometimes arose between the senior players , who were war veterans and drinkers , while the younger players including Craig tended to abstain from alcohol . Craig estimated that bus journeys to matches proceeded at an average speed of 16 km / h because of persistent stoppages outside pubs , something that frustrated the non @-@ drinkers .
= = = In the wilderness = = =
Upon returning home , Craig was unable to maintain the level of performances that he displayed in the previous Australian summer . In a season which contained no international cricket , he scored 395 runs at an average of 35 @.@ 90 in eight matches , placing him 20th in the season 's run scoring list . He scored 93 in an eight @-@ wicket victory over South Australia , and 106 for Arthur Morris 's XI in a testimonial match against Lindsay Hassett 's XI , his first century against Australian opposition .
Craig 's career was interrupted by final year university studies for a diploma of pharmacy at the University of Sydney and national service , causing him to miss the entire 1954 – 55 season , including the home Test series against England , the early 1955 tour to the West Indies and the Sheffield Shield season . He returned to first @-@ class cricket during the 1955 – 56 Australian season , and a healthy aggregate of 495 runs at 45 @.@ 09 with one century . During the season , he made his first century in the Sheffield Shield , amassing 145 against Queensland . For these performances , he was selected for the 1956 Ashes tour , the last player to be picked .
= = = Second Ashes tour = = =
Craig 's tour started poorly , and food poisoning hampered him until after the Second Test — one particular severe bout forced him to be hospitalised . In his first six first @-@ class matches , Craig made only 104 runs at 17 @.@ 33 . His tour began to improve in late June , when he made consecutive half @-@ centuries against Yorkshire and Gloucestershire before breaking through in a match against Somerset . He was dropped before going on to score 62 and 100 not out — his first century in 38 innings in England . He was selected for the Fourth Test at Old Trafford , after Australia had suffered a heavy defeat at Headingley in the Third Test at the hands of the Surrey spin pairing of Jim Laker and Tony Lock , Australia 's first innings defeat in 18 years . The Fourth Test was to be known as Laker 's Test , in which Laker took a record 19 wickets in the match . Laker trapped Craig leg before wicket for eight in the first innings as Australia were bowled out for 84 . In the second innings , Craig came out to bat at 1 / 28 in the second innings on a sticky wicket and combined in a defiant third @-@ wicket partnership of 59 with Colin McDonald . He battled for over four hours in compiling 38 before being dismissed by Laker . Reflecting on the match , Craig said " Jim bowled well , and we batted very badly . We were all pissed off , felt we 'd been dudded and we dropped our bundle a bit . " His stubborn display saw him retain his position for the Fifth Test at The Oval when he scored two and seven . Craig ended the season with 872 runs at 36 @.@ 33 from 20 matches , with one century and five fifties , the fifth highest aggregate for the Australians .
Despite his failure to reach double figures at The Oval , Craig maintained his position in the playing XI on the tour of the Indian subcontinent en route to Australia in late 1956 , playing Test matches against Pakistan and India . However , he failed to pass 40 in his five innings . He made a duck and 18 on a matting wicket in Australia 's one @-@ off Test against Pakistan in Karachi before playing in the First Test against India , scoring 40 in an innings win in Madras . He was dropped for the Second Test but returned to make 36 and 6 in the Third Test in Calcutta as Australia took a 2 – 0 series win . The matches were the first time that Australia had played a Test in Asia .
= = Captaincy of Australia = =
= = = Youngest ever captain = = =
The 1956 – 57 season marked the start of a renewal phase in Australian cricket . Australia had lost three consecutive Ashes series and had fallen from the heights of the " Invincibles " team that had toured England in 1948 . Australia were not scheduled to play any Tests until a tour of South Africa in 1957 – 58 and captain Ian Johnson and his deputy Keith Miller retired upon their return to Australia , both men being in their late 30s . In a move regarded as surprising , the 21 @-@ year @-@ old Craig , rather than Richie Benaud , replaced the retired Miller as state captain and staked his claim to be a part of Australia 's long @-@ term future with a consistent season in which he scored 521 runs at an average of 47 @.@ 36 , with two centuries . New South Wales won another Sheffield Shield title under Craig 's leadership . In one match against arch @-@ rivals Victoria , Craig was ill with tonsillitis , but came out to bat with his team struggling at 7 / 70 while chasing a low total of 161 . Craig made 24 and put on 70 with Benaud to take his team towards victory , but the match eventually ended in a tie .
Near the end of the 1956 – 57 season , the selectors met to choose a team for a short non @-@ Test tour of New Zealand . The leading contender for the captaincy was 28 @-@ year @-@ old Victorian Neil Harvey , who had been a regular member of the team for eight years and was the senior batsman . However , both Harvey and Miller had been criticised for their attitude towards Johnson in an official report to the board about the 1956 tour . The selectors thus thrust Craig into the leadership at the age of 21 and a half . He was a young player leading an inexperienced team — the youngest cricket team from any country to be sent overseas , with no players older than 30 . It was seen as a bold move , as Craig had only played six Tests , was far from being a regular member of the team and had only a year of captaincy at first @-@ class level .
The day after the announcement , the Harvey @-@ led Victorians met Craig 's New South Welshmen at the SCG . Harvey admitted to being irked by the board 's snub and felt that it was because of his blunt nature . The men were cordial at the toss and Craig sent the Victorians in to bat . At the same time , Colin McDonald broke his nose while practising in the nets and was taken to hospital . Harvey asked Craig for a gentleman 's agreement to allow a substitute , but the home skipper refused . An angry Harvey struck 209 in five hours , but Craig scored 45 and 93 to help secure a draw and therefore win the Sheffield Shield .
Craig , regarded as a personable , level @-@ headed and well educated man , was seen as an investment in the future . Personal skills were seen as important in an era when captains were expected to make many after @-@ dinner speeches at functions on tours , especially to England . Ray Robinson opined that " a sincere nature and unassuming manner " reduced the risk of team friction in the rebuilding phase and that Craig was " level headed and tactful beyond his years . " Craig 's lack of leadership ambition was cited as a major reason for the improvement in team harmony . The New Zealand tour was regarded as a test of Craig 's leadership . Wicket @-@ keeper Barry Jarman said that Craig " had to do it himself ... I wasn 't so dumb that I couldn 't see the senior players didn 't give him much support . " The senior players resented his surprise selection as captain , but he gained favour by defying a management @-@ imposed curfew , which was later scrapped .
During the tour , the Australians won all three of their first @-@ class matches against the hosts ' provincial teams . The Australians then played against a New Zealand representative team , although the matches were not classified as Tests . In the first game , Craig scored an unbeaten 123 in the second innings to ensure a draw after the visitors had conceded a first innings lead . In the second match , Australia stumbled to 6 / 146 in their second innings after conceding a first innings lead of 34 . After the unconvincing performances in the first two matches , Craig scored 57 in the third , which Australia won by ten wickets . Craig ended with 224 runs at 56 @.@ 00 in the three international matches and 308 runs at 38 @.@ 50 overall .
= = = South African tour = = =
At the start of the 1957 – 58 season , Craig was made captain for Australia 's Test tour to South Africa , making him the youngest captain in Test history at the age of 22 years and 194 days , with Harvey as his deputy . The appointment came despite his mixed batting form during the New Zealand tour . The selectors further demonstrated their view to the future when they dropped veteran Ray Lindwall altogether . The average age of Craig 's team was two and a half years younger than the Australian squad sent to England in 1956 , and they had only one player over the age of 30 , whereas the 1956 team had five members over the age of 30 . As a result of the team 's relative inexperience , they were judged by critics to be the worst to have left Australian shores . Craig joined his team in Johannesburg after flying in from London , where he had been working for six months as a pharmacist , with the approval of the Australian board .
Craig 's workload grew after the team manager Jack Jantke suffered a heart attack before the tour , leaving the captain to handle off @-@ field matters until a replacement for Jantke was found two weeks later . Craig instituted a novel set of rules to raise morale , but journalists and former player Dick Whitington derided it as " Anglicised fripperies " , while Jack Fingleton said that Craig was " much too callow in years and experience to lead a team abroad . " Some players remained resentful of Craig 's dubious elevation but appreciated that he had not promoted himself and that he was fair and open to input from teammates .
Craig made a good start to the tour in two warm @-@ up matches against Rhodesia , scoring a century in each match . Australia won the matches by an innings and ten wickets respectively . Craig led his men in five first @-@ class matches before the Tests and Australia won all by convincing margins ; three ended in innings victories and the others were won by nine and ten wickets . This included a match against a South African XI , in which Craig scored 88 as Australia amassed 8 / 519 declared before winning by an innings .
Craig led his team into the First Test at Johannesburg starting on 23 December with an inexperienced bowling attack . With Lindwall dropped , the pace attack was led by Alan Davidson , who at the time had managed only 16 Test wickets in 12 matches . Davidson 's partner Ian Meckiff was making his debut . Benaud was in his first Test as the lead spinner , while left arm wrist spinner Lindsay Kline was another debutant . In all , Craig 's team had four debutants . Craig made only 14 and 17 as his team held on for a draw . At the end of the match , an unpopular 10 p.m. curfew that was imposed by the replacement manager was repealed .
The Australian skipper again struggled with the bat in the Second Test in Cape Town , making a duck , but this was overlooked by the media as his team won by a decisive innings margin . In the Third Test at Durban , Craig made 52 on a pitch that was difficult for batting , his first Test half @-@ century since his debut . His team scored 163 in their first innings , and after the hosts made 384 , Craig made a duck as Australia struggled to a score of 7 / 292 , salvaging a draw in the process . In the Fourth Test at Johannesburg , Craig promoted Benaud ahead of him in the batting order , feeling that flexibility in the team interest was paramount . Benaud scored a century , prompting Robinson to describe Craig 's action as " the most imaginative piece of captaincy of the season . " The innings allowed Australia to seize the momentum and set up a 10 @-@ wicket victory , which yielded an unassailable 2 – 0 series lead .
Despite the disagreement as to whether Craig was deserving of the captaincy , the team proceeded without infighting . Prior to the Fifth Test , Craig wanted to drop himself due to poor form , which would have made Harvey captain . Peter Burge , the third member of the selection panel and a Harvey supporter , was comfortable with this , but Harvey ordered Burge to retain Craig . When the vote was formally taken , Harvey and Burge outvoted Craig , who was still offering to drop himself .
Craig failed to pass 20 in the Fifth Test as Australia won again to take a creditable 3 – 0 series win , something highly unexpected at the beginning of the tour . Overall , Craig 's men won 11 of their 20 first @-@ class games on tour , and the South African Cricket Annual recognised the Australian captain 's leadership by naming him as one of their Five Cricketers of the Year .
= = Later career = =
= = = Hepatitis = = =
Although the match results were encouraging for such a young and inexperienced team , Craig scored only 103 runs at 14 @.@ 71 . Despite his contributions as a leader , this was not up to standard . He had trouble with his defence , being bowled eight times in 17 innings . In the 12 matches in the last three months of the tour , Craig passed fifty only once in 13 innings . However , the selectors did not have to reverse their youth policy : Craig contracted a bout of hepatitis before the start of the 1958 – 59 season . He returned to cricket at the beginning of the season , but was underprepared , scoring two ducks in his only two innings of the season , the second coming against the touring England team . Craig declared that he was not ready for a return to Test cricket and relinquished the captaincy , which the selectors handed to Benaud . Benaud went on to defeat England 4 – 0 ; as England were widely regarded as the best team at the time , this established him as captain of a resurgent Australia .
The illness @-@ enforced layoff left Craig facing an uphill battle to regain his place in the national team . Prior to the start of the 1959 – 60 season , Craig recovered his health and toured South Africa with a Commonwealth XI , where he scored 276 runs at 55 @.@ 20 including a century against a combined Transvaal XI .
= = = Attempted comeback = = =
Returning to Australia , he had a moderately successful Sheffield Shield season , accumulating 376 runs at 31 @.@ 33 with three half @-@ centuries . New South Wales went on to win another title . The selectors named him to lead an Australian Second XI to New Zealand — while the first choice team toured the Indian subcontinent — hoping that he was still good enough to secure a long @-@ term future in the Australian team . The four matches against New Zealand were closely contested . In the first match , Australia were 7 / 201 in pursuit of 22 for victory when time ran out . In the second fixture , Craig made 70 as the tourists struggled to 8 / 211 in pursuit of 262 for victory to hold on for a draw . After narrowly escaping defeat in the first two matches , Australia won the third match by eight wickets . In the final match , Australia reduced New Zealand to 8 / 149 in pursuit of 284 when time ran out , sealing a 1 – 0 series win . Craig struggled with the bat , making 222 runs at 27 @.@ 75 in the games against New Zealand .
Craig had a strong Sheffield Shield season in 1960 – 61 . At the time , he had become a production manager at his pharmaceutical firm and declared that the season would be his last owing to work commitments . His employers had been pressuring him to commit to a career after cricket . Early in the campaign , Craig scored consecutive centuries against Queensland and Victoria . He then scored 83 as New South Wales defeated the touring West Indians by an innings and 97 runs , but he was overlooked for Test selection . He ended his season with 197 in an innings victory over Western Australia . Overall , he totalled 710 runs at 59 @.@ 16 , as New South Wales won their eighth successive Shield . After a successful campaign , he reversed his decision and made himself available for the 1961 tour of England , but Bill Lawry was selected ahead of him .
= = = Final season = = =
The 1961 – 62 season was Craig 's last at first @-@ class level ; he accumulated 629 runs at 37 @.@ 00 , with seven fifties but he was unable to convert any of these into a century . In one match against arch @-@ rivals Victoria , Craig scored 80 and 65 not out to help his team to a ten @-@ wicket triumph . New South Wales won six consecutive matches to seal another title , but Craig found himself under increasing pressure for his place in the state team ; with no internationals that season , all the Test players were available , which put his position under threat . New South Wales had a streak of nine consecutive Shield titles up until 1961 – 62 , and the batting line @-@ up was particularly strong . The 1950s – 60s era teams were regarded as among the strongest in Australian history . In total , Craig acted as captain in 48 first @-@ class matches , winning 27 , tying one and losing only two . Although Craig 's record as the youngest captain in Test history has now been surpassed , he remains the youngest Australian to have scored a first @-@ class double century , play a Test match and then captain the national team .
Craig signed off on his first @-@ class career at the end of the season with a tour of New Zealand with an International XI . He played in three matches and ended with 240 runs at 48 @.@ 00 ; in his final match , against the Cricket Club of India President 's XI , he made 101 , his 15th century at first @-@ class level .
= = Style = =
Standing 173 cm ( 5 ft 8 in ) and weighing 63 kg ( 139 lb ) , Craig was a lightly built and frail looking batsman . He had a neat and compact batting style . Craig was known for his leg side batting repertoire , in particular his ability to clip the ball from his pads . He had an unorthodox grip , low on the bat handle with the back of the top hand pointing to point . This caused him to have a tendency to close the face of his bat . Although Craig was small in stature , he was still able to hit the ball a long distance . During the testimonial match for Lindsay Hassett at the end of the 1953 – 54 season , Craig struck four sixes in five balls from the off spin of Johnson . During his first tour to England , Craig had difficulty with off cutters bowled by pacemen and eschwed the hook shot , but after his comeback from illness , he transformed himself into an opening batsman , earning praise for his performances against the express pace of Wes Hall and Ian Meckiff . Benaud felt that Craig was finally reaping the rewards of his early experience . On Australian pitches , Craig had a reputation for having difficulty with the left arm wrist spin of Kline and David Sincock . Craig 's light build allowed him to move quickly while fielding , prompting Robinson to call him " the Bambi of the fielding side . " In his early years , Craig was a non @-@ smoker , but the pressure and tension brought on by the burden of captaincy resulted in him taking up the habit . He was known for being softly spoken , with his players often having to ask him to repeat his instructions . Craig had a reputation for being good @-@ natured ; he did not complain about his cricket career and said that he had " no regrets . "
= = After cricket = =
Craig retired from first @-@ class cricket at just 26 years of age in 1962 , but continued playing for Mosman in Sydney grade cricket on weekends until 1969 . His marriage to Rosslyn Carroll in 1962 and his pharmaceutical career prevented him from applying himself fully to cricket . The couple had a boy and a girl , as well as an adopted son . Craig joined the Australian subsidiary of the British pharmaceutical firm Boots , rising to the position of managing director . He later served on the board of directors of the Bradman Museum in Bowral and later became its chairman . He was a board member of the New South Wales Cricket Association ( NSWCA ) for three years and served on the Trust of the Sydney Cricket Ground for varying periods from 1968 to 1996 , totalling 18 years . Upon first being appointed in 1968 to replace Stan McCabe , Craig was the youngest ever trustee of the SCG . One of the most controversial incidents during this time occurred in 1977 – 78 during the period of the breakaway World Series Cricket , which wanted to install floodlights at the SCG . The NSWCA opposed this , while the government sided with WSC . As a result of Craig 's support of the NSWCA , the government dismissed him . Craig retired as the managing director of Boots ' Australian subsidiaries . Craig was awarded the Medal of the Order of Australia in 1997 for his contributions to cricket as a player and administrator . He died in Bowral from cancer on 16 November 2014 .
= = Test match performance = =
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= Phellodon =
Phellodon is a genus of tooth fungi in the family Bankeraceae . Species have small- to medium @-@ sized fruitbodies with white spines on the underside from which spores are released . All Phellodon have a short stalk or stipe , and so the genus falls into the group known as " stipitate hydnoid fungi " . The tough and leathery flesh usually has a pleasant , fragrant odor , and develops a cork @-@ like texture when dry . Neighboring fruitbodies can fuse together , sometimes producing large mats of joined caps . Phellodon species produce a white spore print , while the individual spores are roughly spherical to ellipsoid in shape , with spiny surfaces .
The genus , with about 20 described species , has a distribution that includes to Asia , Europe , North America , South America , Australia , and New Zealand . About half of the species are found in the southeastern United States , including three species added to the genus in 2013 – 14 . Several Phellodon species were placed on a preliminary Red List of threatened British fungi because of a general decline of the genus in Europe . Species grow in a symbiotic mycorrhizal association with trees from the families Fagaceae ( beeches and oaks ) and Pinaceae ( pines ) . Accurate DNA @-@ based methods have been developed to determine the presence of Phellodon species in the soil , even in the extended absence of visible fruitbodies . Although Phellodon fruitbodies are considered inedible due to their fibrous flesh , the type species , P. niger , is used in mushroom dyeing .
= = Taxonomy = =
Phellodon was circumscribed in 1881 by Finnish mycologist Petter Karsten to contain white @-@ toothed fungi . Karsten included three species : P. cyathiformis , P. melaleucus , and the type , P. niger ( originally published with the epithet nigrum ) . P. nigrum was originally described by Elias Fries in 1815 as a species of Hydnum . Some early authors did not consider Phellodon distinct enough to be a separate genus , and folded species assigned to this genus into Hydnellum .
Hydnellum is classified in the family Bankeraceae , which was circumscribed by Marinus Anton Donk in 1961 . Donk 's original family concept included the genera Bankera and Phellodon , whose species produce hyaline ( translucent ) and echinulate spores ( covered with small spines ) . Donk also noted that Bankeraceae species lacked clamp connections . When clamp connections were discovered in Phellodon fibulatus and tuberculate spore ornamentation ( the presence of small nodules on the spores ) was found in P. niger , Kenneth Harrison thought the family Bankeraceae was superfluous , and placed Phellodon and Bankera in the family Hydnaceae . This taxonomic rearrangement was rejected by Rudolph Arnold Maas Geesteranus in 1974 , who showed that the tuberculate spores of P. niger were the result of an immature specimen . Richard Baird and Saeed Khan investigated spore ornamentation in North American Phellodon species using scanning electron microscopy , and rejected the placement of Phellodon in the Bankeraceae , preferring to leave it and Bankera in the Hydnaceae . Modern molecular phylogenetic analysis places Phellodon in the thelephoroid clade ( roughly equivalent to the order Thelephorales ) along with the related genera Bankera , Hydnellum , and Sarcodon . Although the status of the Bankeraceae has not been fully clarified with molecular genetic techniques , Phellodon is classified in this family by authorities on fungal taxonomy .
The generic name is derived from phell- , meaning " cork " , and -don , meaning " tooth " . In North America , Phellodon species are commonly known as " cork hydnums " . The British Mycological Society , in their recommended list of common names for fungi in the United Kingdom , name Phellodon species in the form " descriptor word " plus " tooth " : fused tooth ( P. confluens ) , grey tooth ( P. melaleucus ) , black tooth ( P. niger ) , and woolly tooth ( P. tomentosus ) .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of Phellodon species have caps and stipe , and thus fall into the general category " stipitate hydnoid fungi " . The cap surfaces are initially velvety to tomentose , eventually becoming matted . The surface is rough , with pits and ridges , and sometimes with concentrical zones of color or texture . The color can vary considerably , from cream to yellowish , brownish , greenish , greyish or black . Neighboring fruitbodies can fuse together , forming intertwined caps and partially fused stipes . Alexander H. Smith wrote of P. tomentosus , " It often occurs in large mats of fused caps almost producing a ceiling over large areas of the moss under conifers . " Phellodon fruitbodies can envelop nearby grass or twigs . The stipe is thickly tomentose or smooth , typically the same color as the cap or darker . In P. niger , the outer covering of the stipe is a thick felty layer of mycelium that absorbs water like a sponge . The hymenophore ( the fertile , spore @-@ bearing surface ) is on the underside of the cap . The spines become grey at maturity . In conditions of high humidity , P. niger can form striking drops of black liquid on the actively growing caps .
The fibrous flesh is single to double @-@ layered ; duplex layering results from differences in compactness or in the alignment of the constituent hyphae . Tough and leathery when fresh , the flesh develops a corklike texture when dry . In the dried state it often has an odor of fenugreek or curry powder . Phellodon species are often free of insect damage , suggesting that they may have defensive chemicals that deter predation . Fruitbodies are not considered edible due to their fibrous flesh .
The hyphal system is monomitic , containing only generative hyphae . These hyphae are not less than 6 μm in diameter . All European species lack clamp connections , but they are present in the North American species P. fibulatus and P. mississippiensis . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored . Cystidia are either absent , or present infrequently as incompletely differentiated cystidioles ( sterile cells about the size of an immature basidium ) . In mass , the spores are white . Spores are broadly ellipsoid to roughly spherical , and echinulose ( covered with small spines ) . They are also hyaline and inamyloid .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Fruit bodies grow on the ground . Phellodon species , like all members of the order Thelephorales , are thought to be mycorrhizal , forming symbiotic relationships with trees . Usual hosts include species from the families Fagaceae ( beeches and oaks ) and Pinaceae . The ectomycorrhizae that P. niger forms with Norway spruce ( Picea abies ) has been comprehensively described . It is distinguished from the ectomycorrhizae of other Thelephorales species by the unique shape of its chlamydospores . Stable isotope ratio analysis of the abundance of the stable isotope carbon @-@ 13 shows that P. niger has a metabolic signature close to that of saprotrophic fungi , indicating that it may be able to obtain carbon from sources other than a tree host .
Many Phellodon species are known from the southeastern United States , where they have been extensively researched . According to Baird and colleagues , there are nine distinct Phellodon species from Great Smoky Mountains and the surrounding southern Appalachian Mountains . Three additional species from this area , P. mississippiensis , P. brunneo @-@ olivaceus , and P. fuligineoalbus were added to the genus in 2013 – 14 .
= = Conservation = =
Phellodon species , like other members of the family Bankeraceae , are sensitive to air pollution and soil pollution , and are in general decline in western Europe . In a preliminary assessment for a red list of threatened British Fungi , P. confluens , P. tomentosus , and P. melaleucus are considered vulnerable , and P. niger is rare .
Conservation efforts for stipitate hydnoid fungi are hampered by a dearth of information about their basic ecology , and so molecular genetic techniques are increasingly employed in attempts to better understand these fungi . In the case of Phellodon tomentosus , for example , there is little correlation between fruitbody appearance and below @-@ ground mycelium , making it hard to determine the distribution and rarity of the fungus with standard surveying techniques . Phellodon melaleucus and P. niger were included in a Scottish study to develop species @-@ specific PCR primers that can be used to detect the mycelia of stipitate hydnoids in soil . DNA testing of collections labelled as P. melaleucus and P. niger from the United Kingdom revealed additional cryptic species . PCR analysis can be used to determine the presence of a Phellodon species up to four years after the appearance of fruitbodies , allowing a more accurate determination of their possible decline and threat of extinction .
= = Chemistry = =
Phellodon species contain thelephoric acid , a metabolite of the shikimic acid pathway . Thelephoric acid is a terphenyl quinone — a 1 @,@ 4 @-@ benzoquinone wherein positions carbon @-@ 2 and carbon @-@ 5 are substituted with phenyl groups . The hirsutane derivative phellodonic acid is found in P. melaleucus . Phellodonic acid , which exhibits antibiotic activity towards bacteria and other fungi , was the first bioactive compound reported from any member of the order Thelephorales . A total synthesis was described for phellodonic acid in 2008 using cis @-@ 1 @,@ 2 @-@ dihydrocatechol as the starting material . The compound atromentin was reported to occur in fruitbodies of P. melaleucus , but this was not confirmed in a later analysis . P. niger has been a source for several bioactive compounds : the cyathane @-@ type diterpenoids , nigernin A and B ; a nitrogenous terphenyl derivative , phellodonin ; 2 ' , 3 ' -diacetoxy @-@ 3 @,@ 4 @,@ 5 ' , 6 ' , 4 ' '-pentahydroxy @-@ p @-@ terphenyl ; grifolin ; and 4 @-@ O @-@ methylgrifolic acid . P. niger has also been used for mushroom dyeing , in which it produces gray @-@ blue and green colors .
= = Species = =
Phellodon was originally circumscribed with three species . Joost Stalpers included 13 Phellodon species in his 1993 monograph on the Thelephorales . The tenth edition of the Dictionary of the Fungi ( 2008 ) indicated 16 species in the genus . As of September 2015 , Index Fungorum lists 18 species of Phellodon , not including the three eastern United States species added in 2013 – 14 .
Phellodon atratus K.A.Harrison ( 1964 ) – California , United States
Phellodon brunneo @-@ olivaceus R.E.Baird ( 2013 ) – United States
Phellodon confluens ( Pers . ) Pouzar ( 1956 ) – China , eastern United States , Europe
Phellodon excentrimexicanus R.E.Baird ( 1985 ) – Mexico
Phellodon fibulatus K.A.Harrison ( 1972 ) – North Carolina , United States
Phellodon fuligineoalbus ( J.C.Schmidt ) Baird ( 2013 ) – United States
Phellodon implicatus R.E.Baird & S.R.Khan ( 1986 ) – Florida , United States
Phellodon indicus Khara ( 1978 ) – Himachal Pradesh , India
Phellodon maliensis ( Lloyd ) Maas Geest . ( 1966 ) – Australia , New Zealand
Phellodon melaleucus ( Sw. ex Fr . ) P.Karst. ( 1881 ) – Europe , North America
Phellodon mississippiensis R.Baird ( 2014 ) – Mississippi , United States
Phellodon niger ( Fr . ) P.Karst. ( 1881 ) – Europe , North America
Phellodon nothofagi McNabb ( 1971 ) – New Zealand
Phellodon plicatus ( Lloyd ) Maas Geest . ( 1966 ) – Australia
Phellodon putidus ( G.F.Atk. ) Banker ( 1906 ) – North America
Phellodon radicatus R.E.Baird ( 1985 ) – North America
Phellodon rufipes Maas Geest . ( 1971 ) – Japan
Phellodon secretus Niemelä & Kinnunen ( 2003 ) – Finland
Phellodon sinclairii ( Berk . ) G.Cunn. ( 1958 ) – New Zealand
Phellodon tenuis R.E.Baird ( 1988 ) – Brazil
Phellodon tomentosus ( L. ) Banker ( 1906 ) – Europe , North America
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= HMS Jamaica ( 44 ) =
HMS Jamaica , a Crown Colony @-@ class cruiser of the Royal Navy , was named after the island of Jamaica , which was a British possession when she was built in the late 1930s . The light cruiser spent almost her entire wartime career on Arctic convoy duties , except for a deployment south for the landings in North Africa in November 1942 . She participated in the Battle of the Barents Sea in 1942 and the Battle of North Cape in 1943 . Jamaica escorted several aircraft carriers in 1944 as they flew off airstrikes that attacked the German battleship Tirpitz in northern Norway . Late in the year she had an extensive refit to prepare her for service with the British Pacific Fleet , but the war ended before she reached the Pacific .
Jamaica spent the late 1940s in the Far East and on the North America and West Indies Station . When the Korean War began in 1950 she was ordered , in cooperation with the United States Navy , to bombard North Korean troops as they advanced down the eastern coast . The ship also provided fire support during the Inchon Landing later that year . Jamaica was refitted late in the year and returned to Great Britain in early 1951 where she was placed in reserve .
She was recommissioned in 1954 for service with the Mediterranean Fleet . In 1955 Jamaica was used to play HMS Exeter in the film Battle of the River Plate , in company with her wartime partner HMS Sheffield as HMS Ajax . In 1956 the ship participated in Operation Musketeer , the Anglo @-@ French invasion of Egypt to seize control of the Suez Canal . Jamaica was paid off in 1958 and sold for scrap in 1960 .
= = Description = =
Jamaica displaced about 8 @,@ 631 long tons ( 8 @,@ 770 t ) at standard load and 11 @,@ 017 long tons ( 11 @,@ 194 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 555 feet 6 inches ( 169 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 68 feet 5 inches ( 20 @.@ 9 m ) and a draught of 19 feet 10 inches ( 6 @.@ 0 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving four shafts , which developed a total of 80 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 60 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 32 @.@ 25 knots ( 59 @.@ 73 km / h ; 37 @.@ 11 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by four Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Jamaica carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 700 long tons ( 1 @,@ 700 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 6 @,@ 520 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 080 km ; 7 @,@ 500 mi ) at 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 733 officers and men in peacetime and 900 during war .
The ship mounted twelve 50 @-@ calibre 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns in four three @-@ gun turrets . Her secondary armament consisted of eight 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in four twin turrets . Jamaica mounted two quadruple 2 @-@ pounder ( 40 mm ) light AA mounts ( " pom @-@ poms " ) . Her short @-@ range AA armament is not known . The ship carried two above @-@ water triple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes .
Jamaica lacked a full waterline armour belt . The sides of her boiler and engine rooms and the magazines were protected by 3 @.@ 25 – 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 83 – 89 mm ) of armour . The deck over the machinery spaces and magazines was reinforced to a thickness of 2 – 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 51 – 89 mm ) . She carried an aircraft catapult and two Supermarine Sea Otter seaplanes .
= = History = =
Jamaica was laid down on 28 April 1938 by Vickers @-@ Armstrongs in Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness , England as part of the 1938 Naval Programme and named for the Colony of Jamaica . The ship was launched on 16 November 1940 and completed on 29 June 1942 . After working up , the ship provided distant cover to Convoy PQ 18 in September . She was assigned to the Centre Task Force of Operation Torch in early November and was unsuccessfully attacked by the Vichy French submarine Fresnel . The Arctic convoys had been suspended at PQ 18 , but were scheduled to resume on 15 December with Convoy JW 51A . HMS Jamaica and HMS Sheffield , with several escorting destroyers , formed Force R , under the command of Rear @-@ Admiral Robert Burnett and were tasked to cover the convoy against any German surface ships . The convoy was not spotted by the Germans and arrived at the Kola Inlet without incident on 25 December .
= = = Battle of the Barents Sea = = =
Force R sailed from Kola on 27 December to rendezvous with Convoy JW 51B in the Norwegian Sea , but the convoy had been blown southwards by a major storm . Several of its ships had been separated during storm and they confused the radar of Force R 's ships as to the true location of the convoy . Thus Force R was 30 miles ( 48 km ) north of the convoy on the morning of 31 December when the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper attacked the convoy . Admiral Hipper was first held at bay by the British destroyers HMS Onslow , HMS Obedient , HMS Obdurate and HMS Orwell . Initially driven off , Admiral Hipper returned , only to be engaged by Force R shortly before noon and was hit by three 6 @-@ inch shells from the cruisers . Two German destroyers , Z16 Friedrich Eckoldt and Z4 Richard Beitzen , misidentified Sheffield as Admiral Hipper and attempted to form up on her . Sheffield sank Friedrich Eckoldt at a range of 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) while Jamaica unsuccessfully engaged Richard Beitzen . Less than an hour later Force R spotted the pocket battleship Lutzow and Admiral Hipper and opened fire . Neither side scored any hits in the darkness before both sides turned away a few minutes later . Force R continued to track the German ships for several hours before they lost contact . Although the destroyer HMS Achates and the minesweeper HMS Bramble were sunk by the Kriegsmarine , the convoy reached the Kola Inlet intact . Force R remained at sea to protect Convoy RA 51 that was returning to Great Britain until relieved by HMS Berwick and HMS Kent .
Jamaica was relieved of escort duties on her return in January 1943 and had her main gun barrels replaced in March . She rejoined the Home Fleet , but was refitted in Portsmouth from July to September . Sometime during the year she received six twin power @-@ operated 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) AA guns as well as four single guns . During November she protected the convoys RA 54B , JW 54A , JW 54B and RA 54B , but was not engaged . On 15 December she was assigned to Force 2 , the distant escort for Convoy JW 55A , with the battleship HMS Duke of York and four destroyers . Force 2 was commanded by Admiral Bruce Fraser , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of Home Fleet , in Duke of York . For the first time the British distant cover force escorted the convoy all the way to the Kola Inlet . Their passage was uneventful and Force 2 sailed on 18 December to refuel at Iceland . Before he reached his destination , Admiral Fraser received Ultra information that a sortie by the German battleship Scharnhorst was likely to attack Convoy JW 55B , which was already at sea .
= = = Battle of North Cape = = =
German aerial reconnaissance spotted the convoy on 22 December , and Scharnhorst , escorted by five destroyers of the 4th Destroyer Flotilla , sailed on 25 December to intercept it . The resulting engagement became known as the Battle of North Cape . The Germans were spotted on the morning of 26 December and were engaged by the covering force that consisted of the cruisers HMS Belfast , HMS Sheffield , HMS Norfolk and four destroyers . Meanwhile , HMS Jamaica and HMS Duke Of York approached from the south west , barring the Scharnhorst ’ s path of retreat . The German battleship turned for her base at Altafjord in the early afternoon after two brief encounters with the British cruisers . She was spotted by Duke of York 's Type 273 radar at a range of 45 @,@ 500 yards ( 41 @,@ 600 m ) and Duke of York opened fire half an hour later . Jamaica fired her first salvo a minute after , and hit Scharnhorst on her third broadside . She was forced to cease fire after 19 volleys as the German ship was faster in the heavy seas than the British ships , and was opening up the range despite heavy damage from the British shells . One shell from Duke of York 's last volley penetrated into Scharnhorst 's Number One boiler room and effectively destroyed it . This reduced the German ship 's speed sufficiently for the British destroyers to catch up and make four torpedo hits using a pincer attack . This slowed the ship again , so that Jamaica and Duke of York also caught up and opened fire at a range of 10 @,@ 400 yards ( 9 @,@ 500 m ) . They hit the German ship continually , but she was not sinking after 20 minutes of firing so Jamaica was ordered to torpedo her . Two torpedoes from her first volley of three missed and the third misfired , so the cruiser had to turn about to fire her other broadside of three , two of which appeared to hit . Belfast and the destroyers also fired torpedoes before Scharnhorst finally sank .
= = = Further convoys and the raids on the Tirpitz = = =
In February – March 1944 , Jamaica served as part of the covering forces for Convoys JW 57 , JW 58 and RA 58 . She was detached from the latter to escort the aircraft carrier HMS Victorious as she launched an air strike against the German battleship Tirpitz as part of Operation Tungsten . In July she formed part of the covering force for the carriers HMS Formidable , HMS Furious and HMS Indefatigable during an unsuccessful attack on the German battleship Tirpitz berthed in Kaafjord ( Operation Mascot ) . Jamaica escorted the Convoys JW 59 and RA 59 in August – September before starting a major refit in October that lasted until April 1945 . The ship 's ' X ' turret ( third from the front ) was removed and replaced by two more 2 @-@ pounder mounts while her radar suite was modernized .
On 6 June the cruiser conveyed King George VI and the Queen on a visit the Channel Islands . Jamaica joined the 5th Cruiser Squadron at Colombo in October and replaced HMS Norfolk as the squadron flagship in April 1946 . The ship returned to Devonport for a refit in November 1947 and was transferred to the North America and West Indies Station in August 1948 after its completion . She was sent to Hong Kong in April 1949 and remained in the Far East until the Korean War began in June 1950 .
= = = The Korean War = = =
Fighting between North and South Korea had broken out on 25 June 1950 , whilst Jamaica was on passage to Japan . She , and her escort HMS Black Swan , were ordered to rendezvous with the American light cruiser USS Juneau off the east coast of Korea to bombard advancing North Korean troops . On 2 July a North Korean supply convoy was returning from Chumunjin when it was spotted by the Allied ships . The escorting motor torpedo boats and motor gun boats turned to fight , but three torpedo boats and both gun boats were sunk without inflicting any damage on the Allied ships . They resumed bombarding coastal targets . Six days later Jamaica was hit by a 75 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) shell that killed six and wounded five . On 15 August the ship bombarded captured harbour facilities in Kunsan . The following month , Jamaica participated in the preparatory bombardment of the island of Wolmi @-@ do before the main landing on 15 September . During the landing itself she supported the southern flank of the assault and she was tasked to support the 1st Marine Regiment afterwards . Two days after the landing Jamaica and the American heavy cruiser USS Rochester were attacked by a pair of Yakovlev piston @-@ engined fighters at dawn . One aircraft succeeded in strafing the ship , killing one sailor , before it was shot down by the ship 's guns . Jamaica was sent to refit in Singapore in October and then sailed for home after it was completed . She arrived in Plymouth in February 1952 and was placed in reserve .
= = = Post war = = =
The ship was the flagship of the Reserve Fleet from May 1953 to 1954 when she was recommissioned for service with the Mediterranean Fleet . Assigned to the 1st Cruiser Squadron , she was refitted in Chatham Dockyard from June 1955 and rejoined her squadron . The ship participated in Operation Musketeer in November 1956 . The ship led the bombardment force covering the Royal Marine landings at Port Said , but she was not permitted to fire her main guns as the Cabinet had banned naval gunfire support by guns larger than 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) . In 1954 she played the part of HMS Exeter in the war film The Battle of the River Plate . Jamaica was placed in reserve again in September 1958 after a port visit to Kiel . She was sold on 14 November 1960 to BISCO . The ship arrived at Arnott Young 's yards at Dalmuir on 20 December 1960 for scrapping . This was not completed until 15 August 1963 at Troon .
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= Thatgamecompany =
Thatgamecompany , LLC ( stylized as thatgamecompany ) is an American independent video game development company co @-@ founded by University of Southern California students Jenova Chen and Kellee Santiago in 2006 . The company was a developer for Sony Computer Entertainment , contracted to create three downloadable games for the PlayStation 3 's PlayStation Network service , and has since secured independent funding . The first of their games is a remake of Chen 's award @-@ winning Flash title Flow , with enhanced visuals and sound , added multiplayer modes and compatibility with the PlayStation 3 's motion sensitive controller . The title was released on the PlayStation Store in 2007 . The company 's second PlayStation 3 game , Flower , was released on the PlayStation Store in 2009 , and their third game , Journey , was released in March 2012 on the PlayStation Store .
The company focuses on creating video games that provoke emotional responses from players . Its employees have stated that , while they are not opposed to making action @-@ oriented games , they believe that enough such titles are released by the established video game industry . When designing a game , Thatgamecompany employees start by mapping out what they want the player to feel , rather than by establishing game mechanics . Employees have stated that the company does not plan to produce large , blockbuster titles , due to their belief that the pressure for high sales would stifle innovation .
= = History = =
In late 2005 , Jenova Chen and Kellee Santiago began thinking about creating their own video game company . The two were in their final year as master 's students in the Interactive Media Program at the University of Southern California 's School of Cinematic Arts , and had just released a video game — Cloud — that they had developed with several other students . The group intended the project as an experiment , meant to reveal whether they could create a game that " expressed something different than video games had in the past " , and to determine the public 's level of interest in video games of that nature . Due to the game 's strongly positive reception , Chen and Santiago began to consider founding their own company , so that they could continue making games like Cloud — in which the design is not based on gameplay mechanics , but on inspiring emotions in players — after they left college .
At the time , digital distribution was gaining popularity . The two saw it as an opportunity to create games without the high financial risk of retail distribution , which they believed would require them to first accumulate funds by working for other video game companies . Thatgamecompany was founded on May 15 , 2006 , as Chen and Santiago finished their master 's degrees . The company soon signed a deal with Sony Computer Entertainment , which had been impressed by Chen 's Flash game Flow — a component of his master 's thesis at USC . Thatgamecompany was contracted to produce three games for the upcoming PlayStation Network distribution system , and was given startup funding and a location at Sony 's offices in Los Angeles .
Initially , Thatgamecompany consisted of Chen , Santiago , Nick Clark , who had collaborated with Chen on Flow , and John Edwards . Santiago was the president of the company and the producer for its games , Clark was the designer , and Edwards was the lead engineer . Although Chen cofounded the company , he initially worked at Maxis on the game Spore . The company considered adapting Cloud as their first product for Sony , but instead decided on Flow , as it was " more fleshed @-@ out as a design " . They felt that it would be easier than Cloud to develop while they built the company ; no members of the team had experience with managing a business or with creating a commercial game . Several contract workers assisted Thatgamecompany with Flow 's development , including Austin Wintory , the game 's composer .
The company had believed that the PlayStation 3 version of Flow could be completed in four months , and that it would be ready for the November 2006 launch of the PlayStation Network . However , when it was released in February 2007 , it did not include " half of the original design " . According to Santiago , the Sony producer assigned to the team had anticipated that they would underestimate the game 's development length , and was not surprised by the delay . The game was well received ; it became the most downloaded game on the PlayStation Network in 2007 , and was nominated for the Best Downloadable Game of the Year award at the 2008 Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences Interactive Achievement Awards , and for the Best Innovation award at the 2007 British Academy of Film and Television Arts ( BAFTA ) awards . After its release , an expansion pack and a PlayStation Portable version of the game were created by SuperVillain Studios . Thatgamecompany was not involved in the development of either project beyond ensuring that they retained the same design and art direction as the original , as they were busy creating their next title , Flower .
Flower was Thatgamecompany 's " first game outside the safety net of academia " , according to Santiago . Six to nine people were involved at different stages of development . Chen returned to work full @-@ time at the company prior to the game 's development , and served as the creative director . The game 's music was composed by Vincent Diamante , who had worked with Chen and Santiago on Cloud . The game was developed for two years , but the team spent three @-@ fourths of that time in the prototyping stage . After they decided on the game 's elements , Flower was produced in only six months . Like Flow , the game was well received when it was released in February 2009 , selling in the top ten PlayStation Network titles of the year and garnering several awards . After the release of Flower , Thatgamecompany moved into their own building in Los Angeles .
The company 's latest project is Journey , which was released on March 13 , 2012 . It was the final game in Thatgamecompany 's three @-@ game contract with Sony , and was developed by a team of fourteen . This team did not include Santiago , who , in order to concentrate on her role as the company 's president , was replaced as a producer by Robin Hunicke . The game was in development for three years , despite having been expected to take one year , and the development team faced several problems in expanding the company from seven employees as they began the game to eighteen , and risked running out of money . Upon release , the game achieved both critical and commercial success . It became the fastest @-@ selling game to date on PlayStation Store in North America and Europe . After the game was released , as the company began work on another project , several employees left for other opportunities . Santiago left the company to pursue other ventures , designer Chris Bell left to form his own studio The Willderness , and Hunicke resigned to work at Tiny Speck . Chen attributes the exodus to the end of Thatgamecompany 's three @-@ game contract , and to the fact that the company had run out of money to pay employees , mandating an unpaid hiatus until the revenue from Journey came in .
Once the money from Journey began to arrive , Thatgamecompany brought back several of the employees affected by the cashflow problems , and some new developers . The company , with its contract with Sony complete , raised $ 5 @.@ 5 million in venture capitalist funding , which they hope to use to develop future games for multiple platforms without influences by publishers . The team has been working since the release of Journey on a new , unannounced game , and as of June 2013 was made up of around 12 people , only half of whom worked on Journey . Thatgamecompany hopes to release the game on " as many platforms as possible " , and to include touch controls in an innovative way in the same way their previous games included tilting the controller . On May 27 , 2014 it was reported that the next game from Thatgamecompany had received $ 7 million in funding from Capital Today and a team of other investors . While the unnamed game has been in development , Thatgamecompany has re @-@ released Flow and Flower onto both the PlayStation 4 and the PlayStation Vita , and an updated port of Journey for the PlayStation 4 .
= = Philosophy = =
When Thatgamecompany designs a game , they begin by deciding on the emotions and feelings they wish to invoke in the player . This differs from the approach of most developers , who build from game mechanics or genre features . According to Santiago , the company creates emotional responses to demonstrate the wide range of possible experiences in video games , which she believes is larger than the few — excitement and fear , for example — that are typically presented . Chen has said that the company 's games are meant to evoke emotions more than a message ; he specifically changed the design of Flower when early testers felt that the game promoted green energy . Chen believes that he is " too young " to make a game with a strong message , and so designs the company 's products to avoid overt meanings . Santiago has said that Thatgamecompany 's goal is " to create games that push the boundaries of videogames as a communicative medium , and to create games that appeal to a wide variety of people " . She hopes to change the video game industry with this process , so that other companies approach video games as a " creative medium " instead of a mass product .
Thatgamecompany 's employees are not opposed to making action titles , and , as a break from their regular projects , have internally created " exciting " games that were well received by Sony . However , Chen believes that there is no reason for the company to commercially produce such games , as they would not be creating new ideas that justified the cost of remaining an independent studio , as opposed to working for existing game developers . Similarly , Chen does not intend for Thatgamecompany to make " big budget blockbuster games " , as he believes that the financial pressure would stifle innovation .
= = Games = =
In Flow , the player navigates a series of two @-@ dimensional planes with an aquatic microorganism that evolves by consuming other microorganisms . The game 's design is based on Chen 's research into dynamic difficulty adjustment at the University of Southern California , and on psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi 's theoretical concept of mental immersion or flow . It was released for the PlayStation 3 on February 22 , 2007 .
Flower was intended as a spiritual successor to Flow . Using the PlayStation 3 's motion sensitive controller , the player controls wind that blows a flower petal through the air . Flying close to flowers results in the player 's petal being followed by other flower petals . Approaching flowers may also have side @-@ effects on the game world , such as bringing vibrant color to previously dead fields or activating stationary windmills . The game features no text or dialogue , forming a narrative arc primarily through visual representation and emotional cues . It was released for the PlayStation 3 on February 12 , 2009 .
Journey is Thatgamecompany 's latest game . The player controls a robed figure who wakes up in a desert , with a large mountain in the distance as their destination . While traveling , the player can encounter other players over the Internet , one at a time . Players cannot communicate verbally , but may help each other or not as they wish . The game was released for the PlayStation 3 on March 13 , 2012 . Austin Wintory was nominated for a Grammy Award in 2013 for Best Score Soundtrack for Journey , the first such nomination for a full video game score , but lost to Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross for The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo .
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= Roger le Poer =
Roger le Poer ( sometimes Roger Pauper or Roger Poer ) was a medieval Lord Chancellor from 1135 until 1139 for King Stephen of England . The son of a powerful bishop , Roger owed his position to his family connections . He lost his office when his father and other relatives lost power . Arrested along with his father , Roger was used to secure the surrender of a castle held by his mother and then disappeared from history .
= = Background and early life = =
Roger was the son of Roger of Salisbury , Lord Chancellor for King Henry I of England and Bishop of Salisbury , and Matilda of Ramsbury . It is possible that Roger of Salisbury was married to Matilda prior to his elevation to the episcopate , but this is unlikely . Because their son Roger le Poer was described as " young " in 1139 , it is most likely that he was born after his father 's consecration as bishop in 1107 . A biographer of Roger of Salisbury , Edward Kealey , has argued that Roger le Poer is the same person as Roger , the archdeacon of Berkshire who died in the 1160s . Another possibility , that the younger Roger was the same as Roger of Ramsbury , archdeacon of Wiltshire , is less likely , as it is known that Roger of Ramsbury was not closely related to Adelelm , the nephew or son of Roger of Salisbury . The historian Diana Greenway in the Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae 1066 – 1300 takes this view .
= = Chancellor = =
The younger Roger 's family was a powerful one in England - not only was his father the Bishop of Salisbury , but he also held the administration of the government in his hands . The older Roger had the powers of the office of justiciar , without having actually been appointed to that office , as a continuation of the power he had held during the second part of the reign of Henry I. The elder Roger 's two nephews – Nigel , who was Bishop of Ely and had previously been Lord Treasurer , and Alexander , who was Bishop of Lincoln - both held important bishoprics , and another nephew or son held the Treasurership from 1136 . This was Adelelm , who may have been a full brother to Roger le Poer . The family also controlled a number of castles throughout England . William of Malmesbury , a medieval chronicler , claimed that the younger Roger 's appointment as chancellor was the price demanded by the elder Roger for the bishop 's support of Stephen as king after the death of King Henry I of England . Roger served as chancellor from 1135 until 24 June 1139 .
Roger travelled with the king , often accompanying him in the royal progresses around England . In late 1136 or 1137 , Roger was with the king at a court called at Westminster which heard a complaint by the Holy Trinity Priory in London that Hasculf de Tany , the castellan of the Tower of London , had taken land that belonged to the priory . In the end , the priory regained custody of their land . In March 1137 Roger was with the king right before the king sailed to Normandy , as the chancellor witnessed a charter of the king just prior to his departure . As chancellor , Roger was a witness on over 60 royal writs .
= = Arrest and exile = =
In the middle of 1139 , rumours were current that the family was going to defect to Stephen 's rival for the throne , the Empress Matilda . These rumours appear to have been started by a group of nobles led by twin brothers Waleran de Beaumont , the Count of Meulan , and Robert de Beaumont , the Earl of Leicester , with Alan of Brittany . Whether Roger and his family really intended to switch their support to Matilda is unclear , but unlikely . In late June , a fight broke out between some of the retainers of Alan and men in the service of Roger 's family . This fight was the excuse for the king moving against Roger 's family . Both the elder and younger Roger were arrested , along with Alexander , but Nigel escaped . Matilda of Ramsbury , who held out in Devizes Castle against the king , was persuaded to surrender the castle to Stephen when the king threatened to hang the younger Roger if she did not yield . The younger Roger was restrained with chains and put on a high platform in view of the castle with a noose around his neck .
The name le poer , or pauperus , means " pauper " and was not given to Roger until after his and his father 's fall from power in 1139 . It is possible the new name was bestowed because he could have expected to receive a bishopric after his time as chancellor , which did not happen because of his family 's disgrace . Another possible reason for the name was to contrast with his father 's wealth . It is unlikely that he was actually poor , as his family was wealthy and powerful . The historian Francis West described the base of the family 's power as " control of the important offices of royal government " .
Roger was sent into exile after his family 's disgrace . If he is the same person as the archdeacon of Berkshire , he died in the middle of the 1160s , but no other sure information is known about him after his exile .
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= Arizona State Route 89A =
State Route 89A ( SR 89A ) is an 83 @.@ 85 @-@ mile ( 134 @.@ 94 km ) state highway that runs from Prescott north to Flagstaff in the U.S. state of Arizona . The highway begins at SR 89 and heads northward from Prescott , entering Jerome . From Jerome , the route then heads to Cottonwood and Sedona . The highway is notable for its scenic value as it passes through Sedona and the Oak Creek Canyon . The route then enters Flagstaff , where it crosses Interstate 17 ( I @-@ 17 ) and I @-@ 40 . The highway ends at I @-@ 40 Business in Flagstaff . What is now SR 89A became a state highway in the late 1920s as SR 79 . The highway was extended and improved several times through 1938 . SR 79 was renumbered to U.S. Route 89A ( US 89A ) in 1941 and then to SR 89A in the early 1990s .
= = Route description = =
SR 89A runs from its southern terminus in Prescott northward through the towns of Jerome , Cottonwood and Sedona to its northern terminus in Flagstaff . The highway is known for its scenic views as it passes through the Sedona and Oak Creek Canyon .
= = = Prescott to Jerome = = =
The southern terminus of SR 89A is located at a junction with SR 89 north of Prescott near the Antelope Hills Golf Course and Ernest A. Love Field . The road heads east from the junction with SR 89 as a four @-@ lane divided highway with diamond interchanges located at most intersections . It continues as a divided highway until it reaches Fain Road in Prescott Valley . The route continues beyond this intersection as a two @-@ lane undivided highway .
As SR 89A moves to the northeast , it begins to ascend the Black Hills mountain range . The roadway follows the terrain through a series of hairpin turns as it climbs in elevation . Once SR 89A reaches passes over the mountains , it begins its descent into the Verde Valley . During its descent , SR 89A enters the town of Jerome . In Jerome , the highway provides access to the nearby Jerome State Historic Park .
= = = Jerome to Sedona = = =
Upon exiting Jerome , SR 89A heads northeast through the Verde Valley . After it enters the town of Clarkdale , it turns southeast at a roundabout with Clarkdale Parkway . The route continues towards the southeast through Clarkdale before entering the town of Cottonwood . There , the highway starts heading east at Cottonwood Street before reaching an intersection with Main Street .
The historic route of 89A from Clarkdale to Cottonwood , when it was called U.S. Route 89A , ran through the old downtown areas of each city . From Jerome , the route continued along 11th Street ( now Clarkdale Parkway ) , turning right at Main Street in Clarkdale , and then right again at Broadway . It continued past Tuzigoot National Monument , becoming Main Street in Cottonwood , and providing access to Dead Horse Ranch State Park . The route intersects Cottonwood Street , where the bypass route now intersects Main Street . This portion is now signed as " Historic U.S. 89A . "
Following the intersection with Cottonwood Street , the road follows Main Street to an intersection with SR 260 , which heads to the south toward Camp Verde and I @-@ 17 . SR 89A then moves northeastward towards Sedona .
As the highway leaves Cottonwood , it again becomes a divided highway north of Rocking Chair Road , heading into desert . Before reaching Sedona , SR 89A provides access to Red Rock State Park . The route remains a divided highway until it reaches Sedona , an arts and resort community known for its red sandstone formations . As it enters the city of Sedona , the route is known as the Si Birch Memorial Highway . The route continues east through Sedona , providing access to the Sedona Airport . SR 89A continues towards the east through Sedona to an intersection with SR 179 , which heads south from this intersection through the southern part of Sedona to provide access to I @-@ 17 .
= = = Sedona to Flagstaff = = =
The highway heads northeast into a wooded area from Sedona and follows Oak Creek as it enters Oak Creek Canyon . SR 89A then curves to the north as it follows the creek and provides access to Slide Rock State Park along this portion of the highway . The roadway leaves the creek as it begins to ascend through the canyon . Upon ascending , the road goes through a series of hairpin turns ( no trucks over 50 ft . ) towards the Mogollon Rim . The roadway continues northward away from the canyon towards Flagstaff . It curves northeastward as it passes to the west of the Forest Highlands Golf Club . The route continues to the northeast towards I @-@ 17 near Flagstaff Pulliam Airport . SR 89A begins to run concurrently with I @-@ 17 as a freeway northward . The two highways continue north to an interchange with I @-@ 40 , where I @-@ 17 terminates . The route continues north along Milton Road , passing to the west of Northern Arizona University before reaching its northern terminus at Interstate 40 Business in Flagstaff .
= = History = =
The routing of SR 89A was first defined as a state highway in 1927 as SR 79 by the Arizona Department of Transportation ( ADOT ) . At the time , only the portion from Prescott to Clarkdale was built , but the remaining portion to Flagstaff had been planned . By 1929 , the highway had been extended north to Sedona , although the entire highway was not paved at this time . A graded dirt road was built the following year between Flagstaff and Sedona . The southern half of the section between Sedona and Flagstaff had been improved to a gravel road by 1934 , with the northern half under construction . The next year , the construction on the northern section near Flagstaff was complete . The southern end of the highway near Prescott and the section between Jerome and Cottonwood had been paved by this time . By 1938 , the entire route had been paved .
By 1941 , the highway was redesignated from SR 79 to US 89A . Before the establishment of the route for I @-@ 17 , the only route to Flagstaff was through Prescott . There were two routes available : US 89A through Jerome , Cottonwood , Clarkdale , Sedona and Oak Creek Canyon or north through Chino Valley via US 89 to US 66 . The route was redesignated from US 89A to SR 89A in 1993 .
= = Junction list = =
= = Spur route = =
Fain Road / Prescott Loop is a short , route running roughly northwest to southeast , along Fain Road in Prescott Valley . Its primary original purpose was to provide a direct route from SR 69 to SR 79 and was originally designated as SR 179 and went to west mingus meeting than SR 79 ( Jerome JCT ) now known as 89A . It now moves west away from West Mingus and towards Robert Road in Prescott Valley where it meets 89A . The road was originally two lanes wide , but it has since been widened to a 4 @-@ lane divided highway and Future plans to make it part of the Prescott Loop Freeway system that will connect Future Interstate 11 and Interstate 17 via Freeway .
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= Play @-@ Doh =
Play @-@ Doh is a modeling compound used by young children for art and craft projects at home and in school . Composed of flour , water , salt , boric acid , and mineral oil , the product was first manufactured in Cincinnati , Ohio , U.S. , as a wallpaper cleaner in the 1930s . The product was reworked and marketed to Cincinnati schools in the mid @-@ 1950s . Play @-@ Doh was demonstrated at an educational convention in 1956 and prominent department stores opened retail accounts . Advertisements promoting Play @-@ Doh on influential children 's television shows in 1957 furthered the product 's sales . Since its launch on the toy market in the mid @-@ 1950s , Play @-@ Doh has generated a considerable amount of ancillary merchandise such as The Fun Factory . In 2003 , the Toy Industry Association named Play @-@ Doh in its " Century of Toys List " .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
The non @-@ toxic , non @-@ staining , reusable modeling compound that came to be known as " Play @-@ Doh " was a pliable , putty @-@ like substance concocted by Noah McVicker of Cincinnati @-@ based soap manufacturer Kutol Products . It was devised at the request of Kroger Grocery , which wanted a product that could clean coal residue from wallpaper . Following World War II , with the transition from coal @-@ based home heating to natural gas and the resulting decrease in internal soot , and the introduction of washable vinyl @-@ based wallpaper , the market for wallpaper cleaning putty decreased substantially . McVicker 's nephew , Joe McVicker , joined Kutol with the remit to save the company from bankruptcy . Joe McVicker was the brother @-@ in @-@ law of nursery school teacher Kay Zufall , and Zufall had seen a newspaper article about making art projects with the wallpaper cleaning putty . Her students enjoyed it , and she persuaded Bill Rhodenbaugh ( who also sold the putty ) and Joe McVicker to manufacture it as a child ’ s toy . Zufall and her husband came up with the name Play @-@ Doh ; Joe McVicker and Rhodenbaugh had wanted to call it " Rainbow Modeling Compound " .
= = = Launch = = =
Joe McVicker took Play @-@ Doh to an educational convention for manufacturers of school supplies , and Woodward & Lothrop , a department store in Washington , DC began selling the compound . In 1956 , the McVickers formed the Rainbow Crafts Company to make and sell Play @-@ Doh . Also in 1956 , a three @-@ pack of 7 @-@ ounce cans was added to the product line , and , after in @-@ store demonstrations , Macy 's of New York and Marshall Field 's of Chicago opened retail accounts . In 1957 , chemist Dr. Tien Liu reduced Play Doh 's salt content ( thus allowing models to dry without losing their color ) , and Play @-@ Doh ads were telecast on Captain Kangaroo , Ding Dong School , and Romper Room . In 1958 , Play @-@ Doh 's sales reached nearly $ 3 million .
= = = Subsequent developments = = =
In 1964 , Play @-@ Doh was exported to Britain , France , and Italy . In the 1980s , its cardboard can ( with a rust @-@ prone metal bottom ) was scuttled for a more cost effective plastic container . By 1965 , Rainbow Crafts was issued a patent for Play @-@ Doh . Also in 1965 , General Mills purchased Rainbow Crafts and all rights to Play @-@ Doh for $ 3 million , placing the compound with its Kenner Products subsidiary . In 1971 , Rainbow Crafts and Kenner Products merged , and , in 1987 , the Tonka Corporation bought the two . In 1991 , Hasbro became Play @-@ Doh 's owner , and continues to manufacture the product today through its preschool division . In 1996 , gold and silver were added to Play @-@ Doh 's palette to celebrate its 40th anniversary .
= = = Mascots = = =
Play @-@ Doh packaging was briefly illustrated with children in the mid @-@ 1950s , but replaced by an elf mascot which , in 1960 , was superseded by Play @-@ Doh Pete , a smock and beret @-@ wearing cartoonish boy . In 2002 , Play @-@ Doh Pete 's beret was replaced with a baseball cap . Since 2011 , living Play @-@ Doh cans named the Doh @-@ Dohs have been seen in adverts .
= = Ingredients = =
Play @-@ Doh 's current manufacturer , Hasbro , reveals the compound is primarily a mixture of water , salt , and flour , while its 2004 United States patent indicates it is composed of water , a starch @-@ based binder , a retrogradation inhibitor , salt , lubricant , surfactant , preservative , hardener , humectant , fragrance , and color . A petroleum additive gives the compound a smooth feel , and borax prevents mold from developing . Many home @-@ made recipes will include salt , flour or corn starch , a vegetable oil ( such as canola or olive oil ) and cream of tartar .
= = Related merchandise = =
In 1960 , the Play @-@ Doh Fun Factory ( a toy press that extrudes the compound in various shapes ) was invented by Bob Boggild and Bill Dale . The Play @-@ Doh Fuzzy Pumper Barber & Beauty Shop of 1977 featured a figurine whose extruded " hair " could be styled . Making its debut in 1996 for computer @-@ savvy young modelers was an educational software CD @-@ ROM game , Play @-@ Doh Creations , and , in 2003 , the Play @-@ Doh Creativity Table was made available . Play @-@ Doh related merchandise introduced during the 2007 anniversary year included the Play @-@ Doh Birthday Bucket , the Play @-@ Doh Fifty Colors Pack , the Fuzzy Pumper Crazy Cuts ( a reworking of the 1977 Fuzzy Pumper Barber & Beauty Shop ) , and the Play @-@ Doh Creativity Center . In 2012 , " Play @-@ Doh Plus " was created . It is lighter , more pliable , and softer than regular Play @-@ Doh .
= = Cultural impact = =
More than two billion cans of Play @-@ Doh were sold between 1955 and 2005 , and , in 2005 , Play @-@ doh was being sold in 75 countries around the world at 95 million cans a year . In the United States , more than 6 @,@ 000 stores carry Play @-@ Doh .
To mark Play @-@ Doh 's fiftieth anniversary , Greece created a limited @-@ edition fragrance inspired by Play @-@ Doh 's odor for " highly @-@ creative people , who seek a whimsical scent reminiscent of their childhood . "
Play @-@ Doh was inducted into the National Toy Hall of Fame at The Strong in Rochester , New York , in 1998 .
In 2003 , the Toy Industry Association placed Play @-@ Doh into its " Century of Toys List " , a roll call of the 100 most memorable and most creative toys of the twentieth century .
In late 2014 the company offered to replace a new " Play @-@ Doh Cake Mountain " extruder tool , for free , after receiving complaints about the toy 's " phallic shape " .
= = Film = =
In April 2 , 2015 , 20th Century Fox announced to work on a Play @-@ Doh movie with Hasbro Studios and Chernin Entertainment producing , Jason Micallef writing and Paul Feig directing from his production company Feigco .
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= Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes =
Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes is a first @-@ person , action @-@ adventure video game developed by Retro Studios and published by Nintendo for the GameCube video game console . It is the seventh published game in the Metroid series , a direct sequel to Metroid Prime , and the first game in the series with a multiplayer feature . Echoes was released in North America , Europe , and Australia in 2004 ; and in Japan in May 2005 .
The story of Echoes follows bounty hunter Samus Aran after she is sent to rescue Galactic Federation Marines from a ship near Aether , a planet inhabited by a race known as the Luminoth . There , she discovers that the troops were slaughtered by the Ing , a race that came from an alternate dimension of Aether . Samus must travel to three temples to ensure the destruction of the Ing , while battling Space Pirates and her mysterious doppelgänger called Dark Samus .
Retro decided to make the game different from its predecessor by adding more focus on storyline and including new gameplay elements . Nintendo launched a viral marketing campaign to promote the game that included several websites written as if taking place in the Metroid universe . Echoes ' single player mode and graphics were praised by critics , while its steep difficulty level and multiplayer components were met less positively . Since its release , Echoes has received several video game industry awards , as well as spots on " top games " lists by Nintendo Power and IGN . Over 800 @,@ 000 copies of the game were sold worldwide . In 2009 , an enhanced version was released for Wii as a standalone game in Japan and as part of Metroid Prime : Trilogy internationally .
= = Gameplay = =
Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes is a first @-@ person action @-@ adventure game that takes place in an open @-@ ended world with interconnected regions . Gameplay revolves around solving puzzles to uncover secrets , platform jumping , and shooting enemies . Echoes features two parallel dimensions , Light Aether and Dark Aether , where changes in either dimension often reflect changes in the other . Although the maps in both dimensions have the same general layout , rooms often vary in their designs , creatures , and objects . Progress through the game requires both dimensions to be explored , using power @-@ ups that Samus acquires over time . Equipment players collect include the Screw Attack , which allows Samus to somersault in midair and off certain surfaces , and new beam weapons that have limited ammunition .
Dark Aether 's atmosphere is caustic and damages Samus 's Power Suit , requiring the player to move between designated " safe zones " that allow Samus 's health to be regained slowly . Safe zones are either permanent , or need to be activated by firing certain beam weapons at force field generators . Power Suit upgrades can reduce or nullify damage caused by the atmosphere .
The game 's head @-@ up display simulates the inside of Samus 's helmet and features a radar , map , missile ammunition meter , health meter , and statistics on bosses . Several visors are available , and each performs a different function . One , also seen in the previous game , is a scanner that searches for enemy weaknesses , interfaces with mechanisms such as force fields and elevators and retrieves text entries from certain sources . The others reveal and highlight interdimensional objects or cloaked enemies , and create a visual representation of sound .
Echoes also features a multiplayer mode that allows up to four players to engage in combat using a split screen . It has six arenas and two modes : Deathmatch , in which players attempt to kill their opponents as many times as possible within a set amount of time ; and Bounty , which focuses on collecting coins that injured characters drop . Multiplayer in Echoes features the same control scheme as the single @-@ player mode , including the lock @-@ on system for circle strafing while targeting .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Echoes takes place on a rogue planet in the Dasha region , Aether , inhabited by a race known as the Luminoth . The Luminoth lived peacefully , protecting the planet 's pure natural energy , which they call the " Light of Aether " . Five decades before the game 's events , a Phazon meteor collides into the planet and leaves a scar causing environmental damage and splitting the planetary energy . The split creates another planet in an alternate dimension , Dark Aether , a mirror version of Aether that is dark , arid , and has a poisonous atmosphere . Dark Aether becomes home to the Ing , cruel shapeshifting creatures who intend to destroy the Luminoth , and are able to possess bodies of the living , the dead , and the artificially intelligent . Eventually , the Ing and the Luminoth engage in a war over the planet 's energy — whichever race controls it is capable of destroying the other .
Around this time , Space Pirates set up a base on Aether after detecting the mutagenic substance Phazon on the planet . A Galactic Federation Marine Corps patrol ship encounters one of the Pirates ' supply ships leaving the planet and an altercation follows . Both ships suffer heavy damage , and after the Federation loses contact with the Marines , it calls the bounty hunter Samus Aran to investigate .
= = = Plot = = =
While looking for the Marines near Aether , Samus 's ship is damaged by severe lightning storms from the planet . Said storms have caused electromagnetic interference that prevented the Marines from communicating with the Federation . Samus finds the troops dead and surrounded by hive creatures called Splinters . Deceased Marines suddenly rise and attack her , apparently possessed , and she fights them off . Samus then encounters her evil doppelgänger , Dark Samus , for the first time , and Dark Samus jumps through a portal . Samus decides to follow her through it and into Dark Aether , where Samus is attacked by a group of dark creatures called Ing , who steal the weapons from Samus 's suit before pushing her back through the portal .
Upon returning to Aether , Samus learns that the Marines were attacked and killed by Ing @-@ possessed Splinters , and decides to enter a nearby alien temple structure to look for clues . When she reaches the structure , she meets U @-@ Mos , the last remaining sentinel of the Luminoth , an alien race that have fought against the Ing for decades . They are now on the verge of defeat . He tells Samus that after a meteor struck Aether , the impact was so devastating , it created a vile trans @-@ dimensional duplicate Aether , called " Dark Aether " . The toxic world hosts a deadly and aggressive species called Ing . He also tells Samus that the Ing have taken virtually all of the ' Light of Aether ' , the entire collective planetary energy for Aether that keeps the planet stable , and begs her to retrieve it . As if any world gains all this energy , the other will perish .
Samus goes to three regions — the Agon Wastes , a parched , rocky , desert wasteland region ; Torvus Bog , a drenched swamp area that houses a partially submerged hydrosubstation ; and the Sanctuary Fortress , a highly advanced cliffside fortress built by the Luminoth filled with corrupted robots that serves as the Ing hive in Dark Aether — to retrieve the Light of Aether and return it to the Luminoth temples . Samus fights Space Pirates , Dark Samus , and monstrous Ing guardians on her mission .
After Samus has retrieved three pieces of the Light of Aether , she enters the Ing 's Sky Temple and faces the Emperor Ing , the strongest Ing who guards the remaining Light of Aether in the Dark Aether . Samus defeats the creature and retrieves the last remaining energy as Dark Aether , becomes critically unstable and collapses ; however , her path out of the temple is blocked by a horribly altered and unstable Dark Samus . After defeating her foe , Samus escapes as the dark world disappears around her . Returning to U @-@ Mos , she finds that the Luminoth were in a state of hibernation but have now awakened . After a brief celebration , Samus leaves Aether in her repaired gunship . If the player has collected 100 percent of the power @-@ ups , a post @-@ credits scene shows Dark Samus has survived the implosion , and now reforming herself above Aether .
= = Development = =
After the critical and commercial success of Metroid Prime , Nintendo asked Retro Studios to produce a sequel . The developers decided against recycling the features of the first game , and instead used new sound models , weapon effects , and art designs . They also implemented the Screw Attack and wall jumping features seen in previous Metroid games , which were not incorporated in the first Prime due to time constraints . Another element considered for the previous game was the multiplayer component . Since the game was a first @-@ person adventure and its deathmatch mode could not easily replicate other shooters in the market , Retro just tried to " make a multiplayer experience that fans of Metroid games would instantly know and recognise " .
The staff opted for a more immersive storyline , with increased use of cut scenes and a plot that focused less on the Space Pirates and Metroids that permeate the rest of the series . Retro decided that the game would follow a theme of light and dark , which originated from " something that everyone understands : the conflict between good and evil " . Mike Wikan , the game 's senior designer , elaborated on the theme : " We wanted a push and pull , the whole game is pushing and pulling you back and forth between the dark and the light . It ended up being that we wanted something that would feed into that dichotomy , that conflict between the two , and how the player 's basic abilities reflect that . " The developers asked the producers of The Legend of Zelda : A Link to the Past , another Nintendo game , for advice because the game also used the theme of parallel worlds .
In developing Dark Samus , Retro wanted to create a character that was similar to Samus and be the same size , as opposed to the enormous monsters of Metroid Prime . One of the inspirations for the character was a boss battle in Metroid : Zero Mission , where Samus fights a mirror image of herself . The developers considered Dark Samus a " natural choice " for the game because it fit in well with the " dramatic feel of dark and light " .
Retro decided to make the game more challenging than Metroid Prime — which was supposed to familiarize players with the control scheme — and felt that " with the second Prime , we had the ability or the freedom " to do so . They wanted Echoes to be focused towards a hardcore audience by making the player " always worried about his health " , so more mini @-@ bosses were added to provide unique boss fights . After the game 's release , the developers admitted that it was more difficult to develop than they first imagined , and Michael Kelbaugh , Retro Studios ' president , commented : " We wanted to expand and add to the title , and not just slam out a sequel . Nintendo doesn 't do things that way . " Retro tried to include some extras , such as a hidden version of Super Metroid , but were halted by the short development time . Producer Kensuke Tanabe later revealed that the game was just about thirty percent complete three months before the strict deadline Nintendo had set for a release in the 2004 holiday season .
The music for Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes was composed by Kenji Yamamoto . The themes used for areas on Dark Aether are dark variations of the themes used for the same areas on Light Aether . Some remixes of music from the previous Metroid games were also used , with the escape theme being a remix of Metroid 's " Escape " theme , the " Hunters " multiplayer theme taking on Super Metroid 's " Upper Brinstar " theme , and the theme for the underwater Torvus region , the " Lower Brinstar " theme from the same game .
= = Release = =
= = = Versions = = =
Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes was originally released for the GameCube in North America on November 15 , 2004 , Europe on November 26 , and in Australia on December 2 . The PAL version of Echoes have lacked the standard 50 Hz mode , and offered 60 Hz mode only . In Japan , it was later released on May 26 , 2005 , titled Metroid Prime 2 : Dark Echoes .
Echoes was re @-@ released in Japan in 2009 for the Wii as part of the New Play Control ! series . It has revamped controls that use the Wii Remote 's pointing functionality , similar to those of Metroid Prime 3 : Corruption . The credit system from Corruption is also included to unlock the original bonus content , as well as the ability to take snapshots of gameplay . The difficulty of the boss battles in Echoes was also lowered . Metroid Prime , Echoes , and Corruption were bundled together on a single disc as Metroid Prime : Trilogy , released in North America on August 24 , 2009 . Both Prime and Echoes contain all of the enhancements found in their Japanese New Play Control ! counterparts . On January 29 , 2015 , the compilation became available for download from the Wii U 's Nintendo eShop .
= = = Marketing = = =
Nintendo launched several websites to initiate a viral marketing campaign for Echoes , with inspiration drawn from Halo 2 's alternate reality game I Love Bees . The websites included Luminoth Temple , an Internet forum ; Channel 51 , a conspiracy theory website that featured grainy QuickTime videos of Metroid Prime 2 as if it were footage of extraterrestrials ; Orbis Labs , which sold a " self @-@ contained armored machine " called " Battle Sphere " , similar to the Morph Ball ; and Athena Astronautics , which advertised sending women into space , featured a blog , and offered job positions for bounty hunters on Monster.com. Athena Astronautics gave a random selection of 25 people who replied to the offer an " interactive training manual " , which was in fact a free copy of Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes .
A Metroid @-@ related spoof of " I Love Bees " appeared online in October 2004 , to which Nintendo reacted by stating that it was not involved with it . The campaign featured similarly named domain names such as ilovebeams.com , which each had an image of Samus with the caption : " All your bees are belong to us . Never send a man to do a woman 's job . "
= = Reception = =
Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes was critically acclaimed upon release . When comparing it to its predecessor , Metroid Prime , GameSpot 's Brad Shoemaker said that Echoes was as good as its predecessor , and delivered everything he expected . IGN 's Matt Casamassina called the gameplay " superb " and " nearly flawless " , and Vicious Sid of GamePro praised Echoes as " an extraordinary return to form " . Echoes was considered one of the best single @-@ player experiences on the GameCube by Kristan Reed of Eurogamer , who also considered the story to be " intricately designed and elaborately constructed into a coherent environment " . GameSpot and IGN praised the campaign as a lengthy and rewarding adventure and appreciated the minimum 20 hours required to complete the game . The game was considered suitable for players of any age by Computer and Video Games , which called Echoes essential for anyone who owned a GameCube . The theme 's dynamics between dark and light was lauded by GamePro , along with the " simple , quirky , and ridiculously addictive " multiplayer mode .
Echoes 's graphics and design received significant praise ; GameSpot considered it some of the best on the GameCube , and IGN called it " gorgeous " and " one of the prettiest GameCube titles " . The Guardian 's Nick Gillett found the game entertaining and stated that its maps , terrain , and bestiary made the game an amazing epic space adventure . Bryn Williams from GameSpy complimented the game 's controls and level design , commenting that the game was challenging but fair .
A major criticism of Echoes focused on the game 's high difficulty , with Game Informer declaring that " not only are the boss fights unforgiving , the environment is sometimes difficult to follow " . Some reviewers found it difficult to search for the Sky Temple keys . GameSpot criticized this mechanism and called it " a scavenger hunt much tougher than the rest of the game " , and 1UP.com said that the only purpose it served was to artificially extend the game 's length . The game 's multiplayer mode was also considered unsatisfying . GameSpy called it a " secondary feature " , The Age 's Jason Hill called it " bland and dull " and Eurogamer said that the single @-@ player features did not translate well to that mode . Game Informer criticized the multiplayer mode because of its inclusion of the lock @-@ on mechanism , considering it a feature that made multiplayer too simple .
IGN was critical of Echoes ' graphics and noted that the textures sometimes blurred when viewed up close , and the frame rate occasionally decreased . Publications including IGN and The Independent considered the gameplay too similar to Metroid Prime , while GamePro was unhappy that the game did not have a customizable control scheme . Computer and Video Games and The Age were disappointed that Echoes was not as innovative in terms of gameplay as Metroid Prime . The Age 's review also found the control scheme " unwieldy " and the difficulty " unforgiving " . Serge Pennings of The Observer noted there were too few opportunities to save the game while playing , an aspect X @-@ Play also criticized by saying that most of the game 's difficulty was " because the save system is poorly implemented and downright cheap " .
Echoes sold 470 @,@ 000 copies in North America in December 2004 . It was the ninth best @-@ selling game in its debut month in Japan with 16 @,@ 105 copies sold , ranking it behind Yu Yu Hakusho Forever and Hanjuku Hero 4 : 7 @-@ Jin no Hanjuku Hero . By August 2009 , 800 @,@ 000 copies had sold worldwide . Echoes won an award in almost every category it was nominated for at the 2004 Nintendo Power Awards , and won awards for Best GameCube Game of 2004 from IGN , Electronic Gaming Monthly , and GameSpy . It was rated the 174th best game made on a Nintendo system in Nintendo Power 's Top 200 Games list , the 74th best game by GameFAQs users , the 15th best GameCube game by IGN , and the 13th best by GameSpy .
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= Delrina =
Delrina was a Canadian software company , which was founded in 1988 and was subsequently acquired by the American software firm Symantec in 1995 . The company sold electronic form products , including PerForm and FormFlow , but was best known for its WinFax software package , which enabled computers equipped with fax modems to transmit copies of documents to standalone fax machines or other similarly equipped computers .
Delrina also produced a set of screensavers , including one that resulted in a well @-@ publicized lawsuit for copyright and trademark infringement ( Berkeley Systems Inc. v. Delrina ) . The case set a precedent in American law whereby satiric commercial software products are not subject to the same First Amendment exemptions as parodic cartoons or literature .
It also sold online communications software with its WinComm product and produced a Web browser called Cyberjack . The firm was sold to Symantec in 1995 . After the company was acquired by Symantec , various divisions were sold off and several of Delrina 's former executives went on to found venture capital firms .
= = Corporate history = =
Delrina was founded in Toronto in 1988 by Zimbabwean expatriate Bert Amato , South African expatriates Mark Skapinker and Dennis Bennie and American Lou Ryan . Delrina was Bennie 's second major entrepreneurial start up after co @-@ founding Mission Electronics , a home theatre equipment company . Delrina 's business strategy was to " establish technical and market leadership in niche markets " , which it accomplished with its electronic form and PC @-@ based fax software . A year before the firm was incorporated , Amato and Skapinker had quit their jobs to start work on an electronic forms product which would eventually become PerForm . Both would later meet with Bennie , who was then the Chief Executive Officer of Carolian Systems International , a firm that made business software for Hewlett @-@ Packard . Bennie facilitated an initial seed investment of $ 1 @.@ 5 million CAD to finance a new start @-@ up company , " Delrina " , to develop this idea . In return , Carolian received 51 % of Delrina 's shares .
Delrina 's initial corporate headquarters was located in a small office on Mount Pleasant St in Toronto . A sales office was set up in San Jose , California which became its worldwide sales center run by co @-@ founder Lou Ryan . From its Toronto headquarters , the company expanded by establishing branch offices in Kirkland , Washington ; Washington , DC ; and Lexington , Massachusetts . Other offices were later established in the United Kingdom , France , and Germany .
= = = Origins of PerForm = = =
Delrina 's initial product offering was an electronic forms application called PerForm . Amato and Skapinker came up with the idea for the product while working as consultants that what their clients wanted was a way to fill in forms electronically , rather than an easier way to create paper @-@ based forms from a computer . There was significant and long @-@ term uptake of electronic forms products within governmental agencies both in Canada and the United States , the latter spurred on in particular by the requirements of the Paperwork Reduction Act to reduce the total amount of paperwork handled by the United States government . One of the firm 's early major software deals included a multi @-@ year agreement to sell PerForm to the U.S. Navy in 1990 . Soon after the software was installed on Compaq laptops that accompanied U.S. troops during the First Gulf War , where it was used to requisition " everything from Coca @-@ Cola to privies " . Other significant volume sales went to 3M and Rockwell International . What helped set apart Delrina 's electronic forms from its competitors in product reviews included its easy @-@ to @-@ use interface , its extensive development tools , and its comparatively low price . It also scored highly when it came to workflow and routing functions as well as security features . In early 1991 InfoWorld selected PerForm Pro as its " Product of the Year " in the electronic forms category , and PC World Magazine gave the product it 's " Best Buy " designation . PerForm proved to be successful in its niche , effectively capturing the retail market by 1993 .
In the early 1990s Delrina made deals with value @-@ added resellers like NCR and GE Information Services who had the staff to customize the product to the needs of corporate customers looking to move away from paper @-@ based forms . The forms products sold well and the annual revenues for the firm grew steadily ; 1989 annual revenues ( in Canadian dollars ) were $ 5 @,@ 630 @,@ 393 , in 1990 they were $ 8 @,@ 759 @,@ 623 , and by 1991 they were $ 11 @,@ 894 @,@ 474 .
= = = Struggle for profitability = = =
Despite the growing revenues , the company struggled to make a profit . Heavy expenditures — primarily marketing along with research and development costs — drove the firm 's losses from $ 500 @,@ 000 from 1989 to $ 1 @.@ 5 million by the end of the following fiscal year . For fiscal 1991 it posted a net loss of $ 1 @.@ 7 million .
Needing an infusion of funds , in April 1991 Bennie managed to raise $ 7 @.@ 7 million in a private placement .
The firm subsequently sought to find ways to more widely distribute its electronic form software , with Bennie saying in May 1992 that " we 've barely scratched the surface of our market " .
In early 1992 word leaked to the press on a possible merger between WordStar International Inc . , and soon after both firms made public the fact that they had signed a letter of intent on a merger deal . However , just over a month later word came out that the merger talks had fallen through , at the time cited to differences over " complex legal , accounting and management issues " . WordStar , whose share of the word processing market had by that time fallen to 5 % ( from a high of 80 % ) was seeking Delrina 's advanced technologies while Delrina was hoping to utilize the other firm 's established global sales network . Despite the failure of the merger talks , Bennie said soon after that " we 're still convinced that a larger sales force would give us the kind of marketing clout we need . I still believe that it 's possible for us to become a global operation " . Not long after WordStar merged with Spinnaker Software Corporation and SoftKey Software Products Inc. to form SoftKey International . Delrina subsequently signed deals with Wallace Computer Services , UARCO and NCR Corporation in an effort to gain greater sales distribution of its products .
= = = Development of WinFax = = =
In a deliberate attempt to diversify the business , The Company chose to move into the fax software market with its WinFax product . Software developer Tony Davis ( another South African expatriate who had moved to Canada ) was initially hired as a consultant to work on the forms line of products in the late 1980s , soon afterwards becoming part of that team . In his spare time he developed a prototype of what would become the first WinFax product , with the agreement that Delrina would be its publisher . In 1990 Delrina devoted a relatively small space to this new product at that year 's COMDEX ( a computer trade show ) , under a sign that said simply : " Send a Fax from Your PC " . It garnered the most attention of any Delrina product being demonstrated at that show . This interest convinced the founding partners of the commercial viability of the product . Tony Davis went on to sell his product idea to Delrina , and stayed on as its lead software architect and designer .
The initial version of WinFax only worked on fax modems containing a specific chipset , and was only capable of sending faxes ; it could not receive them . This was remedied with the launch of the WinFax PRO 2 @.@ 0 product during the summer of 1991 . One of the key factors that differentiated this version of WinFax from other fax software packages of the time was the deliberate attempt to make the program compatible with all fax / modems . Prior to the introduction of WinFax PRO 2 @.@ 0 , competitors concentrated primarily on building software that would only work with a single brand of fax / modem hardware . At the same time that it launched its WinFax PRO 2 @.@ 0 product , Delrina also announced an OEM version of the same product designed to be bundled with new fax / modems . Within a few months , eight modem manufacturers had agreed to bundle this OEM version ( called " WinFax LITE " ) of the program along with their own product . By the summer of the following year this number had grown to 50 OEM partnerships with various fax @-@ modem and computer system manufacturers to bundle the " LITE " version of Delrina 's WinFax software with their own products . By February 1993 this number had grown to over 100 OEM partnerships .
Bundling the LITE version of WinFax proved to be lucrative for Delrina . Whenever a person used the program for the first time and submitted their registration information by fax to the company , Delrina would subsequently mail the user an upgrade offer for the PRO version . This sales technique proved to be very effective , and the firm ended up making most of its sales from these upgrades .
In order to reach Apple computer users in this marketplace Delrina acquired Solutions Inc. and their BackFax software for the Macintosh platform in December 1991 , which would become " Delrina Fax Pro " . A version of the program was also designed for use in DOS ( " DosFax PRO " ) which was launched in June 1992 .
Initially looking for ways to further improve its electronic forms software , in November 1991 Delrina had attempted to buy two associated firms that produced Optical Character Recognition ( OCR ) software , with the intention of incorporating OCR functionality into its forms products . The acquisition deal fell through , though by Fall 1992 Delrina had made a deal with Caere Corporation to include its AnyFax OCR software within its products . This functionality was incorporated into WinFax PRO 3 @.@ 0 in late 1992 , and subsequently in FormFlow Despite the agreement with Caere , the subsequent version of WinFax used Xerox 's TextBridge OCR engine instead .
Based on strong sales of WinFax , by October 1992 Delrina posted its first profitable quarter in three years . At the same time , the firm also announced its intention to acquire other software firms that sold into the consumer software market .
= = = Acquisition of Amaze Inc . = = =
In October 1992 Delrina acquired Amaze Inc . , based out of Kirkland , Washington . The firm created daily planner software , providing time management features while providing some humour by featuring licensed cartoon strips like Cathy , Bloom County , B.C. and The Far Side . The firm became a wholly owned subsidiary of Delrina in a deal which also paid down Amaze 's $ 3 million ( U.S. ) debt and placed two of the firm 's directors on Delrina 's board . These two individuals were Rowland Hanson , former VP Corporate Communications for Microsoft and George Clut .
= = = = Berkeley Systems Inc. v. Delrina = = = =
One of Delrina 's screensaver products was based on the licensed Bloom County characters Opus the Penguin and Bill the Cat . The initial Opus ' n Bill screensaver , launched in 1993 , landed the company in court as its Death Toasters module depicted Opus taking shots at a number of flying toasters , a well @-@ known emblem in Berkeley System 's Flying Toasters module from their After Dark screensaver . Berkeley Systems sued for copyright and trademark infringement . The following court case of Berkeley Systems Inc. v. Delrina was fought by Delrina on the basis that a software @-@ based parody should fall under the same First Amendment protection offered to the press .
A preliminary injunction was filed against Delrina in September 1993 which halted the sale of the product , and subsequently forced a recall of it through the court . The case drew political satirist Mark Russell to speak in defense of Delrina , who argued in favour of the screensaver as a valid parody , while the estate of composer Irving Berlin sided with Berkeley . Commenting on the case involving his characters , cartoonist Berkeley Breathed said : " If David Letterman can depict the NBC peacock wearing men 's boxer shorts , then Delrina should be able to plug a flying toaster with hot lead " .
Judge Eugene Lynch found in favour of Berkeley , citing that a commercial software product was not subject to the same exemptions as parodist literature , and that the toasters were too similar in design . The total cost of the court case and the recalled product was roughly $ 150 @,@ 000 U.S.
In the court case , it was also cited that the design for winged toasters was not original and that the Berkeley Systems ' design was itself derived from the Jefferson Airplane album Thirty Seconds Over Winterland , which also used flying toasters adorned with wings . Berkeley argued that the firm was unaware of the previous artwork until 1991 , and that the album cover 's toasters had clocks in addition to their wings . Jefferson Airplane later sued Berkeley Systems in turn for the use of the same flying toaster emblem . The rock group lost the case as they did not trademark the album cover at the time of publication .
The court decision was interpreted by the writer L. Ray Patterson as an erosion of First Amendment rights over the increasing protection provided to copyright holders .
While Delrina lost the court case , the publicity it generated was substantial , with coverage in over a thousand newspapers across North America , resulting in consumers turning out in droves to buy the offending program before it could be recalled .
Delrina subsequently removed the wings from the toasters and replaced them with propellers in order to avoid trademark infringement . The module was also renamed from " Death Toasters " to " Censored Toaster Module " . Thanks to the publicity from the court case , sales of this new version ended up being triple what had been expected . Updated modules for this particular screensaver were sold for the next couple of years .
Josef Zankowicz , who managed the firm 's publicity during this period , later commented : " We had the feeling that we might get sued — actually , we prayed to get sued . Because by suing us , the number one player in the marketplace opened up the door . Anyone can create an interesting product , spend $ 10 million and create awareness of it . But it 's another thing to create a product and spend one @-@ tenth that amount and create twice as much awareness . "
This division of the firm at its height only represented less than 15 % of the company 's total revenues .
= = = WinFax = = =
The increasing sales of the WinFax product lead to significant growth in revenues for the firm ; by 1992 its sales had climbed to $ 19 @,@ 208 @,@ 420 , and more than doubling the next year to $ 48 @,@ 583 @,@ 932 . The product soon overtook that of the initial forms product in terms of revenues , and within a few years of its launch , WinFax would account for 80 % of the company 's revenues . By 1994 the firm had sold more than 3 million copies of WinFax , and it regularly featured in the " Top 10 " lists of software applications sold during this period .
The rapid growth in sales of this product was unexpected , with Bennie quoted in an interview from late 1993 as saying " the success of WinFax really caught us by surprise " . With the success of the WinFax product , the company grew rapidly . By early 1993 the number of employees had grown to 250 , and by the end of the year to 350 . The increasing success of the WinFax product consequently led to significant strains on the firm to handle the increasing volume of calls to its Technical Support department , as each of the over 300 modems on the market at the time had their own nuances in how they implemented the fax data standard . Delrina spent roughly $ 800 @,@ 000 in an improved telephone infrastructure in an attempt to get wait times to under five minutes . In December 1993 Delrina hired 40 additional people to help alleviate the growing number of calls to the firm for technical support . By the end of 1994 the situation had improved to the point where noted industry commentator Robert X. Cringely put Delrina in his shortlist of firms providing " exceptional " product support .
In order to further enhance the appeal of its new flagship product , in 1993 the firm established a Communication Services division , designed to tap into the commercial market . The firm started making deals with major telecommunication companies , such as BellSouth and MCI Inc. in preparation for the services the firm was about to offer . In November of that year the division launched its Fax Broadcast service . The Fax Broadcast service allowed subscribers to upload a single fax and a recipient list to Delrina . Systems at Delrina would then send out the fax to the recipients on that list , to a maximum of 500 fax numbers . A subsequent Fax Mailbox feature — which enabled subscribers to remotely access both fax and voice messages from a single phone number — was initially held up following a dispute with AlphaNet Telecom for the rights to the technology . This dispute was resolved by June 1994 , though with both sides publicly disputing the story of the other , and with AlphaNet receiving an undisclosed sum in compensation .
By late 1994 the firm was considered one of the fastest @-@ growing software companies in North America , and employed over 500 people , most located at its offices in Toronto . The firm 's financial situation improved greatly , and by February 1995 Delrina was reported to have captured almost three @-@ quarters of the fax software market , was debt @-@ free and had $ 40 million in the bank . The firm was shipping 200 @,@ 000 units of WinFax a month , and had an installed base of four million users . The cost of doing business had also improved , as the firm 's cost of sales was now 25 % of net sales , down from 30 % the previous fiscal year , improving the firm 's gross profits .
= = = The impact of Windows 95 = = =
In November 1992 Skapinker met Bill Gates at a Microsoft @-@ sponsored dinner where he asked whether there were any plans to include any fax functionality in their forthcoming operating system ( which could become Windows 95 ) . Gates replied that there were plans to include " base @-@ level fax capability " in the next version of Windows , and suggested that Skapinker get in touch with his development staff in order to produce a value @-@ added product for it .
The firm decided to work on a suite of applications designed to be an enhancement on what was to be available of Windows 95 . In response to a question about Windows 95 , Bennie responded by saying : " We are quite convinced that on top of Windows 95 , we can build four different applications and will encompass fax , data , telephony or digital voice , and Internet access " . This would later become the CommSuite 95 product .
In 1994 the firm acquired AudioFile , a company that specialized in computer @-@ based voice technology . The company created a product called TalkWorks , which enabled users to use certain fax / modems as a voice mail client .
Seeing a growing business in online communications utilities , Delrina licensed Hilgraeve 's HyperACCESS terminal emulator system in 1993 , and used it as the basis for the initial version of its WinComm online communications software . The initial version of the product was originally bundled with WinFax as part of the Delrina Communications Suite , but in March 1994 was issued as a standalone product . It was a relative latecomer to the market , which was then dominated at the time by Datastorm 's Procomm series of communications software .
Delrina tried to expand aggressively into this market space , first by acquiring the Canadian online bulletin board service CRS Online , and then using it as a distribution channel for free versions of its WinComm LITE and DOS @-@ based FreeComm products in March 1995 .
When the Internet was opened to commercial interests in the mid @-@ 1990s , Delrina started to expand in this nascent market space with their Cyberjack 7 @.@ 0 product , launched in December 1995 . Created by a development team based in South Africa , it included a Web browser , Usenet news reader , ftp client , IRC and integration with the Microsoft Exchange email program . The program used an interesting variant of the now @-@ common bookmark , using a " Guidebook " to store information for various Internet addresses .
CommSuite 95 shipped later that same month , bundling WinFax PRO 7 @.@ 0 along with WinComm PRO 7 @.@ 0 , TalkWorks and the Cyberjack suite of Internet components .
With the release of Windows 95 in August 1995 , Delrina was now competing directly against Microsoft in the fax / electronic communications marketplace , as Windows 95 included a basic faxing application as an accessory , along with a licensed version of Hilgraeve 's HyperTerminal communication package , ( which was also used as the basis for Delrina 's own WinComm program ) . While these applications offered only rudimentary fax and online communication services in comparison to the mature Delrina products , Microsoft was perceived as a potentially serious future competitor in the communications market space . The release of the initial version of Microsoft 's Internet Explorer in late 1995 as a free product effectively killed off the early emerging market for non @-@ free browsers , creating a market where Delrina 's Cyberjack browser could not hope to compete .
= = = Acquisition by Symantec and aftermath = = =
In late Spring of 1995 , Delrina Chairman Dennis Bennie met with Symantec CEO Gordon Eubanks to discuss the possibility of merging the two firms . In September 1995 Delrina 's founders — who owned a controlling interest in the firm — sold the firm to Symantec in a stock deal worth $ 415 million US . The deal was first announced on July 6 of that year , with shareholders from both firms approving the merger on November 20 . The merger was completed on November 22 , 1995 and Delrina officially became part of Symantec . The deal made the merged company the fifth largest American software firm at the time . The firm became the " Delrina Group " within Symantec , which brought under its control other communication software products that belonged to the parent firm , such as pcAnywhere . Bennie joined the Board of Symantec and was also appointed an Executive Vice President .
At its height the company employed more than 700 people worldwide , the majority based in Canada . Symantec was following a general trend of large American firms buying smaller Canadian software companies . Other contemporaneous examples include Softimage and Zoom @-@ it being bought by Microsoft , and Alias being bought by Silicon Graphics .
Parts of the company were subsequently sold off , such as the sale of Delrina 's Electronic Forms Division to JetForm in September 1996 . JetForm , which later changed its name to Accelio , was in turn bought by Adobe Systems . Adobe officially discontinued the electronic forms products in 2004 . Creative Wonders bought the rights to the Echo Lake multimedia product , which was re @-@ shaped as an introductory program on multimedia and re @-@ released as Family Album Creator .
Though the market for fax software would shrink significantly as the use of email became more pervasive , WinFax brought in significant revenue for Symantec ; a year after the merger sales of fax software accounted for 10 % of Symantec 's revenues .
= = = Post @-@ Delrina = = =
Delrina was a catalyst for entrepreneurial talent and greatness , as many of the principals and employees of Delrina went on to find new successful ventures . With investments from Skapinker and Amato , and Bennie as lead Director , Davis went on to form Lanacom , which developed an early Internet " push content " product . This firm and its technology were sold just over a year after its inception to Backweb , a NASDAQ listed software company ; Davis remained president and Bennie was brought on as Director .
Skapinker and Davis then went on to found Brightspark , a software venture capital firm . Brightspark Ventures raised a number of VC Funds from Canadian Financial institutions raising $ 60m in 1999 and $ 55m in 2004 . Brightspark employed a number of ex @-@ Delrina employees including Allen Lau , Eva Lau , Sandy Pearlman , Marg Vaillancourt . Brightspark Ventures has twice won the Canadian Venture Capital Association " Deal of the Year Award " , for the sale of ThinkDynamics to IBM and for the sale of Radian6 to Salesforce.com.
Bennie would move on to found XDL Capital , a company which manages venture capital funds . XDL Capital — appropriately named after " Ex Delrina " — raised money for two funds : XDL Ventures ( XDL ) , raising $ 25 million in 1997 , and XDL Intervest ( XDLI ) , raising $ 155 million in 1999 . David Latner , former legal counsel for Delrina , was a partner in both funds , and Amato ( former partner , Delrina ) was an advisor and major investor to XDL Capital . He also participated in several investee companies as a Director and / or Advisor .
XDL Intervest focuses primarily on internet @-@ specific entrepreneurial companies and Bennie brought in two new principals : Tony Van Marken , former CEO of Architel Systems Corp. ( ASYC ) , and Michael Bregman , former CEO of Second Cup Ltd . ( T.SKL ) . XDL has assembled an established board and advisory team , which includes Canadian billionaire Robert Young , a native of Hamilton , Ontario , who co @-@ founded Red Hat Inc ( RHAT ) and remains its chairman . Several of XDL 's venture investments were in companies started or run by ex @-@ Delrina employees who founded successful businesses , fostered by the innovative and entrepreneurial environment of Delrina . A few of the successes today are listed below :
Delano Founded by Bahman Koohestani , another early developer at Delrina , was a company which developed e @-@ business solutions for corporations . XDL Capital provided seed capital prior to Delano listing publicly . Bennie was the Chairman . Delano was listed on NASDAQ ( DTEC ) was subsequently sold to divine in 2003 .
Pinpoint Software Corporation a supplier of software solutions for managing networked PCs , was founded in 1992 by Lou Ryan . Ryan was CEO & President with Bennie acting as director . Pinpoint was partially funded by XDL Capital . Pinpoint changed its name to ClickNet Software in 1998 . Uniting the company name with the successful ClickNet product family name strengthens the product and corporate identity . The company was eventually renamed Entercept Security Technologies Inc . In 2004 , Entercept was sold to Network Associates for $ 120M where they incorporated Entercept 's technology into its McAfee line of antivirus protection and other security products .
Protégé Software was formed in 1996 and was founded by Larry Levy , Delrina 's European Managing Director . Levy acted as President and CEO with Bennie as the principal investor . The company raised a $ 120M round of finance with XDL Intervest participating in 2003 . Protégé has successfully launched 20 U.S. companies in Europe , nine of which are among Red Herring Top 50 Private Companies . In addition , five of these companies have gone public during Protégé 's tenure with them . The company was ultimately sold to various buyers including Warburg Pincus after the internet bubble burst .
Netect Ltd . , an XDL financed venture developing network security software , was purchased by Bindview Development Corporation ( NASDAQ : BVEW ) in 2001 . Marc Camm ( Ex Delrina GM Desktop Communications Business Unit ) was brought on by Bennie to manage Netect . After the Company was purchased , Camm joined Bindview as the E.V.P. of Marketing . Prior to joining Netect , Marc was the general manager of Symantec and systems group product manager for Microsoft Canada .
Within a few years all of Delrina 's major market focuses — fax and form software — would be overtaken or superseded by email , e @-@ commerce and the Internet . Daily planning software remains a niche market , and the immersive 3D environment used for creating multimedia presentations has ( so far ) fallen by the wayside in favour of more traditional user interfaces . Symantec ended support for its final WinFax PRO product in June 2006 .
Delrina is best remembered by its former employees as an incubator for ideas and for providing industry experience to the many people who would go on to work at subsequent software and hardware companies , many in the Toronto region . A forum exists on Yahoo called " xdelrina " , where many former employees of the firm continue to keep in contact with each other .
= = Delrina software and services = =
= = = Forms products = = =
The company 's first product was PerForm , an electronic forms software package . PerForm and its sibling product , FormFlow , ( which was aimed at workgroup and enterprise @-@ level electronic forms processing and delivery ) became one of the best selling products in its market . Delrina competed against WordPerfect 's Informs package , Microsoft 's Electronic Forms Designer , Novell 's Informs , Lotus Software 's Forms and JetForm 's JetForm Workflow software .
PerForm and FormFlow were designed to allow users to create self @-@ contained form applications which could be passed back and forth across a network . Both PerForm and FormFlow consisted of two distinct parts : " Designer " , which created the form application , and " Filler " , so users could submit the forms either by fax or , later , e @-@ mail . The program could ease repetitive fill tasks , include mandatory fields , and use an input mask to accept only data entered in a valid format . The information could be saved and restored in a dBase file that used a Public @-@ key cryptography system to encrypt the data running from client to server .
The initial version of PerForm was designed for the Graphical Environment Manager ( better known as " GEM " ) , a DOS @-@ based windowing system . Later versions of this program , known as PerForm PRO , were designed to work under Windows 3 @.@ 1 and subsequent Windows operating systems . PerForm PRO 3 @.@ 0 included integration with Delrina 's own WinFax software , and included a range of automation tools .
As PerForm captured the retail market , it became apparent that there was a need for electronics forms delivery and processing at the workgroup and enterprise levels . In 1994 Delrina FormFlow was released , which was designed to meet this need . One of the key features of FormFlow 1 @.@ 1 was forms integration with email , and its Filler module was available for DOS , Windows and Unix .
= = = WinFax = = =
WinFax enabled computers equipped with fax @-@ modems to send faxes directly to stand @-@ alone fax machines or other similarly equipped computers .
Several versions of the WinFax product were released over the next few years , initially for Windows 3.x and then a Windows 95 @-@ based version . WinFax PRO 2 @.@ 0 for Windows was released in July 1991 . The Windows versions were also localized to major European and Asian languages . The company made further in @-@ roads by establishing tie @-@ ins with modem manufacturers such as U.S. Robotics and Supra that bundled simple versions of the product ( called " WinFax LITE " ) that offered basic functionality . Those wanting more robust features were encouraged to upgrade to the " PRO " version , and were offered significant discounts over the standalone retail version . All of this rapidly established WinFax as the de facto fax software . By 1994 almost one hundred companies were bundling versions of WinFax in with their own product , including IBM , Compaq , AST Research , Gateway 2000 , Intel and Hewlett @-@ Packard .
WinFax PRO 3 @.@ 0 was launched in late 1992 for Windows 3.x machines . This was followed by a version for Macintosh systems . The " Lite " version of WinFax 3 @.@ 0 was bundled as OEM software by a number of fax @-@ modem manufacturers , which was later be superseded by WinFax Lite 4 @.@ 0 a couple of years later .
The release of WinFax PRO 4 @.@ 0 in March 1994 brought together a number of key features and technologies . It introduced an improved OCR engine , introduced improvements aimed specifically at mobile fax users , better on @-@ screen fax viewing capabilities and a focus on consistency and usability of the interface . It also included for the first time the ability to integrate directly with popular new email products such as cc : Mail and Microsoft Mail . It was preceded by a Workgroup version of the same product , which allowed a number of users to share a single fax modem on a networked system . The stand @-@ alone version of the product was also later bundled with a grayscale scanner , and sold as WinFax Scanner .
The final Delrina @-@ branded version of WinFax was WinFax PRO 7 @.@ 0 , which shipped in late 1995 , the subsequent version 8 @.@ 0 being a Symantec product . There was no intervening version 5 @.@ 0 or 6 @.@ 0 , and the jump to version 7 @.@ 0 was purely a marketing decision , based on keeping up with the suite of products in Microsoft Office which were then at the same number . It also reflected the development effort required to develop the first full 32 @-@ bit application version , designed to work with the Windows 95 operating system , which set it apart from its competition at the time .
By the time WinFax PRO 7 @.@ 0 was being sold from retail shelves , Delrina had been acquired by Symantec .
= = = Multimedia products = = =
Screensavers were designed to ensure that there would be no phosphor burn @-@ in of images left on a CRT @-@ based screen . Delrina added sound and basic interactivity with its series of screensaver products , arguably qualifying it as an early form of multimedia .
Under Delrina several of the already @-@ licensed cartoons brought over from their acquisition of Amaze Inc. were further developed into screensaver applications . The " Opus ' n Bill Brain Saver " , which would land the company in court for copyright violations , was launched in 1993 . Subsequent screensavers include a licensed version based on the first Flintstone live @-@ action movie , and " The Scott Adams Dilbert Screen Saver Collection " which came out in September 1994 .
= = = = Echo Lake = = = =
A notable multimedia software produced by Delrina was Echo Lake , an early form of scrapbook software that came out in June 1995 . During development it was touted internally as a " cross [ of ] Quark Xpress and Myst " . It featured an immersive 3D environment where a user could manipulate objects within a virtual desktop in a virtual office and assemble video and audio clips along with images , and then send them as either a virtual book other users of the program could then access , or its content could be printed . It was an innovative product for its time , and ultimately was hampered by the inability of many users to easily input or playback their own multimedia content into a computer from that period .
= = List of Delrina products = =
Electronic Forms Products
Delrina PerForm – October 1988
Delrina PerForm PRO – August 1990
Delrina PerForm Tracer – June 1991
Delrina PerForm PRO Plus – August 1992
Delrina FormFlow – October 1993
Delrina FormFlow 1 @.@ 1 – June 1994
PerForm for Windows 3 @.@ 0 – November 1994
Multimedia Products
The Far Side Daily Planner and Calendar Publisher 3 @.@ 0 – September 1991
Delrina Intermission 4 @.@ 0 Screen Saver – November 1990
Bill ' n ' Opus ScreenSaver – November 1993
Opus ' n Bill On The Road Again Screensaver – September 1994
The Scott Adams Dilbert Screen Saver Collection – September 1994
Echo Lake – June 1995
Fax @-@ related Products ( released by Delrina )
WinFax 1 @.@ 0 – December 1990
WinFax PRO 2 @.@ 0 – June 1991
WinFax Lite – April 1992
DosFax Lite – April 1992
DosFax PRO 2 @.@ 0 – June 1992
WinFax PRO 3 @.@ 0 – November 1992
Delrina Fax PRO 1 @.@ 5 for Macintosh – September 1993
WinFax PRO for Networks – November 1993
WinFax PRO 4 @.@ 0 – March 1994
WinFax Scanner – 1994
WinFax PRO 7 @.@ 0 – November 1995
Fax @-@ related Products ( released by Symantec )
WinFax PRO 7 @.@ 5 ( bundled with TalkWorks ) – October 1996
WinFax PRO 8 @.@ 0 ( bundled with TalkWorks PRO ) – March 1997
TalkWorks PRO 2 @.@ 0 – August 1998
WinFax PRO 9 @.@ 0 – August 1998
TalkWorks PRO 3 @.@ 0 – August 1999
WinFax PRO 10 @.@ 0 – February 2000
Online Communications Products
Delrina Communications Suite ( WinComm and WinFax ) – March 1993
WinComm ( Standalone ) – March 1994
Cyberjack – December 1995
CommSuite95 – December 1995
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= LW12 =
LW12 is a para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic sit skiing sport class defined by the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) . An LW12 skier needs to meet a minimum of one of several conditions including a single below knee but above ankle amputation , monoplegia that exhibits similar to below knee amputation , legs of different length where there is at least a 7 centimetres difference , combined muscle strength in the lower extremities less than 71 . For international competitions , classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing or IPC Nordic Skiing . For sub @-@ international competitions , classification is done by a national federation such as Alpine Canada . For para @-@ Alpine , this class is subdivided into two subclasses . : LW12.1 and LW12.2. A new sit @-@ skier competitor with only national classification will compete as LW12.2 in international competitions until they have been internationally classified .
In para @-@ Alpine skiing , the skier uses a mono @-@ ski , while para @-@ Nordic skiers use a two ski sit @-@ ski . Skiers in this class use outriggers , and are required to wear special helmets for some para @-@ Alpine disciplines . In learning to ski , one of the first skills learned is getting into and out of the ski , and how to position the body in the ski in order to maintain balance . The skier then learns how to fall and to get up .
A factoring system is used in the sport to allow different classes to compete against each other when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . The alpine skiing factoring during the 2011 / 2012 skiing season for LW12.1 was 0 @.@ 8031 for Slalom , 0 @.@ 8608 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 8489 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 851 for downhill , and for LW12.2 was 0 @.@ 8279 for slalom , 0 @.@ 8708 for giant slalom , 0 @.@ 8587 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 8605 for downhill . The percentage for the 2012 / 2013 para @-@ Nordic ski season was 100 % . This classification has been able to compete at different skiing competitions including the Paralympics , IPC Alpine World Championships and the IPC Nordic Skiing World Championships . Competitors in this class include Australians Michael Norton and David Munk , and American Russell Docker .
= = Definition = =
This is a para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic sit @-@ skiing classification , where LW stands for Locomotor Winter . To generally be eligible for a sit @-@ skiing classification , a skier needs to meet a minimum of one of several conditions including a single below knee but above ankle amputation , monoplegia that exhibits similar to below knee amputation , legs of different length where there is at least a 7 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) difference , combined muscle strength in the lower extremities less than 71 . Skiers in this class " may have Grade 3 @-@ 5 hip flexion and extension ( unilateral or bilateral ) " . This classification is comparable to para classes 5 and 6 . When not skiing , the competitor may be able to walk with or without the use of assisitive devices . This class is the equivalent of LW4 , but skiers must choose to compete in LW4 or LW12 : they cannot compete in both classifications during the same skiing season .
For para @-@ Alpine skiing , the Australian Paralympic Committee defined this classification as a sit skiing classification for " athletes with spinal injury or some other disability affecting the function in their lower limbs but they have good sitting balance . " This classification is often subdivided into two separate categories for para @-@ Alpine skiing . In July 1997 , at the World Cup Technical Meeting for para @-@ Alpine skiing , this classes was subdivided into two classes in order to improve factoring for the range of disabilities found within the class at the time .
The IPC defines this class for para @-@ Nordic skiing as for " those with impairments in the lower limb ( s ) with normal trunk function . " For the 1998 Winter Paralympics , the classification was defined for para @-@ Nordic skiing as " Disability of the lower limbs and good sitting balance @-@ Paraplegia and Standing classes with LW 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 . " Cross Country Canada defined this para @-@ Nordic classification as " Impairments in the lower limb ( s ) with normal trunk function . "
For international para @-@ Alpine skiing competitions , classification is done through International Paralympic Committee Alpine Skiing . A national federation such as Alpine Canada handles classification for domestic competitions . For para @-@ Nordic skiing events , classification is handled by IPC Nordic Skiing Technical Committee on the international level and by the national sports federation such as Cross @-@ Country Canada on a country by country level . When being assessed into this classification , a number of things are considered including reviewing the skiers medical history and medical information on the skier 's disability , having a physical and an in person assessment of the skier training or competing . During the assessment process , a testing board is used for this classification with six different tests being conducted that look for balance on different planes and to test for upper body strength and levels of mobility . The guideline scores for people to be assessed in this classification are 16 - 18 .
= = = LW12.1 = = =
LW12.1 skiers have a spinal chord injury . The IPC defined this para @-@ Alpine subclass as " athletes with spinal @-@ chord lesion with a function in the lower limbs and a good sitting balance " . Adapted Physical Education and Sport defined this class as " Athletes with disabilities in the lower limbs , paraplegia only with good sitting balance ; point score 16 to 18 points . "
= = = LW12.2 = = =
LW12.2 skiers in this class have differences in between one limb and another . The IPC defined this para @-@ Alpine classification as " Athletes with amputations of the lower limbs . " Adapted Physical Education and Sport described this class as " Athletes with disabilities in the lower limbs , amputations , and standing L classes L1 , L2 , L3 / 1 , L3 / 2 , L4 , L9 / 2 with good sitting balance ; point score 16 to 18 points . " This classification is comparable to LW4 but for those who compete while sitting . A new sit @-@ skier competitor with only national classification will compete as LW12.2 in international competitions until they have been internationally classified .
= = Equipment = =
In para @-@ Alpine skiing , the skier uses a mono @-@ ski , which are required to have breaks on both sides of the ski . The chair can detach from a ski . Helmets are required for this class in para @-@ Alpine competition , with slalom helmets required for slalom and crash helmets required for the giant slalom . The para @-@ Nordic sit @-@ ski configuration has two skis . Skiers in this classification can use a sit @-@ ski and outriggers , which are forearm crutches with a miniature ski on a rocker at the base . In the Biathlon , athletes with amputations can use a rifle support while shooting .
= = Technique = =
In learning to ski , one of the first skills learned is getting into and out of the ski , and how to position the body in the ski in order to maintain balance . The skier then learns how to fall and to get up . The skier then works with the instructor on learning to ski on flat terrain , with the purpose of this exercise being to learn how to use the outriggers . The skier next learns how to get into and out of a chairlift . After this , the skier learns how to make basic turns , edging , medium radius turns and advance skiing techniques .
Skiers use outriggers for balance and as leverage when they fall to right themselves . Outriggers are also used for turning , with the skier using the outrigger and their upper body by leaning into the direction they want to turn . In para @-@ Nordic skiing , outriggers or ski poles are used top propel the skier forward . If a skier falls , they may require assistance in righting themselves to get back to the fall line . Doing this on their own , the skier needs to position their mono @-@ ski facing uphill relative to the fall line .
In the Biathlon , all Paralympic athletes shoot from a prone position .
= = Sport = =
A factoring system is used in the sport to allow different classes to compete against each other when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . The factoring system works by having a number for each class based on their functional mobility or vision levels , where the results are calculated by multiplying the finish time by the factored number . The resulting number is the one used to determine the winner in events where the factor system is used . During the 1997 / 1998 ski season , the percentage for this para @-@ Nordic classification was 100 % ( a factor of 1 @.@ 000 ) . For the 2003 / 2004 para @-@ Nordic skiing season , the percentage for was 100 % . The percentage for the 2008 / 2009 and 2009 / 2010 ski seasons was 100 % . The alpine skiing factoring during the 2011 / 2012 skiing season for LW12.1 was 0 @.@ 8031 for slalom , 0 @.@ 8608 for giant slalom , 0 @.@ 8489 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 851 for downhill , and for LW12.2 was 0 @.@ 8279 for slalom , 0 @.@ 8708 for giant slalom , 0 @.@ 8587 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 8605 for downhill . The percentage for the 2012 / 2013 para @-@ Nordic ski season was 100 % .
In para @-@ Alpine events , this classification is grouped with sitting classes who are seeded to start after visually impaired classes and classes in the slalom and giant slalom . In downhill , Super @-@ G and Super Combined , this same group competes after the visually impaired classes and before standing classes . A skier is allowed one push from the starting position at the start of the race : no one is allowed to run while pushing them . In cross @-@ country and biathlon events , this classification is grouped with other sitting classes . The IPC advises event organisers to run the men 's sit @-@ ski group first , and the women 's sit @-@ ski group section , with the visually impaired and standing skiers following . If the competitor skis off the course during a para @-@ Nordic race , they may be assisted back onto the course where they left it by a race official . Skiers cannot use their legs to break or steer during the race .
Skiers in this class may injure themselves while skiing . Between 1994 and 2006 , the German national para @-@ Alpine skiing team had a skier in the LW12 class that had an injury while skiing . The skier fractured their wrist at the 2002 Winter Paralympics . This class has a higher rate of " plexus brachialis distorsion and a higher rate of shoulder injuries " compared to able bodied skiers .
= = Events = =
This classification has been able to compete at different skiing competitions . At the 1992 Paralympics , included on the programme for the classification were the Super G and Downhill disciplines . Slalom , Giant Slalom and Super @-@ G were included on the programme for the 1994 Winter Paralympics . At the 2002 Winter Paralympics in alpine @-@ skiing , this classification was not grouped with others for the men 's downhill , giant slalom , slalom , Super @-@ G medal events . On the women 's side , this classification was not grouped with others for the women 's giant slalom medal event , but it was grouped with LW11 and LW12 for the women 's slalom and Super @-@ G. At the 2004 Alpine World Championships , LW10 , LW11 and LW12 women competed against each other in a competition with factored results during the downhill event . At the 2005 IPC Nordic Skiing World Championships , this class was grouped with other sit @-@ skiing classifications . In cross country , this class was eligible to compete in the men 's 5 km , 10 km and 20 km individual race , with women eligible to compete in the 2 @.@ 5 km , 5 km and 10 km individual races . In the men and women 's biathlon , this classification was again grouped with sit @-@ ski classes in the 7 @.@ 4 km race with 2 shooting stages 12 @.@ 5 km race which had four shooting stages . At the 2009 World Championships , there were three women from this class the sitting downhill event , two LW12.2 skiers and one LW12.1 skier . In the men 's sitting downhill , there were six skiers from this class .
= = Competitors = =
Competitors in this class include Australians Michael Norton and David Munk , American Russell Docker , and Spain 's Óscar Espallargas .
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= First Roumanian @-@ American Congregation =
The First Roumanian @-@ American Congregation , also known as Congregation Shaarey Shomayim ( Hebrew : שַׁעֲרֵי שָׁמַיִם , " Gates of Heaven " ) , or the Roumanishe Shul ( Yiddish for " Romanian synagogue " ) , was an Orthodox Jewish congregation which , for over 100 years , occupied a historic building at 89 – 93 Rivington Street on the Lower East Side of Manhattan , New York .
Those who organized the congregation in 1885 were part of a substantial wave of Romanian @-@ Jewish immigrants , most of whom settled in the Lower East Side . The Rivington Street building , built around 1860 , had previously been a church , then a synagogue , then a church again , and had been extensively remodeled in 1889 . It was transformed into a synagogue for a second time when the First Roumanian @-@ American congregation purchased it in 1902 and again remodeled it .
The synagogue became famous as the " Cantor 's Carnegie Hall " , because of its high ceiling , good acoustics , and seating for up to 1 @,@ 800 people . Yossele Rosenblatt , Moshe Koussevitzky , Zavel Kwartin , Moishe Oysher , Jan Peerce and Richard Tucker were all cantors there . Red Buttons sang in the choir , George Burns was a member , and Edward G. Robinson had his Bar Mitzvah there .
The congregation 's membership was in the thousands in the 1940s , but by the early 2000s had declined to around 40 , as Jews moved out of the Lower East Side . Though its building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1998 , the congregation was reluctant to accept outside assistance in maintaining it . In December 2005 , water damage was found in the structural beams , and services were moved to the living room of the rabbi 's mother . In January 2006 , the synagogue 's roof collapsed , and the building was demolished two months later .
= = Origins = =
= = = First Roumanian @-@ American / Congregation Shaarey Shamoyim = = =
From 1881 through 1914 , approximately 2 million Jews immigrated to the United States from Europe . An estimated three @-@ quarters of them settled in New York City , primarily in the Lower East Side . Over 75 @,@ 000 of these immigrants were from Romania , where Jews faced antisemitic laws , violence and expulsion . These hardships , combined with low crop yields and economic depression , resulted in 30 percent of the Jews in Romania emigrating to the United States .
Romanian Jewish immigrants in New York City gravitated to a fifteen @-@ block area bounded by Allen , Ludlow , Houston and Grand streets . This " Romanian quarter " became the most densely populated part of the Lower East Side , with 1 @,@ 500 to 1 @,@ 800 people per block . These immigrants founded the First Roumanian @-@ American congregation , also known as Congregation Shaarey Shamoyim .
The origins of the congregation are disputed ; its establishment in 1885 may have been a re @-@ organization of a congregation originally founded in 1860 . Located initially close to the Romanian quarter at 70 Hester Street , and later situated at the heart of it with the move to Rivington Street , the synagogue was the preferred house of worship for the quarter 's inhabitants .
= = = Rivington Street building = = =
The Rivington Street building was constructed as a Protestant church around 1860 by the Second Reformed Presbyterian Church , which served the area 's large German immigrant community . In November 1864 the building was sold to the Orthodox German @-@ Jewish Congregation Shaaray Hashomayim ( " Gates of the Heavens " ) , which had been founded in 1841 . Though its Hebrew name was essentially the same as that used by the First Roumanian @-@ American congregation — Congregation Shaarey Shamoyim — which later purchased the building in 1902 , the two congregations were unrelated .
By the late 1880s , the German @-@ Jewish community had mostly moved from the Lower East Side . In 1889 , Congregation Shaaray Hashomayim moved to 216 East 15th Street , near Second Avenue , selling the Rivington Street building to the New York City Church Extension and Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church , which built or purchased churches , missions , and Sunday schools in New York City .
The Church Extension and Missionary Society engaged J. Cleaveland Cady to design major alterations to the structure . Cady was , at the time , New York 's most famous church architect , and had designed many other public institutional buildings , including university buildings , hospitals and museums . His work included the original Metropolitan Opera building ( since demolished ) , the Richardsonian Romanesque West 78th Street wing of the American Museum of Natural History , and several other buildings for the Church Extension and Missionary Society . The renovations cost approximately $ 36 @,@ 000 ( today $ 948 @,@ 000 ) , and included an entirely new Romanesque Revival facade in the reddish @-@ orange brick that Cady also used on several other churches .
Renamed the Allen Street Methodist Episcopal Church ( or Allen Street Memorial Church ) , the Rivington Street building 's new purpose was to " attract Jewish immigrants seeking conversion " . It was , however , unsuccessful in this endeavor . In 1895 , the church 's pastor stated , " The existence of the church here attracts few . Our audiences are small , and contain almost no Jews . "
= = Purchase and renovation by First Roumanian @-@ American = =
In 1902 , the First Roumanian @-@ American congregation / Congregation Shaarey Shamoyim purchased the Rivington Street building from the Church Extension and Missionary Society to satisfy a need for a larger building to serve the Lower East Side 's rapidly growing Romanian @-@ Jewish population . At the time , the property was valued at $ 95 @,@ 000 ( today $ 2 @.@ 6 million ) . The funds for the purchase were raised from the members of the congregation , and to honor those contributing $ 10 or more , names were engraved on one of four marble slabs in the stairway to the main sanctuary . The most generous gift was $ 500 , at a time when $ 10 was two weeks ' pay . The congregation also took out two mortgages ; one for $ 50 @,@ 000 ( today $ 1 @.@ 37 million ) with the Title Insurance Company , and a second for $ 30 @,@ 000 ( today $ 820 @,@ 000 ) with the Church Extension and Missionary Society .
The congregation commissioned Charles E. Reid for extensive renovations , at a cost of $ 6 @,@ 000 ( today $ 164 @,@ 000 ) . The " eclectic Byzantine " remodeling involved converting it for Jewish use by removing Christian symbols and adding a Torah ark and bimah ( central platform from which the Torah is read ) at the sanctuary 's north end . The renovations retained the original " horseshoe @-@ shaped gallery supported by twelve Ionic columns " and wooden pews with reading shelves ( likely from the 1889 Cady renovation ) , but a number of structural changes were made . Steel beams were added to support the weight of the ark and bimah , the rear wall was re @-@ built and the gallery extended to meet it , two skylights were added ( a concave stained glass one and a clear glass one over the ark ) , and at the front of the building , on top of the shallow ( 14 feet deep ) fourth @-@ story attic , an equally shallow fifth @-@ story attic was added .
The completed structure filled almost the entire width of its approximately 70 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 21 m ) by 100 @-@ foot @-@ deep ( 30 m ) lot , and seated 1 @,@ 600 to 1 @,@ 800 . Dedicated in late December 1902 , it was the Lower East Side 's largest synagogue and only Romanesque one , and it became an " architectural and public showpiece " .
= = Early activities = =
By 1903 the synagogue was well established on Rivington Street , and , due to its capacity and prominence , was often the site of significant or mass meetings . In April 1903 a service to honor the memory of Reform rabbi and Zionist leader Gustav Gottheil was held there , and a similar service was held for Theodore Herzl the following year . At the latter service , which was boycotted by Orthodox rabbis , Herzl was not eulogized , nor was his name mentioned .
The Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America ( UOJCA ) held its third annual convention at the synagogue in June 1903 , attended by around 100 delegates , and presided over by the organization 's president , Rabbi Henry Pereira Mendes . The most important resolutions adopted at that meeting were one which deprecated the granting of a get ( religious divorce document ) to — or allowing subsequent re @-@ marriage by — people who had not first obtained a civil divorce , and the request that congregations with mostly foreign @-@ born members " secure an English @-@ speaking rabbi for the benefit of their American @-@ born English @-@ speaking children " . Pereira Mendes spoke in favor of the creation of a committee to bring victims of the Kishinev pogrom to the United States , and against a proposal by the Union of American Hebrew Congregations ( UAHC ) that the Jewish Sabbath be moved to Sunday . Pereira Mendes also announced that the UOJCA would " unite " with the UAHC and other national " religious , philanthropic , or educational " Jewish organizations in Washington " to discuss the subjects of vital concern to Judaism and Jews " , while rejecting the proposition that " the main topic of the discussion at the first congress shall be the immigration problem . "
At the meeting Albert Lucas also spoke out strongly against attempts by Christian groups to proselytize Jewish children in nurseries and kindergartens . Ostensibly to combat this proselytization , in 1903 the congregation was one of several New York City synagogues that allowed Lucas the use of its premises for free religious classes , " open to all children of the neighborhood " .
In December 1905 a mass meeting was held at the synagogue to protest massacres of Jews in Russia and mourn their deaths , and the congregation donated $ 500 to a fund for the sufferers . In March 1909 Orthodox groups held meetings there to organize opposition to the constitution and make @-@ up of Judah Leon Magnes 's Kehilla , an overarching organization intended to represent all of New York 's Jews , which lasted until 1922 . A mass meeting of local residents and businessmen to combat Lower East Side gangsters was held at the synagogue in 1913 .
The Rivington Street synagogue was also a preferred venue for airing issues relevant specifically to Romanian @-@ American Jews . In 1905 it was the site of New York City 's only memorial service honoring United States Secretary of State John Hay , who had worked on behalf of oppressed Jews in Romania . In 1908 , the synagogue hosted a meeting of over 30 religious organizations representing Romanian @-@ American Jews , at which the formation of a federation of those organizations was proposed , and again in 1916 hosted a similar meeting of " two hundred delegates representing thirty @-@ five organizations ... to plan incorporation of the American League of Rumanian Jews " . At the latter meeting steps were taken to raise $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( today $ 22 million ) for oppressed Jews in Romania , and to campaign for their " equal rights and their emancipation from thralldom " .
The congregation carried out extensive charity campaigns during the Passover season ; by 1905 the congregation was distributing wagon @-@ loads of matzos to poor Jews so they could celebrate the holiday . By 1907 – 1908 membership had risen to 500 ( up from 160 in 1900 ) , the Talmud Torah had 250 students , and the synagogue 's annual revenues were $ 25 @,@ 000 ( today $ 630 @,@ 000 ) . The congregation ran into financial difficulties of its own in 1908 , and in October of that year raised funds by selling a number of its Torah scrolls in a public auction .
Members who would become famous included George Burns and Bucharest @-@ born Edward G. Robinson , who had his Bar Mitzvah there in 1906 . Robinson would later laugh that his propensity for taking the stage was demonstrated when he gave the longest Bar Mitzvah speech in the history of the congregation — " but the men sat still and listened " .
In 1911 First Roumanian @-@ American celebrated its ten @-@ year jubilee at the synagogue . Guest speakers included United Synagogue of America president Solomon Schechter , Congressman Henry M. Goldfogle , and the principal speaker was William Jay Gaynor , then Mayor of New York City .
Membership had grown to 350 families by 1919 . The congregational school held classes daily , and had 4 teachers and 300 students . The American Jewish Year Book listed the synagogue 's rabbi as Abraham Frachtenberg , a well @-@ known cantor .
= = " Cantor 's Carnegie Hall " = =
The synagogue 's sanctuary had a high ceiling and " opera house " characteristics , and was renowned for its " exquisite " or " magnificent " acoustics . Known as " the Cantor 's Carnegie Hall " , First Roumanian @-@ American became a center for cantorial music , and many of the greatest cantors of the 20th century led services there . Yossele Rosenblatt , Moshe Koussevitzky , Zavel Kwartin and Moishe Oysher all sang there , as did Jan Peerce and Richard Tucker before they became famous opera singers . Having a reputation for good cantorial singing had a positive impact on a synagogue 's finances ; congregations depended on the funds from the sale of tickets for seats on the High Holy Days , and the better the cantor , the greater the attendance .
Red Buttons sang at the synagogue with Rosenblatt in 1927 , and when visiting the synagogue almost 70 years later could still remember the songs . Though his family actually went to a " small storefront synagogue " , Buttons was discovered , at age eight , by a talent scout for Rosenblatt 's Coopermans Choir , who heard him singing near the intersection of Fifth Street and Avenue C , at a " pickle stand " . Buttons would sing in the choir for three years . Eddie Cantor has also been claimed as a choir member , though this is less likely .
Oysher — " the greatest of all popularizers of cantorial singing " — became the synagogue 's cantor in 1935 , and the congregation 's membership peaked in the 1940s , when it numbered in the thousands . In a 1956 interview by Brendan Gill in The New Yorker magazine , Oysher described First Roumanian @-@ American as " the most orthodox Orthodox synagogue in town " . Oysher died of a heart attack two years later " at the young age of 51 " . The week of his death , he had said , " half @-@ jokingly " , that he wanted only one person to deliver his eulogy : Chaim Porille , rabbi of the First Roumanian @-@ American Congregation . Porille had been born in Uscieczko ( then in Poland ) in 1899 , and moved to the United States in 1927 , to serve as rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of Providence , Rhode Island . He became rabbi of First Roumanian @-@ American in 1932 , a post he filled until 1962 , and was a member of the executive board of the Agudath Harabonim . He died in September 1968 .
= = Subsequent building renovations and appearance in the 1990s = =
In the years following First Roumanian @-@ American 's initial purchase and renovation of the Rivington Street building , the congregation made a number of other structural alterations . These included :
1916 – 1917 : Adding fire escapes on the east and west sides of the building .
1920s or later : Installing individual theatre @-@ style seats in the gallery .
1938 – 1943 : Removing the staircase to the fourth floor , leaving access only from the fire escapes .
1948 – 1950 : Reconstructing the portico with some of the existing stone and brick , and adding new " fireproof steel stairs with terrazzo treads " and light @-@ yellow and blue tinted glass windows on the east and west walls of the sanctuary , and other improvements .
1964 : Adding a kitchen to the basement " for social purposes " .
In the 1990s , the north @-@ facing orange @-@ red brick facade presented a large , compound arched brick and stone portico , with deeply recessed doors . This arch was " supported by three carved columns , two twisted columns , and a central column with a chevron pattern , each with a Byzantine @-@ style capital " , and had a stone coping on top . Carved into the portico arch in capital letters were the words " First Roumanian @-@ American Congregation " .
Originally there were large rectangular window openings on the ground floor on each side of the portico , each divided into two windows , but these had been bricked in by the 1990s . The second- and third @-@ floor windows above them were originally stained glass but later clear glass , each second @-@ floor window having eight square panes , and each third @-@ floor window six panes topped with an arch . " Ornamental red terra cotta panels " separated the second- and third @-@ floor openings . On the third floor , centered above the portico , was a similar window , this one flanked by two short recessed twisted columns , each " supporting a stone lintel incised with a cupid 's @-@ bow ornament " . Similar lintels capped three @-@ story pilasters at each corner of the facade , and these pilasters and lintels extended around the northeast and northwest corners . The six @-@ paned windows were each capped with a roundel and three spandrels , " two large and one small " , and these retained their original stained glass .
The shallow fourth floor was demarcated on the bottom by " a heavy frieze and corbelled brick cornice " , which supported " eight round @-@ arched windows with molded brick voussoirs ... massed in a 3 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 pattern " . By the 1990s these had also been bricked in . The attic on top of the fourth floor , added during the 1902 – 1903 renovations , was " capped by a band of small red terra @-@ cotta blocks " .
The sides of the building were faced with plain brick , and flanked by narrow alleys with iron gates at each entrance . The walls generally had plain windows , though there was a round arched one on each side of the fourth floor . One fire escape remained , in the east alley .
Inside , the building held a two @-@ story balconied main sanctuary and dining room , in addition to the basement kitchen and bathrooms . The heating system was in a sub @-@ basement . The front ark and wood bimah in the sanctuary were ornate ; the red velvet draped ark was elaborately decorated , and the bimah was also decorated , and supported a large bronze candelabra . The sanctuary floor was wood , with wood wainscoting and plaster walls .
= = = Appearances in popular culture = = =
The synagogue building can be seen in the 1956 film Singing in the Dark , starring Oysher , and also starring ( and produced by ) Joey Adams . The entrance can be seen in the panoramic photograph of the corner of Ludlow and Rivington streets found on the Beastie Boys ' 1989 Paul 's Boutique album cover foldout , and the building ( and Jacob Spiegel ) can also be seen in Raphael Nadjari 's 2001 film I Am Josh Polonski 's Brother .
= = Decline = =
Over time the synagogue appealed to a broader constituency than just Roumanian @-@ American Jews . Nevertheless , membership declined during the latter half of the 20th century as the upwardly mobile Jewish population of the Lower East Side moved to north Manhattan , Brooklyn , and the Bronx . First Roumanian @-@ American was particularly affected : as it was an Orthodox congregation , in order to attend Sabbath services its members had to live within walking distance .
In 1980 First Roumanian @-@ American was one of the few congregations on the Lower East Side to still have its own Talmud Torah . This school had been housed in a small building on the east side of the synagogue that had formerly served as the church rectory . The congregation was eventually forced to sell the building , but the new owners retained the school 's carved sign .
Rabbi Mordecai Mayer , who had led the congregation for 20 years , died in 1981 , two days before his 66th birthday . Born in Chortkov ( then in Poland ) , he had graduated from the Chachmei Lublin Yeshiva , and had emigrated to the United States in 1936 . He had , for 40 years , conducted programs on Jewish topics on radio station WEVD , then owned by The Forward . In the 1970s he was a columnist for the Yiddish weekly Algemeiner Journal , and was the author of the English @-@ language books Israel 's Wisdom in Modern Life ( 1949 ) and Seeing Through Believing ( 1973 ) . He was succeeded by Jacob Spiegel .
In the early 1990s the congregation could still be assured of the required quorum of ten men for the minyan during the week , as local businessmen attended the morning and evening prayers before opening and after closing their shops . By 1996 , however , the membership was down to around two dozen , and Spiegel began holding services in the small social hall in the basement , as the main sanctuary had become too expensive to maintain .
With the decline in membership , the building deteriorated . In 1997 the congregation received a grant for preservation and repair of the structure from the New York Landmarks Conservancy , and the following year received $ 4 @,@ 000 from the Landmarks Conservancy 's Sacred Sites program for roof truss repairs . That same year the synagogue building was listed in the National Register of Historic Places at the local level . In the fall of that year Shimon Attie 's laser visual work Between Dreams and History was projected onto the synagogue and neighboring buildings for three weeks .
Spiegel had a heart attack and died in 2001 , leaving charge of the synagogue to the youngest of his three sons , Rabbi Shmuel Spiegel . The other sons , Rabbi Gershon and Rabbi Ari , were , respectively , synagogue president and assistant rabbi . In June 2003 the name " Rabbi Yaakov Spiegel Way " was given collectively to the corner of Rivington Street and Ludlow Street near the synagogue location and the stretch of Rivington in front of the synagogue .
The roof had long been in bad shape by the time of Jacob Spiegel 's death in 2001 and it was threatening to collapse . In December of that year , Shmuel Spiegel managed to raise $ 25 @,@ 000 for emergency repairs . However , despite offering cholent ( the traditional Sabbath lunch stew ) at the Sabbath morning kiddush , Spiegel had to search local streets to make the ten men for the minyan . In 2004 the regular membership hovered around 40 . Spiegel kept the synagogue running at an annual cost of around $ 75 @,@ 000 .
= = Collapse = =
On January 22 , 2006 , the roof of the synagogue caved in , severely damaging the main sanctuary . Joshua Cohen , writing in The Forward in 2008 , described the roof as " falling in respectfully , careful not to disturb the local nightclubs , or the wine and cheesery newly opened across the street . " No one was injured , and a party to celebrate that fact was later held at the Chasam Sopher Synagogue on Clinton Street .
The National Trust for Historic Preservation issued a press release about the collapse , in which it described " older religious properties , like the First Roumanian @-@ American Synagogue " as " national treasures " , and stated :
The roof collapse at First Roumanian – American Synagogue this week demonstrates that houses of worship must have access to necessary technical assistance , staff and board training , and the development of new funding sources in order to save these landmarks of spirituality , cultural tradition , and community service .
Amy Waterman , executive director of a project to repair and renovate the Eldridge Street Synagogue , noted in The Forward :
Synagogues like the First Roumanian @-@ American Congregation , more familiarly known as the Rumanische shul , were the first spiritual homes for successive waves of European immigrants . They were built more than 100 years ago , and just like the bridges and tunnels of New York City , they 're bound to fail if not attended to .
Though First Roumanian @-@ American had hosted a wedding as recently as October 30 , 2005 , the sanctuary had not been in regular use for over 10 years as a result of the difficulty maintaining it . Services had been held instead on a lower floor , and by autumn 2005 the roof was so porous that on Yom Kippur — even in the basement — they prayed " with buckets " . After a contractor found water damage in the ceiling beams in early December , the three Spiegel brothers had been holding services in their mother Chana 's apartment at 383 Grand Street , where they placed the congregation 's 15 Torah scrolls following the roof cave @-@ in . The synagogue 's historic ark was also retrieved from the ruins . According to Shmuel Spiegel , " the insurance company [ was ] playing hardball . "
Because the building had never been registered as a National Historic Landmark , after the collapse it was demolished on March 3 , 2006 . The New York City Department of Buildings said that the decision to demolish was the congregation 's , but congregational vice president Joshua Shainberg said the Department of Buildings had left them no choice : " The Department of Buildings told us , ' You are to demolish it or we are to demolish it . ' There were figures of up to $ 1 @.@ 5 million for demolition . " At the time of the building 's collapse , the Spiegel brothers vowed that it would be re @-@ built , but not nearly as large : " perhaps 20 feet high by 60 feet deep by 75 feet wide , which would cost about $ 2 million to $ 3 million . "
Richard Price described the collapsed building in his novel Lush Life , writing that , after the demolition , only the rear wall with a Star of David in stained glass remained : " The candlesticks were standing up in the rubble , and the whole place looked like an experimental stage set — like Shakespeare in the Park . " By October 2007 all that was left was " an empty lot dotted with weeds and crushed bricks " . In a 2008 addendum to his book Dough : A Memoir , Mort Zachter described the remains as " a multimillion dollar real estate opportunity masquerading as a vacant , weed @-@ strewn lot . "
= = Controversy = =
The collapse of the roof , and subsequent destruction of the synagogue , generated widespread concern and criticism among preservationists , who blamed Jacob and Shmuel Spiegel — a charge the family rejected .
Julia Vitullo @-@ Martin , senior fellow at the Manhattan Institute and director of its Center for Rethinking Development , stated that First Roumanian @-@ American 's roof collapse and subsequent destruction dramatized an " ongoing though undocumented synagogue crisis — particularly in poor neighborhoods " and revealed a broader problem peculiar to Jewish houses of worship :
Since Judaism , unlike Catholicism , lacks a hierarchy that could keep track of how many [ synagogues ] are abandoned and demolished , the breadth of the problem is more difficult to ascertain .
In the years preceding the building 's collapse , the congregation had received offers of assistance from the New York Landmarks Conservancy , the National Trust for Historic Preservation , Lower East Side Conservancy , and the New York State Office of Parks , Recreation and Historic Preservation , though reports on the amounts and types of assistance offered varied . The congregation , then under the leadership of Jacob Spiegel , rejected them . Joel Kaplan of the Lower East Side Conservancy stated that the congregation " didn 't want the several hundred thousand dollars in landmarking grants that went to other Lower East shuls , money that could have kept the shul in repair . "
The reasons given for this rejection also varied . According to Vitullo @-@ Martin , writing in The Wall Street Journal , Shmuel Spiegel was not sure why the offers were rejected , as the records were " buried in the rubble " . Vitullo @-@ Martin speculated that congregants might have hesitated to agree to a condition that they would need permission from the state for any sale or alteration of the building during the following 20 years . According to The New York Times , Spiegel stated that the repairs required were so extensive that the congregation could not have made them even with this financial assistance . According to The Jewish Week , Spiegel stated that the congregation " didn 't want outside interference " , was " uncomfortable with the idea of being landmarked and having to answer to landmark guidelines " , and was also uncomfortable with making part of the building into a " museum of past glory " , as others nearby had done .
Zachter writes :
A few blocks away , the Eldridge Street Synagogue survives . Why this synagogue was renovated , and the First Roumanian torn down , is a question for the rabbis and the historians .
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= Osteopathic medicine in the United States =
Osteopathic Medicine is a branch of the medical profession in the United States . Osteopathic physicians ( D.O.s ) are equivalent to both Doctors of Medicine ( M.D.s ) and Bachelor of Medicine , Bachelor of Surgery ( MBBS ) doctors in the United Kingdom and are considered fully licensed physicians ( medical doctors ) to practice medicine and surgery in all 50 states and are recognized in sixty five other countries , including all Canadian provinces .
Frontier physician Andrew Taylor Still founded the profession as a rejection of the prevailing system of medical thought of the 19th century . Still 's techniques relied on manipulation of joints and bones , to diagnose and treat illness , and he called his practices “ osteopathy ” . By the middle of the 20th century , the profession had moved closer to mainstream medicine , adopting modern public health and biomedical principles . American " osteopaths " became " osteopathic medical doctors " , ultimately achieving full practice rights as allopathic medical doctors in all 50 states , including serving in the U.S. armed forces as physicians .
In the 21st century , the training of osteopathic medical physicians in the United States is equivalent to the training of Doctors of Medicine ( M.D.s ) . Osteopathic medical physicians attend four years of medical school followed by an internship and a minimum two years of residency . They use all conventional methods of diagnosis and treatment . Though still trained in osteopathic manipulative treatment ( OMT ) , the modern derivative of Still 's techniques , they work in all specialties of medicine . OMT is a skill they use often in family practice , sports medicine , emergency medicine , but OMT is not commonly used in specialties such as dermatology , surgery , or other fields that do not lend themselves to correcting the body with their hands .
In modern medicine , any distinction between the M.D. and the D.O. professions has eroded steadily ; diminishing numbers of D.O. graduates enter primary care fields , fewer use OMT , and increasing numbers of osteopathic graduates choose to train in non @-@ osteopathic residency programs . An osteopathic physician ( DO ) is a fully licensed , patient @-@ centered medical doctor . DO has full medical practice rights throughout the United States and in 44 countries abroad .
Discussions about the future of modern medicine frequently debate the utility of maintaining separate , distinct pathways for educating physicians in the United States .
= = Nomenclature = =
Physicians and surgeons who graduate from osteopathic medical schools are known as physicians or osteopathic medical doctors . Upon graduation , they are conferred a professional doctorate , the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine ( D.O. ) .
Osteopathic curricula in other countries differ from those in the United States . European @-@ trained practitioners of osteopathic manipulative techniques are referred to as " osteopaths " : their scope of practice excludes most medical therapies and relies more on osteopathic manipulative medicine and alternative medical modalities . While it was once common for D.O. graduates in the United States to refer to themselves as ' osteopaths , ' this term is now considered archaic and those holding the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degree are commonly referred to as ' osteopathic medical physicians ' .
= = Demographics = =
Currently , there are 30 accredited osteopathic medical schools offering education in 42 locations across the United States and 141 accredited U.S. M.D. medical schools .
In 1960 , there were 13 @,@ 708 physicians who were graduates of the 5 osteopathic medical schools .
In 2002 , there were 49 @,@ 210 physicians from 19 osteopathic medical schools .
Between 1980 and 2005 , the number of osteopathic graduates per year increased over 250 percent from about 1 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 800 . This number is expected to approach 5 @,@ 000 by 2015 .
In 2015 , there were 31 colleges of osteopathic medicine in 45 locations . One in four medical students in the United States is enrolled in an osteopathic medical school .
As of 2015 , there are more than 96 @,@ 000 osteopathic medical physicians in the United States .
By 2020 , the number of osteopathic medical physicians will be over 100 @,@ 000 , say expert predictions , according to the American Medical Association .
Osteopathic physicians are not evenly distributed in the United States . States with the highest concentration of osteopathic medical physicians are Oklahoma , Iowa , and Michigan where osteopathic medical physicians comprise 17 @-@ 20 % of the total physician workforce . The state with the greatest number of osteopathic medical physicians is Pennsylvania , with 7 @,@ 260 DOs in active practice in 2011 . The states with the lowest concentrations of DOs are Louisiana , Massachusetts and Vermont where only 1 – 3 % of physicians have an osteopathic medical degree . Public awareness of osteopathic medicine likewise varies widely in different regions . People living in the midwest states are the most likely to be familiar with osteopathic medicine . In the Northeastern United States , osteopathic medical physicians provide more than one third of general and family medicine patient visits .
Between 2010 and 2015 twelve states experienced greater than 50 % growth in the number of DOs — Virginia , South Carolina , Utah , Tennessee , North Dakota , Kentucky , South Dakota , Wyoming , Oregon , North Carolina , Minnesota , Washington .
= = Osteopathic principles = =
Osteopathic medical students take the Osteopathic Oath , similar to the Hippocratic oath , to maintain and uphold the " core principles " of osteopathic medical philosophy . Revised in 1953 , and again in 2002 , the core principles are :
The body is a unit ; a person is a unit of body , mind , and spirit .
The body is capable of self @-@ regulation , self @-@ healing , and health maintenance .
Structure and function are reciprocally interrelated .
Rational treatment is based on an understanding of these principles : body unity , self @-@ regulation , and the interrelationship of structure and function .
Contemporary osteopathic physicians practice evidence @-@ based medicine , indistinguishable from their MD colleagues .
= = = Significance = = =
There are different opinions on the significance of these principles . Some note that the osteopathic medical philosophy is akin to the tenets of holistic medicine , suggestive of a kind of social movement within the field of medicine , one that promotes a more patient @-@ centered , holistic approach to medicine , and emphasizes the role of the primary care physician within the health care system . Others point out that there is nothing in the principles that would distinguish D.O. from M.D. training in any fundamental way . One study , published in The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association found a majority of M.D. medical school administrators and faculty saw nothing objectionable in the core principles listed above , and some endorse them generally as broad medical principles .
= = History = =
= = = 19th century , a new movement within medicine = = =
Frontier physician Andrew Taylor Still , M.D. , DO , founded the American School of Osteopathy ( now the A.T. Still University @-@ Kirksville ( Mo . ) College of Osteopathic Medicine ) in Kirksville , MO , in 1892 as a radical protest against the turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ century medical system . A. T. Still believed that the conventional medical system lacked credible efficacy , was morally corrupt , and treated effects rather than causes of disease . He founded osteopathic medicine in rural Missouri at a time when medications , surgery , and other traditional therapeutic regimens often caused more harm than good . Some of the medicines commonly given to patients during this time were arsenic , castor oil , whiskey , and opium . In addition , unsanitary surgical practices often resulted in more deaths than cures .
Dr. Still intended his new system of medicine to be a reformation of the existing 19th @-@ century medical practices . He imagined that someday " rational medical therapy " would consist of manipulation of the musculoskeletal system , surgery , and very sparingly used drugs . He invented the name " osteopathy " by blending two Greek roots osteon- for bone and -pathos for suffering in order to communicate his theory that disease and physiologic dysfunction were etiologically grounded in a disordered musculoskeletal system . Thus , by diagnosing and treating the musculoskeletal system , he believed that physicians could treat a variety of diseases and spare patients the negative side @-@ effects of drugs .
The new profession faced stiff opposition from the medical establishment at the time . The relationship of the osteopathic and medical professions was often " bitterly contentious " and involved " strong efforts " by medical organizations to discredit osteopathic medicine . Throughout the first half of the twentieth century , the policy of the American Medical Association labeled osteopathic medicine as a cult and osteopaths were seen as " cultist . " The AMA code of ethics declared it unethical for a medical physician to voluntarily associate with an osteopath .
One notable advocate for the fledgling movement was Mark Twain . Manipulative treatments had purportedly alleviated the symptoms of his daughter Jean 's epilepsy as well as Twain 's own chronic bronchitis . In 1909 , he spoke before the New York State Assembly at a hearing regarding the practice of osteopathy in the state . " I don 't know as I cared much about these osteopaths until I heard you were going to drive them out of the state , but since I heard that I haven 't been able to sleep . " Philosophically opposed to the American Medical Association 's stance that its own type of medical practice was the only legitimate one , he spoke in favor of licensing for osteopaths . Physicians from the New York County Medical Society responded with a vigorous attack on Twain , who retorted with " [ t ] he physicians think they are moved by regard for the best interests of the public . Isn 't there a little touch of self @-@ interest back of it all ? " " ... The objection is , people are curing people without a license and you are afraid it will bust up business . "
= = = 1916 – 1966 , federal recognition = = =
Recognition by the U.S. federal government was a key goal of the osteopathic medical profession in its effort to establish equivalency with its M.D. counterparts . Between 1916 and 1966 , the profession engaged in a " long and tortuous struggle " for the right to serve as physicians and surgeons in the U.S. Military Medical Corps . On May 3 , 1966 Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara authorized the acceptance of osteopathic physicians into all the medical military services on the same basis as MDs . The first osteopathic physician to take the oath of office to serve as a military physician was Harry J. Walter . The acceptance of osteopathic physicians was further solidified in 1996 when Ronald Blanck , DO was appointed to serve as Surgeon General of the Army , the only osteopathic physician to hold the post .
= = = 1962 , California = = =
In the 1960s in California , the American Medical Association ( AMA ) spent nearly $ 8 million to end the practice of osteopathic medicine in the state . In 1962 , Proposition 22 , a statewide ballot initiative in California , eliminated the practice of osteopathic medicine in the state . The California Medical Association ( CMA ) issued M.D. degrees to all DOs in the state of California for a nominal fee . " By attending a short seminar and paying $ 65 , a doctor of osteopathy ( D.O. ) could obtain an M.D. degree ; 86 percent of the DOs in the state ( out of a total of about 2000 ) chose to do so . " Immediately following , the AMA re @-@ accredited the formerly the osteopathic University of California at Irvine College of Osteopathic Medicine as the University of California , Irvine School of Medicine , an M.D. medical school . It also placed a ban on issuing physician licenses to DOs moving to California from other states . However , the decision proved to be controversial . In 1974 , after protests and lobbying by influential and prominent DOs , the California Supreme Court ruled in Osteopathic Physicians and Surgeons of California v. California Medical Association , that licensing of DOs in that state must be resumed . Four years later , in 1978 , the College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific opened in Pomona , and in 1997 Touro University California opened in Vallejo . As of 2012 , there were 6 @,@ 368 D.O.s practicing in California .
= = = 1969 , AMA House of Delegates approval = = =
In 1969 , the American Medical Association ( AMA ) approved a measure allowing qualified osteopathic physicians as full and active members of the Association . The measure also allowed osteopathic physicians to participate in AMA @-@ approved intern and residency programs . However , the American Osteopathic Association rejected this measure , claiming it was an attempt to eliminate the distinctiveness of osteopathic medicine . In 1970 , AMA President Dwight L. Wilbur , M.D. sponsored a measure in the AMA 's House of Delegates permitting the AMA Board of Trustees ' plan for the merger of D.O. and M.D. professions . Today , a majority of osteopathic physicians are trained alongside MDs , in residency programs governed by the ACGME , an independent board of the AMA .
= = = 1993 , first African @-@ American woman to serve as dean of a U.S. medical school = = =
In 1993 , Barbara Ross @-@ Lee , DO was appointed to the position of dean of the Ohio University College of Osteopathic Medicine ; she was the first African @-@ American woman to serve as the dean of a U.S. medical school . Ross @-@ Lee now is the dean of the NYIT College of Osteopathic Medicine at Arkansas State University in Jonesboro , Arkansas .
= = = Non @-@ discrimination policies = = =
Recent years have seen a professional rapprochement between the two groups . DOs have been admitted to full active membership in the American Medical Association since 1969 . The AMA has invited a representative of the American Osteopathic Association to sit as a voting member in the AMA legislative body , the house of delegates .
= = = = 2006 , American Medical Student Association = = = =
In 2006 , during the presidency of an osteopathic medical student , the American Medical Student Association ( AMSA ) adopted a policy regarding the membership rights of osteopathic medical students in their main policy document , the " Preamble , Purposes and Principles . "
AMSA RECOGNIZES the equality of osteopathic and allopathic medical degrees within the organization and the healthcare community as a whole . As such , DO students shall be entitled to the same opportunities and membership rights as allopathic students .
= = = = 2007 , AMA = = = =
In recent years , the largest M.D. organization in the U.S. , the American Medical Association , adopted a fee non @-@ discrimination policy discouraging differential pricing based on attendance of an M.D. or D.O. medical school .
In 2006 , calls for an investigation into the existence of differential fees charged for visiting D.O. and M.D. medical students at American medical schools were brought to the American Medical Association . After an internal investigation into the fee structure for visiting D.O. and M.D. medical students at M.D. medical schools , it was found that one institution of the 102 surveyed charged different fees for D.O. and M.D. students . The house of delegates of the American Medical Association adopted resolution 809 , I @-@ 05 in 2007 .
Our AMA , in collaboration with the American Osteopathic Association , discourages discrimination against medical students by institutions and programs based on osteopathic or allopathic training .
= = = State licensing of practice rights = = =
In the United States , laws regulating physician licenses are governed by the states . Between 1901 and 1989 , osteopathic physicians lobbied state legislatures to pass laws giving those with a D.O. degree the same legal privilege to practice medicine as those with an M.D. degree . In many states , the debate was long and protracted . Both the AOA and the AMA were heavily involved in influencing the legislative process . The first state to pass such a law was California in 1901 , the last was Nebraska in 1989 .
= = Current status = =
= = = Education and training = = =
According to Harrison 's Principles of Internal Medicine , " the training , practice , credentialing , licensure , and reimbursement of osteopathic physicians is virtually indistinguishable from those of allopathic ( MD ) physicians , with 4 years of osteopathic medical school followed by specialty and subspecialty training and [ board ] certification . "
D.O.-granting U.S. medical schools have curricula identical for the most part to those of M.D.-granting schools . Generally , the first two years are classroom @-@ based , while the third and fourth years consist of clinical rotations through the major specialties of medicine . Some schools of Osteopathic Medicine have been criticized by the osteopathic community for relying too heavily on clinical rotations with private practitioners , who may not be able to provide sufficient instruction to the rotating student . Other D.O.-granting and M.D.-granting schools place their students in hospital @-@ based clinical rotations where the attending physicians are faculty of the school , and who have a clear duty to teach medical students while treating patients .
= = = = Graduate medical education = = = =
Upon graduation , most osteopathic medical physicians pursue residency training programs . Depending on state licensing laws , osteopathic medical physicians may also complete a one @-@ year rotating internship at a hospital approved by the American Osteopathic Association ( AOA ) .
Osteopathic physicians may apply to residency programs accredited by either the AOA or the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education ( ACGME ) . Currently , osteopathic physicians participate in more ACGME programs than in programs approved by the American Osteopathic Association ( AOA ) . By June 30 , 2020 , all AOA residencies will also be required to have ACGME accreditation , and the AOA will cease accreditation activities .
= = Osteopathic manipulative treatment ( OMT ) = =
Within the osteopathic medical curriculum , manipulative treatment is taught as an adjunctive measure to other biomedical interventions for a number of disorders and diseases . However , a 2001 survey of osteopathic physicians found that more than 50 % of the respondents used OMT on less than 5 % of their patients . The survey follows many indicators that osteopathic physicians have become more like M.D. physicians in every respect — few perform OMT , and most prescribe medications or suggest surgery as the first line of treatment . The American Osteopathic Association has made an effort in recent years to support scientific inquiry into the effectiveness of osteopathic manipulation as well as to encourage osteopathic physicians to consistently offer manipulative treatments to their patients . However , the number of osteopathic physicians who report consistently prescribing and performing manipulative treatment has been falling steadily . Medical historian and sociologist Norman Gevitz cites poor educational quarters and few full @-@ time OMT instructors as major factors for the decreasing interest of medical students in OMT . He describes problems with " the quality , breadth , nature , and orientation of OMM instruction , " and he claims that the teaching of osteopathic medicine has not changed sufficiently over the years to meet the intellectual and practical needs of students .
In their assigned readings , students learn what certain prominent DOs have to say about various somatic dysfunctions . There is often a theory or model presented that provides conjectures and putative explanations about why somatic dysfunction exists and what its significance is . Instructors spend the bulk of their time demonstrating osteopathic manipulative ( OM ) techniques without providing evidence that the techniques are significant and efficacious . Even worse , faculty members rarely provide instrument @-@ based objective evidence that somatic dysfunction is present in the first place .
At the same time , recent studies show an increasingly positive attitude of patients and physicians ( M.D. and D.O. ) towards the use of manual therapy as a valid , safe and effective treatment modality . One survey , published in the Journal of Continuing Medical Education , found that a majority of physicians ( 81 % ) and patients ( 76 % ) felt that manual manipulation ( MM ) was safe , and over half ( 56 % of physicians and 59 % of patients ) felt that manipulation should be available in the primary care setting . Although less than half ( 40 % ) of the physicians reported any educational exposure to MM and less than one @-@ quarter ( 20 % ) have administered MM in their practice , most ( 71 % ) respondents endorsed desiring more instruction in MM. Another small study examined the interest and ability of M.D. residents in learning osteopathic principles and skills , including OMT . It showed that after a 1 @-@ month elective rotation , the M.D. residents responded favorably to the experience .
= = = Professional attitudes = = =
In 1998 , a New York Times article described the increasing numbers , public awareness , and mainstreaming of osteopathic medical physicians , illustrating an increasingly cooperative climate between the D.O. and M.D. professions .
In 2005 , during his tenure as president of the American Association of Medical Colleges , Jordan Cohen described a climate of cooperation between D.O. and M.D. practitioners :
" We now find ourselves living at a time when osteopathic and allopathic graduates are both sought after by many of the same residency programs ; are in most instances both licensed by the same licensing boards ; are both privileged by many of the same hospitals ; and are found in appreciable numbers on the faculties of each other 's medical schools " .
Elsewhere , he has remarked that osteopathic manipulative medicine ( OMT ) " can be an aid to the physician in fostering a relationship with the patient . "
= = = International practice rights = = =
Each country has different requirements and procedures for licensing or registering osteopathic physicians and osteopaths . The only osteopathic practitioners that the U.S. Department of Education recognizes as physicians are graduates of osteopathic medical colleges in the United States . Therefore , osteopaths who have trained outside the United States are not eligible for medical licensure in the United States . On the other hand , U.S.-trained DOs are currently able to practice in 45 countries with full medical rights and in several others with restricted rights .
The Bureau on International Osteopathic Medical Education and Affairs ( BIOMEA ) is an independent board of the American Osteopathic Association . The BIOMEA monitors the licensing and registration practices of physicians in countries outside of the United States and advances the recognition of American @-@ trained DOs . Towards this end , the BIOMEA works with international health organizations like the World Health Organization ( WHO ) , the Pan American Health Organization ( PAHO ) as well as other groups .
The procedure by which countries consider granting physician licensure to foreigners varies widely . For U.S. trained physicians , the ability to qualify for " unlimited practice rights " also varies according to one 's degree , M.D. or D.O. Many countries recognize U.S.-trained MDs as applicants for licensure , granting successful applicants " unlimited " practice rights . The American Osteopathic Association has lobbied the governments of other countries to recognize U.S.-trained DOs similarly to their M.D. counterparts , with some success .
In over 65 countries , U.S.-trained DOs have unlimited practice rights . In 2005 , after one year of deliberations , the General Medical Council announced that U.S.-trained DOs will be accepted for full medical practice rights in the United Kingdom . According to Josh Kerr of the AOA , " some countries don ’ t understand the differences in training between an osteopathic physician and an osteopath . " The American Medical Student Association strongly advocates for U.S.-trained D.O. international practice rights " equal to that " of M.D. qualified physicians .
= = = Osteopathic medicine and primary care = = =
Osteopathic physicians have historically entered primary care fields at a higher rate than their M.D. counterparts . Some osteopathic organizations make claims to a greater emphasis on the importance of primary care within osteopathic medicine . However , the proportion of osteopathic students choosing primary care fields , like that of their M.D. peers , is declining . Currently , only one in five osteopathic medical students enters a family medicine residency ( the largest primary care field ) . In 2004 , only 32 % of osteopathic seniors planned careers in any primary care field ; this percentage was down from a peak in 1996 of more than 50 % .
= = Criticism and internal debate = =
= = = OMT = = =
Traditional osteopathic medicine , specifically OMT , has been criticized for many techniques such as cranial and cranio @-@ sacral manipulation . A study performed in the early 2000s questioned the therapeutic utility of osteopathic manipulative treatment modalities . Also , New York University health information website claims that " it is difficult to properly ascertain the effectiveness of a hands @-@ on therapy like OMT . "
= = = Research emphasis = = =
Another area of criticism has been the relative lack of research and lesser emphasis on scientific inquiry at D.O. schools in comparison with M.D. schools .
The inability to institutionalize research , particularly clinical research , at osteopathic institutions has , over the years , weakened the acculturation , socialization , and distinctive beliefs and practices of osteopathic students and graduates .
= = = Identity crisis = = =
There is currently a debate within the osteopathic community over the feasibility of maintaining osteopathic medicine as a distinct entity within U.S. health care . JD Howell , author of The Paradox of Osteopathy , notes claims of a " fundamental yet ineffable difference " between MD and DO qualified physicians are based on practices such as " preventive medicine and seeing patients in a sociological context " that are " widely encountered not only in osteopathic medicine but also in allopathic medicine . " Studies have confirmed the lack of any " philosophic concept or resultant practice behavior " that would distinguish a D.O. from an M.D. Howell summarizes the questions framing the debate over the future of osteopathic distinctiveness thus :
If osteopathy has become the functional equivalent of allopathy [ meaning the MD profession ] , what is the justification for its continued existence ? And if there is value in therapy that is uniquely osteopathic , why should its use be limited to osteopaths ?
= = = = Rapid expansion = = = =
As the number of osteopathic schools has increased , the debate over distinctiveness has often seen the leadership of the American Osteopathic Association at odds with the community of osteopathic physicians .
within the osteopathic community , the growth is drawing attention to the identity crisis faced by [ the profession ] . While osteopathic leaders emphasize osteopaths ' unique identity , many osteopaths would rather not draw attention to their uniqueness .
The rapid expansion has raised concerns about the number of available faculty at osteopathic schools and the role that those faculty play in maintaining the integrity of the academic program of the schools . Norman Gevitz , author of the leading text on the history of osteopathic medicine , recently published ,
DO schools are currently expanding their class sizes much more quickly than are their MD counterparts . Unlike MD colleges , where it is widely known that academic faculty members — fearing dilution of quality as well as the prospect of an increased teaching workload — constitute a powerful inhibiting force to expand the class size , osteopathic faculty at private osteopathic schools have traditionally had little or no input on such matters . Instead , these decisions are almost exclusively the responsibility of college administrators and their boards of trustees , who look at such expansion from an entrepreneurial as well as an educational perspective . Osteopathic medical schools can keep the cost of student body expansion relatively low compared with that of MD institutions . Although the standards of the Commission on Osteopathic College Accreditation ensure that there will be enough desks and lab spaces to accommodate all new students , they do not mandate that an osteopathic college must bear the expense of maintaining a high full @-@ time @-@ faculty : student ratio .
The president of the American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine commented on the current climate of crisis within the profession .
The simultaneous movement away from osteopathic medicine ’ s traditionally separate training and practice systems , when coupled with its rapid growth , has created a sense of crisis as to its future . The rapid rate of growth has raised questions as to the availability of clinical and basic science faculty and clinical resources to accommodate the increasing load of students .
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= Foramen spinosum =
The foramen spinosum is one of two foramina located in the base of the human skull , on the sphenoid bone . It is situated just anterior to the spine of the sphenoid bone , and just lateral to the foramen ovale . The middle meningeal artery , middle meningeal vein , and the meningeal branch of the mandibular nerve pass through the foramen .
The foramen spinosum is often used as a landmark in neurosurgery , due to its close relations with other cranial foramina . It was first described by Jakob Benignus Winslow in the 18th century .
= = Structure = =
The foramen spinosum is a foramen through the sphenoid bone situated in the middle cranial fossa . It is one of two foramina in the greater wing of the sphenoid bone . The foramen ovale is one of these two cranial foramina , situated directly anterior and medial to the foramen spinosum . The spine of sphenoid falls medial and posterior to the foramen . Lateral to the foramen is the mandibular fossa , and posterior is the Eustachian tube .
= = = Variation = = =
The foramen spinosum varies in size and location . The foramen is rarely absent , usually unilaterally , in which case the middle meningeal artery enters the cranial cavity through the foramen ovale . It may be incomplete , which may occur in almost half of the population . Conversely , in a minority of cases ( less than 1 % ) , it may also be duplicated , particularly when the middle meningeal artery is also duplicated .
The foramen may pass through the sphenoid bone at the apex of the spinous process , or along its medial surface .
= = = Development = = =
In the newborn , the foramen spinosum is about 2 @.@ 25 mm long and in adults about 2 @.@ 56 mm . The width of the foramen extends from 1 @.@ 05 mm to about 2 @.@ 1 mm in adults . The average diameter of the foramen spinosum is 2 @.@ 63 mm in adults .
The earliest perfect ring @-@ shaped formation of the foramen spinosum was observed in the eighth month after birth and the latest seven years after birth in a developmental study of the foramen rotundum , foramen ovale and foramen spinosum . The majority of the foramina in the skull studies were round in shape . The sphenomandibular ligament , derived from the first pharyngeal arch and usually attached to the spine of the sphenoid bone , may be found attached to the rim of the foramen .
= = = Animals = = =
In other great apes , the foramen spinosum is found not in the sphenoid bone but in parts of the temporal bone such as the squamous part , found at the sphenosquamosal suture , or absent .
= = Function = =
The foramen spinosum permits the passage of the middle meningeal artery , middle meningeal vein , and the meningeal branch of the mandibular nerve .
= = Clinical significance = =
Due to its distinctive position , the foramen is used as an anatomical landmark during neurosurgery . As a landmark , the foramen spinosum reveals the positions of other cranial foramina , the mandibular nerve and trigeminal ganglion , foramen ovale , and foramen rotundum . It may also be relevant in achieving haemostasis during trauma surgery .
= = History = =
The foramen spinosum was first described by the Danish anatomist Jakob Benignus Winslow in the 18th century . It is so @-@ named because of its relationship to the spinous process of the greater wing of the sphenoid bone . However , due to incorrectly declining the noun , the literal meaning is " hole full of thorns " ( Latin : foramen spinosum ) . The correct , but unused name would , in fact , be foramen spinae .
= = Additional images = =
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= Blue wildebeest =
The blue wildebeest ( Connochaetes taurinus ) , also called the common wildebeest , white @-@ bearded wildebeest or brindled gnu , is a large antelope and one of the two species of wildebeest . It is placed in the genus Connochaetes and family Bovidae and has a close taxonomic relationship with the black wildebeest . The blue wildebeest is known to have five subspecies . This broad @-@ shouldered antelope has a muscular , front @-@ heavy appearance , with a distinctive robust muzzle . Young blue wildebeest are born tawny brown , and begin to take on their adult colouration at the age of two months . The adults ' hues range from a deep slate or bluish gray to light gray or even grayish @-@ brown . Both sexes possess a pair of large curved horns .
The blue wildebeest is a herbivore , feeding primarily on the short grasses . It forms herds which move about in loose aggregations , the animals being fast runners and extremely wary . The mating season begins at the end of the rainy season and a single calf is usually born after a gestational period of about eight and a half months . The calf remains with its mother for eight months , after which time it joins a juvenile herd . Blue wildebeest are found in short grass plains bordering bush @-@ covered acacia savannas in southern and eastern Africa , thriving in areas that are neither too wet nor too arid . Each year , some East African populations of blue wildebeest take part in a long @-@ distance migration , seemingly timed to coincide with local patterns of rainfall and grass growth .
The blue wildebeest is native to Angola , Botswana , Kenya , Mozambique , South Africa , Swaziland , Tanzania , Zambia and Zimbabwe . Today it is extinct in Malawi , but has been successfully reintroduced in Namibia . The southern limit of the blue wildebeest range is the Orange River , while the western limit is bounded by Lake Victoria and Mt Kenya . The blue wildebeest is widespread and is being introduced into private game farms , reserves and conservancies . For this reason , the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) rates the blue wildebeest as being of Least Concern . The population has been estimated to be around one and a half million and the population trend is stable .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The blue wildebeest was first described by English naturalist William John Burchell in 1823 and he gave it the scientific name Connochaetes taurinus . It shares the genus Connochaetes with the black wildebeest ( C. gnou ) , and is placed in the family Bovidae , ruminant animals with cloven hooves . The generic name Connochaetes derives from the Greek words κόννος , kónnos , " beard " , and χαίτη , khaítē , " flowing hair " , " mane " . The specific name taurinus originates from the Greek word tauros , which means a bull or bullock . The common name " blue wildebeest " refers to the conspicuous , silvery @-@ blue sheen of the coat , while the alternative name " gnu " originates from the name for these animals used by the Khokloi people , a native pastoralist tribe of southwestern Africa .
Though the blue and black wildebeest are currently classified in the same genus , the former was previously placed in a separate genus , Gorgon . In a study of the mitotic chromosomes and mtDNA which was undertaken to understand more of the evolutionary relationships between the two species , it was found that the two had a close phylogenetic relationship and had diverged about a million years ago .
= = = Subspecies = = =
C. taurinus has five subspecies :
C. t. albojubatus ( Thomas , 1912 ; Eastern white @-@ bearded wildebeest ) , is found in the Gregory Rift Valley ( south of the equator ) . Its range extends from northern Tanzania to central Kenya .
C. t. cooksoni ( Blaine , 1914 ; Cookson 's wildebeest ) , is restricted to the Luangwa Valley in Zambia . Sometimes these animals may wander into the plateau region of central Malawi .
C. t. johnstoni ( Sclater , 1896 ; Nyassaland wildebeest ) , occurs from Mozambique ( north of the Zambezi river ) to east @-@ central Tanzania . This subspecies is now extinct in Malawi .
C. t. mearnsi ( Heller , 1913 ; Western white @-@ bearded wildebeest ) , is found in northern Tanzania and southern Kenya . Its range extends from the west of the Gregory Rift Valley to Speke Bay on Lake Victoria .
C. t. taurinus ( Burchell , 1823 ; Blue wildebeest , common wildebeest or brindled gnu ) is found in southern Africa . Its range extends from Namibia and South Africa to Mozambique ( north of the Orange River ) and from southwestern Zambia ( south of the Zambezi river ) to southern Angola .
= = = Hybrids = = =
The blue wildebeest is known to hybridise with the black wildebeest . The differences in social behaviour and habitats have historically prevented interspecific hybridisation , however it may occur when both species are confined within the same area , and the offspring is usually fertile . A study of these hybrid animals at Spioenkop Dam Nature Reserve in South Africa revealed that many had congenital abnormalities relating to their teeth , horns and the Wormian bones of the skull . Another study reported an increase in the size of the hybrid as compared to either of its parents . In some hybrid animals the auditory bullae are highly deformed and in others the radius and ulna are fused .
= = Genetics and evolution = =
The diploid number of chromosomes in the blue wildebeest is 58 . Chromosomes were studied in a male and a female wildebeest . In the female , all except a pair of very large submetacentric chromosomes were found to be acrocentric . Metaphases were studied in the male 's chromosomes , and very large submetacentric chromosomes were found there as well , similar to those in the female both in size and morphology. the rest were acrocentric . The X chromosome is a large acrocentric while the Y chromosome a minute one .
This species of wildebeest seems to have evolved around 2 @.@ 5 million years ago . The black wildebeest is believed to have diverged from the blue wildebeest to become a distinct species around a million years ago , in the mid to late Pleistocene . Fossil evidence suggests that the blue wildebeest were quite common in the Cradle of Humankind in the past . Apart from eastern Africa , fossils are commonly found in Elandsfontein , Cornelia and Florisbad .
= = Description = =
The blue wildebeest exhibits sexual dimorphism , with males being larger and darker than females . The blue wildebeest is typically between 170 – 240 cm ( 67 – 94 in ) in head @-@ and @-@ body length . The average height of the species is 115 – 145 cm ( 45 – 57 in ) . While males weigh up to 290 kg ( 640 lb ) , females seldom exceed 260 kg ( 570 lb ) . A characteristic feature is the long , black tail , which is around 60 – 100 cm ( 24 – 39 in ) in length . All features and markings of this species are bilaterally symmetrical for both sexes . The average life span is 20 years in the wild , and 21 years in captivity . The oldest known captive individual lived for 24 @.@ 3 years .
= = = Colouration = = =
This broad @-@ shouldered antelope has a muscular , front @-@ heavy appearance , with a distinctive robust muzzle . Young blue wildebeest are born tawny brown , and begin to take on their adult colouration at the age of two months . The adults ' hues range from a deep slate or bluish gray to light gray or even grayish @-@ brown . The back and flanks are slightly lighter than the ventral surface and underparts . Dark brown vertical stripes mark the area between the neck and the back of the ribcage , thus giving it the name " brindled gnu " . The manes of both sexes appear long , stiff , thick and jet black , the same colour as the tail and face as well . While the manes of the western and eastern white @-@ bearded wildebeest are lank , those of the Nyassaland wildebeest and common wildebeest stick up . Scent glands , which secrete a clear oil , are present in the forefeet and are larger in males than females .
In terms of skull length , the smallest subspecies of the blue wildebeest is the western white @-@ bearded wildebeest . It is also the darkest subspecies , the eastern white @-@ bearded wildebeest being the lightest race . Both these subspecies possess a creamy white beard , whereas the beard is black in both the Nyassaland wildebeest and the common wildebeest . The longest muzzles are found in the Nyassaland wildebeest , and the shortest in female western white @-@ bearded wildebeest .
= = = Horns = = =
Both sexes possess a pair of large horns which are shaped like parentheses . These extend outward to the side , and then curve upward and inward . In the males , the horns can be 83 cm ( 33 in ) long , while the horns of the females are 30 – 40 cm ( 12 – 16 in ) long . Despite being an antelope , the blue wildebeest possesses various bovine characteristics . For instance , the horns resemble those of the female African buffalo . Further , the heavy build and disproportionately large forequarters give it a bovine appearance .
= = = Diseases and parasites = = =
The blue wildebeest is susceptible to foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease , anthrax , sarcoptic mange and hoof gangrene . The herpesvirus was first isolated from the blue wildebeest in 1960 by veterinary scientist Walter Plowright . Although the causes of death will vary from year to year , in one drought in Botswana , young calves and aged females were the most likely to die . On another occasion it was estimated that 47 % of deaths were caused by disease , 37 % were due to predation and the remainder were the result of accidents .
The animal can be host to a number of different parasites . In one study , blue wildebeest were found to be hosts to thirteen species of nematode , one trematode , larvae of five oestrid flies , three species of lice , seven ixodid tick species , one mite and the larvae of a tongue worm . Of these , most were more prevalent at some times of the year than others . Generally , the larvae of Gedoelstica and Oestrus occur in the nasal passages and respiratory cavities of the blue wildebeest , and sometimes migrate to the brain . Compared to some other bovids , blue wildebeest are resistant to infestations by several species of tick .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
The blue wildebeest is mostly active during the morning and the late afternoon , with the hottest hours of the day being spent in rest . These extremely agile and wary animals can run at speeds of up to 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) , waving their tails and tossing their heads . An analysis of the activity of blue wildebeest at the Serengeti National Park showed that the animals devoted over half of their total time to rest , 33 % to grazing , 12 % to moving about ( mostly walking ) and a little to social interactions . However , there were variations among different age and sex groups .
The wildebeest usually rest close to others of their kind and move about in loose aggregations . Males form bachelor herds , and these can be distinguished from juvenile groups by the lower amount of activity and the spacing between the animals . Around 90 % of the male calves join the bachelor herds before the next mating season . Bulls become territorial at the age of four or five years , and become very noisy ( most notably in the western white @-@ bearded wildebeest ) and active . The bulls tolerate being close to each other and a square kilometre of plain can accommodate 270 bulls . Most territories are of a temporary nature and fewer than a half of the male population hold permanent territories . In general , blue wildebeest rest in groups of a few to thousands at night , with a minimum distance of 1 – 2 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) between individuals ( though mothers and calves may remain in contact ) . They are a major prey item for lions , hyenas , and crocodiles .
Bulls mark the boundaries of their territories with heaps of dung and with secretions from their scent glands . The territories are advertised by their behaviour as well as by the physical marking . Body language used by a territorial male includes standing tall with an erect posture , profuse ground pawing and horning , frequent defecation , rolling and bellowing , the sound " ga @-@ noo " being produced . When competing over territory , males grunt loudly , paw the ground , make thrusting motion with their horns , and perform other displays of aggression .
= = = Diet = = =
The blue wildebeest is a herbivore , feeding primarily on the short grasses which commonly grow on light , and alkaline soils that are found in savanna grasslands and on plains . The animal 's broad mouth is adapted for eating large quantities of short grass and it feeds both during the day and night . When grass is scarce , it will also eat the foliage of shrubs and trees . Wildebeest commonly associate with plains zebras as the latter eat the upper , less nutritious grass canopy , exposing the lower , greener material which the wildebeest prefer . Whenever possible , the wildebeest likes to drink twice daily and due to its regular requirement for water , it usually inhabits moist grasslands and areas with available water sources . Despite this , it can also survive in the arid Kalahari desert , where it obtains sufficient water from melons and water @-@ storing roots and tubers .
In a study of the dietary habits of the wildebeest , the animals were found to be feeding on the three dominant grasses of the area , namely : Themeda triandra , Digitaria macroblephara and Penisetum mezianum . The time spent grazing increased by about 100 % during the dry season . Though the choice of diet remained the same in both the dry and the wet season , the animals were more selective during the latter .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Male blue wildebeest become sexually mature at about two years of age while females can conceive at sixteen months if adequately nourished . Nevertheless , most females do not start to breed until a year later . The mating season , which lasts for about three weeks , coincides with the end of the rainy season . This means that the animals are in good condition , having been feeding on highly nutritious new grass growth , and the conception rate is often as high as 95 % . The mating season , or rut , typically begins on the night of a full moon , suggesting that the lunar cycle influences breeding . At this time , testosterone production peaks in males , resulting in increased calling and territorial behaviour . The activities of these sexually excited males may also stimulate female to come into estrus .
As they stake out their territories and compete for females , males exhibit rivalry . When they clash , they face up to each other with bent knees and exchange horn thrusts . Elaborate individual displays are made during their rivalry and they may bellow , snort and dig their horns into the ground . Once dominance has been established , each male attempts to lure the female into his domain . During courtship , urination and low @-@ stretch are common activities and the male soon attempts to mount the female . A receptive female holds her tail to one side and stands still while copulation takes place . Matings may be repeated several times and may take place twice or more times within a minute . The male neither eats nor rests when a female is present in his territory and during this time , the female keeps close to the male , often rubbing her head on his torso and sniffing his penis . While in season , a female may visit several territories and mate with several different males .
The gestation period is about eight and a half months and between 80 and 90 % of the calves are born within a three @-@ week time period . Female wildebeest give birth in the middle of a herd rather than alone , and typically in the middle of the day . This allows time for the newborn to become steady on its feet before night falls and the predators become more active . Calves weigh about 19 kg ( 42 lb ) at birth , and can usually stand on their own within a few minutes of birth . To escape predation , calves remain close to their mothers for a significant time , and may continue suckling until the next year 's calf is nearly due . Some calves leave their mother at about eight months and form herds with other juveniles . In large female herds , 80 % of the wildebeest offspring survive the first month , compared to a 50 % survival rate in smaller herds .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The blue wildebeest is native to Kenya , Tanzania , Botswana , Zambia , Zimbabwe , Mozambique , South Africa , Swaziland and Angola . Today it is extinct in Malawi , but has been successfully reintroduced into Namibia .
Blue wildebeest are mainly found in short grass plains bordering bush @-@ covered acacia savannas in southern and eastern Africa , thriving in areas that are neither too wet nor too arid . They can be found in habitats that vary from overgrazed areas with dense bush to open woodland floodplains . Trees such as Brachystegia and Combretum are common in these areas . Blue wildebeest can tolerate arid regions as long as a potable water supply is available , normally within about 15 – 25 km ( 9 @.@ 3 – 15 @.@ 5 mi ) distance . The southern limit of the blue wildebeest stops at the Orange River , while the western limit is bounded by Lake Victoria and Mt Kenya . The range does not include montane or temperate grasslands . These wildebeest are rarely found at altitudes in excess of 1 @,@ 800 – 2 @,@ 100 m ( 5 @,@ 900 – 6 @,@ 900 ft ) . With the exception of a small population of Cookson 's wildebeest that occurs in the Luangwa Valley ( Zambia ) , the wildebeest is absent in the wetter parts of the southern savanna country , and particularly is not present in miombo woodlands .
Each year , some East African populations of blue wildebeest take part in a long @-@ distance migration , seemingly timed to coincide with the annual pattern of rainfall and grass growth . The timing of the migration in both directions can vary considerably from year to year . At the end of the rainy season , they migrate to dry @-@ season areas in response to a lack of drinking water . When the rainy season begins again a few months later , the animals trek back to their wet @-@ season range .
= = Threats and conservation = =
The blue wildebeest is preyed on by lions , leopards , African wild dogs and hyenas and predation is the main cause of death . They are also prone to outbreaks of disease which may also lead to a decline in numbers . Major human @-@ related factors affecting populations include large @-@ scale deforestation , the drying up of water sources , the expansion of settlements and poaching . Diseases of domestic cattle such as sleeping sickness can be transmitted to the animals and take their toll . The erection of fences that interrupt traditional migratory routes between wet and dry @-@ season ranges have resulted in mass death events when the animals become cut off from water sources and the areas of better grazing they are seeking during droughts . A study of the factors influencing wildebeest populations in the Maasai Mara ecosystem revealed that the populations had undergone a drastic decline of around 80 % from about 119 @,@ 000 individuals in 1977 to around 22 @,@ 000 twenty years later . The major cause of this was thought to be the expansion of agriculture , which led to the loss of wet season grazing and the traditional calving and breeding ranges .
The total number of blue wildebeest is estimated to be around 1 @,@ 550 @,@ 000 . The population trend overall is stable and the numbers in the Serengeti National Park ( Tanzania ) have increased to about 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 . The population density ranges from 0 @.@ 15 / km2 in Hwange and Etosha National Parks to 35 / km2 in Ngorongoro Crater and Serengeti National Park where they are most plentiful . Blue wildebeest have also been introduced into a number of private game farms , reserves and conservancy areas . For these reasons , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) rates the blue wildebeest as being of Least Concern . However , the numbers of the eastern white @-@ bearded wildebeest ( C. t. albojubatus ) have seen a steep decline in numbers to a current level of probably 6 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 animals and this is causing some concern .
= = Relationship with humans = =
As one of the major herbivores of southern and eastern Africa , the blue wildebeest plays an important role in the ecosystem and is a main prey item for large predators such as the lion . It is one of the animals that draws tourists to the area to observe big game and as such it is of major economic importance to the region . Traditionally blue wildebeest have been hunted for their hides and meat , the skin making good quality leather though the flesh is coarse , dry and rather hard .
However , blue wildebeest can also affect human beings negatively . They can compete with domestic livestock for grazing and water and can transmit fatal diseases like rinderpest to cattle and cause epidemics among animals . They can also spread ticks , lungworms , tapeworms , flies and paramphistome flukes .
An ancient carved slab of slate depicting an animal very similar to the blue wildebeest has been discovered . Dating back to around 3000 BC , it was found in Hierakonopolis ( Nekhen ) , which used to be the religious and political capital of Upper Egypt at that time . This may be evidence that the animal used to occur in North Africa and was associated with the ancient Egyptians .
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= Thriller ( Michael Jackson album ) =
Thriller is the sixth studio album by American singer Michael Jackson . It was released by Epic Records on November 30 , 1982 , as the follow @-@ up to Jackson 's critically and commercially successful 1979 album Off the Wall . Thriller explores similar genres to those of Off the Wall , including pop , post @-@ disco , rock and funk . Recording sessions took place on April to November 1982 at Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles with a production budget of $ 750 @,@ 000 , assisted by producer Quincy Jones .
Of the album 's nine tracks , four were written by Jackson . Seven singles were released from the album , all of which reached the top 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 . Three of the singles had music videos released . " Baby Be Mine " and " The Lady in My Life " were the only tracks that were not released as singles . In just over a year , Thriller became — and currently remains — the best @-@ selling album of all time , with estimated sales of 65 million copies worldwide according to various sources . In the United States , it is the best @-@ selling album and has become the first album ever to be certified 32 times multi @-@ platinum for 32 million album @-@ equivalent units . The album won a record @-@ breaking eight Grammy Awards in 1984 , including for Album of the Year .
Thriller enabled Jackson to break down racial barriers in pop music via his appearances on MTV and meeting with President of the United States Ronald Reagan at the White House . The album was one of the first to use music videos as successful promotional tools — the videos for " Thriller " , " Billie Jean " and " Beat It " all received regular rotation on MTV . In 2001 , a special edition issue of the album was released , which contains additional audio interviews , demo recordings and the song " Someone in the Dark " , which was a Grammy @-@ winning track from the E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial storybook . In 2008 , the album was reissued again as Thriller 25 , containing re @-@ mixes that feature contemporary artists , a previously unreleased song and a DVD , which features the short films from the album and the Motown 25 performance of " Billie Jean " . That same year the album was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame along with Jackson 's Off The Wall LP .
In 2012 , Slant Magazine listed Thriller at number one on its list of " Best Albums of the 1980s " . The album was ranked number 20 on Rolling Stone magazine 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list in 2003 , and was listed by the National Association of Recording Merchandisers at number three in its " Definitive 200 " albums of all time . The Thriller album was included in the Library of Congress ' National Recording Registry of culturally significant recordings and the Thriller video was included in the National Film Preservation Board 's National Film Registry of " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant films " .
= = Background = =
Jackson 's previous album Off the Wall ( 1979 ) received strong critical acclaim and was also a commercial success , eventually selling over 20 million copies worldwide . The years between Off the Wall and Thriller were a transitional period for the singer , a time of increasing independence . The period saw the singer become deeply unhappy ; Jackson explained , " Even at home , I 'm lonely . I sit in my room sometimes and cry . It 's so hard to make friends ... I sometimes walk around the neighborhood at night , just hoping to find someone to talk to . But I just end up coming home . " When Jackson turned 21 in August 1979 , he hired John Branca as his manager .
Jackson confided in Branca that he wanted to be the biggest star in show business and " the wealthiest " . The singer was upset about what he perceived to be the under @-@ performance of Off the Wall , stating , " It was totally unfair that it didn 't get Record of the Year and it can never happen again . " He also felt undervalued by the music industry ; in 1980 when Jackson asked the publicist of Rolling Stone if they would be interested in doing a cover story on him , the publicist declined , to which Jackson responded , " I 've been told over and over that black people on the cover of magazines doesn 't sell copies ... Just wait . Someday those magazines are going to be begging me for an interview . Maybe I 'll give them one , and maybe I won 't . "
= = Recording = =
Jackson reunited with Off the Wall producer Quincy Jones to record his sixth studio album ( his second under the Epic label ) . The pair worked together on 30 songs , nine of which were eventually included . Thriller was recorded at Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles , California , with a production budget of $ 750 @,@ 000 . The recording for Thriller commenced on April 14 , 1982 at 12 : 00 noon with Jackson and Paul McCartney recording " The Girl Is Mine " and the album was completed with the final day of mixing on November 8 , 1982 . Several members of the band Toto were also involved in the album 's recording and production . Jackson wrote four songs for the record : " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " , " The Girl Is Mine " , " Beat It " and " Billie Jean " . Unlike many artists , Jackson did not write these songs on paper . Instead , he would dictate into a sound recorder ; when recording he would sing from memory .
The relationship between Jackson and Jones became strained during the album 's recording . Jackson spent much of his time rehearsing dance steps alone . When the album 's nine songs were completed , both Jones and Jackson were unhappy with the result and remixed every song , spending a week on each .
Jackson was inspired to create an album where " every song was a killer " and developed Thriller with that in mind . Jones and songwriter Rod Temperton gave detailed accounts of what occurred for the 2001 reissue of the album . Jones discussed " Billie Jean " and why it was so personal to Jackson , who struggled to deal with a number of obsessed fans . Jones wanted the long introduction on the song to be shortened ; however , Jackson insisted that it remain because it made him want to dance . The ongoing backlash against disco made it necessary to move in a different musical direction from the disco @-@ heavy Off the Wall . Jones and Jackson were determined to make a rock song that would appeal to all tastes and spent weeks looking for a suitable guitarist for the song " Beat It " . Eventually , they found Steve Lukather of Toto to play the rhythm @-@ guitar parts and Eddie Van Halen of the rock band Van Halen to play the solo .
When Rod Temperton wrote the song " Thriller " , he originally wanted to call it " Starlight " or " Midnight Man " , but settled on " Thriller " because he felt the name had merchandising potential . Always wanting a notable person to recite the closing lyrics , Jones brought in actor Vincent Price who was an acquaintance of Jones ' wife , who completed his part in just two takes . Temperton wrote the spoken portion in a taxi on the way to the recording studio . Jones and Temperton said that some recordings were left off the final cut because they did not have the " edginess " of other album tracks .
Songs recorded by Jackson for consideration included " Carousel " ( written by Michael Sembello ) , " Got the Hots " ( written by Michael Jackson and Quincy Jones ) , " Nite Line " ( written by Glen Ballard ) , " Trouble " ( aka " She 's Trouble " , written by Terry Britten , Bill Livsey and Sue Shifrin ) and " Hot Street " ( written by Rod Temperton and aka " Slapstick " ) . Jackson also cut a version of " Starlight " . Demos of all these songs exist and have leaked onto the internet . " Carousel " , " Got the Hots " and " Hot Street " were completed , but left off the final version of the album . A short clip of " Carousel " appeared as a bonus track on the 2001 reissue of the album ; the full version was later released on iTunes in 2013 as part of The Ultimate Fan Extras Collection .
= = Composition = =
Thriller explores different music genres , including pop , post @-@ disco , rock and funk . According to Steve Huey of AllMusic , it refined the strengths of Jackson 's previous album Off the Wall ; the dance and rock tracks were more aggressive , while the pop tunes and ballads were softer and more soulful . The album includes the ballads " The Lady in My Life " , " Human Nature " and " The Girl Is Mine " ; the funk pieces " Billie Jean " and " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " ; and the disco set " Baby Be Mine " and " P.Y.T. ( Pretty Young Thing ) " and has a similar sound to the material on Off the Wall . " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " is accompanied by a bass and percussion background and the song 's centerpiece , a climaxing African @-@ inspired chant ( often misidentified as Swahili , but actually syllables based on Duala ) , gave the song an international flavor . " The Girl Is Mine " tells of two friends ' fight over a woman , arguing over who loves her more and concludes with a spoken rap . The album 's songs have a tempo ranging from 80 beats per minute on " The Girl is Mine " , to 138 on " Beat It " .
Despite the light pop flavor of these two records , Thriller , more so than Off the Wall , displayed foreshadowings of the contradictory thematic elements that would come to characterize Jackson 's subsequent works . With Thriller , Jackson would begin his association with the subliminal motif of paranoia and darker themes , including supernatural imagery in the album 's title track . This is evident on the songs " Billie Jean " , " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " and " Thriller " . In " Billie Jean " , Jackson sings about an obsessive fan who alleges he has fathered a child of hers ; in " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " he argues against gossips and the media . In the former song , Jones had Jackson sing vocal overdubs through a six @-@ foot @-@ long cardboard tube and brought in jazz saxophonist Tom Scott to play a rare instrument , the lyricon , a wind @-@ controlled analog synthesizer . Bassist Louis Johnson ran through his part on a Yamaha bass guitar . The song opens with a long bass @-@ and @-@ drums introduction . In the song " Thriller " , sound effects such as creaking door , thunder , feet walking on wooden planks , winds and howling dogs can be heard .
The anti @-@ gang @-@ violence " Beat It " became a homage to West Side Story and was Jackson 's first successful rock cross @-@ over piece . Jackson later said of " Beat It " , " the point is no one has to be the tough guy , you can walk away from a fight and still be a man . You don 't have to die to prove you 're a man " . " Human Nature " , co @-@ written by Steve Porcaro of the band Toto , is moody and introspective , as conveyed in lyrics such as , " Looking out , across the morning , the City 's heart begins to beat , reaching out , I touch her shoulder , I 'm dreaming of the street " .
By the late 1970s , Jackson 's abilities as a vocalist were well regarded ; AllMusic described him as a " blindingly gifted vocalist " . Rolling Stone compared his vocals to the " breathless , dreamy stutter " of Stevie Wonder . Their analysis was also that " Jackson 's feathery @-@ timbred tenor is extraordinarily beautiful . It slides smoothly into a startling falsetto that 's used very daringly " . With the release of Thriller , Jackson could sing low — down to a basso low C — but he preferred to sing higher because pop tenors have more range to create style . Rolling Stone was of the opinion that Jackson was now singing in a " fully adult voice " that was " tinged by sadness " . " P.Y.T. ( Pretty Young Thing ) " , credited to James Ingram and Quincy Jones and " The Lady in My Life " by Rod Temperton , both gave the album a stronger R & B direction ; the latter song was described as " the closest Jackson has come to crooning a sexy , soulful ballad after his Motown years " by Taraborrelli . The singer had already adopted a " vocal hiccup " which he continued to implement in Thriller . The purpose of the hiccup — somewhat like a gulping for air or gasping — is to help promote a certain emotion , be it excitement , sadness or fear .
= = Release and reception = =
Thriller was released on November 30 , 1982 , and sold one million copies worldwide per week at its peak . Seven singles were released from the album , including " The Girl Is Mine " — which was seen as a poor choice for the lead release and led some to believe that the album would be a disappointment and to suggestions that Jackson was bowing to a white audience . " The Girl Is Mine " was followed by the hit single " Billie Jean " , which made Thriller a chart @-@ topper . Success continued with the single " Beat It " , which featured guitarists Eddie Van Halen and Steve Lukather . The album 's title track was released as a single and also became a hit internationally .
Thriller was well received by most critics . Christopher Connelly in a January 1983 review in Rolling Stone gave it four out of five stars and described it as " a zesty LP " with a " harrowing , dark message " . Comparing the songs on the album with the life challenges that the 24 @-@ year @-@ old Jackson had faced since Off the Wall , Connelly remarks that he has " dropped the boyish falsetto " and is facing his " challenges head @-@ on " with " a feisty determination " and " a full , adult voice " . John Rockwell in a December 1982 review in The New York Times also commented on Jackson 's age , comparing his youth with his experience as an entertainer , feeling that perhaps he is a " sometimes too practiced ... performer " , that at times Quincy Jones may " depersonalize his individuality " with his " slightly anonymous production " and that Jackson may be hiding his true emotions behind " layers of impenetrable , gauzy veils " . The bulk of Rockwell 's review concentrated on how he felt that the album was helping breach " the destructive barriers that spring up regularly between white and black music " , especially as " white publications and radio stations that normally avoid black music seem willing to pretend he isn 't black after all " . He feels that Thriller is " a wonderful pop record , the latest statement by one of the great singers in popular music today " and that there are " hits here , too , lots of them " .
In his consumer guide for The Village Voice , Robert Christgau gave the album an A – rating and commented that " this is virtually a hits @-@ plus @-@ filler job , but at such a high level it 's almost classic anyway " . He later revised it to an A , and commented in retrospect , " what we couldn 't know is how brilliantly every hit but ' P.Y.T. ' would thrive on mass exposure and public pleasure . " A year after the album 's release , Time summed up the three main singles from the album , saying , " The pulse of America and much of the rest of the world moves irregularly , beating in time to the tough strut of " Billie Jean " , the asphalt aria of " Beat It " , the supremely cool chills of " Thriller " . In 1989 , the Toronto Star music critics took to look over the albums they had reviewed in the past ten years to include in a list based on " commercial impact to social import , to strictly musical merit . " Thriller was placed at number 1 on the list , where it was referred to as his " master work " and that " commercial success has since overshadowed Jackson 's artistic accomplishments on Thriller , and that 's a pity . It was a record for the times , brimming with breathless anticipation and a dread fear of the adult world , a brilliant fantasy that pumped with sexual heat , yet made room for serious reflection "
The album won a record @-@ breaking eight Grammy Awards in 1984 , including Album of the Year . Jackson won seven of the Grammys for the album while the eighth Grammy went to Bruce Swedien . That same year , Jackson won eight American Music Awards , the Special Award of Merit and three MTV Video Music Awards . Thriller was recognized as the world 's best @-@ selling album on February 7 , 1984 , when it was inducted into the Guinness Book of World Records . It is one of four albums to be the best @-@ seller of two years ( 1983 – 1984 ) in the US .
On December 16 , 2015 , Thriller was certified 30 × platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America , for shipments of at least 30 million units in the US . After the inclusion of streaming and tracks sales into the RIAA album awards in 2016 , Thriller was re @-@ certified 32 × platinum for a total of 32 million album @-@ equivalent units . The album topped the charts in many countries , sold 4 @.@ 2 million copies in the UK , 2 @.@ 5 million in Japan , and was certified 15 × Platinum in Australia . Still popular today , Thriller sells an estimated 130 @,@ 000 copies in the US per year ; it reached number two in the US Catalog charts in February 2003 and number 39 in the UK in March 2007 .
= = Influence and legacy = =
= = = Music industry = = =
Blender described Jackson as the " late 20th century 's preeminent pop icon " , while The New York Times gave the opinion that he was a " musical phenomenon " and that " in the world of pop music , there is Michael Jackson and there is everybody else " . Jackson changed the way the industry functioned : both as an artistic persona and as a financial , profitable entity . His attorney John Branca observed that Jackson achieved the highest royalty rate in the music industry to that point : approximately $ 2 for each album sold . As a result , Jackson earned record @-@ breaking profits from compact disc sales and from the sale of copies of the documentary , The Making of Michael Jackson 's Thriller , produced by Jackson and John Landis . Funded by MTV , the film sold over 350 @,@ 000 copies in its first few months . In a market then driven by singles , Thriller raised the significance of albums , yet its multiple hit singles changed perceived notions as to the number of successful singles that could be taken from an individual album . The era saw the arrival of novelties like the Michael Jackson doll , that appeared in stores in May 1984 at a price of $ 12 . Thriller retains a position in American culture ; biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli explains , " At some point , Thriller stopped selling like a leisure item — like a magazine , a toy , tickets to a hit movie — and started selling like a household staple " .
At the time of the album 's release , a press statement from Gil Friesen , the then President of A & M Records , read that , " The whole industry has a stake in this success " . Time magazine speculated that " the fallout from Thriller has given the [ music ] business its best years since the heady days of 1978 , when it had an estimated total domestic revenue of $ 4 @.@ 1 billion " . Time summed up Thriller 's impact as a " restoration of confidence " for an industry bordering on " the ruins of punk and the chic regions of synthesizer pop " . The publication described Jackson 's influence at that point as , " Star of records , radio , rock video . A one @-@ man rescue team for the music business . A songwriter who sets the beat for a decade . A dancer with the fanciest feet on the street . A singer who cuts across all boundaries of taste and style and color too " .
When Thriller and " Billie Jean " were searching to reach their market demographic , MTV and cable TV had a smaller market share than the much larger reach of broadcast television stations in the United States . A national broadcast TV audience on ABC , NBC and CBS affiliate stations , as well as major independent TV stations , was desired by CBS / Epic Records to promote Thriller . The national broadcast TV premiere of the Thriller album 's first video , " Billie Jean " , was during the week of Halloween in October 1984 and was the idea of Video Concert Hall executive producers Charles Henderson and Jerry Crowe . Video Concert Hall , the first nationwide music video TV network , taped the one @-@ hour special in Hollywood and Atlanta , where the TV studios of Video Concert Hall were located . The Thriller TV special was hosted by Thriller video co @-@ star Vincent Price , distributed by Henderson @-@ Crowe Syndications , Inc. and aired in the top 20 TV markets and much of the United States , including TV stations WNEW ( New York ) , WFLD ( Chicago ) , KTTV ( Los Angeles ) , WPLG ( Miami ) , WQTV ( Boston ) and WXIA ( Atlanta ) , for a total of 150 TV stations .
From the moment Thriller was released , it set the standard for the music industry : artists , record labels , producers , marketers and even choreographers . The music video was ahead of its time and it is considered a monumental one — not only in Jackson 's career , but also in the history of pop music . Epic Records ' approach to creating a song and video that would appeal to the mass market ended up influencing the way that professionals now market and release their songs . John Landis 's production of a mini @-@ movie , rather than the usual short music video , would raise the bar for other directors and producers .
= = = Music videos and racial equality = = =
Before the success of Thriller , many felt Jackson had struggled to get MTV airing because he was black . In an effort to attain air time for Jackson , CBS Records President Walter Yetnikoff pressured MTV and declared , " I 'm not going to give you any more videos and I 'm going to go public and fucking tell them about the fact you don 't want to play music by a black guy . "
His position persuaded MTV to begin airing " Billie Jean " and later " Beat It " , ( along with Prince 's " Little Red Corvette " ) which led to a long partnership and later helped other black music artists to gain mainstream recognition . MTV denies claims of racism in their broadcasting . The popularity of his videos , such as " Beat It " and " Billie Jean " , helped to place the young channel " on the map " and MTV 's focus shifted in favor of pop and R & B. Jackson transformed the medium of music video into an art form and promotional tool through the use of complex story lines , dance routines , special effects and cameo appearances by well known personalities . When the 14 @-@ minute @-@ long Thriller video aired , MTV ran it twice an hour to meet demand . The short film marked an increase in scale for music videos and has been routinely named the best music video ever . The popularity of the video sent the album back to number one in the album chart , but Jackson 's label did not support the release of the third music video from the album . They were already pleased with its success , so Jackson convinced MTV to fund the project . Author , music critic and journalist Nelson George wrote in 2004 , " It 's difficult to hear the songs from Thriller and disengage them from the videos . For most of us the images define the songs . In fact it could be argued that Michael is the first artist of the MTV age to have an entire album so intimately connected in the public imagination with its imagery " . Short films like Thriller largely remained unique to Jackson , while the group dance sequence in " Beat It " has been frequently imitated . The choreography in Thriller has become a part of global pop culture , replicated everywhere from Bollywood to prisons in the Philippines .
For a black artist in the 1980s to that point , Jackson 's success was unprecedented . According to The Washington Post , Thriller paved the way for other African @-@ American artists to achieve mainstream recognition , such as Prince . " The Girl Is Mine " was credited for getting interracial love on the radio . Time noted , " Jackson is the biggest thing since the Beatles . He is the hottest single phenomenon since Elvis Presley . He just may be the most popular black singer ever " .
= = = Contemporary appeal = = =
Today , Thriller is still viewed in a positive light by critics some three decades later . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave the album the maximum five stars and wrote that the record had something to interest everyone . He believed it showcased harder funk and hard rock while remaining " undeniably fun " . He went on to compliment " Billie Jean " and " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " and said , " The record 's two best songs : ' Billie Jean , ... and the delirious ' Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' ' , the freshest funk on the album [ but ] the most claustrophobic , scariest track Jackson ever recorded . " Erlewine gave the opinion that it was an improvement on the artist 's previous album , although he was critical of the title track , describing it as " ridiculous " and as having the effect of " arriving in the middle of the record and sucking out its momentum " . Slant Magazine gave the album five stars and , like the AllMusic review and the original Rolling Stone review , paid compliment to the lyrics of " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " . Giving it five stars in The New Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , Rolling Stone journalist Jon Pareles commented that Jackson " doubled his ambitions and multiplied his audience " with the album and wrote of its legacy , " Thriller had extramusical help in becoming the best @-@ selling noncompilation album of all time : Jackson 's dancing feet and dazzling stage presence , amplified by the newfound promotional reach of music video and the Reagan era 's embrace of glossy celebrity . But especially in the album 's seven hit singles ( out of nine songs ) , the music stands on its own . "
Culture critic Nelson George wrote that Jackson " has educated R. Kelly , Usher , Justin Timberlake and countless others with Thriller as a textbook " . As a sign of the album 's longevity , in 2003 Thriller was ranked at number 20 on the Rolling Stone 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list and was listed by the National Association of Recording Merchandisers at number three of the " Definitive 200 " albums of all time . In 2008 , 25 years after its release , the record was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame and , a few weeks later , was among 25 recordings preserved by the Library of Congress to the National Recording Registry as " culturally significant " . In 2009 , music critics for MTV Base and VH1 both listed Thriller as the best album released since 1981 . Thriller , along with other critic favorites , were then polled by the public . 40 @,@ 000 people found Thriller to be the Best Album of all time by MTV Generation , gaining a third of all votes .
= = Reissues and catalog sales = =
Thriller was reissued on October 16 , 2001 , in an expanded set titled Thriller : Special Edition . The original tracks were remastered and the album included a new booklet and bonus material , including the songs " Someone in the Dark " , " Carousel " and Jackson 's original " Billie Jean " demo , as well as audio interviews with Jones and Temperton discussing the recording of the album . Sony also hired sound engineer and mixer Mick Guzauski to work with Jackson on creating 5 @.@ 1 @-@ channel surround sound mixes of Thriller , as well as all his other albums , for release on the then @-@ new Super Audio CD format . Despite numerous retries , the artist never approved any of the mixes . Consequently , Thriller was issued on SACD only in a stereo version .
In February 2008 , Epic Records released Thriller 25 ; Jackson served as executive producer . Thriller 25 appeared on CD , USB and vinyl with seven bonus tracks , a new song called " For All Time " , a snippet of Vincent Price 's voice @-@ over and five remixes featuring American artists Fergie , will.i.am , Kanye West and Akon . It also included a DVD featuring three music videos , the Motown 25 " Billie Jean " performance and a booklet with a message from Jackson . The ballad " For All Time " supposedly dates from 1982 , but is often credited as being from Dangerous sessions . Two singles were released from the reissue : " The Girl Is Mine 2008 " and " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' 2008 " .
Thriller 25 was a commercial success and did particularly well as a reissue . It peaked at number one in eight countries and Europe . It peaked at number two in the US , number three in the UK and reached the top 10 in over 30 national charts . It was certified Gold in 11 countries including the UK , received a 2 × Gold certification in France and received platinum certification in Poland . In the United States , Thriller 25 was the second best @-@ selling album of its release week , selling one hundred and sixty six thousand copies , just fourteen thousand short of reaching the number one position . It was ineligible for the Billboard 200 chart as a re @-@ release but entered the Pop Catalog Charts at number one ( where it stayed for ten non @-@ consecutive weeks ) , with the best sales on that chart since December 1996 . With the arrival of Halloween that November , Thriller 25 spent an eleventh non @-@ consecutive week atop the US catalog chart . This brought US sales of the album to 688 @,@ 000 copies , making it the best @-@ selling catalog album of 2008 . This was Jackson 's best launch since Invincible in 2001 , selling three million copies worldwide in 12 weeks .
After Jackson 's death in June 2009 , Thriller set additional records . It sold more than 100 @,@ 000 copies , placing it at number two on the Top Pop Catalog Albums chart . Songs from Thriller also helped Jackson become the first artist to sell more than one million song downloads in a week . According to Nielsen SoundScan , Thriller was the 14th best @-@ selling album of 2009 in the United States , with 1 @.@ 27 million copies sold .
For one week beginning November 20 , 2015 , Google Play Music offered a free copy of the album to its users in the U.S. It is called Thriller ( Google Play Exclusive Version ) . It adds a tenth track to the original , Billie Jean ( Home Demo from 1981 ) . To date , Thriller remains the best @-@ selling album of all time , selling over 65 million copies worldwide .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = = Decade @-@ end charts = = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Work Bus =
" Work Bus " is the fourth episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the show 's 180th episode overall . The episode originally aired on NBC on October 18 , 2012 . The episode was written by Brent Forrester and was directed by Bryan Cranston .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Jim ( John Krasinski ) convinces Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) that the building is unsafe , leading to Dwight renting a bus and setting up the office inside . Meanwhile , Nellie ( Catherine Tate ) asks for Andy 's ( Ed Helms ) help in adopting a baby . Jim tries to make Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) happy with some pie .
" Work Bus " received mostly positive reviews from television critics . Many praised the episode 's humor and the dynamic between Jim and Pam , and Jim and Dwight . Despite this , Andy 's characterization throughout the episode was mainly criticized . " Work Bus " was viewed by 4 @.@ 28 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 1 / 6 percent rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , ranking third in its timeslot . The Office also ranked as the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
= = Plot = =
When Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) is irritated that Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) will not fulfill his landlord responsibilities and fix the dangerously substandard office wiring , he comes up with a plan to pretend that magnetic power is affecting the office and thus get the repairs as well as a week off from work for his wife Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) ( whom he 's trying to be extra nice to in the wake of not telling her about his new job plans ) . Dwight calls Jim 's bluff and rents an overcrowded bus for the staff to work on , but Jim harnesses the office workers ' love of a local pie stand to please Pam . Dwight eventually gets angry and climbs into the roof of the bus , refusing to drive any further . Pam suspects something else is wrong and asks Jim to talk to him . Jim learns that Dwight thought his magnetic power prank was real as he suspects he is infertile , which he has convinced himself explains why he was not the father of Angela Martin 's ( Angela Kinsey ) baby . Jim tells Dwight he is like a father to the entire office , and Dwight then drives everyone to the pie stand where they have a great finish to their day .
Meanwhile , Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) asks for Andy Bernard 's ( Ed Helms ) help in adopting a baby , as the local adoption agency requires a reference letter from an employer . Andy promises to read her application letter , but tells the camera crew he 'll only sign it if she admits that she 's a horrible person in it . However , Andy is unaware that Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) is using her own painful past as a non @-@ adopted orphan to help Nellie with the process . When Andy coldly rejects Nellie 's letter ( which Erin helped her write ) , Nellie accepts his decision , but Andy is stunned to hear Erin crying sadly over the failure . He finally adds some mildly snarky but complimentary lines to her letter and signs onto it as a reference , leaving Nellie overjoyed .
= = Production = =
" Work Bus " was written by executive producer Brent Forrester , marking his tenth writing credit for the series , his first since the seventh season episode , " The Search " . Forrester had been previously been named executive producer to the series , before the start of the season . The episode was also directed by Bryan Cranston , the star of the AMC drama series , Breaking Bad . It was initially announced he was going to guest direct an episode by cast member Rainn Wilson , via Twitter . Cranston had previously directed episodes from other comedy series , including Malcolm in the Middle and Modern Family . Entertainment Weekly later confirmed the episode title and its airdate .
The official website of The Office included three cut scenes from " Work Bus " within a week of the episode 's release . In the 43 @-@ second clip , Pete and Erin indulge in a little unlawful fantasy . In the second 104 @-@ second clip , the office continues their " Shabooya Roll Call " , with Phylis , Oscar , Dwight ( reluctantly ) and Andy participating , while Angela criticizes their game . In the final 67 @-@ second clip , Clark helps Darryl out with Power Point .
= = Cultural references = =
The cold opening for the episode features Andy showing the office various sports bloopers that he edited to make look funnier than they actually are , a reference to the popular " Fail " internet memes . Dwight notes that he is fine living in an EMF field , because most of his super @-@ hero idols got their powers from massive amounts of electricity . Andy , by Nellie 's own admission , thinks that she should " go back to Loch Ness " , a reference to the mythical Loch Ness monster .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Work Bus " originally aired on NBC on October 18 , 2012 . The episode was viewed by 4 @.@ 28 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 1 rating / 6 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 1 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marks a slight decrease in the ratings when compared to the previous episode , " Andy 's Ancestry " . The Office finished third in its time slot , being beaten by an episode of the ABC series Grey 's Anatomy which received a 3 @.@ 4 / 9 percent rating and an entry of the CBS drama Person of Interest , which received a 2 @.@ 8 / 7 percent rating Despite this , The Office was the highest @-@ rated NBC television program of the night .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Work Bus " received mostly positive reviews from critics . The A.V. Club reviewer Erik Adams considered " Work Bus " to be the funniest episode of the series since the seventh season . He noted that while the episode had a slow start , " the script [ ... ] doesn ’ t get moving until the bus gets moving " and comended the writers for using the ensemble cast to reach a " height of funniness " and compared the " mob mentality " of the cast to The Simpsons . He ultimately awarded the episode a B + . IGN writer Cindy White called the episode a " pretty good example of how to do an out @-@ of @-@ the @-@ office episode right " , considering it to be superior to other out @-@ of @-@ office episodes , including " Christening " and " Gettysburg " . She also complimented the characterization of the characters , specifically Jim , Pam and Dwight , and their relationships with each other . Despite this , she criticized the " aforementioned characterization of Andy " as well as the cold open , for making Andy too similar to Michael and later on commented that his new " douche @-@ bagery " spoiled the episode for her . She ultimately gave the episode a 7 @.@ 8 / 10 , concluding that it was a " good " episode . Michael Tedder of New York gave a positive review and praised the scene featuring Jim and Dwight on the roof of the bus , and praised their dynamic for maturing over the years . Tedder also complimented Cranston 's direction in the episode , commenting that the " cramped quality of ' Work Bus ' was well matched with Cranston 's talents " . He also wrote that the Nellie @-@ Andy subplot had some potential to become " promising " if their rivalry continues through the rest of the season , but " we 'll have to see " .
Brett Harrison Davinger of California Literary Review was more positive , writing that the episode had a more " classic Office " feeling , due to its humor and emotion , which he considered missing from the series in the previous seasons . He praised Jim for being " the show 's heart " for being motivated from " a real place " and complimented his final scenes with Dwight , for actually being more in @-@ character in his motivation unlike previous episodes , such as " The Incentive " and " Last Day in Florida " . He also praised Jim and Pam 's final scene together for having " genuine , quite tenderness " to it . He also complimented the episode 's humor and for Andy 's " dick " behavior .
Other reviews were more mixed . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix had a more mixed review , calling the episode " decent " , by " late @-@ era [ Office ] standards . While he criticized Andy 's behavior for being too much like Michael Scott , and Kevin for being " developmentally disabled " , he complimented the episode for having " some decent laughs " and for the Jim @-@ Dwight @-@ Pam storyline . He especially praised Jim and Dwight 's scene on the roof of the bus , comparing it to previous scenes in the series between Jim and Michael or Pam and Michael , saying it was able to show the " core of real emotion underneath the cartoon character [ Dwight ] " . Dan Forcella of TV Fantatic awarded the episode three stars out of five , saying that without Brian Baumgartner 's performance , the episode " might not have been worth watching " . He only had praise for Baumgartner 's performance in his character 's gags throughout the episode .
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= 32 Old Slip =
32 Old Slip , also known as One Financial Square , is a skyscraper in the Financial District of New York City . Completed in 1987 , the building has 36 floors and stands at 575 ft 0 in ( 175 @.@ 26 m ) . It is home to Convene , AIG Global Real Estate , Goldman Sachs , the New York Regional Office of the United States Census Bureau , and the ground floor houses the New York City Fire Department ( FDNY ) Engine Company 4 and Ladder Company 15 .
= = History = =
The building site originally held the United States Assay Office , the last public gold refinery in the United States . It also melted damaged coins and incinerated damaged paper money . In 1983 , the United States Mint put the 42 @,@ 176 square feet ( 3 @,@ 918 @.@ 3 m2 ) property up for auction . Beginning at US $ 3 million , the winning bid was made by HRO International Ltd . , a New York realty developer , at $ 27 million . The sale established it as the most valuable government estate sold at public auction . The Assay office building was demolished in 1986 .
In 1987 , HRO built the 36 @-@ floor building that stands today , naming the 23 @-@ 43 Old Slip property One Financial Square . The Paramount Group purchased the property for $ 135 million in 1995 , then in August 2007 sold it to Beacon Capital Partners for $ 751 million , which is one of the largest sales on record of an office building in Lower Manhattan .
Like many buildings in Lower Manhattan , 32 Old Slip was battered with storm waters during Hurricane Sandy in 2012 . In contrast to most in the region , the building was designed to resist a powerful earthquake , which in part made the structure less prone to flooding . Within a year the building 's market value declined by 21 @.@ 6 % ( $ 65 @.@ 7 million ) . In 2013 a renovation effort began to add improved flood barriers , pumps and piping systems to better ward against future storms .
= = Architecture = =
The building is considered to be postmodern . Four sides of granite and silver @-@ tinted glass make up the base , which give way to stepped transitions , eventually resulting in an octagonal , entirely glass curtain wall .
The floor sizes range from 23 @,@ 404 to 38 @,@ 750 rentable square feet , totaling 1 @,@ 161 @,@ 435 rentable square feet . It consists of columnless interior on each floor and a 40 ft 0 in ( 12 @.@ 19 m ) lobby . There are 26 elevators in service and a parking garage beneath the structure . The ground level side and rear of the building feature a privately owned arcade and urban plaza .
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= Tropical Storm Wukong ( 2006 ) =
Severe Tropical Storm Wukong was a slow moving tropical cyclone which produced torrential rains over Japan . The tenth named storm of the 2006 Pacific typhoon season , Wukong developed out of a tropical depression over the open waters of the western Pacific Ocean . On August 13 , both the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) and the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) classified the depression as a tropical storm . The storm traveled along a curving path south of Japan , absorbing the remnants of Tropical Storm Sonamu on August 15 before turning towards the west . Wukong made landfall at peak intensity late on August 17 near Miyazaki City in southern Kyūshū . The cyclone remained over land for about 24 hours before moving out over the Sea of Japan . The storm weakened to a tropical depression before dissipating on August 21 . Due to the slow movement of the storm , it produced heavy rains , peaking at 516 mm ( 20 @.@ 3 in ) . Two people were killed due to rough seas produced by the storm and three others were injured .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 12 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) began monitoring a tropical depression located to the south of Chichi @-@ jima island . The depression formed within a monsoonal gyre which also spawned Tropical Storm Sonamu . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) classified the system as Tropical Depression 11W several hours after the JMA while the system was located about 140 km ( 85 mi ) south of Iwo Jima . The depression gradually strengthened as it moved towards the northwest . Early on August 13 , it was upgraded to a tropical storm and given the name Wukong ; a name which was contributed by China . The names means " the king of the monkeys " and was featured in the novel Journey to the West . The storm slowed significantly as a ridge built eastward over Japan . On August 14 , Wukong turned towards the northeast and reached its peak intensity with winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph 10 @-@ minute winds ) as a severe tropical storm .
At the same time , the JTWC assessed Wukong to have reached its initial peak intensity with winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph 1 @-@ minute winds ) . The next day , the storm began to accelerate due to an interaction with the nearby Tropical Storm Sonamu . Wukong absorbed the weakening Sonamu later in the day before turning towards the west . On August 16 , the storm turned towards the northwest due to a weakness in the ridge near Japan . Wukong made landfall late on August 17 near Miyazaki City in southern Kyūshū . As the storm made landfall , the JTWC assessed Wukong to have winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph 1 @-@ minute winds ) . The cyclone slowly traveled across land , entering the Sea of Japan about 24 hours after landfall . Several hours after entering the Sea of Japan , the JMA downgraded Wukong to a tropical depression . The depression persisted for two more days before dissipating near the Russian coastline .
= = Preparations and impact = =
According to Japanese weather officials , heavy rain , flood , storm and high wave warnings were put into effect for all of Kyūshū and adjacent areas in Honshū . The two largest air carriers in Japan , Japan Airlines and All Nippon Airways , cancelled at least 36 domestic flights ahead of the storm . Several of the largest oil refineries halted oil product shipments from three refineries . Kyushu Railways postponed services on five lines , one of which crossed the entire prefecture . Long distance ferries were also shut down . Iwakuni , Yamaguchi was placed under Tropical Cyclone Condition of Readiness 3 and Sasebo , Nagasaki was placed under Tropical Cyclone Condition of Readiness Storm Watch .
Wukong produced torrential rains over Japan , peaking at 516 mm ( 20 @.@ 3 in ) in Hinokage , Miyazaki Prefecture . Flooding in Kyūshū and the Yamaguchi Prefecture caused the evacuation of about 300 households . At least 200 residences were left without power in Kyūshū . Two people were killed by rough seas produced by Wukong , and three others were injured in storm @-@ related accidents . A total of seven landslides occurred , one of which damaged several homes . As the storm brushed the Korean Peninsula , it produced heavy rains , but caused no known damage .
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= First Test , 1948 Ashes series =
The First Test of the 1948 Ashes series was one of five Tests in a cricket series between Australia and England . The match was played at Trent Bridge in Nottingham from 10 to 15 June with a rest day on 13 June . Australia won the match by eight wickets to take a 1 – 0 series lead .
The Australians started the match as firm favourites , having won the previous series against England 3 – 0 ; in the lead @-@ up to the 1948 series , they had won 10 of their 12 tour matches in England , mostly by large margins . This included a crushing innings defeat in a match over the Marylebone Cricket Club — a team consisting almost entirely of Test @-@ capped and current England players . England captain Norman Yardley won the toss and elected to bat on a cloudy day . After the first morning was interrupted by inclement weather , the Australian fast bowlers quickly made inroads into the English batting . Despite the loss of leading Australian paceman Ray Lindwall with a groin injury , the hosts had difficulty against his colleagues and fell to be 74 runs for the loss of eight wickets ( 74 / 8 ) . However , a rearguard action by tail @-@ enders Alec Bedser and Jim Laker saw England reach 165 , Bill Johnston taking five wickets for 36 runs ( 5 / 36 ) for Australia , while compatriot Keith Miller took 3 / 38 . Laker top @-@ scored for the hosts with 63 . The tourists then reached 17 without loss by stumps .
On the second day , Yardley attempted to slow the Australian batsmen by employing leg theory , a defensive strategy that sought more to contain the opposition than to attack . As England had batted poorly in the first innings , allowing Australia to take the lead quickly , the home team sought to slow the tourists ' momentum and force a drawn match . Despite the tactics , Australia reached 293 / 4 at the end of the day 's play , captain Donald Bradman having registered his 28th Test century . Although Bradman and his batsmen made gestures indicating frustration at England 's stifling tactics , they remained patient as there was still much time left in the match for them to convert their dominance into a victory . The next morning , Bradman departed for 138 , the first in a series of dismissals in the leg trap , but his vice @-@ captain Lindsay Hassett continued , making 137 and putting on a century partnership with Lindwall as Australia were eventually out for 509 , giving them a 344 @-@ run first innings lead . Laker was the leading bowler , taking 4 / 138 . England reached 121 / 2 by stumps on the third day , which ended with a hostile crowd reaction to Miller , who bowled a large amount of bouncers at Len Hutton and Denis Compton .
After the rest day , play resumed in poor visibility , with frequent interruptions due to rain and bad light . England 's batsmen progressed steadily as Australia struggled in Lindwall 's absence , which forced his fellow bowlers to bear a greater workload . Hutton made 74 and Compton batted through the entire day to be unbeaten on 154 , with England one run ahead at the close of play , on 345 / 6 . Compton 's innings in the difficult conditions was highly praised and his team still had a chance of hanging on for a draw if the lower order could bat for a large part of the final day . The next day , Australia prised out the remaining wickets and England were dismissed for 441 , with Compton out for 184 after falling on his stumps . Miller and Johnston had both taken four wickets . Australia then made the 98 runs required for victory with the loss of two wickets ; opener Sid Barnes made his second half @-@ century for the match in the pursuit .
= = Background = =
Prior to the First Test , Australia had played 12 first @-@ class matches since arriving in England and starting their campaign in late @-@ April , winning ten and drawing two . Eight of the victories were by an innings , and another was by eight wickets . One of the drawn matches , against Lancashire , was rain @-@ affected , with the first day washed out entirely .
One of the tour matches was against the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) , which fielded a team composed almost entirely of Test players . In what was effectively a dress rehearsal for the Tests , Australia fielded their full @-@ strength team and won by an innings . The difference in Australia 's team for the First Test was the omission of leg spinner Colin McCool , who had been struggling from a torn callus on his spinning finger , which prevented him from bowling long spells . It was thought that Bradman would play another leg spinner — Doug Ring — in McCool 's place , but the Australian captain changed his mind on the first morning when rain was forecast . Bill Johnston was played in the hope of exploiting a wet wicket . In previous rain @-@ affected matches on the tour , Johnston had been highly effective , taking match figures of 10 / 40 and 11 / 117 against Yorkshire and Hampshire respectively . Bill Brown , the reserve opener , played out of position in the middle @-@ order , as he had against Worcestershire and the MCC . Aside from Brown and Johnston 's inclusion , Australia 's team was the same as that which started the previous Ashes series in 1946 – 47 , which they won 3 – 0 .
England lost their leg spinner Doug Wright before the match to lumbago , so the off spin of Jim Laker was brought in at late notice . Laker had struggled when he had played for Surrey and the MCC against Australia in the lead @-@ up matches , taking 1 / 137 and 3 / 127 respectively . In the MCC match , the Australians had attacked him , taking nine sixes from his bowling in one 82 @-@ minute passage of play . Of the team that took to the field for the MCC , Len Hutton , Bill Edrich , Denis Compton , captain Norman Yardley , Laker and Jack Young were also selected for the First Test . Hutton scored 52 and 64 in the MCC match but nobody else managed to pass 26 in either innings . Young had bowled 55 @.@ 2 overs in Australia 's only innings , taking 4 / 155 . Opener Jack Robertson was left out after scoring six and a duck , and Cyril Washbrook , who had played against Australia in the 1946 – 47 series , partnered Hutton . Joe Hardstaff junior had scored 107 for Nottinghamshire , the only century made against Australia in the lead @-@ up matches , earning himself Test selection . Paceman Alec Bedser did not play in the MCC match , but had been a regular during England 's last series against Australia in 1946 – 47 , and had taken 4 / 104 for Surrey in their match against the tourists . Godfrey Evans , who kept wickets in the previous Ashes series , also gained Test selection . According to former England bowler Bill Bowes , England went into the match with the intention of securing a draw through the selection of defensive bowlers . The home team 's bowlers would tie down the Australians , forcing the batsmen to take risks to score runs and thereby increasing the chances of dismissal ; however , if rain produced a sticky wicket , the England attack might be able to dismiss Australia relatively easily . As such , England filled their team with batsmen and only played three frontline bowlers , Laker , Bedser and Young , and relied on Yardley , Edrich and Charlie Barnett to support them with their occasion seam bowling . It was speculated that England would use only two specialist bowlers ; the all @-@ rounder George Pope was in the squad and it was thought he would be used in place of one of the bowlers , but in the end , he was omitted , as was Reg Simpson . The latter had made 74 and 70 for Nottinghamshire against Australia and had impressed observers with his display , and was made twelfth man .
Before the start of the match , much of the attention was placed on the weather forecast and the prospects of rain . In their 12 tour matches leading up to the Tests , Australia had been almost completely untroubled by the opposition except in the two matches against Yorkshire and Hampshire on rain @-@ affected pitches . In these two matches they came close to defeat after heavy batting collapses before recovering to victory . It was thus thought that the toss could be of great importance , especially if the team batting first had accumulated a substantial total by the time rain came . The match was the first Ashes Test to be played on English soil since the end of World War II .
= = Scorecard = =
= = = England innings = = =
= = = Australia innings = = =
= = 10 June : Day One = =
England captain Norman Yardley won the toss and elected to bat despite the dull light ; Trent Bridge had reputation for being favourable to batsmen , and in the previous Test between Australia and England at the ground in 1938 , four Englishmen scored centuries as the hosts made 658 , before Stan McCabe of Australia made 232 runs himself . The first innings set the pattern of the series as the English top order struggled against Australia 's pace attack . Only twenty minutes of play was possible before lunch on the first day due to inclement weather , and the opening pair of Washbrook and Hutton had to deal with the contrasting bowling actions of Lindwall — with a low , somewhat round @-@ arm action — and Miller , who extracted more bounce from a higher arm at the point of delivery . In the first two overs , the Australian pairing extracted little bounce and it seemed as though the hosts would be in a strong position to make a large score on a placid track if they made a solid start . Lindwall bowled the first ball of the match at a moderate pace , and Hutton pushed it square of the wicket on the off side for a single to start proceedings . Gradually , the Australian bowlers got into their rhythm and began to raise their pace . Miller induced an edge from Washbrook in his first over , but it bounced before reaching a fielder . In his second over , Miller bowled Hutton for three with a faster ball that skidded off the pitch to leave England at 9 / 1 . The ball went between bat and pads as Hutton moved forward onto his front foot . The journalist and former Australian Test leg spinner Bill O 'Reilly criticised Hutton for not moving his leg across to the pitch of the ball , thereby leaving a gap between bat and pad .
During the lunch interval , heavy rain fell , before the sun began to dry the pitch , making the ball skid through upon England 's resumption at 13 / 1 . Miller beat Washbrook 's bat twice in one over soon after the resumption , but was unable to extract an edge . Lindwall reached his peak speed and Edrich edged to first slip , where Ian Johnson got both hands to the ball above his head , but failed to hold on . Edrich was on four at the time and this was part of a 20 @-@ minute passage of play during which England was unable to score . The next ball from Lindwall , Washbrook was caught on the run by Brown on the fine leg boundary after attempting to hook a bouncer pitched on the line of leg stump . It was to be the first of several times that Washbrook was dismissed while hooking , attracting substantial criticism . Washbrook 's fall left England at 15 / 2 after 41 minutes of batting and brought Compton to the crease to join Edrich . Compton square drove Miller to the boundary for four , which prompted a retaliatory bouncer and a negative crowd reaction . Edrich was not scoring quickly but he defied the bowling of Miller and Lindwall as the English pair took the score to 46 . Likewise , Compton was restraining his natural inclination to attack in an attempt to rebuild the innings after the two early wickets . During this period Brown made a series of one @-@ handed run @-@ saving stops in the field . The rain had also softened up the pitch and as a result , the playing surface did not offer much bounce .
Bradman then made a double change and brought on the two left @-@ arm pacemen , Bill Johnston and Ernie Toshack . In his first over , Johnston bowled Edrich with a delivery that knocked the off stump out of the ground as the batsman leaned forward on the front foot . Two balls later , Johnston removed Hardstaff for a duck , caught by Miller in slips after attempting a cut . Wisden described the catch as " dazzling " . Miller dived and balanced himself on his spine as he caught the ball heels over head . O 'Reilly said : " Johnston had trimmed and embroidered the efforts of his opening bowlers and had swung the fortunes of the game completely in Australia 's favour " .
Bradman then decided to bring Miller back in place of Toshack . Two runs later , Compton was bowled attempting a leg sweep against Miller , his leg stump knocked out of the ground as he moved across his wickets . Five English wickets had fallen with only 48 runs on the board after 100 minutes of play ; three batsmen had been dismissed in just ten minutes . O 'Reilly said " There was nothing whatsoever to suggest that the pitch had been instrumental in the English debacle . It was purely and simply an exhilarating display of splendid bowling fit to be classed with any match @-@ winning bowling performance in the story of Test cricket . "
The collapse left Barnett and captain Yardley as the new men at the crease . Both players attacked the bowling but could not get their shots through the field for runs . Soon after , Lindwall was forced to leave the field due to a groin injury and did not bowl again . Barnett hit one four before Johnston bowled him for eight off the inside edge as he leaned onto the front foot . This brought Evans to the crease with the score at 60 / 6 , and he attempted to disrupt the Australians ' line and length by counter @-@ attacking with a series of shots in front of the wicket . He drove the ball forward of point to the boundary for four , and was then given two lives . He hit Johnston hard to cover , but the catch went through Bradman for another boundary . The second chance of a catch went through Bradman 's hand and struck the Australian captain in the abdomen . However , the missed opportunities cost the tourists little ; Evans hit a ball strongly but it was caught at close range at short leg by Morris . Without further addition to the score , Toshack trapped Yardley , who had lingered at the crease for 26 minutes in accumulating three runs , leg before wicket ( lbw ) with a ball that straightened after pitching , leaving the score at 74 / 8 .
England was facing the prospect of setting a new record for the lowest Test innings score at Trent Bridge , worse than the 112 made by England against Warwick Armstrong 's Australians in 1921 . However , a late fightback averted the unwanted record . Laker and Bedser , both from Surrey , joined forces and scored more than half of England 's total , adding 89 runs in only 73 minutes . Laker 's innings was highlighted by hooking and driving , while Bedser defended stoutly and drove in front of the wicket , much to the delight of the Nottingham crowd , who had appeared to have become depressed by the collapse of England 's batsmen . At first , Bradman did not appear concerned by the partnership between the two bowlers from Surrey — it was thought the Australian captain may have been happy for England to continue batting so his top order would not have to bat in fading light towards the end of the afternoon , but he became anxious as the total continued to mount and both Bedser and Laker appeared comfortable . O 'Reilly speculated that both players had batted confidently as their home ground in Surrey — The Oval — had a reputation for being batsman @-@ friendly , and that as they would have had to contend with opposition batsmen who had the benefit of consistently favourable conditions , then they should also prepare so they too could capitalise on their opportunities with the willow . According to English commentator John Arlott , the playing surface was easier for batting than it had been at the start of the day , " but the difference was not such as to cause hesitation in the best batsmen in England " .
Eventually , Australia was forced to take the second new ball , and Bedser was finally removed by Johnston and Miller had Laker caught behind two runs later , ending England 's innings at 165 . Laker top @-@ scored with 63 in 101 minutes , with six boundaries , having reached his first 50 in only 60 minutes . O 'Reilly said " There was nothing about his batting to suggest that luck was going his way or that he was short of batting experience . " Johnston ended with 5 / 36 , a display characterised with his accuracy and variations in pace and swing . Miller took 3 / 38 and a catch , while Lindwall and Toshack took one wicket each . Spin was not used in abundance , as Johnson bowled five overs and Morris three . Following England 's struggles in the first innings , many pundits criticised Yardley 's decision to bat first .
Australia had less than 15 minutes of batting before the scheduled close of play . Barnes made an appeal against the light after the first ball of the innings , which was a wide by Edrich . Barnes walked down the pitch and reportedly muttered to umpire Frank Chester in a casual tone " Eh , the light ! " , which allegedly shocked the arbiter . During the previous Ashes series in Australia , Barnes had continuously made time @-@ wasting appeals against the light , which forced cricket administrators to limit the batting team to one appeal ; if this was declined it would be up to the umpires to offer an adjournment . Despite the appeal against the light , the Australians showed little desire to be watchful against Edrich 's bowling , scoring 11 runs from his two overs . Morris and Barnes successfully negotiated the new ball bowling of Edrich and Bedser . They reached stumps at 17 without loss , with Morris on 10 and Barnes on six . Barnes had been fortunate , edging both Edrich and Bedser through the slip cordon , and Yardley 's decision to place his bowlers Young and Bedser in that region raised surprise ; bowlers tend to lack the agility and reflexes needed for such positions . At this stage , following their tail @-@ end resistance , England were in a good position with runs on the board if rain struck overnight and caused a sticky wicket , forcing the Australians to bat in hostile conditions the following day .
= = 11 June : Day Two = =
Ideal batting conditions and clear weather greeted the players on the second day . After only four overs had been bowled in total the previous afternoon , Edrich was relieved of the new ball , which was given to Barnett , who accompanied Bedser . Both bowlers swung the ball into the right @-@ handed Barnes and away from the left @-@ handed Morris . Not a frontline bowler , Barnett focused on bowling defensively at medium pace , and the Australians wanted to make a safe start , so they decided to play him watchfully . This prompted some commentators to claim Barnett had allowed the Australians to settle into their rhythm by not trying to pressure them .
Barnes batted assuredly , while Morris was hesitant and shuffled around the crease . At one stage , Morris scored only seven runs in 55 minutes . Barnes was involved in some interplay with umpire Chester when the umpire failed to evade a drive from Morris and stopped it with his foot . Barnes picked the ball off the ground and handed it to the bowler , prompting a finger @-@ wagging from Chester , to which Barnes responded by admonishing the umpire for blocking the ball . Morris unnecessarily played at a ball outside off stump from Bedser and edged it to wicket @-@ keeper Evans , who dropped the catch . The batsman recomposed himself and hit Young 's first ball — a full toss — for runs as Australia passed 50 without loss . After the wayward start , Young began to bowl with consistent accuracy .
Barnes and Morris took the score to 73 before the latter was bowled for 31 by Laker after two hours of batting . Morris tried to force a ball from Laker away , but hit it from the middle of his bat into his back pad , and the ball rebounded onto the stumps . Bradman came in and Yardley set a defensive field , employing leg theory to slow the scoring . The English leader packed the leg side with fielders , including two short legs , and ordered Bedser to bowl at leg stump . Bradman almost inside @-@ edged the second ball onto his stumps , before defending uneasily for a period . With Laker stopping the scoring at the other end , Bradman managed only four runs in his first 20 minutes of batting . The Australian captain regarded Bedser as the finest seam bowler he faced in his career , and he batted in a circumspect manner as he sought to establish himself . At the other end , Bradman misjudged a ball from Laker and an incorrectly executed cut shot narrowly went wide of the slip fielder . Now aged 40 , Bradman 's reflexes had slowed and he no longer started his innings as confidently as he had done in the past . Barnes then reached his half @-@ century after 135 minutes , pulling Barnett for four , and the Australians passed 100 before lunch after 125 minutes of batting . At the adjournment , the tourists were 104 / 1 .
The score had progressed to 121 when Barnes tried to cut Laker , but only edged it onto the thigh of wicket @-@ keeper Evans . The ball bounced away and the gloveman turned around and took a one @-@ handed diving catch to dismiss Barnes for 62 . Umpire Cooke was unsure of whether Barnes had hit the ball into the ground before Evans took the catch , and consulted with Chester , who had been standing at point on the other side of the field , before ruling the batsman out . Miller came in and was dismissed for a duck in Laker 's next over without further addition to Australia 's total . He failed to pick Laker 's arm ball , which drifted away and went straight on instead of turning inwards , thereby clipping the outside edge of his bat . The ball flew to slip where Edrich completed the catch . The hard @-@ hitting Miller had come in at No. 4 , a position usually occupied by vice @-@ captain Lindsay Hassett , a more sedate batsman , indicating that Bradman may have been looking to attack , but the change in batting order failed .
Laker to this point had taken 3 / 22 from 12 @.@ 4 overs , having also top @-@ scored in the first innings . All the while , Australia had been scoring slowly , as they would for most of the day . Brown came in at No. 5 , but he had played most of his career as an opening batsman and looked unaccustomed to playing in the middle order , but Bradman brought him in ahead of Hassett as the new ball was due and Brown was used to starting his innings against pace bowlers and a new ball . The Australian captain decided to hasten the new ball by using his feet to get to the pitch of the ball to attack the spinners , hitting them through the off side . Yardley removed Laker — who was bowling effectively — from the attack and took the second new ball , bringing back Bedser and Edrich . However , this move backfired as Bradman struck his first boundary in over 80 minutes , and in the first 40 minutes after lunch , 43 runs were added . Yardley brought back his two spinners , and Australia passed England 's total before the English captain brought himself on to bowl , trapping Brown — who was attempting to push the ball to mid @-@ on — lbw with an off cutter in his first over . This ended a 64 @-@ run stand in 58 minutes and Hassett came in at 185 / 4 . The Australian vice @-@ captain came close to being caught when he knocked a ball from Bedser into the air , narrowly evading the grasp of Evans . Following the departure of Brown , the Australian scoring slowed as Bradman changed the team strategy to one of attempting to bat only once .
Yardley continued to employ a leg side field as he and Barnett bowled outside leg stump . During one over , Bradman did not attempt a single shot and then put his hands on his hips to express his displeasure at England 's tactics . During the 15 minutes before tea , the Australian captain did not add a single run and was heckled by the crowd . Bradman reached tea on 78 , and 55 minutes after the resumption of play , he cover drove Bedser to reach his century in 218 minutes . It was his 28th Test century , and his 18th in Ashes Tests . The last 29 runs took 70 minutes to accumulate , and it was one of Bradman 's slower innings as Yardley focused on stopping runs rather than taking wickets . Nevertheless , Bradman had appeared comfortable after the early stages of his innings , and patiently scored most of his runs between mid @-@ off and mid @-@ on , often from the back foot . After Bradman had reached his milestone , many of the spectators began to leave the ground , content with what they had seen .
Bradman added a further 30 in the last hour to end with 130 . Hassett also batted patiently , with one period of 20 minutes during which his score remained on 30 . Australia batted to stumps on the second day without further loss , ending at 293 / 4 , a lead of 128 , with Hassett on 41 . Young had bowled 32 overs to a leg side field , conceding only 53 runs . Fingleton described the afternoon day 's play as a " very shrewd display of tactics " and said that although the proceedings and the progress of the Australian batsmen had been slow , they were " never ... dull " . He added : " Bradman was on top by virtue of the facts that his side was well ahead of England , his own score was 130 and he was also unconquered . " However , O 'Reilly disagreed and said the Australians had not made enough progress as they should or could have . He said the batsmen failed to capitalise on the fatigue of the bowlers late in the day by not going on the attack in search of quick runs , instead of their " monotonously dull " strategy of patient attrition . O 'Reilly claimed that in containing the opposition batsmen , the English attack had " shared the honours of the day with — if they did not actually steal them from — Bradman . " Bradman and Hassett had made physical gestures indicating their displeasure at England 's tactics , but O 'Reilly felt Yardley had no choice after his team had squandered the initiative with their poor batting , and claimed it was up to the Australians to turn their advantage into a decisive , match @-@ winning position . Arlott disagreed with O 'Reilly , and said Australia " had time to build ... without risk or hurry on a gentle and accommodating ... wicket . Given a winning opportunity , it is characteristic of the Australians that they will never dissipate it by over @-@ anxiety or by carelessness . "
After the day 's play , O 'Reilly — a former teammate of Bradman who was covering the tour as a journalist — consulted Bedser on his use of leg theory . During his career O 'Reilly had often attacked leg stump , and had devised a plan to ensnare Bradman .
= = 12 June : Day Three = =
On the third morning , amid sunshine , Bradman resumed on 130 , before progressing to 132 and becoming the first player to pass 1 @,@ 000 runs for the English season . The Australian captain was not aware of the reason for the spontaneous crowd applause until being notified by wicket @-@ keeper Evans .
Bedser was bowling and he soon implemented O 'Reilly 's plans . Hutton was moved from leg slip to a squarer position at short fine leg , around 11 metres from the bat . Two short legs and a mid @-@ on were put in place . Bradman drove Bedser through cover for a boundary , but on the next ball , his innings terminated at 138 when he glanced an inswinger from Bedser straight to Hutton at short fine leg , who caught the ball without having to move . Bradman had batted for 290 minutes and faced 321 balls and as Johnson walked in to replace him with Australia at 305 / 5 , Bedser waved to O 'Reilly in the press box . When former Australian Test opener Jack Fingleton — a teammate of both Bradman and O 'Reilly who was also working as a journalist — reported what his colleague had done , there was some debate as to whether O 'Reilly 's actions were treacherous .
Johnson made 21 , including an edge over the slips cordon , before being bowled by Laker . He inside edged the ball onto his foot and it rolled back into his stumps . At the same time , Yardley pinned Hassett down with more leg theory . Laker bowled with one slip , while Young had none and had all of his fielders evenly spread in a circular formation . Tallon came in and took 39 minutes to compile 10 before hitting a return catch to the left @-@ arm orthodox spin of Young . The scoring was very slow during this passage of play — Young delivered 11 consecutive maiden overs and his 26 @-@ over spell conceded only 14 runs . Hassett conducted himself in a humorous way , and Arlott said : " only his grace and concealed humour made his innings tolerable " . He mainly scored from deflections and was for the most part prepared to take his time .
The injured Lindwall came out to bat at 365 / 7 without a runner to join Hassett , and appeared to be able to run twos and threes without significant difficulty . Hassett , who had scored only 30 runs in the first 75 minutes of the day , swept Laker for four and then hit him for the first six of the match . The Australian vice @-@ captain added 53 in the two hours of the morning session to reach lunch at 94 . The tourists were unhurried and remained patient as they had bowled England out quickly on the first day and there was still sufficient time to force a result with less than half the playing time elapsed .
After the break , Hassett reached his century after 305 minutes of batting , his first in Tests in England . He then accelerated , adding a further 37 runs in 49 minutes before being bowled by Bedser , having struck 20 fours and a six . The dismissal ended an eighth @-@ wicket partnership of 107 with Lindwall , who was caught by Evans down the leg side four runs later , having scored 42 with seven fours . Australia 's last @-@ wicket pair of Johnston and Toshack wagged a further 33 runs in only 18 minutes , batting in a carefree and freewheeling manner , before Bedser trapped Toshack to end the innings at 509 , leaving the tourists with a 344 @-@ run lead . Australia had batted for 216 @.@ 2 overs , the longest innings in terms of overs and the highest total in the series . Yardley placed the majority of the bowling load on his spinners ; Young ( 1 / 79 ) and Laker ( 4 / 138 ) delivered 60 and 55 overs respectively . Bedser bowled 44 @.@ 2 overs , taking 3 / 113 . The part @-@ time seam bowlers , Edrich , Barnett and Yardley , bowled 18 , 17 and 17 overs respectively . Australia had scored slowly but they had no need to take risks when there was so much time remaining . Yardley 's leg theory tactics failed to coax them into losing their patience .
England thus started their second innings still 344 runs in arrears . Although Lindwall was able to run between the wickets , he did not take to the field in the second innings and the 12th man Neil Harvey took his place . Fingleton called Harvey " by far the most brilliant fieldsman of both sides " . Yardley was sceptical as to whether Lindwall was sufficiently injured to be forced from the field , but did not formally object to Harvey 's presence on the field . O 'Reilly said Lindwall had demonstrated his mobility during his innings , was in no way " incapacitated " and that the English captain " must be condemned for carrying his concepts of sportsmanship too far " when no substitute was justified . O 'Reilly decried the benefit Australia derived through the substitution , agreeing with Fingleton 's judgement of Harvey was the tourists ' best fielder by far . Arlott went further , calling Harvey the best fielder in the world .
Four of the first five runs were leg byes ; Miller then removed Washbrook for one from a top @-@ edged hook shot that was caught by Tallon . The batsman was displeased with the umpire 's decision and gestured to a red mark on his shirt , indicating he felt the ball had touched his body and not the bat . Edrich came in and while he continued to struggle , he defiantly held up his end of the pitch . After scoring 13 from 43 minutes , Edrich was caught behind attempting a cut from the off spin of Johnson . He did not read the arm ball , which went straight on and took the outside edge , leaving England 39 / 2 . Johnson was extracting a substantial amount of spin from the surface . This brought together England 's leading batsmen , Hutton and Compton . The latter , coming in upon the fall of Edrich , ran down the pitch before the ball was bowled and had to quickly play a defensive shot on the run . He clipped the next ball to the leg side for two runs before surviving a confident leg before wicket appeal from Johnson when he was on eight . Compton appeared ready to walk off , but umpire Chester declined the appeal , much to his surprise . England reached 50 in 65 minutes and with Lindwall missing , Bradman had difficulties in spreading the workload among his depleted bowling resources . The part @-@ time leg spin of Barnes was brought on as the fifth bowling option to give the others some time to rest , and Miller resumed bowling late in the day , delivering slow off spin to conserve energy . Hutton and Compton exploited the depleted bowling attack and began to score freely , using their placement to bisect the gaps between the fielders . The pair did not give a chance apart from when Compton aimed an uppish square drive from Johnston that flew in the air wide of cover point .
Hutton then leg glanced Miller , before cover driving and square cutting him in another over . All three shots went for four and he reached his fifty in 110 minutes . Miller responded to the spate of boundaries with a series of bouncers , including five in the last over of the day . One of these struck Hutton high on his left arm . The batsmen survived , but Miller received a hostile reaction from the crowd throughout his short @-@ pitched barrage , including shouts of " Bodyline " . The original practitioners of Bodyline , Harold Larwood and Bill Voce , were both from Nottinghamshire and played at Trent Bridge , and were later excluded from selection for England after being blamed for the ill @-@ feeling caused by Bodyline . The Nottinghamshire supporters were still angry with how their players had been removed and were not happy that Miller was able to do something they saw to be equivalent . For his part , Miller appeared to be amused by the crowd reaction and revelled in it , grinning and flicking his hair . However , Hutton had the last word , glancing Miller down to fine leg for a four from the final ball of the day . England were 121 / 2 , with Hutton and Compton on 63 and 36 respectively . Miller was widely jeered and heckled as he walked off the field , and the crowded surged towards him as he walked up the steps into the dressing room . O 'Reilly defended Miller 's use of short @-@ pitched deliveries , pointing out that he had not employed a packed leg side field and had allowed the batsman the opportunity to score from hook and pull shots if he was willing to try ; in contrast the packed Bodyline field meant batsmen would find little reward for such shots and defensive play would only lead to dismissal .
= = 14 June : Day Four = =
The third day was followed by a rest day on Sunday and play resumed on the fourth morning , a Monday , with England still 223 runs in arrears . Before the start of play , the Nottinghamshire County Cricket Club ( NCCC ) secretary , H. A. Brown , broadcast an appeal to the gallery over the public address system to refrain from their heckling of Miller .
Let us keep Nottingham a place where Test matches can continue to be played . On Saturday the Australian , Miller , was booed and there was much subsequent publicity in the press . These Australians are great sportsmen . They stood by the Empire in the war and we should always be pleased to greet them . Let us show them how really pleased we are and give them a warmhearted greeting this morning .
The crowd responded by clapping as the Australians took to the field . The chairman of the NCCC reportedly apologised to Bradman in private for the crowd reaction to Miller .
As the new ball was due soon after the start of the play , Johnson and Toshack opened the attack as Bradman saved Johnston and Miller . In his first over , Johnson extracted sharp turn from one delivery that pitched outside off stump ; not expecting much spin , Compton did not play a shot and was hit on the pads , but the umpire rejected the loud appeal for lbw . Otherwise , Hutton and Compton progressed steadily before the light deteriorated , although Johnson and Toshack were able to make the ball deviate regularly . Despite this , Bradman opted to have Miller take the new ball in the fifth over of the day as soon as it was available . Mindful of recent events , Miller refrained from bouncers during the morning . In the overcast conditions , Miller bowled a relatively full length and swung the ball ; one of his deliveries beat Hutton and narrowly missed his stumps . At the other end , Johnston was also able to make the ball move sideways . Meanwhile , Compton appeared to be untroubled by the bowling . After half an hour of play , an unsuccessful appeal against the light was made as dark clouds hovered overhead . The rejection of the appeal made little difference , as a thunderstorm stopped proceedings for five minutes soon after . Shortly after the resumption , Miller bowled Hutton with an off cutter in the dark conditions , ending the 111 @-@ run partnership at 150 / 3 . Hutton had made 74 runs in 168 minutes with 11 fours , and as in the first innings , he played forward to a ball without getting his front foot close to the bat , resulting in the delivery moving through the gap into the stumps . The wicket prompted the entrance of Hardstaff , and on the third ball he aimed a cut at a wide Miller delivery , and it again went low to second slip as in the first innings . However , this time Morris was in the position and the catch was dropped . It was part of an eventful over during which Hardstaff had many near @-@ misses . He played and missed at one ball , inside edged another into his pads and edged another through the slips for two runs . Hardstaff had a reputation for being an uncertain starter , especially as he had a tendency to poke at deliveries outside his off stump , and the poor visibility further hindered him .
At 12 : 35 , bad light stopped proceedings , and after two inspections the umpires resumed play , although Arlott claimed that visibility was " barely more than a half candle @-@ power better " . Hardstaff then batted aggressively , walking towards the bowling and hitting three cover drives for four from Miller and Johnston , in one period in which he outscored Compton 23 to four . He then edged through slips for another boundary before Compton swept Toshack to the fence . In the final over before the lunch break , Hardstaff square drove Johnston for four off the back foot and England adjourned at 191 / 3 with Compton on 63 and Hardstaff 31 , still 153 in arrears . During the session , Bradman used Miller for 11 overs in a row in an attempt to pressure the Englishmen , while Toshack bowled defensively from the other end .
After lunch , the light was again poor , but England did not appeal to the umpires for an adjournment . Yardley wanted to bat now in poor visibility in order to eradicate the deficit and build a lead , so that if a shower came later and turned the pitch into a sticky wicket , Australia would have to chase a target on an erratic surface . Bradman anticipated rain , so he utilised Toshack and Johnson to bowl defensively to slow England 's progress in the hope that the hosts would not have a lead by the time a sticky wicket materialised . As the umpires were obliged to not call off play unless the light was so poor as to endanger the batsman , the lack of pace of Johnson and Toshack forced play to continue as they posed no physical threat to the batsmen . In foggy and misty conditions , Hardstaff brought up England 's 200 with a strongly @-@ hit hook that almost hit Barnes . Compton then hit a boundary from Toshack , prompting Bradman to further stack the leg side with fielders in defensive positions . Scoring was slow as Toshack pinned down the batsmen with an effective leg stump line .
The innings was interrupted by bad light and upon the resumption of proceedings , poor visibility intervened for a second time with Compton on 97 . After 55 minutes of delay , the umpires called the players back onto the field . Wisden said : " rarely can a Test Match have been played under such appalling conditions as on this day . " Fingleton said the conditions were " pitiable " and lamented the " utmost gloom in which batsmen and fieldsmen had intense difficulty in sighting the ball " . O 'Reilly said it was " without doubt the worst light " under which he had seen a first @-@ class match proceed . Compton brought up his third consecutive century at Trent Bridge by hitting a single to square leg , a " lovely century of stroke @-@ play and patience " according to Fingleton . The innings had taken 227 minutes and included 12 fours , and Compton had regularly hit the ball in the middle of his bat despite the poor visibility , which meant the batsmen could not see the ball once it was close to the boundary . O 'Reilly described the innings as " one of the greatest batting efforts in the story of Anglo @-@ Australian Tests " , adding that " his hundred runs was but a poor measure by which to estimate the value of his magnificent innings " , deeming Compton 's innings equivalent to a double century under normal conditions . Arlott said " In its manner , its style and its context it must rank with any innings he has ever played ... his innings will remain a Test classic . "
Soon after , Compton edged to the slips from the bowling of Miller , but Johnson spilled the catch . Hardstaff fell for 43 , lofting Toshack to Hassett on the leg side , having put on 93 with Compton . The ball looped up in the air and travelled half @-@ way to the square leg boundary , but Hassett managed to keep track of its trajectory through the fog . Barnett came in and together with Compton added 21 runs in 33 minutes before edging Johnston to Miller , who completed a difficult catch in slips . Yardley came out to bat at 264 / 5 and Compton drove Miller square for four , provoking the bowler 's first bouncer of the day . Compton hooked it away for two and Miller 's next delivery slipped out of his hand and cleared Compton 's head on the full to some jeering in the crowd . Such a ball is known as a beamer and is illegal because of the physical danger it poses to the batsman . Compton and Yardley put on a 57 @-@ run partnership in 66 minutes before Johnston held a return catch to dismiss Yardley for 22 . England reached stumps at 345 / 6 , just one run ahead of Australia , with Compton on 154 and Evans on 10 . During the day , Johnston bowled the most overs , 30 .
= = 15 June : Day Five = =
Compton and Evans continued to resist the Australians on the final morning , the latter being the more aggressive , and proceedings were briefly interrupted by rain less than 30 minutes after the start of play . At the time , it appeared the downpour might cause the match to end in a draw . After half an hour of stoppages , play resumed and Evans attacked , hitting two fours in quick succession . England 's wicket @-@ keeper played Johnston and Johnson confidently , but Bradman nevertheless persisted in giving Compton easy singles in order to bring Evans on strike so he could be targeted . For his part , Compton thought his partner could be relied upon and accepted the runs gifted to him by the Australian captain , while Evans continued to attack the bowling . The batsmen appealed against the light after the first stoppage of the day , but were turned down . Australia took the new ball , but the home team 's batsmen continued to proceed steadily , Evans being particularly aggressive . After a second interruption for poor light , this time for ten minutes , play resumed , and England had added a further 60 runs to their overnight total to reach 405 / 6 .
Miller bowled a fast and very short bouncer at Compton , who moved into position to hook before changing his mind and attempting to evade the ball . He lost balance and threw his legs apart , trying to avoid stepping onto his stumps . However , he was unsuccessful and was out hit wicket for 184 , having batted for 413 minutes and hit 19 fours . Wisden said : " No praise could be too high for the manner in which Compton carried the side 's responsibilities and defied a first @-@ class attack in such trying circumstances . " Fingleton said it was " a most depressing end to an innings that will live always " . O 'Reilly described it as " an unsavoury ending to one of the greatest fighting knocks in Test history " . Compton 's fall at 405 / 7 exposed the English tail and Australia quickly finished off the rest of the batsmen in 36 minutes . Miller bowled Laker — who played outside the line of the ball — for four , Evans reached 50 and was caught behind from Johnston , who then castled Young for nine . England were all out for 441 after 183 overs , leaving Australia a target of 98 in three hours . Lindwall 's absence throughout the England innings meant the remaining four Australian frontline bowlers had bowled more than 32 overs each — Johnston delivered 59 and ended with 4 / 147 while Miller took 4 / 125 from 44 overs . Toshack and Johnson took a wicket each from 33 and 42 overs respectively .
Australia progressed quickly at the start of the chase . Barnes took 13 runs , including three boundaries , from the opening over , bowled by Bedser , while Morris again lacked fluency . However , Barnes continued to score quickly , and 24 runs came from the first four overs . Yardley tried to stop the run @-@ scoring by bringing on Young , but Morris hit him for four and the bowler was promptly taken off . The tourists proceeded steadily to 38 from 32 minutes before Bedser bowled Morris for nine ; after bowling several balls that moved away , Bedser caught out Morris with an inswinger . Morris had developed a habit of trying to defend the ball to the leg side while shuffling towards the off , and was not in a position to deal with a ball that hurried off the pitch . Bradman came to the crease and batted for 12 minutes without getting off the mark . From the 10th ball he faced , the Australian skipper was out for a duck , again caught by Hutton at short fine leg in Bedser 's leg trap . Bradman showed obvious displeasure at allowing himself to be dismissed by the same trap in consecutive innings , and his departure left Australia at 48 / 2 . It was the first time in four tours to England that Bradman had made a duck in a Test .
Upon Bradman 's dismissal , dark clouds began to close in on the ground , and rain appeared to be a possible saviour for England . However , it never came , and meanwhile Hassett joined Barnes . The pair attacked , Hassett twice driving Bedser over the infield for boundaries , and later pulling another ball in the air for another four . Barnes gave Young an opportunity for a return catch , but the ball was dropped . The pair reached the target without further loss after 87 minutes of batting . Barnes ended on 64 with 11 boundaries , having been prolific on the square cut . He tied the scores with a swept boundary , and having taken a stump as souvenir , ran off the ground believing the match was over . Barnes tossed his souvenir back into the playing arena and returned to the field after noticing the reaction of the amused crowd and Hassett promptly hit the winning run .
= = Aftermath = =
The First Test was a continuation of the trend of English batsmen being largely unable to cope with Australia 's pacemen . Hutton was the only Englishman to pass 50 in the MCC match , and at Trent Bridge only he and Compton managed this feat . Apart from Hardstaff , none of the remaining batsmen passed 25 . Wisden 's verdict was that England fought back very well , but that avoiding defeat was almost impossible after their poor batting on the first day . Bowes considered the defensive English bowling display worthy of a draw , and blamed the first innings batting for the failure to prevenet defeat . However , he believed the English tactics to be justified and should have been continued .
Australia 's success came at a cost , with Lindwall injured and unable to bowl in the lead @-@ up to the Second Test , missing the intervening matches against Northamptonshire and Yorkshire . The heavy workload on Miller caused by Lindwall 's breaking down mid @-@ Test generated severe back pain , and he was still not fully recovered by the start of the Second Test at Lord 's . Lindwall was subjected to a thorough fitness test on the first morning of the Lord 's Test . Bradman was not convinced of Lindwall 's fitness , but the bowler 's protestations were sufficient to convince his captain to risk his inclusion . Australia won the toss and elected to bat , allowing Lindwall further time to recover from his injury . Miller also played , but still nursing his back , was unfit to bowl .
Content with their convincing win at Trent Bridge , Australia made no changes to their team , while England made three , omitting Barnett , Hardstaff and Young due to a combination of injury and poor form . Barnett and Hardstaff never played another Test . Despite his injury , Lindwall played a key role in a heavy 409 @-@ run Australian victory , taking eight wickets . His bowling also led to the controversial omission of Hutton , who performed poorly at Lord 's , for the Third Test . The reason was said to be Hutton 's struggles with Lindwall 's short @-@ pitched bowling . This decision pleased the Australians , who regarded Hutton as their most formidable opponent with the bat .
On the field , the Australians continued to flourish . The Third Test was a rain @-@ affected draw , and between the First and Fourth Tests , they won four of their five county matches , drawing the other . On the final day of the Fourth Test , Australia 's batsmen set a world Test cricket record by scoring 404 to win the match , thereby taking a series @-@ winning 3 – 0 lead .
After the historic win in the Fourth Test , Australia had five tour matches before the final Test . They won three while two ended in rain @-@ curtailed draws . Australia then completed the series with an innings victory in the Fifth Test at The Oval to complete a 4 – 0 result . The Fifth Test was the last international match of the tour , and the tourists had seven further matches to negotiate in order to fulfil Bradman 's aim of going through the English season undefeated . Apart from two washed @-@ out matches , Bradman 's men had little difficulty , winning the remaining five fixtures by an innings . They thus became the first touring Test team to complete an English season undefeated , earning themselves the sobriquet The Invincibles .
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= Periodic table =
The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of the chemical elements , ordered by their atomic number ( number of protons ) , electron configurations , and recurring chemical properties . This ordering shows periodic trends , such as elements with similar behavior in the same column . It also shows four rectangular blocks with some approximately similar chemical properties . In general , within one row ( period ) the elements are metals on the left , and non @-@ metals on the right .
The rows of the table are called periods ; the columns are called groups . Six groups ( columns ) have names as well as numbers : for example , group 17 elements are the halogens ; and group 18 , the noble gases . The periodic table can be used to derive relationships between the properties of the elements , and predict the properties of new elements yet to be discovered or synthesized . The periodic table provides a useful framework for analyzing chemical behavior , and is widely used in chemistry and other sciences .
Dmitri Mendeleev published in 1869 the first widely recognized periodic table . He developed his table to illustrate periodic trends in the properties of the then @-@ known elements . Mendeleev also predicted some properties of then @-@ unknown elements that would be expected to fill gaps in this table . Most of his predictions were proved correct when the elements in question were subsequently discovered . Mendeleev 's periodic table has since been expanded and refined with the discovery or synthesis of further new elements and the development of new theoretical models to explain chemical behavior .
All elements from atomic numbers 1 ( hydrogen ) to 118 ( ununoctium ) have been discovered or synthesized , with the most recent additions ( elements 113 , 115 , 117 , and 118 ) being confirmed by the IUPAC on December 30 , 2015 . The first 94 elements exist naturally , although some are found only in trace amounts and were synthesized in laboratories before being found in nature . Elements with atomic numbers from 95 to 118 have only been synthesized in laboratories or nuclear reactors . Synthesis of elements having higher atomic numbers is being pursued . Numerous synthetic radionuclides of naturally occurring elements have also been produced in laboratories .
= = Overview = =
Each chemical element has a unique atomic number ( Z ) representing the number of protons in its nucleus . Most elements have differing numbers of neutrons among different atoms , with these variants being referred to as isotopes . For example , carbon has three naturally occurring isotopes : all of its atoms have six protons and most have six neutrons as well , but about one per cent have seven neutrons , and a very small fraction have eight neutrons . Isotopes are never separated in the periodic table ; they are always grouped together under a single element . Elements with no stable isotopes have the atomic masses of their most stable isotopes , where such masses are shown , listed in parentheses .
In the standard periodic table , the elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number ( the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom ) . A new row ( period ) is started when a new electron shell has its first electron . Columns ( groups ) are determined by the electron configuration of the atom ; elements with the same number of electrons in a particular subshell fall into the same columns ( e.g. oxygen and selenium are in the same column because they both have four electrons in the outermost p @-@ subshell ) . Elements with similar chemical properties generally fall into the same group in the periodic table , although in the f @-@ block , and to some respect in the d @-@ block , the elements in the same period tend to have similar properties , as well . Thus , it is relatively easy to predict the chemical properties of an element if one knows the properties of the elements around it .
As of 2016 , the periodic table has 118 confirmed elements , from element 1 ( hydrogen ) to 118 ( ununoctium ) . Elements 113 , 115 , 117 and 118 were officially confirmed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) in December 2015 . Their proposed names , nihonium ( Nh ) , moscovium ( Mc ) , tennessine ( Ts ) and oganesson ( Og ) respectively , were announced by the IUPAC in June 2016 . These names will not be formally approved until after the five @-@ month public comment period ends in November 2016 . Until then , they are formally identified by their atomic number ( e.g. , " element 113 " ) , or by their provisional systematic name ( " ununtrium " , symbol " Uut " ) .
The first 94 elements occur naturally ; the remaining 24 , americium to ununoctium ( 95 – 118 ) occur only when synthesised in laboratories . Of the 94 naturally occurring elements , 84 are primordial and 10 occur only in decay chains of primordial elements . No element heavier than einsteinium ( element 99 ) has ever been observed in macroscopic quantities in its pure form , nor has astatine ( element 85 ) ; francium ( element 87 ) has been only photographed in the form of light emitted from microscopic quantities ( 300 @,@ 000 atoms ) .
= = Grouping methods = =
= = = Groups = = =
A group or family is a vertical column in the periodic table . Groups usually have more significant periodic trends than periods and blocks , explained below . Modern quantum mechanical theories of atomic structure explain group trends by proposing that elements within the same group generally have the same electron configurations in their valence shell . Consequently , elements in the same group tend to have a shared chemistry and exhibit a clear trend in properties with increasing atomic number . However , in some parts of the periodic table , such as the d @-@ block and the f @-@ block , horizontal similarities can be as important as , or more pronounced than , vertical similarities .
Under an international naming convention , the groups are numbered numerically from 1 to 18 from the leftmost column ( the alkali metals ) to the rightmost column ( the noble gases ) . Previously , they were known by roman numerals . In America , the roman numerals were followed by either an " A " if the group was in the s- or p @-@ block , or a " B " if the group was in the d @-@ block . The roman numerals used correspond to the last digit of today 's naming convention ( e.g. the group 4 elements were group IVB , and the group 14 elements were group IVA ) . In Europe , the lettering was similar , except that " A " was used if the group was before group 10 , and " B " was used for groups including and after group 10 . In addition , groups 8 , 9 and 10 used to be treated as one triple @-@ sized group , known collectively in both notations as group VIII . In 1988 , the new IUPAC naming system was put into use , and the old group names were deprecated .
Some of these groups have been given trivial ( unsystematic ) names , as seen in the table below , although some are rarely used . Groups 3 – 10 have no trivial names and are referred to simply by their group numbers or by the name of the first member of their group ( such as " the scandium group " for Group 3 ) , since they display fewer similarities and / or vertical trends .
Elements in the same group tend to show patterns in atomic radius , ionization energy , and electronegativity . From top to bottom in a group , the atomic radii of the elements increase . Since there are more filled energy levels , valence electrons are found farther from the nucleus . From the top , each successive element has a lower ionization energy because it is easier to remove an electron since the atoms are less tightly bound . Similarly , a group has a top to bottom decrease in electronegativity due to an increasing distance between valence electrons and the nucleus . There are exceptions to these trends , however , an example of which occurs in group 11 where electronegativity increases farther down the group .
= = = Periods = = =
A period is a horizontal row in the periodic table . Although groups generally have more significant periodic trends , there are regions where horizontal trends are more significant than vertical group trends , such as the f @-@ block , where the lanthanides and actinides form two substantial horizontal series of elements .
Elements in the same period show trends in atomic radius , ionization energy , electron affinity , and electronegativity . Moving left to right across a period , atomic radius usually decreases . This occurs because each successive element has an added proton and electron , which causes the electron to be drawn closer to the nucleus . This decrease in atomic radius also causes the ionization energy to increase when moving from left to right across a period . The more tightly bound an element is , the more energy is required to remove an electron . Electronegativity increases in the same manner as ionization energy because of the pull exerted on the electrons by the nucleus . Electron affinity also shows a slight trend across a period . Metals ( left side of a period ) generally have a lower electron affinity than nonmetals ( right side of a period ) , with the exception of the noble gases .
= = = Blocks = = =
Specific regions of the periodic table can be referred to as blocks in recognition of the sequence in which the electron shells of the elements are filled . Each block is named according to the subshell in which the " last " electron notionally resides . The s @-@ block comprises the first two groups ( alkali metals and alkaline earth metals ) as well as hydrogen and helium . The p @-@ block comprises the last six groups , which are groups 13 to 18 in IUPAC group numbering ( 3A to 8A in American group numbering ) and contains , among other elements , all of the metalloids . The d @-@ block comprises groups 3 to 12 ( or 3B to 2B in American group numbering ) and contains all of the transition metals . The f @-@ block , often offset below the rest of the periodic table , has no group numbers and comprises lanthanides and actinides .
= = = Metals , metalloids and nonmetals = = =
According to their shared physical and chemical properties , the elements can be classified into the major categories of metals , metalloids and nonmetals . Metals are generally shiny , highly conducting solids that form alloys with one another and salt @-@ like ionic compounds with nonmetals ( other than the noble gases ) . The majority of nonmetals are colored or colorless insulating gases ; nonmetals that form compounds with other nonmetals feature covalent bonding . In between metals and nonmetals are metalloids , which have intermediate or mixed properties .
Metal and nonmetals can be further classified into subcategories that show a gradation from metallic to non @-@ metallic properties , when going left to right in the rows . The metals are subdivided into the highly reactive alkali metals , through the less reactive alkaline earth metals , lanthanides and actinides , via the archetypal transition metals , and ending in the physically and chemically weak post @-@ transition metals . The nonmetals are simply subdivided into the polyatomic nonmetals , which , being nearest to the metalloids , show some incipient metallic character ; the diatomic nonmetals , which are essentially nonmetallic ; and the monatomic noble gases , which are nonmetallic and almost completely inert . Specialized groupings such as the refractory metals and the noble metals , which are subsets ( in this example ) of the transition metals , are also known and occasionally denoted .
Placing the elements into categories and subcategories based on shared properties is imperfect . There is a spectrum of properties within each category and it is not hard to find overlaps at the boundaries , as is the case with most classification schemes . Beryllium , for example , is classified as an alkaline earth metal although its amphoteric chemistry and tendency to mostly form covalent compounds are both attributes of a chemically weak or post transition metal . Radon is classified as a nonmetal and a noble gas yet has some cationic chemistry that is more characteristic of a metal . Other classification schemes are possible such as the division of the elements into mineralogical occurrence categories , or crystalline structures . Categorising the elements in this fashion dates back to at least 1869 when Hinrichs wrote that simple boundary lines could be drawn on the periodic table to show elements having like properties , such as the metals and the nonmetals , or the gaseous elements .
= = Periodic trends = =
= = = Electron configuration = = =
The electron configuration or organisation of electrons orbiting neutral atoms shows a recurring pattern or periodicity . The electrons occupy a series of electron shells ( numbered shell 1 , shell 2 , and so on ) . Each shell consists of one or more subshells ( named s , p , d , f and g ) . As atomic number increases , electrons progressively fill these shells and subshells more or less according to the Madelung rule or energy ordering rule , as shown in the diagram . The electron configuration for neon , for example , is 1s2 2s2 2p6 . With an atomic number of ten , neon has two electrons in the first shell , and eight electrons in the second shell — two in the s subshell and six in the p subshell . In periodic table terms , the first time an electron occupies a new shell corresponds to the start of each new period , these positions being occupied by hydrogen and the alkali metals .
Since the properties of an element are mostly determined by its electron configuration , the properties of the elements likewise show recurring patterns or periodic behaviour , some examples of which are shown in the diagrams below for atomic radii , ionization energy and electron affinity . It is this periodicity of properties , manifestations of which were noticed well before the underlying theory was developed , that led to the establishment of the periodic law ( the properties of the elements recur at varying intervals ) and the formulation of the first periodic tables .
= = = Atomic radii = = =
Atomic radii vary in a predictable and explainable manner across the periodic table . For instance , the radii generally decrease along each period of the table , from the alkali metals to the noble gases ; and increase down each group . The radius increases sharply between the noble gas at the end of each period and the alkali metal at the beginning of the next period . These trends of the atomic radii ( and of various other chemical and physical properties of the elements ) can be explained by the electron shell theory of the atom ; they provided important evidence for the development and confirmation of quantum theory .
The electrons in the 4f @-@ subshell , which is progressively filled from cerium ( element 58 ) to ytterbium ( element 70 ) , are not particularly effective at shielding the increasing nuclear charge from the sub @-@ shells further out . The elements immediately following the lanthanides have atomic radii that are smaller than would be expected and that are almost identical to the atomic radii of the elements immediately above them . Hence hafnium has virtually the same atomic radius ( and chemistry ) as zirconium , and tantalum has an atomic radius similar to niobium , and so forth . This is known as the lanthanide contraction . The effect of the lanthanide contraction is noticeable up to platinum ( element 78 ) , after which it is masked by a relativistic effect known as the inert pair effect . The d @-@ block contraction , which is a similar effect between the d @-@ block and p @-@ block , is less pronounced than the lanthanide contraction but arises from a similar cause .
= = = Ionization energy = = =
The first ionization energy is the energy it takes to remove one electron from an atom , the second ionization energy is the energy it takes to remove a second electron from the atom , and so on . For a given atom , successive ionization energies increase with the degree of ionization . For magnesium as an example , the first ionization energy is 738 kJ / mol and the second is 1450 kJ / mol . Electrons in the closer orbitals experience greater forces of electrostatic attraction ; thus , their removal requires increasingly more energy . Ionization energy becomes greater up and to the right of the periodic table .
Large jumps in the successive molar ionization energies occur when removing an electron from a noble gas ( complete electron shell ) configuration . For magnesium again , the first two molar ionization energies of magnesium given above correspond to removing the two 3s electrons , and the third ionization energy is a much larger 7730 kJ / mol , for the removal of a 2p electron from the very stable neon @-@ like configuration of Mg2 + . Similar jumps occur in the ionization energies of other third @-@ row atoms .
= = = Electronegativity = = =
Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract electrons . An atom 's electronegativity is affected by both its atomic number and the distance between the valence electrons and the nucleus . The higher its electronegativity , the more an element attracts electrons . It was first proposed by Linus Pauling in 1932 . In general , electronegativity increases on passing from left to right along a period , and decreases on descending a group . Hence , fluorine is the most electronegative of the elements , while caesium is the least , at least of those elements for which substantial data is available .
There are some exceptions to this general rule . Gallium and germanium have higher electronegativities than aluminium and silicon respectively because of the d @-@ block contraction . Elements of the fourth period immediately after the first row of the transition metals have unusually small atomic radii because the 3d @-@ electrons are not effective at shielding the increased nuclear charge , and smaller atomic size correlates with higher electronegativity . The anomalously high electronegativity of lead , particularly when compared to thallium and bismuth , appears to be an artifact of data selection ( and data availability ) — methods of calculation other than the Pauling method show the normal periodic trends for these elements .
= = = Electron affinity = = =
The electron affinity of an atom is the amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral atom to form a negative ion . Although electron affinity varies greatly , some patterns emerge . Generally , nonmetals have more positive electron affinity values than metals . Chlorine most strongly attracts an extra electron . The electron affinities of the noble gases have not been measured conclusively , so they may or may not have slightly negative values .
Electron affinity generally increases across a period . This is caused by the filling of the valence shell of the atom ; a group 17 atom releases more energy than a group 1 atom on gaining an electron because it obtains a filled valence shell and is therefore more stable .
A trend of decreasing electron affinity going down groups would be expected . The additional electron will be entering an orbital farther away from the nucleus . As such this electron would be less attracted to the nucleus and would release less energy when added . However , in going down a group , around one @-@ third of elements are anomalous , with heavier elements having higher electron affinities than their next lighter congenors . Largely , this is due to the poor shielding by d and f electrons . A uniform decrease in electron affinity only applies to group 1 atoms .
= = = Metallic character = = =
The lower the values of ionization energy , electronegativity and electron affinity , the more metallic character the element has . Conversely , nonmetallic character increases with higher values of these properties . Given the periodic trends of these three properties , metallic character tends to decrease going across a period ( or row ) and , with some irregularities ( mostly ) due to poor screening of the nucleus by d and f electrons , and relativistic effects , tends to increase going down a group ( or column or family ) . Thus , the most metallic elements ( such as caesium and francium ) are found at the bottom left of traditional periodic tables and the most nonmetallic elements ( oxygen , fluorine , chlorine ) at the top right . The combination of horizontal and vertical trends in metallic character explains the stair @-@ shaped dividing line between metals and nonmetals found on some periodic tables , and the practice of sometimes categorizing several elements adjacent to that line , or elements adjacent to those elements , as metalloids .
= = History = =
= = = First systemization attempts = = =
In 1789 , Antoine Lavoisier published a list of 33 chemical elements , grouping them into gases , metals , nonmetals , and earths . Chemists spent the following century searching for a more precise classification scheme . In 1829 , Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner observed that many of the elements could be grouped into triads based on their chemical properties . Lithium , sodium , and potassium , for example , were grouped together in a triad as soft , reactive metals . Döbereiner also observed that , when arranged by atomic weight , the second member of each triad was roughly the average of the first and the third ; this became known as the Law of Triads . German chemist Leopold Gmelin worked with this system , and by 1843 he had identified ten triads , three groups of four , and one group of five . Jean @-@ Baptiste Dumas published work in 1857 describing relationships between various groups of metals . Although various chemists were able to identify relationships between small groups of elements , they had yet to build one scheme that encompassed them all .
In 1857 , German chemist August Kekulé observed that carbon often has four other atoms bonded to it . Methane , for example , has one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms . This concept eventually became known as valency ; different elements bond with different numbers of atoms .
In 1862 , Alexandre @-@ Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois , a French geologist , published an early form of periodic table , which he called the telluric helix or screw . He was the first person to notice the periodicity of the elements . With the elements arranged in a spiral on a cylinder by order of increasing atomic weight , de Chancourtois showed that elements with similar properties seemed to occur at regular intervals . His chart included some ions and compounds in addition to elements . His paper also used geological rather than chemical terms and did not include a diagram ; as a result , it received little attention until the work of Dmitri Mendeleev .
In 1864 , Julius Lothar Meyer , a German chemist , published a table with 44 elements arranged by valency . The table showed that elements with similar properties often shared the same valency . Concurrently , William Odling ( an English chemist ) published an arrangement of 57 elements , ordered on the basis of their atomic weights . With some irregularities and gaps , he noticed what appeared to be a periodicity of atomic weights among the elements and that this accorded with " their usually received groupings " . Odling alluded to the idea of a periodic law but did not pursue it . He subsequently proposed ( in 1870 ) a valence @-@ based classification of the elements .
English chemist John Newlands produced a series of papers from 1863 to 1866 noting that when the elements were listed in order of increasing atomic weight , similar physical and chemical properties recurred at intervals of eight ; he likened such periodicity to the octaves of music . This so termed Law of Octaves , however , was ridiculed by Newlands ' contemporaries , and the Chemical Society refused to publish his work . Newlands was nonetheless able to draft a table of the elements and used it to predict the existence of missing elements , such as germanium . The Chemical Society only acknowledged the significance of his discoveries five years after they credited Mendeleev .
In 1867 , Gustavus Hinrichs , a Danish born academic chemist based in America , published a spiral periodic system based on atomic spectra and weights , and chemical similarities . His work was regarded as idiosyncratic , ostentatious and labyrinthine and this may have militated against its recognition and acceptance .
= = = Mendeleev 's table = = =
Russian chemistry professor Dmitri Mendeleev and German chemist Julius Lothar Meyer independently published their periodic tables in 1869 and 1870 , respectively . Mendeleev 's table was his first published version ; that of Meyer was an expanded version of his ( Meyer 's ) table of 1864 . They both constructed their tables by listing the elements in rows or columns in order of atomic weight and starting a new row or column when the characteristics of the elements began to repeat .
The recognition and acceptance afforded to Mendeleev 's table came from two decisions he made . The first was to leave gaps in the table when it seemed that the corresponding element had not yet been discovered . Mendeleev was not the first chemist to do so , but he was the first to be recognized as using the trends in his periodic table to predict the properties of those missing elements , such as gallium and germanium . The second decision was to occasionally ignore the order suggested by the atomic weights and switch adjacent elements , such as tellurium and iodine , to better classify them into chemical families . Later in 1913 , Henry Moseley determined experimental values of the nuclear charge or atomic number of each element , and showed that Mendeleev 's ordering actually corresponds to the order of increasing atomic number .
The significance of atomic numbers to the organization of the periodic table was not appreciated until the existence and properties of protons and neutrons became understood . Mendeleev 's periodic tables used atomic weight instead of atomic number to organize the elements , information determinable to fair precision in his time . Atomic weight worked well enough in most cases to ( as noted ) give a presentation that was able to predict the properties of missing elements more accurately than any other method then known . Substitution of atomic numbers , once understood , gave a definitive , integer @-@ based sequence for the elements , and Moseley predicted ( in 1913 ) that the only elements still missing between aluminium ( Z = 13 ) and gold ( Z = 79 ) were Z = 43 , 61 , 72 and 75 , all of which were later discovered . The sequence of atomic numbers is still used today even as new synthetic elements are being produced and studied .
= = = Second version and further development = = =
In 1871 , Mendeleev published his periodic table in a new form , with groups of similar elements arranged in columns rather than in rows , and those columns numbered I to VIII corresponding with the element 's oxidation state . He also gave detailed predictions for the properties of elements he had earlier noted were missing , but should exist . These gaps were subsequently filled as chemists discovered additional naturally occurring elements . It is often stated that the last naturally occurring element to be discovered was francium ( referred to by Mendeleev as eka @-@ caesium ) in 1939 . However , plutonium , produced synthetically in 1940 , was identified in trace quantities as a naturally occurring primordial element in 1971 .
The popular periodic table layout , also known as the common or standard form ( as shown at various other points in this article ) , is attributable to Horace Groves Deming . In 1923 , Deming , an American chemist , published short ( Mendeleev style ) and medium ( 18 @-@ column ) form periodic tables . Merck and Company prepared a handout form of Deming 's 18 @-@ column medium table , in 1928 , which was widely circulated in American schools . By the 1930s Deming 's table was appearing in handbooks and encyclopaedias of chemistry . It was also distributed for many years by the Sargent @-@ Welch Scientific Company .
With the development of modern quantum mechanical theories of electron configurations within atoms , it became apparent that each period ( row ) in the table corresponded to the filling of a quantum shell of electrons . Larger atoms have more electron sub @-@ shells , so later tables have required progressively longer periods .
In 1945 , Glenn Seaborg , an American scientist , made the suggestion that the actinide elements , like the lanthanides , were filling an f sub @-@ level . Before this time the actinides were thought to be forming a fourth d @-@ block row . Seaborg 's colleagues advised him not to publish such a radical suggestion as it would most likely ruin his career . As Seaborg considered he did not then have a career to bring into disrepute , he published anyway . Seaborg 's suggestion was found to be correct and he subsequently went on to win the 1951 Nobel Prize in chemistry for his work in synthesizing actinide elements .
Although minute quantities of some transuranic elements occur naturally , they were all first discovered in laboratories . Their production has expanded the periodic table significantly , the first of these being neptunium , synthesized in 1939 . Because many of the transuranic elements are highly unstable and decay quickly , they are challenging to detect and characterize when produced . There have been controversies concerning the acceptance of competing discovery claims for some elements , requiring independent review to determine which party has priority , and hence naming rights . The most recently accepted and named elements are flerovium ( element 114 ) and livermorium ( element 116 ) , both named on 31 May 2012 . In 2010 , a joint Russia – US collaboration at Dubna , Moscow Oblast , Russia , claimed to have synthesized six atoms of ununseptium ( element 117 ) , making it the most recently claimed discovery .
On December 30 , 2015 , elements 113 , 115 , 117 , and 118 were formally recognized by IUPAC , completing the seventh row of the periodic table . Official names and symbols for each of these elements , which will replace temporary designations such as ununpentium ( Uup ) in the case of element 115 , are expected to be announced later in 2016 . On June 8 , 2016 , IUPAC announced the proposed names for each element . Nihonium ( Nh ) is the proposed name for element 113 due to its discovery at RIKEN in Japan . It will be the first element to be named after a location in East Asia . Element 115 has the proposed name of moscovium ( Mc ) after the location of the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Moscow , Russia . Element 117 has the proposed name of tennessine ( Ts ) , referencing the state of Tennessee in the United States which is home to Oak Ridge National Laboratory . Lastly , element 118 has the proposed name of oganesson ( Og ) , after in honour of the Russian nuclear physicist Yuri Oganessian who led the team that synthesized it .
= = Different periodic tables = =
= = = Group 3 constitution variants = = =
There are three main variants of periodic table , each differing as to the constitution of group 3 . Scandium and yttrium are uniformly shown as the first two members of this group ; the differences hinge on the identity of the remaining members .
Group 3 is Sc , Y , and La , Ac . Lanthanum ( La ) and actinium ( Ac ) occupy the two positions below yttrium . This variant is the most common . It emphasizes similarities in periodic trends going down groups 1 , 2 and 3 , at the expense of discontinuities in periodic trends between groups 3 and 4 and fragmenting the lanthanides and actinides .
Group 3 is Sc , Y , and Lu , Lr . Lutetium ( Lu ) and lawrencium ( Lr ) occupy the two positions below yttrium . This variant retains a 14 @-@ column wide f @-@ block while fragmenting the lanthanides and actinides . It emphasizes similarities in periodic trends between group 3 and the following groups at the expense of discontinuities in periodic trends between groups 2 and 3 .
Group 3 is Sc , Y , and 15 lanthanides and 15 actinides . The two positions below yttrium contain the lanthanides and the actinides ( possibly by footnote markers ) . This variant emphasizes similarities in the chemistry of the 15 lanthanide elements ( La – Lu ) , at the expense of ambiguity as to which elements occupy the two group 3 positions below yttrium , and seemingly a 15 @-@ column wide f block ( there can only be 14 elements in any row of the f block ) .
The three variants originate from historical difficulties in placing the lanthanides in the periodic table , and arguments as to where the f block elements start and end . It has been claimed that such arguments are proof that , " it is a mistake to break the [ periodic ] system into sharply delimited blocks " . Equally , some versions of the two markers table have been criticized for implying that all 15 lanthanides occupy the single box or place below yttrium , in breach of the basic principle of one place , one element . The controversy over which two elements occupy the Group 3 positions below scandium and yttrium is further discussed in the Open questions and controversies section of this article .
The Lu and Lr table is shown in the lead and overview section of this article . When compared to the La and Ac variant , there are fewer apparent exceptions to the regular filling of the 4f orbitals among the subsequent members of the series . Unlike the two markers variant , there is no ambiguity on the composition of group 3 .
= = = Periodic tables by different structure = = =
Within 100 years of the appearance of Mendeleev 's table in 1869 it has been estimated that around 700 different periodic table versions were published . As well as numerous rectangular variations , other periodic table formats have been shaped , for example , like a circle , cube , cylinder , building , spiral , lemniscate , octagonal prism , pyramid , sphere , or triangle . Such alternatives are often developed to highlight or emphasize chemical or physical properties of the elements that are not as apparent in traditional periodic tables .
The modern periodic table is sometimes expanded into its long or 32 @-@ column form by reinstating the footnoted f @-@ block elements into their natural position between the s- and d @-@ blocks . Unlike the 18 @-@ column form this arrangement results in " no interruptions to the sequence [ of ] increasing atomic numbers " . The relationship of the f @-@ block to the other blocks of the periodic table also becomes easier to see . Jensen advocates a form of table with 32 columns on the grounds that the lanthanides and actinides are otherwise relegated in the minds of students as dull , unimportant elements that can be quarantined and ignored . Despite these advantages the 32 @-@ column form is generally avoided by editors on account of its undue rectangular ratio ( compared to a book page ratio ) .
A popular alternative structure is that of Theodor Benfey ( 1960 ) . The elements are arranged in a continuous spiral , with hydrogen at the center and the transition metals , lanthanides , and actinides occupying peninsulas .
Most periodic tables are two @-@ dimensional ; however , three @-@ dimensional tables are known to as far back as at least 1862 ( pre @-@ dating Mendeleev 's two @-@ dimensional table of 1869 ) . More recent examples include Courtines ' Periodic Classification ( 1925 ) , Wringley 's Lamina System ( 1949 ) , Giguère 's Periodic helix ( 1965 ) and Dufour 's Periodic Tree ( 1996 ) . Going one further , Stowe 's Physicist 's Periodic Table ( 1989 ) has been described as being four @-@ dimensional ( having three spatial dimensions and one color dimension ) .
The various forms of periodic tables can be thought of as lying on a chemistry – physics continuum . Towards the chemistry end of the continuum can be found , as an example , Rayner @-@ Canham 's " unruly " Inorganic Chemist 's Periodic Table ( 2002 ) , which emphasizes trends and patterns , and unusual chemical relationships and properties . Near the physics end of the continuum is Janet 's Left @-@ Step Periodic Table ( 1928 ) . This has a structure that shows a closer connection to the order of electron @-@ shell filling and , by association , quantum mechanics . A somewhat similar approach has been taken by Alper , albeit criticized by Scerri as disregarding the need to display chemical and physical periodicity . Somewhere in the middle of the continuum is the ubiquitous common or standard form of periodic table . This is regarded as better expressing empirical trends in physical state , electrical and thermal conductivity , and oxidation numbers , and other properties easily inferred from traditional techniques of the chemical laboratory .
= = Open questions and controversies = =
= = = Elements with unknown chemical properties = = =
Although all elements up to ununoctium have been discovered , of the elements above hassium ( element 108 ) , only copernicium ( element 112 ) and flerovium ( element 114 ) have known chemical properties . The other elements may behave differently from what would be predicted by extrapolation , due to relativistic effects ; for example , flerovium has been predicted to possibly exhibit some noble @-@ gas @-@ like properties , even though it is currently placed in the carbon group . More recent experiments have suggested , however , that flerovium behaves chemically like lead , as expected from its periodic table position .
= = = Further periodic table extensions = = =
It is unclear whether new elements will continue the pattern of the current periodic table as period 8 , or require further adaptations or adjustments . Seaborg expected the eighth period to follow the previously established pattern exactly , so that it would include a two @-@ element s @-@ block for elements 119 and 120 , a new g @-@ block for the next 18 elements , and 30 additional elements continuing the current f- , d- , and p @-@ blocks . More recently , physicists such as Pekka Pyykkö have theorized that these additional elements do not follow the Madelung rule , which predicts how electron shells are filled and thus affects the appearance of the present periodic table .
= = = Element with the highest possible atomic number = = =
The number of possible elements is not known . A very early suggestion made by Elliot Adams in 1911 , and based on the arrangement of elements in each horizontal periodic table row , was that elements of atomic weight greater than 256 ± ( which would equate to between elements 99 and 100 in modern @-@ day terms ) did not exist . A higher — more recent — estimate is that the periodic table may end soon after the island of stability , which is expected to center around element 126 , as the extension of the periodic and nuclides tables is restricted by proton and neutron drip lines . Other predictions of an end to the periodic table include at element 128 by John Emsley , at element 137 by Richard Feynman , and at element 155 by Albert Khazan .
Bohr model
The Bohr model exhibits difficulty for atoms with atomic number greater than 137 , as any element with an atomic number greater than 137 would require 1s electrons to be traveling faster than c , the speed of light . Hence the non @-@ relativistic Bohr model is inaccurate when applied to such an element .
Relativistic Dirac equation
The relativistic Dirac equation has problems for elements with more than 137 protons . For such elements , the wave function of the Dirac ground state is oscillatory rather than bound , and there is no gap between the positive and negative energy spectra , as in the Klein paradox . More accurate calculations taking into account the effects of the finite size of the nucleus indicate that the binding energy first exceeds the limit for elements with more than 173 protons . For heavier elements , if the innermost orbital ( 1s ) is not filled , the electric field of the nucleus will pull an electron out of the vacuum , resulting in the spontaneous emission of a positron ; however , this does not happen if the innermost orbital is filled , so that element 173 is not necessarily the end of the periodic table .
= = = Placement of hydrogen and helium = = =
Simply following electron configurations , hydrogen ( electronic configuration 1s1 ) and helium ( 1s2 ) should be placed in groups 1 and 2 , above lithium ( [ He ] 2s1 ) and beryllium ( [ He ] 2s2 ) . However , such placing is rarely used outside of the context of electron configurations : When the noble gases ( then called " inert gases " ) were first discovered around 1900 , they were known as " group 0 " , reflecting no chemical reactivity of these elements known at that point , and helium was placed on the top that group , as it did share the extreme chemical inertness seen throughout the group . As the group changed its formal number , many authors continued to assign helium directly above neon , in group 18 ; one of the examples of such placing is the current IUPAC table .
Hydrogen 's chemical properties are not very close to those of the alkali metals , which occupy group 1 , and on that basis hydrogen is sometimes placed elsewhere : one of the most common alternatives is in group 17 ; one of the factors behind it is the strictly univalent predominantly non @-@ metallic chemistry of hydrogen , and that of fluorine ( the element placed on the top of group 17 ) is strictly univalent and non @-@ metallic . Sometimes , to show how hydrogen has properties both corresponding to those of the alkali metals and the halogens , it may be shown in two columns simultaneously . Another suggestion is above carbon in group 14 : placed that way , it fits well into the trend of increasing trends of ionization potential values and electron affinity values , and is not too stray from the electronegativity trend . Finally , hydrogen is sometimes placed separately from any group ; this is based on how general properties of hydrogen differ from that of any group : unlike hydrogen , the other group 1 elements show extremely metallic behavior ; the group 17 elements commonly form salts ( hence the term " halogen " ) ; elements of any other group show some multivalent chemistry . The other period 1 element , helium , is sometimes placed separately from any group as well . The property that distinguishes helium from the rest of the noble gases ( even though the extraordinary inertness of helium is extremely close to that of neon and argon ) is that in its closed electron shell , helium has only two electrons in the outermost electron orbital , while the rest of the noble gases have eight .
= = = Groups included in the transition metals = = =
The definition of a transition metal , as given by IUPAC , is an element whose atom has an incomplete d sub @-@ shell , or which can give rise to cations with an incomplete d sub @-@ shell . By this definition all of the elements in groups 3 – 11 are transition metals . The IUPAC definition therefore excludes group 12 , comprising zinc , cadmium and mercury , from the transition metals category .
Some chemists treat the categories " d @-@ block elements " and " transition metals " interchangeably , thereby including groups 3 – 12 among the transition metals . In this instance the group 12 elements are treated as a special case of transition metal in which the d electrons are not ordinarily involved in chemical bonding . The recent discovery that mercury can use its d electrons in the formation of mercury ( IV ) fluoride ( HgF4 ) has prompted some commentators to suggest that mercury can be regarded as a transition metal . Other commentators , such as Jensen , have argued that the formation of a compound like HgF4 can occur only under highly abnormal conditions . As such , mercury could not be regarded as a transition metal by any reasonable interpretation of the ordinary meaning of the term .
Still other chemists further exclude the group 3 elements from the definition of a transition metal . They do so on the basis that the group 3 elements do not form any ions having a partially occupied d shell and do not therefore exhibit any properties characteristic of transition metal chemistry . In this case , only groups 4 – 11 are regarded as transition metals .
= = = Period 6 and 7 elements in group 3 = = =
Although scandium and yttrium are always the first two elements in group 3 the identity of the next two elements is not settled . They are either lanthanum and actinium ; or lutetium and lawrencium . Physical and chemical arguments have been made in support of the latter arrangement but not all authors have been convinced . Most working chemists are not aware there is any controversy . In December 2015 an IUPAC project was established to make a recommendation on the matter .
Lanthanum and actinium are traditionally depicted as the remaining group 3 members . It has been suggested that this layout originated in the 1940s , with the appearance of periodic tables relying on the electron configurations of the elements and the notion of the differentiating electron . The configurations of caesium , barium and lanthanum are [ Xe ] 6s1 , [ Xe ] 6s2 and [ Xe ] 5d16s2 . Lanthanum thus has a 5d differentiating electron and this establishes " it in group 3 as the first member of the d @-@ block for period 6 " . A consistent set of electron configurations is then seen in group 3 : scandium [ Ar ] 3d14s2 , yttrium [ Kr ] 4d15s2 and lanthanum [ Xe ] 5d16s2 . Still in period 6 , ytterbium was assigned an electron configuration of [ Xe ] 4f135d16s2 and lutetium [ Xe ] 4f145d16s2 , " resulting in a 4f differentiating electron for lutetium and firmly establishing it as the last member of the f @-@ block for period 6 " . Matthias described the placement of lanthanum under yttrium as , " a mistake in the periodic system — unfortunately mostly propagated by the Welsh [ Sargent @-@ Welch ] Company … and … everybody copied it " . Lavelle further argued for the retention of lanthanum under yttrium given several well @-@ known reference books featured periodic tables with such an arrangement .
In other tables , lutetium and lawrencium are the remaining group 3 members . Early techniques for chemically separating scandium , yttrium and lutetium relied on the fact that these elements occurred together in the so @-@ called " yttrium group " whereas La and Ac occurred together in the " cerium group " . Accordingly , lutetium rather than lanthanum was assigned to group 3 by some chemists in the 1920s and 30s . Later spectroscopic work found that the electron configuration of ytterbium was in fact [ Xe ] 4f146s2 . This meant that ytterbium and lutetium — the latter with [ Xe ] 4f145d16s2 — both had 14 f @-@ electrons , " resulting in a d- rather than an f- differentiating electron " for lutetium and making it an " equally valid candidate " with [ Xe ] 5d16s2 lanthanum , for the group 3 periodic table position below yttrium . Several physicists in the 1950s and 60s opted for lutetium , in light of a comparison of several of its physical properties with those of lanthanum . This arrangement , in which lanthanum is the first member of the f @-@ block , is disputed by some authors since lanthanum lacks any f @-@ electrons . However , it has been argued that this is not valid concern given other periodic table anomalies — thorium , for example , has no f @-@ electrons yet is part of the f @-@ block . As for lawrencium , its electron configuration was confirmed in 2015 as [ Rn ] 5f147s27p1 . Such a configuration represents another periodic table anomaly , regardless of whether lawrencium is located in the f @-@ block or the d @-@ block , as the only potentially applicable p @-@ block position has been reserved for ununtrium with its predicted electron configuration of [ Rn ] 5f146d107s27p1 .
= = = Optimal form = = =
The many different forms of periodic table have prompted the question of whether there is an optimal or definitive form of periodic table . The answer to this question is thought to depend on whether the chemical periodicity seen to occur among the elements has an underlying truth , effectively hard @-@ wired into the universe , or if any such periodicity is instead the product of subjective human interpretation , contingent upon the circumstances , beliefs and predilections of human observers . An objective basis for chemical periodicity would settle the questions about the location of hydrogen and helium , and the composition of group 3 . Such an underlying truth , if it exists , is thought to have not yet been discovered . In its absence , the many different forms of periodic table can be regarded as variations on the theme of chemical periodicity , each of which explores and emphasizes different aspects , properties , perspectives and relationships of and among the elements . The ubiquity of the standard or medium @-@ long periodic table is thought to be a result of this layout having a good balance of features in terms of ease of construction and size , and its depiction of atomic order and periodic trends .
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= He Loves to Fly and He D 'ohs =
" He Loves to Fly " , also known as " He Loves to Fly and He D 'ohs " , is the season premiere of The Simpsons ’ nineteenth season and first aired on September 23 , 2007 . It was the first episode to air after the release of The Simpsons Movie on July 27 , 2007 . Homer gets to fly in Mr. Burns 's private jet and likes it so much that he decides never to fly commercial again . He tries to find a job that involves flying in a corporate jet , and hires a life coach named Colby Kraus to assist him with his goal . It was written by Joel H. Cohen and directed by Mark Kirkland , while Lionel Richie guest stars as himself and Stephen Colbert guests as the voice of Colby Kraus . The episode averaged 9 @.@ 7 million viewers and a 4 @.@ 7 overnight Nielsen rating and a 12 percent audience share , making the highest rated episode of The Simpsons since " The Wife Aquatic " , which aired January 7 , 2007 .
= = Plot = =
While on a shopping trip to the Springfield Mall , Mr. Burns finds a penny in a water fountain and reaches in to grab it ( Fearing Ralph might take it ) and falls in . The rushing water nearly drowns him , but Homer arrives and pulls him out of the water , saving Mr. Burns 's life . To reward him , Mr. Burns offers to take Homer out to dinner . Homer says he likes Chicago deep dish pizza , so Mr. Burns takes him to Chicago on his private plane . On the plane , Homer is treated with luxury and gets serenaded by Lionel Richie . Homer has the time of his life in Chicago , but he becomes depressed on the return trip because he does not have the plane . Back in Springfield , Homer tells Marge that he is tired of being a normal person and becomes depressed . Marge , pitying for Homer , decides to help and hires him a life coach named Colby Kraus ( Stephen Colbert ) , who will help with Homer 's dream . Colby starts right away in his treatment with Homer by videotaping his every move . At the bowling alley and after watching Homer 's daily habits for a few days , Colby realizes that bowling is the one thing Homer is good at and enjoys doing . He instructs Homer to wear his bowling shoes everywhere he goes to help instill confidence in everything he does . The bowling shoes work , Homer becomes a new man , and as a result he receives numerous new job offers . Homer decides to only go for an interview at Handyman 's Choice Copper Tubing because he would be required to fly in the company jet as part of his new job , however , the Rich Texan does not hire him .
Homer decides not to tell his family and pretends to go to work every day , although he is actually just going to the local Krusty Burger . The next day , Bart 's class stops at the Krusty Burger after a field trip and Bart is shocked to discover Homer sitting at a booth alone . Homer comes clean and explains to Bart that his job interview did not go so well when his interviewer , the Rich Texan , discovered that Homer knows nothing about copper tubing . Bart convinces Homer that he should tell Marge what has happened and Homer calls her from a pay phone . But when Homer hears Marge ’ s happy voice he cannot bring himself to disappoint her and tell her the truth about his " new " job . Instead he concocts a story about him having to fly on the " company " jet for work and instructs Marge to meet him at the airport in an hour . Homer pays a Marine to fly him into the air , so he can tell Marge up in the air with luxury so she would not get upset . Once in the air , Marge cannot believe all the luxuries the private jet has to offer . Homer sits Marge down to tell her the truth , but just before he can , the plane endures turbulence . Homer and Marge head into the cockpit to see what the problem is , only to discover that the pilot had passed out . Homer shoves the pilot aside and takes hold of the jet ’ s controls . As the jet is about to hit the ocean , Marge pulls the jet 's yoke up giving the jet altitude . Marge pulls out her cell phone and calls Colby Kraus and frantically asks for his guidance . Thanks to Colby 's motivation , Homer manages to land the plane safely on the ground , however , his attempt to taxi back to the terminal fails and the plane falls into the ocean . After being airlifted out of the plane , Homer explains to Marge that flying in private jets is simply too dangerous and that he plans to go back to work at the Power Plant .
= = Production = =
This was the first new episode to air following the release of The Simpsons Movie , and the episode 's opening sequence is a callback to the film . Bart writes " I will not wait 20 years to make another movie " on the chalkboard and skateboards through Springfield , which is still recovering from the dome incident . Several movie characters reappear , including president Schwarzenegger , the Multi @-@ Eyed Squirrel , Colin , Russ Cargill , and the Medicine Woman . We also see that the Simpsons house is still under construction and the silo is strapped to Homer 's car . Plopper the pig is also featured for the first time in the series , during the couch gag and Homer refers to him as " my summer love . "
= = = Casting = = =
When asked to appear on the show , Stephen Colbert believed that he was merely going to an audition , but was " thrilled " when the production staff told him he actually had a part in the episode . Colbert was pleased that his character was named Colby and that his appearance was similar to that of his own , although he had not expected the animators to retain his glasses for the design . He based his performance on Tony Robbins , and described the recording sessions as " the hardest job . "
= = Cultural references = =
While in Chicago , Mr. Burns and Homer walk into a salon called " Ferris Bueller 's Day of Beauty " in a reference to Ferris Bueller 's Day Off . When they exit the salon , they are dressed as Ferris ( Burns ) and his friend Cameron ( Homer ) , respectively . Lionel Richie sings " Say You , Say Me " on the flight . He makes it about beer at Homer 's requests . The two titles , when changed , are " Hey You , Beer Me " and " Beer Beer , Beer Beer , " the latter of which Homer forgets the words to . Mr. Burns and Homer catch a show at the real @-@ life Second City Theater . Both Dan Castellaneta and guest star Stephen Colbert were members of Second City early in their careers .
Throughout the episode , in scenes where Homer is coping with his loneliness and sorrow , " Clair de Lune " , the third movement of Claude Debussy Suite bergamasque , plays as the background music .
The episode 's title is a reference to " We Love to Fly and It Shows " , a long @-@ time slogan for Delta Air Lines .
= = Reception = =
The episode averaged 9 @.@ 7 million viewers and a 4 @.@ 7 overnight Nielsen rating and a 12 percent audience share . The episode had the highest demo ratings of any Simpsons episode since " The Wife Aquatic " , which aired January 7 , 2007 . However , the ratings were down 13 % from last season 's premiere , " The Mook , the Chef , the Wife and Her Homer " , which had a 5 @.@ 3 Nielsen rating , but did better than the eighteenth season 's average of 4 @.@ 1 . Combined with the King of the Hill episode " Suite Smells of Excess " , the show finished second in the 8 PM hour , trailing NBC 's Sunday Night Football , but achieving higher ratings than the second hour of ABC 's Extreme Makeover : Home Edition and CBS 's Power of 10 . For the overall Sunday night primetime averages , FOX finished third behind NBC and CBS , with an average 10 @.@ 5 million viewers and a 4 @.@ 9 rating .
Brian Tallerico of UGO gave the episode a mixed review ( a C ) , expressing disappointment after the well received The Simpsons Movie . He felt the writers went " right back to their old clichés and sadly repetitive jokes " . He did praise the altered opening sequence . Robert Canning of IGN also gave the episode 5 / 10 , praising the opening sequence but found most of the episode mediocre , especially Stephen Colbert 's appearance . Nonetheless , " even a mediocre episode will have a few comic gems hidden inside . The time spent in Chicago is quite enjoyable , including a great Ferris Bueller sight gag , and life coach Colby delivers a zinger of a line comparing Homer 's attitude to that of the United States of America . " Richard Keller of TV Squad praised the episode , saying " after watching so many recent ones where Homer seemed like a barely functioning mental patient , I wasn 't used to a Homer that was actually fairly normal . " Al Jean , the current executive producer of The Simpsons , has called the episode one of his personal favorites . Prefix Mag 's Andrew Martin named Lionel Richie his ninth favorite musical guest on The Simpsons out of a list of ten .
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= Imperial War Museum =
Imperial War Museums ( IWM ) is a British national museum organisation with branches at five locations in England , three of which are in London . Founded as the Imperial War Museum in 1917 , the museum was intended to record the civil and military war effort and sacrifice of Britain and its Empire during the First World War . The museum 's remit has since expanded to include all conflicts in which British or Commonwealth forces have been involved since 1914 . As of 2012 , the museum aims ' to provide for , and to encourage , the study and understanding of the history of modern war and " wartime experience " ' .
Originally housed in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham Hill , the museum opened to the public in 1920 . In 1924 the museum moved to space in the Imperial Institute in South Kensington , and finally in 1936 the museum acquired a permanent home which was previously the Bethlem Royal Hospital in Southwark . The outbreak of the Second World War saw the museum expand both its collections and its terms of reference , but in the post @-@ war period the museum entered a period of decline . The 1960s saw the museum redevelop its Southwark building , now referred to as Imperial War Museum London , which serves as the organisation 's corporate headquarters . During the 1970s the museum began to expand onto other sites . The first , in 1976 , was a historic airfield in Cambridgeshire now referred to as IWM Duxford . In 1978 the Royal Navy cruiser HMS Belfast became a branch of the museum , having previously been preserved for the nation by a private trust . In 1984 the Cabinet War Rooms , an underground wartime command centre , was opened to the public . From the 1980s onwards the museum 's Bethlem building underwent a series of multimillion @-@ pound redevelopments , completed in 2000 . Finally , 2002 saw the opening of IWM North in Trafford , Greater Manchester , the fifth branch of the museum and the first in the north of England . In 2011 the museum rebranded itself as IWM , standing for ' Imperial War Museums ' .
The museum 's collections include archives of personal and official documents , photographs , film and video material , and oral history recordings ; an extensive library , a large art collection , and examples of military vehicles and aircraft , equipment and other artefacts .
The museum is funded by government grants , charitable donations and revenue generation through commercial activity such as retailing , licensing , and publishing . Admission is free to IWM London and IWM North , but an admission fee is levied at the other branches . The museum is an exempt charity under the Charities Act 1993 and a non @-@ departmental public body under the Department for Culture , Media and Sport . As of January 2012 the Chairman of the Trustees is Sir Francis Richards . Since October 2008 , the museum 's Director General has been Diane Lees .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment : 1917 – 1924 = = =
On 27 February 1917 Sir Alfred Mond , a Liberal MP and First Commissioner of Works , wrote to the Prime Minister David Lloyd George to propose the establishment of a National War Museum . This proposal was accepted by the War Cabinet on 5 March 1917 and the decision announced in The Times on 26 March . A committee was established , chaired by Mond , to oversee the collection of material to be exhibited in the new museum .
This National War Museum Committee set about collecting material to illustrate Britain 's war effort by dividing into subcommittees examining such subjects as the Army , the Navy , the production of munitions , and women 's war work . There was an early appreciation of the need for exhibits to reflect personal experience in order to prevent the collections becoming dead relics . Sir Martin Conway , the Museum 's first Director General , said that exhibits must ' be vitalised by contributions expressive of the action , the experiences , the valour and the endurance of individuals ' . The museum 's first curator and secretary was Charles ffoulkes , who had previously been curator of the Royal Armouries at the Tower of London . In July 1917 Mond made a visit to the Western Front in order to study how best to organise the museum 's growing collection . While in France he met French government ministers , and Field Marshal Haig , who reportedly took great interest in his work . In December 1917 the name was changed to the Imperial War Museum after a resolution from the India and Dominions Committee of the museum .
The museum was opened by The King at the Crystal Palace on 9 June 1920 . During the opening ceremony , Sir Alfred Mond addressed the King on behalf of the committee , saying that ' it was hoped to make the museum so complete that every one who took part in the war , however obscurely , would find therein an example or illustration of the sacrifice he or she made ' and that the museum ' was not a monument of military glory , but a record of toil and sacrifice ' . Shortly afterwards the Imperial War Museum Act 1920 was passed and established a Board of Trustees to oversee the governance of the museum . To reflect the museum 's Imperial remit the board included appointees of the governments of India , South Africa , Canada , Australia and New Zealand . While the Act was being debated , some Parliamentarians felt that the museum would perpetuate an undesirable war spirit and Commander Joseph Kenworthy MP said that he would ' refuse to vote a penny of public money to commemorate such suicidal madness of civilisation as that which was shown in the late War ' . On the August Bank Holiday 1920 , the first public holiday since the museum 's opening , 94 @,@ 179 visitors were received , and by November 1921 , 2 @,@ 290 @,@ 719 had visited the museum .
= = = Relocation 1924 – 1936 = = =
In 1924 the museum moved to the Imperial Institute building ( demolished in the 1950s and 1960s to make way for Imperial College ) in South Kensington . While this location was more central and in a prestigious area for museums , the accommodation itself proved cramped and inadequate and in 1936 a new permanent location was found south of the River Thames in Southwark .
The building , designed by James Lewis was the former Bethlem Royal Hospital which had been vacated following the hospital 's relocation to Beckenham in Kent . The site was owned by Lord Rothermere , who had originally intended to demolish the building entirely in order to provide a public park in what was a severely overcrowded area of London . Eventually the central portion of the hospital building was retained while its two extensive wings were removed and the resulting space named Geraldine Mary Harmsworth Park , after Lord Rothermere 's mother . Sir Martin Conway described the building as ' ... a fine building , really quite noble building , with a great portico , a distinguishing dome , and two great wings added to it for the accommodation of lunatics no longer required . This particular building can be made to contain our collection admirably , and we shall preserve from destruction quite a fine building which otherwise will disappear ' . The ' distinguishing dome ' was added by Sydney Smirke in 1846 and housed the hospital 's chapel . The museum was reopened by the Duke of York ( later King George VI ) in its new accommodation on 7 July 1936 .
= = = Second World War and after : 1939 – 1966 = = =
With the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 , the museum began to collect material documenting the conflict . In November 1939 , during the so @-@ called ' Phoney War ' , the museum appeared in the opening sequence of the GPO Film Unit production The First Days , in which children are seen playing on some of the museum 's German artillery pieces captured during the First World War . With the evacuation of British forces from Dunkirk in May / June 1940 , however , the British Army 's shortage of equipment saw eighteen of the museum 's artillery pieces return to military service . The museum 's trench clubs were used by the Home Guard , while other items such as sights and optical instruments were returned to the Ministry of Supply . The museum refused , however , to return some historic items such as a naval gun from HMS Lance ( which had fired Britain 's first shot of the First World War ) or a gun served by Victoria Cross @-@ winning boy seaman Jack Cornwell . The museum initially remained open but was closed for the duration of the war in September 1940 with the onset of the Blitz . On 31 January 1941 the museum was struck by a Luftwaffe bomb which fell on the naval gallery . A number of ship models were damaged by the blast and a Short Seaplane , which had flown at the Battle of Jutland , was destroyed . While closed to the public the museum 's building was used for a variety of purposes connected to the war effort , such as a repair garage for government motor vehicles , a centre for Air Raid Precautions civil defence lectures and a fire fighting training school . In October 1945 the museum mounted a temporary exhibition , the first since the end of the war in August , which showcased technologies developed by the Petroleum Warfare Department . These included the submarine fuel pipeline PLUTO , the fog dispersal method FIDO , and flame weapons such as the Churchill Crocodile and Wasp Universal Carrier . However , due to bomb damage to both the building and exhibits , the museum was obliged to reopen its galleries piecemeal . The museum reopened a portion of its galleries in November 1946 . A third of the galleries were opened in 1948 and a further wing opened in 1949 .
In 1953 , with Commonwealth forces engaged in Korea and Malaya the museum began its current policy of collecting material from all modern conflicts in which British or Commonwealth forces were involved . However , despite this expansion of remit , the early postwar period was a period of decline for the museum . Dr Noble Frankland , the museum 's Director from 1960 to 1982 , described the museum 's galleries in 1955 as appearing ' dingy and neglected [ and in a ] dismal state of decay ' the museum 's ' numerous stunning exhibits ' notwithstanding .
= = = Redevelopment and expansion : 1966 – 2012 = = =
In 1966 the Museum 's Southwark building was extended to provide collections storage and other facilities , the first major expansion since the Museum had moved to the site . The development also included a purpose @-@ built cinema . In 1967 the museum acquired a pair of 15 @-@ inch naval guns . One had been mounted on the Royal Navy 's HMS Ramillies and the other on both HMS Resolution and HMS Roberts . Both had been fired in action during the Second World War . They went on permanent display outside the museum in May 1968 . The acquisition of these guns , representative of the dreadnought era of British battleships , led the museum to seek to acquire a 6 @-@ inch triple turret that would be representative of a number of classes of British cruisers . This would eventually lead to the preservation of the Royal Navy light cruiser HMS Belfast , which became a branch of the museum in 1978 .
Later in 1968 on 13 October the Museum was attacked by an arsonist , Timothy John Daly , who claimed he was acting in protest against the exhibition of militarism to children . He caused damage valued at approximately £ 200 @,@ 000 , not counting the loss of irreplaceable books and documents . On his conviction in 1969 he was sentenced to four years in prison .
In 1969 RAF Duxford , a Royal Air Force fighter airfield in Cambridgeshire was declared surplus to requirements by the Ministry of Defence . Needing further space , the museum duly requested permission to use part of the site as temporary storage . The entire site was later transferred to the museum in February 1976 and Duxford , now referred to as Imperial War Museum Duxford became the museum 's first branch . Also during the 1970s the government raised the possibility of the museum taking over the historic Cabinet War Rooms in Whitehall . The museum was reluctant due to its new commitments related to Duxford and HMS Belfast , but agreed in 1982 .
By 1983 the museum was again looking to redevelop the Southwark site and approached engineering firm Arup to plan a phased programme of works that would expand the building 's exhibition space , provide appropriate environmental controls to protect collections , and improve facilities for visitors . The following year , in April 1984 , the Cabinet War Rooms were opened to the public as a branch of the museum .
The first phase of the works to the Southwark building started in 1986 and were completed in 1989 , during which time the museum was closed to the public . The work included the conversion of what was previously the hospital 's courtyard into a centrepiece Large Exhibits Gallery . This gallery featured a strengthened ground floor ( to support the weight of very heavy exhibits ) , a first floor mezzanine and second storey viewing balcony . Into this space were placed tanks , artillery pieces , vehicles , ordnance and aircraft from the First World War to the Falklands War . For some years the museum was marketed as ' The new Imperial War Museum ' . This atrium , with its concentration of military hardware , has been described as ' the biggest boys ' bedroom in London ' . This first phase cost £ 16 @.@ 7 million ( of which £ 12 million was provided by the government ) and the museum was reopened by The Queen on 29 June 1989 .
In September 1992 the museum was the target of a Provisional Irish Republican Army attack against London tourist attractions . Two incendiary devices were found in a basement gallery , but were extinguished by staff before the arrival of the fire brigade , and caused only minor damage .
The second stage of the redevelopment of the Southwark building , during which the museum remained open to the public , was completed in 1994 . During the 1990s , while these works were going on , the museum was also seeking to open a branch in the north of England . Seventy @-@ one sites were offered for consideration by 36 local councils and in January 1999 the then Culture Secretary Chris Smith formally launched a project to construct a new branch of the museum , Imperial War Museum North , in Trafford , Greater Manchester .
The following year , 2000 , the final phase of the Southwark redevelopment was completed . The development included the installation of the museum 's Holocaust Exhibition which was opened by the Queen on 6 June 2000 . This was the first permanent exhibition dedicated to the Holocaust in a UK museum ; its development had taken five years at a cost of £ 5 million . Two years later , in July 2002 , Imperial War Museum North was opened .
Between 2004 – 2010 the museum was a partner in a national learning project entitled ' Their Past Your Future ' ( TPYF ) , part of the Big Lottery Fund 's Veterans Reunited programme to commemorate the 60th anniversary of the end of the Second World War . A partnership between the IWM , the Museums , Libraries and Archives Council , and Scottish , Northern Irish and Welsh museum authorities , phase one included a touring exhibition seen by more than two million people , overseas educational visits and further activities run by local authorities . A second phase took a wider 20th century historical remit ; it comprised a learning programme using overseas visits and social media , and a professional development scheme for educators . A digital archive of the project , online exhibitions and learning resources were also produced .
In October 2011 the museum rebranded itself as Imperial War Museums , the initials IWM forming the basis of a new corporate logo .
In September 2011 the museum secured funding from NESTA , the Arts and Humanities Research Council and Arts Council England to develop ' social interpretation ' systems to allow visitors to comment on , collect , and share museum objects via social media . These systems were incorporated in ' A Family in Wartime ' an exhibition at IWM London depicting British family life during the Second World War , which opened in April 2012 .
= = = First World War centenary : 2014 = = =
In August 2009 the Museum announced the creation of the Imperial War Museum Foundation . Chaired by Jonathon Harmsworth the foundation was charged with raising funds to support the redevelopment of Imperial War Museum London 's permanent galleries . In December 2010 plans were announced to redevelop IWM London 's First World War gallery in time for the conflict 's centenary in 2014 , and Prince William , Duke of Cambridge became the foundation 's patron . In a speech at IWM London on 11 October 2012 , Prime Minister David Cameron announced an additional £ 5 million of government funding to support the museum 's redevelopment , as part of funding arrangements to facilitate national centenary commemorations . The £ 40 million redevelopment , designed by Foster and Partners , provides new gallery spaces dedicated to the history of the First World War , a new central hall , easier navigation and improved visitor facilities , access and circulation . In preparation for building work , a number of galleries were closed during September 2012 , and by December 2012 over sixty large objects had been removed from the IWM London atrium for conservation at Duxford . To allow building work to go ahead , IWM London closed to the public on 2 January 2013 . The museum partially reopened on 29 July 2013 .
IWM London was formally reopened on 17 July 2014 by Prince William , Duke of Cambridge .
= = Branches = =
From the 1970s onwards the Imperial War Museum began to expand onto other sites . The first branch , Imperial War Museum Duxford opened to the public on a regular basis in June 1976 . HMS Belfast became a branch of the museum in 1978 . The Cabinet War Rooms opened in 1984 , and Imperial War Museum North in 2002 .
= = = Imperial War Museum London = = =
= = = = Architecture and layout = = = =
The museum has occupied the former Bethlem Royal Hospital on Lambeth Road since 1936 . The hospital building was designed by the hospital surveyor , James Lewis , from plans submitted by John Gandy and other architects , and construction completed in October 1814 . The hospital consisted of a range of buildings 580 feet long with a basement and three storeys , parallel to Lambeth Road , with a central entrance under a portico .
The building was substantially altered in 1835 by architect Sydney Smirke . In order to provide more space , he added blocks at either end of the frontage , and galleried wings on either side of the central portion . He also added a small single @-@ storey lodge , still in existence , at the Lambeth Road gate . Later , between 1844 – 46 , the central cupola was replaced with a copper @-@ clad dome in order to expand the chapel beneath . The building also featured a theatre in a building to the rear of the site .
The building remained substantially unchanged until vacated by the hospital in 1930 . After the freehold was purchased by Lord Rothermere , the wings were demolished to leave the original central portion ( with the dome now appearing disproportionately tall ) and Smirke 's later wings . When the museum moved into the building in 1936 the ground floor of the central portion was occupied by the principal art gallery , with the east wing housing the Naval gallery and the west wing the Army gallery . The Air Force gallery was housed in the former theatre . The first floor comprised further art galleries ( including rooms dedicated to William Orpen and John Lavery ) , a gallery on women 's war work , and exhibits relating to transport and signals . The first floor also housed the museum 's photograph collection . The second floor housed the museum 's library in its west wing , and in the east wing the map collection and stored pictures and drawings . This division of exhibits by service , and by civil or military activity , persisted until a wide @-@ ranging redisplay of the galleries from the 1960s onwards . In September 1972 the building received Grade II listed building status .
The original hospital building is now largely occupied by corporate offices . The 1966 extension houses the library , art store , and document archives while the 1980s redevelopments created exhibition space over five floors . The first stage created 8 @,@ 000 m2 of gallery space of which 4 @,@ 600 m2 was new , and the second provided a further 1 @,@ 600 m2 . The final phase , the Southwest Infill , was partly funded by a £ 12 @.@ 6 million grant from the Heritage Lottery Fund and provided 5,860m2 of gallery space and educational facilities over six floors . Before the 2013 @-@ 14 redevelopment , the basement was occupied by permanent galleries on the First and Second World Wars , and of conflicts after 1945 . The ground floor comprised the atrium , cinema , temporary exhibition spaces , and visitor facilities . The first floor included the atrium mezzanine , education facilities , and a permanent gallery , Secret War , exploring special forces , espionage and covert operations . The second floor included the atrium viewing balcony , two art galleries , a temporary exhibition area and the permanent Crimes against Humanity exhibition . The third floor housed the permanent Holocaust Exhibition , and the fourth floor , a vaulted roof space , accommodated the Lord Ashcroft Gallery . Opened in November 2010 the gallery exhibits the museum 's Victoria Cross ( VC ) and George Cross collection , alongside the private VC collection amassed by Michael Ashcroft , 241 medals in total .
= = = = All Saints Annexe = = = =
In 1989 the museum acquired the All Saints Annexe , a former hospital building in Austral Street off West Square . The 1867 building , which backs onto Geraldine Mary Harmsworth Park , was originally an orphanage opened by local philanthropist Charlotte Sharman , then later used as a hospital . It houses the museum 's photographic , film and sound archives , and offices .
= = = Imperial War Museum Duxford = = =
Imperial War Museum Duxford , near the village of Duxford in Cambridgeshire , is Britain 's largest aviation museum . Duxford houses the museum 's large exhibits , including nearly 200 aircraft , military vehicles , artillery and minor naval vessels in seven main exhibitions buildings . The site also provides storage space for the museum 's collections of film , photographs , documents , books and artefacts . The site accommodates a number of British Army regimental museums , including those of the Parachute Regiment and the Royal Anglian Regiment .
Based on the historic Duxford Aerodrome , the site was originally operated by the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) during the First World War . During the Second World War Duxford played a prominent role during the Battle of Britain and was later used by United States Army Air Forces fighter units in support of the daylight bombing of Germany . Duxford remained an active RAF airfield until 1961 . Many of Duxford 's original buildings , such as hangars used during the Battle of Britain , are still in use . A number of these buildings are of architectural or historic significance and over thirty have listed building status . The site also features a number of purpose @-@ built exhibition buildings , such as the Stirling Prize @-@ winning American Air Museum , designed by Sir Norman Foster . The site remains an active airfield and is used by a number of civilian flying companies , and hosts regular air shows . The site is operated in partnership with Cambridgeshire County Council and the Duxford Aviation Society , a charity formed in 1975 to preserve civil aircraft and promote appreciation of British civil aviation history .
= = = HMS Belfast = = =
HMS Belfast , a Town class cruiser , was launched in 1938 and served throughout the Second World War , participating in the December 1943 Battle of North Cape and firing some of the first shots of Operation Overlord , the Allied invasion of Normandy in June 1944 . She saw further combat in the Korean War . Expected to be disposed of as scrap after she was decommissioned in 1963 , in 1967 efforts were initiated to preserve Belfast as a museum ship . A joint committee of the Imperial War Museum , the National Maritime Museum and the Ministry of Defence was established , and reported in June 1968 that preservation was practical . In 1971 the government decided against preservation , prompting the formation of the private HMS Belfast Trust to campaign for her to be saved for the nation . The Trust was successful in its efforts , and the government transferred the ship to the Trust in July 1971 . Brought to London , she was moored on the River Thames near Tower Bridge in the Pool of London . Opened to the public in October 1971 Belfast became a branch of the Imperial War Museum on 1 March 1978 , being acknowledged by the then Secretary of State for Education and Science , Shirley Williams , as ' a unique demonstration of an important phase of our history and technology ' . In service for 24 years HMS Belfast was in Frankland 's opinion , capable of representing ' a whole generation of [ historical evidence ] ' .
= = = Churchill War Rooms = = =
The Cabinet War Rooms is an underground complex that served as a British government command centre throughout the Second World War . Located beneath the Treasury building in the Whitehall area of Westminster , the facilities became operational in 1939 and were in constant use until their abandonment in August 1945 after the surrender of Japan . Their historical value was recognised early on , and the public were able to visit by appointment . However , the practicalities of allowing public access to a site beneath a working government office meant that only 4 @,@ 500 of 30 – 40 @,@ 000 annual applicants to visit the War Rooms could be admitted . The museum agreed to take over the administration of the site in 1982 , a development keenly supported by the then Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher , an admirer of Britain 's wartime Prime Minister Winston Churchill . Thatcher opened the War Rooms in April 1984 . In 2003 a further suite of rooms , used as accommodation by Churchill , his wife and close associates , were added to the museum . The restoration of these rooms , which since the war had been stripped out and used for storage , cost £ 7 @.@ 5 million . In 2005 the War Rooms were rebranded as the Churchill Museum and Cabinet War Rooms , with 850 m2 of the site redeveloped as a biographical museum exploring Churchill 's life . The development of the Churchill Museum cost a further £ 6 million . The centrepiece is a 15m interactive table which enables visitors to access digitised material , particularly from the Churchill Archives Centre , via an ' electronic filing cabinet ' . The museum was renamed the Churchill War Rooms in 2010 .
= = = Imperial War Museum North = = =
The Imperial War Museum North was opened in Trafford , Greater Manchester in 2002 . It was the first branch of the museum outside southeast England , and the first to be purpose @-@ built as a museum . Designed by architect Daniel Libeskind , Imperial War Museum North was his first building in Britain . Libeskind ’ s building , overlooking the Manchester Ship Canal at Salford Quays , was based on the concept of a globe shattered by conflict into shards and reassembled . These shards , representing earth , air and water , give the building its shape . Originally budgeted at £ 40 million , the museum was eventually completed for £ 28 @.@ 5 million after anticipated funding was not forthcoming . The museum was funded by local , national and European development agencies , by private donations and by Peel Holdings , a local transport and property company which contributed £ 12 @.@ 5 million .
The museum 's first floor main gallery space houses the permanent exhibitions . These consist of a chronological display which runs around the gallery 's 200m perimeter and six thematic displays in ' silos ' within the space . The walls of the gallery space are used as screens for the projection of an hourly audiovisual presentation , the Big Picture . The main gallery , described as cavernous and dramatic , includes objects such as a Russian T @-@ 34 tank , a United States Marine Corps AV @-@ 8A Harrier jet , and a British 13 @-@ pounder field gun which fired the British Army 's first shot of the First World War . The museum also hosts a programme of temporary exhibitions , mounted in a separate gallery .
= = Collections = =
The Imperial War Museum 's original collections date back to the material amassed by the National War Museum Committee . The present departmental organisation came into being during the 1960s as part of Frankland 's reorganisation of the museum . The 1970s saw oral history gain increasing prominence and in 1972 the museum created the Department of Sound Records ( now the Sound Archive ) to record interviews with individuals who had experienced the First World War . The museum maintains an online database of its collections .
= = = Documents = = =
The museum 's documents archive seeks to collect and preserve the private papers of individuals who have experienced modern warfare . The archive 's holdings range from the papers of senior British and Commonwealth army , navy and air officers , to the letters , diaries and memoirs of lower @-@ ranked servicemen and of civilians . The collection includes the papers of Field Marshals Bernard Montgomery , and Sir John French . The archive also includes large collections of foreign documents , such as captured German Second World War documents previously held by the Cabinet Office Historical Section , Air Historical Branch and other British government bodies . The foreign collection also includes captured Japanese material transferred from the Cabinet Office . The collection also includes files on Victoria and George Cross recipients , and correspondence relating to the BBC documentary The Great War . The documents collection also includes the UK National Inventory of War Memorials . In 2012 the museum reported its documents collection to contain 24 @,@ 800 collections of papers .
= = = Art = = =
The museum 's art collection includes paintings , prints , drawings , sculpture , and works in film , photography and sound . The collection originated during the First World War , when the museum acquired works that it had itself commissioned , as well as works commissioned by the Ministry of Information 's British War Memorials Committee . As early as 1920 the art collection held over 3 @,@ 000 works and included pieces by John Singer Sargent , Wyndham Lewis , John Nash and Christopher Nevinson . Notable First World War works include Sargent 's Gassed and other works commissioned for an , unbuilt , Hall of Remembrance . The collection expanded again after the Second World War , receiving thousands of works sponsored by the Ministry of Information 's War Artists ' Advisory Committee . In 1972 the museum established the Artistic Records Committee ( since renamed the Art Commissions Committee ) to commission artists to cover contemporary conflicts . Commissioned artists include Ken Howard , Linda Kitson , John Keane , Peter Howson , Steve McQueen ( see Queen and Country ) and Langlands & Bell , responding to conflicts in Northern Ireland , the Falklands , the Persian Gulf , Bosnia , Iraq and Afghanistan . The collection also includes over twenty thousand items of publicity material such as posters , postcards , and proclamations from both world wars , and more recent material such as posters issued by anti @-@ war organisations such as the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament and the Stop the War Coalition . The museum 's collection is represented in digital resources such as the Visual Arts Data Service ( VADS ) , and Google Art Project . In 2012 the museum reported the total size of its art collection as 84 @,@ 980 items .
= = = Film = = =
The museum 's Film and Video Archive is one of the oldest film archives in the world . The archive preserves a range of historically significant film and video material , including the official British film record of the First World War . Notable among the archive 's First World War holdings is The Battle of the Somme , a pioneering 1916 documentary film ( which was inscribed on the UNESCO Memory of the World register in 2005 ) , and Der Magische Gürtel , a German 1917 propaganda film about the submarine U @-@ 35 . The archive 's Second World War holdings include unedited film shot by British military cameramen , which document combat actions such as the British landings on D @-@ Day in June 1944 , and the liberation of the Bergen @-@ Belsen concentration camp in April 1945 . The archive also holds government information films and propaganda features such as Target for Tonight and Desert Victory . The archive 's post @-@ Second World War collections include material from the Korean War , Cold War material , the former film library of NATO , and material produced by the United Nations UNTV service in Bosnia . As an official repository under the 1958 Public Records Act , the archive continues to receive material from the Ministry of Defence . The archive also seeks to acquire amateur film taken by both service personnel and civilian cameramen . Material from the collection was used to make a number of well @-@ known TV documentary series including The Great War and The World at War . In 2012 the museum reported the size of its film archive as being in excess of 23 @,@ 000 hours of film , video and digital footage .
= = = Photographs = = =
The museum 's Photograph Archive preserves photographs by official , amateur and professional photographers . The collection includes the official British photographic record of the two world wars ; the First World War collection includes the work of photographers such as Ernest Brooks and John Warwick Brooke . The archive also holds 150 @,@ 000 British aerial photographs from the First World War , the largest collection of its kind . The Second World War collection includes the work of photographers such as Bill Brandt , Cecil Beaton and Bert Hardy . Like the Film Archive , the Photograph Archive is an official repository under the 1958 Public Records Act , and as such continues to receive material from the Ministry of Defence . In 2012 the museum reported the size of its photographic holdings as approximately 11 million images in 17 @,@ 263 collections .
= = = Exhibits = = =
The museum 's exhibits collection includes a wide range of objects , organised into numerous smaller collections such as uniforms , badges , insignia and flags ( including a Canadian Red Ensign carried at Vimy Ridge in 1917 , a Union flag from the 1942 British surrender of Singapore , and another found among the wreckage of the World Trade Center following the September 11 attacks ) ; personal mementoes , souvenirs and miscellanea such as trench art ; orders , medals and decorations ( including collections of Victoria and George Crosses ) ; military equipment ; firearms and ammunition , ordnance , edged weapons , clubs ( such as trench clubs ) and other weapons , and vehicles , aircraft and ships . The museum holds the national collection of modern firearms . The firearms collection includes a rifle used by T. E. Lawrence , and an automatic pistol owned by Winston Churchill . The ordnance collection includes artillery pieces that participated in notable battles , such as the Néry gun , a field gun that was used during the 1914 action at Néry , and equipment captured from enemy forces . The museum 's vehicles collection includes Ole Bill , a bus used by British forces in the First World War , and a number of vehicles used by Field Marshal Montgomery during the Second World War . The museum 's aircraft collection includes aircraft that are notable for their rarity , such as the only complete and original Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.8 in existence and one of only two surviving TSR @-@ 2 strike aircraft , and aircraft associated with particular actions , such as a Supermarine Spitfire flown during the Battle of Britain . The museum 's naval collection includes HM Coastal Motor Boat 4 and a midget submarine HMS XE8 . In 2012 the museum reported its exhibits collection to contain 155 @,@ 000 objects and a further 357 vehicles and aircraft .
= = = Library = = =
The museum 's library is a national reference collection on modern conflict , and holds works on all aspects of warfare , including regimental or unit histories ( such as 789 rare German unit histories from the First World War ) , technical manuals , biographical material and works on war 's social , cultural , economic , political and military aspects . The library also holds printed ephemera such as the Imperial War Museum Stamp Collection , leaflets and ration books , printed proclamations , newspapers , trench magazines ( such the Wipers Times ) and trench maps . In 2012 the museum reported its library collection to contain over 80 @,@ 000 items of historic importance ( such as maps , proclamations and rare books ) and a further 254 @,@ 000 items of reference material .
= = = Sound = = =
The museum 's Sound Archive holds 33 @,@ 000 sound recordings , including a large collection of oral history recordings of witnesses to conflicts since 1914 . The museum 's sound collection originated in 1972 with the creation of the Department of Sound Records and the instigation of an oral history recording programme . The sound collection opened to the public in July 1977 . The collection also includes recordings made by the BBC during the Second World War , actuality sound effects , broadcasts , speeches and poetry . As part of the museum 's First World War centenary programme , the museum is producing Voices of the First World War , a podcast series drawing upon the museum 's oral history recordings . In 2012 the museum reported the size of its sound collection as 37 @,@ 000 hours .
= = Governance = =
The Imperial War Museum is an executive non @-@ departmental public body under the Department for Culture , Media and Sport , from which it receives financial support in the form of a grant @-@ in @-@ aid . The governance of the museum is the responsibility of a Board of Trustees , originally established by the Imperial War Museum Act 1920 , later amended by the Imperial War Museum Act 1955 and the Museums and Galleries Act 1992 and other relevant legislation . The board comprises a president ( currently Prince Edward , Duke of Kent ) who is appointed by the sovereign , and fourteen members appointed in varying proportions by the Prime Minister , and the Foreign , Defence , and Culture Secretaries . Seven further members are Commonwealth High Commissioners appointed ex officio by their respective governments . As of January 2012 the Chairman of the Trustees is Sir Francis Richards and his deputy is Lieutenant @-@ General Sir John Kiszely . Past chairmen have included Admiral Sir Deric Holland @-@ Martin ( 1967 – 77 ) , Admiral of the Fleet Sir Algernon Willis and Marshal of the Royal Air Force Sir John Grandy ( trustee 1971 – 78 , Chairman 1978 – 89 ) . During the Second World War Grandy had commanded RAF Duxford , and was chairman during the planning of Duxford 's American Air Museum , which opened in 1997 .
The museum 's Director @-@ General is answerable to the trustees and acts as accounting officer . Since 1917 the museum has had six directors . The first was Sir Martin Conway , a noted art historian , mountaineer and explorer . He was knighted in 1895 for his efforts to map the Karakoram mountain range of the Himalayas , and was Slade Professor of Fine Arts at the University of Cambridge from 1901 to 1904 . Conway held the post of Director until his death in 1937 , when he was succeeded by Leslie Bradley . Bradley had served in the First World War in the Middlesex Regiment before being invalided out in 1917 . He later became acquainted with Charles ffoulkes , who invited him to join the museum where he was initially engaged in assembling the museum 's poster collection . Bradley retired in 1960 and was succeeded by Dr Noble Frankland . Frankland had served as a navigator in RAF Bomber Command , winning a Distinguished Flying Cross . While a Cabinet Office official historian he co @-@ authored a controversial official history of the RAF strategic air campaign against Germany . Frankland retired in 1982 and was succeeded by Dr Alan Borg who had previously been at the Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts . In 1995 Borg moved to the Victoria and Albert Museum and was succeeded by Sir Robert Crawford , who had originally been recruited by Frankland as a research assistant in 1968 . Upon Crawford 's retirement in 2008 he was succeeded by Diane Lees , previously Director of the V & A Museum of Childhood . She was noted in the media as the first woman appointed to lead a British national museum .
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= Michael Dokeianos =
Michael Dokeianos ( Greek : Μιχαήλ Δοκειανός ) , erroneously called Doukeianos by some modern writers , was a Byzantine nobleman and military leader , who married into the Komnenos family . He was active in Sicily under George Maniakes before going to Southern Italy as Catepan of Italy in 1040 – 41 . He was recalled after being twice defeated in battle during the Lombard @-@ Norman revolt of 1041 , a decisive moment in the eventual Norman conquest of southern Italy . He is next recorded in 1050 , fighting against a Pecheneg raid in Thrace . He was captured during battle but managed to maim the Pecheneg leader , after which he was put to death and mutilated .
= = Biography = =
The family name of Dokeianos is considered to derive from Dok [ e ] ia in the Armeniac Theme . The family only came into prominence in the mid @-@ 11th century , with Michael one of the first to be mentioned . He is generally considered as the Dokeianos who married an unnamed daughter of Manuel Erotikos Komnenos and sister of the future emperor Isaac I Komnenos ( reigned 1057 – 59 ) , probably ca . 1030 . Together , they had a son , Theodore Dokeianos . According to John Skylitzes , Michael Dokeianos was a simple man and not suited for command , and according to Konstantinos Varzos he owed his rise to high office to his family ties with the Komnenoi . It is known that he was wealthy , and possessed estates in Paphlagonia , possibly adjacent or part of the Komnenos family estates in the same region .
= = = In Italy = = =
Michael Dokeianos is first mentioned in 1040 , as protospatharios and doux , when he was sent to southern Italy to assume command of the local Byzantine province as Catepan of Italy . Prior to that , he was apparently a member of George Maniakes ' expeditionary force sent to conquer Sicily in 1038 . Dokeianos arrived in the mainland in November 1040 , and the situation he found was critical : his predecessor Nikephoros Dokeianos , probably a relative , had been killed in January at Ascoli in a mutiny of his troops , which was followed by a revolt in Taranto and the capture of the capital , Bari , by Argyrus , son of the Lombard leader Melus . Dokeianos hanged or blinded the ringleaders of the various revolts , but he failed to address the underlying cause , the widespread resentment at the oppressive taxation imposed by the Empire as part of the preparations for the Sicilian expedition under Maniakes . Dokeianos also offered the rule of strategic fortress of Melfi to the Milanese mercenary Arduin , with the title of topoteretes . Arduin had served under previous Byzantine commanders as part of a Norman contingent , but had been flogged in a dispute about the distribution of booty taken from the Muslims in Sicily ( William of Apulia claims this was done by Dokeianos , but it is possible that it was done by one of his predecessors , perhaps George Maniakes ) . Arduin 's grudge against the Byzantines now bore fruit . He sought the aid of the Normans who had been established at nearby Aversa since 1030 , and received a contingent of 300 men , upon a promise to share his gains equally with them . Thus in March 1041 he and his men seized Melfi . The inhabitants initially opposed him , but eventually were won over by Arduin .
The rebels quickly extended their control over the neighbouring towns of Venosa , Ascoli , and Lavello . Dokeianos , who had just reimposed order in Bari and the surrounding region , marched to meet them with a hastily assembled and incomplete force : most of the imperial army was still in Sicily , so that Skylitzes writes that Dokeianos only took the Opsician and part of the Thracesian contingents with him , while other sources also add that his army comprised elements of the Varangian Guard . The two armies met at the Olivento river , where Dokeianos was defeated in a battle fought on 17 March . The rebels then moved south towards the coast , and on 4 May defeated another Byzantine force under Dokeianos in another battle near Cannae , a field that had served as the site for the famous battle of 216 BC and the first Norman engagement in southern Italy in 1018 . The Annales Barenses claims , with obvious exaggeration , that 2 @,@ 000 Normans defeated 18 @,@ 000 Byzantines , but whatever the true numbers it does appear that the Byzantines considerably outnumbered the rebel forces . Dokeianos himself fell from his horse during the battle and was almost captured , until rescued by a squire . In the aftermath of the battle , both sides remained quiescent . The Lombards and Normans were probably exhausted and may have suffered heavy casualties , while the Byzantines regrouped : Dokeianos was recalled and replaced by Exaugustus Boioannes , while the garrisons in Sicily were withdrawn to the Italian mainland to face the rebel threat .
The withdrawal of the imperial forces from Sicily resulted in the rapid collapse of the imperial position there . Under Maniakes , the Byzantines had conquered the eastern portion of the island , but by 1042 , only Messina remained in Byzantine hands . On the mainland , Boioannes did not fare better than his predecessor , as he was defeated and taken prisoner at the Battle of Montepeloso in September . This succession of defeats signalled the beginning of the end for Byzantine rule in southern Italy , a process which was completed three decades later with the fall of Bari to the Normans under Robert Guiscard .
= = = In Thrace = = =
Dokeianos re @-@ appears in 1050 , when he held the titles of patrikios and vestarches , as part of an imperial expedition against the Pechenegs who raided Thrace . The imperial commander @-@ in @-@ chief , the eunuch praipositos Constantine , a militarily inexperienced court favourite of Emperor Constantine IX ( r . 1042 – 55 ) , listened to his advice on fortifying the army 's encampment , but when the Pechenegs appeared before Adrianople , he refused to heed the opinion of the magistros Constantine Arianites to wait and attack the Pechenegs on their return journey , and instead marched to meet them in the open field of Basilike Libas , resulting in a devastating defeat : Arianites fell , while Dokeianos was taken prisoner . As he was brought before the Pecheneg leader , however , Dokeianos seized a sword from one of his guards and slashed at the leader , cutting off one of his arms , whereupon the enraged Pechenegs killed him and , according to Michael Attaleiates , opened his belly , cut off his arms and legs and placed them in it .
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= Sea of Japan naming dispute =
The international name for the body of water which is bordered by Japan , North Korea , Russia , and South Korea is disputed . In 1992 , objections to the name Sea of Japan were first raised by North Korea and South Korea at the Sixth United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names . The Japanese government supports the use of the name " Sea of Japan " , while South Korea supports the name " East Sea " , and North Korea supports the name " East Sea of Korea " . Currently , most international maps and documents use either the name Sea of Japan ( or equivalent translation ) by itself , or include both the name Sea of Japan and East Sea , often with East Sea listed in parentheses or otherwise marked as a secondary name . The International Hydrographic Organization , the international governing body for the naming of bodies of water around the world , in 2012 decided not to change the current single name " Sea of Japan " rejecting South Korea 's request to use " East Sea " together with " Sea of Japan " .
The involved countries ( especially Japan and South Korea ) have advanced a variety of arguments to support their preferred name ( s ) . Many of the arguments revolve around determining when the name Sea of Japan became the common name . South Korea argues that historically the more common name was East Sea , Sea of Korea , or another similar variant . South Korea further argues that the name Sea of Japan did not become common until Korea was under Japanese rule , at which time it had no ability to influence international affairs . Japan argues that the name Sea of Japan has been the most common international name since at least the beginning of the 19th century , long before its annexation of Korea . Both sides have conducted studies of antiquarian maps , but the two countries have produced divergent research results . Additional arguments have been raised regarding the underlying geography of the sea as well as potential problems regarding the ambiguity of one name or the other .
= = Arguments = =
Both sides in the dispute have put forward a number of arguments to support their claims .
= = = Arguments based on historical maps = = =
= = = = Arguments from South Korea = = = =
According to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs for South Korea , the name Donghae ( 동해 , literally East Sea ) has been used in Korea for over 2 @,@ 000 years , including in History of the Three Kingdoms ( 三國史記 , 1145 ) , the monument of King Gwanggaeto , and " Map of Eight Provinces of Korea " ( 八道總圖 , 1530 ) . The first documented map to name the area the Sea of Japan was the world map drawn by the Italian missionary Matteo Ricci in China ( 1602 ) named Kunyu Wanguo Quantu ( 坤輿萬國全圖 ) . No Japanese record published up to the late @-@ 18th century indicated any name for the body of water . Furthermore , South Korea has pointed out that a few 19th @-@ century Japanese maps referred to the sea as Chōsenkai ( 朝鮮海 , literally Sea of Joseon ) , including the " Simplified Map of Japan 's Periphery " ( 日本邊界略圖 , 1809 ) and " New World Map " ( 新製輿地全圖 , 1844 ) . South Korea argues there was no standard name prior to Japan 's military expansion in the region in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . Additionally , it specifically states that the name Sea of Japan was not widely used , even in Japan , as late as the mid 19th century . Thus , South Korea argues that the current name reflects active promotion by Japan during a time when Korea could not represent its interests internationally .
= = = = Arguments from Japan = = = =
The Japanese government claims that the name Sea of Japan was internationally used since the 17th century and established by the early 19th century , during a period in which Japan was under an isolationist policy ( Sakoku ) of the Tokugawa shogunate , which restricted cultural exchange and commerce with foreign countries except China and the Netherlands until 1854 . Accordingly , they state , Japan could not have , at that time , had an influence on the international community regarding the naming of the sea .
The invention of the marine chronometer in the late 18th century enabled Western explorers , such as Jean @-@ François de Galaup from France , William Robert Broughton from Britain , and Adam Johann von Krusenstern ( Ivan Fyodorovich Kruzenshtern ) from Russia , to measure time and longitudes on the sea precisely and map the detailed shape of the Sea of Japan . Krusenstern was an admiral and explorer , who led the first Russian circumnavigation of the globe . According to Japanese records , it was Krusenstern who popularized the name " Mer du Japon " ( Sea of Japan ) in the West . In his work " Reise um die Welt in den Jahren " ( 1812 ) , he wrote , " People also call this sea area the Sea of Korea , but because only a small part of this sea touches the Korean coast , it is better to name it the Sea of Japan . " The original book was published in St. Petersburg in German and Russian , translated into Dutch , French , Swedish , Italian and English , and distributed widely among Europe . As a result , the international name of the sea changed from no name to the Sea of Japan , on the maps drawn by countries other than Japan or Korea during the 17th to 20th centuries . Thus , the Japanese side argues that the South Koreans misunderstand the history of the name .
= = = = Surveys of antiquarian maps = = = =
To provide evidence for the date when Sea of Japan came to be used internationally , both South Korea and Japan have undertaken surveys of various historical maps .
In 2004 , South Korea surveyed ancient maps archived in the British Library , the Cambridge University Library , the University of Southern California ( USC ) East Asian Map Collection , the U.S. Library of Congress , the National Library of Russia , and the French National Library examined 762 maps . They found that 440 maps had used Sea of Korea ( Corea ) , Oriental Sea / East Sea , 122 had used Sea of Japan , and 200 had used other terms . In the French language , the word orientale includes both the meaning of " eastern " related to compass direction and the meaning of " oriental " , the Asiatic region . The same ambiguity is present in the Russian language , with both " eastern " and " oriental " indicated by one word .
From 2003 to 2008 , Japan conducted a number of surveys of different collections . In 2010 , the Ministry of Foreign Affairs ( MOFA ) published their conclusions ; they found that among 1 @,@ 332 maps from the Berlin Library , 279 used Sea of Korea , Oriental Sea , or East Sea ( or some combination thereof ) , 579 used Sea of Japan exclusively , 47 used China Sea ( with or without other names ) , 33 used another term , and 384 used no term . MOFA said the Struck collection ( a collection of antiquarian maps owned by a European map collector ) showed that out of 79 maps , 35 used Sea of Japan , 9 used the Sea of Korea , 2 used Oriental Sea , and 33 were unmarked . MOFA reported that among four Russian libraries and document archives holding 51 maps , 29 used Sea of Japan , 8 used Sea of Korea , 1 used Korea Strait , 1 used East Sea , 1 used Sea of China , and 11 used no name . MOFA said that 1 @,@ 213 maps from the U.S. Library of Congress , ones that gave a name for this body of water , showed that 87 percent used Sea of Japan , 8 percent used Sea of Korea , 5 percent used other terms , and none used Oriental Sea or East Sea . Similarly , MOFA said that 58 maps from the British Library and the University of Cambridge showed 86 percent used Sea of Japan , 14 percent used Sea of Korea , and none used Oriental Sea , East Sea , or other terms . MOFA said that they looked at 1 @,@ 485 maps in the French National Library . They reported that 95 percent of 215 French maps used Sea of Japan .
In November 2007 , the National Geographic Information Institute of South Korea published a report on a survey of 400 ancient maps . According to the report , nine maps used East Sea for the water currently called Sea of Japan , while 31 maps used East Sea for the water currently called East China Sea . The number of maps used Sea of Japan is not disclosed . Furthermore , the report says " In the late 18th century ( 1790 – 1830 ) the name Sea of Japan emerged . From the 19th century ( 1830 onward ) , there was a rapid increase in the use of the name Sea of Japan . " Japan stated , " This clearly shows the fallacy of the ROK 's assertion that the name Sea of Japan was the result of the Japanese policy of expansionism and colonial rule , and can be interpreted as affirming that the name Sea of Japan was in widespread use well before Japan 's colonial rule over the Korean Peninsula " .
= = = Geographical arguments = = =
Japan argues that , the name Sea of Japan has been and should be used because the marginal sea is separated from the Pacific Ocean by the Japanese Archipelago . Korea argues that the adjective " East " describes its geographical position east of the Asian continent , although it is west of Japan and south of Russia . It states that this is analogous to the North Sea , which lies north of the European continent , but west of Scandinavian countries and east of Great Britain . However Koreans call the sea on their east side the East Sea ( 동해 , Donghae ) , on their south side the South Sea ( 남해 , Namhae ) , and on their west side the West Sea ( 서해 , Seohae ) .
= = = Arguments relating to ambiguity = = =
The Japanese Hydrographic and Oceanographic Department of the Japanese Coast Guard has claimed that the name East Sea is confusing and unsuitable as an international geographic name , because the local name for a variety of seas can be translated into English as East Sea . Examples include Dōng Hǎi ( 东海 ) , the Chinese name for the East China Sea ; Biển Đông , the Vietnamese name for the South China Sea ; and the Baltic Sea , which means East Sea in several European languages such as German ( Ostsee ) , Swedish ( Östersjön ) and Finnish ( Itämeri ) . East Sea is officially used as an English name for the water by the Government of Vietnam . Thus the Government of Vietnam uses East Sea for South China Sea in its English publications . Also the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China uses East Sea for East China Sea in its English publications . In addition , East Sea ( 東海 , Tōkai ) is not the Sea of Japan but the Pacific Ocean in the Japanese context . The regions on the east coast of Japan were named accordingly as the Tōkaidō region and the Tōkai region . The Japanese government is concerned that the name change could set a bad precedent and cause more naming disputes worldwide .
= = Position of international bodies = =
The main two international organizations which have been involved in the naming dispute are the International Hydrographic Organization and the United Nations .
= = = International Hydrographic Organization = = =
The International Hydrographic Organization is an organization that coordinates with member countries over hydrographic issues . One of the organization 's functions is to help set international standards on the naming and delineation of nautical regions . In 1929 , the organization ( then called the International Hydrographic Bureau ) published " IHO Special Publication 23 " ( IHO SP 23 ) , which established the name of the sea as Sea of Japan ; however , at that time , Korea could not participate in the IHO because it was under Japanese rule . South Korea officially joined the IHO in 1957 .
In 1974 , IHO released Technical Resolution A.4.2.6. This resolution stated that :
It is recommended that where two or more countries share a given geographical feature ( such as a bay , a strait , channel or archipelago ) under different names , they should endeavor to reach agreement on a single name for the feature concerned . If they have different official languages and cannot agree on a common name form , it is recommended that the name forms of each of the languages in question should be accepted for charts and publications unless technical reasons prevent this practice on small scale charts .
South Korea has argued that this resolution is relevant to the debate about the Sea of Japan and implies that both names should be used ; Japan , however , argues that the resolution does not apply to the Sea of Japan , because it does not specify this body of water and only applies to geographical features for which sovereignty is shared between two or more countries .
The IHO agreed to conduct a survey of available evidence in 2011 . Previously , South Korea had been pushing the IHO to recommend only using the term East Sea , but announced on 2 May 2011 , that it now preferred the gradual approach of using both names now , and eventually dropping the Sea of Japan name .
On 26 April 2012 , the IHO announced that it had decided to use only " Sea of Japan " in its governing publication Limits of Oceans and Seas and rejected the alternative use of " East Sea " as proposed by South Korea . According to the South Korean government , the organization will again discuss the issue of the name when it reconvenes in 2017 .
= = = United Nations = = =
While the United Nations has never directly addressed the issue of establishing an official , standardized name for the sea , several resolutions and statements by the UN have had relevance to the topic . Japan joined the United Nations in 1956 , while South and North Korea both joined in 1991 .
In 1977 , the third U.N. Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names ( UNCSGN ) adopted Resolution III / 20 , entitled " Names of Features beyond a Single Sovereignty " . The resolution recommended that " when countries sharing a given geographical feature do not agree on a common name , it should be a general rule of cartography that the name used by each of the countries concerned will be accepted . A policy of accepting only one or some of such names while excluding the rest would be inconsistent as well as inexpedient in practice . " As with IHO Technical Resolution A.4.2.6 , South Korea and Japan disagree about whether or not this policy applies to the Sea of Japan .
In 1992 , during the 1992 Sixth UNCSGN , the South Korean government , in their first time participating in UNCSGN , requested that the name of the sea be determined through consultation , which the North Korean representative concurred with . The Japanese representative stated that the name of the Sea of Japan had already been accepted worldwide and that any change would introduce confusion . The conference recommended that the parties work together on the issue outside of the conference .
In 1998 , South Korea raised the issue again at the Seventh UNCSGN . Japan , however , opposed the method by which the South Korean government proposed the issue , arguing that they had not followed the proper procedure for doing so . Following some debate , South Korea withdrew the issue , and instead recommended that the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names work so that a resolution could be submitted to the Eighth UNSCGN conference . The president of the conference urged that Japan , South Korea , and North Korea work towards a mutually acceptable agreement .
At the Eighth UNCSGN in 2002 , South Korea and Japan presented a number of papers to the conference regarding their positions on the naming issue . South Korea asked for a resolution to adjudicate the name , while Japan asked that the name be decided through resolution outside of the conference . No resolution was passed , and the Committee again urged the countries to develop a mutually agreeable solution . The chairman further noted that standardization could only occur after consensus had been reached . The same situation occurred at the Ninth conference in 2007 . South Korea and North Korea both proposed a resolution by the UNCSGN , while Japan expressed a desire to settle the matter outside of the conference , and the Committee urged the members to seek a mutual agreement .
On 23 April 2004 , the United Nations affirmed in a written document to the Japanese government that it will continue using the name Sea of Japan in its official documents . However , it agreed to leave the topic open for further discussion . In a letter to South Korea , it was explained that the UN was not determining the validity of either name , but wished to use the term most widely used until the parties resolved the disagreement . The letter further stated , " The use of an appellation by the Secretariat based on the practice is without prejudice to any negotiations or agreements between the interested parties and should not be interpreted as advocating or endorsing any party 's position , and can in no way be invoked by any party in support of a particular position in the matter . "
On 6 August 2012 , representatives from North and South Korea addressed an assembly at the United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names , asking that the names " East Sea " and " Sea of Japan " be used concurrently for the sea . Ferjan Ormeling , chairman of the conference , responded that the organization had no authority to decide the issue and requested that the involved countries resolve the differences over the name amongst themselves .
= = Other countries = =
Russia calls this sea " Япо ́ нское мо ́ ре " ( Yapónskoye móre , Japanese Sea ) . Japan believes that Russia played a major role in establishing this name internationally , as mentioned above . Chinese government websites exclusively use the name 日本海 ( rìběnhǎi , Japan Sea ) . In 2003 , the French Defense Ministry issued nautical maps that included both terms Sea of Japan and East Sea . It reverted to Sea of Japan as a single name in the map issued in 2004 . The United Kingdom and Germany officially use the Sea of Japan .
The United States Board on Geographic Names ( BGN ) continues to advocate the use of Sea of Japan without qualification in U.S. government publications . The World Factbook published by the Central Intelligence Agency follows the BGN 's guidance . On 8 August 2011 , a spokesman for the United States Department of State stated that the United States Board on Geographic Names considered the official name of the sea to be " Sea of Japan . " According to Yonhap , the U.S. has officially recommended to the IHO that " Sea of Japan " remain as the official name for the sea . In response to this failure of the South Korean campaign , South Korean foreign minister Kim Sung @-@ hwan suggested advocating other historical names , such as " Sea of Korea " .
In 2011 , Virginia state lawmaker David W. Marsden , acting on behalf of Korean @-@ American voters , introduced a bill to the education panel of the Senate of Virginia that would have required public school textbooks to include both " Sea of Japan " and " East Sea " as names . The panel rejected the bill by an 8 – 7 vote on 26 January 2012 . The issue was revisited two years later on 3 February 2014 , with the Education Committee of the Virginia House of Delegates passing legislation to use both " Sea of Japan " and " East Sea " in school textbooks .
On 29 June 2012 , Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs Kurt M. Campbell affirmed the BGN 's position in his response , published on the White House website , to a We the People petition concerning the usage of " Sea of Japan " , in which he stated , " It is longstanding United States policy to refer to each sea or ocean by a single name . This policy applies to all seas , including those bordered by multiple countries that may each have their own names for such bodies of water . Concerning the body of water between the Japanese archipelago and the Korean peninsula , longstanding U.S. policy is to refer to it as the " Sea of Japan " . He also stated , " We are aware the Republic of Korea refers to the body of water as the ' East Sea , ' and the United States is not asking the Republic of Korea to change its nomenclature . U.S. usage of the ' Sea of Japan ' in no way implies an opinion regarding any issue related to sovereignty . "
= = Compromise names = =
On 18 November 2006 , during the APEC summit in Hanoi , South Korean President Roh Moo @-@ hyun informally proposed to the Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe that the sea be called instead the " Sea of Peace " or " Sea of Friendship " , which Abe rejected . In January 2007 Japanese Chief Cabinet Secretary Yasuhisa Shiozaki opposed the idea , saying that there was no need to change the name of the Sea of Japan .
= = Response of media and publishers = =
A number of maps , encyclopedias , and other publications have switched to using both names . For example , the Manual of Style of the National Geographic Society states that disputed place @-@ names in international waters or jointly controlled by two or more countries should use the conventional name first with other names following in parentheses . As such , their policy on this sea states that " The internationally accepted name is Sea of Japan , although Korea prefers East Sea . When scale permits , Geographic maps show the alternative name East Sea in parentheses after Sea of Japan . "
In 2006 , Google put both names on Google Earth , using East Sea near the Korean coast and Sea of Japan near the Japanese coast . In the 2007 edition of Encyclopædia Britannica , the primary article is called " Sea of Japan " . A secondary article called " East Sea " notes " see Japan , Sea of " . On the encyclopedia 's map of Japan and other Asia maps , Sea of Japan appears as the primary label and East Sea appears as a secondary label in parentheses . However , on the map of Korea the name East Sea appears as the primary label and Sea of Japan appears as a secondary label in parentheses . Other examples of publishers who use similar systems include Microsoft Encarta , the Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia , and About.com.
In 2012 , French encyclopedia publisher Larousse replaced " Mer du Japon " ( " Sea of Japan " ) with " Mer de L 'est ( Mer du Japon ) " ( " East Sea ( Sea of Japan ) " ) in maps of South Korea and North Korea in two of its books . However other maps such as those of Asia , China , Japan , and Russia continue to use " Mer du Japon " . Furthermore , the article " Mer du Japon " does not mention " East Sea " at all .
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= A Short History of Progress =
A Short History of Progress is a non @-@ fiction book and lecture series by Ronald Wright about societal collapse . The lectures were delivered as a series of five speeches , each taking place in different cities across Canada as part of the 2004 Massey Lectures which were broadcast on the CBC Radio program , Ideas . The book version was published by House of Anansi Press and released at the same time as the lectures . The book spent more than a year on Canadian best @-@ seller lists , won the Canadian Book Association 's Libris Award for Non @-@ Fiction Book of the Year , and was nominated for the British Columbia 's National Award for Canadian Non @-@ Fiction . It has since been reprinted in a hardcover format with illustrations .
Wright , an author of fiction and non @-@ fiction works , uses the fallen civilisations of Easter Island , Sumer , Rome , and Maya , as well as examples from the Stone Age , to see what conditions led to the downfall of those societies . He examines the meaning of progress and its implications for civilizations — past and present — arguing that the twentieth century was a time of runaway growth in human population , consumption , and technology that has now placed an unsustainable burden on all natural systems .
In his analysis of the four cases of fallen civilizations , he notes that two ( Easter Island and Sumer ) failed due to depletion of natural resources — " their ecologies were unable to regenerate . " The other two failed in their heartlands , " where ecological demand was highest , " but left remnant populations that survived . He asks the question : " Why , if civilizations so often destroy themselves , has the overall experiment of civilization done so well . " For the answer , he says , we must look to natural regeneration and human migration ( Wright , 102 ) . While some ancient civilizations were depleting their ecologies and failing , others were rising . Large expanses of the planet were unsettled . The other factor , evident in both Egypt and China , was that due to abundant resources ( e.g. , topsoil ) , farming methods ( ones that worked with , rather than against , natural cycles ) , and settlement patterns , these civilizations had greater longevity ( 103 @-@ 104 ) .
Changes brought on by the exponential growth of human population ( at the time of the book 's publication , over 6 billion and adding more than 200 million people every three years ) and the worldwide scale of resource consumption , have altered the picture , however . Ecological markers indicate that human civilization has now surpassed ( since the 1980s ) nature 's capacity for regeneration . We are now using more than 125 % of nature 's yearly output . " If civilization is to survive , it must live on the interest , not the capital of nature " ( 129 ) . He concludes that " now is our chance to get the future right " — the collapse of human civilization is imminent if we do not act now to prevent it ( 132 ) .
= = Background = =
Prior to being selected to deliver the Massey Lectures , Wright had written award @-@ winning fiction and non @-@ fiction books that deal with anthropology and civilizations . His 1992 non @-@ fiction book Stolen Continents : The " New World " Through Indian Eyes was awarded the 1993 Gordon Montador Award from the Writers ' Trust of Canada and his 1998 novel A Scientific Romance , about a museum curator who travels into the future and investigates the fate of the human race , won the David Higham Prize for Fiction for first @-@ time novelists . Wright traces the origins of the ideas behind A Short History of Progress to the material he studied while writing A Scientific Romance and his 2000 essay for The Globe and Mail titled " Civilization is a Pyramid Scheme " about the fall of the ninth @-@ century Mayan civilisation .
= = Synopsis = =
The first chapter , " Gauguin 's Questions " , poses the questions that provide a framework for the book . Referring to Paul Gauguin 's painting of the same name the questions are : Where do we come from ? What are we ? Where are we going ? Wright defines progress using the Victorian terms " the assumption that a pattern of change exists in the history of mankind ... that it consists of irreversible changes in one direction only , and that this direction is towards improvement " . Despite the extended time span of the Stone Age , Wright places the first sign of progress as being the ability to create fire . The competition between Cro @-@ Magnon and Neanderthals is examined with respect to the conditions that allowed one to out @-@ compete the other .
The second chapter , " The Great Experiment " , continues the examination of Stone Age progress by looking at the advancements in hunting . Wright uses the term " progress trap " to refer to innovations that create new problems for which the society is unable or unwilling to solve , or inadvertently create conditions that are worse than what existed before the innovation . For example , innovations in hunting during the Stone Age allowed for more successful hunts and consequently more free time during which culture and art were created ( e.g. cave paintings , bone carvings , etc . ) , but also led to extinctions , most notably of megafauna . As smaller and smaller game were hunted to replace larger extinct animals , the hunts became less successful and culture declined . Agriculture , and subsequently civilisations , independently arising in multiple regions at about the same time , ~ 10 @,@ 000 years ago , indicates to Wright that " given certain broad conditions , human societies everywhere will move towards greater size , complexity and environmental demand " . The chapter title refers to the human experience which Wright sees as a large experiment testing what conditions are required for a human civilisation to succeed .
In the third chapter , " Fools ' Paradise " , the rise and fall of two civilisations are examined : Easter Island and Sumer . Both flourished , but collapsed as a result of resource depletion ; both were able to visually see their land being eroded but were unwilling to reform . On Easter Island logging , in order to erect statues and build boats , destroyed their ecosystem and led to wars over the last planks of wood on the island . In Sumer , a large irrigation system , as well as over @-@ grazing , land clearing , and lime @-@ burning led to desertification and soil salination .
In the fourth chapter , " Pyramid Schemes " , the fates of the Roman and Mayan civilisations are compared ; both peaked with centralised empires but ended with power being diffused to their periphery as the center collapsed and ultra @-@ conservative leadership refused reformations . Anthropologist Joseph Tainter 's explanation for the fall of the Roman Empire is invoked , that " complex systems inevitably succumb to diminishing returns " so that the costs of operating an empire are so high that alternatives are implemented . Two examples of civilisations that have been sustainable are described : China and Egypt . Both had an abundance of resources , particularly topsoil , and used farming methods that worked with , rather than against , natural cycles , and settlement patterns that did not exceed , or permanently damage , the carrying capacity of the local environment .
The final chapter , " The Rebellion of the Tools " , seeks to answer the final Gauguin question , ' where are we going ? ' , by applying these past examples to modern society . Technological advancements in bio @-@ engineering , nanotechnology , cybernetics , amongst others , have the potential to be progress traps , and the global scale of modern society means that a societal collapse could impact all of mankind . Wright sees needed reforms being blocked by vested interests who reject multi @-@ lateral organisations , and support laissez @-@ faire economics and transfers of power to corporations as leading to the social and environmental degradations that led to the collapse of previous civilisations . Necessary reforms are , in Wright 's view , being blocked by vested interests who are hostile to change , including American market extremists . Wright concludes that " our present behaviour is typical of failed societies at the zenith of their greed and arrogance " and calls for a shift towards long @-@ term thinking :
= = Style = =
The contents of the book were originally written and delivered as a set of five speeches for the 2004 Massey Lectures ; each speech is presented in the book as one chapter . The writing reflects Wright oration style with the use of high rhetoric . Patrick Parrinder notes that Wright sometimes uses " the rhetorical armoury of a rationalistic lay preacher . " Wright takes a broad , philosophical approach , not focusing on individual people or specific politics or religions , but rather focusing on civilisations including ' the elites and the masses ' . Wright 's tone was described as " rarely depressing ... [ and that ] he remains surprisingly upbeat and even entertaining . " The use of the word progress is intended to be ironic : what is viewed as technological or social advancement have , in the historical narratives he provides , led to the fall of civilizations . Wright coins the term " progress trap " to describe the phenomenon of turning " cleverness into recklessness . "
Comparisons have been made between this book and Jared Diamond 's Collapse : How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed which both cover similar subject matter with " a cautious problem @-@ solving approach " and come to similar conclusions . Writing in Alternatives Journal , philosophy professor Kent Peacock notes that " both are well @-@ written " but that Diamond includes examples of societies which had achieved sustainability for centuries , whereas Wright has " a stronger grasp of the dark side of human nature " , like impatience , aggressiveness , and obstinacy . Author and journalist Brian Brett described Collapse as " a slow , rich feast " while " the compact A Short History of Progress is an arrow loosed from a powerful bow , a lyric dart into the heart of human behaviour . "
= = Publication and reception = =
The book , published by House of Anansi Press , was released at the same time the Massey Lectures were being delivered . In early November 2004 , one lecture was given by Wright in each of the following cities : Ottawa , Edmonton , Saskatoon , Halifax and Toronto . Their recording was broadcast on CBC Radio 's Ideas during the week of November 22 . The book was named the Canadian Booksellers Association 's 2005 Non @-@ Fiction Book of the Year at their annual Libris Awards and short @-@ listed for the first annual British Columbia Award for Canadian Non @-@ Fiction . A hardcover edition title An Illustrated Short History of Progress was released with a print run of 15 @,@ 000 copies in 2006 .
In The Globe and Mail , Canadian author Paul William Roberts praised the book , calling it " ... the most important use of printed word and post @-@ consumer recycled fibres I have seen since Jérôme Deshusses 's Délivrez Prométhée , 25 years ago . " Roberts explains , " [ Wright ] has such a firm grasp of his goal that scarcely a word is extraneous ... You feel you 've read volumes , though , not just because of the density of Wright 's thoughts , but due to the crushing weight of the burden they carry . In prose that is balefully evocative and irreducibly precise ... " On the other hand , in the National Post review , Peter Foster gave a negative review , chiding Wright for " not having the slightest clue about how economies work , or how , by their fundamental nature , markets are both moral and sustainable . " Foster ended his review by insulting Wright 's intellect , " What really needs some psychological excavation is Ronald Wright 's mind , which carries a set of inflated , emotionally based moralistic assumptions derived from the structure of his primitive ignorance about markets and economics . "
Other reviews were encouraging . In Maclean 's magazine Brian Bethune wrote it was " an elegant and learned discussion " on the topic . The review in The Times said it was " an eminently readable account ... written with an incredible lightness of touch that belies the very serious issues . " In the Montreal Gazette , Bryan Demchinsky called Wright eloquent and the book " a brief , trenchant essay . " Diane Barlee in Skeptic magazine , said Wright is a " remarkably gifted wordsmith whose talent makes turgid facts not only digestible , but also generates a hunger for more " and commented " A Short History of Progress is an important , well @-@ crafted book , however , I can 't promise that it will change your life . "
= = Film = =
The film rights were sold to Cinémaginaire in 2008 . It was filmed as a documentary , Surviving Progress directed by Mathieu Roy and co @-@ directed by Harold Crooks with Daniel Louis and Denise Robert as producers for Cinemaginaire and Gerry Flahive as producer for NFB . Martin Scorsese was attached to the project as executive producer as were Mark Achbar and Betsy Carson ( Big Picture Media Corporation ) and Silva Basmajian ( NFB ) . The film premiered at the 2011 Toronto International Film Festival . It was also shown as part of Festival Atmospheres on 31 March 2012 in Paris France .
While the book focused on ancient civilizations , the majority of the film addresses environmental impacts of our current ' global civilization ' , including the impact of concentrating wealth in the hands of the ' financial class ' . It is filmed as a mixture of interviews with individuals , from Wright himself to Jane Goodall and Margaret Atwood , interspersed with striking footage from all over the world . Mathieu Roy and Harold Crooks gave an interview in early 2012 on the challenges of adapting Ronald Wright 's book into a succinct film .
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= The Fight ( Parks and Recreation ) =
" The Fight " is the thirteenth episode of the third season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the 43rd overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on May 12 , 2011 . In the episode , the parks department employees become very drunk during a bar outing , where Leslie and Ann have their first major fight . Meanwhile , Chris tells Tom he must sell his share in the bar due to a conflict with his government job . According to Nielsen Media Research , " The Fight " was seen by an estimated 4 @.@ 55 million household viewers , a drop from the previous original episode , " Eagleton " .
= = Plot = =
Chris ( Rob Lowe ) has fired Denis Cooper , the former health department public relations director , who hung posters around city hall to publicly condemn his adulterous wife . Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) suggests Ann ( Rashida Jones ) replace him , mainly because they can spend more time together , since Ann has been so busy dating numerous men . Although reluctant to leave her job as a nurse , Ann agrees to attend the job interview , and Leslie provides her with an overwhelming amount of reading material to prepare for it . Meanwhile , Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) encourages the parks department to attend the Snakehole Lounge , a nightclub he partially owns with his friend Jean @-@ Ralphio Saperstein ( Ben Schwartz ) , for the unveiling of his new alcoholic beverage , Snake Juice . Tom also encourages them to spread the word about the drink through word of mouth guerilla marketing . April ( Aubrey Plaza ) shows little interest in attending , until Andy ( Chris Pratt ) suggests they make a game of it by role @-@ playing as different people at the bar . April pretends to be Janet Snakehole , an aristocratic widow with a dark secret , while Andy poses as his frequent alter @-@ ego , FBI agent Burt Macklin .
That night , at the Snakehole Lounge , Leslie is surprised and annoyed to find Ann partying on the dance floor instead of preparing for the job interview . Ann introduces Leslie to her latest boyfriend , local radio host " The Douche " ( Nick Kroll ) . As Leslie and Ann become increasingly drunk from Snake Juice , Leslie insults Ann 's current dating lifestyle . This prompts Ann to insult Leslie for moving too slow with Ben ( Adam Scott ) , whom Leslie is attracted to . The fight escalates throughout the night , and Leslie ultimately claims she always has to keep Ann motivated or she would not go anywhere . Both declare it best that Ann not work with Leslie after all and they storm off . Meanwhile , the Snake Juice proves delicious and popular with the rest of the parks department employees , all of whom become extremely drunk , with the exception of Donna ( Retta ) who is the only one not drinking , claiming it 's " basically rat poison " . Chris arrives to warn Tom that using government employees to promote his own personal ventures is a breach of ethics . He tells a disappointed Tom that he must sell his shares of the Snakehole Lounge if he wants to keep his job .
The next morning , everyone who drank Snake Juice is extremely hungover ( except Ron ( Nick Offerman ) ) , and Leslie deeply regrets how she treated Ann . Ben visits Ann at her home and asks her to forgive Leslie . Ann , who also regrets the fight , is touched by Ben 's gesture and reveals that Leslie likes him . Ann decides to attend the job interview , during which she and Leslie apologize to each other . After a second interview with Chris , Ann is given the job in a part @-@ time basis , which also would allow her to continue her work as a nurse . Tom reluctantly decides to sell his Snakehole Lounge shares . Tom sells his shares the next morning to Jean @-@ Ralphio , while Donna tries to comfort Tom , causing him to ask why Chris did not make her sell her shares , to which she replies that Chris does not know that she owns shares . She then tells Jean @-@ Ralphio that " [ s ] nitches get stiches . " Ron attempts to convince Chris to let him keep the shares , and defends Tom 's efforts to branch out by claiming the move was not unethical , but Chris is not persuaded . Instead , Ron comforts Tom by building him a special case to hold a bottle of Snake Juice . At the same time , April tries to reprise her role of Janet Snakehole and have Andy reprise Burt Macklin , but a hungover Andy says that " ... Burt Macklin died last night after the 10th shot of Snake Juice . " However , after seeing a sad April walk away , Andy creates himself a new role : Kip Hackman , Burt Macklin 's brother and chases after Janet , although he vomits as this happens .
= = Production = =
" The Fight " was directed by Randall Einhorn and written by Parks and Recreation star Amy Poehler , the second script she penned for the series after " Telethon " in the second season . Filmed in December 2010 , " The Fight " was originally broadcast on May 12 , 2011 , and ran back @-@ to @-@ back with the episode " Road Trip " , which aired immediately afterward . The two are stand @-@ alone episodes that were not originally designed to be shown together . However , because the third season premiered late as a mid @-@ season replacement in January , the two episodes aired together so the series ' season would conclude at the end of the television season . The filming of " The Fight " involved a particularly large amount of improvisation among the actors , a common technique among Parks and Recreation episodes . Each actor spent about two days on their own filming their Snakehole Lounge scenes , which included the shots used in a montage sequence that showed how drunk each character had become by the end of the night . Poehler described the filming as " the most fun I 've ever had " .
Although Ann Perkins was initially conceived as a character outside of city hall who became involved with Leslie and her political world , series co @-@ creator Michael Schur said he believed it made sense that she would take a city hall job because " we just decided that Leslie ’ s pull would be strong enough to get her to make a move , career @-@ wise " . Schur also said it would make it easier for the character to become involved in stories with the others . " The Fight " featured several appearances by actors who had appeared in previous Parks and Recreation episodes , including Ben Schwartz as Tom 's friend Jean @-@ Ralphio , who helps him promote Snake Juice throughout the night . Andy Forrest appeared as Andy 's shoeshine customer Kyle , who is often insulted and mocked by Andy and the other characters during his shoeshines . Nick Kroll also appeared as " The Douche " , the host of the Pawnee morning zoo @-@ style radio show " Crazy Ira and The Douche " , which was previously featured in the episode " Media Blitz " .
During one scene , Ron says , " I won 't publicly endorse a product unless I use it exclusively and I really believe in it . My only official recommendations are US Army issued mustache trimmers , Morton 's Salt , and the C.R. Lawrence fine two inch style oscillating knife blade . " That line was written by Schur , and the scene used in the episode was Nick Offerman 's first take , with no mistakes made with the complicated dialogue . Immediately after " The Fight " first aired , a " Producer 's Cut " version was made available on the official NBC.com website . It included an additional four minutes of material , that include a previously @-@ unaired cold open in which Ron sternly demands to know which employee has broken the parks department 's coffee machine ; this prompts a fight as the staff make accusations against each other . Ron secretly reveals to the camera that he broke the machine himself , but questioned the other employees anyway to deliberately start the arguments .
= = Cultural references = =
Before the credits , Ron mockingly refers to a pig 's head on a stick , a reference to the novel Lord of the Flies .
While providing Ann with reading material to prepare for her job interview , Leslie also gives her a copy of the 2010 Jonathan Franzen novel Freedom , claiming she wants to discuss the protagonist Patty Berglund with her . While drunk at the Snakehole Lounge , Ben says the words " baba booey " and starts laughing . The phrase is a nickname for Gary Dell 'Abate , a radio producer with The Howard Stern Show , and became a common catchphrase among Howard Stern fans .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast , " The Fight " was seen by an estimated 4 @.@ 55 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research , with a 2 @.@ 4 rating / 6 share among viewers between ages 18 and 49 . A rating point represents one percent of the total number of television sets in American households , and a share means the percentage of television sets in use tuned to the program . " Road Trip " , which aired immediately after " The Fight " , was seen by an estimated 3 @.@ 54 million households . Both ratings constituted a drop over the previous episode , " Eagleton " , which was seen by an estimated 5 @.@ 06 million household viewers . In its 9 : 30 p.m. timeslot , " The Fight " was outperformed by the CBS forensic crime series CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , which was seen by 11 @.@ 77 million households ; the Fox crime drama series Bones , which was seen by 10 @.@ 48 million household viewers ; and the ABC medical drama series Grey 's Anatomy , which was seen by 9 @.@ 63 million household viewers . Parks and Recreation outperformed an episode of the CW Television Network drama series Nikita , which was seen by 1 @.@ 94 million households .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Fight " received generally positive reviews , and several commentators noted that Ann 's new part @-@ time job at city hall provides a good explanation for why she is always spending time around the parks department despite working at the hospital . The scenes at the Snakehole Lounge were also praised as particularly funny , especially a shot where Ron Swanson dances drunkenly while wearing April 's small woman 's hat . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix said the episode was a good character study of the relationship between Leslie and Ann , and that the bar scenes " gave the whole episode a chaotic yet welcoming feel , like it was the show 's drunken greatest hits " . Entertainment Weekly writer Hillary Busis said she loved the episode and called the Snakehole Lounge scenes a " tour @-@ de @-@ force " that highlighted the comedic skills of the entire cast . Eric Sundermann of Hollywood.com enjoyed the silliness of the episode , and claimed that the characters are so well @-@ developed and likable that watching the Snakehole Lounge scenes felt like hanging out with real @-@ life friends at a bar . Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club called it a " stellar " episode that was " loose , silly , rich with details and heart " . He praised the fast pace and comedic timing of the jokes , and wrote , " it felt like the director was having as much fun as possible in ' The Fight . ' " Scott Meslow of The Atlantic called " The Fight " a very funny episode which offers a " great solution " to why Ann Perkins spends so much time in city hall , which he called one of the show 's " last nagging questions " .
Joel Keller of TV Squad said the cast did a good job of playing drunk without being overly exaggerated . He also believed Ann 's part @-@ time job was a good way to integrate her into the case , as she had " seemed adrift this season " . Zap2it writer Rick Porter felt the episode was " a little light on plot " but included many funny scenes , particularly Andy and April 's role @-@ playing , and Ron 's chipper attitude the morning after the bar visit , while everyone else remained hungover . Porter also praised Rashida Jones 's performance during her hangover scenes . Matt Fowler of IGN said he enjoyed Tom 's efforts to " become a high @-@ roller this season " , and said Andy and April were fantastic during their role @-@ playing scenes . Fowler also described Ron 's defense of Tom 's actions as " heart @-@ warming " . He gave the episode a 9 out of 10 . Nick McHatton of TV Fanatic said he believed Ann 's new part @-@ time job would help better integrate her into the cast . McHatton said the sweet scenes between Leslie and Ben are " quickly becoming my favorite scenes in the series " , and said a shot of Ron dancing while drunk at the Snakehole Lounge was " easily one of the funniest things he ’ s done yet " .
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= Japanese battleship Aki =
Aki ( 安芸 ) was a Satsuma @-@ class semi @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) during the first decade of the 20th century . She was the second battleship built domestically in Japan and the first to use steam turbines for propulsation . The ship was named for Aki Province , now a part of Hiroshima Prefecture . The ship saw no combat during World War I. Aki was disarmed in 1922 and sunk as a target in 1924 in accordance with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 .
= = Background = =
The Satsuma class was ordered in late 1904 under the 1904 War Naval Supplementary Program during the Russo @-@ Japanese War . Unlike the previous Katori @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , they were the first battleships ordered from Japanese shipyards . They were originally designed with a dozen 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns , but had to be redesigned because of a shortage of guns in Japan and to reduce costs .
= = Design and description = =
The ship had an overall length of 492 feet ( 150 @.@ 0 m ) , a beam of 83 feet 7 inches ( 25 @.@ 5 m ) , and a normal draft of 27 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 4 m ) . She displaced 20 @,@ 100 long tons ( 20 @,@ 400 t ) at normal load . The crew consisted of 931 officers and enlisted men .
Aki was fitted with a pair of Curtiss steam turbine sets using steam from 15 Miyabara water @-@ tube boilers . The turbines were rated at a total of 24 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 18 @,@ 000 kW ) for a design speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . The ship reached a top speed of 20 @.@ 25 knots ( 37 @.@ 50 km / h ; 23 @.@ 30 mph ) during her sea trials from 27 @,@ 740 shp ( 20 @,@ 690 kW ) . She carried enough coal and oil to give her a range of 9 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 16 @,@ 900 km ; 10 @,@ 500 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Unlike her half @-@ sister , she had three funnels .
The ship was completed with four 45 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns in two gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . They fired 850 @-@ pound ( 386 kg ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) shells to a maximum range of 24 @,@ 000 yd ( 22 @,@ 000 m ) . The intermediate armament consisted of six twin @-@ gun turrets equipped with 45 @-@ caliber Type 41 10 @-@ inch guns , three turrets on each side of the superstructure . Her heavy intermediate armament of guns larger than 9 inches ( 229 mm ) is why the ship is considered to be a semi @-@ dreadnought .
Aki 's secondary armament consisted of eight 40 @-@ caliber 6 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns , mounted in casemates in the sides of the hull . The ship was also equipped with eight quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 40 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ pounder 12 @-@ cwt guns and four 28 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ pounder QF guns . In addition , the battleship was fitted with five submerged 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedo tubes , two on each broadside and one in the stern .
The waterline main belt of the Satsuma @-@ class vessels consisted of Krupp cemented armor that had a maximum thickness of 9 inches ( 229 mm ) amidships . It tapered to a thickness of 4 inches ( 102 mm ) at the ends of the ship . A 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) strake of armor protected the casemates . The barbettes for the main guns were 7 – 9 @.@ 5 inches ( 180 – 240 mm ) thick . The armor of Aki 's main gun turrets had a maximum thickness of 8 inches ( 203 mm ) . The deck armor was 2 – 3 inches ( 51 – 76 mm ) thick and the conning tower was protected by six inches of armor .
= = Construction = =
Aki was laid down at Kure Naval Arsenal on 15 March 1906 . She was launched on 15 April 1907 , but construction was suspended for about five months after the decision was made on 26 November to install steam turbines on Aki and the armored cruiser Ibuki . Aki 's turbines were already behind schedule and the suspension allowed the less valuable ship to be completed first , and changes made to its turbines after testing were also incorporated into Aki 's turbines . Aki was finally completed on 11 March 1911 and her first captain was Tatsuo Matsumura .
= = Operational history = =
When World War I began in August 1914 , Aki was refitting at Kure Naval Arsenal . She was assigned to the 1st Battleship Squadron upon the completion of her refit and remained with it until she was transferred to the 2nd Battleship Squadron in 1918 , seeing no combat during the war . From December 1915 to December 1916 , she was commanded by Captain Kiyokazu Abo . The ship was disarmed at Yokosuka in 1922 to comply with the provisions of the Washington Naval Treaty , stricken from the navy list during 1923 and converted into a target ship . Aki was sunk by the battlecruiser Kongō and the battleship Hyūga on 2 September 1924 in Tokyo Bay . Two of her 10 @-@ inch gun turrets were installed as coastal artillery batteries on Jōgashima island to protect Tokyo Bay .
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= Justin ( consul 540 ) =
Flavius Mar ( cianus ? ) Petrus Theodorus Valentinus Rusticius Boraides Germanus Iustinus , simply and commonly known as Justin ( Latin : Iustinus , Greek : Ἰουστίνος ; circa 525 – 566 ) , was an East Roman ( Byzantine ) aristocrat and general . A member of the Justinian Dynasty and nephew of Emperor Justinian I ( r . 527 – 565 ) , he was appointed as one of the last Roman consuls in 540 , before going on to assume senior military commands in the Balkans and in Lazica . He fought against the Slavs , the Sassanid Persians and supervised the Byzantine Empire 's first contacts with the Avars . At the time of Justinian 's death , he was seen as a probable successor , but was beaten to the throne by his cousin , Justin II ( r . 565 – 578 ) , who exiled him to Egypt , where he was murdered .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and campaigns = = =
Justin was born around 525 , the eldest son of Germanus and his wife Passara . Germanus was a cousin of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I ( r . 527 – 565 ) and thus a member of the wider Justinian dynasty and cousin to Justinian 's successor , Emperor Justin II ( r . 565 – 578 ) . In 540 , he was named ordinary consul at a very young age ; he is illustrated as beardless in his consular diptych , and is still mentioned as a " young man " by Procopius nine years later . At this point , he already held the title of vir illustris and the honorary office of comes domesticorum . In the same year , he accompanied his father to the East against the Sassanid Persians , but saw no action . In 549 , he was instrumental in the revelation of the plot to overthrow Emperor Justinian by the Armenian general Artabanes and his associates . The conspirators intended to assassinate Emperor Justinian and his favourite general Belisarius , and raise Germanus to the Byzantine throne . Notified of their intentions , Justin informed his father , who then told Marcellus , the Count of the Excubitors , leading to the plotters ' arrest .
In 550 , together with his younger brother Justinian , he joined their father in his expedition against Ostrogoth Italy , but Germanus died suddenly in the autumn of 550 , before the army had left the Balkans , where it was assembling . After this , Justinian and Germanus 's son @-@ in @-@ law , John , led the army towards Salona ( modern Split , Croatia ) , where the eunuch Narses assumed command in late 551 . In early 551 , Justin was attached to a force under the eunuch Scholasticus that campaigned against a Slavic raid in the eastern Balkans . The Byzantines were initially defeated near Adrianople but went on to score a victory , after which the Slavs left Byzantine lands . In early 552 , Justin and Justinian were placed at the head of another expedition against a Slavic raid against Illyricum , but their forces were too small to confront the raiders directly . Instead , the brothers had to content themselves with harassing them . Shortly after , they were ordered north to assist the Lombards against the Gepids along with Aratius , Suartuas , and Amalafridas , but the Byzantines were detained from advancing too far north by the need to suppress religious strife in the city of Ulpiana .
= = = High command in Lazica and the Danube = = =
In 554 , now experienced in military affairs , Justin was sent east to Lazica to join the Byzantine forces under Bessas , Buzes , and Martin . His first encounter with the Persians was unsuccessful . Along with Bessas , Justin and his troops were encamped at the plain of Chytropolia , near the strategically important fortress of Telephis , which was held by Martin . The Persian general Mihr @-@ Mihroe , however , succeeded in dislodging Martin from Telephis . Martin withdrew to join the other two generals at Chytropolia , but there again the Byzantine army , too slow to take up position , was forced to flee in disarray before the advancing Persians , retreating along the Phasis river to the fortified island of Nesos ( Νήσος , Greek for " island " ) . Bessas was dismissed from high command as magister militum per Armeniam after this debacle , and succeeded by Martin with Justin as his second in command . Justin was ignorant of Martin 's intention to assassinate their ally , the Lazic king Gubazes II ; when he learned of the deed , he was shocked , but did not reprimand Martin because he believed – wrongly – that the murder had been carried out at the orders of Emperor Justinian .
The Byzantines then launched an attack on the Persian fort of Onoguris , but they were forced to abandon it at the unexpectedly quick arrival of Persian relief forces under Nachoragan . In spring 556 , Justin was with the rest of the Byzantine forces at Nesos , when Nakhoragan invaded western Lazica , making for the town of Phasis . The Byzantines hastily departed for the town , managing to reach it before the Persian army and then proceeded to successfully defend it during a prolonged siege . Following this success , in early 556 Justin returned to Nesos to guard it together with Buzes , while the rest of the army marched against the Misimians , a tribe that had recently allied itself with the Persians and killed the Byzantine general Soterichus . Justin 's only activity during this time was to dispatch one of his officers , Elminzur , to capture Rhodopolis ( modern Vardistzikhe ) with 2 @,@ 000 cavalry . In the next year , a general truce was agreed , which was finalized into a peace treaty in 562 .
Soon after , an imperial investigation into Gubazes 's murder brought to light Martin 's culpability . His military successes spared his life , but cost him his command ; he was replaced as magister militum per Armeniam by Justin in spring 557 . It was in this capacity that in late 557 Justin received the first Avar embassy to the Byzantine Empire . The Avars , who had fled their ancestral lands in Central Asia before the rise of the Göktürks , asked for imperial protection and for land to settle on . Justin forwarded them to Constantinople , where they arrived in December . Turned away from the Empire and towards the plains of the Ukraine by Justinian , the Avars defeated enemy after enemy and eventually reached the northeastern bank of the Danube in 561 / 562 . There they again encountered Justin , who had just been transferred to the command of the quaestura exercitus covering the lower Danubian limes ( the Limes Moesiae ) . At this time , the Avars demanded to settle in Byzantine imperial territory in Scythia Minor , whose defences had been devastated by a recent Kotrigur invasion led by Zabergan . Here , Justin played a crucial role and gained great fame , by learning of the Avars ' intentions and warning Justinian . Consequently , the Avar embassy to Constantinople was detained while the Byzantine defences were put in order . With Justin continuing to maintain a careful watch over the Danube river , the Avars contented themselves with the annual subsidy paid by Byzantium , and left the Empire in peace for some years to come .
= = = Exile and death = = =
At the time of Emperor Justinian 's death in 565 , due to his titles and reputation as a commander , as well his army 's proximity to the imperial capital , he was the leading contender for the vacant throne , along with his cousin Justin , the curopalates . The latter , however , was already present at Constantinople , and could count on the support of the Byzantine Senate , and especially of Patriarch John Scholasticus and the Count of the Excubitors Tiberius , whom he had helped secure his post . Thus Justin was hastily elevated to the throne on the same day that Justinian died . According to the contemporary historian Evagrius Scholasticus , the two Justins had reached an agreement whereby whoever would be crowned emperor would make the other the " second man " in the empire . When Justin II recalled his cousin to Constantinople , it seemed that this was the reason . The general was warmly received at first , but soon the new emperor began to make accusations against him , dismissed his bodyguard and placed him under house arrest , before sending him to exile in Alexandria , ostensibly as the new augustal prefect of Egypt . There , he was murdered in his sleep , ostensibly because he was plotting to seize the throne , and his head was cut off and brought to Constantinople . In reality , he was too great a threat to the new emperor to be left alive ; the Visigoth chronicler John of Biclaro explicitly attributes the murder to Justin II 's wife , the Empress Sophia .
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= 1933 Outer Banks hurricane =
The 1933 Outer Banks hurricane lashed portions of the North Carolina and Virginia coasts less than a month after another hurricane hit the general area . The twelfth tropical storm and sixth hurricane of the 1933 Atlantic hurricane season , it formed by September 8 to the east of the Lesser Antilles . It moved generally to the north @-@ northwest and strengthened quickly to peak winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) on September 12 . This made it a major hurricane and a Category 4 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . The hurricane remained at or near that intensity for several days while tracking to the northwest . It weakened approaching the southeastern United States , and on September 16 passed just east of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina with winds of about 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . Turning to the northeast , the hurricane became extratropical on September 18 before moving across Atlantic Canada , eventually dissipating four days later .
The threat of the hurricane prompted widespread tropical cyclone warnings and watches along the eastern United States and prompted some people to evacuate . Damage was heaviest in southeastern North Carolina near New Bern , where the combination of high tides and swollen rivers flooded much of the town . Across North Carolina , the hurricane caused power outages , washed out roads , and damaged crops . Several houses were damaged , leaving about 1 @,@ 000 people homeless . Damage was estimated at $ 4 @.@ 5 million , and there were 21 deaths in the state , mostly from drowning . Hurricane force winds extended into southeastern Virginia , where there were two deaths . High tides isolated a lighthouse near Norfolk and covered several roads . Farther north , two people on a small boat were left missing in Maine , and another person was presumed killed when his boat sank in Nova Scotia .
= = Meteorological history = =
Beginning on September 7 , there was an area of disturbed weather near and east of the Lesser Antilles , by which time there was a nearly closed circulation . At 0800 UTC the next day , a ship reported winds of about 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) ; on that basis , it is estimated a tropical depression developed eight hours earlier and into a tropical storm by the time of the report . The storm tracked generally to the north @-@ northwest , passing about 300 mi ( 480 km ) northeast of Saint Martin . Based on continuity and subsequent reports , it is estimated the storm intensified into a hurricane on September 10 . Early on September 12 , a ship reported a barometric pressure of 947 mbar ( 28 @.@ 0 inHg ) in the periphery of the storm while reporting winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . This suggested winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) , making it the equivalent of a modern Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale .
For over two days , the hurricane remained near peak intensity while tracking to the northwest , and during that time several ships reported low pressure and strong winds . The hurricane weakened as it turned to the north @-@ northwest toward the eastern United States . At around 1100 UTC on September 16 , the eye of the hurricane passed over Cape Hatteras , North Carolina , around which time a pressure of 957 mbar ( 28 @.@ 3 inHg ) was recorded . The eye also passed over Diamond Shoals , where a pressure of 952 mbar ( 28 @.@ 1 inHg ) was recorded . Based on the reading , it was estimated the hurricane remained about 15 mi ( 25 km ) east of the Outer Banks , with winds of about 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) occurring along the coast . By that time , the size of the storm had greatly increased , and hurricane force winds also extended into southeastern Virginia . The hurricane turned to the northeast , ahead of an approaching cold front , producing tropical storm force winds along the eastern United States through New England . After passing southeast of Cape Cod , the storm increasingly lost its tropical characteristics , and was an extratropical cyclone by 1100 UTC on September 18 when it made landfall on eastern Nova Scotia . Continuing to the northeast , the former hurricane crossed the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and subsequently near Newfoundland and Labrador , eventually dissipating on September 22 between southern Greenland and Iceland .
= = Preparations and impact = =
While the hurricane was approaching the Carolinas , the Weather Bureau issued storm warnings from Jacksonville , Florida to Beaufort , North Carolina at 2100 UTC on September 14 . Six hours later , these were extended northward to Virginia Capes . By 1530 UTC on September 15 , forecasters predicted that the hurricane would hit North Carolina in 12 hours and ordered hurricane warnings from Wilmington , North Carolina to Cape Hatteras . At the same time , the storm warning was expanded northward to Boston , Massachusetts , and later to Eastport , Maine . The early warnings gave ample time for preparation for the storm in Norfolk , reducing damages considerably . Residents in Virginia evacuated farther inland to escape the storm .
The outer rainbands of the hurricane dropped moderate to heavy rainfall , peaking at 12 @.@ 6 in ( 320 mm ) in Cape Hatteras . Due to the storm remaining offshore , damage was much less than another hurricane less than a month prior . Damage from this hurricane was heaviest near New Bern , North Carolina , where the storm surge reached 3 to 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 to 1 @.@ 22 m ) , which was 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) higher than the record set in 1913 . Much of the town was flooded due to the high tide and swollen nearby rivers . Strong winds in the city uprooted several trees and damaged roofs . Morehead City suffered similar but slightly lesser damage , including hundreds of downed trees , and Beaufort experienced one of its worst storms in the memory of its residents . Across the region , the storm downed telephone and telegraph lines . Several roads were washed out , and there was moderate agriculture damage , including hundreds of drowned livestock and flooded cotton crop . There were 21 deaths , mostly related to drownings , and damage was estimated at $ 4 @.@ 5 million . About 1 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . After the storm , relief agencies provided food and medical crews for the storm victims .
In southeastern Virginia , winds reached 79 mph ( 128 km / h ) . At Sewell 's Point in Norfolk , the storm produced 8 @.@ 3 ft ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) high tides , which turned the peninsula containing New Point Comfort Light into an island . Several roads were flooded , which disrupted traffic and forced residents to travel by rowboat . About 2 @,@ 000 people lost power , and due to well @-@ executed preparations , there were two deaths in the state . Damage was estimated at $ 250 @,@ 000 . Outside of Virginia , damage was minimal north of Cape Henry . Wind peaks included 48 mph ( 77 km / h ) in Atlantic City , New Jersey and 52 mph ( 84 km / h ) on Block Island . A boat required rescue in the Delaware Bay . Precipitation fell on the western periphery of the hurricane , associated with an approaching cold front . In Provincetown , Massachusetts , the storm dropped 12 @.@ 3 in ( 310 mm ) of rainfall it passed the region . In New England , high waves damaged waterfront properties . On Block Island , two boats were damaged , and another sank . In Maine , the rainfall flooded cellars and damaged roads . Two people were reported missing in Boothbay Harbor after venturing into the storm in a small boat .
Still maintaining strong winds by the time it struck Canada , the former hurricane washed one boat ashore , left three missing , and capsized one . One person was presumed killed when his boat sunk in Lockeport , Nova Scotia . The storm dropped heavy rainfall across the region , including 1 @.@ 1 in ( 27 mm ) in Yarmouth , Nova Scotia , and about 3 in ( 75 mm ) in 15 hours in Gagetown , New Brunswick ; there , the rains flooded roads and damaged crops . At Harvey Station in the same province , high rainfall washed out a 75 ft ( 22 m ) portion of a rail line .
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= Metagenomics =
Metagenomics is the study of genetic material recovered directly from environmental samples . The broad field may also be referred to as environmental genomics , ecogenomics or community genomics . While traditional microbiology and microbial genome sequencing and genomics rely upon cultivated clonal cultures , early environmental gene sequencing cloned specific genes ( often the 16S rRNA gene ) to produce a profile of diversity in a natural sample . Such work revealed that the vast majority of microbial biodiversity had been missed by cultivation @-@ based methods . Recent studies use either " shotgun " or PCR directed sequencing to get largely unbiased samples of all genes from all the members of the sampled communities . Because of its ability to reveal the previously hidden diversity of microscopic life , metagenomics offers a powerful lens for viewing the microbial world that has the potential to revolutionize understanding of the entire living world . As the price of DNA sequencing continues to fall , metagenomics now allows microbial ecology to be investigated at a much greater scale and detail than before .
= = Etymology = =
The term " metagenomics " was first used by Jo Handelsman , Jon Clardy , Robert M. Goodman , Sean F. Brady , and others , and first appeared in publication in 1998 . The term metagenome referenced the idea that a collection of genes sequenced from the environment could be analyzed in a way analogous to the study of a single genome . Recently , Kevin Chen and Lior Pachter ( researchers at the University of California , Berkeley ) defined metagenomics as " the application of modern genomics technique without the need for isolation and lab cultivation of individual species " .
= = History = =
Conventional sequencing begins with a culture of identical cells as a source of DNA . However , early metagenomic studies revealed that there are probably large groups of microorganisms in many environments that cannot be cultured and thus cannot be sequenced . These early studies focused on 16S ribosomal RNA sequences which are relatively short , often conserved within a species , and generally different between species . Many 16S rRNA sequences have been found which do not belong to any known cultured species , indicating that there are numerous non @-@ isolated organisms . These surveys of ribosomal RNA ( rRNA ) genes taken directly from the environment revealed that cultivation based methods find less than 1 % of the bacterial and archaeal species in a sample . Much of the interest in metagenomics comes from these discoveries that showed that the vast majority of microorganisms had previously gone unnoticed .
Early molecular work in the field was conducted by Norman R. Pace and colleagues , who used PCR to explore the diversity of ribosomal RNA sequences . The insights gained from these breakthrough studies led Pace to propose the idea of cloning DNA directly from environmental samples as early as 1985 . This led to the first report of isolating and cloning bulk DNA from an environmental sample , published by Pace and colleagues in 1991 while Pace was in the Department of Biology at Indiana University . Considerable efforts ensured that these were not PCR false positives and supported the existence of a complex community of unexplored species . Although this methodology was limited to exploring highly conserved , non @-@ protein coding genes , it did support early microbial morphology @-@ based observations that diversity was far more complex than was known by culturing methods . Soon after that , Healy reported the metagenomic isolation of functional genes from " zoolibraries " constructed from a complex culture of environmental organisms grown in the laboratory on dried grasses in 1995 . After leaving the Pace laboratory , Edward DeLong continued in the field and has published work that has largely laid the groundwork for environmental phylogenies based on signature 16S sequences , beginning with his group 's construction of libraries from marine samples .
In 2002 , Mya Breitbart , Forest Rohwer , and colleagues used environmental shotgun sequencing ( see below ) to show that 200 liters of seawater contains over 5000 different viruses . Subsequent studies showed that there are more than a thousand viral species in human stool and possibly a million different viruses per kilogram of marine sediment , including many bacteriophages . Essentially all of the viruses in these studies were new species . In 2004 , Gene Tyson , Jill Banfield , and colleagues at the University of California , Berkeley and the Joint Genome Institute sequenced DNA extracted from an acid mine drainage system . This effort resulted in the complete , or nearly complete , genomes for a handful of bacteria and archaea that had previously resisted attempts to culture them .
Beginning in 2003 , Craig Venter , leader of the privately funded parallel of the Human Genome Project , has led the Global Ocean Sampling Expedition ( GOS ) , circumnavigating the globe and collecting metagenomic samples throughout the journey . All of these samples are sequenced using shotgun sequencing , in hopes that new genomes ( and therefore new organisms ) would be identified . The pilot project , conducted in the Sargasso Sea , found DNA from nearly 2000 different species , including 148 types of bacteria never before seen . Venter has circumnavigated the globe and thoroughly explored the West Coast of the United States , and completed a two @-@ year expedition to explore the Baltic , Mediterranean and Black Seas . Analysis of the metagenomic data collected during this journey revealed two groups of organisms , one composed of taxa adapted to environmental conditions of ' feast or famine ' , and a second composed of relatively fewer but more abundantly and widely distributed taxa primarily composed of plankton .
In 2005 Stephan C. Schuster at Penn State University and colleagues published the first sequences of an environmental sample generated with high @-@ throughput sequencing , in this case massively parallel pyrosequencing developed by 454 Life Sciences . Another early paper in this area appeared in 2006 by Robert Edwards , Forest Rohwer , and colleagues at San Diego State University .
= = Sequencing = =
Recovery of DNA sequences longer than a few thousand base pairs from environmental samples was very difficult until recent advances in molecular biological techniques allowed the construction of libraries in bacterial artificial chromosomes ( BACs ) , which provided better vectors for molecular cloning .
= = = Shotgun metagenomics = = =
Advances in bioinformatics , refinements of DNA amplification , and the proliferation of computational power have greatly aided the analysis of DNA sequences recovered from environmental samples , allowing the adaptation of shotgun sequencing to metagenomic samples . The approach , used to sequence many cultured microorganisms and the human genome , randomly shears DNA , sequences many short sequences , and reconstructs them into a consensus sequence . Shotgun sequencing reveals genes present in environmental samples . Historically , clone libraries were used to facilitate this sequencing . However , with advances in high throughput sequencing technologies , the cloning step is no longer necessary and greater yields of sequencing data can be obtained without this labour @-@ intensive bottleneck step . Shotgun metagenomics provides information both about which organisms are present and what metabolic processes are possible in the community . Because the collection of DNA from an environment is largely uncontrolled , the most abundant organisms in an environmental sample are most highly represented in the resulting sequence data . To achieve the high coverage needed to fully resolve the genomes of under @-@ represented community members , large samples , often prohibitively so , are needed . On the other hand , the random nature of shotgun sequencing ensures that many of these organisms , which would otherwise go unnoticed using traditional culturing techniques , will be represented by at least some small sequence segments .
= = = High @-@ throughput sequencing = = =
The first metagenomic studies conducted using high @-@ throughput sequencing used massively parallel 454 pyrosequencing . Three other technologies commonly applied to environmental sampling are the Ion Torrent Personal Genome Machine , the Illumina MiSeq or HiSeq and the Applied Biosystems SOLiD system . These techniques for sequencing DNA generate shorter fragments than Sanger sequencing ; Ion Torrent PGM System and 454 pyrosequencing typically produces ~ 400 bp reads , Illumina MiSeq produces 400 @-@ 700bp reads ( depending on whether paired end options are used ) , and SOLiD produce 25 @-@ 75 bp reads . Historically , these read lengths were significantly shorter than the typical Sanger sequencing read length of ~ 750 bp , however the Illumina technology is quickly coming close to this benchmark . However , this limitation is compensated for by the much larger number of sequence reads . In 2009 , pyrosequenced metagenomes generate 200 – 500 megabases , and Illumina platforms generate around 20 – 50 gigabases , but these outputs have increased by orders of magnitude in recent years . An additional advantage to high throughput sequencing is that this technique does not require cloning the DNA before sequencing , removing one of the main biases and bottlenecks in environmental sampling .
= = Bioinformatics = =
The data generated by metagenomics experiments are both enormous and inherently noisy , containing fragmented data representing as many as 10 @,@ 000 species . The sequencing of the cow rumen metagenome generated 279 gigabases , or 279 billion base pairs of nucleotide sequence data , while the human gut microbiome gene catalog identified 3 @.@ 3 million genes assembled from 567 @.@ 7 gigabases of sequence data . Collecting , curating , and extracting useful biological information from datasets of this size represent significant computational challenges for researchers .
= = = Sequence pre @-@ filtering = = =
The first step of metagenomic data analysis requires the execution of certain pre @-@ filtering steps , including the removal of redundant , low @-@ quality sequences and sequences of probable eukaryotic origin ( especially in metagenomes of human origin ) . The methods available for the removal of contaminating eukaryotic genomic DNA sequences include Eu @-@ Detect and DeConseq .
= = = Assembly = = =
DNA sequence data from genomic and metagenomic projects are essentially the same , but genomic sequence data offers higher coverage while metagenomic data is usually highly non @-@ redundant . Furthermore , the increased use of second @-@ generation sequencing technologies with short read lengths means that much of future metagenomic data will be error @-@ prone . Taken in combination , these factors make the assembly of metagenomic sequence reads into genomes difficult and unreliable . Misassemblies are caused by the presence of repetitive DNA sequences that make assembly especially difficult because of the difference in the relative abundance of species present in the sample . Misassemblies can also involve the combination of sequences from more than one species into chimeric contigs .
There are several assembly programs , most of which can use information from paired @-@ end tags in order to improve the accuracy of assemblies . Some programs , such as Phrap or Celera Assembler , were designed to be used to assemble single genomes but nevertheless produce good results when assembling metagenomic data sets . Other programs , such as Velvet assembler , have been optimized for the shorter reads produced by second @-@ generation sequencing through the use of de Bruijn graphs . The use of reference genomes allows researchers to improve the assembly of the most abundant microbial species , but this approach is limited by the small subset of microbial phyla for which sequenced genomes are available . After an assembly is created , an additional challenge is " metagenomic deconvolution " , or determining which sequences come from which species in the sample .
= = = Gene prediction = = =
Metagenomic analysis pipelines use two approaches in the annotation of coding regions in the assembled contigs . The first approach is to identify genes based upon homology with genes that are already publicly available in sequence databases , usually by simple BLAST searches . This type of approach is implemented in the program MEGAN4 . The second , ab initio , uses intrinsic features of the sequence to predict coding regions based upon gene training sets from related organisms . This is the approach taken by programs such as GeneMark and GLIMMER . The main advantage of ab initio prediction is that it enables the detection of coding regions that lack homologs in the sequence databases ; however , it is most accurate when there are large regions of contiguous genomic DNA available for comparison .
= = = Species diversity = = =
Gene annotations provide the " what " , while measurements of species diversity provide the " who " . In order to connect community composition and function in metagenomes , sequences must be binned . Binning is the process of associating a particular sequence with an organism . In similarity @-@ based binning , methods such as BLAST are used to rapidly search for phylogenetic markers or otherwise similar sequences in existing public databases . This approach is implemented in MEGAN . Another tool , PhymmBL , uses interpolated Markov models to assign reads . MetaPhlAn and AMPHORA are methods based on unique clade @-@ specific markers for estimating organismal relative abundances with improved computational performances . In composition based binning , methods use intrinsic features of the sequence , such as oligonucleotide frequencies or codon usage bias . Once sequences are binned , it is possible to carry out comparative analysis of diversity and richness utilising tools such as Unifrac .
= = = Data integration = = =
The massive amount of exponentially growing sequence data is a daunting challenge that is complicated by the complexity of the metadata associated with metagenomic projects . Metadata includes detailed information about the three @-@ dimensional ( including depth , or height ) geography and environmental features of the sample , physical data about the sample site , and the methodology of the sampling . This information is necessary both to ensure replicability and to enable downstream analysis . Because of its importance , metadata and collaborative data review and curation require standardized data formats located in specialized databases , such as the Genomes OnLine Database ( GOLD ) .
Several tools have been developed to integrate metadata and sequence data , allowing downstream comparative analyses of different datasets using a number of ecological indices . In 2007 , Folker Meyer and Robert Edwards and a team at Argonne National Laboratory and the University of Chicago released the Metagenomics Rapid Annotation using Subsystem Technology server ( MG @-@ RAST ) a community resource for metagenome data set analysis . As of June 2012 over 14 @.@ 8 terabases ( 14x1012 bases ) of DNA have been analyzed , with more than 10 @,@ 000 public data sets freely available for comparison within MG @-@ RAST . Over 8 @,@ 000 users now have submitted a total of 50 @,@ 000 metagenomes to MG @-@ RAST . The Integrated Microbial Genomes / Metagenomes ( IMG / M ) system also provides a collection of tools for functional analysis of microbial communities based on their metagenome sequence , based upon reference isolate genomes included from the Integrated Microbial Genomes ( IMG ) system and the Genomic Encyclopedia of Bacteria and Archaea ( GEBA ) project .
One of the first standalone tools for analysing high @-@ throughput metagenome shotgun data was MEGAN ( MEta Genome ANalyzer ) . A first version of the program was used in 2005 to analyse the metagenomic context of DNA sequences obtained from a mammoth bone . Based on a BLAST comparison against a reference database , this tool performs both taxonomic and functional binning , by placing the reads onto the nodes of the NCBI taxonomy using a simple lowest common ancestor ( LCA ) algorithm or onto the nodes of the SEED or KEGG classifications , respectively .
= = = Comparative metagenomics = = =
Comparative analyses between metagenomes can provide additional insight into the function of complex microbial communities and their role in host health . Pairwise or multiple comparisons between metagenomes can be made at the level of sequence composition ( comparing GC @-@ content or genome size ) , taxonomic diversity , or functional complement . Comparisons of population structure and phylogenetic diversity can be made on the basis of 16S and other phylogenetic marker genes , or — in the case of low @-@ diversity communities — by genome reconstruction from the metagenomic dataset . Functional comparisons between metagenomes may be made by comparing sequences against reference databases such as COG or KEGG , and tabulating the abundance by category and evaluating any differences for statistical significance . This gene @-@ centric approach emphasizes the functional complement of the community as a whole rather than taxonomic groups , and shows that the functional complements are analogous under similar environmental conditions . Consequently , metadata on the environmental context of the metagenomic sample is especially important in comparative analyses , as it provides researchers with the ability to study the effect of habitat upon community structure and function .
Additionally , several studies have also utilized oligonucleotide usage patterns to identify the differences across diverse microbial communities . Examples of such methodologies include the dinucleotide relative abundance approach by Willner et al. and the HabiSign approach of Ghosh et al . Ghosh et al . ( 2011 ) also indicated that differences in tetranucleotide usage patterns can be used to identify genes ( or metagenomic reads ) originating from specific habitats . Additionally some methods as TriageTools or Compareads detect similar reads between two read sets . The similarity measure they apply on reads is based on a number of identical words of length k shared by pairs of reads .
A key goal in comparative metagenomics is to identify microbial group ( s ) which are responsible for conferring specific characteristics to a given environment . However , due to issues in the sequencing technologies artifacts need to be accounted for like in metagenomeSeq . Others have characterized inter @-@ microbial interactions between the resident microbial groups . A GUI @-@ based comparative metagenomic analysis application called Community @-@ Analyzer has been developed by Kuntal et al. which implements a correlation @-@ based graph layout algorithm that not only facilitates a quick visualization of the differences in the analyzed microbial communities ( in terms of their taxonomic composition ) , but also provides insights into the inherent inter @-@ microbial interactions occurring therein . Notably , this layout algorithm also enables grouping of the metagenomes based on the probable inter @-@ microbial interaction patterns rather than simply comparing abundance values of various taxonomic groups . In addition , the tool implements several interactive GUI @-@ based functionalities that enable users to perform standard comparative analyses across microbiomes .
= = Data analysis = =
= = = Community metabolism = = =
In many bacterial communities , natural or engineered ( such as bioreactors ) , there is significant division of labor in metabolism ( Syntrophy ) , during which the waste products of some organisms are metabolites for others . In one such system , the methanogenic bioreactor , functional stability requires the presence of several syntrophic species ( Syntrophobacterales and Synergistia ) working together in order to turn raw resources into fully metabolized waste ( methane ) . Using comparative gene studies and expression experiments with microarrays or proteomics researchers can piece together a metabolic network that goes beyond species boundaries . Such studies require detailed knowledge about which versions of which proteins are coded by which species and even by which strains of which species . Therefore , community genomic information is another fundamental tool ( with metabolomics and proteomics ) in the quest to determine how metabolites are transferred and transformed by a community .
= = = Metatranscriptomics = = =
Metagenomics allows researchers to access the functional and metabolic diversity of microbial communities , but it cannot show which of these processes are active . The extraction and analysis of metagenomic mRNA ( the metatranscriptome ) provides information on the regulation and expression profiles of complex communities . Because of the technical difficulties ( the short half @-@ life of mRNA , for example ) in the collection of environmental RNA there have been relatively few in situ metatranscriptomic studies of microbial communities to date . While originally limited to microarray technology , metatranscriptomcs studies have made use of direct high @-@ throughput cDNA sequencing to provide whole @-@ genome expression and quantification of a microbial community , as first employed by Leininger et al . ( 2006 ) in their analysis of ammonia oxidation in soils .
= = = Viruses = = =
Metagenomic sequencing is particularly useful in the study of viral communities . As viruses lack a shared universal phylogenetic marker ( as 16S RNA for bacteria and archaea , and 18S RNA for eukarya ) , the only way to access the genetic diversity of the viral community from an environmental sample is through metagenomics . Viral metagenomes ( also called viromes ) should thus provide more and more information about viral diversity and evolution . For example a metagenomic pipeline called Giant Virus Finder showed the first evidence of existence of giant viruses in a saline desert .
= = Applications = =
Metagenomics has the potential to advance knowledge in a wide variety of fields . It can also be applied to solve practical challenges in medicine , engineering , agriculture , sustainability and ecology .
= = = Medicine = = =
Microbial communities play a key role in preserving human health , but their composition and the mechanism by which they do so remains mysterious . Metagenomic sequencing is being used to characterize the microbial communities from 15 @-@ 18 body sites from at least 250 individuals . This is part of the Human Microbiome initiative with primary goals to determine if there is a core human microbiome , to understand the changes in the human microbiome that can be correlated with human health , and to develop new technological and bioinformatics tools to support these goals .
Another medical study as part of the MetaHit ( Metagenomics of the Human Intestinal Tract ) project consisted of 124 individuals from Denmark and Spain consisting of healthy , overweight , and irritable bowel disease patients . The study attempted to categorize the depth and phylogenetic diversity of gastrointestinal bacteria . Using Illumina GA sequence data and SOAPdenovo , a de Bruijn graph @-@ based tool specifically designed for assembly short reads , they were able to generate 6 @.@ 58 million contigs greater than 500 bp for a total contig length of 10 @.@ 3 Gb and a N50 length of 2 @.@ 2 kb .
The study demonstrated that two bacterial divisions , Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes , constitute over 90 % of the known phylogenetic categories that dominate distal gut bacteria . Using the relative gene frequencies found within the gut these researchers identified 1 @,@ 244 metagenomic clusters that are critically important for the health of the intestinal tract . There are two types of functions in these range clusters : housekeeping and those specific to the intestine . The housekeeping gene clusters are required in all bacteria and are often major players in the main metabolic pathways including central carbon metabolism and amino acid synthesis . The gut @-@ specific functions include adhesion to host proteins and the harvesting of sugars from globoseries glycolipids . Patients with irritable bowel syndrome were shown to exhibit 25 % fewer genes and lower bacterial diversity than individuals not suffering from irritable bowel syndrome indicating that changes in patients ’ gut biome diversity may be associated with this condition .
While these studies highlight some potentially valuable medical applications , only 31 @-@ 48 @.@ 8 % of the reads could be aligned to 194 public human gut bacterial genomes and 7 @.@ 6 @-@ 21 @.@ 2 % to bacterial genomes available in GenBank which indicates that there is still far more research necessary to capture novel bacterial genomes .
= = = Biofuel = = =
Biofuels are fuels derived from biomass conversion , as in the conversion of cellulose contained in corn stalks , switchgrass , and other biomass into cellulosic ethanol . This process is dependent upon microbial consortia that transform the cellulose into sugars , followed by the fermentation of the sugars into ethanol . Microbes also produce a variety of sources of bioenergy including methane and hydrogen .
The efficient industrial @-@ scale deconstruction of biomass requires novel enzymes with higher productivity and lower cost . Metagenomic approaches to the analysis of complex microbial communities allow the targeted screening of enzymes with industrial applications in biofuel production , such as glycoside hydrolases . Furthermore , knowledge of how these microbial communities function is required to control them , and metagenomics is a key tool in their understanding . Metagenomic approaches allow comparative analyses between convergent microbial systems like biogas fermenters or insect herbivores such as the fungus garden of the leafcutter ants .
= = = Environmental remediation = = =
Metagenomics can improve strategies for monitoring the impact of pollutants on ecosystems and for cleaning up contaminated environments . Increased understanding of how microbial communities cope with pollutants improves assessments of the potential of contaminated sites to recover from pollution and increases the chances of bioaugmentation or biostimulation trials to succeed .
= = = Biotechnology = = =
Microbial communities produce a vast array of biologically active chemicals that are used in competition and communication . Many of the drugs in use today were originally uncovered in microbes ; recent progress in mining the rich genetic resource of non @-@ culturable microbes has led to the discovery of new genes , enzymes , and natural products . The application of metagenomics has allowed the development of commodity and fine chemicals , agrochemicals and pharmaceuticals where the benefit of enzyme @-@ catalyzed chiral synthesis is increasingly recognized .
Two types of analysis are used in the bioprospecting of metagenomic data : function @-@ driven screening for an expressed trait , and sequence @-@ driven screening for DNA sequences of interest . Function @-@ driven analysis seeks to identify clones expressing a desired trait or useful activity , followed by biochemical characterization and sequence analysis . This approach is limited by availability of a suitable screen and the requirement that the desired trait be expressed in the host cell . Moreover , the low rate of discovery ( less than one per 1 @,@ 000 clones screened ) and its labor @-@ intensive nature further limit this approach . In contrast , sequence @-@ driven analysis uses conserved DNA sequences to design PCR primers to screen clones for the sequence of interest . In comparison to cloning @-@ based approaches , using a sequence @-@ only approach further reduces the amount of bench work required . The application of massively parallel sequencing also greatly increases the amount of sequence data generated , which require high @-@ throughput bioinformatic analysis pipelines . The sequence @-@ driven approach to screening is limited by the breadth and accuracy of gene functions present in public sequence databases . In practice , experiments make use of a combination of both functional and sequence @-@ based approaches based upon the function of interest , the complexity of the sample to be screened , and other factors .
= = = Agriculture = = =
The soils in which plants grow are inhabited by microbial communities , with one gram of soil containing around 109 @-@ 1010 microbial cells which comprise about one gigabase of sequence information . The microbial communities which inhabit soils are some of the most complex known to science , and remain poorly understood despite their economic importance . Microbial consortia perform a wide variety of ecosystem services necessary for plant growth , including fixing atmospheric nitrogen , nutrient cycling , disease suppression , and sequester iron and other metals . Functional metagenomics strategies are being used to explore the interactions between plants and microbes through cultivation @-@ independent study of these microbial communities . By allowing insights into the role of previously uncultivated or rare community members in nutrient cycling and the promotion of plant growth , metagenomic approaches can contribute to improved disease detection in crops and livestock and the adaptation of enhanced farming practices which improve crop health by harnessing the relationship between microbes and plants .
= = = Ecology = = =
Metagenomics can provide valuable insights into the functional ecology of environmental communities . Metagenomic analysis of the bacterial consortia found in the defecations of Australian sea lions suggests that nutrient @-@ rich sea lion faeces may be an important nutrient source for coastal ecosystems . This is because the bacteria that are expelled simultaneously with the defecations are adept at breaking down the nutrients in the faeces into a bioavailable form that can be taken up into the food chain .
DNA sequencing can also be used more broadly to identify species present in a body of water , debris filtered from the air , or sample of dirt . This can establish the range of invasive species and endangered species , and track seasonal populations .
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= New York State Route 420 =
New York State Route 420 ( NY 420 ) is a north – south state highway in St. Lawrence County , New York , in the United States . The southern terminus of the route is at an intersection with U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) in the town of Stockholm . Its northern terminus is at a junction with NY 37 in the village of Massena . NY 420 passes through undeveloped regions of St. Lawrence County for most of its routing and briefly overlaps with NY 11C in the hamlet of Winthrop .
NY 420 was originally part of Route 32 , an unsigned legislative route created by the New York State Legislature in 1908 . The Winthrop – Massena portion of Route 32 became part of the signed NY 56 in the mid @-@ 1920s ; however , NY 56 was realigned in 1927 to follow a new alignment well to the south of Winthrop . The former routing of NY 56 between Winthrop and Massena was redesignated as NY 420 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . NY 420 was extended southward to its current terminus south of Winthrop in 1980 .
= = Route description = =
NY 420 begins at an intersection with US 11 in the town of Stockholm . The route heads north as a two @-@ lane highway through forested areas and across both branches of the St. Regis River to the hamlet of Winthrop , the first area of significant development along the highway . Here , the two branches of the St. Regis River converge and NY 420 meets NY 11C . NY 420 turns northeastward , overlapping NY 11C for two blocks before splitting from it in the center of Winthrop .
The route heads northwest from Winthrop , passing through heavily forested areas of St. Lawrence County . As NY 420 passes out of Stockholm and into Norfolk , the forests surrounding the highway begin to taper off and give way to small pockets of residences and cultivated fields . The amount of homes along the route begin to increase upon intersecting Plum Hill Road , at which point NY 420 becomes lined with residences for much of its run through north Norfolk . However , the string of homes ends near the northern town line , and the highway becomes flanked by forests once more as it curves northward and enters the town of Massena .
In Massena , the forests along NY 420 subside slightly as it passes by industrial warehouses and residences . The route curves back to the northwest as it enters the village of Massena . Just past the village line , NY 420 crosses the St. Lawrence Subdivision , a railroad line owned by CSX Transportation . The highway continues on , curving northward to cross the Raquette River . It curves back to the northwest on the northern riverbank and passes by a mixture of homes and commercial establishments before intersecting NY 37 south of the village center . NY 420 ends here ; however , the road continues north into the heart of the village as Main Street .
= = History = =
In 1908 , the New York State Legislature created Route 32 , an unsigned legislative route extending from North Lawrence to Ogdensburg via Winthrop and Massena . When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , all of Route 32 west of Massena became part of NY 3 while the section east of Winthrop was incorporated into NY 2 . The Winthrop – Massena segment of Route 32 did not initially receive a designation ; however , by 1926 , it had become the northwestern @-@ most portion of NY 56 , a highway linking Brighton to Massena via Nicholville and Winthrop . In 1927 , NY 56 was realigned to proceed west from Nicholville on modern NY 11B to a new terminus in the village of Potsdam . The former routing of NY 56 between Winthrop and Massena was left unnumbered until the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York when it was designated as NY 420 .
The initial northern terminus of NY 420 was in the center of Massena at the junction of Orvis and Main Streets , where it ended at NY 37 . In the mid @-@ 1950s , construction began on a new alignment for NY 37 around the southern edge of the village . The highway opened to traffic by 1958 ; however , NY 420 continued to extend past the bypass into Massena until the early 1960s , when it was cut back to its junction with NY 37 's new routing . The former routing of NY 420 in Massena is still state @-@ maintained as part of NY 970B , an unsigned reference route designation for all of Main Street between NY 37 and NY 37B .
On September 1 , 1982 , ownership and maintenance of County Route 51 ( CR 51 ) from CR 110 north to US 11 in Winthrop was transferred from St. Lawrence County to the state of New York as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . Also transferred to the state as part of the swap was CR 110 itself , an east – west highway extending from Stockholm Center to Coteys Corner . The segment of CR 51 given to New York became a southward extension of NY 420 , which now began at NY 11C ( former CR 110 ) and briefly overlapped US 11 in Winthrop . The alignments of US 11 and NY 11C between Stockholm Center and Coteys Corner were flipped on June 13 , 1992 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in St. Lawrence County .
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= Danie Mellor =
Danie Mellor ( born 13 April 1971 ) is an Australian artist who was the winner of the 2009 National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award . Born in Mackay , Queensland , Mellor grew up in Scotland , Australia and South Africa before undertaking tertiary studies at North Adelaide School of Art , the Australian National University ( ANU ) and Birmingham Institute of Art and Design . He then took up a post lecturing at Sydney College of the Arts . He works in different media including printmaking , drawing , painting , and sculpture . Considered a key figure in contemporary Indigenous Australian art , the dominant theme in Mellor 's art is the relationship between Indigenous and non @-@ Indigenous Australian cultures .
Since 2000 , Mellor 's works have been included regularly in National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award exhibitions ; in 2003 he was awarded a " highly commended " , for his print Cyathea cooperi , and in 2009 he won the principal prize , for a mixed media work From Rite to Ritual . His other major exhibitions have included the Primavera 2005 show at the Museum of Contemporary Art , Sydney , and the National Indigenous Art Triennial at the National Gallery of Australia in 2007 . In 2012 , his work was included in the National Museum of Australia 's exhibition Menagerie : Contemporary Indigenous Sculpture as well as in the second National Indigenous Art Triennial , while international recognition came in 2013 with representation in the National Gallery of Canada 's exhibition of international indigenous art .
= = Life = =
Mellor was born in Mackay , Queensland , in 1971 . His father was of American and Australian descent ; his mother had Irish , Mamu , Ngagen , and Ngajan heritage . Mellor 's maternal great @-@ great @-@ grandmother , Eleanor Kelly , and great @-@ grandmother , May Kelly , were Indigenous Australian people from the rainforest country around Cairns . The family was peripatetic : in his first twenty years , Mellor lived in Mackay , Queensland ; Scotland ; Brisbane , Queensland ; Sutton Grange , Victoria ; Adelaide , South Australia ; and Cape Town , South Africa , as well as in the Northern Territory . Mellor went to school at Steiner Schools in South Australia and South Africa ; in high school he was taught art by his mother . Looking back at the influence of his schooling upon his art , he remarked how , despite the Eurocentric origins of Rudolf Steiner 's approach to education , " there are comparable elements and themes inherent in [ Steiner 's ] philosophical narrative that parallel an Indigenous outlook , which is holistic in the way it approaches deeper and more intuitive readings of the environment and landscape . "
After completing a Certificate in Art at the North Adelaide School of Art in 1991 , Mellor undertook a Bachelor of Arts with Honours at the ANU in 1992 – 1994 , and a Masters in Fine Art at Birmingham Institute of Art and Design , part of the Birmingham City University , in 1995 – 1996 . In the early 2000s , he entered a doctorate at the ANU , where he also taught print @-@ media and drawing . He completed his PhD in 2004 . As of 2013 , Mellor is a lecturer at Sydney College of the Arts , within the University of Sydney . Mellor is married to artist Joanne Kennedy .
= = Career = =
In the early 1990s , Mellor won drawing prizes at the ANU 's Canberra School of Art and the Grafton Regional Gallery in New South Wales . Through the mid @-@ 1990s , while studying in Canberra and Birmingham , he was represented in numerous student and other exhibitions , in Australia , Belgium , Japan , Korea and the United Kingdom . These included exhibitions titled Passage , at Kyoto Seika University in Japan in 1994 , and Fragile Objects at the National Library of Australia in 1996 .
Mellor 's works have been included in the National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award on several occasions , in 2000 , 2001 , and every year from 2003 to 2010 . In 2003 , his mezzotint print Cyathea cooperi , portraying tree ferns native to the Queensland rainforest , was highly commended . Subsequent entries have included Of fragile dreams the heart which nevermore in 2005 , Untitled ( Ernie Grant in Blackman Street ) in 2006 , Exotic lies and sacred ties ( the heart that conceals , the tongue that never reveals ) in 2008 , and A Transcendent Vision ( of life , death and resurrection ) in 2010 . Reviewing the 2008 exhibition , academic Sarah Scott expressed surprise that Mellor 's 2008 piece had neither attracted an award nor been purchased for the Northern Territory 's public collection .
Primavera 2005 , an annual exhibition of young artists ' work held at the Museum of Contemporary Art in Sydney , included Mellor 's work Fig 1 @-@ 100 ( This particular collection made sense ) , a mixed media composition that included specimens of Ulysses butterflies . He has had numerous other exhibitions , both individually and as part of group shows , at galleries including the Queensland Art Gallery in 2003 , the Canberra Museum and Art Gallery in 2006 , and the Indigenous Ceramic Art Awards , at Shepparton Gallery in Victoria in 2007 .
Mellor 's work was represented in the first National Indigenous Art Triennial in 2007 , with the elaborate ( and elaborately named ) sculpture The contrivance of a vintage Wonderland ( A magnificent flight of curious fancy for science buffs , a china ark of seductive whimsy , a divinely ordered special attraction , upheld in multifariousness ) featuring a diorama that included sculpted kangaroos made with blue and white crockery fragments ( evoking Spode bone china ) , real kangaroo skin ( used for the ears and paws ) , and synthetic eyeballs ; stuffed birds sat in a life @-@ sized mixed @-@ media tree overhead . The work featured in media reports of the exhibition , including by The Adelaide Advertiser , The Canberra Times , The West Australian and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation .
Since graduating , Mellor has won several awards , including the Canberra Critic 's Choice Award in 2006 , and the $ 15 @,@ 000 John Tallis National Works on Paper Acquisitive Award in 2008 . The following year , he won the Victorian Indigenous Ceramic Art Award , held at Shepparton Art Gallery in Shepparton , Victoria . In August 2009 , Mellor won the AU $ 40 @,@ 000 National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award , for his mixed media work From Rite to Ritual . It was only the third time in the award 's 26 years that an urban Aboriginal artist had been the winner . Earlier that year his solo show at Brisbane 's Jan Murphy Gallery had sold out . Also in that year , Mellor 's work was featured alongside that of Patricia Piccinini and Cherry Hood in the Newcastle Region Art Gallery 's show Animal Attraction . Though Mellor has not had a painting hung in the Archibald Prize , he was the subject of Paul Ryan 's portrait that was a 2010 finalist in that competition . In 2012 , his work was included in the National Museum of Australia 's exhibition Menagerie : Contemporary Indigenous Sculpture , and in the second National Indigenous Art Triennial . He was also selected for inclusion in that year 's Blake Prize , with his work Bulluru Storywater . Mellor received international recognition in 2013 , when he was included in Sakahàn , the National Gallery of Canada 's " most ambitious contemporary art exhibition in its history " .
Among the national collections containing Mellor 's work are the National Gallery of Australia , which owns his prize @-@ winning From Rite to Ritual , and the Parliament House Art Collection . Most other major Australian art collections have holdings , including the state gallery of his birth state , Queensland , and the main public gallery of the city where he completed much of his tertiary study , the Canberra Museum and Gallery . Other state and territory galleries in which he is represented include the Art Gallery of South Australia , the Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory and the National Gallery of Victoria . Public regional galleries that have collected Mellor 's creations include Newcastle Regional Art Gallery in New South Wales , and Warrnambool Art Gallery in Victoria . He is also represented in the Australian government 's collection , Artbank , as well as in large , private collections such as the Kerry Stokes .
In the 2010s , Mellor became involved in administrative and leadership roles in the arts community . In 2010 , Mellor became a member of the Visual Arts Board of the Australia Council for the Arts . In 2011 , Mellor was not an entrant in the National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award , as he instead became one of its judges . Appointed to the Visual Arts Board for a further term , Mellor in 2013 became its Chair . At the same time , Mellor continued to exhibit works . In 2014 , a survey of his works opened at the University of Queensland Art Museum , and was scheduled to travel to the Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory later in the year . The exhibition was favourably reviewed in theguardian.com , with art critic Sharne Wolff drawing attention to Mellor 's newest sculpture , Anima , which she said " marks a dramatic change " for the artist , bearing " no resemblance to Mellor ’ s more glamorous output " . His work featured as part of the Edinburgh International Festival , with a show titled Primordial : SuperNaturalBayiMinyjirral displayed at the National Museum of Scotland .
= = Technique and themes = =
Mellor 's extensive scholarly art education has led to his art having a strong theoretical base . In interviews he has acknowledged the influence of diverse artists , including Indigenous painter Rover Thomas , Australian Sulman Prize winner Tim Storrier , Romantic painters including Germany 's Caspar David Friedrich , and contemporary German artists Joseph Beuys , and Beuys ' student Anselm Kiefer . He has harnessed a wide range of media during his career , including printmaking , drawing , painting and sculpture utilising wood , glass , steel and ceramics , as well as a range of more unorthodox materials , as his 2007 Indigenous Art Triennial entry demonstrated . Reflecting on that sculpture , Artlink Magazine 's reviewer , Daniel Thomas , remarked on how the work signified " how colonisers always get things wrong ; how Europeans looking for China , and its fine porcelain manufactures , stumbled instead upon the land of the kangaroo , and traded and planted ideas of racial and cultural superiority " .
When Sarah Scott considered the 2008 work Exotic Lies and Sacred Ties , which , like From Rite to Ritual , drew on evocations of Spode china , she highlighted its exploration of the history of cross @-@ cultural relations . Noting the landscape that forms the central element of the painting , she observed :
The stuffed parrot and upside @-@ down cockatoo that hang above the landscape recall the bizarre renditions of these birds produced by European artists following the eighteenth century European voyages of discovery to Australia . In front of the ' landscape ' are two mosaic kangaroo ' messengers . ' One kangaroo points to the painting . Another covers his ears in a ' hear no evil ' gesture , graphically signifying how under the black armband view of history ... , the oral history accounts of Indigenous people have been largely ignored . This work recalls the museum dioramas in which Aboriginal people , who until 1967 were classified under the Flora and Fauna act , appeared amongst exotic taxidermy objects .
From Rite to Ritual examined relationships between Indigenous and settler cultures , including differences in spiritual practices . Mellor , in an artist 's statement for the awards , described the work as showing " what is a moment of contact , a conversation and interaction between two cultures ; it speaks of the challenges of settlement , and the differences in spiritual enactment and belief " . Commenting on the work , the judges of the prize remarked that the " surprising scale and layering of imagery , with its understated political and historical references " made the work " outstanding " and of " great complexity and grace " . Art writer Nicolas Rothwell described the work as drawing a parallel " between Aboriginal initiation rituals and the ceremonies inside a Masonic lodge . "
Mellor 's earlier works examined the relationships between cultures , including in his mezzotint prints in which he juxtaposed " images of native and introduced flora and fauna — for example , a kangaroo with a bull — to symbolise two different peoples and cultures " . These issues were also addressed in his painting for the exhibition Native Titled Now , shown in South Australia in 1996 . Mellor 's interest in cultural interactions extends beyond the making of his art . In a panel discussion on Indigenous art education , Mellor emphasised that , in teaching Indigenous art within visual arts , it was important to be aware of both Aboriginal and settler history , " so you can talk about their interaction and the whole set of issues that arise from those two things being parallel " . Mellor 's emphasis on past interactions between cultures led gallerist and critic Michael Reid to consider that Mellor 's works had earned him " an important place in the visual narrative of Australian history " .
For Mellor , Indigenous identity is a theme highlighted both in his work and ( not necessarily by his own choice ) in public life . As a fair @-@ skinned man with blue eyes and caucasian features , his appearance has occasionally raised questions of " authenticity " . Mellor found himself the target of columnist Andrew Bolt , who took issue with Mellor entering and winning the 2009 National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award . Bolt wrote " This white university lecturer , with his nice Canberra studio , has by winning pushed aside real draw @-@ in @-@ the @-@ dirt Aboriginal artists such as Dorothy Napangardi , Mitjili Napanangka Gibson and Walangkura Napanangka , who had also entered and could really have used that cash and recognition . " Commentator Ellie Savage , criticising Bolt , wondered why someone who " neither draws in the dirt nor lives in it " should therefore have " no right to enter competitions for Indigenous artists " . Bolt two years later lost a case brought by nine Indigenous Australians — not including Mellor — for racial discrimination over articles that criticised fair @-@ skinned Indigenous people , including the post that had lambasted Mellor . Art writer Maurice O 'Riordan , reviewing the 2009 Award , noted the Bolt controversy , but pointed out that Mellor , while in early works acknowledging his own Indigenous heritage , is not concerned with the definition of Aboriginality , but with historical interaction between cultures and the re @-@ imagining of history .
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= Louvre =
The Louvre or the Louvre Museum ( French : Musée du Louvre , pronounced : [ myze dy luvʁ ] ) ( French ) is the world 's largest museum and a historic monument in Paris , France . A central landmark of the city , it is located on the Right Bank of the Seine in the 1st arrondissement ( ward ) . Nearly 35 @,@ 000 objects from prehistory to the 21st century are exhibited over an area of 60 @,@ 600 square metres ( 652 @,@ 300 square feet ) . The Louvre is the world 's second most visited museum after the Palace Museum in China , receiving more than 9 @.@ 26 million visitors in 2014 .
The museum is housed in the Louvre Palace , originally built as a fortress in the late 12th century under Philip II . Remnants of the fortress are visible in the basement of the museum . The building was extended many times to form the present Louvre Palace . In 1682 , Louis XIV chose the Palace of Versailles for his household , leaving the Louvre primarily as a place to display the royal collection , including , from 1692 , a collection of ancient Greek and Roman sculpture . In 1692 , the building was occupied by the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres and the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture , which in 1699 held the first of a series of salons . The Académie remained at the Louvre for 100 years . During the French Revolution , the National Assembly decreed that the Louvre should be used as a museum to display the nation 's masterpieces .
The museum opened on 10 August 1793 with an exhibition of 537 paintings , the majority of the works being royal and confiscated church property . Because of structural problems with the building , the museum was closed in 1796 until 1801 . The collection was increased under Napoleon and the museum renamed the Musée Napoléon , but after Napoleon 's abdication many works seized by his armies were returned to their original owners . The collection was further increased during the reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X , and during the Second French Empire the museum gained 20 @,@ 000 pieces . Holdings have grown steadily through donations and bequests since the Third Republic . The collection is divided among eight curatorial departments : Egyptian Antiquities ; Near Eastern Antiquities ; Greek , Etruscan and Roman Antiquities ; Islamic Art ; Sculpture ; Decorative Arts ; Paintings ; Prints and Drawings .
= = History = =
= = = 12th – 20th centuries = = =
= = = = Medieval , Renaissance , and Bourbon palace = = = =
The Louvre Palace , which houses the museum , was begun as a fortress by Philip II in the 12th century , with remnants of this building still visible in the crypt . Whether this was the first building on that spot is not known ; it is possible that Philip modified an existing tower . According to the authoritative Grand Larousse encyclopédique , it derives from an association with wolf hunting den ( via Latin : lupus , lower Empire : lupara ) . In the 7th century , St. Fare , an abbess in Meaux , left part of her " Villa called Luvra situated in the region of Paris " to a monastery . ; this territory probably did not correspond exactly to the modern site , however .
The Louvre Palace was altered frequently throughout the Middle Ages . In the 14th century , Charles V converted the building into a residence and in 1546 , Francis I renovated the site in French Renaissance style . Francis acquired what would become the nucleus of the Louvre 's holdings , his acquisitions including Leonardo da Vinci 's Mona Lisa . After Louis XIV chose Versailles as his residence in 1682 , constructions slowed ; however , the move permitted the Louvre to be used as a residence for artists .
By the mid @-@ 18th century there was an increasing number of proposals to create a public gallery , with the art critic La Font de Saint @-@ Yenne publishing , in 1747 , a call for a display of the royal collection . On 14 October 1750 , Louis XV agreed and sanctioned a display of 96 pieces from the royal collection , mounted in the Galerie royale de peinture of the Luxembourg Palace . A hall was opened by Le Normant de Tournehem and the Marquis de Marigny for public viewing of the Tableaux du Roy on Wednesdays and Saturdays , and contained Andrea del Sarto 's Charity and works by Raphael ; Titian ; Veronese ; Rembrandt ; Poussin or Van Dyck , until its closing in 1780 as a result of the gift of the palace to the Count of Provence ( the future king , Louis XVIII ) by the king in 1778 . Under Louis XVI , the royal museum idea became policy . The comte d 'Angiviller broadened the collection and in 1776 proposed conversion of the Grande Galerie of the Louvre – which contained maps – into the " French Museum " . Many proposals were offered for the Louvre 's renovation into a museum ; however , none was agreed on . Hence the museum remained incomplete until the French Revolution .
= = = = French Revolution = = = =
During the French Revolution the Louvre was transformed into a public museum . In May 1791 , the Assembly declared that the Louvre would be " a place for bringing together monuments of all the sciences and arts " . On 10 August 1792 , Louis XVI was imprisoned and the royal collection in the Louvre became national property . Because of fear of vandalism or theft , on 19 August , the National Assembly pronounced the museum 's preparation as urgent . In October , a committee to " preserve the national memory " began assembling the collection for display .
= = = = = Opening = = = = =
The museum opened on 10 August 1793 , the first anniversary of the monarchy 's demise . The public was given free access on three days per week , which was " perceived as a major accomplishment and was generally appreciated " . The collection showcased 537 paintings and 184 objects of art . Three quarters were derived from the royal collections , the remainder from confiscated émigrés and Church property ( biens nationaux ) . To expand and organize the collection , the Republic dedicated 100 @,@ 000 livres per year . In 1794 , France 's revolutionary armies began bringing pieces from Northern Europe , augmented after the Treaty of Tolentino ( 1797 ) by works from the Vatican , such as Laocoön and His Sons and the Apollo Belvedere , to establish the Louvre as a museum and as a " sign of popular sovereignty " .
The early days were hectic ; privileged artists continued to live in residence , and the unlabelled paintings hung " frame to frame from floor to ceiling " . The structure itself closed in May 1796 due to structural deficiencies . It reopened on 14 July 1801 , arranged chronologically and with new lighting and columns .
= = = = Napoleon = = = =
Under Napoleon I , a northern wing paralleling the Grande Galerie was begun , and the collection grew through successful military campaigns . Following the Egyptian campaign of 1798 – 1801 , Napoléon appointed the museum 's first director , Dominique Vivant Denon . In tribute , the museum was renamed the " Musée Napoléon " in 1803 , and acquisitions were made of Spanish , Austrian , Dutch , and Italian works , either as spoils or through treaties such as the Treaty of Tolentino . At the end of Napoleon 's First Italian Campaign in 1797 , the Treaty of Campo Formio was signed with Count Philipp von Cobenzl of the Austrian Monarchy . This treaty not only marked the completion of Napoleon 's conquest of Italy , but also the end of the first phases of the French Revolutionary Wars . Under this treaty , Italian cities were required to contribute pieces of art and patrimony to take part in Napoleon 's " parades of booty " through Paris before being put into the Louvre Museum . One of the most famous pieces taken under this program was the Horses of Saint Mark . The four antique bronze horses , which had adorned the basilica of San Marco in Venice after the sack of Constantinople in 1204 , were brought to Paris to reside atop Napoleon 's Arc du Carrousel in Paris in 1797 .
Several churches and palaces , including Saint Mark 's Basilica , were looted by the French , which outraged the Italians and their artistic and cultural sensibilities . In 1797 , the Treaty of Tolentino was signed by Napoleon , and two statues , the Nile and Tiber , were taken to Paris . These statues had previously been in the Vatican , and both were housed in the Louvre until 1815 . After the defeat of Napoleon , the Nile was returned to Italy . However , the Tiber remained in the Louvre Museum and can be seen in the collections today .
The Italian Peninsula was not the only region from which Napoleon took art . Under the Directory government of the 1790s , Napoleon ( then a General ) led an expedition to Egypt . The campaign was an expansionist effort on the part of the government , but the Directory had another goal to make Paris the center of art , science , and culture . The Directory wanted France to assume responsibility for liberating the works of art they deemed in danger in order to protect and nationalize the heritage and culture of their subjects . As a result , there were teams of artists and scientists who accompanied the armies into battle equipped with lists of paintings , sculptures , and other pieces of patrimony that would be collected , crated , and shipped back to France .
Dominique Vivant Denon was Napoleon 's art advisor , and accompanied him on the expedition to Egypt . Through his initiative , the Valley of the Kings in Egypt was discovered and studied extensively . As a result , he was later installed by Napoleon as the director of Musée Napoléon , formerly the Louvre , cementing the status of the museum as a center for global patrimony and storehouse for cultural heritage .
One of the most important discoveries made during Napoleon 's campaign in Egypt was the Rosetta Stone . It was discovered in 1799 , and eventually led to the ability to decipher ancient hieroglyphs . Although the Rosetta Stone was discovered by the French , it actually never made it to the Louvre Museum . It was seized by British Forces following the defeat of Napoleon in Egypt and the subsequent signing of the Treaty of Alexandria in 1801 . It is now on display at the British Museum .
After the French defeat at Waterloo , the works ' former owners sought their return . The Louvre 's administrators were loath to comply and hid many works in their private collections . In response , foreign states sent emissaries to London to seek help , and many pieces were returned , even some that had been restored by the Louvre . In 1815 Louis XVIII finally concluded agreements with the Austrian government for the keeping of pieces such as Veronese 's Wedding at Cana which was exchanged for a large Le Brun or the repurchase of the Albani collection .
= = = = Restoration and Second Empire = = = =
During the Restoration ( 1814 – 30 ) , Louis XVIII and Charles X between them added 135 pieces at a cost of 720 @,@ 000 francs and created the department of Egyptian antiquities curated by Champollion , increased by more than 7 @,@ 000 works with the acquisition of antiquities in the Edme @-@ Antoine Durand , the Egyptian collection of Henry Salt or the second collection former by Bernardino Drovetti . This was less than the amount given for rehabilitation of Versailles , and the Louvre suffered relative to the rest of Paris . After the creation of the French Second Republic in 1848 , the new government allocated two million francs for repair work and ordered the completion of the Galerie d 'Apollon , the Salon Carré , and the Grande Galérie . In 1861 , Louis @-@ Napoléon Bonaparte bought 11 @,@ 835 artworks including 641 paintings , Greek gold and other antiquities of the Campana collection . During the Second French Empire , between 1852 and 1870 , the French economy grew ; by 1870 the museum had added 20 @,@ 000 new pieces to its collections , and the Pavillon de Flore and the Grande Galérie were remodelled under architects Louis Visconti and Hector Lefuel .
= = = = Third Republic and World Wars = = = =
During the Third Republic ( 1870 – 1940 ) the Louvre acquired new pieces mainly via donations and gifts . The Société des Amis du Louvre donated the Pietà of Villeneuve @-@ lès @-@ Avignon , and in 1863 an expedition uncovered the sculpture Winged Victory of Samothrace in the Aegean Sea . This piece , though heavily damaged , has been prominently displayed since 1884 . The 583 @-@ item Collection La Caze donated in 1869 , included works by Chardin ; Fragonard ; Rembrandt – such as Bathsheba at Her Bath – and Gilles by Watteau .
Museum expansion slowed after World War I , and the collection did not acquire many significant new works ; exceptions were Georges de La Tour 's Saint Thomas and Baron Edmond de Rothschild 's ( 1845 – 1934 ) 1935 donation of 4 @,@ 000 engravings , 3 @,@ 000 drawings , and 500 illustrated books . During World War II the museum removed most of the art and hid valuable pieces . When Germany occupied the Sudetenland , many important artworks such as the Mona Lisa were temporarily moved to the Château de Chambord . When war was formally declared a year later , most of the museum 's paintings were sent there as well . Select sculptures such as Winged Victory of Samothrace and the Venus de Milo were sent to the Château de Valençay . On 27 August 1939 , after two days of packing , truck convoys began to leave Paris . By 28 December , the museum was cleared of most works , except those that were too heavy and " unimportant paintings [ that ] were left in the basement " . In early 1945 , after the liberation of France , art began returning to the Louvre .
= = = = Grand Louvre Pyramids = = = =
By 1874 , the Louvre Palace had achieved its present form of an almost rectangular structure with the Sully Wing to the east containing the square Cour Carrée and the oldest parts of the Louvre ; and two wings which wrap the Cour Napoléon , the Richelieu Wing to the north and the Denon Wing , which borders the Seine to the south . In 1983 , French President François Mitterrand proposed , as one of his Grands Projets , the Grand Louvre plan to renovate the building and relocate the Finance Ministry , allowing displays throughout the building . Architect I. M. Pei was awarded the project and proposed a glass pyramid to stand over a new entrance in the main court , the Cour Napoléon . The pyramid and its underground lobby were inaugurated on 15 October 1988 ; the pyramid was completed in 1989 . The second phase of the Grand Louvre plan , La Pyramide Inversée ( The Inverted Pyramid ) , was completed in 1993 . As of 2002 , attendance had doubled since completion .
= = = 21st century = = =
The Musée du Louvre contains more than 380 @,@ 000 objects and displays 35 @,@ 000 works of art in eight curatorial departments with more than 60 @,@ 600 square metres ( 652 @,@ 000 sq ft ) dedicated to the permanent collection . The Louvre exhibits sculptures , objets d 'art , paintings , drawings , and archaeological finds . It is the world 's second most visited museum , averaging 15 @,@ 000 visitors per day , 65 percent of whom are foreign tourists .
After architects Mario Bellini and Rudy Ricciotti had won an international competition to create its new galleries for Islamic art , the new 3 @,@ 000 sq m pavilion eventually opened in 2012 , consisting of ground- and lower @-@ ground @-@ level interior spaces topped by a golden , undulating roof ( fashioned from almost 9 @,@ 000 steel tubes that form an interior web ) that seems to float within the neo @-@ Classical Visconti Courtyard in the middle of the Louvre 's south wing . The galleries , which the museum had initially hoped to open by 2009 , represent the first major architectural intervention at the Louvre since the addition of I.M. Pei 's glass pyramid in 1989 .
On 5 February 2015 about one hundred archaeologists , protesting against commercial private involvement to protect France 's heritage , blocked Louvre 's ticket desks to facilitate free access to the museum . At least one announcement reading " Free entrance offered by the archeologists " has been attached to the ticket desk and a number of people visited the museum free of charge .
The Louvre is owned by the French government ; however , since the 1990s it has become more independent . Since 2003 , the museum has been required to generate funds for projects . By 2006 , government funds had dipped from 75 percent of the total budget to 62 percent . Every year , the Louvre now raises as much as it gets from the state , about € 122 million . The government pays for operating costs ( salaries , safety and maintenance ) , while the rest – new wings , refurbishments , acquisitions – is up to the museum to finance . A further € 3 million to € 5 million a year is raised by the Louvre from exhibitions that it curates for other museums , while the host museum keeps the ticket money . As the Louvre became a point of interest in the book The Da Vinci Code and the 2006 film based on the book , the museum earned $ 2 @.@ 5 million by allowing filming in its galleries . In 2008 , the French government provided $ 180 million of the Louvre 's yearly $ 350 million budget ; the remainder came from private contributions and ticket sales .
The Louvre employs a staff of 2 @,@ 000 led by Director Jean @-@ Luc Martinez , who reports to the French Ministry of Culture and Communications . Martinez replaced Henri Loyrette in April 2013 . Under Loyrette , who replaced Pierre Rosenberg in 2001 , the Louvre has undergone policy changes that allow it to lend and borrow more works than before . In 2006 , it loaned 1 @,@ 300 works , which enabled it to borrow more foreign works . From 2006 to 2009 , the Louvre lent artwork to the High Museum of Art in Atlanta , Georgia , and received a $ 6 @.@ 9 million payment to be used for renovations .
In 2012 , the Louvre and the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco announced a five @-@ year collaboration on exhibitions , publications , art conservation and educational programming . The € 98 @.@ 5 million expansion of the Islamic Art galleries in 2012 received state funding of € 31 million , as well as € 17 million from the Alwaleed Bin Talal Foundation founded by the eponymous Saudi prince . The republic of Azerbaijan , the Emir of Kuwait , the Sultan of Oman and King Mohammed VI of Morocco donated in total € 26 million . In addition , the opening of the Louvre Abu Dhabi is supposed to provide € 400 million over the course of 30 years for its use of the museum 's prestigious brand . Loyrette has tried to improve weak parts of the collection through income generated from loans of art and by guaranteeing that " 20 % of admissions receipts will be taken annually for acquisitions " . He has more administrative independence for the museum and achieved 90 percent of galleries to be open daily , as opposed to 80 percent previously . He oversaw the creation of extended hours and free admission on Friday nights and an increase in the acquisition budget to $ 36 million from $ 4 @.@ 5 million .
= = = = Satellite museums = = = =
= = = = = Lens = = = = =
In 2004 , French officials decided to build a satellite museum on the site of an abandoned coal pit in the former mining town of Lens to relieve the crowded Paris Louvre , increase total museum visits , and improve the industrial north 's economy . Six cities were considered for the project : Amiens , Arras , Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer , Calais , Lens , and Valenciennes . In 2004 , French Prime Minister Jean @-@ Pierre Raffarin chose Lens to be the site of the new building , called Le Louvre @-@ Lens . Japanese architects SANAA were selected to design the Lens project in 2005 . Museum officials predicted that the new building , capable of receiving about 600 works of art , would attract up to 500 @,@ 000 visitors a year when it opened in 2012 .
= = = = = Abu Dhabi = = = = =
In March 2007 , the Louvre announced that a Louvre museum would be completed by 2016 in Abu Dhabi . A 30 @-@ year agreement , signed by French Culture Minister Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres and Sheik Sultan bin Tahnoon Al Nahyan , will establish the museum on Saadiyat Island in Abu Dhabi in exchange for € 832 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( US $ 1 @.@ 3 billion ) . The Louvre Abu Dhabi , designed by the French architect Jean Nouvel and the engineering firm of Buro Happold , will occupy 24 @,@ 000 square metres ( 260 @,@ 000 sq ft ) and will be covered by a roof shaped like a flying saucer . France agreed to rotate between 200 and 300 artworks during a 10 @-@ year period ; to provide management expertise ; and to provide four temporary exhibitions a year for 15 years . The art will come from multiple museums , including the Louvre , the Georges Pompidou Centre , the Musée d 'Orsay , Versailles , the Musée Guimet , the Musée Rodin , and the Musée du quai Branly .
= = = = Conservation = = = =
In 2009 , Minister of Culture Frédéric Mitterrand approved a plan that would have created a storage facility 30 km northwest of Paris to hold objects from the Louvre and two other national museums in Paris 's flood zone , the Musée du Quai Branly and the Musée d 'Orsay ; the plan was later scrapped . In 2013 , his successor Aurélie Filippetti announced that the Louvre would move more than 250 @,@ 000 works of art held in a 20 @,@ 000 square metres ( 220 @,@ 000 sq ft ) basement storage area in Liévin ; the cost of the project , estimated at € 60 million , will be split between the region ( 49 % ) and the Louvre ( 51 % ) . The Louvre will be the sole owner and manager of the store . In July 2015 , a team led by British firm Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners was selected to design the complex , which will have light @-@ filled work spaces under one vast , green roof .
= = = Controversial acquisitions = = =
The Louvre is involved in controversies that surround cultural property seized under Napoleon I , as well as during World War II by the Nazis . During Nazi occupation , thousands of artworks were stolen . But after the war , 61 @,@ 233 articles of more than 150 @,@ 000 seized artworks returned to France and were assigned to the Louvre 's Office des Biens Privés . In 1949 , it entrusted 2 @,@ 130 unclaimed pieces ( including 1 @,@ 001 paintings ) to the Direction des Musées de France in order to keep them under appropriate conditions of conservation until their restitution and meanwhile classified them as MNRs ( Musees Nationaux Recuperation or , in English , the National Museums of Recovered Artwork ) . Some 10 % to 35 % of the pieces are believed to come from Jewish spoliations and until the identification of their rightful owners , which declined at the end of the 1960s , they are registered indefinitely on separate inventories from the museum 's collections .
They were exhibited in 1946 and shown all together to the public during four years ( 1950 – 1954 ) in order to allow rightful claimants to identify their properties , then stored or displayed , according to their interest , in several French museums including the Louvre . From 1951 to 1965 , about 37 pieces were restituted . Since November 1996 , the partly illustrated catalogue of 1947 – 1949 has been accessible online and completed . In 1997 , Prime Minister Alain Juppé initiated the Mattéoli Commission , headed by Jean Mattéoli , to investigate the matter and according to the government , the Louvre is in charge of 678 pieces of artwork still unclaimed by their rightful owners . During the late 1990s , the comparison of the American war archives , which had not been done before , with the French and German ones as well as two court cases which finally settled some of the heirs ' rights ( Gentili di Giuseppe and Rosenberg families ) allowed more accurate investigations . Since 1996 , the restitutions , according sometimes to less formal criteria , concerned 47 more pieces ( 26 paintings , with 6 from the Louvre including a then displayed Tiepolo ) , until the last claims of French owners and their heirs ended again in 2006 .
According to Serge Klarsfeld , since the now complete and constant publicity which the artworks got in 1996 , the majority of the French Jewish community is nevertheless in favour of the return to the normal French civil rule of prescription acquisitive of any unclaimed good after another long period of time and consequently to their ultimate integration into the common French heritage instead of their transfer to foreign institutions like during World War II .
In June 2015 , the Louvre had been accused of discriminating against Israeli students .
Napoleon 's campaigns acquired Italian pieces by treaties , as war reparations , and Northern European pieces as spoils as well as some antiquities excavated in Egypt , though the vast majority of the latter were seized as war reparations by the British army and are now part of collections of the British Museum . On the other hand , the Dendera zodiac is , like the Rosetta stone , claimed by Egypt even though it was acquired in 1821 , before the Egyptian Anti @-@ export legislation of 1835 . The Louvre administration has thus argued in favor of retaining this item despite requests by Egypt for its return . The museum participates too in arbitration sessions held via UNESCO 's Committee for Promoting the Return of Cultural Property to Its Countries of Origin . The museum consequently returned in 2009 five Egyptian fragments of frescoes ( 30 cm x 15 cm each ) whose existence of the tomb of origin had only been brought to the authorities attention in 2008 , eight to five years after their good @-@ faith acquisition by the museum from two private collections and after the necessary respect of the procedure of déclassement from French public collections before the Commission scientifique nationale des collections des musées de France .
= = Collections = =
The Musée du Louvre contains more than 380 @,@ 000 objects and displays 35 @,@ 000 works of art in eight curatorial departments .
= = = Egyptian antiquities = = =
The department , comprising over 50 @,@ 000 pieces , includes artifacts from the Nile civilizations which date from 4 @,@ 000 BC to the 4th century AD . The collection , among the world 's largest , overviews Egyptian life spanning Ancient Egypt , the Middle Kingdom , the New Kingdom , Coptic art , and the Roman , Ptolemaic , and Byzantine periods . The department 's origins lie in the royal collection , but it was augmented by Napoleon 's 1798 expeditionary trip with Dominique Vivant , the future director of the Louvre . After Jean @-@ François Champollion translated the Rosetta Stone , Charles X decreed that an Egyptian Antiquities department be created . Champollion advised the purchase of three collections , formed by Edmé @-@ Antoine Durand , Henry Salt and Bernardino Drovet ; these additions added 7 @,@ 000 works . Growth continued via acquisitions by Auguste Mariette , founder of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo . Mariette , after excavations at Memphis , sent back crates of archaeological finds including The Seated Scribe .
Guarded by the Large Sphinx ( c . 2000 BC ) , the collection is housed in more than 20 rooms . Holdings include art , papyrus scrolls , mummies , tools , clothing , jewelry , games , musical instruments , and weapons . Pieces from the ancient period include the Gebel el @-@ Arak Knife from 3400 BC , The Seated Scribe , and the Head of King Djedefre . Middle Kingdom art , " known for its gold work and statues " , moved from realism to idealization ; this is exemplified by the schist statue of Amenemhatankh and the wooden Offering Bearer . The New Kingdom and Coptic Egyptian sections are deep , but the statue of the goddess Nephthys and the limestone depiction of the goddess Hathor demonstrate New Kingdom sentiment and wealth .
= = = Near Eastern antiquities = = =
Near Eastern antiquities , the second newest department , dates from 1881 and presents an overview of early Near Eastern civilization and " first settlements " , before the arrival of Islam . The department is divided into three geographic areas : the Levant , Mesopotamia ( Iraq ) , and Persia ( Iran ) . The collection 's development corresponds to archaeological work such as Paul @-@ Émile Botta 's 1843 expedition to Khorsabad and the discovery of Sargon II 's palace . These finds formed the basis of the Assyrian museum , the precursor to today 's department .
The museum contains exhibits from Sumer and the city of Akkad , with monuments such as the Prince of Lagash 's Stele of the Vultures from 2450 BC and the stele erected by Naram @-@ Sin , King of Akkad , to celebrate a victory over barbarians in the Zagros Mountains . The 2 @.@ 25 @-@ metre ( 7 @.@ 38 ft ) Code of Hammurabi , discovered in 1901 , displays Babylonian Laws prominently , so that no man could plead their ignorance . The 18th @-@ century BC mural of the Investiture of Zimrilim and the 25th @-@ century BC Statue of Ebih @-@ Il found in the ancient city @-@ state of Mari are also on display at the museum .
The Persian portion of Louvre contains work from the archaic period , like the Funerary Head and the Persian Archers of Darius I. This section also contains rare objects from Persepolis which were also lent to the British Museum for its Ancient Persia exhibition in 2005 .
= = = Greek , Etruscan , and Roman = = =
The Greek , Etruscan , and Roman department displays pieces from the Mediterranean Basin dating from the Neolithic to the 6th century . The collection spans from the Cycladic period to the decline of the Roman Empire . This department is one of the museum 's oldest ; it began with appropriated royal art , some of which was acquired under Francis I. Initially , the collection focused on marble sculptures , such as the Venus de Milo . Works such as the Apollo Belvedere arrived during the Napoleonic Wars , but these pieces were returned after Napoleon I 's fall in 1815 . In the 19th century , the Louvre acquired works including vases from the Durand collection , bronzes such as the Borghese Vase from the Bibliothèque nationale .
The archaic is demonstrated by jewellery and pieces such as the limestone Lady of Auxerre , from 640 BC ; and the cylindrical Hera of Samos , circa 570 – 560 BC . After the 4th century BC , focus on the human form increased , exemplified by the Borghese Gladiator . The Louvre holds masterpieces from the Hellenistic era , including The Winged Victory of Samothrace ( 190 BC ) and the Venus de Milo , symbolic of classical art . The long Galerie Campana displays an outstanding collection of more than one thousand Greek potteries . In the galleries paralleling the Seine , much of the museum 's Roman sculpture is displayed . The Roman portraiture is representative of that genre ; examples include the portraits of Agrippa and Annius Verus ; among the bronzes is the Greek Apollo of Piombino .
= = = Islamic art = = =
The Islamic art collection , the museum 's newest , spans " thirteen centuries and three continents " . These exhibits , comprising ceramics , glass , metalware , wood , ivory , carpet , textiles , and miniatures , include more than 5 @,@ 000 works and 1 @,@ 000 shards . Originally part of the decorative arts department , the holdings became separate in 2003 . Among the works are the Pyxide d 'al @-@ Mughira , a 10th century ivory box from Andalusia ; the Baptistery of Saint @-@ Louis , an engraved brass basin from the 13th or 14th century Mamluk period ; and the 10th century Shroud of Saint @-@ Josse from Iran . The collection contains three pages of the Shahnameh , an epic book of poems by Ferdowsi in Persian , and a Syrian metalwork named the Barberini Vase .
= = = Sculpture = = =
The sculpture department comprises work created before 1850 that does not belong in the Etruscan , Greek , and Roman department . The Louvre has been a repository of sculpted material since its time as a palace ; however , only ancient architecture was displayed until 1824 , except for Michelangelo 's Dying Slave and Rebellious Slave . Initially the collection included only 100 pieces , the rest of the royal sculpture collection being at Versailles . It remained small until 1847 , when Léon Laborde was given control of the department . Laborde developed the medieval section and purchased the first such statues and sculptures in the collection , King Childebert and stanga door , respectively . The collection was part of the Department of Antiquities but was given autonomy in 1871 under Louis Courajod , a director who organized a wider representation of French works . In 1986 , all post @-@ 1850 works were relocated to the new Musée d 'Orsay . The Grand Louvre project separated the department into two exhibition spaces ; the French collection is displayed in the Richelieu wing , and foreign works in the Denon wing .
The collection 's overview of French sculpture contains Romanesque works such as the 11th @-@ century Daniel in the Lions ' Den and the 12th @-@ century Virgin of Auvergne . In the 16th century , Renaissance influence caused French sculpture to become more restrained , as seen in Jean Goujon 's bas @-@ reliefs , and Germain Pilon 's Descent from the Cross and Resurrection of Christ . The 17th and 18th centuries are represented by Gian Lorenzo Bernini 's 1640 – 1 Bust of Cardinal Richelieu , Étienne Maurice Falconet 's Woman Bathing and Amour menaçant , and François Anguier 's obelisks . Neoclassical works includes Antonio Canova 's Psyche Revived by Cupid 's Kiss ( 1787 ) . The 18th and 19th centuries are represented by the French sculptor Alfred Barye .
= = = Decorative arts = = =
The Objets d 'art collection spans the time from the Middle Ages to the mid @-@ 19th century . The department began as a subset of the sculpture department , based on royal property and the transfer of work from the Basilique Saint @-@ Denis , the burial ground of French monarchs that held the Coronation Sword of the Kings of France . Among the budding collection 's most prized works were pietre dure vases and bronzes . The Durand collection 's 1825 acquisition added " ceramics , enamels , and stained glass " , and 800 pieces were given by Pierre Révoil . The onset of Romanticism rekindled interest in Renaissance and Medieval artwork , and the Sauvageot donation expanded the department with 1 @,@ 500 middle @-@ age and faïence works . In 1862 , the Campana collection added gold jewelry and maiolicas , mainly from the 15th and 16th centuries .
The works are displayed on the Richelieu Wing 's first floor and in the Apollo Gallery , named by the painter Charles Le Brun , who was commissioned by Louis XIV ( the Sun King ) to decorate the space in a solar theme . The medieval collection contains the coronation crown of Louis XIV , Charles V 's sceptre , and the 12th century porphyry vase . The Renaissance art holdings include Giambologna 's bronze Nessus and Deianira and the tapestry Maximillian 's Hunt . From later periods , highlights include Madame de Pompadour 's Sèvres vase collection and Napoleon III 's apartments .
In September 2000 , the Louvre Museum dedicated the Gilbert Chagoury and Rose @-@ Marie Chagoury Gallery to display tapestries donated by the Chagourys , including a 16th @-@ century six @-@ part tapestry suite , sewn with gold and silver threads representing sea divinities , which was commissioned in Paris for Colbert de Seignelay , Secretary of State for the Navy .
= = = Painting = = =
The painting collection has more than 7 @,@ 500 works from the 13th century to 1848 and is managed by 12 curators who oversee the collection 's display . Nearly two @-@ thirds are by French artists , and more than 1 @,@ 200 are Northern European . The Italian paintings compose most of the remnants of Francis I and Louis XIV 's collections , others are unreturned artwork from the Napoleon era , and some were bought . The collection began with Francis , who acquired works from Italian masters such as Raphael and Michelangelo and brought Leonardo da Vinci to his court . After the French Revolution , the Royal Collection formed the nucleus of the Louvre . When the d 'Orsay train station was converted into the Musée d 'Orsay in 1986 , the collection was split , and pieces completed after the 1848 Revolution were moved to the new museum . French and Northern European works are in the Richelieu wing and Cour Carrée ; Spanish and Italian paintings are on the first floor of the Denon wing .
Exemplifying the French School are the early Avignon Pietà of Enguerrand Quarton ; the anonymous painting of King Jean le Bon ( c.1360 ) , possibly the oldest independent portrait in Western painting to survive from the postclassical era ; Hyacinthe Rigaud 's Louis XIV ; Jacques @-@ Louis David 's The Coronation of Napoleon ; and Eugène Delacroix 's Liberty Leading the People . Northern European works include Johannes Vermeer 's The Lacemaker and The Astronomer ; Caspar David Friedrich 's The Tree of Crows ; Rembrandt 's The Supper at Emmaus , Bathsheba at Her Bath , and The Slaughtered Ox .
The Italian holdings are notable , particularly the Renaissance collection . The works include Andrea Mantegna and Giovanni Bellini 's Calvarys , which reflect realism and detail " meant to depict the significant events of a greater spiritual world " . The High Renaissance collection includes Leonardo da Vinci 's Mona Lisa , Virgin and Child with St. Anne , St. John the Baptist , and Madonna of the Rocks . Caravaggio is represented by The Fortune Teller and Death of the Virgin . From 16th century Venice , the Louvre displays Titian 's Le Concert Champetre , The Entombment and The Crowning with Thorns .
The La Caze Collection , a bequest to the Musée du Louvre in 1869 by Louis La Caze , was the largest contribution of a person in the history of the Louvre . La Caze gave 584 paintings of his personal collection to the museum . The bequest included Antoine Watteau 's Commedia dell 'arte player of Pierrot ( " Gilles " ) . In 2007 , this bequest was the topic of the exhibition " 1869 : Watteau , Chardin ... entrent au Louvre . La collection La Caze " .
Some of the best known paintings of the museum have been digitized by the French Center for Research and Restoration of the Museums of France .
= = = Prints and drawings = = =
The prints and drawings department encompasses works on paper . The origins of the collection were the 8 @,@ 600 works in the Royal Collection ( Cabinet du Roi ) , which were increased via state appropriation , purchases such as the 1 @,@ 200 works from Fillipo Baldinucci 's collection in 1806 , and donations . The department opened on 5 August 1797 , with 415 pieces displayed in the Galerie d 'Apollon . The collection is organized into three sections : the core Cabinet du Roi , 14 @,@ 000 royal copper printing @-@ plates , and the donations of Edmond de Rothschild , which include 40 @,@ 000 prints , 3 @,@ 000 drawings , and 5 @,@ 000 illustrated books . The holdings are displayed in the Pavillon de Flore ; due to the fragility of the paper medium , only a portion are displayed at one time .
= = Location , access , and facilities = =
The museum lies in the center of Paris on the Right Bank . The neighborhood , known as the 1st arrondissement , was home to the former Tuileries Palace , which closed off the western end of the Louvre entrance courtyard , but was heavily damaged by fire during the Paris Commune of 1871 and later demolished . The adjacent Tuileries Gardens , created in 1564 by Catherine de ' Medici , was designed in 1664 by André Le Nôtre . The gardens house the Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume , a contemporary art exhibition space which was used to store confiscated Jewish cultural property during the 1940 to 1944 German occupation of France . Parallel to the Jeu de Paume is the Orangerie , home to the famous Water Lilies paintings by Claude Monet .
The Louvre is slightly askew of the Historic Axis ( Axe historique ) , a roughly eight @-@ kilometre ( five @-@ mile ) architectural line bisecting the city . It begins on the east in the Louvre courtyard and runs west along the Champs @-@ Élysées . In 1871 , the burning of the Tuileries Palace by the Paris Commune revealed that the Louvre was slightly askew of the Axe despite past appearances to the contrary . The Louvre can be reached by the Palais Royal – Musée du Louvre Métro or the Louvre @-@ Rivoli stations .
The Louvre has three entrances : the main entrance at the pyramid , an entrance from the Carrousel du Louvre underground shopping mall , and an entrance at the Porte des Lions ( near the western end of the Denon wing ) .
Under the main entrance to the museum is the Carrousel du Louvre , a shopping mall operated by Unibail @-@ Rodamco . Among other stores , it has the first Apple Store in France , and a McDonald 's restaurant , the presence of which has created controversy .
The use of cameras and video recorders is permitted inside , but flash photography is forbidden .
= = Gallery = =
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= Two Birds ( Awake ) =
" Two Birds " is the twelfth episode of the American television police procedural fantasy drama Awake . The episode premiered on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) on May 17 , 2012 . In the episode , Michael learns more about the truth of the accident . He tries to get evidence that Ed Hawkins ( Kevin Weisman ) tried to kill him , and finds out that Hawkins ' commanding officer Carl Kessel ( Mark Harelik ) was also in on this setup .
The story and concept of the episode was written by Evan Katz , with teleplay by Howard Gordon and Davey Holmes . It was directed by Milan Cheylov . " Two Birds " was well received by critics , who praised its storylines . Commentators noted that the script was well @-@ written . Upon airing , " Two Birds " obtained 2 @.@ 1 million viewers in the United States and a 0 @.@ 7 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings .
= = Plot = =
The episode starts with Michael Britten ( Jason Isaacs ) trying to convince therapists Dr. Jonathan Lee ( BD Wong ) and Dr. Judith Evans ( Cherry Jones ) that Ed Hawkins ( Kevin Weisman ) tried to kill him . The therapists claim that he is imagining the plot to cope .
Later , Michael tells Rex he must stay with his Aunt Carol , as Michael is working on a case with a dangerous suspect . His partner , Bird , goes to his house , after trying to call him to make sure he is alright , but then looks in the garage and finds Michael 's work on his accident and Detective Hawkins . Bird goes to Dr. Judith Evans , who reluctantly advises Bird to check on Michael . Michael goes to Ed Hawkins ' house , shoots Hawkins in the leg , and asks him for evidence . Hawkins says heroin was taken from various evidence lockers and sent out for sale through Westfield Distribution , and further evidence is on his laptop . Hawkins tries to overpower Michael , forcing him to kill Hawkins , right before Bird enters the house . Michael takes Bird 's gun and handcuffs him . Bird suggests that to get into Hawkins ' laptop , they use a hacker they both worked with previously , right before he knocks out Michael , who wakes up in the red reality .
Michael tells his wife to stay somewhere safe , and then tells the red reality Bird to meet him in the park . He tells Bird what he found out in the green reality ( where his son is alive and his wife is dead ) regarding Hawkins , his accident and the encrypted file and convinces Bird to copy it from Hawkins ' computer , though neither of them know Hawkins has been watching them . Hawkins meets immediately with Tricia Harper and Carl Kessel ( revealed to be Bird and Hawkins ' precinct chief in this reality ) and Kessel says they will kill both Michael and Bird and make it look like Michael did it , given his recently unstable behavior . Captain Harper shows doubts and remorse at this idea , but agrees .
Still in the red reality ( where his son is dead and his wife is alive ) , Michael visits the hacker suggested in the green reality. he gains Hawkins ' password and unlocks the file . The files tell Michael that Hawkins and Kessel had a shipping container where they had been storing the heroin . Bird tells Michael that they will meet at his house , but when Michael gets there , Hawkins has killed Bird and tries to kill Michael . Hawkins , however , only manages to injure him . Hawkins calls in that Michael killed Bird and Captain Harper tells her precinct to use deadly force to bring Michael in , much to Detective Vega 's surprise . Vega tries to tell Harper that , even deranged , Michael would never kill Bird , but Harper emotionally rebuts him , saying he is showing sympathy for a killer . This leaves Vega confused and suspicious . Michael manages to escape Hawkins , but passes out from his wound and wakes up back in the green reality .
He finds himself back in his car , handcuffed , but relieved to see that the green reality Bird is still alive . He gives Bird Hawkins ' password ( " tulip " ) , and the information regarding Kessel and the shipping container convinces Bird that something is wrong . He takes Michael to Harper still in cuffs but they both tell her what they have learned . Harper approves Bird 's plan to send a team to the storage container but sends Michael to a cell , saying that if they do not find any evidence of his accusations , he 'll go to jail for killing Hawkins .
= = Production = =
The story and concept of the episode was written by consulting producer Evan Katz , with teleplay by executive producer Howard Gordon and co @-@ executive producer Davey Holmes ; it was Katz 's third writing credit , Gordon 's fourth writing credit , and Holmes ' second writing credit . It was directed by Milan Cheylov , his first directing credit for the series .
In January 2012 , it was announced that Kevin Weisman would appear in multiple episodes of Awake . This is Weisman 's second appearance on the series as Ed Hawkins . Other guest stars included Laura Innes as Tricia Harper and Daniela Bobadilla as Emma .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Two Birds " was originally broadcast on May 17 , 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 05 @-@ 17 ) in the United States on NBC between 10 : 00 p.m. and 11 : 00 p.m. , and obtained 2 @.@ 1 million viewers in the United States , slightly down from the previous episode . It acquired a 0 @.@ 7 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings , meaning that it was seen by 0 @.@ 9 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds .
= = = Critical response = = =
The episode was met with praise from most critics . IGN rated it 9 of 10 as " amazing " , and wrote that " it really ramped up the intensity " . Alan Sepinwall from HitFix complimented parts of the episode , notably the " excellent work from Jason Isaacs , Steve Harris and Laura Innes in both realities " , despite claiming that they did not particularly care for the script . TV Fanatic rated it 4 @.@ 6 out of 5 , and noted that " Awake works so much better when there ’ s one unifying case " . Screenrant praised the episode , claiming that there was " some fantastic editing and writing that allows two conversations between three people to appear as one cohesive interchange , basically setting up the remainder of the episode " . ScreenCrush claimed that " a conspiracy that saw NBC running this great show off the road , or a simple unfortunate accident . " . The Voice of TV graded the episode a " A- " , despite claiming that it is annoying that he doesn 't tell his family members about his new knowledge . The TV.com official blog claimed the episode was " impossible to sustain " . The A.V. Club graded the episode " B + " , claiming that it was " completely entertaining and engrossing " , and that " it 's just a slight tick down from last week 's " Say Hello to My Little Friend " , which was the best episode since Awake 's pilot , and the most surreal since the hallucinations of " That 's Not My Penguin . "
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= Typhoon Nabi =
Typhoon Nabi , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Jolina , was a powerful typhoon that struck southwestern Japan in September 2005 . The 14th named storm of the 2005 Pacific typhoon season , Nabi formed on August 29 to the east of the Northern Mariana Islands . It moved westward and passed about 55 km ( 35 mi ) north of Saipan on August 31 as an intensifying typhoon . On the next day , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center upgraded the storm to super typhoon status , with winds equivalent to that of a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The Japan Meteorological Agency estimated peak ten @-@ minute winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) on September 2 . Nabi weakened while curving to the north , striking the Japanese island of Kyushu on September 6 . After brushing South Korea , the storm turned to the northeast , passing over Hokkaido before becoming extratropical on September 8 .
The typhoon first affected the Northern Marianas Islands , where it left US $ 2 @.@ 5 million in damage , while damaging or destroying 114 homes . The damage was enough to warrant a disaster declaration from the United States government . While passing near Okinawa , Nabi produced gusty winds and caused minor damage . Later , the western fringe of the storm caused several traffic accidents in Busan , South Korea , and throughout the country Nabi killed six people and caused US $ 115 @.@ 4 million in damage . About 250 @,@ 000 people evacuated along the Japanese island of Kyushu ahead of the storm , and there were disruptions to train , ferry , and airline services . In Kyushu , the storm left ¥ 4 @.@ 08 billion ( US $ 36 @.@ 9 million ) in crop damage after dropping 1 @,@ 322 mm ( 52 @.@ 0 in ) of rain over three days . During the storm 's passage , there were 61 daily rainfall records broken by Nabi 's precipitation . The rains caused flooding and landslides , forcing people to evacuate their homes and for businesses to close . Across Japan , Nabi killed 29 people and caused ¥ 94 @.@ 9 billion ( US $ 854 million ) in damage . Soldiers , local governments , and insurance companies helped residents recover from the storm damage . After affecting Japan , the typhoon affected the Kuril Islands of Russia , where it dropped the equivalent of the monthly precipitation , while also causing road damage due to high waves . Overall , Nabi killed 35 people , and its effects were significant enough for the name to be retired .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 28 , a large area of convection persisted about 1 @,@ 035 km ( 645 mi ) east of Guam . Located within an area of moderate wind shear , the system quickly organized while moving westward , its track influenced by a ridge to the north . At 00 : 00 UTC on August 29 , a tropical depression formed from the system , classified by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) as Tropical Depression 14W . In initial forecasts , the agency anticipated steady strengthening , due to warm sea surface temperatures in the area . At 12 : 00 UTC on August 29 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) upgraded it to a tropical storm . As such , the JMA named the storm Nabi . About 12 hours later , the JMA upgraded Nabi further to a severe tropical storm , after the convection organized into spiral rainbands . At 18 : 00 UTC , Nabi intensified to typhoon status , reaching ten @-@ minute sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) .
On August 31 , Nabi passed about 55 km ( 35 mi ) north @-@ northeast of Saipan in the Northern Mariana Islands during its closest approach . The typhoon continued to intensify quickly as it moved to the west @-@ northwest . On September 1 , the JTWC upgraded the storm to a super typhoon and later estimated peak one @-@ minute winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) ; this is the equivalent of a Category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . By contrast , the JMA estimated peak ten @-@ minute winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) on September 2 , with a barometric pressure of 925 mbar ( 27 @.@ 3 inHg ) . While at peak intensity , the typhoon developed a large 95 km ( 60 mi ) wide eye . For about 36 hours , Nabi maintained its peak winds , during which it crossed into the area of responsibility of PAGASA ; the Philippine @-@ based agency gave it the local name " Jolina " , although the storm remained away from the country .
On September 3 , Nabi began weakening as it turned more to the north , the result of an approaching trough weakening the ridge . Later that day , the winds leveled off at 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) , according to the JMA . On September 5 , Nabi passed near Minamidaitōjima and Yakushima , part of the Daitō and Ōsumi island groups offshore southern Japan . Around that time , the JTWC estimated that the typhoon reintensified slightly to a secondary peak of 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) . After turning due north , Nabi made landfall near Isahaya , Nagasaki around 05 : 00 UTC on September 6 , after passing through the Izumi District of Kagoshima . Shortly thereafter , the storm entered the Sea of Japan . The typhoon turned to the northeast into the mid @-@ latitude flow , influenced by a low over the Kamchatka Peninsula . At 18 : 00 UTC on September 6 , the JTWC discontinued advisories on Nabi , declaring it extratropical , although the JMA continued tracking the storm . On the next day , Nabi moved across northern Hokkaido into the Sea of Okhotsk . The JMA declared the storm as extratropical on September 8 , which continued eastward until dissipating on September 10 south of the Aleutian Islands . The remnants of Nabi weakened and later moved into southwestern Alaska on September 12 .
= = Preparations = =
After Nabi formed as a tropical depression on August 29 , the local National Weather Service office on Guam issued a tropical storm watch for the islands Tinian , Rota , Sapian , and Agrihan . On August 30 , the watch was upgraded to a tropical storm warning for Rota and Agrihan , while a typhoon warning was issued for Tinian and Saipan . On all four islands , a Condition of Readiness 1 was declared . The government of the Northern Mariana Islands advised Tinian and Saipan residents along the coast and in poorly @-@ built buildings to evacuate , and several schools operated as shelters . About 700 people evacuated on Saipan , and the airport was closed , stranding about 1 @,@ 000 travelers . As a precaution , schools were closed on Guam on August 31 , after a tropical storm warning was issued for the island the night prior . The island 's governor , Felix Perez Camacho , also declared a condition of readiness 2 , as well as a state of emergency . Due to the typhoon , several flights were canceled or delayed at Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport on Guam .
Ahead of the storm , United States Forces Japan evacuated planes from Okinawa to either Guam or mainland Japan to prevent damage . Officials at the military bases on Okinawa advised residents to remain inside during the storm 's passage . While Nabi was turning to the north , the island was placed under a Condition of Readiness 2 . At the military base in Sasebo , ships also evacuated , and several buildings were closed after a Condition of Readiness 1 was declared .
In Kyushu , officials evacuated over a quarter of a million people in fear of Typhoon Nabi affecting Japan . These continued after the storm made landfall to protect residents from flood waters and landslides . The first order during the storm took place in the Arita district . In Miyazaki City , 21 @,@ 483 households were evacuated following reports of significant overflow on the nearby river . Another 10 @,@ 000 residences were vacated in Nobeoka following similar reports . The entirety of the West Japan Railway Company was shut down . Canceled train services affected 77 @,@ 800 people on Shikoku . Ferry service was also shut down , cutting off transportation for tens of thousands of people . In addition , at least 723 flights were cancelled because of the storm . Japan 's second @-@ largest refinery , Idemitsu Kosan , stopped shipments to other refineries across the area , and Japan 's largest refinery , Nippon Oil , stopped all sea shipments . The Cosmo Oil Company , Japan 's fourth largest refinery , stopped all shipments to Yokkaichi and Sakaide refineries . About 700 schools in the country were closed . Approximately 1 @,@ 500 soldiers were dispatched to Tokyo to help coastal areas prepare for Typhoon Nabi 's arrival , and to clean up after the storm . Officials in the Miyazaki Prefecture issued a flood warning for expected heavy rains in the area .
In South Korea , the government issued a typhoon warning for the southern portion of the country along the coast , prompting the airport at Pohang to close , and forcing 162 flights to be canceled . Ferry service was also disrupted , and thousands of boats returned to port . The storm also prompted 138 schools to close in the region . Earlier , the storm spurred fears of a possible repeat of either typhoon Rusa in 2002 or Maemi in 2003 , both of which were devastating storms in South Korea . Officials in the Russian Far East issued a storm warning for Vladivostok , advising boats to remain at port .
= = Impact = =
While passing between Saipan and the volcanic island of Anatahan , Nabi brought tropical storm force winds to several islands in the Northern Mariana Islands . Saipan International Airport reported sustained winds of 95 km / h ( 59 mph ) , with gusts to 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . Also on the island , Nabi produced 173 mm ( 6 @.@ 82 in ) of rainfall . The storm destroyed two houses and left 26 others uninhabitable , while 77 homes sustained minor damage , largely from flooding or roof damage . Nabi damaged 70 – 80 % of the crops on Saipan and also knocked down many trees , leaving behind 544 tonnes ( 600 tons ) of debris . The entire island was left without power , some without water , after the storm . On Tinian to the south , Nabi damaged or destroyed nine homes , with heavy crop damage . On Rota , there was minor flooding and scattered power outages . Farther south , the outer reaches of the storm produced sustained winds of 69 km / h ( 43 mph ) at Apra Harbor on Guam , while gusts peaked at 101 km / h ( 63 mph ) at Mangilao . Gusts reached 72 km / h ( 45 mph ) at the international airport on Guam , the highest during 2005 . The storm dropped 115 mm ( 4 @.@ 53 in ) of rainfall in 24 hours on the island . Flooding covered roads for several hours and entered classrooms at Untalan Middle School , forcing hundreds of students to evacuate . Damage in the region was estimated US $ 2 @.@ 5 million . After Nabi exited the region , it produced high surf for several days on Guam and Saipan .
Later in its duration , Nabi brushed southeastern South Korea with rainbands . Ulsan recorded a 24 ‑ hour rainfall total of 319 mm ( 12 @.@ 6 in ) , while Pohang recorded a record 24 ‑ hour total of 540 @.@ 5 mm ( 21 @.@ 28 in ) . The highest total was 622 @.@ 5 mm ( 24 @.@ 5 in ) of rainfall . The periphery of the storm produced gusts of 121 km / h ( 75 mph ) in the port city of Busan , strong enough to damage eight billboards and knock trees over . Heavy rains caused several traffic accidents and injuries in Busan , while strong waves washed a cargo ship ashore in Pohang . Throughout South Korea , the storm led to six fatalities and caused US $ 115 @.@ 4 million in damages .
In the Kuril Islands of Russia , Nabi dropped about 75 mm ( 3 in ) of rain , equivalent to the monthly average . Gusts reached 83 km / h ( 51 mph ) , weak enough not to cause major damage . During the storm 's passage , high waves washed away unpaved roads in Severo @-@ Kurilsk .
= = = Japan = = =
The outer rainbands of Nabi began affecting Okinawa on September 3 . The storm 's strongest winds ended up bypassing the island , and wind gusts peaked at 85 km / h ( 53 mph ) . Two elderly women were injured from the wind gusts . There were minor power outages and some houses were damaged . In the Amami Islands between Okinawa and mainland Japan , Nabi produced gusts of 122 km / h ( 76 mph ) in Kikaijima . Waves of 9 m ( 30 ft ) in height affected Amami Ōshima .
While moving through western Japan , Nabi dropped heavy rainfall that totaled 1 @,@ 322 mm ( 52 @.@ 0 in ) over a three @-@ day period in Miyazaki Prefecture , the equivalent to nearly three times the average annual precipitation . The same station in Miyazaki reported a 24 ‑ hour rainfall total of 932 mm ( 36 @.@ 7 in ) , as well as an hourly total of 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) . Within the main islands of Japan , Nabi dropped 228 @.@ 6 mm ( 9 in ) of rainfall per hour in the capital Tokyo .
During the storm 's passage , there were 61 daily rainfall records broken by Nabi 's precipitation across Japan . The rains from Nabi caused significant slope failures and large accumulations of driftwood . The amount of sediment displaced by the rains was estimated at 4 @,@ 456 m3 / km2 , over four times the yearly average . A total of 630 m3 ( 2 @,@ 066 ft3 ) of driftwood was recorded . However , the rainfall also helped to end water restrictions in Kagawa and Tokushima prefectures . In addition to the heavy rainfall , Nabi produced gusty winds on the Japan mainland , peaking at 115 km / h ( 72 mph ) in Muroto . A station on Tobishima in the Sea of Japan recorded a gust of 119 km / h ( 74 mph ) . The typhoon spawned a F1 tornado in Miyazaki , which damaged several buildings . In Wajima , Ishikawa , Nabi produced a Foehn wind , causing temperatures to rise quickly .
Throughout Japan , Nabi caused damage in 31 of the 47 prefectures , leaving over 270 @,@ 000 residences without power . Torrential rains caused flooding and landslides throughout the country . The storm destroyed 7 @,@ 452 houses and flooded 21 @,@ 160 others . Several car assembly plants were damaged in southwestern Japan , while others were closed due to power outages , such as Toyota , Mazda , and Mitsubishi . In addition , the storm wrecked about 81 ships along the coast . On the island of Kyushu , damage in Ōita Prefecture on Kyushu reached ¥ 11 @.@ 7 billion ( US $ 106 million ) , the fifth highest of any typhoon in the preceding 10 years ; about 20 % of the total there was related to road damages . In nearby Saga Prefecture , crop damage totaled about ¥ 1 @.@ 06 billion ( US $ 9 @.@ 6 million ) , mostly to rice but also to soybeans and various other vegetables . Crop damage as a whole on Kyushu totaled ¥ 4 @.@ 08 billion ( US $ 36 @.@ 9 million ) .
In the capital city of Tokyo , heavy rainfall increased levels along several rivers , which inundated several houses . Strong winds damaged ¥ 28 @.@ 8 million ( US $ 259 @,@ 000 ) in crop damage in Gifu Prefecture , and ¥ 27 @.@ 1 million ( US $ 244 @,@ 000 ) in crop damage in Osaka . In Yamaguchi Prefecture on western Honshu , Nabi damaged a portion of the historical Kintai Bridge , originally built in 1674 . In Yamagata Prefecture , the winds damaged a window in a school , injuring several boys from the debris . One person was seriously injured in Kitakata , Fukushima after strong winds blew a worker from scaffolding of a building under construction . Effects from Nabi spread as far north as Hokkaido , where heavy rainfall damaged roads and caused hundreds of schools to close . In Ashoro , an overflown river flooded a hotel , and a minor power outage occurred in Teshikaga .
Ahead of the storm , high waves and gusty winds led to one drowning when a woman was knocked off a ferry in Takamatsu , Kagawa . A landslide in Miyazaki destroyed five homes , killing three people . A man who was listed as missing was found dead in a flooded rice field . In Tarumi , a landslide buried a home in mud , killing two people . Nabi caused a portion of the San 'yō Expressway to collapse in Yamaguchi Prefecture , killing three people . In Fukui Prefecture , the winds knocked an elderly man off a bicycle , killing him . Overall , Nabi killed 29 people in Japan and injured 179 others , 45 of them severely . Damage was estimated at ¥ 94 @.@ 9 billion ( US $ 854 million ) .
= = Aftermath = =
After the storm , members of Marine Corps Air Station Iwakuni provided $ 2 @,@ 500 to the town of Iwakuni toward cleanup and disaster relief . Soldiers also helped nearby residents and farmers to complete the rice harvest , after floods from the typhoon damaged harvesting machines . The local government of Iwakunda distributed disinfectant chemicals to flooded houses . Closed markets and decreased supplies caused the price of beef to reach record levels in the country . Following the storm , the General Insurance Association of Japan reported that insurance claims from the typhoon totaled ¥ 58 @.@ 8 billion ( US $ 53 million ) , the tenth @-@ highest for any natural disaster in the country . Miyazaki Prefecture reported the highest claims with ¥ 12 @.@ 6 billion ( US $ 11 @.@ 4 million ) . The total was split between ¥ 49 billion ( US $ 44 million ) in housing claims and ¥ 7 @.@ 9 billion ( US $ 71 million ) in car claims . The Japanese government provided food , water , and rescue workers to the affected areas in the days after the storm , along with Japan Post , the local post system ; trucks were mobilized to affected towns , accompanied by a mobile bank and insurance agent .
On November 8 , nearly two months after the dissipation of Typhoon Nabi , President George W. Bush declared a major disaster declaration for the Northern Mariana islands . The declaration allocated aid from the United States to help restore damaged buildings , pay for debris removal , and other emergency services . Federal funding was also made available on a cost @-@ sharing basis for the islands to mitigate against future disasters . The government ultimately provided $ 1 @,@ 046 @,@ 074 @.@ 03 to the commonwealth .
Due to the damage of the storm in Japan , the Typhoon Committee of the World Meteorological Organization agreed to retire the name Nabi . The agency replaced it with the name Doksuri , effective January 1 , 2007 .
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= The Plays of William Shakespeare =
The Plays of William Shakespeare was an 18th @-@ century edition of the dramatic works of William Shakespeare , edited by Samuel Johnson and George Steevens . Johnson announced his intention to edit Shakespeare 's plays in his Miscellaneous Observations on Macbeth ( 1745 ) , and a full Proposal for the edition was published in 1756 . The edition was finally published in 1765 .
In the " Preface " to his edition , Johnson justifies trying to determine the original language of the Shakespearean plays . To benefit the reading audience , he added explanatory notes to various passages . Later editors followed Johnson 's lead and sought to determine an authoritative text of Shakespeare .
= = Background = =
Johnson began reading Shakespeare 's plays and poetry when he was a young boy . He would involve himself so closely with the plays that he was once terrified by the Ghost in Hamlet and had to " have people about him " . Johnson 's fascination with Shakespeare continued throughout his life , and Johnson focused his time on Shakespeare 's plays while preparing A Dictionary of the English Language , so it is no wonder that Shakespeare is the most quoted author in it .
Johnson came to believe that there was a problem with the collections of Shakespearean plays that were available during his lifetime . He believed that they lacked authoritativeness , because they :
were transcribed for the players by those who may be supposed to have seldom understood them ; they were transmitted by copiers equally unskillful , who still multiplied errors ; they were perhaps sometimes mutilated by the actors , for the sake of shortening the speeches ; and were at last printed without correction of the press .
Although Johnson was friends with actors such as David Garrick who had performed Shakespeare onstage , he did not believe that performance was vital to the plays , nor did he ever acknowledge the presence of an audience as a factor in the reception of the work . Instead , Johnson believed that the reader of Shakespeare was the true audience of the play .
Furthermore , Johnson believed that later editors both misunderstood the historical context of Shakespeare and his plays , and underestimated the degree of textual corruption that the plays exhibit . He believed that this was because " The style of Shakespeare was in itself perplexed , ungrammatical , and obscure " . To correct these problems , Johnson believed that the original works would need to be examined , and this became an issue in his Proposal . Johnson also believed that an edition of Shakespeare could provide him with the income and recognition that he needed . However , a full edition of Shakespeare would require a publisher to make a large commitment of time and money , so Johnson decided to begin by focusing on a single play , Macbeth .
= = = Miscellaneous Observations = = =
Johnson began work on Macbeth to provide a sample of what he thought could be achieved in a new edition of Shakespeare . He got much of his information while working on the Harleian Catalogue , a catalogue of the collection of works and pamphlets owned by Robert Harley , 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer . He published this work , along with a commentary on Sir Thomas Hanmer , 4th Baronet 's edition of Shakespeare 's plays , as Miscellaneous Observations or Miscellaneous Observations on the Tragedy of Macbeth on 6 April 1745 by Edward Cave .
Hanmer produced an edition of Shakespeare 's plays for the Clarendon Press in October 1744 , and Johnson felt that he could attract more attention to his own work by challenging some of Hanmer 's points . Johnson criticised Hanmer for editing Shakespeare 's words based on subjective opinion instead of objective fact . In particular , Johnson writes :
He appears to find no difficulty in most of those passages which I have represented as unintelligible , and has therefore passed smoothly over them , without any attempt to alter or explain them ... Such harmless industry may surely be forgiven if it cannot be praised ; may he therefore never want a monosyllable who can use it with such wonderful dexterity . Rumpature quisquis rumpitur invidia ! ( " If anyone is going to burst with envy , let him do so ! " – Martial )
He then continues :
The rest of this edition I have not read , but , from the little that I have seen , I think it not dangerous to declare that , in my opinion , its pomp recommends it more than its accuracy . There is no distinction made between the ancient reading , and the innovations of the editor ; there is no reason given for any of the alterations which are made ; the emendations of former editions are adopted without any acknowledgement , and few of the difficulties are removed which have hitherto embarrassed the readers of Shakespeare .
The Miscellaneous Observations contains many of Johnson 's early thoughts and theories on Shakespeare . For instance , Johnson thought that there was an uncanny power in Shakespeare 's supernatural scenes and wrote , " He that peruses Shakespeare looks round alarmed and starts to find himself alone " .
At the end of the work , Johnson announced that he would produce a new edition of Shakespeare :
Proposals for printing a new edition of the plays of William Shakespeare , with notes , critical and explanatory , in which the text will be corrected : the various readings remarked : the conjuectures of former editors examined , and their omissions supplied . By the author of the Miscellaneous Observations on the Tragedy of Macbeth .
In response , Jacob Tonson and his associates , who controlled the copyright of the current edition of Shakespeare , threatened to sue Johnson and Cave in a letter written on 11 April 1745 . They did so to protect their new edition , edited by the Shakespeare scholar William Warburton .
= = = Proposal = = =
On 1 June 1756 , Johnson reprinted his Miscellaneous Observations but attached his Proposal or Proposals for Printing , by Subscription , the Dramatick Works of William Shakespeare , Corrected and Illustrated . On 2 June 1756 , he signed a contract to edit an eight @-@ volume set of Shakespeare 's writings including a preface , and on 8 June 1756 Johnson printed his Proposal , now called Proposals for an Edition of Shakespeare . The Proposal sold subscriptions for Johnson 's future edition at the cost of two guineas , the first paid before and the second upon printing . When Johnson achieved scholarly renown for his A Dictionary of the English Language , Warburton 's publishers , Tonson et al . , granted him permission to work on Shakespeare .
In the Proposal , Johnson describes the various problems with previous editions of Shakespeare and argues how a new edition , written by himself , would correct these problems . In particular , Johnson promised to " correct what is corrupt , and to explain what is obscure " . He would accomplish this by relying on " a careful collation of all the oldest copies " and to read " the same story in the very book which Shakespeare consulted " . Unlike other editors who " slight their predecessors " , Johnson claimed that " all that is valuable will be adopted from every commentator , that posterity may consider it as including all the rest , and exhibiting whatever is hitherto known of the great father of the English drama " . Later in the work , he promised that it would be ready by December 1757 .
Johnson was contracted to finish the edition in 18 months but as the months passed , his pace slowed . He told Charles Burney in December 1757 that it would take him until the following March to complete it . Before that could happen , in February 1758 he was arrested again for an unpaid debt of £ 40 . The debt was soon repaid by Tonson , who had contracted Johnson to publish the work ; this motivated Johnson to finish the edition to repay the favour . Although it took him another seven years to finish , Johnson completed a few volumes of his Shakespeare to prove his commitment to the project .
= = Johnson 's Shakespeare = =
Johnson admitted to John Hawkins , " my inducement to it is not love or desire of fame , but the want of money , which is the only motive to writing that I know of . " However , the money was not a strong enough motivator and in 1758 , partly as a way to avoid having to finish his Shakespeare , Johnson began to write a weekly series , The Idler , which ran from 15 April 1758 to 5 April 1760 .
By 1762 , Johnson had gained a reputation for being a slow worker . Contemporary poet Charles Churchill teased Johnson for the delay in producing his long @-@ promised edition of Shakespeare : " He for subscribers baits his hook / and takes your cash , but where 's the book ? " The comments soon stung Johnson into renewed work . It was only in 20 July 1762 , when he received the first payment on a government pension of 300 pounds a year , that he no longer had to worry about money and was finally able to dedicate most of his time to finishing the work .
On 10 January 1765 , the day after Johnson was introduced to Henry and Hester Thrale , Johnson noted in his diary that he " Corrected a sheet . " Afterwards , he began visiting his friend Richard Farmer who was writing his Essay on the Learning of Shakespeare to aid in his completely revising the work . During this time , Johnson added more than 550 notes as he began to revise the work for publication . In June , Johnson advertised that his edition would be published on 1 August 1765 . However , he was unable to work on the Preface until August and it was not printed until 29 September . George Steevens volunteered to help Johnson work on the Preface during this time .
Johnson 's edition of Shakespeare 's plays was finally published on 10 October 1765 as The Plays of William Shakespeare , in Eight Volumes ... To which are added Notes by Sam . Johnson in a printing of 1 @,@ 000 copies . The edition sold quickly and a second edition was soon printed , with an expanded edition to follow in 1773 and a further revised edition in 1778 .
= = = Preface = = =
There are four components to Johnson 's Preface to Shakespeare : a discussion of Shakespeare 's " greatness " especially in his " portrayal of human nature " ; the " faults or weakness " of Shakespeare ; Shakespeare 's plays in relationship to contemporary poetry and drama ; and a history of " Shakespearean criticism and editing down to the mid @-@ 1700 's " and what his work intends to do .
Johnson begins :
That praises are without reason lavished on the dead , and that the honours due only to excellence are paid to antiquity , is a complaint likely to be always continued by those , who , being able to add nothing to truth , hope for eminence from the heresies of paradox ; or those , who , being forced by disappointment upon consolatory expedients , are willing to hope from posterity what the present age refuses , and flatter themselves that the regard which is yet denied by envy , will be at last bestowed by time . Antiquity , like every other quality that attracts the notice of mankind , has undoubtedly votaries that reverence it , not from reason , but from prejudice . Some seem to admire indiscriminately whatever has been long preserved , without considering that time has sometimes co @-@ operated with chance ; all perhaps are more willing to honour past than present excellence ; and the mind contemplates genius through the shades of age , as the eye surveys the sun through artificial opacity . The great contention of criticism is to find the faults of the moderns , and the beauties of the ancients . While an authour is yet living we estimate his powers by his worst performance , and when he is dead we rate them by his best .
To works , however , of which the excellence is not absolute and definite , but gradual and comparative ; to works not raised upon principles demonstrative and scientifick , but appealing wholly to observation and experience , no other test can be applied than length of duration and continuance of esteem . What mankind have long possessed they have often examined and compared , and if they persist to value the possession , it is because frequent comparisons have confirmed opinion in its favour . As among the works of nature no man can properly call a river deep or a mountain high , without the knowledge of many mountains and many rivers ; so in the productions of genius , nothing can be stiled excellent till it has been compared with other works of the same kind . Demonstration immediately displays its power , and has nothing to hope or fear from the flux of years ; but works tentative and experimental must be estimated by their proportion to the general and collective ability of man , as it is discovered in a long succession of endeavours . Of the first building that was raised , it might be with certainty determined that it was round or square , but whether it was spacious or lofty must have been referred to time . The Pythagorean scale of numbers was at once discovered to be perfect ; but the poems of Homer we yet know not to transcend the common limits of human intelligence , but by remarking , that nation after nation , and century after century , has been able to do little more than transpose his incidents , new name his characters , and paraphrase his sentiments .
The reverence due to writings that have long subsisted arises therefore not from any credulous confidence in the superior wisdom of past ages , or gloomy persuasion of the degeneracy of mankind , but is the consequence of acknowledged and indubitable positions , that what has been longest known has been most considered , and what is most considered is best understood .
Johnson then introduces Shakespeare :
The poet , of whose works I have undertaken the revision , may now begin to assume the dignity of an ancient , and claim the privilege of established fame and prescriptive veneration . He has long outlived his century , the term commonly fixed as the test of literature merit . Whatever advantages he might once derive from personal allusions , local customs , or temporary opinions , have for many years been lost ; and every topic of merriment , or motive of sorrow , which the modes of artificial life afforded him , now only obscure the scenes which they once illuminated . The effects of favour and competition are at an end ; the tradition of his friendships and his enmities has perished ; his works support no opinion with arguments , nor supply any faction with invectives ; they can neither indulge vanity nor gratify malignity ; but are read without any other reason than the desire of pleasure , and are therefore praised only as pleasure is obtained ; yet , thus unassisted by interest or passion , they have past through variation of taste and changes of manners , and , as they devolved from one generation to another , have received new honours at every transmission .
= = = Plays = = =
Johnson , in his Proposal , said that " the corruptions of the text will be corrected by a careful collation of the oldest copies " . Accordingly , Johnson attempted to obtain early texts of the plays but many people were unwilling to lend him their editions out of a fear that they might be destroyed . David Garrick offered Johnson access to his collection of Shakespeare texts but Johnson declined the offer , believing that Garrick would expect preferential treatment in return .
Johnson 's strength was to create a set of corresponding notes that allow readers to identify the meaning behind many of Shakespeare 's more complicated passages or ones that may have been transcribed incorrectly over time . Included within the notes are occasional attacks upon the rival editors of Shakespeare 's works and their editions .
In 1766 , Steevens published his own edition of Shakespeare 's plays that was " designed to transcend Johnson 's in proceeding further towards a sound text " , but it lacked the benefit of Johnson 's critical notes . The two worked together to create a revised edition of Shakespeare 's plays in ten volumes , published in 1773 with additional corrections in 1778 . Steevens provided most of the textual work , with Johnson contributing an additional eighty notes .
= = Critical response = =
After Johnson was forced to back down from producing his edition of Shakespeare in 1746 , his rival editor William Warburton praised Johnson 's Miscellaneous Observations as " some critical notes on Macbeth , given as a specimen of a projected edition , and written , as appears , by a man of parts and genius " . Years later , Edmond Malone , an important Shakespearean scholar and friend of Johnson 's , said that Johnson 's " vigorous and comprehensive understanding threw more light on his authour than all his predecessors had done " , and that the Preface was " the finest composition in our language " . Adam Smith said that the Preface was " the most manly piece of criticism that was ever published in any country . "
In 1908 , Walter Raleigh claimed that Johnson helped the reader to " go straight to Shakespeare 's meaning , while the philological and antiquarian commentators kill one another in the dark . " Raleigh then admitted that he " soon falls into the habit , when he meets with an obscure passage , of consulting Johnson 's note before the others . " T. S. Eliot wrote that " no poet can ask more of posterity than to be greatly honoured by the great ; and Johnson 's words about Shakespeare are great honour " .
Walter Jackson Bate , in his 1977 biography on Johnson , wrote :
the edition of Shakespeare – viewed with historical understanding of what it involved in 1765 – could seem a remarkable feat ; and we are not speaking of just the great Preface To see it in perspective , we have only to remind ourselves what Johnson brought to it – an assemblage of almost every qualification we should ideally like to have brought to this kind of work with the single exception of patience ... Operating in and through these qualities was his own extensive knowledge of human nature and life . No Shakespearean critic or editor has ever approached him in this respect .
John Wain , another of Johnson 's biographers , claimed , " There is no better statement of the reason why Shakespeare needs to be edited , and what aims an editor can reasonably set himself " than Johnson 's Proposal .
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= Loughor Castle =
Loughor Castle is a ruined , medieval fortification located in the town of Loughor , Wales . The castle was built around 1106 by the Anglo @-@ Norman lord Henry de Beaumont , during the Norman invasion of Wales . The site overlooked the River Loughor and controlled a strategic road and ford running across the Gower Peninsula . The castle was designed as an oval ringwork , probably topped by wicker fence defences , and reused the remains of the former Roman fort of Leucarum .
Over the next two centuries , the castle was involved in many conflicts . It was attacked and burnt , probably in the Welsh uprising of 1151 , and was captured by the forces of Llywelyn the Great in 1215 . John de Braose acquired the castle in 1220 and repaired it , constructing a stone curtain wall to replace the older defences . Attacked again in 1251 , the castle was reinforced with a stone tower in the second half of the 13th century . It declined in importance during the late @-@ medieval period , and by the 19th century , the castle was ruinous and overgrown with ivy .
In the 21st century , Loughor Castle is controlled by the Welsh heritage agency Cadw and operated as a tourist attraction . The ruined tower and fragments of the curtain wall still survive on top of the ringwork 's earthwork defences , which now resemble a motte , or mound , and are part of the Loughor Castle Park .
= = History = =
= = = 1st – 4th centuries = = =
Loughor Castle is located 11 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) west of Swansea in South @-@ West Wales , overlooking the River Loughor . The site was first used by the Romans for a military fort , one of a sequence running across South @-@ West Wales . The fort , Leucarum , took its name from the Celtic name for the River Loughor . Its location provided good visibility across the region and enabled it to support naval units operating in the Bristol Channel . It also controlled a ford across the River Loughor ; this ford had probably emerged by the time of the Roman period , and was passable at high tide . The fort was built around 75 AD and was used until the middle of the 2nd century ; it was then reoccupied by the Romans during the late 3rd and early 4th century , before being abandoned by the military .
= = = 11th – 12th centuries = = =
The Normans began to make incursions into South Wales from the late @-@ 1060s onwards , pushing westwards from their bases in recently occupied England . Their advance was marked by the construction of castles , frequently on old Roman sites , for example those at Cardiff , Pevensey and Portchester , and the creation of regional lordships . Reusing former Roman sites in this way produced considerable savings in the manpower required to construct the large earth fortifications of the early castles .
Loughor Castle was constructed on the western edge of the Welsh commote , or land unit , of Gwyr . The castle was built shortly after 1106 , when Henry de Beaumont , the Earl of Warwick , was given the Gower Peninsula by Henry I. The Anglo @-@ Norman colonisation of the region followed , with Gower becoming a Marcher territory , enjoying extensive local independence . Loughor Castle was strategically important because it controlled the main road running through Gywr from Beaumont 's main base at Swansea Castle , and was a valuable coastal port . The castle took its name from a corruption of the title of the Roman fort .
In the 12th century , the castle would have been defended on its south side by a steep slope and the marshy ground running along the river . It was designed as an oval ringwork , which today is around 21 metres ( 69 ft ) by 18 metres ( 59 ft ) across and 12 metres ( 39 ft ) high , protected by a ditch 5 metres ( 16 ft ) wide and 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) deep . The Roman fort in this corner was only visible as earthworks in the 12th century , and the builders used part of these in the construction of the ringwork . The ringwork was made up of a core of river gravel and coarse sand , with finer sand and clay forming the surface layer . The ringwork had a protective wicker fence around the top of the earthworks and possibly some form of early stone or wooden tower , with a gateway just to the north side of it . It is unclear what kind of buildings were constructed inside the ringwork , although a kitchen was certainly built on the east side of the enclosure .
The first half of the 12th century was a violent period in Gower , with extensive fighting occurring between the Anglo @-@ Normans and the local Welsh . Loughor Castle was attacked and burnt down around the middle of the century , probably as a part of a Welsh rebellion that devastated the area in 1151 . Henry II and the Welsh prince Rhys ap Gruffydd later agreed peace terms , and the castle was rebuilt . The inside of the ringwork was partially filled by debris during the 1151 attack , and at some point in the next few decades the bank of the ringwork was also deliberately widened inwards in places , allowing buildings to be constructed on it . These changes started the process of filling in the middle of the ringwork which led to the castle today having a mound , or motte @-@ like , appearance .
At around the end of the 12th century , two stone buildings were constructed in the centre of the ringwork , one of them being around 8 metres ( 26 ft ) by 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) . The castle probably passed into the control of the King of England at around this time , in lieu of debts owed by the Earl of Warwick . War broke out again across South @-@ West Wales in 1189 on the death of Henry II , as Rhys and his sons attempted to reclaim the region .
= = = 13th – 14th centuries = = =
Gower continued to see extensive fighting in the 13th century . Loughor Castle was given by King John to his ally William de Braose in 1203 ; William was a powerful Marcher Lord , and related to Rhys ap Gruffudd and his extended family . In 1208 , however , John and William argued ; their relationship broke down and the king attempted to confiscate Loughor and William 's other lands in the region . William allied himself with the Welsh prince Llywelyn the Great and war broke out . William died in 1211 , but his son , Reginald , continued fighting and married Gwladus , Llywelyn 's daughter . In 1215 , the castle was captured by Llywelyn 's forces and control of Gower was granted to Reginald . Two years later , however , Reginald made peace with the English Crown and Llywelyn removed him from power , replacing him with the Welsh prince Rhys Gryg . Contemporary chroniclers recorded that Rhys Gryg deliberately destroyed all the castles in Gower as part of his campaign to dominate the area .
Llyweyln married another of his daughters , Margaret , to Reginald 's nephew , John de Braose , and in 1220 Llyweyln gave him Gower and Loughor Castle , which John appears to have set about repairing . As part of this work , a stone curtain wall was built around the castle . This included a sally port on the north side of the castle .
In 1232 the castle was inherited by John 's son , William de Braose , and in turn his son , also called William . In the second half of the century , Wales saw a renewal of fighting , and the castle was attacked again in 1251 . The decision was taken to improve the castle 's defences and , as part of this , a square , stone tower was added to the castle to provide living accommodation , with three chambers , the first floor containing a garderobe and a fireplace . A gateway was constructed through the curtain wall just to the south of the tower . Two further stone buildings were constructed within the castle walls .
In 1302 , William de Braose granted the Loughor estate to his seneschal , John Yweyn , for life , in exchange for an annual fee of a greyhound collar . On John Yweyn 's death in 1322 the lands were seized by John de Mowbray , William 's son @-@ in @-@ law . John was involved in the rebellion against Edward II , however , and was executed later in 1322 ; John Yweyn 's next of kin , Alice Roculf , successfully appealed to the king and was granted the lands instead . Edward fell from power in 1327 , and the Loughor lands were granted to John de Mowbray 's son , John .
= = = 15th – 21st centuries = = =
The importance of Loughor Castle and the surrounding town declined in the late @-@ medieval period , and by the 19th century the castle had been ruined for many years and was covered in ivy . The castle was painted by the artist William Butler in the 1850s , who depicted the ruins alongside the local industries and the new railway line that had been cut through the remains of the former Roman fort .
In the 1940s , the south @-@ east corner of the castle tower collapsed ; the corner fell to the ground intact and because of its archaeological value it was decided to leave the fallen stonework in place on the ground , rather than risk further damaging it by removing it . In 1946 the castle was given to the Ministry of Works , and is now in the control of the Welsh heritage agency Cadw and operated as a tourist attraction . The castle sits within the grounds of the small Loughor Castle Park .
Archaeological investigations were carried out between 1969 – 71 and in 1973 . The castle is protected as a scheduled monument under UK law . Much of the curtain wall has been stolen and destroyed since the medieval period , although fragments remain up to 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 ft 11 in ) high , and the ruins of the tower remain a prominent feature of the local area .
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= SpongeBob SquarePants ( season 6 ) =
The sixth season of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants , created by former marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg , aired on Nickelodeon from March 3 , 2008 to July 5 , 2010 , and contained 26 episodes , beginning with the episode " Krabby Road " . The series chronicles the exploits and adventures of the title character and his various friends in the fictional underwater city of Bikini Bottom . The season was executive produced by series creator Hillenburg , who also acted as the showrunner . In 2009 , the show celebrated its tenth anniversary on television . The documentary film titled Square Roots : The Story of SpongeBob SquarePants premiered on July 17 , 2009 , and marked the anniversary . SpongeBob 's Truth or Square , a television film , and the special episode " To SquarePants or Not to SquarePants " were broadcast on Nickelodeon , as part of the celebration .
The show itself received several recognition , including the Kids ' Choice Awards for Favorite Cartoon in 2009 and 2010 . At the 2009 ASTRA Awards , the show was nominated for the Favourite International Program category , but did not win . At the 37th Daytime Emmy Awards , the show won for Outstanding Special Class Animated Program , while the directors of the show were nominated for Outstanding Directing in an Animated Program . The show was also nominated at the 2009 and 2010 BAFTA Children 's Awards for the Kids ' Vote – Television and International category , respectively . The episode " SpongeBob vs. The Big One " was nominated at the 2010 Golden Reel Awards . At the 37th Annie Awards , SpongeBob SquarePants was nominated for Best Animated Television Production for Children , while Tom Kenny won Best Voice Acting in a Television Production for his work on SpongeBob 's Truth or Square . Furthermore , at the 38th Annie Awards , the show won for Best Animated Television Production for Children , while the crew members , Jeremy Wakefield , Sage Guyton , Nick Carr and Tuck Tucker , won the Music in a Television Production category . SpongeBob SquarePants also won at the 2011 ASCAP Film and Television Awards for Top Television Series .
Several compilation DVDs that contained episodes from the season were released . The SpongeBob SquarePants : Season 6 , Volume 1 and 2 DVDs were released in Region 1 on December 8 , 2009 and December 7 , 2010 , respectively , while the complete set was released in Region 2 on November 29 , 2010 and Region 4 on December 2 , 2010 . On November 13 , 2012 , The Complete Sixth Season DVD was released in Region 1 .
= = Production = =
The season aired on Nickelodeon , which is owned by Viacom , and was produced by United Plankton Pictures and Nickelodeon . The season 's executive producers were series creator Stephen Hillenburg and Paul Tibbitt , who also acted as the series ' showrunner . Upon the announcement of Nickelodeon signing the new show The Mighty B ! on December 12 , 2006 , it renewed SpongeBob SquarePants for a sixth season with 26 episodes in order , surpassing the 100 @-@ episode mark . Cyma Zarghami , president of Nickelodeon , said " One of the great things about animation is that you can play it over and over again , and kids will still watch it [ ... ] With live action they won 't . " On March 3 , 2008 , the season premiered with the episode " Krabby Road " . It was written by Luke Brookshier , Nate Cash and Eric Shaw , while Alan Smart served as animation director .
In 2009 , Nickelodeon began celebrating the tenth anniversary of the show with Square Roots : The Story of SpongeBob SquarePants , a documentary special by filmmaker Patrick Creadon , that discusses the history of the show and the ascent of the " absorbing character 's journey to pop culture stardom " . Creator Stephen Hillenburg , speaking by phone from Southern California , said " Ten years . I never imagined working on the show to this date and this long . I really figured we might get a season and a cult following , and that might be it . " In an interview , Tom Kenny told that " What I 'm most proud of is that kids still really like it and care about it [ ... ] They eagerly await new episodes . People who were young children when it started 10 years ago are still watching it and digging it and think it 's funny . That 's the loving cup for me . "
Nickelodeon also broadcast a 50 ½ -hour television marathon titled " The Ultimate SpongeBob SpongeBash Weekend " . The marathon featured the ten most memorable episodes as picked by its viewers on Nick.com. The night capped off with the television encore of The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie at 8 PM . On July 19 , ten new episodes including the special episode " To SquarePants or Not to SquarePants " premiered . Paramount Home Entertainment released a 14 @-@ disc DVD titled The First 100 Episodes on September 22 , 2009 . The DVD runs approximately 2200 minutes and includes the first 100 episodes of the series . A second SpongeBob SquarePants television film , titled Truth or Square , aired on Nickelodeon on November 6 , 2009 . Several celebrities made live action cameo appearances on the film , including Rosario Dawson , LeBron James , Tina Fey , Will Ferrell , Craig Ferguson , Robin Williams and P ! nk , while Ricky Gervais provided opening and closing narration for the film .
Animation was handled overseas in South Korea at Rough Draft Studios . Animation directors credited with episodes in the sixth season included Andrew Overtoom , Alan Smart , and Tom Yasumi . Episodes were written by a team of writers , which consisted of Casey Alexander , Steven Banks , Luke Brookshier , Nate Cash , Zeus Cervas , Sean Charmatz , Derek Iversen , Tom King , Dani Michaeli , Richard Pursel , Chris Reccardi , Aaron Springer , Eric Shaw , and Paul Tibbitt . The season was storyboarded by Alexander , Brookshier , Cash , Cervas , Charmatz , King , Reccardi , and Springer .
= = Cast = =
The sixth season had a cast of six main actors . Tom Kenny provided the voice of the title character SpongeBob SquarePants and his pet snail Gary . SpongeBob 's best friend , a starfish named Patrick Star , was voiced by Bill Fagerbakke , while Rodger Bumpass played the voice of Squidward Tentacles , an arrogant and ill @-@ tempered octopus . Other members of the cast were Carolyn Lawrence as Sandy Cheeks , a squirrel from Texas ; Clancy Brown as Mr. Krabs , a miserly crab obsessed with money and SpongeBob 's boss at the Krusty Krab ; and Mr. Lawrence as Plankton , a small green copepod and Mr. Krabs ' business rival . The season had a number of secondary characters including Jill Talley as Plankton 's computer wife , Karen ; Mary Jo Catlett as Mrs. Puff , SpongeBob 's driving instructor ; Lori Alan as Pearl , Mr. Krabs ' daughter ; and Brian Doyle @-@ Murray as the Flying Dutchman .
In addition to the regular cast members , episodes feature guest voices from many ranges of professions , including actors , athletes , authors , musicians , and artists . For instance , in the episode " House Fancy " , television personality Alton Brown guest starred as the character of Nicholas Whithers , the host and judge of a show of the same name . In an interview , Brown described the work as " a blast . " He said " I came up with this voice that didn 't sound anything like me . I channeled this very strange person . Only three people I know figured out it was even me when they saw it . " Actor and musician Johnny Depp guest starred in the episode " SpongeBob vs. The Big One " as the voice of Jack Kahuna Laguna , a surf guru that taught SpongeBob how to surf . According to Sarah Noonan , vice president of talent and casting for Nickelodeon , Depp accepted the role because he and his kids are fans of the show . The episode was also guest starred by musician and The Monkees ' Davy Jones who starred in the episode as himself , appearing at the bottom of the sea with his locker , and Bruce Brown providing vocal cameo as the episode 's narrator . In " The Card " , Ernest Borgnine returned , reprising his role as Mermaid Man . Borgnine later reappeared in the episodes " Ditchin ' " and " Shuffleboarding " , voicing his recurring role , with Tim Conway as Barnacle Boy . In " Dear Vikings " , English actor Ian McShane voiced Gordon , the leader of the large group of Vikings outside of Bikini Bottom . Dennis Quaid also appeared in the " Grandpappy the Pirate " as Grandpa Redbeard , Mr. Krabs ' grandfather . Furthermore , Dee Snider , the frontman of the heavy metal band Twisted Sister , guest starred in " Shell Shocked " as Angry Jack . Snider said " I knew they must be fans [ of mine ] because in the SpongeBob movie , they took my song ' I Wanna Rock ' and changed it to ' Goofy Goober Rock . ' I flipped at the opportunity to be in the show . I have four kids , and everybody loved SpongeBob . " In the entry " The Clash of Triton " , English singer Victoria Beckham guest starred in the episode as the wife of King Neptune , Queen Amphitrite . The writers created the role of a Queen Amphitrite especially for Beckham . The former Spice Girl accepted the role because her sons , Brooklyn , Romeo , and Cruz , love the show , were excited when their mother told them of the role , and looked forward to watching the episode with her . Beckham recorded the voice @-@ over in late @-@ 2008 in a day , and claimed that she was " thrilled " to provide the vocal cameo . Other guests in the episode including Seinfeld actor John O 'Hurley also made a vocal cameo in the episode as King Neptune , and Skid Row heavy metal vocalist Sebastian Bach as the voice of Triton .
Moreover , in the television film SpongeBob 's Truth or Square , various celebrities guest appeared , including Rosario Dawson , Craig Ferguson , Will Ferrell , Tina Fey , LeBron James , Triumph , the Insult Comic Dog , and Robin Williams as guest actors appearing as themselves in the live action sequences , while Ricky Gervais provided vocal cameo as the narrator .
= = Reception = =
The show itself received several recognition , including the Kids ' Choice Awards for Favorite Cartoon in 2009 and 2010 . SpongeBob SquarePants won the 2009 and 2010 Indonesia Kids ' Choice Awards for Favorite Cartoon , while being nominated at the 2010 Kids ' Choice Awards Mexico for the same category . At the 2009 ASTRA Awards , the show was nominated for the Favourite International Program category , but did not win . At the 37th Daytime Emmy Awards , the show won for Outstanding Special Class Animated Program , while the directors , including Andrea Romano , Tom Yasumi , Andrew Overtoom and Alan Smart , were nominated for Outstanding Directing in an Animated Program . The episode " SpongeBob vs. The Big One " was nominated at the 2010 Golden Reel Awards . At the 2009 and 2010 BAFTA Children 's Awards , the show was nominated for the Kids ' Vote – Television and International category , respectively . The DVD release of the episode was nominated at the 37th Annie Awards for Best Home Entertainment Production . At the same award body , SpongeBob SquarePants was nominated for Best Animated Television Production for Children , while Tom Kenny won Best Voice Acting in a Television Production for his work on the television film SpongeBob 's Truth or Square as SpongeBob SquarePants . Furthermore , at the 38th Annie Awards , the show won for Best Animated Television Production for Children , while the crew members , Jeremy Wakefield , Sage Guyton , Nick Carr and Tuck Tucker , won the Music in a Television Production category . SpongeBob SquarePants also won at the 2011 ASCAP Film and Television Awards for Top Television Series . At the 2010 and 2011 TP de Oro , the series won the Best Children and Youth Program category . Sarah Noonan has been nominated for two Artios Awards of the Casting Society of America , out of which she won for Television Animation .
In a DVD review , Paul Mavis of DVD Talk " highly recommended " the set , saying " [ The season has a shaky start ] , but the laughs definitely pick up on the second disc . " In particular , Mavis praised the episode " The Splinter " as " one of the very best SpongeBob [ episodes ] , " while " Slide Whistle Stooges " , " Boating Buddies " , and " The Slumber Party " were described by Mavis as " SpongeBob season 's best offerings . " In a separate review for the " Volume 2 " DVD , Mavis only " recommended " it . He said that the episodes , including " Choir Boys " , " Pet or Pests " , " Overbooked " , " Shell Shocked " , " Komputer Overload " , " Chum Bucket Supreme " , and " Single Cell Anniversary " are " solid entries " and " all deliver steady laughs , " but has doubts that " they 're on a par with series ' best entries like ' The Splinter ' , ' Slide Whistle Stooges ' , ' Boating Buddies ' , and ' The Slumber Party ' . "
In a DVD review for the individual episode DVD release Spongicus , Roy Hrab of DVD Verdict said that " In my previous SpongeBob reviews I have commented that series has lost its edge . This offering does nothing to change my opinion . But what the heck do I know ? Clearly , the show continues to maintain a large following and the franchise is a license to print money for Nickelodeon . " The DVD consists of eight episodes and praised the episodes " Not Normal " and " Gone " by describing them " the best episode on the disc " and " a decent episode " , respectively . Also from DVD Verdict , Gordon Sullivan , on the DVD release To SquarePants or Not to SquarePants , said that " [ it is ] a solid collection of SpongeBob SquarePants episodes . " He added that " My only serious problem with this set is that it 's only eight episodes long ; a more complete season @-@ style release would be more efficient . On the technical front everything is fine , with the bright , solid colors of Bikini Bottom shining through clearly and all the dialogue and effects clear and detailed . " Sullivan gave the episodes " The Splinter " , " Slide Whistle Stooges " , and " The Krabby Kronicle " an 8 / 10 rating , while " Boating Buddies " received the lowest rating with 3 / 10 .
= = Episodes = =
Key
The following episodes listed in the chart are arranged according to the numbering found in their U.S. Copyright registration records , rather than by their original air dates .
= = DVD release = =
The first 24 segment episodes of the sixth season were released on DVD by Paramount Home Entertainment in the United States and Canada on December 8 , 2009 . The " Volume 1 " DVD release features bonus material including animated shorts . The remaining 23 segment episodes were also released under the title " Volume 2 " in the United States and Canada on December 7 , 2010 . The DVD release also features bonus material including music videos , shorts and featurettes . In Region 2 and 4 , the DVD release for the season was a complete set . On November 13 , 2012 , The Complete Sixth Season DVD was released in Region 1 , two years after the season had completed broadcast on television .
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= Stephen Harper =
Stephen Joseph Harper PC MP ( born April 30 , 1959 ) is a Canadian politician and member of Parliament who served as the 22nd Prime Minister of Canada , from February 6 , 2006 to November 4 , 2015 . He was the first prime minister to come from the modern Conservative Party of Canada , which was formed by a merger of the Progressive Conservative Party and the Canadian Alliance .
Harper has been the member of parliament for the riding of Calgary Heritage in Alberta , since 2002 ( previously known as Calgary Southwest from 2002 to 2015 ) . Earlier , from 1993 to 1997 , he was the MP for Calgary West , representing the Reform Party of Canada . He was one of the founding members of the Reform Party , but did not seek re @-@ election in the 1997 federal election . Harper instead joined and later led the National Citizens Coalition , a conservative lobbyist group . In 2002 , he succeeded Stockwell Day as leader of the Canadian Alliance , the successor to the Reform Party and returned to parliament as Leader of the Opposition . In 2003 , he reached an agreement with Progressive Conservative leader Peter MacKay for the merger of their two parties to form the Conservative Party of Canada . He was elected as the party 's first leader , in March 2004 .
The 2006 federal election resulted in a minority government led by the Conservative Party with Harper becoming the 22nd Prime Minister of Canada . By proportion of seats , this was Canada 's smallest minority government since Confederation . Despite this , it was the longest @-@ serving minority government overall . In the 2008 federal election , the Conservative Party won a stronger minority , showing a small increase in the percentage of the popular vote and increased representation in the Canadian House of Commons , with 143 of 308 seats . The 40th Canadian Parliament was dissolved in March , 2011 , after a no @-@ confidence vote that deemed the Cabinet to be in contempt of parliament . In the federal election that followed , the Conservatives won a majority government , the first since the 2000 federal election ; the party won 166 seats , an increase of 23 seats from the October 2008 election .
Though Harper won his seat of Calgary @-@ Heritage in the October 19 , 2015 , federal election , the Conservative Party was defeated by the Liberal Party of Canada , led by Justin Trudeau , who was sworn @-@ in as Harper 's successor on November 4 , 2015 . Harper resigned as party leader on October 19 , 2015 , and the Conservative Party caucus chose an interim leader , Rona Ambrose , on November 5 , 2015 , to serve until a leadership election . Harper moved back to Calgary , Alberta , and commuted to Ottawa as an opposition backbench member of parliament .
= = Early life and education = =
Harper was born and raised in Leaside , Toronto , the first of three sons of Margaret ( née Johnston ) and Joseph Harris Harper , an accountant at Imperial Oil . The Harper family traces its ancestry back to Yorkshire , England , with Christopher Harper emigrating from Yorkshire to Nova Scotia in 1784 , where he later served as justice of the peace in the area that is now New Brunswick .
Harper attended Northlea Public School and , later , John G. Althouse Middle School and Richview Collegiate Institute , both in Central Etobicoke . He graduated in 1978 , and was a member of Richview Collegiate 's team on Reach for the Top , a television quiz show for Canadian high school students . Harper enrolled at the University of Toronto but dropped out after two months . He then moved to Edmonton , Alberta , where he found work in the mail room at Imperial Oil . Later , he advanced to work on the company 's computer systems . He took up post @-@ secondary studies again at the University of Calgary , where he completed a bachelor 's degree in economics in 1985 . He later returned there to earn a master 's degree in economics , completed in 1991 . Harper has kept strong links to the University of Calgary . Harper is the first prime minister since Joe Clark without a law degree .
= = Political beginnings = =
Harper became involved in politics as a member of his high school 's Young Liberals Club . He later changed his political allegiance because he disagreed with the National Energy Program ( NEP ) of Pierre Trudeau 's Liberal government . He became chief aide to Progressive Conservative MP Jim Hawkes in 1985 , but later became disillusioned with the party and the government of Brian Mulroney , especially the administration 's fiscal policy and its inability to fully revoke the NEP until 1986 . He left the PC Party that same year .
He was then recommended by the University of Calgary 's economist Bob Mansell to Preston Manning , the founder and leader of the Reform Party of Canada . At that time Harper " didn 't see himself as a politician " , Mansell told CBC News in 2002 , adding , " Politics was not his first love . "
Manning invited him to participate in the party , and Harper gave a speech at Reform 's 1987 founding convention in Winnipeg . He became the Reform Party 's Chief Policy Officer , and he played a major role in drafting the 1988 election platform . He is credited with creating Reform 's campaign slogan , " The West wants in ! "
Harper ran for the Canadian House of Commons in the 1988 federal election , appearing on the ballot as Steve Harper in Calgary West and losing by a wide margin to Hawkes , his former employer . After Reform candidate Deborah Grey was elected as the party 's first MP in a 1989 by @-@ election , Harper became Grey 's executive assistant , and was her chief adviser and speechwriter until 1993 . He remained prominent in the Reform Party 's national organization in his role as policy chief , encouraging the party to expand beyond its Western base , and arguing that strictly regional parties were at risk of being taken over by radical elements . He delivered a speech at the Reform Party 's 1991 national convention , in which he condemned extremist views .
Harper 's relationship with Manning became strained in 1992 , because of conflicting strategies over the Charlottetown Accord . Harper opposed the Accord on principle for ideological reasons , while Manning was initially more open to compromise . Harper also criticized Manning 's decision to hire Rick Anderson as an adviser , believing that Anderson was not sufficiently committed to the Reform Party 's principles . He resigned as policy chief in October , 1992 .
Harper stood for office again in the 1993 federal election , and defeated Jim Hawkes amid a significant Reform breakthrough in Western Canada . His campaign likely benefited from a $ 50 @,@ 000 print and television campaign organized by the National Citizens Coalition against Hawkes , although the NCC did not endorse Harper directly .
= = Reform MP ( 1993 – 97 ) = =
Harper emerged a prominent member of the Reform Party caucus . He was active on constitutional issues during his first parliament , and played a prominent role in drafting the Reform Party 's strategy for the 1995 Quebec referendum . A long @-@ standing opponent of centralized federalism , he stood with Preston Manning in Montreal to introduce a twenty @-@ point plan to " decentralize and modernize " Canada in the event of a " no " victory . Harper later argued that the " no " side 's narrow plurality was a worst @-@ case scenario , in that no @-@ one had won a mandate for change .
Harper has expressed socially conservative views on some issues . In 1994 , he opposed plans by federal Justice Minister Allan Rock to introduce spousal benefits for same @-@ sex couples . Citing the recent failure of a similar initiative in Ontario , he was quoted as saying , " What I hope they learn is not to get into it . There are more important social and economic issues , not to mention the unity question . " Harper also spoke against the possibility of the Canadian Human Rights Commission or the Supreme Court changing federal policy in these and other matters .
At the Reform Party 's 1994 policy convention , Harper was part of a small minority of delegates who voted against restricting the definition of marriage to " the union of one man and one woman " . He actually opposed both same @-@ sex marriage and mandated benefits for same @-@ sex couples , but argued that political parties should refrain from taking official positions on these and other " issues of conscience " .
Harper was the only Reform MP to support the creation of the Canadian Firearms Registry at second reading in 1995 , although he later voted against it at third reading stage . He said at the time that he initially voted for the registry because of a poll showing that most of his constituents supported it , and added that he changed his vote when a second poll showed the opposite result . It was reported in April , 1995 , that some Progressive Conservatives opposed to Jean Charest 's leadership wanted to remove both Charest and Manning , and unite the Reform and Progressive Conservative parties under Harper 's leadership .
Despite his prominent position in the party , Harper 's relationship with the Reform Party leadership was frequently strained . In early 1994 , he criticized a party decision to establish a personal expense account for Manning at a time when other Reform MPs had been asked to forego parliamentary perquisites . He was formally rebuked by the Reform executive council despite winning support from some MPs . His relationship with Manning grew increasingly fractious in the mid @-@ 1990s , and he pointedly declined to express any opinion on Manning 's leadership during a 1996 interview . This friction was indicative of a fundamental divide between the two men : Harper was strongly committed to conservative principles and opposed Manning 's inclinations toward populism , which Harper saw as leading to compromise on core ideological matters .
These tensions culminated in late 1996 when Harper announced that he would not be a candidate in the next federal election . He resigned his parliamentary seat on January 14 , 1997 , the same day that he was appointed as a vice @-@ president of the National Citizens Coalition ( NCC ) , a conservative think @-@ tank and advocacy group . He was promoted to NCC president later in the year .
In April , 1997 , Harper suggested that the Reform Party was drifting toward social conservatism and ignoring the principles of economic conservatism . The Liberal Party lost seats but managed to retain a narrow majority government in the 1997 federal election , while Reform made only modest gains .
= = Out of parliament = =
= = = 1997 – 2000 = = =
Soon after leaving parliament , Harper and Tom Flanagan co @-@ authored an opinion piece entitled " Our Benign Dictatorship " , which argued that the Liberal Party only retained power through a dysfunctional political system and a divided opposition . Harper and Flanagan argued that national conservative governments between 1917 and 1993 were founded on temporary alliances between Western populists and Quebec nationalists , and were unable to govern because of their fundamental contradictions . The authors called for an alliance of Canada 's conservative parties , and suggested that meaningful political change might require electoral reforms such as proportional representation . " Our Benign Dictatorship " also commended Conrad Black 's purchase of the Southam newspaper chain , arguing that his stewardship would provide for a " pluralistic " editorial view to counter the " monolithically liberal and feminist " approach of the previous management .
Harper remained active in constitutional issues . He was a prominent opponent of the Calgary Declaration on national unity in late 1997 , describing it as an " appeasement strategy " against Quebec nationalism . He called for federalist politicians to reject this strategy , and approach future constitutional talks from the position that " Quebec separatists are the problem and they need to be fixed " . In late 1999 , Harper called for the federal government to establish clear rules for any future Quebec referendum on sovereignty . Some have identified Harper 's views as an influence on the Chrétien government 's Clarity Act .
As president of the NCC from 1998 to 2002 , Harper launched an ultimately unsuccessful legal battle against federal election laws restricting third @-@ party advertising . He led the NCC in several campaigns against the Canadian Wheat Board , and supported Finance Minister Paul Martin 's 2000 tax cuts as a positive first step toward tax reform .
In 1997 , Harper delivered a controversial speech on Canadian identity to the Council for National Policy , a conservative American think tank . He made comments such as " Canada is a Northern European welfare state in the worst sense of the term , and very proud of it " , " if you 're like all Americans , you know almost nothing except for your own country . Which makes you probably knowledgeable about one more country than most Canadians " , and " the NDP [ New Democratic Party ] is kind of proof that the Devil lives and interferes in the affairs of men . " These statements were made public and criticized during the 2006 election . Harper argued that the speech was intended as humour , and not as serious analysis .
Harper considered campaigning for the Progressive Conservative Party leadership in 1998 , after Jean Charest left federal politics . Among those encouraging his candidacy were senior aides to Ontario Premier Mike Harris , including Tony Clement and Tom Long . He eventually decided against running , arguing that it would " burn bridges to those Reformers with whom I worked for many years " and prevent an alliance of right @-@ wing parties from taking shape . Harper was sceptical about the Reform Party 's United Alternative initiative in 1999 , arguing that it would serve to consolidate Manning 's hold on the party leadership . He also expressed concern that the UA would dilute Reform 's ideological focus .
= = = 2000 – 01 = = =
When the United Alternative created the Canadian Alliance in 2000 as a successor party to Reform , Harper predicted that Stockwell Day would defeat Preston Manning for the new party 's leadership . He expressed reservations about Day 's abilities , however , and accused Day of " [ making ] adherence to his social views a litmus test to determine whether you 're in the party or not " . Harper endorsed Tom Long for the leadership , arguing that Long was best suited to take support from the Progressive Conservative Party . When Day placed first on the first ballot , Harper said that the Canadian Alliance was shifting " more towards being a party of the religious right " .
After the death of Pierre Trudeau in 2000 , Harper wrote an editorial criticizing Trudeau 's policies as they affected Western Canada . He wrote that Trudeau " embraced the fashionable causes of his time , with variable enthusiasm and differing results " , but " took a pass " on the issues that " truly defined his century " . Harper subsequently accused Trudeau of promoting " unabashed socialism " , and argued that Canadian governments between 1972 and 2002 had restricted economic growth through " state corporatism " .
After the Canadian Alliance 's poor showing in the 2000 election , Harper joined with other Western conservatives in co @-@ authoring a document called the " Alberta Agenda " . The letter called on Alberta to reform publicly funded health care , replace the Canada Pension Plan with a provincial plan and replace the Royal Canadian Mounted Police with a provincial police force . It became known as the " firewall letter " , because it called on the provincial government to " build firewalls around Alberta " to stop the federal government from redistributing its wealth to less affluent regions . Alberta Premier Ralph Klein agreed with some of the letter 's recommendations , but distanced himself from the " firewall " comments .
Harper also wrote an editorial in late 2000 arguing that Alberta and the rest of Canada were " embark [ ing ] on divergent and potentially hostile paths to defining their country " . He said that Alberta had chosen the " best of Canada 's heritage — a combination of American enterprise and individualism with the British traditions of order and co @-@ operation " while Canada " appears content to become a second @-@ tier socialistic country [ ... ] led by a second @-@ world strongman appropriately suited for the task " . He also called for a " stronger and much more autonomous Alberta " , while rejecting calls for separatism . In the 2001 Alberta provincial election , Harper led the NCC in a " Vote Anything but Liberal " campaign . Some articles from this period described him as a possible successor to Klein .
Harper and the NCC endorsed a private school tax credit proposed by Ontario 's Progressive Conservative government in 2001 , arguing that it would " save about $ 7 @,@ 000 for each student who does not attend a union @-@ run public school " . Education Minister Janet Ecker criticized this , saying that her government 's intent was not to save money at the expense of public education .
Day 's leadership of the Canadian Alliance became increasingly troubled throughout the summer of 2001 , as several party MPs called for his resignation . In June , the National Post newspaper reported that former Reform MP Ian McClelland was organizing a possible leadership challenge on Harper 's behalf . Harper announced his resignation from the NCC presidency in August , 2001 , to prepare a campaign .
= = Canadian Alliance leadership , 2002 – 03 = =
Stockwell Day called a new Canadian Alliance leadership race for 2002 , and soon declared himself a candidate . Harper emerged as Day 's main rival , and declared his own candidacy on December 3 , 2001 . He eventually won the support of at least 28 Alliance MPs , including Scott Reid , James Rajotte and Keith Martin . During the campaign , Harper reprised his earlier warnings against an alliance with Quebec nationalists , and called for his party to become the federalist option in Quebec . He argued that " the French language is not imperilled in Quebec " , and opposed " special status " for the province in the Canadian Constitution accordingly . He also endorsed greater provincial autonomy on Medicare , and said that he would not co @-@ operate with the Progressive Conservatives as long as they were led by Joe Clark . On social issues , Harper argued for " parental rights " to use corporal punishment against their children and supported raising the age of sexual consent . He described his potential support base as " similar to what George Bush tapped " .
The tone of the leadership contest turned hostile in February , 2002 . Harper described Day 's governance of the party as " amateurish " , while his campaign team argued that Day was attempting to win re @-@ election by building a narrow support base among different groups in the religious right . The Day campaign accused Harper of " attacking ethnic and religious minorities " . In early March , the two candidates had an especially fractious debate on CBC Newsworld . The leadership vote was held on March 20 , 2002 . Harper was elected on the first ballot with 55 % support , against 37 % for Day . Two other candidates split the remainder .
After winning the party leadership , Harper announced his intention to run for parliament in a by @-@ election in Calgary Southwest , recently vacated by Preston Manning . Ezra Levant had been chosen as the riding 's Alliance candidate and declared that he would not stand aside for Harper ; he later reconsidered . The Liberals did not field a candidate , following a parliamentary tradition of allowing opposition leaders to enter the House of Commons unopposed . The Progressive Conservative candidate , Jim Prentice , also chose to withdraw . Harper was elected without difficulty over New Democrat Bill Phipps , a former United Church of Canada moderator . Harper told a reporter during the campaign that he " despise [ d ] " Phipps , and declined to debate him .
Harper officially became Leader of the Opposition in May , 2002 . Later in the same month , he said that the Atlantic Provinces were trapped in " a culture of defeat " which had to be overcome , the result of policies designed by Liberal and Progressive Conservative governments . Many Atlantic politicians condemned the remark as patronizing and insensitive . The Legislature of Nova Scotia unanimously approved a motion condemning Harper 's comments , which were also criticized by Premier of New Brunswick Bernard Lord , federal Progressive Conservative leader Joe Clark and others . Harper refused to apologize , and said that much of Canada was trapped by the same " can 't @-@ do " attitude .
In March , 2003 , their speeches in favour gaining no traction in parliament , Harper and Stockwell Day co @-@ wrote a letter to The Wall Street Journal in which they condemned the Canadian government 's unwillingness to participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq .
= = Conservative Party leadership , 2004 – 06 = =
On January 12 , 2004 , Harper announced his resignation as Leader of the Opposition , to run for the leadership of the Conservative Party of Canada . Harper was elected the first leader of the Conservative Party , with a first ballot majority against Belinda Stronach and Tony Clement on March 20 , 2004 . Harper 's victory included strong showings in Ontario , Quebec , and Atlantic Canada .
= = = 2004 federal election = = =
Harper led the Conservatives into the 2004 federal election . Initially , new Prime Minister Paul Martin held a large lead in polls , but this eroded because of infighting , Adscam ( a scandal that came as a result of a Government of Canada " sponsorship program " in the province of Quebec and involving the Liberal Party of Canada ) and other scandals surrounding his government . The Liberals attempted to counter this with an early election call , as this would give the Conservatives less time to consolidate their merger .
Martin 's weak performance in the leader 's debate , along with an unpopular provincial budget by Liberal Premier Dalton McGuinty in Ontario , moved the Conservatives into a lead for a time . However , comments by Conservative MPs , leaked press releases slandering the then prime minister , as well as controversial TV attack ads suggesting that the Conservatives would make Canada more like the United States , caused Harper 's party to lose some momentum .
Harper made an effort to appeal to voters in Quebec , a province where the Reform / Alliance side of the merged party had not done well . He was featured in several of the Tories ' French @-@ language campaign ads .
The Liberals were re @-@ elected to power with a minority government , with the Conservatives coming in second place . The Conservatives managed to make inroads into the Liberals ' Ontario stronghold , primarily in the province 's socially conservative central region . However , they were shut out of Quebec , marking the first time that a centre @-@ right party did not win any seats in that province . Harper , after some personal deliberation , decided to stay on as the party leader . Many credited him with bringing the Progressive Conservative Party and Canadian Alliance together in a short time to fight a close election .
= = = = Agreement with the BQ and the NDP = = = =
Two months after the federal election , Stephen Harper privately met Bloc Québécois leader Gilles Duceppe and New Democratic Party leader Jack Layton in a Montreal hotel . On September 9 , 2004 , the three signed a letter addressed to then @-@ Governor General Adrienne Clarkson , stating ,
We respectfully point out that the opposition parties , who together constitute a majority in the House , have been in close consultation . We believe that , should a request for dissolution arise this should give you cause , as constitutional practice has determined , to consult the opposition leaders and consider all of your options before exercising your constitutional authority .
On the same day the letter was written , the three party leaders held a joint press conference at which they expressed their intent to co @-@ operate on changing parliamentary rules , and to request that the Governor General consult with them before deciding to call an election . At the news conference , Harper said " It is the Parliament that 's supposed to run the country , not just the largest party and the single leader of that party . That 's a criticism I 've had and that we 've had and that most Canadians have had for a long , long time now so this is an opportunity to start to change that . " However , at the time , Harper and the two other opposition leaders denied trying to form a coalition government . Harper said , " This is not a coalition , but this is a co @-@ operative effort . "
One month later , on October 4 , Mike Duffy , who was later appointed as a Conservative senator by Harper , said " It is possible that you could change prime minister without having an election " , and that some Conservatives wanted Harper to temporarily become prime minister without holding an election . The next day Layton walked out on talks with Harper and Duceppe , accusing them of trying to replace Paul Martin with Harper as prime minister . Both Bloc and Conservative officials denied Layton 's accusations .
On March 26 , 2011 , Duceppe stated that Harper had tried to form a coalition government with the Bloc and NDP in response to Harper 's allegations that the Liberals may form a coalition with the Bloc and the NDP .
= = = Leader of the Opposition = = =
The Conservative Party 's first policy convention was held from March 17 – 19 , 2005 , in Montreal . Harper had been rumoured to be shifting his ideology closer to that of a Blue Tory , and many thought he 'd wanted to move the party 's policies closer to the centre . Any opposition to abortion or bilingualism was dropped from the Conservative platform . Harper received an 84 % endorsement from delegates in the leadership review .
Despite the party 's move to the centre , the party began a concerted drive against same @-@ sex marriage . Harper was criticized by a group of law professors for arguing that the government could override the provincial court rulings on same @-@ sex marriage without using the " notwithstanding clause " , a provision of Canada 's Charter of Rights and Freedoms . He also argued , in general , for lower taxes , an elected Senate , a tougher stance on crime , and closer relations with the United States .
Following the April 2005 release of Jean Brault 's damaging testimony at the Gomery Commission , implicating the Liberals in the scandal , opinion polls placed the Conservatives ahead of Liberals . The Conservatives had earlier abstained from the vote on the 2005 budget to avoid forcing an election . With the collapse in Liberal support and a controversial NDP amendment to the budget , the party exerted significant pressure on Harper to bring down the government . In May , Harper announced that the government had lost the " moral authority to govern " . Shortly thereafter , the Conservatives and Bloc Québécois united to defeat the government on a vote that some considered to be either a confidence motion or else a motion requiring an immediate test of the confidence of the House . The Martin government did not accept this interpretation and argued that vote had been on a procedural motion , although they also indicated that they would bring forward their revised budget for a confidence vote the following week . Ultimately , the effort to bring down the Government failed following the decision of Conservative MP Belinda Stronach to cross the floor to the Liberal Party . The vote on the NDP amendment to the budget tied , and with the Speaker of the House voting to continue debate , the Liberals stayed in power . At the time , some considered the matter to be a constitutional crisis .
Harper was also criticized for supporting his caucus colleague MP Gurmant Grewal . Grewal had produced tapes of conversations with Tim Murphy , Paul Martin 's chief of staff , in which Grewal claimed he had been offered a cabinet position in exchange for his defection .
The Liberals ' support dropped after the first report from the Gomery Commission was issued . On November 24 , 2005 , Harper introduced a motion of non @-@ confidence on the Liberal government , telling the House of Commons " that this government has lost the confidence of the House of Commons and needs to be removed . " As the Liberals had lost NDP support in the house by refusing to accept an NDP plan to prevent health care privatization , the no @-@ confidence motion was passed by a vote of 171 – 133 . It was the first time that a Canadian government had been toppled by a straight motion of non @-@ confidence proposed by the opposition . As a result , parliament was dissolved and a general election was scheduled for January 23 , 2006 .
On February 27 , 2008 , allegations surfaced that two Conservative Party officials offered terminally ill , Independent MP Chuck Cadman a million @-@ dollar life insurance policy in exchange for his vote to bring down the Liberal government in a May , 2005 , budget vote . If the story had been proved true , the actions may have been grounds for charges as a criminal offence since , under the Criminal Code of Canada , it is illegal to bribe an MP .
When asked by Vancouver journalist Tom Zytaruk about the alleged life insurance offer then @-@ opposition leader Stephen Harper states on an audio tape " I don 't know the details . I know there were discussions " and goes on to say " The offer to Chuck was that it was only to replace financial considerations he might lose due to an election " . Harper also stated that he had told the Conservative party representatives that they were unlikely to succeed . " I told them they were wasting their time . I said Chuck had made up his mind . " In February , 2008 , the Royal Canadian Mounted Police ( RCMP ) investigated the allegations that Section 119 's provisions on bribery and corruption in the Criminal Code had been violated . The RCMP concluded their investigation stating that there was no evidence for pressing charges .
Harper denied any wrongdoing and subsequently filed a civil libel suit against the Liberal Party . Because libel laws do not apply to statements made in the House of Commons , the basis of the lawsuit was that statements made by Liberal party members outside the House and in articles which appeared on the Liberal party web site made accusations that Harper had committed a criminal act .
The audio expert hired by Harper to prove that the tape containing the evidence was doctored reported that the latter part of the tape was recorded over , but the tape was unaltered where Harper 's voice said " I don 't know the details , I know that , um , there were discussions , um , but this is not for publication ? " and goes on to say he " didn 't know the details " when asked if he knew anything about the alleged offer to Cadman .
= = = 2006 federal election = = =
The Conservatives began the campaign period with a policy @-@ per @-@ day strategy , contrary to the Liberal plan of holding off major announcements until after the Christmas holidays , so Harper dominated media coverage for the first weeks of the election . Though his party showed only modest movement in the polls , Harper 's personal numbers , which had always significantly trailed those of his party , began to rise . In response , the Liberals launched negative ads targeting Harper , similar to their attacks in the 2004 election . However , their tactics were not sufficient to erode the Conservative 's advantage , although they did manage to close what had been a ten @-@ point advantage in public opinion . As Harper 's personal numbers rose , polls found he was now considered not only more trustworthy , but a better choice for prime minister than Martin .
Immediately prior to the Christmas break , in a faxed letter to NDP candidate Judy Wasylycia @-@ Leis , the Commissioner of the RCMP , Giuliano Zaccardelli announced the RCMP had opened a criminal investigation into her complaint that it appeared Liberal Finance Minister Ralph Goodale 's office had leaked information leading to insider trading before making an important announcement on the taxation of income trusts . On December 27 , 2005 , the RCMP confirmed that information in a press release . At the conclusion of the investigation , Serge Nadeau , a top Finance Department civil servant , was charged with criminal breach of trust . No charges were laid against then Finance Minister Ralph Goodale .
The election gave Harper 's Conservatives the largest number of seats in the House , although not enough for a majority government , and shortly after midnight on January 24 , Martin conceded defeat . Later that day , Martin informed Governor General Michaëlle Jean that he would resign as prime minister , and at 6 : 45 p.m. Jean asked Harper to form a government . Harper was sworn in as Canada 's 22nd prime minister on February 6 , 2006 .
In his first address to parliament as head of government , Harper opened by paying tribute to the Queen of Canada , Elizabeth II , and her " lifelong dedication to duty and self @-@ sacrifice . " He also said before the Canada @-@ UK Chamber of Commerce that Canada and the United Kingdom were joined by " the golden circle of the Crown , which links us all together with the majestic past that takes us back to the Tudors , the Plantagenets , the Magna Carta , habeas corpus , petition of rights , and English common law . " Journalist Graham Fraser said in the Toronto Star that Harper 's speech was " one of the most monarchist speeches a Canadian prime minister has given since John Diefenbaker . " An analysis by Michael D. Behiels suggests a political realignment may be underway based on the continuance of Harper 's government .
After the election , the Conservative party were charged with improper election spending , in a case that became known as the In and Out scandal . It dragged on for years , but in 2012 they took a plea deal , admitting both improper spending and falsifying records to hide it .
= = Prime Minister ( 2006 – 15 ) = =
= = = 2008 federal election = = =
On October 14 , 2008 , after a 5 @-@ week @-@ long campaign , the Conservative Party won a federal election and increased its number of seats in parliament to 143 , up from 127 at the dissolution of the previous parliament ; however , the actual popular vote among Canadians dropped slightly by 167 @,@ 494 votes . As a result of the lowest voter turnout in Canadian electoral history , this represented only 22 % of eligible Canadian voters , the lowest level of support of any winning party in Canadian history . Meanwhile , the number of opposition Liberal MPs fell from 95 to 77 seats . 155 MPs are required to form a majority government in Canada 's 308 @-@ seat parliament .
= = = 2008 parliamentary dispute and prorogation = = =
On December 4 , 2008 , Harper asked Governor General Michaëlle Jean to prorogue parliament to avoid a vote of confidence scheduled for the following Monday , becoming the first Canadian prime minister to do so . The request was granted by Jean , and the prorogation lasted until January 26 , 2009 . The opposition coalition dissolved shortly after , with the Conservatives winning a Liberal supported confidence vote on January 29 , 2009 .
= = = 2010 prorogation = = =
On December 30 , 2009 , Harper announced that he would request the governor general to prorogue parliament again , effective immediately on December 30 , 2009 , during the 2010 Winter Olympics and lasting until March 3 , 2010 . Harper stated that this was necessary for Canada 's economic plan . Jean granted the request . In an interview with CBC News , Prince Edward Island Liberal Member of Parliament Wayne Easter accused the Prime Minister of " shutting democracy down " . Tom Flanagan , Harper 's University of Calgary mentor and former chief of staff , also questioned Harper 's reasoning for prorogation , stating that " I think the government 's talking points haven 't been entirely credible " and that the government 's explanation of proroguing was " skirting the real issue — which is the harm the opposition parties are trying to do to the Canadian Forces " regarding the Canadian Afghan detainee issue . Small demonstrations took place on January 23 in 64 Canadian cities and towns and five cities in other countries . A Facebook protest group attracted over 20 @,@ 000 members .
A poll released by Angus Reid on January 7 , found that 53 % of respondents were opposed to the prorogation , while 19 % supported it . 38 % believed Harper used the prorogation to curtail the Afghan detainee inquiry , while 23 % agreed with Harper 's explanation that the prorogation was necessary economically .
= = = 2010 Senate appointments = = =
Harper , on January 29 , 2010 , advised the Governor General to appoint new Conservative senators to fill five vacancies in the Senate , one each for Quebec , Newfoundland and Labrador , and New Brunswick , and two for Ontario . The new senators were Pierre @-@ Hugues Boisvenu , of Quebec ; Bob Runciman , of Ontario ; Vim Kochhar , of Ontario ; Elizabeth Marshall of Newfoundland and Labrador ; and Rose @-@ May Poirier , of New Brunswick . This changed the party standings in the Senate , which had previously been dominated by Liberals , to 51 Conservatives , 49 Liberals , and five others .
= = = 2011 vote of non @-@ confidence = = =
Harper 's Cabinet was defeated in a no @-@ confidence vote on March 25 , 2011 , after being found in contempt of parliament . Harper thus , in accordance with constitutional convention , advised the Governor General to call a general election . This was the first occurrence in Commonwealth history of a government in the Westminster parliamentary tradition losing the confidence of the House of Commons on the grounds of contempt of parliament . The no @-@ confidence motion was carried with a vote of 156 in favour of the motion and 145 against .
= = = 2011 election = = =
On May 2 , 2011 , after a five @-@ week campaign , Harper led the Conservatives to their third consecutive election victory — the first time a centre @-@ right party has accomplished this in half a century . The Conservatives increased their standing in parliament to 166 , up from 143 at the dissolution of the previous parliament . This resulted in the first centre @-@ right majority government since the Progressive Conservatives won what would be their last majority in 1988 . The Conservatives also received a greater number of total votes than in 2008 .
The election ended five years of minority governments , made the New Democratic Party the Official Opposition for the first time , relegated the Liberals to third place for the first time , brought Canada 's first Green Party Member of Parliament , and reduced the Bloc Québécois from 47 to 4 seats .
After the election , the Conservatives were accused of cheating in the Robocall scandal , mainly suppressing votes by directing voters to bogus polling stations . There were complaints in 247 of Canada 's 308 ridings , but only one person was charged ; Conservative staffer Michael Sona was convicted and jailed .
= = = 2015 election = = =
Under the Canada Elections Act , a general election had to take place no later than October 19 , 2015 . On August 2 , at Harper 's request , Governor General David Johnson dropped the writs of election for October 19 . In that election , Harper 's Conservative Party was defeated by Justin Trudeau 's Liberals , and became the Official Opposition , having won only 99 out of 338 seats where after the previous election they had 166 of 308 . This was mainly because of a collapse of Conservative support in southern Ontario , a region that swung heavily to them in 2011 . They lost all of their seats in Toronto , and won only three seats in the Greater Toronto Area . They were also shut out of Atlantic Canada — the first time in decades that there will be no centre @-@ right MPs from that region . Harper was reelected in Calgary Heritage , essentially a reconfigured version of his former riding .
Hours after conceding defeat on election night , Harper resigned as leader of the Conservative Party , though for the time being he will remain in the new parliament as a backbencher . Harper resigned as Prime Minister during a meeting with Governor General David Johnston , who accepted the resignation , after which Johnston invited Trudeau to form a government on November 4 , 2015 .
= = Conservative backbencher and departure from politics = =
Harper returned to Ottawa as a Conservative backbencher and addressed a meeting of the Conservative caucus that included defeated MPs in November . Interim leader Rona Ambrose stated that Harper would be in the House for key votes as the member for Calgary Heritage , but had earned the right to keep a low profile after his service as Prime Minister .
Harper announced in May 2016 that he plans to resign his seat in the House of Commons during the summer before the fall session of parliament . In the same month , Harper delivered a speech to the 2016 Conservative party convention where his accomplishments as party leader and prime minister were honoured by the party .
In December 2015 , Harper had set up Harper & Associates Consulting Inc . , a corporation that lists him a director alongside close associates Ray Novak and Jeremy Hunt .
= = Domestic policy = =
= = = Constitutional issues = = =
After sidestepping the political landmine for most of the first year of his time as prime minister , much as all the post @-@ Charlottetown Accord prime ministers had done , Harper 's hand was forced to reopen the Quebec sovereignty debate after the opposition Bloc Québécois were to introduce a motion in the House that called for recognition of Quebec as a " nation " . On November 22 , 2006 , Harper introduced his own motion to recognize that " the Québécois form a nation within a united Canada . " Five days later , Harper 's motion passed , with a margin of 266 – 16 ; all federalist parties , and the Bloc Québécois , supported it .
In 2004 , Harper said " the Upper House remains a dumping ground for the favoured cronies of the prime minister " . Between 2006 and 2008 , by which time Harper was prime minister , he did not put any names to the Governor General for appointment to the Senate , resulting in 16 Senate vacancies by the October 2008 election . The one exception was Michael Fortier . When Harper took office , he directed the Governor General to appoint Michael Fortier to both the Senate and the Cabinet , arguing the government needed representation from the city of Montreal . Although there is a precedent for this action in Canadian history , the appointment led to criticism from opponents who claimed Harper was reneging on his push for an elected Senate . In 2008 , Fortier gave up his Senate seat and sought election as a Member of Parliament ( MP ) , but was defeated by a large margin by the incumbent Bloc Québécois MP .
After the October , 2008 , election , Harper again named Senate reform as a priority . By December , he recommended the appointment of 18 senators and , in 2009 , provided an additional nine people for appointment as senators . Many of those appointed had close ties with the Conservative Party , including the campaign manager of the Conservative Party , Doug Finley . Critics accused Harper of hypocrisy ( the Liberals coined the term " Harpocrisy " ) . Conservative Senator Bert Brown defended Harper 's appointments and said " the only way [ the Senate ] ' s ever been filled is by having people that are loyal to the prime minister who 's appointing them . "
= = = Economic management = = =
By January , 2010 , the federal deficit had risen to $ 36 billion . It is claimed by certain pundits that the Conservatives raised Canada 's deficit to the largest in the country 's history . At the same time , Canada had the lowest debt @-@ to @-@ GDP ratio in the G7 economies . The Economist magazine stated that Canada had come out the recession stronger than any other rich country in the G7 . In 2013 , Canada came out with Global Markets Action Plan to generate employment opportunities for Canadians .
= = = 2011 Census = = =
Ahead of the Canada 2011 Census , the government announced that the long @-@ form questionnaire ( which collects detailed demographic information ) will no longer be mandatory . According to Minister of Industry Tony Clement , the change was made because of privacy @-@ related complaints and after consulting with Statistics Canada . However , Canada 's privacy commissioner reported only receiving three complaints between 1995 and 2010 , according to a report in the Toronto Sun .
Munir Sheikh , Canada 's Chief Statistician appointed on Harper 's advice , resigned on July 21 , 2010 , in protest of the government 's change in policy . Ivan Fellegi , the former Chief Statistician of Canada , criticized the government 's decision , saying that those who are most vulnerable ( such as the poor , new immigrants , and aboriginals ) are least likely to respond to a voluntary form , which weakens information about their demographic .
The move was opposed by some governmental and non @-@ governmental organizations . Federation of Canadian Municipalities ; City of Toronto ; Canadian Jewish Congress ; Evangelical Fellowship of Canada ; Canadian Conference of Catholic Bishops ; Canadian Medical Association ; Statistical Society of Canada ; the American Statistical Association ; and Registered Nurses Association of Ontario all opposed the change . However , the Fraser Institute supported the change . The provincial governments of Ontario , Quebec , New Brunswick , Prince Edward Island , and Manitoba , also opposed the change .
= = = Veterans = = =
Under Stephen Harper , the annual budget of Veterans Affairs Canada increased from $ 2 @.@ 85 billion in 2005 – 2006 to $ 3 @.@ 55 billion in 2014 – 2015 , while the quantity of veterans served has declined from 219 @,@ 152 in 2008 – 2009 to 199 @,@ 154 in 2015 . Since 2006 , Veterans Affairs Canada returned $ 1 @.@ 13 billion in unspent funding back to the federal treasury . Nine Veterans Affairs offices were closed between 2012 and 2015 , and 900 positions were phased out from the department since 2009 . Former Minister of Veterans Affairs Erin O 'Toole stated that the closures were made to modernize Veterans Affairs , by moving services online and to Service Canada locations .
In 2006 , Harper implemented the New Veterans Charter passed with all party support by the previous Liberal government . This charter turned the previous lifetime veteran pension system into one of lump sum payments . Under Harper , the Canadian government spent $ 700 , 000 fighting a class @-@ action lawsuit brought by a group of wounded Afghan veterans who argued that the new Charter was discriminatory . In the statement of defence filed by the federal lawyers , they argued that the government has no obligation and no " social contract " with veterans .
= = Foreign policy = =
During his term , Harper has dealt with many foreign policy issues relating to the United States , War on Terror , Arab @-@ Israeli conflict , free trade , China and Africa .
He has reduced defence spending to 1 % of Canadian GDP .
In 2009 , Harper visited China . During the visit Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao publicly scolded Harper for not visiting earlier , pointing out that " this is the first meeting between the Chinese premier and a Canadian prime minister in almost five years " ; Harper in response said that , " it 's almost been five years since we had yourself or President Hu in our country . " In 2008 , former prime minister Jean Chrétien had criticized Harper for missing opening ceremonies for the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing ; in response , Dimitri Soudas , a spokesperson for Harper , called the remarks hypocritical , pointing out that Chrétien " attended one of six Olympic opening ceremonies during his 13 years as prime minister .
On September 11 , 2007 , Harper visited Australia and addressed its parliament .
On January 20 , 2014 , Harper addressed the Israeli Knesset in Givat Ram , Jerusalem .
During mid @-@ 2015 , Harper repeatedly voiced his opinion that Russia should be excluded from association with the G7 group of nations because of Russia 's support for Russian @-@ speaking Ukrainian dissidents . On June 8 , Harper said , " Mr. Putin . . . has no place at the [ G7 ] table , and I don 't believe there 's any leader who would defend Mr.Putin having a place . " .
Michael Ignatieff criticized Harper for cutting foreign aid to Africa by $ 700 million , falling short of the UN Millennium Development Goals , and cutting eight African countries from the list of priority aid recipients .
= = = Afghanistan = = =
On March 11 and 12 , 2006 , Harper made a surprise trip to Afghanistan , where Canadian Forces personnel had been deployed as part of the NATO @-@ led International Security Assistance Force since late 2001 , to visit troops in theatre as a show of support for their efforts , and as a demonstration of the government 's commitment to reconstruction and stability in the region . Harper 's choice of a first foreign visit was closely guarded from the press until his arrival in Afghanistan ( citing security concerns ) , and is seen as marking a significant change in relationship between the government and the military . Harper returned to Afghanistan on May 22 , 2007 , in a surprise two @-@ day visit which included visiting Canadian troops at the forward operating base at Ma 'Sum Ghar , located 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) south of Kandahar , making Harper the first prime minister to have visited the front lines of a combat operation .
= = = Israeli and Jewish affairs = = =
Harper has shown admiration for the State of Israel since the early 1990s . Friends and colleagues describe his views as being the product of thinking and reading deeply about the Middle East . " Toronto Rabbi Philip Scheim , who accompanied Harper to Israel " in 2014 said , " I sense that [ Harper ] sees Israel as a manifestation of justice and a righting of historical wrongs , especially in light of the Holocaust . "
At the outset of the 2006 Israel – Lebanon conflict , Harper defended Israel 's " right to defend itself " and described its military campaign in Lebanon as a " measured " response , arguing that Hezbollah 's release of kidnapped Israel Defense Force ( IDF ) soldiers would be the key to ending the conflict . Speaking of the situation in both Lebanon and Gaza on July 18 , Harper said he wanted " not just a ceasefire , but a resolution " but such a thing would not happen until Hezbollah and Hamas recognize Israel 's right to exist . Harper blamed Hezbollah for all the civilian deaths . He asserted that Hezbollah 's objective is to destroy Israel through violence .
The media noted that Harper did not allow reporters opportunities to ask him questions on his position . Some Canadians , including many Arab and Lebanese Canadians , criticized Harper 's description of Israel 's response .
In December , 2008 , the Conference of Presidents of Major American Jewish Organizations recognized Harper 's support for Israel with its inaugural International Leadership Award , pointing out Harper 's decision to boycott the Durban II anti @-@ racism conference , and his government 's " support for Israel and [ its ] efforts at the U.N. against incitement and ... the delegitimization [ of Israel ] " .
In March , 2009 , Harper spoke at a Parliament Hill ceremony organized by Chabad @-@ Lubavitch to honour the Jewish victims of the 2008 Mumbai attacks , which included an attack on the Nariman House . He expressed condolences over the murder at Chabad 's Mumbai centre of Rabbi Gavriel Holtzberg and his wife Rivka . Harper described the killings as " affronts to the values that unite all civilized people " . Harper added that the quick instalment of a new rabbi at the Chabad centre in Mumbai as a signal that the Jewish people will " never bow to violence and hatred " .
In 2010 , Canada lost a bid for a seat on the UN Security Council . While initially blaming the loss on his rival Ignatieff , Harper later said that it was due to his pro @-@ Israeli stance . Harper then said that he would take a pro @-@ Israeli stance , no matter what the political cost to Canada . Ignatieff criticized Harper 's stance as a " mistake " , saying Canada would be better able to defend Israel through the Security Council than from the sidelines and pointed out that it is the Security Council that will determine if sanctions are imposed on Iran . Ignatieff also accused Harper of steering the discussion away from implementing the two @-@ state solution , and instead rendering all discussion into a competition " about who is Israel 's best friend " .
= = = Free trade with EFTA = = =
On June 7 , 2007 , the Conservative government announced it had finalized free trade negotiations with the European Free Trade Association ( EFTA ) . Under this agreement , Canada increased its trade ties with Iceland , Norway , Switzerland and Liechtenstein . In 2006 , the value of trade between these partners was $ 10 @.@ 7 billion . Canada had originally begun negotiations with the EFTA on October 9 , 1998 , but talks broke down because of a disagreement over subsidies to shipyards in Atlantic Canada .
= = = United States = = =
Shortly after being congratulated by George W. Bush for his victory , Harper rebuked US Ambassador David Wilkins for criticizing the Conservatives ' plans to assert Canada 's sovereignty over the Arctic Ocean waters with armed forces . Harper 's first meeting as prime minister with the US president occurred at the end of March , 2006 .
The government received American news coverage during the Democratic Party 's 2008 presidential primaries after the details of a conversation between Barack Obama 's economic advisor Austan Goolsbee , and Canadian diplomat Georges Rioux were revealed . Reportedly Goolsbee was reassuring the Canadians that Obama 's comments on potentially renegotiating the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) were more political rhetoric than actual policy . The accuracy of these reports has been debated by both the Obama campaign and the Canadian Government . The news came at a key time nearing the Ohio and Texas primaries , where perceptions among Democratic voters was ( and is ) that the benefits of the NAFTA agreement are dubious . Thus the appearance that Obama was not being completely forthright was attacked by his opponent Hillary Clinton .
ABC News reported that Harper 's chief of staff , Ian Brodie was responsible for the details reaching the hands of the media . Harper has denied that Brodie was responsible for the leak , and launched an investigation to find the source . The Opposition , as well as Democratic strategist Bob Shrum , criticized the Government on the issue , stating they were trying to help the Republicans by helping Hillary Clinton win the Democratic nomination instead of Obama . They also alleged the leak would hurt relations with the United States if Obama ever were to become President . Obama was elected President in November . In February , Obama made his first foreign visit , as president , to Ottawa , in which he affirmed support for free trade with Canada , as well as complimenting Canada on its involvement in Afghanistan .
= = Environmental policy = =
Since Harper 's government took office in 2006 , Canadian greenhouse gas emissions fell from 749 to 726 Mt of carbon dioxide equivalent ( CO2 eq ) . From 1993 until 2006 , during the previous Liberal government greenhouse gas emissions increased from 600 to 749 Mt of CO2 eq . The reduction corresponded Canada 's decreased economic output during the Great Recession and emissions began increasing slightly in 2010 , when the economy began recovering . Other significant factors in Canada 's decreased emissions during Prime Minister Harper 's time in office are initiatives such as the carbon tax in British Columbia , the cap and trade system in Quebec , Ontario 's coal @-@ fired power plants , and the Clean Air Regulatory Agenda which regulates emissions for automobiles and light trucks . In 2006 , Canada 's Clean Air and Climate Change Act was introduced to address air pollution as well as greenhouse gas emissions ; it never became law . In 2006 , the Clean Air Regulatory Agenda ( CARA ) was established to " support Government of Canada efforts to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and air pollutant emissions in order to improve the environment and health of Canadians " . In December , 2011 , the Harper administration announced that Canada would formally withdraw from the Kyoto Protocol . Then Environment Minister Peter Kent stated , " It 's now clear that Kyoto is not the path forward for a global solution to climate change . In December , 2012 , Canada became the first signatory to formally withdraw from the Kyoto Protocol . /
= = = Renewable energy = = =
Other federal initiatives include the 2011 loan guarantee towards the Lower Churchill Project in Labrador , which is scheduled for completion in 2017 . The Lower Churchill 's two hydroelectric installations at Gull Island and Muskrat Falls will have a combined capacity of over 3 @,@ 074 MW and have the ability to provide 16 @.@ 7 TW · h of electricity per year , which is enough to " reduce greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to taking 3 @.@ 2 million vehicles off the road each year " .
= = = Public transit = = =
In 2006 , Harper administration invested over $ 5 billion towards towards public transit projects in Canada . In 2006 , the federal government provided $ 697 million towards the York @-@ University @-@ Spadina Subway Extension . In September 2013 , former finance minister Jim Flaherty invested a federal contribution of $ 660 million towards the Scarborough Subway Extension .
= = Supreme Court appointments = =
Harper chose the following jurists to be appointed as justices of the Supreme Court of Canada by the governor general :
Marshall Rothstein ( March 1 , 2006 – August 31 , 2015 )
Thomas Cromwell ( September 5 , 2008 – present )
Andromache Karakatsanis ( 2011 – present )
Michael J. Moldaver ( 2011 – present )
Richard Wagner ( 2012 – present )
Clément Gascon ( 2014 – present )
Russell Brown ( 2015 – present )
= = = Marshall Rothstein = = =
In keeping with Harper 's election promise to change the appointment process , Rothstein 's appointment involved a review by a parliamentary committee , following his nomination by the prime minister . Rothstein had already been short @-@ listed , with two other candidates , by a committee convened by Paul Martin 's previous Liberal government , and he was Harper 's choice . Harper then had Rothstein appear before an ' ad hoc ' , non @-@ partisan committee of 12 members of parliament . This committee was not empowered to block the appointment , though , as had been called for by some members of Harper 's Conservative Party .
= = = Thomas Cromwell = = =
On September 5 , 2008 , Harper nominated Thomas Cromwell of Nova Scotia Court of Appeal to fill the Supreme Court seat left vacant by the departure of Michel Bastarache . By and large Cromwell 's nomination was well received , with many lauding the selection ; however , dissent has been noted surrounding the nomination . First , Harper bypassed parliament 's supreme court selection panel , which was supposed to produce a list of three candidates for him to choose from . Second , Newfoundland justice minister Jerome Kennedy criticized the appointment , citing the Newfoundland government 's belief that constitutional convention stipulates that a Newfoundlander should have been named to the court in the rotation of Atlantic Canadian supreme court representation .
= = = Marc Nadon = = =
On October 3 , 2013 , Harper announced the nomination of supernumerary Federal Court of Appeals Marc Nadon to the supreme court to replace the retiring Morris Fish . The appointment was challenged by both Ontario lawyer Rocco Galati and the provincial government of Quebec as being contrary to the appointment criteria of section 6 of the Supreme Court Act . In response , Harper referred the criteria issue to the supreme court , as well as the question of whether the government 's amendments to the criteria were constitutional . The supreme court subsequently ruled in Reference re Supreme Court Act , ss . 5 and 6 that the Nadon appointment was invalid , and that the federal government could not unilaterally amend the Supreme Court Act . Harper subsequently nominated Clement Gascon to the position instead .
= = Honours = =
Harper received the Woodrow Wilson Award on October 6 , 2006 , for his public service in Calgary . The awards ceremony was held at the Telus Convention Centre in Calgary , the same place where he made his victory speech .
Time magazine also named him as Canada 's Newsmaker of the Year in 2006 . Stephen Handelman wrote " that the prime minister who was once dismissed as a doctrinaire backroom tactician with no experience in government has emerged as a warrior in power " .
On June 27 , 2008 , Harper was awarded the Presidential Gold Medallion for Humanitarianism by B 'nai B 'rith International . He is the first Canadian to be awarded this medal .
On July 11 , 2011 , Harper was honoured by Alberta 's Blood tribe . He was made honorary chief of the Kainai Nation during a ceremony , in which they recognized him for making an official apology on behalf of the Government of Canada for the residential schools abuse . Harper issued this apology in 2008 . The chief of the tribe explained that he believes the apology officially started the healing and rebuilding of relations between the federal and native councils . Lester B. Pearson , John Diefenbaker , and Jean Chrétien are the only other prime ministers of Canada to have been awarded the same honorary title .
On September 27 , 2012 , Harper received the World Statesman of the Year award . This award was offered through a US group of various faith representatives . This occurred at a black tie banquet in New York . Jean Chrétien was one of the previous recipients from Canada .
= = = Honorary degrees = = =
Tel Aviv University in Ramat Aviv , Tel Aviv , Israel , 2014 ( Ph.D. )
= = Personal life = =
Harper married Laureen Teskey on December 11 , 1993 . Laureen was formerly married to New Zealander Neil Fenton from 1985 to 1988 . The Harpers have two children : Benjamin and Rachel . Harper is the third prime minister , after Pierre Trudeau and John Turner , to send his children to Rockcliffe Park Public School , in Ottawa . He is a member of the evangelical Christian and Missionary Alliance and attends church at the East Gate Alliance Church in Ottawa . According to party literature , he is learning Spanish .
An avid follower of ice hockey , he has been a fan of the Toronto Maple Leafs since his childhood in the Leaside and Etobicoke communities in Toronto . He published a book , A Great Game : The Forgotten Leafs and the Rise of Professional Hockey ( 2013 ) , which chronicles the growth of professional hockey , particularly in Toronto , and writes articles occasionally on the subject . Harper appeared on The Sports Network ( TSN ) during the broadcast of the Canada – Russia final of the 2007 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships . He was interviewed and expressed his views on the state of hockey , and his preference for an overtime period in lieu of a shoot @-@ out . In February , 2010 , Harper interviewed former National Hockey League greats Wayne Gretzky and Gordie Howe for a Saskatoon Kinsmen Club charity event .
Harper taped a cameo appearance in an episode of the television show Corner Gas which aired March 12 , 2007 . He reportedly owns a large vinyl record collection and is a fan of The Beatles and AC / DC . In October , 2009 , he joined Yo @-@ Yo Ma on stage in a National Arts Centre gala and performed " With a Little Help from My Friends " . He was also accompanied by Herringbone , an Ottawa band with whom he regularly practises . He received a standing ovation after providing the piano accompaniment and lead vocals for the song .
In October , 2010 , Harper taped a cameo appearance in an episode of the television show Murdoch Mysteries , which aired July 20 , 2011 , during the show 's fourth season .
Harper is 6 feet 2 inches ( 188 cm ) tall . He was the first prime minister to employ a personal stylist , Michelle Muntean , whose duties range from coordinating his clothing to preparing his hair and makeup for speeches and television appearances . While she used to be on the public payroll , she has been paid for by the Conservative Party since " some time [ in ] 2007 " .
The Harper family has two cats , Stanley and Gypsy. and they have fostered other cats as well . Since Harper is no longer prime minister , the family moved back to Calgary , Alberta and he will commute to his seat in parliament .
= = Electoral record = =
All electoral information is taken from Elections Canada . Italicized expenditures refer to submitted totals , and are presented when the final reviewed totals are not available .
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= New York @-@ class battleship =
The New York class of battleship was a class of ships designed and constructed by the United States Navy between 1908 and 1914 . The two ships of the class , New York and Texas , each saw extensive service beginning in the occupation of Veracruz , World War I , and World War II .
Designed as a more heavily armed improvement over the previous Wyoming class , the New York class was the first battleship to feature the 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) / 45 caliber gun , but was one of the last battleship classes designed with several features , including a five @-@ turret layout and coal for fuel . The class also suffered several deficiencies such as a lack of anti @-@ aircraft weaponry and armor layout , which were addressed with the subsequent Nevada class . Because of these deficiencies , both ships saw several extensive overhauls over the course of their careers which greatly changed their profiles .
Both New York and Texas entered service in 1914 and immediately served in the occupation of Veracruz , and service reinforcing the Royal Navy 's Grand Fleet in the North Sea during World War I , during which time New York is believed to have sunk a U @-@ boat in an accidental collision . Both ships undertook numerous training exercises and overhauls during the interwar era , and joined the Neutrality Patrol at the beginning of World War II . Outmoded by more advanced battleships in service , both ships served primarily as convoy escorts and naval artillery during the war . New York supported Operation Torch in North Africa , undertook convoy patrols and training in the Atlantic , and supported the Battle of Iwo Jima and the Battle of Okinawa . Texas supported Operation Torch , Operation Overlord , the bombardment of Cherbourg , Operation Dragoon and the battles at Iwo Jima and Okinawa . Following the war , New York was used as a target ship in Operation Crossroads and sunk as a target in 1948 , while Texas was converted into a museum ship , and remains permanently moored in San Jacinto State Park today .
= = Background = =
The New York class was the fifth of 11 separate classes planned by the United States Navy between 1906 and 1919 , a total of 29 battleships and 6 battlecruisers . Virtually the entire American battle line was being designed from pre @-@ dreadnought experience and observation of foreign designs . The design of the New York @-@ class battleship originated in the 1908 Newport Conference , which resulted in a new method for battleship design , with the General Board taking a more active role in the design process of ships , and the navy 's Board on Construction would implement the design instead of creating it . While the New York class was mostly designed by the Board on Construction , lessons learned on the class allowed the General Board to take the lead on the following Nevada @-@ class battleships .
The Newport Conference established a general consensus among leaders that US Navy ships should carry larger batteries in response to the increasing caliber of battleships in other countries , notably the BL 13 @.@ 5 inch Mk V naval gun which had been introduced by the Royal Navy 's Orion class , as well as the German Navy 's shift from 28 @-@ centimetre ( 11 in ) to 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimetre ( 12 in ) guns . There was debate at the time as to whether the Florida @-@ class battleships , laid down in 1909 , should carry heavier armament than the 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) / 45 caliber Mark 5 gun . Ultimately , on 30 March 1909 , US Congress approved the construction of two " Design 601 " battleships , also known as Battleship 1910 with six 12 @-@ inch turrets , which the General Board had selected over two 14 @-@ inch designs in 1909 . These would become the Wyoming class . At the same time , the General Board began planning for the next class of ships , and on 21 April 1909 decided on two battleships with similar sizes , and after some debate about main guns approval of two battleships was granted on 24 June in 1910 . In 1911 the US Senate 's Naval Affairs Committee suggested reducing the size of the ships as part of a $ 24 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 budget reduction , but Secretary of the Navy George von Lengerke Meyer fought to keep the original design and the ships were not altered .
The class is generally referred to as the New York class , but it is also occasionally called the Texas class because New York was completed several months after her sister , Texas .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
As designed , the ships had a standard displacement of 27 @,@ 000 long tons ( 27 @,@ 433 t ) and a full @-@ load displacement of 28 @,@ 367 long tons ( 28 @,@ 822 t ) . They were 573 ft ( 175 m ) in length overall , 565 ft ( 172 m ) at the waterline , and had a beam of 95 ft 6 in ( 29 @.@ 11 m ) and a draft of 28 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 69 m ) . The ships underwent significant changes and increases in armor and armament over their operational lives . Following her fourth and final refit in 1943 , New York increased her displacement to 29 @,@ 340 long tons ( 29 @,@ 810 t ) standard and 34 @,@ 000 long tons ( 35 @,@ 000 t ) full @-@ load . The final refit for Texas came in 1945 , after which she displaced 29 @,@ 500 long tons ( 30 @,@ 000 t ) standard and 32 @,@ 000 long tons ( 33 @,@ 000 t ) at full load . As designed , the ships had a crew complement consisted of 1 @,@ 042 officers and enlisted men . By 1945 , Texas was carrying 1 @,@ 723 officers and enlisted men with the addition of crews for additional weapons as well as a new complement of Marines .
= = = Armament = = =
The main battery of the class consisted of ten 14 @-@ inch / 45 caliber guns , arrayed in five twin turrets designated 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , and 5 . As constructed , these turrets had an elevation of 15 degrees , but this was increased to 30 degrees during an overhaul in 1940 – 1941 . The class was the last to feature a turret mounted amidships . In 1910 the US Navy 's Bureau of Ordnance had successfully designed and tested its 14 @-@ inch naval gun . The gun proved to have remarkable accuracy and uniformity of pattern . The New York class was the fifth class of US dreadnought battleship design created , and work had already started on the sixth design , the Nevada class . By 1910 no US dreadnought class battleship had yet hit the water , as all were either at some stage of building or in design . Virtually the entire US Navy battle line was being designed by drawing on experience from pre @-@ dreadnought designs or from observation of foreign battleship designs .
As built , both ships also carried 21 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 51 caliber guns arrayed ten to a side with one in the stern , primarily for defense against destroyers and torpedo boats . Many of the 5 @-@ inch guns were poor in accuracy in rough seas due to being mounted near the ends of the ship and below the main deck . The ships were not designed with anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defense in mind , and with the development of naval aviation , this was seen as a serious drawback to the class . The New York class was the first US battleship to mount anti @-@ aircraft guns , with two 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) / 50 caliber guns mounted on platforms on top of the boat cranes of Texas in 1916 . In 1918 , the secondary armament was reduced to 16 5 @-@ inch / 51 caliber guns , eight to a side , as the guns near the ends of the ship were difficult to work in any kind of sea . When both ships were refitted 1925 @-@ 26 , AA defense was increased with eight 3 @-@ inch / 50 caliber guns arrayed four to a side . Six of the 16 remaining 5 @-@ inch guns were relocated higher in the ship to new casemates on the main deck . The New York class also initially featured four torpedo tubes , 1 each on the port side bow and stern and starboard bow and stern , for the Bliss @-@ Leavitt Mark 3 torpedo , instead of the previous two , because of advances in torpedo performance increasing the prominence of the weapon . The torpedo rooms held 12 torpedoes total , plus 12 naval defense mines . However , the torpedo tubes were removed in the 1925 @-@ 26 refit .
Magazine and machinery spaces were enclosed in the protected hull . Magazine volume was reduced for increased machinery , with each magazine accommodating 75 to 80 shells and charges , while more shells were carried in their turrets and handling rooms .
In 1937 eight 1 @.@ 1 @-@ inch ( 28 mm ) / 75 caliber AA guns in two quadruple mounts were added to improve the light AA armament . The ships were more extensively refitted with large amounts of light AA guns at the expense of the 5 @-@ inch / 51 caliber guns in 1942 , as the attack on Pearl Harbor had shown pre @-@ war light AA armament to be inadequate . The 1 @.@ 1 inch quad mounts were removed and 24 Bofors 40 mm guns were added in six quadruple mounts ( later increased to 40 guns ) , while 42 Oerlikon 20 mm guns in single mounts were also added . The 3 @-@ inch AA gun armament was increased to 10 guns , while the 5 @-@ inch gun armament was reduced to 6 guns .
= = = Armor = = =
The ships continued the armor suite of the Wyoming class with minor improvements . The deck armor scheme would continue to remain distinctly inferior to the succeeding Nevada class with their all or nothing armor scheme . However the leap forward in range provided by improved fire control was not yet envisioned and had it been there would not have been time to include it within the current design . The ship provided a 12 in ( 305 mm ) belt tapering to 10 in ( 254 mm ) and 6 @.@ 5 in ( 165 mm ) casemate armor with internal partitioning . The New York class was the first to incorporate an armored central plotting room below decks , but atop the protective deck , and enclosed in a thin box of splinter armor .
Armor on the New York class consisted of belt armor from 10 to 12 inches thick . Their lower casemates had between 9 in ( 229 mm ) and 11 in ( 279 mm ) of armor , and their upper casemate had 6 in ( 152 mm ) of armor . Deck armor was 2 in ( 51 mm ) thick , and turret armor was 14 inches on the face , 4 in ( 102 mm ) on the top , 2 inches on the sides , and 8 in ( 203 mm ) on the rear . Armor on her barbettes was between 10 and 12 inches . Conning towers were protected by 12 inches of armor , with 4 inches of armor on the tops . In all , the armor totaled 261 @.@ 67 t ( 257 @.@ 54 long tons ; 288 @.@ 44 short tons ) on the upper casemate , 1 @,@ 680 @.@ 33 t ( 1 @,@ 653 @.@ 79 long tons ; 1 @,@ 852 @.@ 25 short tons ) on the lower casemate , 1 @,@ 549 @.@ 16 t ( 1 @,@ 524 @.@ 69 long tons ; 1 @,@ 707 @.@ 66 short tons ) along the belt , 127 @.@ 42 t ( 125 @.@ 41 long tons ; 140 @.@ 46 short tons ) on the bulkheads , 1 @,@ 322 @.@ 11 t ( 1 @,@ 301 @.@ 23 long tons ; 1 @,@ 457 @.@ 38 short tons ) on the splinter deck , 2 @,@ 085 @.@ 39 t ( 2 @,@ 052 @.@ 45 long tons ; 2 @,@ 298 @.@ 75 short tons ) on the barbettes , and 856 @.@ 11 t ( 842 @.@ 59 long tons ; 943 @.@ 70 short tons ) on the conning tower for a total protection of 8 @,@ 120 @.@ 62 t ( 7 @,@ 992 @.@ 37 long tons ; 8 @,@ 951 @.@ 45 short tons ) .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ships were powered by 14 Babcock & Wilcox coal @-@ fired boilers driving two dual @-@ acting triple expansion reciprocating steam engines , with 28 @,@ 100 shp ( 20 @,@ 954 kW ) producing a maximum speed of 21 kn ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . They had a range of 7 @,@ 060 nmi ( 8 @,@ 120 mi ; 13 @,@ 080 km ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Initially , designs called for a 14 percent increase in power to 32 @,@ 000 shp ( 24 @,@ 000 kW ) over the 28 @,@ 000 shp ( 21 @,@ 000 kW ) of the preceding class . However , it was discovered that greater propulsive efficiency of the reciprocating engine allowed a reduction in installed power , needing only 28 @,@ 100 shp to make 21 knots .
The New York class was the final class of US battleship to be powered by coal . The class was designed to carry 2 @,@ 850 long tons ( 2 @,@ 900 t ) of coal , the most of any battleship class . In 1910 , the succeeding battleships of the Nevada class were designed with fuel oil in mind . Both ships were converted to carry fuel oil in 1926 , and had a capacity of 5 @,@ 200 long tons ( 5 @,@ 300 t ) of oil . Six new Bureau Express oil @-@ fired boilers replaced the 14 older design coal @-@ fired boilers at that time with no loss of power .
= = Construction = =
Funding for the battleships was authorized by a 24 June 1910 act , which called for the ships to cost no more than $ 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . The act also specified new labor policies for their construction which put strict limits on labor hours and working conditions for shipyard employees . Bids were solicited only for Battleship No. 35 , Texas , on 27 September 1910 , while Battleship No. 34 , New York , was to be built by New York Navy Yard . Bids opened for No. 35 on 1 December . Ultimately Newport News Shipbuilding Company won the contract with a bid of $ 5 @,@ 830 @,@ 000 . Battleship No. 35 began construction first , on 17 April 1911 , launched 18 May 1912 , and completed on 12 March 1914 . Battleship No. 34 was laid down on 11 September 1911 , launched on 30 October 1912 , and completed on 15 April 1914 .
By 1926 , the New York class was considered obsolete compared with other battleships in service , so both ships received a complete refit . While several other battleships in service , including Utah and Florida were converted to training ships or scrapped , New York and Texas were chosen to be overhauled to increase their speed , armor , armament , and propulsion systems , in accordance with the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 . An additional 3 @,@ 000 long tons ( 3 @,@ 000 t ) were added for defense against aerial targets and submarines . Her 14 coal @-@ fired boilers were replaced by six Bureau Express oil @-@ fired boilers and the twin funnels were trunked into one , aft of the forward superstructure . Tripods were fitted in place of the lattice masts , and atop the forward tripod a control tower was installed . A tower was built amidships that contained additional fire control to backup the system on the foremast . A new aircraft catapult was installed atop turret Number 3 , and cranes were installed on either side of the funnel for boat and aircraft handling . Additional deck protection was added , and each ship 's beam was widened . The ships were fitted with anti @-@ torpedo bulges , though these made maneuvering harder at low speeds and both rolled badly , and gunfire accuracy was reduced in rough seas .
= = Service history = =
= = = USS New York = = =
Shortly after commissioning , New York became flagship for the United States occupation of Veracruz in 1914 . During World War I , she became flagship of Battleship Division 9 , commanded by Rear Admiral Hugh Rodman . Sent to reinforce the British Grand Fleet in the North Sea , she conducted blockade and escort duties . She twice came into contact with German U @-@ boats , and is believed to have accidentally sunk one . She returned to the United States at the end of the war , and began taking on patrol and training duties . New York was fitted with XAF RADAR in February 1938 , including the first United States duplexer so a single antenna could both send and receive .
She was a part of the Neutrality Patrol following the outbreak of World War II , and In September 1939 , and spent the beginning of the war escorting convoys between New York and Iceland . She saw action supporting Operation Torch , the Allied invasion of North Africa , where she targeted shore batteries threatening the landings in November 1942 . She remained in convoy patrol and training for several years , until she was moved to the Pacific Fleet late in the war and supported landings on Iwo Jima in February 1945 , and later the invasion of Okinawa in April 1945 . She was lightly damaged by a kamikaze attack in this battle . Following the war , she was used as a target ship during Operation Crossroads and subsequently studied for its effects , before being sunk as a target in 1948 .
= = = USS Texas = = =
Texas also participated in the occupation of Veracruz for several months in 1914 , before conducting training and upgrades to become the first ship of the US Navy to mount anti @-@ aircraft weapons . She conducted convoy patrols early in World War I and was the first US ship to fire on a German one during a convoy mission in 1917 . She joined other US battleships in reinforcing the British fleet near the end of the war and was present for the German surrender . In the inter @-@ war period she became one of the first battleships to launch and operate aircraft , and frequently alternated her time between the Atlantic and Pacific waters on training exercises .
She was part of the Neutrality Patrol at the beginning of World War II and supported Allied landings at North Africa , and then conducted convoy patrol duty to North African and European ports throughout 1943 . On 6 June 1944 , she supported Operation Overlord , covering Allied landings on the beaches of Normandy , France , in particular the battle at Pointe du Hoc . Later that month on 25 June , she supported the bombardment of Cherbourg and there was damaged when she was hit with a German artillery shell . In July she moved to support Operation Dragoon , the Allied invasion of southern France . Following extensive repairs and training , she moved to the Pacific and supported the invasion of Iwo Jima in February 1945 . She then moved to support landings on Okinawa in April . Following the end of the war , Texas was decommissioned and in 1948 she was moved to San Jacinto State Park and converted into a museum ship , where she remains today .
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= J.D.B. v. North Carolina =
J.D.B. v. North Carolina , 564 U.S. 261 ( 2011 ) , was a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States held that age is relevant when determining police custody for Miranda purposes . J.D.B. was a 13 @-@ year @-@ old student enrolled in special education classes whom police had suspected of committing two robberies . A police investigator visited J.D.B. at school , where he was interrogated by the investigator , a uniformed police officer , and school officials . J.D.B. subsequently confessed to his crimes and was convicted . J.D.B. was not given a Miranda warning during the interrogation , nor an opportunity to contact his legal guardian . During the trial , attempts to suppress the statements given by J.D.B. because he was not given a Miranda warning were denied on the grounds that J.D.B. was not in police custody . The case was appealed and the Supreme Court agreed to hear the case . " J.D.B. v. NORTH CAROLINA . " J.D.B. v. North Carolina . N.p. , n.d. Web . 23 Apr. 2015 . After examining the lower court 's reasoning , the Supreme Court found that J.D.B. ' s age should have been considered when determining whether he was in police custody . The Court remanded the case and instructed the lower court to make a new finding on custody while taking age into account .
= = Background = =
= = = Miranda warnings = = =
A Miranda warning is an explanation of a suspect 's rights that must be given by law enforcement before interrogation . It stems from the 1966 Miranda v. Arizona case , and is based primarily on the Fifth Amendment right against self @-@ incrimination . If a defendant in custody is not notified of their rights via a Miranda warning , any confession they give may not be admissible in court . If a defendant is not in police custody , however , police are free to question suspects without informing them of their rights , and their statements may still be admissible .
= = = Police investigation = = =
J.D.B. was a 13 @-@ year @-@ old student attending Smith Middle School in Chapel Hill , North Carolina when he was taken out of class by a uniformed police officer and questioned . J.D.B. had been questioned previously by the police when they saw him in the neighborhood where two home break @-@ ins had occurred . After questioning J.D.B. the first time , police learned that a digital camera matching the description of a stolen item had been seen in the possession of J.D.B. This prompted the juvenile investigator assigned to the case to go to the school to question J.D.B. Upon arriving at the school , the investigator informed the uniformed police officer on detail to the school and members of the school 's administration . The uniformed officer interrupted the class J.D.B. was in and escorted him to a school conference room , where J.D.B. was subsequently questioned by the investigator , police officer , and members of the schools administration for 30 to 45 minutes . Prior to the questioning , J.D.B. was neither given Miranda warnings nor an opportunity to speak to his legal guardian , nor was he informed that he was free to leave the room .
Initially J.D.B. denied any wrongdoing . After being confronted with the stolen camera and after the urging of a school administrator , J.D.B. confessed to the break @-@ ins . It was at this point after the confession that the investigator informed J.D.B. that he could refuse to answer questions and that he was free to leave . J.D.B. indicated that he understood and then proceeded to provide further details about the crime , including the location of the stolen property . J.D.B. wrote a statement at the investigators request and then he was allowed to leave to catch the bus home .
= = = Trial and appeal = = =
Two juvenile petitions were filed against J.D.B. Each alleged one count of larceny and one count of breaking and entering . J.D.B. ' s public defender moved to suppress J.D.B. ' s statements and the evidenced derived therefrom , arguing that J.D.B. had been interrogated in police custody without the required Miranda warnings . The trial court decided that J.D.B. was not in custody , and the motion was denied . The North Carolina Supreme Court affirmed with a divided panel , " declin [ ing ] to extend the test for custody to include consideration of the age ... of an individual subjected to questioning by police " .
The Supreme Court granted certiorari to determine whether the Miranda custody analysis includes consideration of a juvenile suspect ’ s age . The American Civil Liberties Union , American Bar Association , and the National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers were among the organizations that filed amicus briefs in support of J.D.B. The attorneys general of 30 states and 2 unincorporated territories filed an amicus brief in support of North Carolina .
= = Opinion of the court = =
Associate Justice Sonia Sotomayor wrote the opinion for the Court , which commanded a majority only in part . The Court held that a child 's age properly informs the Miranda custody analysis .
= = = Relevancy of age = = =
The Court underscored the dangers of not applying age to the custody analysis , writing : " to hold ... that a child 's age is never relevant to whether a suspect has been taken into custody — and thus to ignore the very real differences between children and adults — would be to deny children the full scope of the procedural safeguards that Miranda guarantees to adults " . The opinion cited Stansbury v. California where the Court held that a child 's age " would have affected how a reasonable person " in the suspect 's position " would perceive his or her freedom to leave " . Yarborough v. Alvarado was also cited , where the Court wrote that a child 's age " generates commonsense conclusions about behavior and perception " . Finally , the Court pointed out that the law reflects the idea that a child 's judgment is not the same as an adult 's , in the form of legal disqualifications on children as a class ( e.g. limitations on a child 's ability to marry without parental consent ) .
= = = Miranda as an objective test = = =
The Court placed emphasis on the fact that age is an objective circumstance and including it in a custody analysis does not place an undue burden on the police . The Court has repeatedly emphasized that the custody analysis is an objective test . In Thompson v. Keohane the Court wrote that :
Two discrete inquiries are essential to the determination : first , what were the circumstances surrounding the interrogation ; and second , given those circumstances , would a reasonable person have felt he or she was at liberty to terminate the interrogation and leave . Once the scene is set and the players ’ lines and actions are reconstructed , the court must apply an objective test to resolve the ultimate inquiry : was there a formal arrest or restraint on freedom of movement of the degree associated with formal arrest .
The Court wrote that consideration of age involved no consideration of the specific mindset of the individual . Rather , the Court held that age is an objective factor that affects how a reasonable person would perceive his or her freedom to leave .
= = = Dissent = = =
Associate Justice Samuel Alito wrote a dissenting opinion for four Justices . The primary objection of the dissent was that the ruling of the majority was inconsistent with one of the main justifications for the Miranda rule : the need for a clear rule that is easily applied in all cases . Alito argued the decision shifted custody determination from a simple test to an inquiry that must account for individualized characteristics . Alito emphasized that age is not the only characteristic that may affect a subject under interrogation and that in future cases the court will be tasked with adding additional characteristics to custody determination or by " arbitrarily distinguishing a suspect 's age from other personal characteristics " .
= = Reception and subsequent developments = =
The case attracted differing opinions within the legal community . Steven Drizin , professor at Northwestern University School of Law , characterized the ruling as " huge " , noting that police would no longer be able to choose to question young suspects at a school in order to avoid giving a Miranda warning , a practice he characterized as a " loophole " . The Juvenile Law Center praised the ruling as " a resounding statement " in line with " settled research and basic common sense " . Steven Shapiro , legal director of the ACLU concurred , stating that " we have to ensure that students ' rights are protected ... and the decision is a step in that direction . "
Other analysts were troubled that the decision would leave " a murky landscape for law enforcement " . John Charles Thomas , representing the National District Attorneys Association , concluded " The pressure is basically to err on the side of caution , to give the Miranda warning almost every time . " Professor Stephen Saltzburg of George Washington University agreed that the ruling would pressure police to adopt a strategy of " When in doubt , give Miranda warnings " , but also opined that it would make little practical difference to young people facing police questioning . " The reality is that even with Miranda warnings , it 's doubtful that young people understand exactly what it all means and understand their choices , and so in the long run , I doubt that there will be many fewer confessions because of this opinion . "
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= Helmut Lent =
Oberst Helmut Lent ( 13 June 1918 – 7 October 1944 ) was a German night @-@ fighter ace in World War II . Lent shot down 110 aircraft , 102 of them at night , far more than the minimum of five enemy aircraft required for the title of " ace " . Born into a devoutly religious family , he showed an early passion for glider flying ; against his father 's wishes , he joined the Luftwaffe in 1936 . After completing his training , he was assigned to the 1 . Squadron , or Staffel , of Zerstörergeschwader 76 ( ZG 76 ) , a wing flying the Messerschmitt Bf 110 twin @-@ engine heavy fighter . Lent claimed his first aerial victories at the outset of World War II in the invasion of Poland and over the North Sea . During the invasion of Norway he flew ground support missions before he was transferred to the newly established Nachtjagdgeschwader 1 ( NJG 1 ) , a night @-@ fighter wing .
Lent claimed his first nocturnal victory on 12 May 1941 and on 30 August 1941 was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross for 22 victories . His steady accumulation of aerial victories resulted in regular promotions and awards . On the night of 15 June 1944 , Major Lent was the first night fighter pilot to claim 100 nocturnal aerial victories , a feat which earned him the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds on 31 July 1944 .
On 5 October 1944 , Lent flew a Junkers Ju 88 on a routine transit flight from Stade to Nordborchen , 5 kilometres ( 3 mi ) south of Paderborn . On the landing approach one of the engines cut out and the aircraft collided with power lines . All four members of the crew were mortally injured . Three men died shortly after the crash and Lent succumbed to his injuries two days later on 7 October 1944 .
= = Childhood , education and early career = =
Helmut Lent was born on 13 June 1918 in Pyrehne , district of Landsberg an der Warthe , Province of Brandenburg , Germany ( now Pyrzany , Lubusz Province , western Poland ) and christened Helmut Johannes Siegfried Lent . He was the fifth child of Johannes Lent , a Lutheran minister and Marie Elisabeth , née Braune . Helmut Lent had two older brothers , Werner and Joachim , and two older sisters , Käthe and Ursula . His family was deeply religious ; in addition to his father , both of his brothers and both grandfathers were also Lutheran ministers .
From Easter 1924 until Easter 1928 , Lent attended the local public primary school at Pyrehne . His father and oldest brother Werner then tutored him at home in preparation for the entrance examination at the public secondary school at Landsberg . In February 1933 , Helmut joined the Jungvolk , the junior branch of the Hitler Youth . From March 1933 , he acted as a youth platoon leader , or Jungzugführer ( 1 March 1933 – 1 April 1935 ) and flag @-@ bearer , or Fähnleinführer ( 1 April 1935 – 9 November 1935 ) until he left the Jungvolk to prepare for his diploma examination . Helmut passed his graduation examinations at the age of seventeen on 12 December 1935 . On 2 February 1936 , he began the eight @-@ week compulsory National Labor Service ( Reichsarbeitsdienst ) at Mohrin . He joined the military service in the Luftwaffe as a Fahnenjunker on 1 April 1936 , against the wishes of his father .
His military training began on 6 April 1936 at the 2nd Air Warfare School ( Luftkriegsschule 2 ) at Gatow , on the south @-@ western outskirts of Berlin . He swore the National Socialist oath of allegiance on 21 April 1936 . Flight training began on Monday , 7 August 1936 at Gatow . His first flight was in a Heinkel He 72 Kadet D @-@ EYZA single engine biplane . Lent logged his first solo flight on 15 September 1936 in a Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 44 Stieglitz . By this time , Lent had accumulated 63 flights in his logbook . In conjunction with flight training , the students also learned to drive motorcycles and cars and during one of these training exercises , Lent was involved in a road accident , breaking his upper leg badly enough to prevent him from flying for five months . This did not adversely affect his classroom training and on 1 April 1937 , after taking his commission examination , he was promoted to Fähnrich . On 19 October 1937 Lent completed his flight training and was awarded the A / B License . He earned his wings on 15 November 1937 . On 1 February 1938 , he was promoted to Oberfähnrich ( first ensign ) , and on 1 March 1938 to Leutnant . By this time , he had made 434 flights in eight different types of aircraft and had accumulated 112 hours and 48 minutes flying time , mostly in daylight flights , in single engine training aircraft .
After leaving Gatow , Helmut Lent was posted to the Heavy Bomber Crew School , or Große Kampffliegerschule at Tutow , in northeast Germany . He spent three months training as an observer ( 1 March 1938 – 30 May 1938 ) . Prior to completing this course , Lent was run over by a car , resulting in a broken lower jaw , concussion , and internal bleeding . On 1 July 1938 , Lent was posted to the 3rd Group of Jagdgeschwader 132 " Richthofen " ( III . / JG 132 ) , flying on 19 July 1938 for the first time after his injuries .
At the beginning of September , Lent 's squadron , 7 . / JG 132 , relocated to Großenhain near Dresden , in preparation and support of the annexation of Czechoslovakia . Lent flew a number of operational patrols in this conflict until his Staffel relocated again to Rangsdorf on 29 September 1938 . After the tension over the occupation of the Sudeten territories eased , Lent 's unit began a conversion to the Messerschmitt Bf 108 Taifun . On 1 November 1938 III . / JG 132 moved to Fürstenwalde , between Berlin and Frankfurt an der Oder , and was renamed II . / JG 141 , and Lent was posted to the 6th Squadron .
II . / JG 141 changed its designation to I. / Zerstörergeschwader 76 ( I. / ZG 76 ) on 1 May 1939 at the same time relocating to an airfield at Olmütz , Czechoslovakia . The group was being re @-@ equipped with the Messerschmitt Bf 110 , and Lent made his first flight in the Bf 110 on 7 June 1939 . Lent was granted his Luftwaffe Advanced Pilot 's Certificate ( Erweiterter Luftwaffen @-@ Flugzeugführerschein ) , also known as ' C ' -Certificate , confirming proficiency on multi @-@ engine aircraft , on 12 May 1939 . While converting to the Bf 110 , Lent did not have a regular wireless operator ( Funker ) in the rear gunner 's seat , but on 14 August 1939 he was accompanied in M8 + AH for the first time by Gefreiter Walter Kubisch . During the prelude of World War II on 25 August 1939 I. / ZG 76 deployed to an airfield at Ohlau to the southeast of Breslau .
= = World War II = =
World War II began at 04 : 45 on Friday 1 September 1939 when German forces crossed the Polish border . Helmut Lent , flying a Bf 110 marked M8 @-@ DH , took off from Ohlau , at 04 : 44 to escort Heinkel He 111 bombers on a mission over Krakow .
= = = Invasion of Poland = = =
The German plans for the invasion of Poland were conceived under the codename Fall Weiss ( Case White ) . This operation called for simultaneous attacks on Poland from three directions , the north , the west and the south , beginning at 04 : 45 on the early morning of 1 September 1939 . On this morning Helmut Lent , with Kubisch as his wireless operator and rear gunner , escorted a formation of Heinkel 111 bombers of I. and III . / Kampfgeschwader 4 ( KG 4 ) attacking the airfields at Krakow in support of the southern prong of the German attack . At 16 : 30 on 2 September 1939 , the second day of the German attack , Lent took off in the direction of Łódź and claimed his first aerial @-@ victory of the war , shooting down a PZL P.11.
At this point of the campaign the Bf 110s switched from bomber escort to ground @-@ attack since the Polish Air Force was all but defeated . In this capacity Lent and Kubisch destroyed a twin @-@ engined monoplane on the ground on 5 September and another aircraft , a PZL P.24 , on 9 September . On 12 September 1939 he was attacked by a Polish aircraft which shot out his starboard engine . Lent made a forced landing behind German lines . He flew five more missions during the Polish campaign , destroying one anti @-@ aircraft battery . For his actions in the Polish campaign Lent was awarded one of the first Iron Cross 2nd class of World War II on 21 September 1939 . I. / ZG 76 relocated to the Stuttgart area on 29 September 1939 to defend the western border against the French and British , who had been at war with Germany since 3 September 1939 . From early October to middle December I. / ZG 76 operated from a number of airfields in the Stuttgart and Ruhr areas before relocating north to Jever on 16 December 1939 .
= = = Battle of the Heligoland Bight = = =
During the first month of the war the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) mostly focused its bomber attacks against anti @-@ shipping operations on the German Bight . RAF bombers mounted a heavy attack against shipping off Wilhelmshaven on 18 December 1939 in what became to be known as the Battle of the Heligoland Bight . Twenty @-@ four twin @-@ engine Vickers Wellington from No. 9 Squadron , No. 37 Squadron and No. 149 Squadron formed up over Norfolk heading for the island of Heligoland . Two aircraft aborted the mission due to mechanical defects , but the remaining 22 pursued the attack and were spotted by a Freya radar on the East Frisian Islands .
Helmut Lent was ordered to intercept and engage the attacking bomber force and after refuelling — Lent had just landed at Jever from an armed patrol — claimed three Wellingtons , two of which , shot down at 14 : 30 and 14 : 45 , were later confirmed . The two aircraft were both from No. 37 Squadron , captained by Flying Officer P.A. Wimberley and Flying Officer O.J.T. Lewis respectively , and both crashed in the shallow sea off Borkum . It is likely that his third claim may have been No. 37 Squadron Wellington 1A N2396 , LF @-@ J , piloted by Sergeant H. Ruse , which crash @-@ landed on the sand dunes of Borkum . Lent was refused the victory over Wimberley , as the Wellington was attacked by Lent after it had already been badly damaged and was about to crash . The Wellington was credited to pilot Carl @-@ August Schumacher .
His success as a fighter pilot over the North Sea had made him a minor national hero . Exploits such as those at Heligoland made good news stories for German propaganda machine . Consequently , he attracted fan mail — mainly from young girls and women — among them Elisabeth Petersen . Lent replied to her letter , and he and Elisabeth met on a blind date at the Reichshof hotel in Hamburg , after which they enjoyed a skiing holiday in Hirschegg in February 1940 .
= = = Norwegian Campaign and Battle of Britain = = =
On 8 April 1940 eight aircraft of 1 . / ZG 76 , under the command of Staffelkapitän Werner Hansen , deployed northward from Jever to Westerland on Sylt in preparation for operation Weserübung , the invasion of Norway . The German plan for the attack called for an amphibious assault on the Norwegian capital , Oslo , and six major ports from Kristiansand in the south to Narvik in the north . Simultaneously , Junkers 52 ( Ju 52 ) transport aircraft would drop parachute troops to secure Oslo 's Fornebu airport . Additional Ju 52s were scheduled to arrive at Fornebu twenty minutes after the parachute drop , by which time the airfield had to be in German hands . 1 . / ZG 76 was to provide air cover and ground @-@ attack support for both waves . Eight Bf 110 Zerstörer of 1 . / JG 76 took off at 7 : 00 in the morning , planning to synchronize their arrival at Fornebu with the parachute drop at 8 : 45 . The distance from Westerland to Fornebu meant that this was a one @-@ way operation ; the Bf 110s could not hold enough fuel for the return trip . Their fuel was calculated to provide them 20 minutes flying time over Fornebu , and the pilots would have to land at Fornebu once the airfield had been seized .
On the early morning flight to Fornebu , Lent engaged and shot down a Norwegian Gloster Gladiator . While the Ju 52s transporting the German paratroops came under heavy fire , Lent 's Rotte engaged the enemy ground positions . Lent 's starboard engine caught fire , forcing him to land immediately . With Kubisch manning the movable machine gun , Lent negotiated the capitulation with the Norwegian ground forces and the airfield was in German hands .
At 18 : 50 the same day , Lent and his Staffelkapitän Werner Hansen took off again from Fornebu in undamaged Bf 110s . During the 40 @-@ minute flight , they came across a RAF Short Sunderland flying boat , serial number L2167 , from No. 210 Squadron RAF which they shot down together ; Hansen received credit for the " kill " . Helmut Lent was awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class on 13 May 1940 before he was transferred to Trondheim on 18 May . He claimed his second aerial victory of the Norwegian campaign on 27 May over a RAF Gloster Gladiator from No. 263 Squadron RAF , piloted by Flight Lieutenant Caesar Hull . On 2 June 1940 Lent and his wingman Thönes claimed a Gladiator each . The flight lasted 5 hours and 46 minutes and their opponents were again from No. 263 Squadron , aircraft serial number N5893 piloted by Pilot Officer J.L. Wilkie , and N5681 piloted by Pilot Officer L.R. Jacobsen . He claimed his seventh victory overall and final of the Norwegian theatre of operations on 15 June 1940 over a No. 254 Squadron RAF Bristol Blenheim , piloted by Pilot Officer P.C. Gaylord . On 1 July 1940 Lent was promoted to Oberleutnant and on 13 July 1 . / ZG 76 was relocated to Stavanger / Forus .
Helmut Lent briefly participated in the Battle of Britain when on 15 August 1940 twenty @-@ one Bf 110s from I. / ZG 76 escorted He 111 bombers from Kampfgeschwader 26 ( KG 26 ) on their attack on Yorkshire and the Newcastle / Sunderland area . I. / ZG 76 lost seven aircraft on this mission and it was Helmut Lent 's 98th and final mission as a Zerstörer pilot .
= = = Night fighter career = = =
By June 1940 RAF Bomber Command penetrations of German airspace had increased to the level that Hermann Göring decreed that a night @-@ fighter force should be formed . The officer tasked with its creation was Wolfgang Falck , Gruppenkommandeur of the I. / Zerstörergeschwader 1 ( ZG 1 ) . The night @-@ fighter force began to expand rapidly , with existing units being divided to form the nucleus of new units . By October 1940 Nachtjagdgeschwader 1 ( NJG 1 ) comprised three Gruppen , while Nachtjagdgeschwader 2 ( NJG 2 ) and Nachtjagdgeschwader 3 ( NJG 3 ) , were still forming . It was during this period that Helmut Lent reluctantly became a member of the night @-@ fighter force . At the end of August Lent wrote home , " We are currently converting to night fighting . We are not very enthusiastic . We would sooner head directly for England . "
Lent completed night fighter training at Ingolstadt in south @-@ western Germany , and was appointed squadron leader , or Staffelkapitän , of the newly formed 6 . / NJG 1 on 1 October 1940 . The squadron was based at Fliegerhorst Deelen , located 12 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 8 mi ) north of Arnhem in the Netherlands . On the night 11 – 12 May 1941 , Lent claimed his first nocturnal aerial victories against two Wellington IC bombers from No. 40 Squadron RAF on a mission against Hamburg . BL @-@ H ( serial number R1330 ) was shot down at 01 : 40 near Süderstapel and BL @-@ Z ( R1461 ) at 02 : 49 near Nordstrand .
On 1 July 1941 , he took command of 4 . / NJG 1 , stationed in the Netherlands at Fliegerhorst ( airfield ) Leeuwarden , 161 kilometres ( 100 mi ) north of Arnheim , on the Friesland coast , where he remained until his death . From this position in the so @-@ called German Bight , the squadron patrolled the North Sea coast , and could intercept Allied night @-@ time bombing missions , what the Luftwaffe called terror attacks , based out of England . By the end of the war , the 4 . / NJG 1 was one of the most successful Nachtjagdstaffel — a squadron of a night fighter wing — of the Luftwaffe . Other members included such night fighter pilots as Oberleutnant Helmut Woltersdorf , Leutnant Ludwig Becker ( 44 victories , KIA February 1943 ) , Leutnant Egmont Prinz zur Lippe @-@ Weißenfeld ( 51 victories , killed in a flying accident in the Netherlands in March 1944 ) , Leutnant Leopold Fellerer ( 41 victories ) , Oberfeldwebel Paul Gildner ( 46 victories , killed in a flying accident at Fliegerhorst Gilze @-@ Rijen in the Netherlands in February 1943 ) , and Unteroffizier Siegfried Ney ( 12 victories , KIA February 1943 ) . On 30 August 1941 , Lent received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross for seven daytime and 14 night victories .
On 1 November 1941 , Lent became acting Group Commander Gruppenkommandeur of the newly formed II . / NJG 2 . Lent 's first aerial victory as a Gruppenkommandeur , his 20th night @-@ time , and his last in 1941 , came during the night of Friday 7 November to Saturday 8 November . He shot down a Wellington 1C heading for Berlin , which came down near Akkrum . The six @-@ man crew of the bomber , X9976 of No. 75 ( New Zealand ) Squadron , was killed in action . This achievement earned Lent a reference in the Wehrmachtbericht ( his first of six in total ) , an information bulletin issued by the headquarters of the Wehrmacht . To be singled out individually in the Wehrmachtbericht was an honour and was entered in the Orders and Decorations ' section of one 's Service Record Book .
He was promoted to Hauptmann on 1 January 1942 . Later that year , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves on 6 June 1942 , at which time his total stood at 34 nocturnal victories plus seven day @-@ time victories . The award was presented at the Führerhauptquartier on 28 and 29 June , his tally standing then at 39 nocturnal and seven day @-@ time victories . Lent also held the distinction of achieving the first Lichtenstein radar @-@ assisted air victory in a Dornier Do 215B @-@ 5 night fighter .
By the end of 1942 , Lent had 56 victories and was the top German night @-@ fighter ace . He was promoted to Major on 1 January 1943 and appointed Geschwaderkommodore of Nachtjagdgeschwader 3 ( NJG 3 ) on 1 August 1943 . After 73 kills , of which 65 were claimed at night , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords on 2 August 1943 and notified by telegram on 4 August . The Swords were presented to him at the Führerhauptquartier at Rastenburg on 10 / 11 August 1943 .
In January 1944 , Lent downed three so @-@ called " heavies " — four @-@ engined strategic bombers — in one night , but his aircraft was damaged by return fire , requiring a forced landing . He used only 22 cannon shells to down two bombers on the night of the 22 – 23 March 1944 , and fired only 57 rounds in seven minutes against three Avro Lancasters on 15 – 16 June . Promoted to Oberstleutnant , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds in recognition of his 110 confirmed air kills , the first of two night @-@ fighter pilots to be awarded the decoration . The second was Heinz @-@ Wolfgang Schnaufer , who , with 121 aerial victories , became aviation history 's leading night @-@ fighter pilot .
= = = Personal life = = =
All German officers were required to obtain official permission to marry ; however , this was usually a bureaucratic formality . When Lent decided to marry Elizabeth Petersen , his admirer from Hamburg whom he had met on a blind date , his case was more complicated . ' Elisabeth Petersen ' was in fact Helene ( Lena ) Senokosnikova , born in Moscow in April 1914 . She had been afraid to reveal her true identity , since Russians were not popular in the Third Reich , but after a thorough investigation into her background and racial ancestry , she received her German citizenship on 15 March 1941 . They were married on 10 September 1941 in Wellingsbüttel , Hamburg . The marriage produced two daughters . Christina was born on 6 June 1942 ; the second , Helma , was born on 6 October 1944 , shortly after her father 's fatal crash .
Both of Helmut 's older brothers , Joachim and Werner , as members of the Confessing Church ( German : Bekennende Kirche ) , encountered trouble with the Nazi party . The Confessing Church , led by Pastor Martin Niemöller , was a schismatic Protestant church which opposed the Reich 's efforts to " Nazify " Germany 's Protestant churches . It stood in outspoken opposition to National Socialist principles , particularly those embodied in the Aryan Paragraph . Through the Barmen Declaration , the church condemned the national German Evangelical Church as heretical . Werner Lent , an adherent to the Confessing church , was arrested for the first time in 1937 after preaching an anti @-@ Nazi sermon . In June 1942 , his brother Joachim was arrested by the Gestapo after reading the so @-@ called Mölders letter from the pulpit . The Mölders letter was a propaganda piece conceived by Sefton Delmer , the chief of the British black propaganda in the Political Warfare Executive ( PWE ) to capitalize on the death of Germany 's fighter ace Werner Mölders ; this letter , ostensibly written by Mölders , attested to the supreme importance of his Catholic faith in his life — by implication , placing faith above his allegiance to the National Socialist Party .
= = = Death = = =
On 5 October 1944 , Lent flew his Junkers Ju @-@ 88 G – 6 , coded D5 + AA , from Stade to Paderborn . His crew included his long @-@ time radio operator Oberfeldwebel Walter Kubisch , the member of a Propagandakompanie ( propaganda company ) Leutnant Werner Kark in the aerial gunner position , and Oberleutnant Hermann Klöss , second radio operator . Lent was on his way to visit the Geschwaderkommodore of the Nachtjagdgeschwader 1 , Oberstleutnant Hans @-@ Joachim Jabs , to discuss operational matters . During the landing approach , the left engine of the plane failed , causing the wing to dip . Lent was unable to keep the plane steady and it struck high @-@ voltage cables and crashed . All four members of the crew sustained serious injuries but were rescued alive . Kubisch and Klöss succumbed to their injuries on the same day , Kark on the next morning and Lent himself died two days later on 7 October 1944 .
Helmut Lent 's state funeral was held in the Reich Chancellery , Berlin , on Wednesday 11 October 1944 . Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring took the salute at Lent 's coffin , which was draped in the national flag of the Third Reich . Ahead of the coffin , carrying Lent 's honours and decorations on a velvet cushion , marched Oberstleutnant Werner Streib , the Inspector of Night Fighters . Six steel @-@ helmeted officers , all recipients of the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross , escorted the coffin on its caisson and stood as guard of honour during the ceremony : Oberstleutnant Günther Radusch , Oberstleutnant Hans @-@ Joachim Jabs , Major Rudolf Schoenert , Hauptmann Heinz Strüning , Hauptmann Karl Hadeball and Hauptmann Paul Zorner . On 12 October 1944 Lent and his crew were interred in a single grave in the military cemetery at Stade .
= = Legacy = =
On 18 July 1964 , a German Armed Forces ( Bundeswehr ) Army Aviation Corps ( Heeresflieger ) installation in Rotenburg ( Wümme ) ( Lower Saxony ) was renamed the Lent Barracks , or Lent @-@ Kaserne , in his honour . In 2014 , the German Armed Forces have decided to rename the Lent Barracks . Although Lent was not a war criminal , he was a Nazi and is therefore no longer considered an appropriate namesake within the German Armed Forces . The process , which is expected to finalize in end 2015 , involves 1 @,@ 500 soldiers and 250 civil employees of the site and was initiated by the commander Oberstleutnant Edmund Vogel in early 2015 .
A number of Helmut Lent 's awards were auctioned at Sotheby 's , London , on 18 July 1966 . The items were bought in one lot by an anonymous bidder for the total sum of £ 500 . The purchaser was Adolf Galland , the former General der Jagdflieger , acting on behalf of the Federal German Ministry of Defence . The awards were sold by Helmut Lent 's elder daughter Christina after consultation with her mother , Lena , who was in urgent need for money to pay for an operation . The Federal Ministry of Defence presented the collection to the Museum of Defence History ( Wehrgeschichtliches Museum ) in Rastatt , Germany .
= = Summary of career = =
Helmut Lent is officially credited with 110 victories in 507 flights . The total includes 103 victories at night , during which he destroyed 59 four @-@ engine bombers and one Mosquito , among other types . Lent received a posthumous promotion to Oberst ( Colonel ) .
= = = Awards = = =
Pilot 's Badge ( 15 November 1937 )
Sudetenland Medal
Narvik Shield ( 30 January 1941 )
Wound Badge ( 1939 )
in Black ( 14 July 1941 )
in Silver ( 22 December 1943 )
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd class ( 21 September 1939 )
1st class ( 11 May 1940 )
Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe ( 26 June 1941 )
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Destroyer Pilots in Gold
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Nightfighter Pilots in Gold with Pennant " 300 "
Combined Pilots @-@ Observation Badge in Gold with Diamonds
German Cross in Gold on 9 April 1942 as Hauptmann in the II . / NJG 2
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds
Knight 's Cross on 30 August 1941 as Oberleutnant and as Staffelkapitän of the 4 . / NJG 1
98th Oak Leaves on 6 June 1942 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of the II . / NJG 2
32nd Swords on 2 August 1943 as Major and Gruppenkommandeur of the IV . / NJG 1
15th Diamonds on 31 July 1944 as Oberstleutnant and Geschwaderkommodore of the NJG 3
Mentioned six times in the Wehrmachtbericht ( see below )
= = = Promotions = = =
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= Let Me In ( film ) =
Let Me In is a 2010 American horror romance film written and directed by Matt Reeves and starring Kodi Smit @-@ McPhee , Chloë Grace Moretz , Elias Koteas , and Richard Jenkins . It is a remake of the Swedish film Let the Right One In ( 2008 ) . It tells the story of a bullied 12 @-@ year @-@ old boy who develops a friendship with a female vampire child in Los Alamos , New Mexico in the early 1980s .
Interest in producing an English version of Let the Right One In began in 2007 shortly before it was released to audiences . In 2008 , Hammer Films acquired the rights for the English adaptation and initially offered Tomas Alfredson , the director of the Swedish film , the opportunity to direct , which he declined . Matt Reeves was then signed to direct and write the screenplay . Reeves made several changes for the English version such as altering the setting from Stockholm to New Mexico and renaming the lead characters . The film 's producers stated that their intent was to keep the plot similar to the original , yet make it more accessible to a wider audience . Principal photography began in early November 2009 , and concluded in January 2010 . The film 's budget was estimated to be $ 20 million .
Let Me In premiered at the Toronto Film Festival on September 13 , 2010 , and was released in North America on October 1 , 2010 . The film was placed on several critics ' top @-@ ten list . Many critics noted it as a rare Hollywood remake which stayed true to the original , while others criticized it for being too derivative of the Swedish film . The film earned $ 24 million in box office revenue worldwide , of which $ 12 million was earned in the United States and Canada . Chloë Grace Moretz won several awards for her performance with critics praising the on @-@ screen chemistry with her co @-@ star , Kodi Smit @-@ McPhee . Let Me In was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in North America on February 1 , 2011 , and in the UK on March 14 , 2011 . An official comic book miniseries prequel titled Let Me In : Crossroads was released after the film which establishes the back @-@ story of Abby and ends where the theatrical film begins .
= = Plot = =
In March 1983 , in Los Alamos , New Mexico , a disfigured man is taken to the hospital . An unnamed police detective ( Elias Koteas ) tries to question him about a recent murder . The detective is called to a phone and told that the man 's daughter was just downstairs . While he is on the phone , the man jumps out of the window leaving behind a scrawled note that reads " I 'm sorry Abby . "
Two weeks earlier , Owen ( Kodi Smit @-@ McPhee ) , an unhappy and lonely 12 @-@ year @-@ old boy who is neglected by his divorcing parents , sees a young girl named Abby ( Chloë Grace Moretz ) and an older man , Thomas ( Richard Jenkins ) , moving in next door and notices that she is barefoot despite the snow . Owen meets Abby one night and asks if she is cold upon seeing no footwear on her feet . Abby states that she doesn 't get cold . Owen and Abby become close friends and start communicating by Morse code through the walls of their apartments . At school , a bully named Kenny ( Dylan Minnette ) and two of his friends Donald ( Nicolai Dorian ) and Mark ( Jimmy " Jax " Pinchak ) constantly terrorize Owen , who lies to his mother about it but tells Abby the truth . Abby encourages him to retaliate .
Thomas murders a man and collects the blood , but accidentally spills it . Hungry , Abby attacks a concerned neighbor named Jack ( Chris Browning ) to drink his blood , revealing that she is a vampire . On another night , Thomas hides in the back of a teenager 's car , murders the passenger , and tries to flee , but crashes the car and becomes trapped inside . He pours concentrated sulfuric acid on his face , disfiguring himself to prevent his identification . He is taken to the hospital , bringing the story back to the first scene .
Abby learns what happened and climbs up the hospital building to see Thomas after speaking to the front desk worker who noticed that Abby is barefoot upon departure and couldn 't find her afterwards . She knocks on the window and he points to his throat , unable to speak , and leans out of the window ; Abby drinks his blood . Thomas passes out and falls to his death . That night , Owen is awakened by Abby who insists he verbally invite her in . She spends the night in his bed upon discarding her clothes and agrees to be his girlfriend . The next day , Owen 's class goes ice @-@ skating on the river . Kenny and his friends threaten to throw Owen into a hole in the ice . Emboldened by his relationship with Abby , Owen hits Kenny with a metal pole , splitting his left ear and causing him to scream in pain . At the same moment , several kids spot a body encased in the ice and begin screaming . It is the body of Jack who Thomas threw into the ( then unfrozen ) river . Along with the body is Thomas 's bag .
Later , Owen sees Abby and hoping to make a blood pact with her , cuts his finger . Unable to control herself , Abby laps up a drop of Owen 's blood revealing her vampire form . Not wanting to hurt Owen , the barefoot vampire flees and instead attacks a woman named Virginia ( Sasha Barrese ) upon jumping out of a tree . Virginia 's boyfriend Larry ( Dylan Kenin ) witnesses the attack and calls an ambulance upon chasing her off . The next night , Abby admits to Owen that she is a vampire and that Thomas was not her father . Owen discovers an aged photo of her with Thomas as a young boy . As Thomas continued to age , he posed as Abby 's father while she did not physically age past twelve .
In the hospital the next morning , a nurse goes into Virginia 's unit to open the curtains and finds Virginia feasting on her own bloody wrists . She has been turned into a vampire by Abby . As sunlight enters the room , Virginia bursts into flames that quickly spread throughout the unit , killing them both and setting the entire floor on fire .
Owen sneaks out to spend the night at Abby 's . The next morning , the detective forces his way into Abby 's apartment and finds her asleep . He begins to uncover a window but is distracted by Owen . Abby wakes and attacks the detective to feed on his blood . The dying detective appeals to Owen for help , but Owen does not intervene . Abby tells Owen she will have to leave town . They share a kiss and he watches tearfully as she enters a taxi and leaves .
During Owen 's swim class , Kenny , his sadistic older brother Jimmy ( Brett DelBuono ) , and their friends , are seeking revenge for the injury Owen had inflicted to Kenny 's ear . They ambush Owen and throw him into the pool . Jimmy says that if Owen can hold his breath underwater for three minutes , he will only be cut on the cheek , otherwise Jimmy will poke out one of Owen 's eyes . Owen is forced underwater by Jimmy . After one minute , Kenny and his friends realize this is excessive and try telling Jimmy to stop , but he angrily refuses . But then an unseen assailant breaks through the skylight , attacking the bullies , and Owen sees torn @-@ off limbs sinking into the pool all around him . Owen emerges from pool to catch his breath and then sees a pair of familiar bare feet come near him . He then looks up , faintly smiling to see an off @-@ screen Abby .
Owen leaves town in broad daylight on a train , traveling with a large trunk . From inside , a message in Morse code is tapped out . Owen taps out a response and then looks out the window , quietly singing to himself " Eat some now , save some for later , " the jingle of Now and Later candy , which Abby and Owen had shared in an earlier scene .
= = Cast = =
Kodi Smit @-@ McPhee as Owen , a 12 @-@ year @-@ old bullied schoolboy , later Abbey 's boyfriend .
Chloë Grace Moretz as Abby , a vampire who poses as Thomas 's daughter , later Owen 's girlfriend .
Richard Jenkins as Thomas , a man who is Abby 's adult companion .
Cara Buono as Owen 's mother , the unnamed mother of Owen .
Elias Koteas as Policeman
Elias Koteas also provides the voice of Owen 's father .
Sasha Barrese as Virginia , a woman who is one of Abby 's victims .
Dylan Minnette as Kenny , the bully who torments Owen .
Ritchie Coster as Mr. Zorić
Jimmy Pinchak as Mark , one of Kenny 's friends .
Nicolai Dorian as Donald , one of Kenny 's friends .
Colin Moretz as Cashier
Dylan Kenin as Larry , Virginia 's boyfriend .
Brett DelBuono as Jimmy , the older brother of Kenny .
Chris Browning as Jack , a man who is one of Abby 's victims .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
According to Hammer Films executive producer Nigel Sinclair , interest in the project initially began in the middle of 2007 , before the original Let the Right One In had screened for audiences . The rights for the English @-@ language film were later acquired by Hammer Films at the 2008 Tribeca Film Festival , where Let the Right One In won the " Founders Award for Best Narrative Feature , " and Matt Reeves was quickly introduced as the director . John Nordling and Carl Molinder , the Swedish producers of the original film , were both involved as producers for the adaptation . Tomas Alfredson , the director of the Swedish film , was initially asked to direct the remake , but he turned it down stating that " I am too old to make the same film twice and I have other stories that I want to tell . " Hammer Films producer Simon Oakes initially referred to the film with " If you call it a faithful remake , I think that 's true to say that 's what it is . It 's not a reimagining ; the same beats [ are there ] , maybe the scares are a little bit more scary . " He later said , " I call it his [ Reeves ' ] version . I don 't call it his remake or his re @-@ imagining of it . " The decision to make a new film adaptation has been criticized by Tomas Alfredson . He has stated on numerous occasions that he is not in favor of remaking his film . " If one should remake a film , it 's because the original is bad . And I don 't think mine is , " he said . Producer Donna Gigliotti said , " We 're incredibly admiring of the original , but to be honest with you , that picture grossed $ 2 million . It 's not like we 're remaking Lawrence of Arabia . " Producer Simon Oakes made it clear that the plot of Let Me In would closely resemble that of the original film , except that it will be made " very accessible to a wider audience . "
Writer John Ajvide Lindqvist , on the other hand , says that Reeves told him that he " will make a new film based on the book , and not remake the Swedish film " and so " it 'll be something completely different , but it 's going to be really interesting to see . " Reeves expressed his intent to retain the book 's early 1980s setting and his admiration for the book and Alfredson 's adaptation . " It 's a terrific movie and a fantastic book . I think it could be a really touching , haunting and terrifying film . I 'm really excited about what it could be " , he said . In response to the criticism he said , " I can understand because of people 's love of the [ original ] film that there 's this cynicism that I 'll come in and trash it , when in fact I have nothing but respect for the film . I 'm so drawn to it for personal and not mercenary reasons ... I hope people give us a chance . " When Reeves was initially approached , he at first was against the idea but after reading the novel gained a better appreciation for the story ,
I said ... that we shouldn 't remake it . I read the book too and was completely taken with it and I was really intrigued how personal the story felt . I thought John Lindqvist had written this terrific story , and he also adapted it for the film ... I wrote Lindqvist and told him that it wasn 't just that I was drawn to the story because it was a brilliant genre story — which it is — but also because of the personal aspect of it . It really reminds me of my childhood .
= = = Adapting and writing = = =
In adapting the film , a few adjustments were made , such as changing the names of the protagonists to Owen and Abby , and moving the setting from the Stockholm suburb of Blackeberg to " a small New Mexico town . " Reeves was also asked to change the ages of the main characters , but he refused , saying that " would ruin the essence of the story and change everything completely ... we need that childlike innocence . " He also told his actors to not watch the original film beforehand so " we could make our own version but stay very true to the essence of the story . " The filmmakers have noted that " they intend to forge a unique identity for Let Me In , placing it firmly in an American context " , while at the same time paying respect to the original . In comparing his adaptation to the Swedish one , Reeves admitted to not adding many different details from the book that weren 't in the original film , stating that " the story was so big that you couldn 't really add a lot of stuff in without taking away the focus of the coming of age story so I tried to have allusions and references to stuff in the book . " Reeves also admitted to borrowing elements from the Swedish film , stating " There are things that [ Lindqvist ] adapted brilliantly in the movie and I borrowed from that because I thought he did a great adaptation . But there are some things that hopefully don 't detract and fit into the context of the story . It 's a mixture of details from the book , the original film and things that grew out of adapting it . " In adapting the story for American audiences , Reeves stated that keeping the 1980s time period within the film was critical in exploring the theme of good and evil . He used Ronald Reagan 's " evil empire speech " as an example of American thought during that period . Reeves stated , " The idea of Reagan 's ' evil empire ' speech and that whole sort of school of thought was that evil was something that was outside of us . Evil was ' Other , ' it was over there , it was the Soviets " . Reeves felt that this idea was central to the main character Owen , as he " would be grappling with these very , very dark feelings but being in a kind of American town where there was that sort of [ Reagan era ] mindset and religiousness . How would you fit in ? How would you feel about yourself being confused and being 12 or 13 years old and not knowing what it means that you wish you could kill those kids who were terrorizing you every day ? The humanity of that . "
= = = Casting = = =
In July 2009 , audition tapes were leaked to the Internet , showing Chloë Grace Moretz , Mary Mouser , and Ariel Winter auditioning for the role of the vampire , Abby . Smit @-@ McPhee , in an interview with The Herald Sun , hinted that he may have landed the role as Owen . The casting of Moretz and Smit @-@ McPhee in the leading roles was confirmed on October 1 , 2009 , along with the addition of Richard Jenkins as Abby 's adult companion . In a press release , director Matt Reeves described Smit @-@ McPhee , Moretz and Jenkins as his " absolute dream cast " , and added that he " couldn 't be more excited to be working with them . " Both Smit @-@ McPhee and Moretz were cast before the release of The Road or Kick @-@ Ass , and the films ' directors John Hillcoat and Matthew Vaughn respectively each praised the young actors and recommended them to Reeves .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began in Albuquerque , New Mexico on November 2 , 2009 . Filming took place in several different New Mexico locations , before concluding in Albuquerque in January 2010 . A large section of the film was filmed at Los Alamos High School in Los Alamos , New Mexico . Los Alamos County granted a special request from the film 's director and producer to name the town in the movie " Los Alamos , New Mexico . " The local police department loaned the film crew 1980s style uniforms and patrol cars to use for the film and over 100 local teenagers were cast as extras . Reeves felt that Lindqvist 's story was very naturalistic and wanted the film to be shot the same way . After viewing Bright Star , he hired Greig Fraser as his cinematographer because he admired Fraser 's work with natural light on the film . Shortly before filming , Reeves sought advice from Steven Spielberg for directing child actors . Spielberg instructed Reeves to have the two leads each keep a diary in character with the intention of sharing with Reeves what they wrote in it . Reeves stated , " It was all a process of trying to , not only guide them , but in places , trying to let them guide me toward their perspective . That was important . "
= = = Visual effects = = =
Method Studios was contracted to handle the film 's visual effects work . The studio 's supervisor Sean Faden , worked alongside the film 's visual effects supervisor , Brad Parker throughout the production . Several of the film 's scenes proved to be a challenge for the team . Director Reeves wanted the " car @-@ crash " sequence to appear as if it were filmed uncut in first @-@ person . Several plates were shot with the first involving actor Jenkins backing the car out of the gas station and swerving , the second plate shot had a model of the car capable of being spun mechanically on a " rotisserie " in front of a blue screen which could simulate the car 's roll down the hill . Jenkin 's stunt double and a dummy were placed in the car as the rotisserie spun with additional effects work used to animate the dummy as the car rolled . The two shots were then combined to deceive the viewer into believing that it was one complete shot . Houdini software was used for much of the film 's shots which involved Abby in her vampiric form . Faden noted the techniques used in another challenging shot important to Abby 's character in which she begins bleeding when she enters Owen 's apartment without invitation . Faden stated , " Normally in such a scene , the character would be shot on set , dressed in blood . But in this case , the timing of the bleeding was so dependent on the emotional beats of the scene that this technique wouldn ’ t have allowed us enough control . " Actress Chloë Grace Moretz was first shot with minimal prosthetic blood applied to her face for reference . Then using techniques utilized in a prior Method Studios film , A Nightmare on Elm Street , Faden had the Houdini software track Moretz 's shaking movements and render the gradual release of blood from her face .
= = = Music and soundtrack = = =
Let Me In : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the film 's soundtrack album . It was released by Varèse Sarabande on October 12 , 2010 . The music was composed by Michael Giacchino . Giacchino stated that scoring the film was a difficult " balancing act " for some scenes . He mentioned , " I was always trying to say , ' let 's take music out ! ' and Matt [ Reeves ] was like , ' no , put it in ! ' " In composing the score , he stated that he also applied certain musical themes to each character for which the audience could respond to as the story progressed . Composing the score to convey the correct emotion was also a challenge for Giacchino who said , " ... it was tricky finding the right balance of , well , should this be scary ? Or should this be sentimental ? Or should it be emotional ? Or should it be this ? It was a weird balance because you 're dealing with a dynamic that is quite questionable as far as what everyone 's intentions are in the film .
= = Release = =
= = = Box office = = =
It was announced on August 17 , 2010 , that Let Me In would have its world premiere at Toronto International Film Festival on September 13 , 2010 , and its U.S. premiere on the opening night of Fantastic Fest on September 23 , 2010 . Overture Films released promotional items placed in small plastic evidence bags . With a budget estimated to be $ 20 million , the film was released on October 1 , 2010 , in North America opening at # 8 on its debut weekend with an estimated $ 5 @.@ 1 million in 2 @,@ 020 theaters . The film 's international release began on October 6 in European markets with other markets following thereafter . During the film 's 10 @-@ week theatrical run , Let Me In grossed over $ 24 million worldwide , $ 12 @.@ 1 million of which was from the United States and Canada . The film was # 5 among the ten lowest @-@ grossing releases of 2010 from major studios ( movies released in over 1500 theaters ) .
= = = Critical response = = =
Let Me In received critical acclaim upon release . Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 88 % based on reviews from 220 critics , with an average score of 7 @.@ 6 / 10 . The consensus is that " similar to the original in all the right ways — but with enough changes to stand on its own — Let Me In is the rare Hollywood remake that doesn 't add insult to inspiration . " Let Me In was included on Rotten Tomatoes list of the ten best reviewed wide release films of 2010 in addition to being the best reviewed horror film of 2010 . Metacritic gave the film an average score of 79 % based on 35 reviews , judged to be " generally favorable reviews " . According to Metacritic , Let Me In was one of the ten best @-@ reviewed wide release films of 2010 and the best reviewed film of the year in the horror category . Particular praise was given to the film 's two leads , Kodi Smit @-@ McPhee and Chloë Grace Moretz , for their chemistry and maturity on @-@ screen .
Acclaimed horror author Stephen King wrote " Let Me In is a genre @-@ busting triumph . Not just a horror film , but the best American horror film in the last 20 years . " Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal wrote that the film " is more than a respectful remake ; ' Let Me In ' is quietly stylish and thoroughly chilling in its own right . "
Lou Lumenick of The New York Post called Let Me In " the scariest , creepiest and most elegantly filmed horror movie I ’ ve seen in years — it positively drives a stake through the competition . " A. O. Scott of The New York Times wrote " what makes ' Let Me In ' so eerily fascinating is the mood it creates . It is at once artful and unpretentious , more interested in intimacy and implication than in easy scares or slick effects . " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times praised the film while comparing it to the original . He stated , " Reeves understands what made the first film so eerie and effective , and here the same things work again . " Rolling Stone film critic Peter Travers , who was initially skeptical , gave the film a positive review while writing , " I thought for sure that any Hollywood remake of Tomas Alfredson 's artful Swedish vampire film , Let the Right One In , would be a crass desecration . Well , color me blushing " and " Prepare to be wowed . It 's a spellbinder . " Roger Moore of Orlando Sentinel gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars , stating , " Reeves has Americanized a very good foreign film without defanging it . "
Let Me In was not well received by all critics . Some disputed Reeves ' claims that he was not remaking the film but re @-@ adapting the book , criticizing it for being too similar to the Swedish film . Josh Tyler wrote " The movie he ’ s made is absolutely a direct remake of the 2008 film , the two are so similar that it ’ s almost impossible to differentiate between them . " In a similar vein , Jamie S. Rich noted that while there was plenty of content in the original novel that the Swedish film omitted , " Reeves hasn 't really ferreted out anything new ; on the contrary , there is actually less plot in Let Me In than in the Alfredson version . " Beth Accomando wrote , " How Reeves can take the credit ' written and directed by Matt Reeves ' seems almost laughable when you note how similar the script and the direction are to the original . " In comparing the two films , she opined that the remake " makes obvious all that the original film made subtle and does so with less complexity . " Mark Kermode called it " the most utterly redundant remake of the year " .
According to Sukhdev Sandhu of The Telegraph , " Let Me In doesn 't need to exist unless , that is , the very notion of Swedish cinema is strange and unpalatable to you .... What ’ s missing is the alluring otherness of Let the Right One In . That film 's brittle textures and haunted ambiance seemed in some strange way to have sprung organically from the nation in which it was set . This remake , by contrast , smells of boardrooms and calculating machines . "
Let Me In was a critics ' pick as one of the Top 10 Best Films of 2010 at CNN and at MSN Entertainment for the 2010 Year in Review Special Features .
= = = Comic book prequel = = =
In April 2010 , it was announced that Hammer Film Productions and Dark Horse Comics were producing a four @-@ issue comic book limited series based on the film . Marc Andreyko wrote the comic . The series , titled Let Me In : Crossroads , is a prequel to the film . The first issue has Abby and her " guardian " facing a ruthless real @-@ estate tycoon who wants to steal their home and was released in December 2010 . Original author John Ajvide Lindqvist said " Nobody has asked me about [ doing a comic ] and I think that the project stinks . I am looking into this matter and hope that they have no right to do this . " Later , he informed fans that he had in fact unwittingly sold the rights for the comic to be made , stating that the producers had misinformed him as to the nature of the contract he had signed .
= = = Author 's response = = =
John Ajvide Lindqvist , author of Let the Right One In , who also wrote the screenplay for the original Swedish film , was pleased with Let Me In . He said :
I might just be the luckiest writer alive . To have not only one , but two excellent versions of my debut novel done for the screen feels unreal . Let the Right One In is a great Swedish movie . Let Me In is a great American movie . There are notable similarities and the spirit of Tomas Alfredson is present . But Let Me In puts the emotional pressure in different places and stands firmly on its own legs . Like the Swedish movie it made me cry , but not at the same points . Let Me In is a dark and violent love story , a beautiful piece of cinema and a respectful rendering of my novel for which I am grateful . Again .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = = Home media = = =
Let Me In was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in North America on February 1 , 2011 , and in the UK on March 14 , 2011 . The disc includes an audio commentary with director Matt Reeves , a 17 @-@ minute featurette on the making of the film , a short that focuses on the art of the special effects , an in @-@ depth video about the process of making the film 's unique car crash scene , three deleted scenes , trailer and poster galleries and a digital copy of the film . The Blu @-@ ray disc contains an exclusive featurette titled " Dissecting Let Me In " . Both DVD and Blu @-@ ray come with a copy of the Limited Edition " Let Me In : Crossroads " comic book . As of April 2011 , DVD sales ( not including Blu @-@ ray ) totaled over 457 @,@ 000 units sold with over $ 6 @.@ 2 million in revenue .
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= When Flanders Failed =
" When Flanders Failed " is the third episode of the The Simpsons ' third season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 3 , 1991 . In the episode , Homer makes a wish for Ned Flanders 's new left @-@ handed store to go out of business . The wish comes true and gets the Flanders family into financial troubles . Ned is forced to sell his possessions , and Homer gleefully buys many of his things . When finding out that Ned 's house is to be repossessed , Homer feels guilty and decides to get the store back in business by telling all the left @-@ handed citizens about it . Meanwhile , Bart takes karate lessons but quits after discovering that it is not as interesting as he had expected it to be .
The episode was written by Jon Vitti and directed by Jim Reardon . It had an unusual amount of animation glitches because the animation studio was training a new group of animators . The episode features cultural references to playwright William Shakespeare and the film It 's a Wonderful Life . The title of the episode is a reference to the title of the poem " In Flanders Fields " . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 9 , and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
Ned Flanders invites the Simpson family to a barbecue party and announces his plans to open a store for left @-@ handed people ; The Leftorium . During the pulling of a wishbone , Homer , who has been constantly jealous of the material success of Ned and his family , wishes for The Leftorium to be a failure and go out of business . Homer frequently checks in on Ned to ensure that business is going poorly and is happy to see precisely that happening . When Homer sees left @-@ handed citizens struggling with items made for right @-@ handed people , he thinks about informing them about The Leftorium , but decides not to . Eventually the store does indeed close due to lack of business , plunging the Flanders ' into debt and misery . Ned is forced to sell his possessions , and Homer gleefully buys many of Ned 's things . Homer starts to regret what he did , but when he goes to return Ned 's possessions , he finds Ned 's house repossessed and the family living in their car . Homer wrestles with the guilt his wish has brought , and tells Ned to open the store for one final day . He then tells all the left @-@ handed residents of Springfield about The Leftorium , and they all travel to the store and buy things . The increase in customers helps Ned keep the store open and get his house back .
In a subplot , Bart begins taking karate lessons at Akira 's karate school . On his first lesson , he finds that karate is quite boring , so he decides to skip each lesson in order to play video games at the mall arcade . Whenever he is questioned by his family and friends about the techniques he has learned , he refers to the " Touch of Death " , an ability he saw in one of the arcade games he played . He proceeds to terrorize his sister Lisa into doing his will by threatening her with the technique . His actions catch up to him when Lisa prods him to defend her from the school bullies and reclaim her saxophone . He ends up being pantsed and hung by his underwear from the basketball hoop rim by the bullies , as Lisa ( having reclaimed her saxophone ) wistfully notes that sometimes two wrongs do make a right .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Jon Vitti and directed by Jim Reardon . It featured an unusual amount of animation glitches because the animation studio in Korea was training a new group of animators , and this episode was one of their first efforts . Show runner Mike Reiss said he will always remember it as the episode " that came back animated with a thousand mistakes in it and was just a complete and utter mess . " Reardon said there was " literally a mistake in every other scene " when the episode came back from Korea . Several scenes had to be re @-@ animated in the United States because of these glitches , but according to Reardon , " you can still see the lesser ones that got through , such as line quality problems particularly in the first act . " Though it aired in season three , " When Flanders Failed " was produced during the previous season . It was recorded in spring 1991 when the previous season came to an end , and was scheduled to air in autumn that year . The staff therefore had more time to fix the glitches during the summer .
" When Flanders Failed " features the second appearance of the character Akira , voiced by Hank Azaria . He was previously seen in the season two episode " One Fish , Two Fish , Blowfish , Blue Fish " , where he is a waiter at a Japanese restaurant . It is revealed in this episode that the characters Ned Flanders , Moe Szyslak and Montgomery Burns are left @-@ handed , just like The Simpsons creator Matt Groening . The Simpsons writer George Meyer came up with the idea of The Leftorium when the writers were trying to figure out what Ned 's failed business would be . The inspiration came from a friend of Meyer 's who opened a left @-@ handed store that was quickly forced to close down due to lack of business .
= = Cultural references = =
The title of the episode is a reference to the title of the poem " In Flanders Fields " . Homer watches the Canadian Football League Draft on television . The Simpsons writers Jay Kogen , Wallace Wolodarsky , and John Swartzwelder appear on the draft list . Akira 's school is located in the mall next to Shakespeare 's Fried Chicken , a reference to the English poet and playwright William Shakespeare . Akira gives Bart 's karate class the ancient Chinese military treatise The Art of War by Sun Tzu . The episode 's ending in which Homer gathers the citizens to The Leftorium is a reference to the film It 's a Wonderful Life , including Homer 's toast and the way Ned and his wife Maude are dressed . Richard Sakai is seen in one of the crowd shots at The Leftorium at the end of the episode . The word schadenfreude became increasingly known in popular culture after it appeared in this episode . Lisa asks Homer if he has ever heard of schadenfreude after he expresses delight that Ned 's business is failing . Defining it for him , she says , " It 's a German term for ' shameful joy ' , taking pleasure in the suffering of others . "
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " When Flanders Failed " finished 29th in the ratings for the week of September 30 – October 6 , 1991 , with a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 9 , equivalent to approximately 12 @.@ 8 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week .
In December 2002 , " When Flanders Failed " was utilized in a Roanoke Presbyterian Church Sunday School class , to stimulate a discussion among both children and adults , about why unfortunate things happen to good people . Phil Brown , the teacher of the class , said the reason they used episodes of The Simpsons was " to get something that would get the kids excited and be more than just a traditional Sunday School lecture series . "
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . Kirk Baird of the Las Vegas Sun named it the fifth best episode of The Simpsons , and Central Michigan Life called it an " instant classic " .
Pete Oliva of North Texas Daily said the episode " proves that it is possible to laugh and cry at the same time without being able to control either response . " Bill Gibron of DVD Verdict said " When Flanders Failed " shows that even if The Simpsons is not dealing with famous celebrities or " high profile places " , the writers can still " wring uproarious comedy out of their cast of regulars . Flanders is a special creation in the canon of humor , a regular guy who is funny because of how hyper @-@ normal he is compared to his Neanderthal neighbors . The focus on people who are left @-@ handed , and the whole idea of being a lefty , is an unusual basis for a television show . But then again , nothing about The Simpsons is ever common . " Hock Guan Teh of DVD Town also praised the writers , stating that they " are able to craft a downtrodden tale for the perpetually clueless Flanders family that serves to illustrate how dark emotions can eventually be overcome by Homer 's guilt . A memorable episode . " Niel Harvey of The Roanoke Times called " When Flanders Failed " a " classic bit of Simpsonia . " The episode 's reference to It 's a Wonderful Life was named the 26th greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film 's Nathan Ditum .
Nate Meyers of Digitally Obsessed gave the episode a 3 @.@ 5 / 5 rating and commented that " perhaps it is not profound in its examination of jealousy causing people to behave irrationally , but it handles the topic in a serious manner while not compromising the show 's humor . The side story with Bart stems from the era of the series when Bart was the big star , but it still has some funny bits . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson wrote : " Mean Homer equals Funny Homer , so ' When Flanders Failed ' presents an above average show . He seems unusually crude here , which makes him amusing . The subplot with Bart and his karate class also adds good material , especially when he threatens to turn the ' Touch of Death ' on Lisa . Another sappy finish slightly mars this one , but it remains generally solid . " Kimberly Potts of AOL named it tenth best episode of the show and commented : " Schadenfreude is the theme of this tight episode about Homer 's joy at the failure of Flanders ' Leftorium store . There are few times Homer is more shamelessly smug than he was while imitating Flanders and using Ned 's yard sale grill , and we haven 't even mentioned Bart 's ' Touch of Death ' subplot . " Winston @-@ Salem Journal 's Tim Clodfelter called it an " outstanding " episode .
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= Characters of Final Fantasy VIII =
Square 's 1999 best @-@ selling role @-@ playing video game Final Fantasy VIII deals with an elite group of mercenaries called " SeeD " , as well as soldiers , rebels , and political leaders of various nations and cities . Thirteen weeks after its release , Final Fantasy VIII had earned more than US $ 50 million in sales , making it the fastest selling Final Fantasy title . Final Fantasy VIII has shipped 8 @.@ 15 million units worldwide as of March 2003 . Additionally , Final Fantasy VIII was voted the 22nd @-@ best game of all time by readers of the Japanese magazine Famitsu . The game 's characters were created by Tetsuya Nomura , and are the first in the series to be realistically proportioned in a consistent manner . This graphical shift , as well as the cast in general , has received generally positive reviews from gaming magazines and websites .
The six main playable characters in Final Fantasy VIII are Squall Leonhart , a loner who keeps his focus on duty ; Rinoa Heartilly , a passionate young woman who follows her heart in all situations ; Quistis Trepe , an instructor with a serious , patient attitude ; Zell Dincht , a martial artist with a passion for hot dogs ; Selphie Tilmitt , a cheerful girl who loves trains and flies the airship Ragnarok ; and Irvine Kinneas , a marksman and consummate ladies ' man . Playable supporting characters include Laguna Loire , Kiros Seagill , and Ward Zabac , who appear in " flashback " sequences ; and antagonists Seifer Almasy and Edea Kramer . Other characters such as the main villain Ultimecia make appearances throughout the story ; their significance and backstories are revealed as the game progresses .
= = Cast creation and influences = =
Scenario writer Kazushige Nojima stresses the dynamic of players ' relationships with the main character in Final Fantasy games ; thus , he puts significant thought into how that relationship will develop . With Final Fantasy VII , protagonist Cloud Strife 's reserved nature led Nojima to include scenarios in which the player can select Cloud 's responses to certain situations and dialogue . With Final Fantasy VIII , which also features a reserved lead protagonist in Squall , Nojima wanted to give players actual insight into what the protagonist is thinking , even while other characters remain uninformed : this led to the inner dialogues Squall has through the game .
Character designer Tetsuya Nomura , while exchanging e @-@ mails with director Yoshinori Kitase during the period between the development of Final Fantasy VII and Final Fantasy VIII , suggested that the game should have a " school days " feel . Because Nojima already had a story in mind in which the main characters were the same age , the idea worked . Thus , they created the concept of military academies , called " Gardens " , in which students would train to become " SeeD " mercenaries . Nojima also planned for the two playable parties featured in the game — Squall 's present day group and Laguna Loire 's group of twenty years in the past — to highly contrast with one another . Laguna 's group consists of characters in their late twenties and have a lot of combat experience . They are also close friends who have fought together for a long time and trust one another . On the other hand , Squall 's party is young and inexperienced , and Squall himself does not initially understand the value of friendship .
Kitase expressed a desire to give the game a foreign atmosphere ( " foreign " being in relation to Japan ) ; his objective with the environment was to create a largely European setting . The first character Nomura designed specifically for use in Final Fantasy VIII was Squall , initially giving him longer hair and a more feminine appearance . However , Yoshinori Kitase did not feel that this design worked and asked Nomura to shorten his hair and make him look more masculine , which led to the design seen in @-@ game . When designing Cloud Strife , Nomura gave him distinctly spiky , bright blonde hair to emphasize his role as that game 's protagonist . With Squall , Nomura wanted to try a unique angle to establish his role , giving him the characteristic gunblade scar across the bridge of his nose . A complete history was not yet conceived , so Nomura left the explanation for Squall 's scar to Nojima . Squall 's design was flourished by a fur lining along the collar of his jacket , included for the purpose of challenging the game 's full motion video designers . This is but one example of the demands he has consistently extended to the programmers of the Final Fantasy series as technology has advanced .
" Guardian Forces " , creatures who are brought into battle to attack enemies or support the party , are the version of summons appearing in Final Fantasy VIII . Nomura felt they should be unique beings , without clothes or other human @-@ like concepts . This was problematic , as he did not want them to " become the actual monsters " , so he took great care in their design . Ramuh — an old wizard from earlier Final Fantasy games — was replaced ; other human @-@ like designs were re @-@ imagined nude and with creature @-@ like elements . Nomura , also the director of the Guardian Force animation sequences , wanted to create a greater impact than the summons of Final Fantasy VII . Leviathan was created as a test and included in a game demo . Garnering a positive reaction from players , Nomura decided to create the remaining sequences in a similar fashion .
In a Famitsu Weekly interview with Kitase , Nomura , and Yuusuke Naoi , the team agreed that Final Fantasy VIII reflects Nomura 's preferred technique , as opposed to Final Fantasy VII , which featured characters that " weren 't really his style " . The team also decided to use realistically proportioned characters . The higher level of full motion video technology would have otherwise created an inconsistency between the in @-@ game graphics and the higher definition full motion video graphics . Additionally , Kitase explained that the main logo of the game — Squall and Rinoa embracing — was inspired by the team 's efforts to express emotion through body language .
= = Creatures and races = =
The world of Final Fantasy VIII is predominantly occupied by humans . Another prominent race is the " Shumi " , a small tribe of creatures with yellow skin and large arms . The tribe lives in an underground village on the Trabian continent . The Shumi frown upon showing off their large hands ; NORG , the owner of Balamb Garden , was exiled from the tribe for his ostentation . All Shumi undergo a biological metamorphosis at some point in their lives ; a qualified Shumi will become an Elder while another may become a mute " Moomba " . Moombas are covered in red fur , which the Shumi attribute to " the passionate ingenuity in their hearts " . Additionally , Moombas have appeared in several Final Fantasy spin @-@ offs , including Chocobo World and Chocobo Racing .
Chocobos — large galliform birds common throughout the Final Fantasy series — are featured in the game . In this title , Chocobos are generally undomesticated and can be found in various forests throughout the world . Each forest has a minigame where the player must corral baby Chocobos to locate the mother . If the player catches a bird , a baby Chocobo ( a Chicobo ) named Boko will follow the player around . Boko has his own game called Chocobo World that can be downloaded from the PlayStation disc onto a PocketStation game unit . Series composer Nobuo Uematsu created two Chocobo themes for Final Fantasy VIII : " Mods de Chocobo " and " Odeka de Chocobo " .
Final Fantasy VIII also features an array of common real world creatures , such as cats and dogs . The game also includes numerous monsters , many of which have appeared earlier in the series . Popular recurring monsters include Adamantoise , Behemoth , Bomb , Cactuar , Iron Giant , Malboro , and Tonberry .
= = Playable characters = =
= = = Squall Leonhart = = =
Squall Leonhart ( スコール ・ レオンハート , Sukōru Reonhāto ) is the main protagonist of Final Fantasy VIII . He is a young student at Balamb Garden who was identifiable by the scar on his face that a fellow student , Seifer , inflicted . He rarely speaks and has the reputation of being a lone wolf . As Squall 's story unfolds , he becomes fascinated with and falls in love with Rinoa , despite never outwardly expressing such until the ending . Squall is characterized by forlorn memories of standing out in the rain at the orphanage where he grew up , wondering where " Sis " went . Squall 's weapon is a gunblade , a sword that uses components of a revolver to send vibrations through the blade when triggered . His Limit Break is a series of sword strikes called Renzokuken .
= = = Rinoa Heartilly = = =
Rinoa Heartilly ( リノア ・ ハーティリー , Rinoa Hātirī ) is the primary female protagonist of Final Fantasy VIII . She is the 17 @-@ year @-@ old daughter of General Caraway , a high @-@ ranking officer in the Galbadian army , and Julia Heartilly , a successful pianist and singer . Rinoa is a member of the Forest Owls , a resistance faction seeking to liberate the small nation of Timber from Galbadian occupation . When Squall and his party of SeeD help the resistance movement fight Galbadia , Rinoa decides to stay with them ; as a result she ends up falling in love with Squall . She has black hair with brown highlights and dark eyes . Outspoken , spirited , emotional , and honest with her feelings , she speaks her mind without reservation . Because of her ambition , she can often be stubborn . The year before the game begins , she dated with Squall 's long @-@ standing rival Seifer Almasy .
Rinoa first meets Squall at the SeeD inauguration ball at Balamb Garden . During the dance , she manages to charm the usually antisocial Squall into dancing with her . Her purpose for visiting the Garden is revealed when the Forest Owls hire Squall , Zell Dincht , and Selphie Tilmitt as mercenaries . Later , Rinoa is possessed by Ultimecia when she loses her influence over Sorceress Edea , which causes Rinoa to fall into a coma @-@ like state . Consequently , Squall tries desperately to revive her , eventually traveling to the country of Esthar . However , Ultimecia manages to use Rinoa to release Sorceress Adel from her orbital prison . After Rinoa 's use expires , Ultimecia possesses Adel and leaves Rinoa to die in space . Squall rescues her , and the two attempt to share a personal moment on the Ragnarok spaceship while the game 's theme song , " Eyes On Me " , plays in the background . During the game 's ending , she reunites with Squall , and kisses him for the first time on the Balamb Garden balcony .
In battle , she uses a weapon called a " Blaster Edge " , which consists of an arm holster and a projectile that returns like a boomerang . In her Combine Limit Break , she attacks in unison with her dog , Angelo . When Rinoa gains Sorceress powers , she acquires a second Limit Break , Angel Wing , which increases her spell @-@ casting ability , along with rendering her in a state of " magic " berserk for the remainder of the battle .
Character artist Tetsuya Nomura found Rinoa the hardest character to design in Final Fantasy VIII . Nomura emphasized that he tried to avoid letting the possibilities presented by the recent advancements in full motion video technology become the entire focus , believing that these innovations might tempt developers to make their female characters " too beautiful " and focus more on physical appearance than personality . With this in mind , Nomura tried to make her " cute , not gorgeous " . To further emphasize this , he wrote a list of vocabulary traits and physical habits for Rinoa 's character that he felt conveyed this idea , and sent them to Kazushige Nojima along with the character 's design .
In addition to Final Fantasy VIII , Rinoa appears in a PlayStation 2 technology demo recreating the pre @-@ rendered music video cutscene sequence from the game in real @-@ time . She also appears in the 2004 board video game Itadaki Street Special and the 2012 rhythm video game Theatrhythm Final Fantasy , and is set to appear in the puzzle role @-@ playing video game Puzzle & Dragons as part of the Final Fantasy collaboration . Her outfits are available in the video games Gunslinger Stratos 2 and Star Ocean : Till the End of Time , and three of Rinoa 's weapon ( the Valkyrie , Cardinal and Shooting Star ) are Ultimecia 's exclusive weapons in Dissidia Final Fantasy .
= = = Laguna Loire = = =
Laguna Loire ( ラグナ ・ レウァール , Raguna Rewāru ) is a man whose past and relation to the main characters are revealed slowly throughout the game . Most of the sequences involving Laguna appear in the form of " dreams " experienced by the primary protagonists . Squall always experiences these dreams from Laguna 's point of view , although he does not think too highly of Laguna . Laguna attacks with a Machine gun and his Limit Break is Desperado , which involves a swinging rope , a grenade , and a barrage of bullets . During the dream segments , he is a twenty @-@ seven @-@ year @-@ old soldier in the Galbadian army who travels with his companions , Kiros Seagill and Ward Zabac . He is also an aspiring journalist .
During the first two dream segments , Laguna and his team are shown getting lost and visiting the hotel where singer Julia Heartilly , Laguna 's romantic interest , performs . After a scouting mission at Centra , the three soldiers are separated and Laguna is injured . A young woman named Raine nurses him back to health after he is brought to Winhill . He falls in love with and marries her . However , he is drawn away from his new home when a young girl in their care , Ellone , is kidnapped . Laguna tracks her down in Esthar , where he helps liberate the nation from the despotic rule of Sorceress Adel . The people of Esthar elect Laguna as their president and Ellone is sent back to Winhill without him . After Raine dies , her child ( whom Ward and Kiros imply to be Squall in a conversation aboard the Ragnarok ) and Ellone are sent to an orphanage . Laguna is unable to leave his post to visit her and remains president of Esthar to the present day . Ellone and Laguna are reunited in space , and Laguna helps the party prepare for their fight against Ultimecia .
The concept of two main characters was planned since the beginning of the game 's development . Nomura tried to create a contrast between Laguna 's and Squall 's occupations ; thus , Laguna became a soldier with a light @-@ hearted charisma , and Squall became a reserved mercenary student . The designers intended Laguna to be more similar to the previous protagonists in the series to complement Squall , who is different from previous main characters . Laguna is ranked seventh in Electronic Gaming Monthly 's list of the top ten video game politicians .
Laguna Loire appears in Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy , where he is voiced by Hiroaki Hirata in the Japanese version and Armando Valdes @-@ Kennedy in the English version . He is featured in his youthful Final Fantasy VIII appearance while his older and his Galbadian soldier forms . His costume of a knight is also available as downloadble content . Laguna was also planned to appear in Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep as the head of Mirage Arena .
= = = Seifer Almasy = = =
Seifer Almasy ( サイファー ・ アルマシー , Saifā Arumashī ) is a classmate and rival of Squall , who can only be controlled by the player during the Dollet sequence . He reappears as a boss later in the game . He acts as a foil to Squall in many respects , having dated Rinoa before she met Squall , and assuming a leadership position among his friends . Like Squall , Seifer wields a gunblade which he calls " Hyperion " . His Limit Break , Fire Cross , allows him to use an attack called No Mercy . He later uses the more powerful techniques Demon Slice and Bloodfest against the player . Seifer has a short temper and is often depicted as a bully who desires attention . He is also fiercely independent and is often punished for his recklessness . He is the leader of Balamb Garden 's disciplinary committee with his friends Fujin and Raijin . After joining Ultimecia , he becomes the leader of the Galbadian army .
During the introduction sequence , Seifer cuts Squall across the left side of his face with his gunblade , leaving a scar . Squall retaliates with a backhand slash that leaves Seifer with a mirrored scar . At the following field exam in Dollet , Seifer acts independently from his teammates Squall and Zell , abandoning them ; consequently , he fails and is not promoted to SeeD . Spurred by dreams of a brighter future , he defects to Sorceress Edea so he could be her " knight " . From his point of view , Squall and the others are " evil " and he recognizes himself as a hero . As Seifer is brainwashed by the sorceress , he alienates himself from his friends . Eventually , Fujin and Raijin abandon him and he is defeated shortly afterward . Following Edea 's defeat , the party confronts Seifer one last time as he now serves Ultimecia , and either they or Gilgamesh defeat him . Seifer escapes , kidnapping Rinoa and bringing her to Adel . At the end of the game , Seifer is seen fishing and having fun with Fujin and Raijin .
Nomura had originally intended Seifer not only as Squall 's rival , but also as part of the love triangle between him , Squall , and Rinoa . Although this concept was shelved in the final script , Seifer remains Squall 's rival and his appearance was designed to contrast with Squall 's . They have equivalent but mirrored scars on their faces and their jackets are of opposing color and length . Both characters use gunblades ; Squall 's gunblade is larger and requires two hands , while Seifer 's gunblade is lighter and can be wielded with one hand . A younger version of Seifer makes an appearance in Kingdom Hearts II as a member of the Twilight Town Disciplinary Committee with Fujin and Raijin . Seifer in the virtual Twilight Town is a rival of the main character , Roxas , and at one point mentions that he does not wish to cooperate with destiny . He is voiced by Takehito Koyasu and Will Friedle in the Japanese and English versions , respectively . He is also featured in the rhythm game Theatrhythm Final Fantasy as a subcharacter representing Final Fantasy VIII .
The book " Converging Traditions in the Digital Moving Image : Architectures of Illusion , Images of Truth " discusses that while Seifer is seen as a show @-@ off and a troublemaker , protagonist Squall Leonhart identifies with him . IGN listed Seifer as the 91st best video game villain , stating that he makes for a great rival due to the similarities between him and Squall .
= = = Quistis Trepe = = =
Quistis Trepe ( キスティス ・ トゥリープ , Kisutisu Turīpu ) is an eighteen @-@ year @-@ old instructor at Balamb Garden , where Squall , Zell , and Seifer are students . She uses a chain whip in battle , and her Limit Break , Blue Magic , a common ability found throughout the Final Fantasy games , allows her to imitate monsters ' attacks . Early in the game , Quistis is discharged as an instructor because she " [ lacks ] leadership qualities " . Afterwards , she maintains a more informal relationship with the other characters as a fellow member of SeeD .
As a child , Quistis stayed at an orphanage with most of the main characters . She then lived with foster parents , with whom she never developed any intimacy , before moving to Galbadia Garden at age ten . She became a SeeD at fifteen and an instructor two years later . Quistis initially joins Squall to prepare him for his upcoming field exam . She later takes Squall into her confidence and tells him personally about her demotion . As a result , Squall stops paying attention to her , which leads to Quistis asking if he is paying attention . Squall rudely tells her to go " talk to a wall " , a famous comical line in the game , and not to burden him with her problems . This furthers the player 's perception of Squall 's awkwardness and anti @-@ social tendencies . When Irvine refreshes the main characters ' memories about the orphanage , they remember that Squall 's asocial behavior began when Ellone , an older sister figure to Squall , left the orphanage unexpectedly . As a result of these revelations , Quistis recognizes that her feelings for Squall are more sisterly than romantic . Later , she criticizes Squall when he nearly abandons Rinoa , his romantic interest .
When designing the characters , Nomura had wanted at least one female character to wear a skirt . Quistis was originally supposed to fill this part , but Nomura decided a long skirt worn over pants would look better . The role was eventually passed to Selphie . Nomura was surprised when the writers cast her as a teacher , despite being around the same age as the rest of the group .
= = = Selphie Tilmitt = = =
Selphie Tilmitt ( セルフィ ・ ティルミット , Serufi Tirumitto ) is a student at Balamb Garden who recently transferred from Trabia Garden . She is active and energetic , although slightly clumsy . She participates in many extracurricular activities , such as planning the Garden Festival and running the school 's website . She wields nunchaku in battle , and her Limit Break Slot allows the player to cast a random spell numerous times as well as certain magic used exclusively in her limit break . In addition to battle , she pilots the Ragnarok starship .
Selphie first appears when running into Squall while late for class . She asks Squall to show her around because she recently transferred . During the Dollet exam , Selphie joins Squall 's team after Seifer abandons them . She becomes a SeeD with Squall and Zell , and the three are assigned to the same team . When Galbadia launches missiles at Trabia Garden , she reacts with outrage and helps destroy the missile base . Throughout the game , she revisits her childhood closeness with Irvine , who serves as her copilot on the Ragnarok .
Selphie was the second character that Nomura drew , after Squall , intentionally giving her an impractical hairstyle . When he first designed Selphie , Nomura drew her in overalls ; however , he realized that none of the characters would be wearing a skirt . In the end , he gave Selphie a mini @-@ skirt and let Quistis have pants . In the Kingdom Hearts series , Nomura included a younger version of Selphie as a resident of Destiny Islands , and uses a jump rope instead of nunchaku . She is voiced by Mayuko Aoki in the Japanese version , and by Molly Keck in the English version .
= = = Zell Dincht = = =
Zell Dincht ( ゼル ・ ディン , Zeru Din ) is a student at Balamb Garden with Squall and Seifer . Seventeen years old , Zell is a martial artist who fits the role of unarmed character , just like Tifa Lockhart did in the previous game , Final Fantasy VII . Zell attacks with punches and kicks , his weapons being gloves , and his Limit Break , Duel , requires the player to input button combinations on the controller to deal damage . Zell is slightly impulsive and overconfident in his own skill ; however , he is loyal to his friends . Seifer gives him the nickname " chicken @-@ wuss " . He also has a passion for hot dogs ; a recurring gag is that they are always sold out by the time he reaches the cafeteria .
Zell lived at the same orphanage as many of the other protagonists ; this is where Seifer first began to bully him . He was later adopted by the Dincht family in the town of Balamb . His motivation for enrolling at Garden is to live up to the memory of his grandfather , a famous soldier .
Zell was designed to look and act like the main character of a shōnen manga ( Japanese comic books intended primarily for boys ) ; his neighbors in Balamb describe him as a " ' comic @-@ bookish ' type of hero " . He also thinks of himself as Seifer 's rival , despite not being the main character . The inspiration for the tattoo on his face came from an MTV music video that featured a man with a full body tattoo .
Zell 's ultimate weapon is named Ehrgeiz , directly referencing the game of the same name which came out around the same time Final Fantasy VIII did . Also , continuing the similarities to Tifa Lockhart of Final Fantasy VII , Zell 's final limit break is My Final Heaven , while Tifa 's was called just Final Heaven .
= = = Irvine Kinneas = = =
Irvine Kinneas ( アーヴァイン ・ キニアス , Āvain Kiniasu ) is a student at Galbadia Garden , one of the three mercenary academies in the game . He is one of the Garden 's elite sharpshooters , always carrying his rifle . His Limit Break is Shot , which deals damage and inflicts status effects depending on the type of ammunition . Irvine is depicted as a cowboy , tall and fair @-@ skinned with long brown hair that he wears pulled back in a ponytail . He also enjoys flirting with the female characters , being known as well for his marksmanship as his charm . He acts like a carefree , but misunderstood loner ; however , this is merely a façade to charm women and hide his lack of confidence .
When Sorceress Edea becomes the Galbadian ambassador , Balamb and Galbadia Gardens order Squall 's team to assassinate her ; Irvine is introduced as the sniper for the mission . Moments before the assassination attempt , he explains to Squall that he always chokes under pressure . In spite of his nerves and under intense pressure , he fires an accurate shot , but Edea uses magic to stop the bullet . At Trabia Garden , Irvine reveals that he and most of the other party members had lived in the same orphanage , run by Cid and Edea Kramer . However , the others could not remember this because of their use of Guardian Forces ( GF ) , magical beings who cause severe long @-@ term memory loss as a side effect . Because Irvine had not used a GF until he joined the party , he is able to remember his past . During the game , Irvine gradually draws closer to Selphie , acting on the feeling he has had since living with her at the orphanage .
With Irvine , Nomura tried to strike a balance between not overshadowing Squall and not becoming too unattractive . He gave Irvine a handsome appearance , but a casual personality , hoping that this would make him less attractive than Squall . Keeping with this idea , Nomura gave him goggles ; however , this idea was abandoned in favor of an American cowboy @-@ like appearance to set him apart from other goggle @-@ wearing characters in the Final Fantasy series .
= = = Kiros Seagill = = =
Kiros Seagill ( キロス ・ シーゲル , Kirosu Shīgeru ) is one of Laguna 's comrades in the Galbadian Army . He wields a pair of katar ( कटार ) or gauntlet @-@ daggers , with which he repeatedly slices his enemies in his Limit Break , Blood Pain . His weapons ' name is given as " katal " in the English localization of the game . Following the failed mission in Centra , Kiros is separated from Laguna and Ward . He heals quickly and decides to leave the Galbadian army , but soon finds that life without Laguna lacks excitement . His subsequent search for Laguna brings him to Winhill after nearly a year . When Laguna is forced to leave Winhill to find Ellone , Kiros accompanies him , helping him earn money as an amateur actor to fund the expedition . Kiros remains by Laguna 's side throughout his adventures in Esthar , earning a place as Laguna 's advisor when he becomes president . Like Ward , Kiros ' interactions with Laguna are based on the staff 's interactions during development .
= = = Ward Zabac = = =
Ward Zabac ( ウォード ・ ザバック , Wōdo Zabakku ) is Laguna 's other comrade . An imposing man , he wields a large harpoon in battle ; in his Limit Break , Massive Anchor , he uses it to crush his opponents from above . During the incident at Centra , he loses his voice in a battle with Esthar soldiers . After being separated from Laguna and Kiros , he becomes a janitor at the D @-@ District Prison . When Laguna becomes president of Esthar , Ward joins Kiros as an advisor , directing affairs with gestures and ellipses . Laguna and Kiros can understand what he is saying by his reactions . Like Kiros , Ward 's interactions with Laguna are based on the staff 's interactions during development .
= = = Edea Kramer = = =
Edea Kramer ( イデア ・ クレイマー , Idea Kureimā ) is initially presented as a power @-@ hungry sorceress who seizes control of Galbadia from President Deling . Her motives are unknown , but SeeD is dispatched to assassinate her . Later , it is revealed that Edea is actually the wife of Headmaster Cid , and was known as " Matron " to Squall and the other kids that lived at the orphanage . It is eventually explained that Edea was not acting of her own will , but was possessed by a sorceress from the future named Ultimecia . When Ultimecia 's control is broken , Edea takes the side of the SeeDs in the struggle and joins Squall 's party for a short time . However , she accidentally gives her powers to Rinoa , making her a sorceress . Being a sorceress , Edea attacks with magical bursts of energy and her Limit Break , Ice Strike , consists of a magically conjured icicle , hurled like a javelin . This Limit Break is depicted in a cutscene during Edea 's coronation as head of Galbadia , when she ( possessed by Ultimecia ) attacks Squall with it .
Edea is one of three character concepts , along with Fujin and Raijin , to have been created before Final Fantasy VIII . Tetsuya Nomura had designed Edea even before the development of Final Fantasy VII , based on the style of Yoshitaka Amano , who was the character illustrator of Final Fantasy VI and previous games . In Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy , Edea 's design is used as an alternate costume of Ultimecia 's .
= = Other characters = =
= = = Adel = = =
Adel ( アデル , Aderu ) is a sorceress from Esthar who initiated the Sorceress War some years ago before the start of the game . As the ruler of Esthar , she ordered her soldiers to abduct every girl to find a suitable successor for her powers , including the young Ellone . During the Esthar revolution , Laguna and Dr. Odine devised an artifact to cancel the sorceress power , and placed her in suspended animation in outer space . In the present , after Edea is released from Ultimecia 's control , Ultimecia possesses the new sorceress , Rinoa , and commands her to free Adel , so she can become Ultimecia 's new and more powerful vessel . Adel is successfully freed , so Rinoa is discarded as a host . However , in order to defeat Ultimecia , Dr. Odine plans for Ultimecia to once again possess Rinoa . Eventually , Squall 's party defeats Adel when she tries to absorb Rinoa at the Lunatic Pandora , thus Adel 's powers transfer to Rinoa , Ultimecia possesses her again , and using Ellone 's powers , they start " Time Compression " , which leads to the final battle .
= = = Cid Kramer = = =
Cid Kramer ( シド ・ クレイマー , Shido Kureimā ) is the headmaster of Balamb Garden . After the failed assassination attempt on Edea , the Garden Master , NORG , attempts to seize power from Cid and reconcile with Edea . This sparks an internal conflict , in which the students and personnel side with either Cid or NORG . However , Squall and Xu quell the conflict and return Cid to power . Afterward , Cid aggressively confronts NORG , who started the conflict over financial issues . Cid is the husband of Sorceress Edea , with whom he ran an orphanage and founded the SeeD organization . They are estranged for most of the game , however , because they lead opposing factions until Ultimecia releases her magical possession of Edea .
Because most Final Fantasy titles include a character named " Cid " , Nomura wanted to design someone with differences from the past Cids in the series . He gave this version of Cid the appearance and personality of an older , benevolent character who would watch over Squall 's party and offer them advice and motivation . Nojima decided that this type of good @-@ natured character would work best as the headmaster of Balamb Garden .
= = = Ellone = = =
Ellone ( エルオーネ , Eruōne ) is a mysterious girl and the missing " Sis " of Squall 's past . She has the ability to send a person 's consciousness back in time and into the body of another , so they can experience the actions of that person . She uses this talent to send Squall 's party into Laguna 's past adventures , hoping that they would alter the past ; however , she eventually realizes that her abilities can only view history , not alter it . Ultimecia needs this power to achieve " Time Compression " , so she uses Edea and the Galbadian military to find her .
Ellone is an important character in the story , tying the relationships between some of the characters , and being the primary objective of Ultimecia . However , Ellone 's importance is mostly told in the flashbacks , and explained gradually . After Ellone 's parents were killed by Esthar soldiers , under orders of sorceress Adel , she lived with Raine in the small Winhill village , where she also developed a close relationship with her adoptive uncle , Laguna . These peaceful times lasted until she was finally captured by Esthar . Then , Laguna travelled to Esthar to rescue her , at the same time he participated in Esthar 's rebellion to overthrow Adel . After Adel 's incarceration in space , Laguna having to remain in Esthar as president , and then Raine 's death , Ellone moved to Cid and Edea 's orphanage , where she became an older sister figure to Squall and the other orphans , and eventually she also followed Cid to Balamb Garden . Early in the game , Squall 's party finds Ellone in the library of Balamb Garden , but the characters don 't have further interactions . It is later explained that the " Guardian Forces " ( GF ) which the SeeDs use in battle cause memory loss , thus explaining why Squall doesn 't remember Ellone , Edea and his past in the orphanage .
= = = Fujin = = =
Fujin ( 風神 , Fūjin ) is a young woman with pale skin , short silver hair and an eye patch . She is a member of Balamb Garden 's disciplinary committee with Seifer and Raijin ; the three of them form a close " posse " , even when Seifer leaves Garden . Fujin prefers to speak in terse sentences , often with only a single word , such as " RAGE ! " and " LIES ! " ( in the Japanese version she only spoke in Kanji ) . However , near the end of the game , she explains to Squall that she will temporarily break ties with Seifer because of his recent behavior . In battle , Fujin wields a chakram and uses wind @-@ based magic . She shares her name with the Japanese god of wind , Fūjin .
Fujin and Raijin were to appear in Final Fantasy VII ; however , the designers excluded them due to their similarity to the Turks . In Kingdom Hearts II , a younger version of Fujin , named " Fuu " ( フウ ) , appears as a member of Seifer 's gang . She is voiced by Rio Natsuki in the Japanese version and by Jillian Bowen in the English version .
= = = Raijin = = =
Raijin ( 雷神 , Rājin ) is a member of Balamb Garden 's disciplinary committee with Seifer and Fujin ; the three form a close " posse " , as he calls it . He has a habit of ending his sentences with " ya know " ( もんよ , mon 'yo , in the Japanese version ) . Like Fujin , he supports Seifer when he betrays SeeD and Garden to side with Edea . Near the end of the game , he stands by Fujin 's plea to the party to help save Seifer from himself . In the ending FMV , he celebrates catching a large fish until Fujin kicks him into the water . In battle , Raijin uses thunder @-@ based magic and a bō staff with large weights on either end . He shares his name with the Japanese god of thunder , Raijin .
Raijin and Fujin were to appear in Final Fantasy VII ; however , the designers decided against it due to their similarity to the Turks . In Kingdom Hearts II , a younger version of Raijin , named " Rai " ( ライ ) , appears as a member of Seifer 's gang . He is voiced by Kazuya Nakai in the Japanese version , and by Brandon Adams in the English version .
= = = Ultimecia = = =
Ultimecia ( アルティミシア , Arutimishia ) is the main antagonist of Final Fantasy VIII . Because she operates through the body of a possessed Edea to gain control of Galbadia , Ultimecia 's existence is revealed only after possessing Rinoa to release Sorceress Adel from her orbital prison to take as a new host . A sorceress from the future , Ultimecia is capable of reaching her consciousness into the distant past via a special " Junction Machine " to possess other sorceresses . She seeks to achieve " Time Compression " , which would cause all eras to merge ; this would extinguish all life but her own as she becomes an omnipresent goddess . This would give her power on a par to Hyne the Great , who , according to the background had created the world .
In fact , Squall and the heroes do help Ultimecia start Time Compression , but they do so to confront her in her own time . After Squall and his party defeat Sorceress Adel , Adel transfers her power to Rinoa , then Ultimecia possesses Rinoa again , and Ellone uses her power to send their consciousness to the past , at which point Ultimecia starts Time Compression . At that moment , the heroes are able to travel to Ultimecia 's distant future and defeat her . After the final battle , the defeated Ultimecia transfers her powers to Edea .
Ultimecia is the villainess representing Final Fantasy VIII in Dissidia : Final Fantasy and Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy , where she is voiced by Atsuko Tanaka ( Japanese ) and Tasia Valenza ( English ) .
= = = Minor characters = = =
= = = = Biggs and Wedge = = = =
Biggs and Wedge are members of the Galbadian Army . Biggs is a major and Wedge is a lieutenant . After the main characters defeat the duo at Dollet , they are demoted in rank to lieutenant and private respectively . The protagonists encounter them again at the D @-@ District Prison . A third meeting at the Lunatic Pandora does not result in conflict ; instead , they quit the Galbadian army . They continue the Final Fantasy tradition of including two minor characters with the names " Biggs " and " Wedge . "
= = = = General Fury Caraway = = = =
General Fury Caraway is a member of the Galbadian military who advises the main characters on their mission to assassinate Sorceress Edea . When Laguna left Galbadia , Caraway comforted Julia ; eventually , they married and had a child , Rinoa . Caraway and Rinoa have a problematic relationship ; he attempts to prevent her from participating in the assassination attempt . However , he later arranges her freedom from the D @-@ District Prison .
= = = = Vinzer Deling = = = =
Vinzer Deling is the President of Galbadia . He appoints Sorceress Edea as a supposed " peace ambassador " to resolve Galbadia 's political problems with other nations . His body double is defeated by SeeD and the Forest Owls resistance group . Edea kills him during her welcoming ceremony at Deling City and seizes power in Galbadia .
= = = = Mayor Dobe and Flo = = = =
Mayor Dobe is the leader of Fishermans Horizon , a town in the middle of a transoceanic highway between the continents of Galbadia and Esthar . He and his wife , Flo , detest violence and oppose the Garden 's presence in their territory . Squall and his party save the Mayor from certain death when the Galbadian army invades the town .
= = = = Forest Owls = = = =
The Forest Owls are a small resistance faction that oppose the Galbadian occupation of Timber , a town in the eastern part of the continent . A man named Zone is the leader , and Rinoa and Watts are members . Most people of Timber are affiliated with a resistance group , although the Forest Owls are the only active ones .
= = = = Julia Heartilly = = = =
Julia Heartilly ( ジュリア ・ ハーティリー , Juria Hātirī ) is a pianist at a Galbadian hotel frequented by Laguna during his days as a soldier . After being secretly admired by Laguna for some time , Julia introduces herself , as depicted in one of the flashback sequences . Julia reveals to Laguna her dream of writing her own songs and becoming a singer . Laguna is shipped out on new orders the following day and the ensuing circumstances prevent him from returning . Julia eventually marries Galbadian military officer General Caraway and has a daughter , Rinoa . She also finds success with her song " Eyes On Me " , which is also the game 's theme song . She is killed several years before the start of the game in a car accident . Julia is the only character in the game with an explicit character theme , named " Julia " , which is a piano arrangement of Eyes On Me .
= = = = Raine = = = =
Raine ( レイン , Rein ) , later Raine Loire ( レイン ・ レウァール , Rein Rewāru ) , is Laguna 's second love depicted in the flashbacks . She finds him injured at the bottom of a cliff and brings him to her hometown of Winhill to recover . She is irked at first by Laguna 's bad habits and reluctance to express himself outright , but the two grow close and marry . After Laguna becomes President of Esthar , his duties thwart his efforts to return to Winhill . Raine dies after giving birth to a child , who , along with Ellone , is taken away to Edea 's orphanage . It is strongly implied by Ward and Kiros , as well as by gaming writers and fans , that Squall is their child .
= = = = Martine = = = =
Martine is the head of Galbadia Garden . His superior , Balamb Garden 's master NORG , orders him to use SeeD members to carry out the assassination plot against Sorceress Edea . When Squall and his team travel to Galbadia Garden after fleeing Timber , Martine orders them to carry out the mission . He hopes that using Balamb Garden 's SeeDs would deflect responsibility for the plot onto NORG . His actions trigger the conflict within Balamb Garden when Garden Master NORG tries to kill Headmaster Cid to appease Sorceress Edea after the mission fails . Afterward , the Galbadian military seizes Galbadia Garden and Martine flees to the pacifist city of Fishermans Horizon .
= = = = NORG = = = =
NORG is an exiled Shumi who lent Cid the money to build and develop the Garden and took the position of Garden Master upon its completion . NORG is more concerned about the revenue acquired by SeeD as a mercenary organization rather than its noble duty of opposing the Sorceress ; he is considered a " black sheep " of the Shumi tribe . After hearing about a failed assassination attempt on Sorceress Edea , NORG begins to distrust Headmaster Cid and tries to seize control of Balamb Garden , causing a conflict between factions loyal to NORG and Cid . Feigning loyalty to the Sorceress , he attempts to kill the SeeDs who carried out the failed assassination . After he is defeated in battle , he enters a cocoon @-@ like state . Shumis from the Shumi village later appear at the site of his defeat . They appear to have removed him from his cocoon by cracking it open . They also apologize for NORG 's behaviour .
= = = = Dr. Odine = = = =
Dr. Odine is a scientist and magic researcher from Esthar . He discovered the GFs and junctioning and engineered a machine that mimics Ellone 's power . Seventeen years before the game , he developed the necessary technology to allow Laguna to entomb Adel . As a researcher of the Lunatic Pandora , he also helps to prevent it from reaching Tears ' Point and initiating a Lunar Cry . Odine also plays a role in the plot to destroy Ultimecia , explaining how to survive time compression .
= = = = Minor SeeD members = = = =
Several other SeeD members assist Squall 's party . Dr. Kadowaki is the Balamb Garden doctor who tends to Squall 's wounds after his fight with Seifer in the opening sequence . She also helps Headmaster Cid after his confrontation with NORG . Nida ( another Star Wars reference , along with Biggs and Wedge ) is a student at Balamb Garden who passes the SeeD exam along with Squall . He pilots Balamb Garden after it becomes a mobile base . Lastly , Xu is a high @-@ ranking SeeD who helps Squall during the Dollet mission and the Garden civil war between NORG and Cid . She is friends with Quistis and a member of Squall 's staff once he becomes the leader of Balamb Garden .
= = Merchandise = =
The characters of Final Fantasy VIII have spawned action figures , jewellery and other goods in their likeness . In 1999 , action figure lineups were distributed in Japan by Bandai , Kotobukiya , Banpresto , and Coca @-@ Cola . Bandai also released them to Europe and Australasia the same year . In 2004 , action figures of Squall , Rinoa and Selphie were distributed in North America by Diamond Comics . Posters of individual characters or a collage of characters are available on many fan websites , including Final Fantasy Spirit . Other products available include mouse pads , keychains , and pens depicting individual characters or sets of characters .
= = Reception = =
The characters of Final Fantasy VIII have received praise by reviewers . The Gaming Age reviewer was originally concerned with the shift to consistently realistically proportioned characters , but he ultimately found them more appealing . Moreover , the review stated that the character designs and graphical quality allowed the characters to " convey emotions much more dramatically " . Game Revolution cited similar praise , agreeing that the change " really makes the graphics impressive " . Jeff Lundigran of IGN commented that the " low @-@ polygon characters of Final Fantasy VII are gone , replaced with sometimes surprisingly realistic high @-@ polygon models that only look better the closer they get " . GameSpot agreed with the transition , claiming that " involving , personal , and emotional stories are far more believable when they come from , well , people , not short , bizarrely shaped cartoon characters " .
The cast itself has received criticism from reviews . Lundigran criticized the manner in which romantic interactions play out , stating that " considering that the love story is so integral to everything that happens — not to mention forming the central image of the box art — it 's incomprehensible why no one says ' I love you ' to anyone , ever " . With Squall , he felt that " FFVIII does break one cardinal rule : when your story is character centered , you 'd better center it on a character the audience can care about . Squall , unfortunately , just doesn 't fit the bill " . However , GameSpot felt that Final Fantasy VIII shifts the story from the " epic " concepts of Final Fantasy VII to the " personal " , in that " the characters and their relationships are all extremely believable and complex ; moreover , the core romance holds up even under the most pessimistic scrutiny " . A later editorial by IGN 's Ryan Clements echoed this sentiment , appreciating that Squall and Rinoa 's single kiss during the finale serves " one of the player 's main rewards for hours of dedication " . Although the reviewer at Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine acknowledged possible fears over a romantic storyline , he stated that " it 's only later in the game , once you are really attached to all the distinct and complex characters , that the more emotional themes are gradually introduced " .
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= Bud Dunn =
Emerson " Bud " Dunn ( May 15 , 1918 – January 11 , 2001 ) was a Tennessee Walking Horse trainer from Kentucky who spent most of his career in northern Alabama . He trained horses for over forty years and won his first Tennessee Walking Horse World Grand Championship at age 74 with the horse Dark Spirit 's Rebel ; at the time , he was the oldest rider ever to win the honor . He was inducted into the Tennessee Walking Horse Hall of Fame in 1987 and was named trainer of the year twice , in 1980 and again in 1991 . At age 81 , in 1999 , Dunn won his second World Grand Championship on RPM , making him the oldest winning rider for the second time .
His son Steve was also a successful trainer who matched his father 's record . Bud and Steve Dunn remain the only father and son to win World Grand Championships within their breed . Dunn died of a heart attack in January 2001 .
= = Life and death = =
Dunn was born Emerson Dunn on May 15 , 1918 in Scott County , Kentucky , near Lexington , to Lucius Dunn and Sadie Burgess Dunn . He grew up on his family 's farm and was involved with horses from a young age . He moved to northwest Alabama in the 1950s . He and his wife Elaine ( née Lewis ) had three children , Billie Ann , David and Steve . Steve Dunn also became a successful horse trainer . Dunn died on January 11 , 2001 at the age of 82 , following two heart attacks brought about by complications from knee replacement surgery . He was buried in Oakwood Cemetery , Sheffield , Alabama .
Steve Dunn himself won two World Grand Championships , the first before his father won one . Steve Dunn 's winning horses were Motown Magic in 1989 , and Out On Parole in 2002 . Bud and Steve Dunn remain the only father and son to win World Grand Championships . When Bud won his first World Grand Championship in 1992 , three years after Steve 's first , Steve said , " I think him winning meant more to me than when I won it . " Bud Dunn said of his partnership with Steve , " I always wanted him to work out here . But ain 't many fathers and sons ever got along that long . "
= = Career = =
Dunn began training horses in his teens , and began training Tennessee Walking Horses specifically in 1951 . He participated in the Tennessee Walking Horse National Celebration almost every year for 50 years , beginning in 1950 , and at one time was so popular he signed autographs for several hours before performances . In total , he personally showed 108 horses at the Celebration over the years , not counting an estimated several hundred others that were trained by him and shown by other riders . Dunn 's training facility , Bud Dunn Stables ( later Bud Dunn & Son ) were located in Florence , Alabama and covered ten acres . At one point in the mid @-@ 1980s , Dunn had over 50 horses in training .
Dunn was given the Trainer of the Year award for the first time in 1980 , by the Professional Walking Horse Trainers Organization . He trained Tennessee Walking Horses for over 40 years , and during his career won two World Grand Championships , with the horses Dark Spirit 's Rebel and RPM , and 20 World Championships with various other horses . In 1991 Dunn was again named the Tennessee Walking Horse trainer of the year by his fellow trainers for consistently showing and training top @-@ quality horses . He was twice the oldest rider ever to win the World Grand Championship , which he did for the first time at age 74 . He also judged Tennessee Walking Horse shows . In 1987 , he was inducted into the Tennessee Walking Horse Hall of Fame .
= = = Notable horses = = =
Dunn trained the bay stallion Dark Spirit 's Rebel to a World Grand Championship in 1992 . Dunn had been training for 42 years and was 74 years old , making him the oldest trainer ever to win the class . The competition was held in front of a record crowd of 28 @,@ 000 . " Rebel " was the favorite horse going into the competition , out of a field of 13 , and the team of Dunn and the stallion was said to be the most popular in Celebration history . Dunn said after the win , " I 've been coming to the Celebration since 1950 and I 've never seen anything like it . That made it twice as good . It 's nice to know that I 've got that many friends and supporters . "
Dunn 's second World Grand Champion was RPM , a son of Dark Spirit 's Rebel . RPM won the Reserve World Grand Championship at the 1998 Celebration and Dunn had hopes of winning first the next year . In 1999 the horse was sold to L R & N Partners , LLC for $ 1 @.@ 25 million . The new owners moved RPM to trainer Sammy Day 's stable in Shelbyville , Tennessee with the intention of entering him in the Celebration . Shortly before the Celebration , Day was convicted of bribing a judge , fined , and put on a five @-@ year suspension . Dunn was given the task of riding RPM in the show , and won the World Grand Championship . Dunn was 81 , making him the oldest rider ever to win the class for the second time , and breaking his earlier record .
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= SS El Oriente =
SS El Oriente was a cargo ship built in 1910 for the Morgan Line , a subsidiary of the Southern Pacific Company . During World War I , she was known as USS El Oriente ( ID @-@ 4504 ) in service with the United States Navy . At the end of war , she reverted to her original name of SS El Oriente . During World War II she was chartered by the International Committee of the Red Cross ( ICRC ) as SS Henri Dunant ( sometimes also spelled Henry Dunant ) , but reverted to her original name of SS El Oriente at the end of the charter .
SS El Oriente was one of four sister ships that carried cargo and a limited number of passengers for the Morgan Line . She was acquired by the U.S. Navy in July 1918 , and converted to carry horses and mules to France , and after the Armistice , was converted again to carry American troops home from Europe .
El Oriente returned to the Morgan Line in 1919 and sailed with them until June 1941 , when the entire Morgan Line fleet was purchased by the United States Maritime Commission . El Oriente served as a civilian @-@ crewed cargo ship during World War II , sailing primarily between the United States and the United Kingdom . In September 1944 , she was chartered by the ICRC and sailed under the Swiss flag carrying food parcels to American prisoners of war held in German camps . Henri Dunant continued to sail under Swiss charter until October 1945 , when she was returned to the United States and reverted to her former name . El Oriente was placed in the James River Reserve Fleet in November 1945 , and was sold for scrapping in July 1946 .
= = Early career = =
SS El Oriente was a cargo and passenger steamship launched on 11 May 1910 by the Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Co. of Newport News , Virginia ( yard no . 132 ) , and delivered to the Atlantic division of the Morgan Line on 24 October 1910 . She was the third of four sister ships ; the other three being El Sol , El Mundo , and El Occidente . El Oriente was 6 @,@ 008 gross register tons ( GRT ) , was 430 feet 2 inches ( 131 @.@ 11 m ) long by 53 feet 1 inch ( 16 @.@ 18 m ) abeam , and made 16 knots ( 30 km / h ) . The vessel sailed for the Morgan Line , the brand name of the Southern Pacific Steamship Company ( a subsidiary of the Southern Pacific Railroad ) , which employed her to carry cargo and a limited number of passengers between New York ; New Orleans , the eastern terminus of the Southern Pacific line ; and Galveston , Texas .
= = World War I = =
After the United States declared war on Germany in April 1917 , it 's unclear what role , if any , El Oriente played early on in the war . Her sister ships El Occidente and El Sol were both requisitioned by the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) on behalf of the United States Army , and both were designated as animal transport ships . If El Oriente were used by the Army as an animal transport ship , she would have needed a refit which typically meant that any second- or third @-@ class passenger accommodations had to be ripped out and replaced with ramps and stalls for the horses and mules carried . It is known that El Oriente sailed in an American convoy to France on 16 April 1918 with U.S. Navy transports Maui , Calamares , Pocahontas , and Madawaska , British transports Czar and Czaritza , and U.S. cruiser Seattle , and reached France on 28 April .
The next recorded activity of El Oriente was on 29 July , when she was acquired by the U.S. Navy and commissioned the same day with Lieutenant Commander William Delahanty , USNRF , in command . El Oriente was assigned to the Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) and carried animals and supplies for the U.S. Army , joining her two sister ships , El Sol and El Occidente in that duty .
El Oriente 's first Navy voyage to France began when she sailed from Newport News with 500 animals on 11 August . Unlike earlier animal transport crossings for the Army , where there was as much as a 4 % mortality rate , the voyages in August 1918 and after carried a transport veterinarian and a permanent veterinary detachment to care for the animals while on board the ship . As part of this new program , El Oriente delivered her full load of horses and mules — suffering no losses — at Bordeaux on 2 September . El Oriente made an additional roundtrip with 500 more animals in October , losing only three of her equine cargo during the voyage . El Oriente continued sailing for the NOTS through April 1919 , sometimes carrying a small number of troops on return voyages to the United States . At that time El Oriente was converted to carry troops , and assigned to the Cruiser and Transport Force to help return larger numbers American servicemen from Europe .
She sailed on 11 June for Bordeaux and returned with officers and men of the 6th Cavalry Regiment on 4 July . She made additional voyages in July and August , returning 978 members of the 3rd Infantry Division to Philadelphia on the latter voyage . In all , El Oriente returned 2 @,@ 986 healthy and wounded American servicemen from France in three voyages . On 15 September at Philadelphia , El Orente was decommissioned , and returned to the Morgan Line soon after .
= = Interwar civilian service = =
El Oriente resumed cargo service with the Morgan Line , and enjoyed a quiet career , typically sailing between New York and Galveston . One event of note occurred in February 1922 when El Oriente came upon the wreck of the schooner , Caldwell H. Colt , which had run aground on a reef near the Tortugas Light during a gale . When El Oriente came upon the hulk , only her captain remained alive , surviving without food or water for several days before his rescue . El Oriente continued on to Galveston and landed the man there .
= = World War II = =
In June 1941 , the United States Maritime Commission ( USMC ) announced that it had requisitioned the entire Morgan Line fleet of ten ships , including El Oriente and her remaining sister ships , El Occidente and El Mundo . The ships were to finish previously scheduled cargo runs and be handed over to the USMC over the following six weeks . The USMC had been charged with assembling a 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 GRT U.S. fleet to " aid the democracies " fighting Germany in World War II , and paid $ 4 @.@ 7 million for the ships and a further $ 2 @.@ 6 million for repairs and refits .
El Oriente was handed over to the USMC and assigned to United States Lines , Inc . , for operation . The cargo ship was placed under Panamanian registry by U.S. Lines . Little is known of El Oriente 's movements over the next eight months , but on 17 February El Oriente sailed from Houston , Texas , to Philadelphia and on to Reykjavík . From Reykjavík , she sailed to the Clyde , arriving there at the end of July . Over the next 5 months , El Oriente sailed around the British Isles , calling at Kirkwall , Belfast Lough , Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness , and Liverpool , and back to Clyde in late December . From there , she sailed on one trip to Murmansk where she arrived on 27 January 1943 .
Murmansk had limited port facilities and slow unloading of cargo ( often performed by Soviet women and political prisoners ) , which , coupled with inclement weather and long waits for convoy escorts , often required lengthy stays by Allied cargo ships . El Oriente was no exception , staying in Murmansk for nearly five weeks . To compound the lengthy wait ( and , often , accompanying boredom ) faced by cargo ships waiting to unload , the nearest German airfield was 35 miles ( 56 km ) away — about 7 to 10 minutes flying time — which gave almost no advance warning of air raids . German dive bombers would silently glide in below Soviet anti @-@ aircraft fire , drop their payloads , and fly away . El Oriente was caught in one such attack on 27 February , with four of the ship 's Naval Armed Guards men killed in the attack .
El Oriente departed Kola Inlet on 1 March and returned to Liverpool , from which she sailed in a convoy for New York on 6 April , and returned to Belfast Lough in late June . After calling at Barry and Milford Haven , El Oriente began two roundtrips to New York at the end of June . In October the ship visited Loch Ewe , Methil , and Immingham before returning to New York again in November . After another transatlantic crossing and circuit amongst British ports , El Oriente returned to New York in May 1944 .
In June , the cargo vessel sailed to Cuba , calling at Havana and Puerto Tarafa before returning to New York . She next sailed to La Guaira , Venezuela ; Maracaibo , Venezuela ; and Júcaro , Cuba , before returning to New York in mid August . El Oriente sailed to Philadelphia in mid September in preparation for a charter .
= = Red Cross ship = =
On 28 September 1944 , El Oriente was chartered by the International Committee of the Red Cross , reflagged as a Swiss ship , and renamed SS Henry Dunant ( sometimes erroneously spelled as Henri Dunant ) , after Red Cross movement founder Henry Dunant . She was last of 14 ships chartered by Swiss interests to sail under the Swiss flag during World War II . On 5 October , Henry Dunant departed Philadelphia with a cargo of mail and 900 @,@ 000 food parcels intended for Allied prisoners of war interned in German camps .
Henry Dunant continued sailing for the ICRC through 24 October 1945 . The ship returned to Norfolk , resumed her former name of El Oriente , and entered the James River Reserve Fleet on 7 November 1945 . On 3 July 1946 , El Oriente was sold for scrapping to the Patapsco Scrap Co . , of Baltimore , Maryland , for $ 12 @,@ 175 .
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= USS Bennington ( PG @-@ 4 ) =
USS Bennington ( Gunboat No. 4 / PG @-@ 43 ) was a member of the Yorktown class of steel @-@ hulled , twin @-@ screw gunboats in the United States Navy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . She was the first U.S. Navy ship named in honor of the town of Bennington , Vermont , site of the Battle of Bennington in the American Revolutionary War .
The contract to build Bennington was awarded to N. F. Palmer & Co. of Philadelphia in November 1887 . Her hull was subcontracted to the Delaware River Iron Shipbuilding & Engine Works which laid down Bennington 's keel in June 1888 . Bennington was launched in June 1890 . She was just over 244 feet ( 74 m ) long and 36 feet ( 11 m ) abeam and displaced 1 @,@ 710 long tons ( 1 @,@ 740 t ) . She was equipped with two steam engines which were supplemented with three schooner @-@ rigged masts . The ship 's main battery consisted of six 6 @-@ inch ( 15 @.@ 2 cm ) guns and was augmented by an assortment of smaller caliber guns .
After her June 1891 commissioning , Bennington was attached to the Squadron of Evolution and for its cruise to South America . The gunboat made two Mediterranean tours between 1892 and 1894 , after which she was assigned to the duties in the Pacific . She sailed the Pacific coasts of North and Central America and spent time in the Hawaiian Islands to protect American interests there . On her way to support United States Army operations of the Philippine – American War , Bennington claimed Wake Island for the United States . After two years in the Philippines , she returned to the United States and was decommissioned for 18 months of repairs and refitting . After her March 1903 re @-@ commissioning , most of the next two years were spent patrolling the Pacific coasts of North and South America .
On 21 July 1905 at San Diego , California , Bennington suffered a boiler explosion , that killed 66 men and injured nearly everyone else on board . Shortly after the explosion , a tug beached the ship to prevent her from sinking . Eleven men were awarded the Medal of Honor for " extraordinary heroism " in the aftermath of the explosion . After Bennington was refloated , the damage was deemed too extensive to repair and the ship was decommissioned in September . The ship was sold for scrap in 1910 , but instead served as a water barge for the Matson Line at Honolulu from 1912 . In 1924 , the former Bennington was scuttled off the coast of Oahu .
= = Design and construction = =
The Yorktown class gunboats – unofficially considered third @-@ class cruisers – were the product of a United States Navy design attempt to produce compact ships with good seakeeping abilities and , yet , able to carry a heavy battery . Bennington was authorized in the 1888 fiscal year , and the contract for her construction was awarded to N. F. Palmer & Co. of Chester , Pennsylvania . The hull for Bennington was subcontracted to the Delaware River Iron Shipbuilding & Engine Works and built to the Navy 's Bureau of Construction and Repair design . The mechanical design was patterned after the layout for her older sister ship Yorktown developed by William Cramp & Sons .
Bennington 's keel was laid down in June 1888 , and the ship was launched on 3 June 1890 , sponsored by Anne Aston , the daughter of Rear Admiral Ralph Aston , Chief Engineer of the U.S. Navy .
= = = Layout = = =
As built , Bennington was 244 feet 5 inches ( 74 @.@ 50 m ) in length and 36 feet ( 11 m ) abeam . Her steel hull had an average draft of 14 feet ( 4 m ) , which was expected to give her the ability to escape from larger ships into shallow water . At the waterline was a turtleback deck of ⅜ -inch ( 9 @.@ 5 mm ) steel that formed a watertight seal over the lower spaces . The deck had a crown at the level of the waterline and curved downwards to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) below the waterline at the sides of the ship . Below this armored deck were twelve compartments separated by watertight bulkheads ; the spaces above were equipped with watertight doors intended to be closed during battle .
Above the armored deck , Bennington had forecastle and poop decks with an open gun deck that spanned the length of the ship between them . The conning tower was located forward on the forecastle deck and was oval @-@ shaped to deflect shot . It was outfitted with a steam @-@ powered Ship 's wheel , an engine order telegraph , and speaking tubes ; it was protected by 2 inches ( 51 mm ) of steel armor plate .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Bennington was powered by two triple @-@ expansion steam engines which each drove one of the pair of 10 @.@ 5 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) , three @-@ bladed screw propellers . The cylinders of each engine were 22 , 31 , and 51 inches ( 56 , 79 , and 130 cm ) in diameter and had a 30 @-@ inch ( 76 cm ) stroke . Each engine was rated at 3 @,@ 400 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 500 kW ) and together were designed to move the ship at 16 knots ( 30 km / h ) , though the ship exceeded that in her trials , topping out at 17 @.@ 5 knots ( 32 @.@ 4 km / h ) .
The engines , situated in separate watertight compartments , were each fed by a pair of coal @-@ fired boilers . Each boiler was horizontally mounted and was 9 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 90 m ) in diameter and 17 feet 6 inches ( 5 @.@ 33 m ) in length with a total grate area of 220 square inches ( 1 @,@ 400 cm2 ) . Bennington 's coal bunkers could carry up to 400 long tons ( 410 t ) of fuel , and were shielded from " shot and shell " . At a near top @-@ speed of 16 knots , the ship could cover 2 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 200 km ) in 6 ½ days ; at the more economical speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ) she could cruise 12 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 000 km ) over 62 days .
To supplement her steam power plant , Bennington was built with three masts that were schooner @-@ rigged . She had a total sail area of 6 @,@ 300 square feet ( 590 m2 ) . The steam and sail combination was expected to allow Bennington to remain at sea for months at a time during wartime .
= = = Armament = = =
Bennington 's main battery consisted of six 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) / 30 caliber Mark 3 guns , with each gun weighing in excess of 11 @,@ 000 pounds ( 5 @,@ 000 kg ) . Two were mounted on the forecastle deck , two on the poop deck , and the other pair amidships on the gun deck . The two guns on the gun deck were mounted 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) above the waterline , while the other four were 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) above . The guns fired 105 @-@ pound ( 48 kg ) armor @-@ piercing projectiles with a propellant charge weighing 18 @.@ 8 pounds ( 8 @.@ 5 kg ) at 1 @,@ 950 feet per second ( 590 m / s ) . At an elevation of 30 @.@ 2 ° , the guns had a range of 18 @,@ 000 yards ( 16 @,@ 000 m ) . Each gun was shielded with steel plating 3 inches ( 76 mm ) thick .
Bennington 's secondary battery consisted of four 6 @-@ pounder ( 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 24 in ) ) guns , and four 1 @-@ pounder ( 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 46 in ) ) guns . Both were based on designs of the French arms company Hotchkiss . According to a 1902 Bureau of Ordnance publication , an armor @-@ piercing round fired from a 6 @-@ pounder gun could penetrate 2 inches ( 51 mm ) of armor at a distance of 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) .
= = Early career = =
USS Bennington ( Gunboat No. 4 ) was commissioned at the New York Navy Yard on 20 June 1891 under the command of Commander Royal B. Bradford . As one of the first steel @-@ hulled gunboats of the " New Navy " , Bennington was assigned to the Squadron of Evolution , a unit made up entirely of " New Navy " ships that was established to test and perfect tactics and doctrine developed at the Naval War College . In addition to operating as the first tactical fleet of the U.S. Navy , the squadron performed the secondary mission of cruising to foreign ports to demonstrate to the world the types of modern ships the United States was capable of building . In that latter role , Bennington and the rest of the squadron departed New York on 19 November 1891 for the unit 's cruise to Brazil .
On 5 May 1892 , Bennington was transferred to the South Atlantic Squadron and cruised South American waters until 19 July . Setting out from Bahia , Brazil , the gunboat visited Spanish and Italian ports during the 400th anniversary celebration of Columbus ' voyage to the western hemisphere . She concluded the European portion of those festivities on 18 February 1893 when she departed Cadiz , with a replica of Columbus ’ s caravel Pinta in tow for Cuba . After stops in the Canary Islands , the Netherlands West Indies , and Havana , the gunboat arrived back in the United States at Hampton Roads , Virginia , on 26 March .
Following participation in the 1893 International Naval Review at Hampton Roads , Bennington moved north for operations along the coast of New England before beginning preparations for foreign service . To this end , she entered the New York Navy Yard on 24 May and remained there until 6 August . The ship departed New York on the 6th and arrived in Lisbon on the 18th . She cruised the Mediterranean , visiting various ports along its shores , for the next six months . In February 1894 , orders arrived sending her to the Pacific . On the 18th , the gunboat transited the Strait of Gibraltar and headed back across the Atlantic . After steaming around Cape Horn and stopping at several Latin American ports , the warship finally arrived at the Mare Island Navy Yard on 30 April .
= = Pacific Duty = =
Bennington served In the Pacific for a little more than four years . For the most part , her duty consisted of cruising along the west coast protecting American interests in Latin America during the numerous political upheavals that occurred at that time in Central and South America . In addition , she made two extended cruises to the Hawaiian Islands . The first came after a group of pro @-@ royalists attempted in January 1895 to stage a countercoup against the provisional government of the islands . Bennington departed Mare Island on 28 May , arrived at Honolulu on 5 June , and spent the next nine months protecting American interests in the islands . On 5 March 1896 , she departed Honolulu , bound for San Francisco where she arrived on 16 March . The following day , the warship entered the Mare Island Navy Yard for five months of repairs .
On 8 August , she resumed cruises along the west coast . That employment lasted a year and a week . On 14 August 1897 , Bennington headed back to Hawaii . She arrived in Lahaina Roads on 27 September and reached Honolulu on the 30th . Except for a six @-@ day cruise back to Lahaina in March 1898 , the gunboat remained at Honolulu for just over nine months .
At the outbreak of the Spanish – American War , Bennington was in Hawaiian waters . After spending the first two months of the war in the Hawaiian Islands , she departed Honolulu on 16 June and steamed to the west coast of the United States . The warship arrived in San Francisco on 26 June and patrolled the California coast for the remainder of hostilities . On 18 September , Bennington stood out of San Francisco on her way ultimately to the Philippines . She arrived in Hawaii on 27 September and devoted a little over three months to operations in nearby waters . On 7 January 1899 , she resumed her voyage west . Ten days out of Honolulu , she stopped at Wake Island . There Commander Edward D. Taussig , Bennington 's commander , under direct orders from President William McKinley claimed the atoll for the United States , despite protests from Germany ( which considered the island group a part of its claim of the Marshall Islands ) . Wake eventually became an important link in the Honolulu – Manila trans @-@ Pacific cable . Bennington later made a stop at San Luis d 'Apra , Guam , from 23 January to 15 February where Commander ( later Rear Admiral ) Taussig accepted the relinquishment of Guam from her Spanish colonial governor . Taussig briefly served as the first naval governor of Guam and established a native ruling council , before continuing on to Manila where Bennington arrived on 22 February .
= = Philippine – American War = =
For a little more than two years after her February 1899 arrival , Bennington served in the Philippine Islands in support of the Army 's campaigns during the Philippine – American War . For the most part , her service in the islands consisted of patrol and escort duty – preventing rebel movement and stopping the importation of arms , as well as seeing American troops and supplies safely between the islands . Occasionally , Bennington did see action . On 10 September , she shelled a fort near Legaspi on the southeastern coast of Luzon . Two days later , she captured and destroyed the insurgent vessel Parao . Between 7 and 9 November , the warship supported an Army landing at San Fabian on the shores of Lingayen Gulf in northwestern Luzon . The gunboat began a four @-@ month assignment as station ship at Cebu on 26 November and concluded that duty on 19 March 1900 .
After visiting Cavite on Luzon , the gunboat headed for Japan on 3 April and underwent repairs there from 9 April to 19 May before heading back to the Philippines . The warship arrived at Cavite on 27 May and resumed patrols on 3 June . She spent another seven months conducting patrols in the Philippines and supporting the Army ’ s operations in the island chain . On 3 January 1901 , she departed Cavite and shaped a course for Hong Kong . The gunboat arrived in that British colony on the 6th and began over six months of repairs . At the completion of that work , she departed Hong Kong on 25 June . After a visit to Shanghai , the warship headed back to the United States in July and arrived at the Mare Island Navy Yard on 19 August . She was decommissioned there on 5 September 1901 .
While she was out of commission at Mare Island , Bennington was refitted . A pilothouse that had been added on top of her bridge and a spotlight platform on her bow – both added in 1893 – 94 – were removed . Bennington 's mainmast was also removed , leaving her as a two @-@ mast rig . In addition , two tall ventilation cowls were added immediately behind the bridge . After 18 months of inactivity , Bennington was recommissioned on 2 March 1903 under the command of Commander Chauncey Thomas .
Over the next 27 months , Bennington cruised in the eastern Pacific along the coasts of North and South America . The warship visited Alaskan ports in the summer of 1903 and the coast of Central America the following fall and winter . In May 1904 , she steamed to Hawaii and then proceeded to the Aleutians in June . The winter of 1904 and 1905 saw her voyage south for visits to Pacific ports in Central and South America . In February 1905 , she departed San Francisco for a two @-@ month cruise to the Hawaiian Islands , returning to San Diego on 19 July , after a difficult 17 @-@ day voyage .
= = Boiler explosion = =
On the morning of 21 July 1905 , Bennington 's crew was preparing her to sail to the aid of the monitor Wyoming which had broken down and was in need of a tow . After her crew had finished the difficult task of coaling the ship that morning , most of them were belowdecks cleaning themselves from the dirty job . Unbeknownst to anyone on board , three problems with one of Bennington 's boilers – oily feed water , an improperly closed steam valve , and a faulty steam gauge – were conspiring against them . At about 10 : 30 , excessive steam pressure in the boiler resulted in a boiler explosion that rocked the ship , sending men and equipment flying into the air . The escaping steam sprayed through the living compartments and decks . The explosion opened Bennington 's hull to the sea , and she began to list to starboard . Quick actions by the tug Santa Fe — taking Bennington under tow and beaching her – almost certainly saved the gunboat from sinking .
The combination of the explosion and the scalding steam killed a number of men outright and left others mortally wounded ; the final death toll was one officer and sixty @-@ five men , making it one of the U.S. Navy 's worst peacetime disasters . Nearly all of the forty @-@ six who survived had an injury of some sort ; eleven of the survivors were awarded the Medal of Honor for " extraordinary heroism displayed at the time of the explosion " . One of the survivors was John Henry Turpin , who had also survived the explosion of Maine in Havana in February 1898 and was , reportedly , the only man to survive both explosions . The sheer number of casualties – the death toll exceeded the U.S. Navy 's death toll for the entirety of the Spanish – American War – overwhelmed San Diego 's medical facilities , and many burn victims had to be cared for in makeshift facilities tended by volunteers .
The number of dead also taxed the morticians in San Diego , who were hard @-@ pressed to prepare all of the victims for burial . On 23 July , two days after the explosion , the majority of those killed were buried in the cemetery at Fort Rosecrans . The victims are commemorated by the USS Bennington Monument , a 60 @-@ foot ( 18 m ) granite obelisk dedicated in the cemetery on 7 January 1908 .
In spite of rumors of misconduct by Bennington 's engineering crewmen , an official investigation concluded that the explosion was not due to negligence on the part of the crew .
= = = List of Medal of Honor recipients from explosion = = =
The eleven men who were awarded the Medal of Honor for " extraordinary heroism displayed at the time of the explosion " were :
Edward William Boers , Seaman
George F. Brock , Carpenter 's Mate Second Class
Raymond E. Davis , Quartermaster Third Class
John J. Clausey , Chief Gunner 's Mate
Willie Cronan , Boatswain 's Mate ( retired as Lieutenant Commander ( O @-@ 4 ) during World War II )
Emil Fredericksen , Watertender
Rade Grbitch , Seaman
Frank E. Hill , Ship 's Cook First Class
Oscar Frederick Nelson , Machinist 's Mate First Class
Otto Diller Schmidt , Seaman
William Sidney Shacklette , Hospital Steward
= = Disposition = =
After the explosion , Bennington was refloated and towed to the Mare Island Navy Yard . Because of the extent of the damages and the age of the ship , Bennington was not repaired but was instead decommissioned on 31 October 1905 . After five years of inactivity , Bennington was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 10 September 1910 and sold for scrap on 14 November . Bennington was not scrapped but was purchased in 1913 by the Matson Line for use as a molasses barge . She was towed to Honolulu and remained in use there from 1913 until 1924 , when she was scuttled off Oahu .
= = Campaigns = =
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= Diamonds Are Forever ( novel ) =
Diamonds Are Forever is the fourth novel by the English author Ian Fleming to feature his fictional British Secret Service agent James Bond . Fleming wrote the story at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica , inspired by a Sunday Times article on diamond smuggling . The book was first published by Jonathan Cape in the United Kingdom on 26 March 1956 .
The story centres on Bond 's investigation of a diamond @-@ smuggling ring originating in the mines of Sierra Leone and ends in Las Vegas . Along the way Bond meets and falls in love with one of the members of the smuggling gang , Tiffany Case . Much of Fleming 's background research formed the basis for his non @-@ fiction 1957 book The Diamond Smugglers . Diamonds Are Forever deals with international travel , marriage and the transitory nature of life .
As with Fleming 's previous novels , Diamonds Are Forever received broadly positive reviews at the time of publication . The story was serialised in the Daily Express newspaper , first in an abridged , multi @-@ part form and then as a comic strip . In 1971 it was adapted into the seventh Bond film in the series and was the last Eon Productions film to star Sean Connery as Bond .
= = Plot = =
The British Secret Service agent James Bond is sent on an assignment by his superior , M. Acting on information received from Special Branch , M tasks Bond with infiltrating a smuggling ring transporting diamonds from mines in the Crown colony of Sierra Leone to the United States . Bond must infiltrate the smugglers ' pipeline to uncover those responsible . Using the identity of " Peter Franks " , a country house burglar turned diamond smuggler , he meets Tiffany Case , an attractive gang member who has developed an antipathy towards men after being gang @-@ raped as a teenager .
Bond discovers that the ring is operated by the Spangled Mob , a ruthless American gang run by the brothers Jack and Seraffimo Spang . He follows the trail from London to New York . To earn his fee for carrying the diamonds he is instructed by a gang member , Shady Tree , to bet on a rigged horse race in nearby Saratoga . There Bond meets Felix Leiter , a former CIA agent working at Pinkertons as a private detective investigating crooked horse racing . Leiter bribes the jockey to ensure the failure of the plot to rig the race , and asks Bond to make the pay @-@ off . When he goes to make the payment , he witnesses two homosexual thugs , Wint and Kidd , attack the jockey .
Bond calls Tree to enquire further about the payment of his fee and is told to go to the Tiara Hotel in Las Vegas . The Tiara is owned by Seraffimo Spang and operates as the headquarters of the Spangled Mob . Spang also owns an old Western ghost town , named Spectreville , restored to be his own private holiday retreat . At the hotel Bond finally receives payment through a rigged blackjack game where the dealer is Tiffany . After winning the money he is owed he disobeys his orders from Tree by continuing to gamble in the casino and wins heavily . Spang suspects that Bond may be a ' plant ' and has him captured and tortured . With Tiffany 's help he escapes from Spectreville aboard a railway push @-@ car with Seraffimo Spang in pursuit aboard an old Western train . Bond changes the points and re @-@ routes the train onto a dead @-@ end , and shoots Spang before the resulting crash . Assisted by Leiter , Bond and Tiffany go via California to New York , where they board the RMS Queen Elizabeth to travel to London , a relationship developing between them as they go . Wint and Kidd observe their embarkation and follow them on board . They kidnap Tiffany , planning to kill her and throw her overboard . Bond rescues her and kills both gangsters ; he makes it look like a murder @-@ suicide .
Tiffany subsequently informs Bond of the details of the pipeline . The story begins in Africa where a dentist bribes miners to smuggle diamonds in their mouths ; he extracts the gems during routine appointments . From there , the dentist takes the diamonds to a rendezvous with a German helicopter pilot . Eventually the diamonds go to Paris and then on to London . There , after telephone instructions from a contact known as ABC , Tiffany meets a person who explains how the diamonds will be smuggled to New York City . After returning to London — where Tiffany moves into Bond 's flat — Bond flies to Freetown in Sierra Leone , and then to the next diamond rendezvous . With the collapse of the rest of the pipeline , Jack Spang ( who turns out to be ABC ) shuts down his diamond @-@ smuggling pipeline by killing its participants . Spang himself is killed when Bond shoots down his helicopter .
= = Background and writing history = =
By mid 1954 the author Ian Fleming had published two novels — Casino Royale ( 1953 ) and Live and Let Die ( 1954 ) — and had a third , Moonraker , being edited and prepared for production . That year he read a story in The Sunday Times about diamond smuggling from Sierra Leone . He considered this story as the possible basis for a new novel and , through an old school friend , he engineered a meeting with Sir Percy Sillitoe , the ex @-@ head of MI5 , then working in a security capacity for the diamond @-@ trading company De Beers . The material Fleming gathered was used in both Diamonds Are Forever and The Diamond Smugglers , a non @-@ fiction book published in 1957 .
After Fleming 's friend , William Stephenson , sent him a magazine article about the spa town of Saratoga Springs , Fleming flew to the US in August 1954 , where he met his friends Ivar Bryce and Ernest Cuneo ; the three travelled to the town in New York State . There , Fleming and Cuneo visited a mud @-@ bath : en route to an up @-@ market establishment they took the wrong directions and ended up at a run @-@ down outlet , which became the inspiration for the Acme Mud and Sulphur Baths scene in the book . Fleming met the rich socialite , William Woodward , Jr . , who drove a Studillac — a Studebaker with a powerful Cadillac engine . According to Henry Chancellor , " the speed and comfort of it impressed Ian , and he shamelessly appropriated this car " for the book . Woodward was killed by his wife shortly afterwards — she claimed she mistook him for a prowler — and when Diamonds Are Forever was published , it was dedicated to Bryce , Cuneo and " the memory of W. W. Jr . , at Saratoga , 1954 and 55 " .
Fleming also travelled to Los Angeles with Cuneo , visiting the Los Angeles Police Intelligence headquarters , where they met Captain James Hamilton , who provided Fleming with information on the Mafia organisation in the US . From Los Angeles Fleming travelled to Las Vegas , where he stayed at the Sands Hotel ; he interviewed the hotel owner , Jack Entratter , where he learnt the background to the security systems and methods of cheating that he used in the novel .
Fleming wrote Diamonds Are Forever at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica in January and February 1955 . He followed his usual practice , which he later outlined in Books and Bookmen magazine , in which he said : " I write for about three hours in the morning ... and I do another hour 's work between six and seven in the evening . I never correct anything and I never go back to see what I have written ... By following my formula , you write 2 @,@ 000 words a day . " On completion Fleming wrote to his friend Hilary Bray :
I baked a fresh cake in Jamaica this year which I think has finally exhausted my inventiveness as it contains every single method of escape and every variety of suspenseful action that I had omitted from my previous books — in fact everything except the kitchen sink , and if you can think up a good plot involving kitchen sinks , please send it along speedily .
He returned to London with the completed 183 @-@ page typescript in March that year ; he had earlier settled on a title , which he based on an advertisement slogan " A Diamond is Forever " in the American edition of Vogue .
Although Fleming provides no dates within his novels , John Griswold and Henry Chancellor — both of whom have written books on behalf of Ian Fleming Publications — have identified different timelines based on events and situations within the novel series as a whole . Chancellor put the events of Diamonds Are Forever in 1954 ; Griswold is more precise , and considers the story to have taken place in July and August 1953 .
= = Development = =
= = = Plot inspirations = = =
Fleming had previously travelled to the US on the RMS Queen Elizabeth ; the experience provided background information for the final four chapters of the novel . His trip had included a railway journey on the Super Chief , during which he and Cuneo had visited the cab to meet the driver and engineer , and an excursion on the 20th Century Limited , both of which gave information Fleming used for Spang 's train , the Cannonball . Fleming had a long @-@ standing interest in trains and following his involvement in a near @-@ fatal crash associated them with danger . In addition to Diamonds Are Forever , he used them in Live and Let Die , From Russia , with Love and The Man with the Golden Gun .
As with several others of his works , Fleming appropriated the names of people he knew for the story 's characters . The name of one of Fleming 's two travelling companions from the US , Ernest Cuneo , was used as Ernie Cureo , Bond 's taxi @-@ driving ally in Las Vegas , and one of the homosexual villains , " Boofy " Kidd , was named after one of Fleming 's close friends — and a relative of his wife — Arthur Gore , 8th Earl of Arran , known to his friends as " Boofy " . Arran , an advocate of the relaxation of the British laws relating to homosexuality , heard about the use of his name before publication and complained to Fleming about it , but was ignored and the name was retained for the novel . During his trip to America Fleming had come across the name Spang — old German for " maker of shoe buckles " — which he appropriated for the villainous brothers .
= = = Characters = = =
The writer Jonathan Kellerman 's introduction to the 2006 edition of Diamonds Are Forever describes Bond as a " surprisingly ... complex " character who , in contrast with the cinematic representation , is " nothing other than human . ... Fleming 's Bond makes mistakes and pays for them . He feels pain and regret . " The novelist Raymond Benson — who later wrote a series of Bond novels — writes that the character develops in Diamonds Are Forever , building on Fleming 's characterisation in his previous three novels . This growth arises through Bond 's burgeoning relationship with the book 's main female character , Tiffany Case . He falls in love ; the first time he has done so since Vesper Lynd in Casino Royale . According to Benson , Tiffany is portrayed as tough , but lonely and insecure , and " is Fleming 's first fully developed female character . " The cultural historians Janet Woollacott and Tony Bennett write that many of the main female characters in Fleming 's novels are uncommon , and Tiffany — along with Pussy Galore from Goldfinger and Honeychile Rider from Dr. No — has been " damaged ... sexually " having previously been raped . The effect of the trauma has led to Tiffany working for the villain , which allows Bond to complete his mission , and align her to a more honest lifestyle .
The literary analyst LeRoy L. Panek observes that Diamonds Are Forever along with Goldfinger and The Man with the Golden Gun have gangsters as antagonists rather than as spies ; the novel is the only one in the Bond canon without a connection to the Cold War . Panek , comparing the gangsters to Bond 's normal adversaries , identifies them as " merely incompetent gunsels " when compared with the British agent , who can eliminate them with relative ease . The essayist Umberto Eco sees the Spangs as being a forerunner of the SPECTRE organisation Fleming uses in his later novels . Kingsley Amis , who later wrote a Bond novel , considered that there was " no decent villain " , while Eco judges three of the villains — the two Spang brothers and Winter — as physically abnormal , as many of Bond 's adversaries are . Anthony Synnott , in his examination of aesthetics in the Bond novels , also considers that the gangster Michael " Shady " Tree fits into the abnormal category , as he is a red @-@ haired hunchback with " a pair of china eyes that were so empty and motionless that they might have been hired by a taxidermist " .
= = Style = =
Diamonds Are Forever opens with a passage in which a scorpion hunts and eats its prey , and is subsequently killed by one of the diamond couriers . Eco sees this " cleverly presented " beginning as similar to the opening of a film , remarking that " Fleming abounds in such passages of high technical skill " . When the writer William Plomer was proof @-@ reading the manuscript he saw literary merit , and wrote to Fleming that the passages relating to the racing stables at Saratoga were " the work of a serious writer " . Kellerman considers that " Fleming 's depiction of Las Vegas in the ' 50s is wickedly spot on and one of the finest renditions of time and place in contemporary crime fiction . The story is robust and complex . "
Fleming used well @-@ known brand names and everyday details to produce a sense of realism , which Amis called " the Fleming effect " . Amis describes " the imaginative use of information , whereby the pervading fantastic nature of Bond 's world ... [ is ] bolted down to some sort of reality , or at least counter @-@ balanced . " Benson considers that in Diamonds Are Forever the use of detail is " rich and flamboyant " which allows an " interesting and amusing " description of the US . Benson considers a weakness of the book to be a lack of structural development , although this is compensated by character development ; Kellerman also believes the novel to be " rich in characterization " .
Benson analyses Fleming 's writing style and identifies what he describes as the " Fleming Sweep " : a stylistic point that sweeps the reader from one chapter to another using ' hooks ' at the end of chapters to heighten tension and pull the reader into the next : Benson feels that the sweep in Diamonds Are Forever was " at full force " in the novel , which " maintain [ s ] a constant level of excitement " as a result .
= = Themes = =
According to Benson the main theme of Diamonds Are Forever is expressed in the title , with the permanency of the gemstones held in contrast to other aspects of the story , particularly love and life . Towards the end of the novel Fleming uses the lines " Death is forever . But so are diamonds " , and Benson sees the gems as a metaphor for death and Bond as the " messenger of death " .
The journalist and author Christopher Hitchens observes that " the central paradox of the classic Bond stories is that , although superficially devoted to the Anglo @-@ American war against communism , they are full of contempt and resentment for America and Americans " ; Benson sees that Diamonds Are Forever contains examples of Fleming 's feelings of superiority towards American culture , including his description of the sleaziness of Las Vegas . Amis , in his exploration of Bond in The James Bond Dossier , pointed out that Leiter is
... such a nonentity as a piece of characterization ... he , the American , takes orders from Bond , the Britisher , and that Bond is constantly doing better than he , showing himself , not braver or more devoted , but smarter , wittier , tougher , more resourceful , the incarnation of little old England .
The cultural historian Jeremy Black points to the theme of international travel in Diamonds Are Forever , which was still a novelty to most people in Britain at the time . This travel between a number of a locations exacerbates one of the problems identified by Black : that there was no centre to the story . In contrast to the other novels in the Bond canon , where Casino Royale had Royale , From Russia , with Love had Istanbul and Dr. No had Jamaica , Diamonds Are Forever had multiple locations and two villains and there was " no megalomaniac fervour , no weird self @-@ obsession , at the dark centre of the plot " .
According to Fleming 's biographer , Andrew Lycett , after the novel was completed , Fleming added four extra chapters " almost as an afterthought " , detailing the events on the Queen Elizabeth . This introduced the question of marriage , and allowed Fleming to discuss matrimony through his characters , with Bond telling case " Most marriages don 't add two people together . They subtract one from the other . " Lycett opines that the addition was because of the state of Fleming 's own marriage which was going through a bad time .
= = Publication and reception = =
= = = Publication history = = =
Diamonds Are Forever was published on 26 March 1956 by Jonathan Cape with a cover designed by Pat Marriott . As with the three previous Bond books , the first edition of 12 @,@ 500 copies sold out quickly ; the US edition was published in October 1956 by Macmillan . The novel was serialised in The Daily Express newspaper from 12 April 1956 onwards — the first of Fleming 's novels he had sold to the newspaper — which led to an overall rise in the sales of the novels . From November 1956 sales of Diamonds Are Forever , and Fleming 's other novels , all rose following the visit of the Prime Minister , Sir Anthony Eden , to Fleming 's Goldeneye estate to recuperate following the Suez Crisis ; Eden 's stay was much reported in the British press . The book received boosts in sales in 1962 when Eon Productions adapted Dr. No for the cinema , and in 1971 when Diamonds Are Forever was produced for the big screen . In February 1958 Pan Books published a paperback version of the novel in the UK , which sold 68 @,@ 000 copies before the end of the year . Since its initial publication the book has been issued in numerous hardback and paperback editions , translated into several languages and has never been out of print .
= = = Reception = = =
Julian Symons , reviewing Diamonds Are Forever in The Times Literary Supplement , thought that Fleming had some enviable qualities as a writer , including " a fine eye for places ... an ability to convey his own interest in the mechanics of gambling and an air of knowledgeableness " . Symons also saw defects in Fleming 's style , including " his inability to write convincing dialogue " . For Symons , the novel was Fleming 's " weakest book , a heavily padded story about diamond smuggling " , where " the exciting passages are few " .
Milward Kennedy of the The Manchester Guardian , thought that Fleming was " determined to be as tough as Chandler , if a little less lifelike " , while Maurice Richardson , in The Observer , considered Bond " one of the most cunningly synthesised heroes in crime @-@ fiction " . Richardson wrote how " Fleming 's method is worth noting , and recommending : he does not start indulging in his wilder fantasies until he has laid down a foundation of factual description . " Elements of a review by Raymond Chandler for The Sunday Times were used as advertising for the novel ; Chandler wrote that it was " about the nicest piece of book @-@ making in this type of literature which I have seen for a long time ... Mr. Fleming writes a journalistic style , neat , clean , spare and never pretentious " .
Writing in The New York Times , Anthony Boucher — described by Fleming 's biographer John Pearson as " throughout an avid anti @-@ Bond and an anti @-@ Fleming man " — was mixed in his review , thinking that " Mr. Fleming 's handling of American and Americans is well above the British average " , although he felt that " the narrative is loose @-@ jointed and weakly resolved " , while Bond resolves his assignments " more by muscles and luck than by any sign of operative intelligence " .
= = Adaptations = =
Diamonds Are Forever was adapted as a daily comic strip for the Daily Express newspaper , and syndicated around the world . The original adaptation ran from 10 August 1959 to 30 January 1960 . The strip was written by Henry Gammidge and illustrated by John McLusky .
The novel was loosely adapted in a 1971 film starring Sean Connery and directed by Guy Hamilton . Diamonds Are Forever was the final Bond film undertaken by Sean Connery with Eon Productions , although he returned to the role of Bond twelve years later with Kevin McClory 's Taliafilm company for Never Say Never Again .
In July 2015 Diamonds Are Forever was broadcast on BBC Radio 4 , starring Toby Stephens as Bond ; it was directed by Martin Jarvis .
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= New York State Route 75 =
New York State Route 75 ( NY 75 ) is a north – south state highway in Erie County , New York , in the United States . It extends for 20 @.@ 85 miles ( 33 @.@ 55 km ) from an intersection with NY 39 in the Collins hamlet of Collins Center to an interchange with NY 5 in the town of Hamburg . The route passes through the village of Hamburg , which serves as the northern terminus of a 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) overlap between U.S. Route 62 ( US 62 ) and NY 75 . Past Hamburg , NY 75 connects to the New York State Thruway ( Interstate 90 or I @-@ 90 ) northwest of the village before ending a short distance from Lake Erie . The portion of NY 75 south of Hamburg is a two @-@ lane rural highway ; in contrast , the section north of the village is four lanes wide and serves commercial and residential areas .
The origins of NY 75 date back to 1930 when New York State Route 62 was assigned to an alignment extending from Great Valley to Buffalo via Hamburg and Athol Springs . NY 62 was renumbered to NY 75 c . 1932 to eliminate numerical duplication with US 62 , and the route was truncated to end in Hamburg in the late 1930s after most of it became part of US 219 . The section of modern NY 75 south of Hamburg was initially New York State Route 18A , an alternate route of then @-@ NY 18 through Collins and Eden . NY 18 was truncated c . 1962 to begin in Niagara County , at which time NY 18A became part of NY 75 .
= = Route description = =
NY 75 begins at an intersection with NY 39 in Collins Center , a small hamlet in the town of Collins . It initially heads northeastward as the two @-@ lane Sisson Highway , serving a handful of homes on the northern edge of the community prior to entering an open area dominated by farmland . About 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) from NY 39 , the road curves northward , taking on a due north alignment as it heads across the rolling terrain that comprises most of northern Collins . The highway serves just one community , the hamlet of Whites Corners , on its way into the adjacent town of North Collins . Here , development along NY 75 remains limited at first , consisting of only a handful of isolated farms situated among fields or one of several forested areas . It quickly passes through Marshfield , located just past the town line , on its way toward Langford . A brief stretch of homes begins about 3 miles ( 5 km ) into the town as the route enters Langford , located 5 @.@ 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) north of Collins Center .
In the center of the community , NY 75 intersects Langford Road , designated as NY 249 west of the junction and County Route 39 ( CR 39 ) east of NY 75 . Past NY 249 , the route exits Langford and heads across another stretch of fields and farms toward the Eden town line . NY 75 breaks from its due north routing just south of it , taking on a more westerly heading to avoid a valley surrounding the south branch of Eighteenmile Creek . It ultimately enters the valley , however , winding its way northward down the depression 's southwestern side to reach the creek floor . From here , NY 75 follows the base of the valley to the northwest for 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) , serving a handful of homes situated along the forested creekside . The route eventually climbs out of the gully and heads due north for a short distance across more fields to a junction with US 62 .
At this point , NY 75 turns northeastward , overlapping with US 62 into the nearby town of Hamburg along Gowanda State Road . Development along the highway quickly rises in density from a large farm and a pocket of homes at the start of the concurrency to a series of residential streets across the town line that make up the hamlet of Water Valley . The influx of homes brings US 62 and NY 75 across the main channel of Eighteenmile Creek and into the village of Hamburg , where the highway changes names to Pierce Avenue . The two routes remain concurrent for three blocks to an intersection with Lake Avenue , where Pierce Avenue becomes Main Street . While US 62 continues east into Hamburg 's central business district on Main Street , NY 75 follows Lake Street northward along the mostly residential western edge of the village .
Outside of the village , NY 75 becomes Camp Road and begins to parallel the Buffalo Southern Railroad , separated from NY 75 by only a row of homes and businesses . While on this stretch , the highway widens from two to four lanes . After 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) , the route makes a turn to the northwest , passing under the railroad and entering the southeastern portion of a commercial strip that follows NY 75 for 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 90 ) exit 57 . It continues past the Thruway for another 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) before ceasing at a junction with US 20 . Continuing on , the highway remains four lanes wide but serves primarily residential areas located in and around Athol Springs , a hamlet on the shores of Lake Erie .
Just outside Athol Springs , NY 75 passes under two railroad bridges , carrying the Norfolk Southern Railway @-@ owned Lake Erie District line and the CSX Transportation @-@ owned Lake Shore Subdivision line over the highway . On the other side of the overpasses , NY 75 curves northeastward as it becomes Saint Francis Drive , leaving Camp Road to continue northwestward to the lake as a two @-@ lane street . The route continues on , passing south of Saint Francis High School before ending shortly afterward at a partial interchange with NY 5 . NY 75 northbound merges directly into NY 5 eastbound , a limited @-@ access highway , while NY 75 southbound begins as an offshoot of NY 5 westbound . The remaining connections are made by way of a loop road leading from Big Tree Road , which NY 5 and NY 75 both intersect just south of the interchange .
= = History = =
All of what is now NY 75 was state @-@ maintained by 1926 . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , the portion of modern NY 75 north of the village of Hamburg was designated as part of NY 62 , a highway extending from Great Valley north to Buffalo . The section between Collins Center and Eden gained a designation c . 1931 when it became part of NY 18A , an alternate route of then @-@ NY 18 between Collins and Eden . NY 18A overlapped with NY 39 between the hamlets of Collins ( where NY 18A began at NY 18 ) and Collins Center , from where the route followed Sisson Highway north to rejoin NY 18 in Eden . US 62 was extended into New York c . 1932 . As a result , the portion of NY 62 south of the hamlet of Athol Springs was renumbered to NY 75 to eliminate numerical duplication with the new U.S. Highway . The remainder of old NY 62 became part of an extended NY 5 .
When US 219 was extended into New York c . 1935 , it was overlaid on the pre @-@ existing NY 75 from Great Valley to Hamburg , creating a lengthy overlap with the route . The overlap was eliminated in the late 1930s when NY 75 was truncated on its southern end to the village of Hamburg . Similarly , NY 18A was truncated to Collins Center on its southern end in the 1950s , eliminating its overlap with NY 39 . NY 18 continued to extend south of Niagara County until c . 1962 when it was truncated to begin 35 miles ( 56 km ) north of Hamburg in Lewiston . NY 18A , now separated from its parent route , became an extension of NY 75 , which connected to NY 18A 's former routing by way of an overlap with US 62 between Hamburg and Eden .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Erie County .
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= Hayden Epstein =
Hayden Scott Epstein ( born November 16 , 1980 ) is a former American football placekicker and punter who played college football for the Michigan Wolverines from 1998 to 2001 and played professional football in the National Football League ( NFL ) , NFL Europa , and the Canadian Football League ( CFL ) .
Epstein attended Torrey Pines High School in San Diego , California . He kicked a 58 @-@ yard field goal in the 1997 California Interscholastic Federation ( CIF ) championship game and was rated by various ratings agencies and all @-@ star selection committees as the best kicker in the national high school class of 1998 .
As a senior , Epstein led the 2001 Michigan Wolverines in scoring and was selected by conference coaches as a second @-@ team selection on the All @-@ Big Ten team as a placekicker . He tied a Michigan record with a 56 @-@ yard field goal in 1999 and broke it with a 57 @-@ yard field goal in 2001 , both against Michigan State . He played for two Michigan teams that won Big Ten Conference championships .
He was selected by the Jacksonville Jaguars in the seventh round of the 2002 NFL draft . He also played for the Minnesota Vikings , Berlin Thunder , Edmonton Eskimos and Rhein Fire . He played for a Thunder team that won a World Bowl championship .
= = Early life = =
Epstein , who is Jewish , was born in San Diego , California . He was a Parade All @-@ American at Torrey Pines High School and honored as the top kicker in the nation by Prep Football Report and PrepStar College Recruiting . In the 1997 CIF Championship game , he kicked a 58 @-@ yard field goal . Epstein 's 1997 kick was a San Diego section CIF record ( tied with Nate Tandberg 's 1995 kick ) until David Quintero posted a 59 @-@ yard kick on September 11 , 2015 . He participated in the July 25 , 1998 47th Annual Shrine All @-@ Star Football Classic of California All @-@ stars against Texas All @-@ stars , but missed two early field goal attempts in a 10 – 5 victory .
= = University of Michigan = =
Epstein enrolled at the University of Michigan in 1998 and played college football as a placekicker and punter for head coach Lloyd Carr 's Michigan Wolverines football teams from 1998 to 2001 . He was successful on 26 of 42 field goals and 85 of 88 extra point attempts . Epstein also averaged 39 @.@ 9 yards on 167 punts ( 50 of which were downed inside the 20 yard line ) at Michigan . He was a two @-@ time finalist for both the Lou Groza and Ray Guy Awards at Michigan , according to some sources , but the University of Michigan seems to only recognize him as Guy Award finalist as a junior in 2000 .
Epstein 's freshman season for the 1998 Wolverines was the redshirt 5th year senior season for Michigan placekicker Jay Feely . His only point of the season was a PAT against Eastern Michigan on September 19 . Of Epstein 's 10 career tackles , his only 2 @-@ tackle performance came against Minnesota in the October 31 battle for the Little Brown Jug . Epstein performed punting duties for the team in its final two games against Hawaii and Arkansas ( in the 1999 Florida Citrus Bowl ) , landing 6 of his 9 punts inside the 20 yard line and averaging 40 @.@ 1 yards per punt . Michigan finished the season as Big Ten Co @-@ champions with Ohio State and Wisconsin .
Jeff Del Verne kicked field goals for the 1999 Wolverines early in the season . In fact , Del Verne led the team in scoring after 5 games . However , on October 9 ( in the team 's sixth game ) , Epstein tied Mike Gillette 's November 19 , 1988 Michigan record for longest field goal with a 56 @-@ yard kick against Michigan State in the Michigan – Michigan State football rivalry game . The kick was the longest ever by a Michigan State opponent at the time . It was the first successful field goal of Epstein 's Michigan career ( following two previous misses ) . On October 30 , 1999 , his 20 @-@ yard field goal with 18 seconds remaining clinched a 34 – 31 victory over Indiana for Michigan . That day would be Epstein 's highest scoring day as a Wolverine ( 2 – 2 FGs and 4 – 4 in PATs ) . The game marked the first time that he handled the placekicking , kickoff and punting responsibilities . Of his seven kickoffs 3 were touchbacks and 3 more were covered inside the 20 . Epstein punted six times , resulting in his first 50 @-@ yard punt and 2 punts landing inside the 20 yard line . For his efforts , he earned his first Big Ten Special Teams Player of the Week award . Epstein was the first player to handle placekicking , kickoff and punting responsibilities for Michigan since Mike Gillette in 1988 . In overtime in the January 1 , 2000 Orange Bowl against Alabama , his PAT provided the margin of victory ( after he missed a 36 @-@ yard field goal at the end of regulation time ) . Epstein finished the season with 36 points ( 5 – 8 FGs and 21 – 22 PATs ) and 32 punts for 1282 yards ( 40 @.@ 1 average / 7 inside 20 ) .
In 2000 , Epstein and Del Verne split kicking duties ( sometimes in the same game ) . On September 16 , 2000 , Epstein missed a 24 @-@ yard field goal for the 2000 team with 3 : 24 remaining against to UCLA . Although Michigan got back within field goal range , John Navarre was intercepted on the 15 @-@ yard line and the team lost 23 – 20 . In that game , Epstein , who totalled 400 punt yards on 9 attempts , had landed what would become his career high 5 punts inside UCLA 's 20 @-@ yard line and executed his first career 60 @-@ yard punt . On October 14 , he executed a 67 @-@ yard punt that was downed inside the 20 @-@ yard line and became his career long against Indiana . On November 4 , Epstein was thwarted on an attempt to tie the game at the end of regulation when a 57 @-@ yard field goal attempt went through the hands of his holder against Northwestern in a 54 – 51 loss after Northwestern scored a go @-@ ahead touchdown with 20 seconds left . Earlier in the game , he had completed a 6 @-@ yard forward pass and a 52 @-@ yard field goal . On November 18 against Ohio State in the Michigan – Ohio State football rivalry game , Epstein scored 8 points ( a 25 @-@ yard field goal and 5 PATs ) . He dropped 3 of his 6 punts inside the 20 yard line and posted a touchback when kicking off to Ohio State with 1 : 18 remaining to force them to attempt to drive from their own 20 . He earned his second Big Ten Special Teams Player of the Week recognition . Epstein finished the season with 50 points ( 8 – 14 FGs and 26 – 28 PATs ) and 55 punts for 2224 yards ( 40 @.@ 4 average / 19 inside 20 ) . He earned All @-@ Big Ten Conference honorable mention honors by both the coaches and media as a punter and placekicker . Epstein was one of 10 finalists for the inaugural Ray Guy Award . Michigan finished the season as Big Ten Co @-@ champions with Purdue and Northwestern .
When Epstein 's field goal attempt for the 2001 Wolverines was blocked on September 8 with 9 : 11 remaining against Washington and run back for a touchdown , it gave the Huskies a lead that they would not relinquish on the way to a 23 – 18 game . Epstein made a 51 @-@ yard field goal against Iowa on October 27 to give Michigan a 6 @-@ point lead with 3 : 57 remaining . The 32 – 26 score held up . He posted a school record 57 @-@ yard field goal against Michigan State in the November 3 , 2001 Michigan – Michigan State football rivalry game known as Clockgate . However , later in the game , Epstein 's short punt and two Michigan penalties , made way for Michigan State 's controversial game @-@ winning drive . He made the game @-@ winning 31 @-@ yard field goal against the Wisconsin on November 17 , 2001 with 10 seconds left . Epstein set up the field goal when his punt bounced off of Badger Brett Bell and was recovered by Brandon Williams with 14 seconds left . In the game 3 of his 8 punts were downed inside the 20 yard line , including a 48 @-@ yarder that was downed on the 1 @-@ yard @-@ line to set up Michigan 's first score . 3 of his 5 kickoffs were touchbacks and a fourth one into the end zone was just returned 15 yards . Epstein 's performance earned him Big Ten Special Teams Player of the Week recognition and his 8 points ( 2 FGs and 2 PATs ) gave him the team scoring lead with 69 points . He finished the season with 76 points ( 13 – 20 FGs and 37 – 37 PATs ) and 71 punts for 2790 yards ( 39 @.@ 3 average / 17 inside 20 ) . Epstein 's single @-@ season punt yardage total was a school record that was surpassed the following season by Adam Finley . His 76 points just edged out B. J. Askew 's 72 points and Marquise Walker 's 68 points . Epstein earned All @-@ Big Ten Conference second team honors as a placekicker from the coaches and honorable mention honors by both the coaches and media as a punter . He concluded his career by making 2 field goals in the January 26 , 2002 Senior Bowl .
= = Professional career = =
Epstein was drafted by the Jacksonville Jaguars in the 2002 NFL Draft and played in six games with the Jaguars in the 2002 NFL season before being picked up off waivers by the Minnesota Vikings on October 23 , 2002 , where he was a kickoff specialist for the remainder of the season . Epstein tore his anterior cruciate ligament with one week remaining in the 2002 season and had offseason surgery . Despite being reactivated during the 2003 preseason , he was released before the 2003 season . 43 @-@ year @-@ old Gary Anderson performed the PATs and field goals for the 2002 Vikings . Anderson , had been brought out of retirement during the season to contribute to the Vikings ' special teams efforts as Doug Brien faltered . Epstein replaced Brien . As a Jaguar , Epstein made 5 out of 9 field goals ( with a long of 34 yards ) and 13 PATs . He was 0 – 4 on field goals of 39 yards or longer . Of his 72 career kickoffs , 10 of them were touchbacks and his average distance was 61 @.@ 7 yards . After Epstein was released , the Jaguars continued to have troubles as his successor Tim Seder was cut five games later . 8 of Epstein 's 28 career points came in a 28 – 25 October 6 , 2002 Jacksonville victory over Philadelphia . He was 2 @-@ for @-@ 2 on both field goals and PATs .
The Denver Broncos signed Epstein in February 2004 and assigned him to the Berlin Thunder of NFL Europe . He was released in September 2004 . He was the punter and performed kickoffs for the World Bowl XII champion 2004 Thunder team , although Jonathan Ruffin performed field goal attempts for them .
The Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League signed Epstein during the 2005 CFL season . He appeared in four regular season games for Edmonton , made 8 of 12 field goal attempts and punted 16 times for an average of 41 yards ( 37 m ) but that record and especially a blocked kick on September 18 , his final game for the Eskimos , resulted in his release on September 29 . Edmonton would go on to win the 93rd Grey Cup . The Houston Texans signed him in January 2006 and assigned him to the Rhein Fire of NFL Europe . He was released in May 2006 . On February 6 , 2008 , Hayden Epstein signed back on with the Edmonton Eskimos of the CFL , but he was released again on April 28 .
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= Cape Verde at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
Cape Verde competed at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China . Their participation marked their fourth Olympic appearance . Two Cape Verdeans competed in the Olympic games : Nelson Cruz participated as a marathon runner , and Wania Monteiro participated in gymnastics . Another athlete , Lenira Santos , was selected to compete in athletics but was forced to pull out due to injury . Monteiro was selected as the flag bearer for both the opening and closing ceremonies . Neither of the Cape Verdeans progressed beyond the first round .
= = Background = =
Cape Verde had participated in three previous Summer Olympics , between its debut in the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta , United States and the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . At their debut , the country sent three athletes to the games , all in athletics . The most number of Cape Verde athletes participating in a summer games , is three in 1996 , 2004 and 2012 . No Cape Verde athlete has ever progressed out of the first round . Two athletes from Cape Verde were selected to compete in the 2008 games ; Nelson Cruz in the men 's marathon and Wania Monteiro in the women 's all @-@ round gymnastics .
= = Athletics = =
Cape Verde was represented by one athlete at the 2008 Olympics in athletics . This person was Nelson Cruz a marathon runner . It was Cruz 's Olympic debut but he had competed in two IAAF World Championships , in 2005 and in 2007 . He competed on the 24 August in Beijing , and finished 48th out of 95 in a time of 2 hours , 23 minutes and 47 seconds , more than 17 minutes behind the winner , Samuel Kamau Wanjiru .
= = Gymnastics = =
= = = Rhythmic = = =
In the sport of rhythmic gymnastics , Cape Verde was represented by Wania Monteiro , who competed in the individual all @-@ round . The Beijing Olympics was Monteiro second Olympic Games after competing in the individual all @-@ round in 2004 . In 2008 Montero finished last in the qualifying round , with a score of 49 @.@ 050 points .
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= Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus =
The Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus ( Greek : Αὐτόνομος Δημοκρατία τῆς Βορείου Ἠπείρου , Aftónomos Dimokratía tis Voreíou Ipeírou ) was a short @-@ lived , self @-@ governing entity founded in the aftermath of the Balkan Wars on February 28 , 1914 by Greeks living in southern Albania ( Northern Epirotes ) .
The area , known as Northern Epirus ( Βόρειος Ήπειρος ) to Greeks and with a substantial Greek population , was taken by the Greek Army from the Ottoman Empire during the First Balkan War ( 1912 – 1913 ) . The Protocol of Florence however , had assigned it to the newly established Albanian state . This decision was rejected by the local Greeks , and as the Greek army withdrew to the new border , an autonomous government was set up at Argyrokastron ( Greek : Αργυρόκαστρον , today Gjirokastër ) , under the leadership of Georgios Christakis @-@ Zografos , a distinguished local Greek politician and former Minister of Foreign Affairs , and with tacit support from Greece .
In May , the autonomy was confirmed by the Great Powers with the Protocol of Corfu . The agreement ensured that the region would have its own administration , recognized the rights of the local population and provided for self @-@ government under nominal Albanian sovereignty . However , it was never implemented because in August the Albanian government collapsed . The Greek Army reoccupied the area in October 1914 following the outbreak of World War I. It was planned that Northern Epirus would be ceded to Greece following the war , but withdrawal of Italian support and Greece 's defeat in the Asia Minor Campaign resulted in its final cession to Albania in November 1921 .
= = Background = =
= = = Northern Epirus and the Balkan Wars = = =
In March 1913 , during the First Balkan War , the Greek Army entered Ioannina after breaching the Ottoman fortifications at Bizani , and soon afterwards advanced further north . Himarë had already been under Greek control since 5 November 1912 , after a local Himariote , Gendarmerie Major Spyros Spyromilios , led a successful uprising that met no initial resistance . By the end of the war , Greek armed forces controlled most of the historical region of Epirus , from the Ceraunian mountains along the Ionian coast to Lake Prespa in the east .
At the same time , the Albanian independence movement gathered momentum . On 28 November 1912 in Vlorë , Ismail Qemali declared Albania 's independence , and a provisional government was soon formed that exercised its authority only in the immediate area of Vlorë . Elsewhere , the Ottoman general Essad Pasha formed the Republic of Central Albania at Durrës , while conservative Albanian tribesmen still hoped for an Ottoman ruler . Most of the area that would form the Albanian state was occupied at this time , by the Greeks in the south and the Serbs in the north .
The last Ottoman census , conducted in 1908 , counted 128 @,@ 000 Orthodox Christians and 95 @,@ 000 Muslims in the region . Of the Orthodox population , an estimated 30 @,@ 000 to 47 @,@ 000 spoke Greek exclusively . The rest of the Orthodox community spoke an Albanian patois at home , but was literate only in Greek , which was used in cultural , trading and economic activities . Moreover , they expressed a strong pro @-@ Greek feeling , and were the first to support the following breakaway autonomist movement . Considering these conditions , loyalty in Northern Epirus to an Albanian government competing in an anarchy , whose leaders were mostly Muslim , could not be guaranteed .
= = = Delineation of the Greek – Albanian border = = =
The concept of an independent Albanian state was supported by the Great European Powers , particularly Austro @-@ Hungary and Italy . Both powers were seeking to control Albania , which , in the words of Italian Foreign Minister Tommaso Tittoni , would give whichever managed this " incontestable supremacy in the Adriatic " . The Serbian possession of Shkodër and the possibility of the Greek border running a few miles south of Vlore was therefore strongly resisted by these states .
In September 1913 , an International Commission of the European Powers convened to determine the boundary between Greece and Albania . The delegates of the commission aligned themselves into two camps : those of Italy and Austro @-@ Hungary insisted that the Northern Epirus districts were Albanian , while those of the Triple Entente ( the United Kingdom , France , and Russia ) took the view that although the older generations in some villages spoke Albanian , the younger generation was Greek in intellectual outlook , sentiment , and aspirations . Under Italian and Austro @-@ Hungarian pressure , the commission determined that the region of Northern Epirus would be ceded to Albania .
= = = Protocol of Florence = = =
With the delineation of the exact boundaries of the new state , the region of Northern Epirus was awarded to Albania under the terms of the Protocol of Florence , signed on 17 December 1913 . On 21 February 1914 , the ambassadors of the Great Powers delivered a note to the Greek government asking for the Greek army 's evacuation of the area . Greek Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos acceded to this in hopes of a favorable solution to Greece 's other outstanding problem : the recognition of Greek sovereignty over the islands of the North Eastern Aegean .
= = Reactions = =
= = = Declaration of Independence = = =
This turn of events was highly unpopular among the pro @-@ Greek party in the area . The pro @-@ Greek Epirotes felt betrayed by the Greek government , which had done nothing to support them with firearms . Additionally , the gradual withdrawal of the Greek army would enable Albanian forces to take control of the region . To avert this possibility , the Epirotes decided to declare their own separate political identity and self @-@ governance . Georgios Christakis @-@ Zografos , a distinguished Epirote statesman from Lunxhëri ( gr . Lioúntzi ) and former Greek foreign minister , took the initiative and discussed the situation with local representatives in a " Panepirotic Council " . Consequently , on 28 February 1914 , the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus was declared in Gjirokastër ( gr . Argyrókastron ) and a provisional government , with Christakis @-@ Zografos as president , formed to support the state 's objectives . In his speech on 2 March , Christakis @-@ Zografos stated that the aspirations of the Northern Epirotes had been totally ignored , and that the Great Powers had not only rejected their becoming autonomous within the Albanian state but also refused to give guarantees regarding their fundamental human rights . Zografos concluded his speech by stating that the Northern Epirotes would not accept the destiny the Powers had imposed upon them :
The flag of the new state was a variant of the Greek national flag , consisting of a white cross centered upon the blue background surmounted by the imperial Byzantine eagle in black .
In the following days , Alexandros Karapanos , Zografos ' nephew and a MP for Arta , was installed as foreign minister . Colonel Dimitrios Doulis , a local from Nivice , resigned from his post in the Greek army and joined the provisional government as minister of military affairs . Within a few days , he managed to mobilize an army consisting of more than 5 @,@ 000 volunteer troops . The local bishop , Vasileios of Dryinoupolis , took office as minister of Religion and Justice . A number of officers of Epirote origin ( not exceeding 30 ) , as well as ordinary soldiers , deserted their positions in the Greek Army and joined the revolutionaries . Soon , armed groups , such as the " Sacred Band " or Spyromilios ' men around Himarë ( gr . Himárra ) , were formed in order to repel any incursion into the territory claimed by the autonomous government . The first districts to join the autonomist movement outside of Gjirokastër were Himarë , Sarandë and Përmet .
= = = Greece ’ s reaction and evacuation = = =
The Greek government was reluctant to overtly support the uprising . Military and political officials continued to carry out a slow evacuation process , which had begun in March and ended on 28 April . Resistance was officially discouraged , and assurances were given that the Great Powers and the International Control Commission ( an organization founded by the Great Powers in order to secure peace and stability in the area ) would guarantee their rights . Following the declaration in Gjirokastër , Zografos sent messages to local representatives in Korçë ( gr . Korytsá ) asking them to join the movement ; however , the Greek military commander of the city , Colonel Alexandros Kontoulis , followed his official orders strictly and declared martial law , threatening to shoot any citizen raising the Northern Epirote flag . When the local bishop of Kolonjë ( gr . Kolónia ) , Spyridon , proclaimed the Autonomy , Kontoulis had him immediately arrested and expelled .
On March 1 , Kontoulis ceded the region to the newly formed Albanian gendarmerie , consisting mainly of former deserters of the Ottoman army and under the command of Dutch and Austrian officers . On March 9 , the Greek navy blockaded the port of Sarandë ( gr . Ágioi Saránda , known also as Santi Quaranta ) , one of the first cities that had joined the autonomist movement . There were also sporadic conflicts between Greek army and Epirote units , with a few casualties on both sides .
= = = Negotiations and armed conflicts = = =
As the Greek army withdrew , armed conflicts broke out between Albanian and Northern Epirote forces . In the regions of Himarë , Sarandë , Gjirokastër and Delvinë ( gr . Delvínion ) , the revolt had been in full force since the first days of the declaration , and the autonomist forces were able to successfully engage the Albanian gendarmerie , as well as Albanian irregular units . However , Zografos , seeing that the Great Powers would not approve the annexation of Northern Epirus to Greece , suggested three possible diplomatic solutions :
full autonomy under the nominal sovereignty of the Albanian prince ;
an administrative and cantonal system autonomy ; and
direct control and administration by the European Powers .
On March 7 , Prince William of Wied arrived in Albania , and intense fighting occurred north of Gjirokastër , in the region of Cepo , in an attempt to take control over Northern Epirus ; Albanian gendarmerie units tried unsuccessfully to infiltrate southwardly , facing resistance from the Epirotes . On March 11 , a provisional settlement was brokered in Corfu by Dutch Colonel Thomson . Albania was prepared to accept a limited Northern Epirote government , but Karapanos insisted on complete autonomy , a condition rejected by the Albanian delegates , and negotiations reached a deadlock . Meanwhile , Epirote bands entered Erseka and continued on to Frashër and Korçë .
At this point , the entire region that had been claimed by the provisional government , with the exception of Korçë , was under its control . On March 22 , a Sacred Band unit from Bilisht reached the outskirts of Korçë and joined the local guerillas , and fierce street fighting took place . For several days , Northern Epirote units controlled the city , but on March 27 this control was lost to the Albanian gendarmerie upon the arrival of Albanian reinforcements .
The International Control Commission , in order to avoid a major escalation of the armed conflicts with disastrous results , decided to intervene . On May 6 , Zografos received a communication to initiate negotiations on a new basis . Zografos accepted the proposal and an armistice was ordered the next day . By the time the cease @-@ fire order was received , the Epirote forces had secured the Morava heights near Korçë , making the city 's Albanian garrison 's surrender imminent .
= = Recognition of autonomy and outbreak of World War I = =
= = = Protocol of Corfu = = =
Negotiations were carried out on the island of Corfu , where on 17 May 1914 Albanian and Epirote representatives signed an agreement known as the Protocol of Corfu . According to its terms , the two provinces of Korçë and Gjirokastër that constituted Northern Epirus would acquire complete autonomous existence ( as a corpus separatum ) under the nominal Albanian sovereignty of Prince Wied . The Albanian government had the right to appoint and dismiss governors and upper @-@ rank officials , taking into account as much as possible the opinion of the local population . Other terms included the proportional recruitment of natives into the local gendarmerie and the prohibition of military levies from people not indigenous to the region . In Orthodox schools , the Greek language would be the sole medium of instruction , with the exception of the first three classes . The use of the Greek language was made equal to Albanian in all public affairs . The Ottoman @-@ era privileges of Himarë were renewed , and a foreigner was to be appointed as its " captain " for 10 years .
The execution of and adherence to the Protocol was entrusted to the International Control Commission , as was the organization of public administration and the departments of justice and finance in the region . The creation and training of the local gendarmerie was to be conducted by Dutch officers .
Territory : All the provisions in question shall apply to the populations of the territories previously occupied by Greece and annexed to Albania.Armed Forces : Except in case of war or revolution , non @-@ native military units shall not be transferred to or employed in these provinces.Occupation : The International Control Commission ( I.C.C. ) will take possession in the territory in question , in the name of the Albanian Government , by proceeding to the place . The officers of the Dutch mission will at once begin the organization of the local gendarmerie ... Before the arrival of the Dutch officers , the necessary steps will be taken by the Provisional Government of Argyrokastro for the removal of the country of all armed foreign elements . These provisions will not only be applied in that part of the provinces of Korytsa now occupied militarily by Albania , but in any other southern regions.Liberty of language : The permission to use both Albanian and Greek shall be assured , before all authorities , including the Courts , as well as the elective councils.Guarantee : The Powers who , by the Conference of London , have guaranteed the institution of Albania and established the I.C.C. guarantee the execution and maintenance of the foregoing provisions .
The agreement of the Protocol was ratified by the representatives of the Great Powers at Athens on 18 June and by the Albanian government on 23 June . The Epirote representatives , in an assembly in Delvinë , gave the final approval to the terms of the Protocol , although the delegates from Himara protested , claiming that union with Greece was the only viable solution . On July 8 , control of the cities of Tepelenë and Korçë passed to the provisional government of Northern Epirus .
= = = Instability and disestablishment = = =
After the outbreak of World War I , the situation in Albania became unstable , and political chaos emerged as the country was split into a number of regional governments . As a consequence of the anarchy in central and northern Albania , sporadic armed conflicts continued to occur in spite of the Protocol of Corfu 's ratification , and on September 3 Prince Wilhelm departed the country . In the following days , an Epirote unit launched an attack on the Albanian garrison in Berat without approval from the provisional government , managing to capture its citadel for several days , while Albanian troops loyal to Essad Pasha initiated small @-@ scale armed operations .
These events worried Greek Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos , as well as the possibility that the unstable situation could spill over outside Albania , triggering a wider conflict . On 27 October , after receiving the approval of the Great Powers , the Greek Army 's V Army Corps entered the area for a second time . The provisional government formally ceased to exist , declaring that it had accomplished its objectives .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Greek administration ( October 1914 – September 1916 ) = = =
During the Greek administration at the time of the First World War , it had been agreed to by Greece , Italy and the Great Powers that the final settlement of the Northern Epirote issue would be left for the post @-@ war future . In August 1915 , Eleftherios Venizelos stated in the Greek parliament that " only colossal faults " could separate the region from Greece . Upon Venizelos ' resignation in December , however , the succeeding royalist governments were determined to exploit the situation and predetermine the region 's future by formally incorporating it into the Greek state . In the first months of 1916 , Northern Epirus participated in the Greek elections and elected 16 representatives to the Greek Parliament . In March , the region 's union with Greece was officially declared , and the area was divided into the prefectures of Argyrokastro and Korytsa .
= = = Italian – French occupation and Interwar period = = =
The politically unstable situation that followed in Greece during the next months , with the National Schism between royalists and Venizelos ’ supporters , divided Greece into two states . This situation , according also to the development of the Balkan Front , led Italian forces in Gjirokastër to enter the area in September 1916 , after gaining the approval of the Triple Entente , and to take over most of Northern Epirus . An exception was Korçë which was retaken by French forces from Bulgarian occupation , and turned into the Autonomous Albanian Republic of Korçë under the military protection of the French army . After the war 's end in 1918 , the tendency to reestablish the autonomy of the region continued .
Under the terms of the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 ( the Venizelos @-@ Tittoni agreement ) , Northern Epirus was to be awarded to Greece , but political developments such as the Greek defeat in the Greco @-@ Turkish War ( 1919 – 1922 ) and strong Italian opposition in favor of Albania caused the area to be finally ceded to Albania in 1921 .
In February 1922 , the Albanian Parliament approved the Declaration of Minority Rights . However , the Declaration , contrary to the Protocol of Corfu , recognized minority rights only in a limited area ( parts of Gjirokastër , Sarandë district and 3 villages in Himarë ) , without implementing any form of local autonomy . All Greek schools in the excluded area were forced to close until 1935 , in violation of obligations accepted by the Albanian government at the League of Nations . In 1925 , Albania 's present borders were set , leading Greece to abandon its claims to Northern Epirus .
= = The Northern Epirote issue and the autonomy question = =
From the Albanian perspective , adopted also by Italian and Austrian sources of that time , the Northern Epirote movement was directly supported by the Greek state , with the help of a minority of inhabitants in the region , resulting in chaos and political instability in all of Albania . In Albanian historiography , the Protocol of Corfu is either scarcely mentioned or seen as an attempt to divide the Albanian state and proof of the Great Powers ' disregard for Albania 's national integrity .
With the ratification of the Protocol of Corfu , the term " Northern Epirus " , the state ’ s common name — and consequently that of its citizens , " Northern Epirotes " — acquired official status . However , after the region 's cession to Albania , these terms were considered associated with Greek irredentist action and not granted legal status by the Albanian authorities ; anyone making use of them was persecuted as an enemy of the state .
The autonomy question remains on the diplomatic agenda in Albanian @-@ Greek relations as part of the Northern Epirote issue . In 1925 , Albania 's borders were fixed by the Protocol of Florence , and the Kingdom of Greece abandoned all claims to Northern Epirus . In the 1960s , Soviet General Secretary Nikita Khrushchev asked his Albanian counterpart about giving autonomy to the Greek minority , with no results . In 1991 , after the collapse of the communist regime in Albania , the chairman of Greek minority organization Omonoia called for autonomy for Northern Epirus , on the basis that the rights provided for under the Albanian constitution were highly precarious . This proposal was rejected , spurring the minority 's radical wing to call for a union with Greece . Two years later , Omonoia ’ s chairman was arrested by the Albanian police after publicly stating that the Greek minority goal was the creation of an autonomous region inside the Albanian borders , based on the provisions of the Protocol of Corfu . In 1997 , Albanian analysts stated that the possibility of a Greek minority @-@ inspired breakaway Republic still exists .
= = Official documents = =
Documents Officiel concernant l 'Epire du Nord , 1912 @-@ 1935 . Digital library of the Parliament of Greece . ( French )
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= Halifax Explosion =
The Halifax Explosion was a maritime disaster in Halifax , Nova Scotia , Canada , on the morning of 6 December 1917 . SS Mont @-@ Blanc , a French cargo ship laden with high explosives , collided with the Norwegian vessel SS Imo in the Narrows , a strait connecting the upper Halifax Harbour to Bedford Basin . A fire on board the French ship ignited her cargo , causing a large explosion that devastated the Richmond district of Halifax . Approximately 2 @,@ 000 people were killed by blast , debris , fires and collapsed buildings , and an estimated 9 @,@ 000 others were injured .
Mont @-@ Blanc was under orders from the French government to carry her cargo of high explosives from New York via Halifax to Bordeaux , France . At roughly 8 : 45 am , she collided at low speed – approximately one knot ( 1 to 1 @.@ 5 miles per hour or 1 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 4 kilometres per hour ) – with the unladen Imo , chartered by the Commission for Relief in Belgium to pick up a cargo of relief supplies in New York . The resulting fire aboard the French ship quickly grew out of control . Approximately 20 minutes later at 9 : 04 : 35 am , Mont @-@ Blanc exploded . The blast was the largest man @-@ made explosion prior to the development of nuclear weapons , releasing the equivalent energy of roughly 2 @.@ 9 kilotons of TNT .
Nearly all structures within an 800 @-@ metre ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) radius , including the entire community of Richmond , were obliterated . A pressure wave snapped trees , bent iron rails , demolished buildings , grounded vessels , and scattered fragments of the Mont @-@ Blanc for kilometres . Hardly a window in the city proper survived the blast . Across the harbour , in Dartmouth , there was also widespread damage . A tsunami created by the blast wiped out the community of Mi 'kmaq First Nations people who had lived in the Tuft 's Cove area for generations .
Relief efforts began almost immediately , and hospitals quickly became full . Rescue trains began arriving from across eastern Canada and the north @-@ eastern United States , but were impeded by a blizzard . Construction of temporary shelters to house the many people left homeless began soon after the disaster . The initial judicial inquiry found the Mont @-@ Blanc to have been responsible for the disaster , but a later appeal determined that both vessels were to blame . There are several memorials to the victims of the explosion in North End .
= = Background = =
The community of Dartmouth lies on the east shore of Halifax Harbour , while Halifax is on the west shore . Halifax and Dartmouth had thrived during times of war ; the harbour was one of the British Royal Navy 's most important bases in North America , a centre for wartime trade , and a home to privateers who harried the British Empire 's enemies during the American Revolution , the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812 . The completion of the Intercolonial Railway and its Deep Water Terminal in 1880 allowed for increased steamship trade and led to accelerated development of the port area , but Halifax faced an economic downturn after the British garrison left the city in late 1905 and early 1906 .
After 1906 , the Canadian Government took over the Halifax Dockyard ( now CFB Halifax ) from the Royal Navy . This dockyard later became the command centre of the Royal Canadian Navy upon its founding in 1910 . Just before the First World War , the Canadian government began to make a determined , costly effort to develop the harbour and waterfront facilities . The outbreak of the war brought Halifax back to prominence . As the Royal Canadian Navy had virtually no seaworthy ships of its own , the Royal Navy assumed responsibility for maintaining Atlantic trade routes by re @-@ adopting Halifax as its North American base of operations . In 1915 , management of the harbour fell under the control of the Royal Canadian Navy under the supervision of Captain Superintendent Edward Harrington Martin ; by 1917 there was a growing naval fleet in Halifax , including patrol ships , tugboats , and minesweepers .
The population of Halifax / Dartmouth had increased to between 60 @,@ 000 and 65 @,@ 000 people by 1917 . Convoys carried soldiers , men , animals and supplies to the European theatre of war . The two main points of departure were in Nova Scotia at Sydney in Cape Breton and Halifax . Hospital ships brought the wounded to the city , and a new military hospital was constructed in the city .
The success of German U @-@ boat attacks on ships crossing the Atlantic Ocean led the Allies to institute a convoy system to reduce losses while transporting goods and soldiers to Europe . Merchant ships gathered at Bedford Basin on the northwestern end of the harbour , which was protected by two sets of anti @-@ submarine nets and guarded by patrol ships of the Royal Canadian Navy . The convoys departed under the protection of British cruisers and destroyers . A large army garrison protected the city with forts , gun batteries , and anti @-@ submarine nets . These factors drove a major military , industrial and residential expansion of the city , while the weight of goods passing through the harbour increased nearly ninefold . All neutral ships , bound for ports in North America , were required to report to Halifax for inspection .
= = Disaster = =
The Norwegian ship SS Imo had sailed from the Netherlands en route to New York to take on relief supplies for Belgium , under the command of Haakon From . The ship arrived in Halifax on 3 December for neutral inspection and spent two days in Bedford Basin awaiting refuelling supplies . Though given clearance to leave the port on 5 December , Imo 's departure was delayed as her coal load did not arrive until late that afternoon . The loading of fuel was not completed until after the anti @-@ submarine nets had been raised for the night . Therefore , the vessel could not weigh anchor until the next morning .
The French cargo ship SS Mont @-@ Blanc arrived from New York late on 5 December , under the command of Aimé Le Medec . The vessel was fully loaded with the explosives TNT and picric acid , the highly flammable fuel benzole , and guncotton . She intended to join a slow convoy gathering in Bedford Basin readying to depart for Europe , but was too late to enter the harbour before the nets were raised . Ships carrying dangerous cargo were not allowed into the harbour before the war , but the risks posed by German submarines had resulted in a relaxation of regulations .
Navigating into or out of Bedford Basin required passage through a strait called the Narrows . Ships were expected to keep to the starboard ( right ) side of the channel as they passed oncoming traffic ; in other words , vessels were required to pass port to port . Ships were restricted to a speed of five knots within the harbour .
= = = Collision and fire = = =
Imo was granted clearance to leave Bedford Basin by signals from the guard ship HMCS Acadia at approximately 7 : 30 on the morning of 6 December , with Pilot William Hayes aboard . The ship entered the Narrows well above the harbour 's speed limit in an attempt to make up for the delay experienced in loading her cargo . Imo met American tramp steamer SS Clara being piloted up the wrong ( western ) side of the harbour . The pilots agreed to pass starboard to starboard . Soon afterwards though , Imo was forced to head even further towards the Dartmouth shore after passing the tugboat Stella Maris , which was travelling up the harbour to Bedford Basin near mid @-@ channel . Horatio Brannen , the captain of Stella Maris , saw Imo approaching at excessive speed and ordered his ship closer to the western shore to avoid an accident .
Francis Mackey , an experienced harbour pilot , had boarded the Mont @-@ Blanc on the evening of 5 December ; he had asked about " special protections " such as a guard ship given the Mont @-@ Blanc 's cargo , but no protections were put in place . The Mont @-@ Blanc started moving at 7 : 30 am on 6 December , heading towards Bedford Basin . Mackey kept his eye on the ferry traffic between Halifax and Dartmouth and other small boats in the area . He first spotted Imo when she was about 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) away and became concerned as her path appeared to be heading towards his ship 's starboard side , as if to cut him off his own course . Mackey gave a short blast of his ship 's signal whistle to indicate that he had the right of way , but was met with two short blasts from the Imo , indicating that the approaching vessel would not yield its position . The captain ordered Mont @-@ Blanc to halt its engines and angle slightly to starboard , closer to the Dartmouth side of the Narrows . He let out another single blast of his whistle , hoping the other vessel would likewise move to starboard , but was again met with a double @-@ blast in negation .
Sailors on nearby ships heard the series of signals and , realizing that a collision was imminent , gathered to watch as Imo bore down on Mont @-@ Blanc . Though both ships had cut their engines by this point , their momentum carried them right on top of each other at slow speed . Unable to ground his ship for fear of a shock that would set off his explosive cargo , Mackey ordered Mont @-@ Blanc to steer hard to port ( starboard helm ) and crossed the Norwegian ship 's bows in a last @-@ second bid to avoid a collision . The two ships were almost parallel to each other , when Imo suddenly sent out three signal blasts , indicating the ship was reversing its engines . The combination of the cargoless ship 's height in the water and the transverse thrust of her right @-@ hand propeller caused the ship 's head to swing into Mont @-@ Blanc . Imo 's prow pushed into the French vessel 's No. 1 hold on her starboard side .
The collision occurred at 8 : 45 am . While the damage to Mont Blanc was not severe , it toppled barrels that broke open and flooded the deck with benzol that quickly flowed into the hold . As Imo 's engines kicked in , she quickly disengaged , which created sparks inside Mont @-@ Blanc 's hull . These ignited the vapours from the benzol . A fire started at the water line and travelled quickly up the side of the ship as the benzol spewed out from crushed drums on Mont @-@ Blanc 's decks . The fire quickly became uncontrollable . Surrounded by thick black smoke , and fearing she would explode almost immediately , the captain ordered the crew to abandon ship . A growing number of Halifax citizens gathered on the street or stood at the windows of their homes or businesses to watch the spectacular fire . The frantic crew of Mont @-@ Blanc shouted from their two lifeboats to some of the other vessels that their ship was about to explode , but they could not be heard above the noise and confusion . As the lifeboats made their way across the harbour to the Dartmouth shore , the abandoned ship continued to drift and beached herself at Pier 6 near the foot of Richmond street .
Towing two scows at the time of the collision , Stella Maris responded immediately to the fire , anchoring the barges and steaming back towards Pier 6 . The tug 's captain , Horatio H. Brannen , and his crew realized they were not equipped to fight the fire with their one small hose and quickly backed off from the burning Mont Blanc . They were approached by a whaler from HMS Highflyer and later a steam pinnace belonging to HMCS Niobe . Captain Brannen and Albert Mattison of Niobe agreed to secure a line to the French ship 's stern so as to pull it away from the pier to avoid setting it on fire . The five @-@ inch ( 127 @-@ millimetre ) hawser initially produced was deemed too small and orders for a ten @-@ inch ( 254 @-@ millimetre ) hawser came down . It was at this point that the blast occurred .
= = = Explosion = = =
At 9 : 04 : 35 am , the out @-@ of @-@ control fire aboard Mont @-@ Blanc finally set off her highly explosive cargo . The ship was completely blown apart and a powerful blast wave radiated away from the explosion at more than 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) per second . Temperatures of 5 @,@ 000 ° C ( 9 @,@ 030 ° F ) and pressures of thousands of atmospheres accompanied the moment of detonation at the centre of the explosion . White @-@ hot shards of iron fell down upon Halifax and Dartmouth . Mont @-@ Blanc 's forward 90 mm gun , its barrel melted away , landed approximately 5 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ) north of the explosion site near Albro Lake in Dartmouth , while the shank of her anchor , weighing half a ton , landed 3 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 0 mi ) south at Armdale .
A cloud of white smoke rose to over 3 @,@ 600 metres ( 11 @,@ 800 ft ) . The shock wave from the blast travelled through the earth at nearly 23 times the speed of sound and was felt as far away as Cape Breton ( 207 kilometres or 129 miles ) and Prince Edward Island ( 180 kilometres or 110 miles ) . An area of over 160 hectares ( 400 acres ) was completely destroyed by the explosion , while the harbour floor was momentarily exposed by the volume of water that vaporized . A tsunami was formed by water surging in to fill the void ; it rose as high as 18 metres ( 60 ft ) above the high @-@ water mark on the Halifax side of the harbour . Imo was carried onto the shore at Dartmouth by the tsunami . The blast killed all save one aboard the whaler , everyone aboard the pinnace and 21 of the 26 men aboard Stella Maris ; she ended up on the Dartmouth shore , severely damaged . The captain 's son , First Mate Walter Brannen , who had been thrown into the hold by the blast , survived , as did four others . All but one of the Mont @-@ Blanc crew members survived .
Over 1 @,@ 600 people were killed instantly and 9 @,@ 000 were injured , more than 300 of whom later died . Every building within a 2 @.@ 6 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) radius , over 12 @,@ 000 in total , was destroyed or badly damaged . Hundreds of people who had been watching the fire from their homes were blinded when the blast wave shattered the windows in front of them . Stoves and lamps overturned by the force of the blast sparked fires throughout Halifax , particularly in the North End , where entire city blocks were caught up in the inferno , trapping residents inside their houses . Firefighter Billy Wells , who was thrown away from the explosion and had his clothes torn from his body , described the devastation survivors faced : " The sight was awful , with people hanging out of windows dead . Some with their heads missing , and some thrown onto the overhead telegraph wires . " He was the only member of the eight @-@ man crew of the fire engine " Patricia " to survive .
Large brick and stone factories near Pier 6 , such as the Acadia Sugar Refinery , disappeared into unrecognizable heaps of rubble , killing most of their workers . The Nova Scotia cotton mill located 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 93 mile ) from the blast was destroyed by fire and the collapse of its concrete floors . The Royal Naval College of Canada building was badly damaged , and several cadets and instructors maimed .
The death toll could have been worse had it not been for the self @-@ sacrifice of an Intercolonial Railway dispatcher , Patrick Vincent ( Vince ) Coleman , operating at the railyard about 750 feet ( 230 m ) from Pier 6 , where the explosion occurred . He and his co @-@ worker , William Lovett , learned of the dangerous cargo aboard the burning Mont @-@ Blanc from a sailor and began to flee . Coleman remembered , however , that an incoming passenger train from Saint John , New Brunswick , was due to arrive at the railyard within minutes . He returned to his post alone and continued to send out urgent telegraph messages to stop the train . Several variations of the message have been reported , among them this from the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic : " Hold up the train . Ammunition ship afire in harbor making for Pier 6 and will explode . Guess this will be my last message . Good @-@ bye boys . " Coleman 's message was responsible for bringing all incoming trains around Halifax to a halt . It was heard by other stations all along the Intercolonial Railway , helping railway officials to respond immediately . Passenger Train No. 10 , the overnight train from Saint John , is believed to have heeded the warning and stopped a safe distance from the blast at Rockingham , saving the lives of about 300 railway passengers . Coleman was killed at his post as the explosion ripped through the city . He was honoured with a Heritage Minute in the 1990s and inducted into the Canadian Railway Hall of Fame in 2004 .
= = Rescue efforts = =
First rescue efforts came from surviving neighbours and co @-@ workers who pulled and dug out victims from buildings . The initial informal response was soon joined by surviving policemen , firefighters and military personnel who began to arrive , as did anyone with a working vehicle ; cars , trucks and delivery wagons of all kinds were enlisted to collect the wounded . A flood of victims soon began to arrive at the city 's hospitals , which were quickly overwhelmed . The new military hospital , Camp Hill , admitted approximately 1400 victims on 6 December .
Firefighters were among the first to respond to the disaster , rushing to Mont @-@ Blanc to attempt to extinguish the blaze before the explosion even occurred . They also played a role after the blast , with fire companies arriving to assist from across Halifax , and by the end of the day from as far away as Amherst , Nova Scotia ( 200 kilometres or 120 miles ) and Moncton , New Brunswick ( 260 kilometres or 160 miles ) on relief trains . Halifax Fire Department 's West Street Station 2 was the first to arrive at Pier 6 with the crew of the Patricia , the first motorized fire engine in Canada . In the final moments before the explosion , hoses were being unrolled as the fire spread to the docks . Nine members of the Halifax Fire Department lost their lives performing their duty that day .
Royal Navy cruisers in port sent some of the first organized rescue parties ashore . HMS Highflyer , along with the armed merchant cruisers HMS Changuinola , HMS Knight Templar and HMS Calgarian , sent boats ashore with rescue parties and medical personnel and soon began to take wounded aboard . A US Coast Guard cutter , USCG Morrill , also sent a rescue party ashore . Out at sea , the American cruiser USS Tacoma and armed merchant cruiser USS Von Steuben ( formerly SS Kronprinz Wilhelm ) were passing Halifax en route to the United States . Tacoma was rocked so severely by the blast wave that her crew went to general quarters . Spotting the large and rising column of smoke , Tacoma altered course and arrived to assist rescue at 2 pm . Von Steuben arrived a half @-@ hour later . The American steamship Old Colony , docked in Halifax for repairs , suffered little damage and was quickly converted to serve as a hospital ship , staffed by doctors and orderlies from the British and American navy vessels in the harbour .
Dazed survivors immediately feared that the explosion was the result of a bomb dropped from a German plane . Troops at gun batteries and barracks immediately turned out in case the city was under attack , but within an hour switched from defence to rescue roles as the cause and location of the explosion were determined . All available troops were called in from harbour fortifications and barracks to the North End to rescue survivors and provide transport to the city 's hospitals , including the two army hospitals in the city .
Adding to the chaos were fears that a second explosion was imminent . A cloud of steam shot out of ventilators at the ammunition magazine at Wellington Barracks as naval personnel extinguished a fire by the magazine . While the fire was quickly put out , the cloud of steam was seen from blocks away and quickly led to rumours that a second explosion was imminent . Uniformed officers ordered everyone away from the area . As the rumour spread across the city , many families fled their homes . The confusion hampered efforts for over two hours until fears were dispelled by about noon . However , many rescuers ignored the evacuation and naval rescue parties continued working uninterrupted at the harbour .
Surviving railway workers in the railyards at the heart of the disaster carried out rescue work , pulling people from the harbour and from under debris . The overnight train from Saint John was just approaching the city when hit by the blast but was only slightly damaged . It continued into Richmond until the track was blocked by wreckage . Passengers and soldiers aboard used the emergency tools from the train to dig people out of houses and bandaged them with sheets from the sleeping cars . The train was loaded with injured and left the city at 1 : 30 with a doctor aboard , to evacuate the wounded to Truro .
Led by Lieutenant Governor MacCallum Grant , leading citizens formed the Halifax Relief Commission at around noon . The committee organized members in charge of organizing medical relief for both Halifax and Dartmouth , supplying transportation , food and shelter , and covering medical and funeral costs for victims . The commission would continue until 1976 , participating in reconstruction and relief efforts and later distributing pensions to survivors .
Rescue trains were dispatched from across Atlantic Canada , as well as the northeastern United States . The first left Truro around 10 am carrying medical personnel and supplies , arrived in Halifax by noon and returned to Truro with the wounded and homeless by 3 pm . The track had become impassable at Rockingham , on the western edge of Bedford Basin . To reach the wounded , rescue personnel had to walk through parts of the devastated city until they reached a point where the military had begun to clear the streets . By nightfall , a dozen trains had reached Halifax from the Nova Scotian towns of Truro , Kentville , Amherst and Stellarton and from the New Brunswick towns of Sackville , Moncton and Saint John .
Relief efforts were hampered the following day by a blizzard that blanketed Halifax with 16 inches ( 41 cm ) of heavy snow . Trains en route from other parts of Canada and from the United States were stalled in snowdrifts , while telegraph lines that had been hastily repaired following the explosion were again knocked down . Halifax was isolated by the storm , and rescue committees were forced to suspend the search for survivors , though the storm aided efforts to put out fires throughout the city .
= = Destruction and loss of life = =
The exact number killed by the disaster is unknown . The Halifax Explosion Remembrance Book , an official database compiled in 2002 by the Nova Scotia Archives and Records Management , identified 1 @,@ 950 victims . As many as 1 @,@ 600 people died immediately in the blast , tsunami , and collapse of buildings . The last body , a caretaker killed at the Exhibition Grounds , was not recovered until the summer of 1919 . An additional 9 @,@ 000 were injured . 1 @,@ 630 homes were destroyed in the explosion and fires , and another 12 @,@ 000 damaged ; roughly 6 @,@ 000 people were left homeless and 25 @,@ 000 had insufficient shelter . The city 's industrial sector was in large part gone , with many workers among the casualties and the dockyard heavily damaged .
A mortuary committee chaired by Alderman R. B. Coldwell was quickly formed at Halifax City Hall on the morning of the disaster . The Chebucto Road School in Halifax 's west end was chosen as a central morgue . A company of the Royal Canadian Engineers ( RCE ) repaired and converted the basement of the school to serve as a morgue and classrooms to serve as offices for the Halifax coroner . Trucks and wagons soon began to arrive with bodies . Coroner Arthur S. Barnstead took over from Coldwell as the morgue went into operation and implemented a system to carefully number and describe bodies ; it was based on the system developed by his father , John Henry Barnstead , to identify Titanic victims in 1912 .
Many of the wounds inflicted by the blast were permanently debilitating , such as those caused by flying glass or by the flash of the explosion . Thousands of people had stopped to watch the ship burning in the harbour , many from inside buildings , leaving them directly in the path of glass fragments from shattered windows . Roughly 5900 eye injuries were reported , and 41 people lost their sight permanently . The many eye injuries led to better understanding on the part of physicians of how to care for damaged eyes , and " with the recently formed Canadian National Institute for the Blind , Halifax became internationally known as a centre for care for the blind " , according to Dalhousie University professor Victoria Allen . The lack of coordinated pediatric care in such a disaster was also noted by a surgeon from Boston named William Ladd who had arrived to help . His insights from the explosion are generally credited with inspiring him to pioneer the specialty of pediatric surgery in North America .
An estimated $ C35 million in damages resulted ( $ 562 million today ) . About $ 30 million in financial aid was raised from various sources , including $ 18 million from the federal government , over $ 4 million from the British government , and $ 750 @,@ 000 from the state of Massachusetts .
= = = Dartmouth = = =
Dartmouth was not as densely populated as Halifax and was separated from the blast by the width of the harbour , but still suffered heavy damage . Almost 100 people were estimated to have died on the Dartmouth side . Windows were shattered and many buildings were damaged or destroyed , including the Oland Brewery and parts of the Starr Manufacturing Company . Nova Scotia Hospital was the only hospital in Dartmouth and many of the victims were treated there .
= = = Mi 'kmaq settlement = = =
There were small enclaves of Mi 'kmaq in and around the coves of Bedford Basin on the Dartmouth shore . Directly opposite to Pier 9 on the Halifax side sat a community in Tufts Cove , also known as Turtle Grove . The settlement , dating back to the 18th century , had been a subject of controversy because white settler landowners wanted to remove the Mi 'kmaq residents . In the years and months preceding the explosion , the Department of Indian Affairs had been actively trying to force the Mi 'kmaq to give up their land , though this had not occurred by the time of the explosion . The fire aboard Mont @-@ Blanc drew the attention of many onlookers on both sides of the harbour . The physical structures of the settlement were obliterated by the explosion and tsunami . While a precise Mi 'kmaq death toll is unknown , records show that nine bodies were recovered , and the settlement was abandoned in the wake of the disaster . Survivors were housed in a racially segregated building under generally poor conditions and eventually dispersed around Nova Scotia .
= = = Africville = = =
The black community of Africville , on the southern shores of Bedford Basin adjacent to the Halifax Peninsula , was spared the direct force of the blast by the shadow effect of the raised ground to the south . However , Africville 's small and frail homes were heavily damaged by the explosion . Families recorded the deaths of five residents . Africville received little of the donated relief funds and none of the progressive reconstruction invested in other parts of the city after the explosion .
= = Investigation = =
Many people in Halifax at first believed the explosion to be the result of a German attack . The Halifax Herald continued to propagate this belief for some time , for example reporting that Germans had mocked victims of the explosion . While John Johansen , the Norwegian helmsman of the Imo , was being treated for serious injuries sustained during the explosion , it was reported to the military police that he had been behaving suspiciously . Johansen was arrested on suspicions of being a German spy when a search turned up a letter on his person , supposedly written in German . It turned out that the letter was actually written in Norwegian . Immediately following the explosion , most of the German survivors in Halifax had been rounded up and imprisoned . Eventually the fear dissipated as the real cause of the explosion became known , although rumours of German involvement persisted .
A judicial inquiry known as the Wreck Commissioner 's Inquiry was formed to investigate the causes of the collision . Proceedings began at the Halifax Court House on 13 December 1917 , presided over by Justice Arthur Drysdale . The inquiry 's report of 4 February 1918 blamed Mont @-@ Blanc 's captain , Aimé Le Médec , the ship 's pilot , Francis Mackey , and Commander F. Evan Wyatt , the Royal Canadian Navy 's chief examining officer in charge of the harbour , gates and anti @-@ submarine defences , for causing the collision . Drysdale agreed with Dominion Wreck Commissioner L.A. Demers ' opinion that " it was the Mont @-@ Blanc 's responsibility alone to ensure that she avoided a collision at all costs " given her cargo ; he was likely influenced by local opinion , which was strongly anti @-@ French , as well as by the " street fighter " style of argumentation used by Imo lawyer Charles Burchell . According to Crown counsel W.A. Henry , this was " a great surprise to most people " , who had expected the Imo to be blamed for being on the wrong side of the channel . All three men were charged with manslaughter and criminal negligence at a preliminary hearing heard by Stipendiary Magistrate Richard A. McLeod , and bound over for trial . However , a Nova Scotia Supreme Court justice , Benjamin Russell found there was no evidence to support these charges . Mackey was discharged on a writ of habeas corpus and the charges dropped . The charges against Le Médec were also dismissed . This left only Wyatt to face a grand jury hearing . On 17 April 1918 , a jury acquitted him in a trial that lasted less than a day .
Drysdale also oversaw the first civil litigation trial , in which the owners of the two ships sought damages from each other . His decision ( 27 April 1918 ) found Mont @-@ Blanc entirely at fault . Subsequent appeals to the Supreme Court of Canada ( 19 May 1919 ) , and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London ( 22 March 1920 ) , determined Mont @-@ Blanc and Imo were equally to blame for navigational errors that led to the collision . No party was ever convicted for any crime or otherwise successfully prosecuted for any actions that precipitated the disaster .
= = Reconstruction = =
Efforts began shortly after the explosion to clear debris , repair buildings , and establish temporary housing for survivors left homeless by the explosion . By late January 1918 , around 5 @,@ 000 were still without shelter . A reconstruction committee under Colonel Robert Low constructed 832 new housing units , which were furnished by the Massachusetts @-@ Halifax Relief Fund .
The North End Halifax neighbourhood of Richmond bore the brunt of the explosion . In 1917 , Richmond was considered a working @-@ class neighbourhood and had few paved roads . After the explosion , the Halifax Relief Commission approached the reconstruction of Richmond as an opportunity to improve and modernize the city 's North End . English town planner Thomas Adams and Montreal architectural firm Ross and Macdonald were recruited to design a new housing plan for Richmond . Adams , inspired by the Victorian garden city movement , aimed to provide public access to green spaces and to create a low @-@ rise , low @-@ density and multifunctional urban neighbourhood . The planners designed 326 large homes that each faced a tree @-@ lined , paved boulevard . They specified that the homes be built with a new and innovative fireproof material , blocks of compressed cement called Hydrostone . The first of these homes was occupied by March 1919 . Once finished , the Hydrostone neighbourhood consisted of homes , businesses and parks , which helped create a new sense of community in the North End of Halifax . It has now become an upscale neighbourhood and shopping district . In contrast , the equally poor and underdeveloped area of Africville was not included in reconstruction efforts .
Every building in the Halifax dockyard required some degree of rebuilding , as did HMCS Niobe and the docks themselves ; however , all of the Royal Canadian Navy 's minesweepers and patrol boats were undamaged . Prime Minister Robert Borden pledged that the government would be " co @-@ operating in every way to reconstruct the Port of Halifax : this was of utmost importance to the Empire " . Although Captain Symington of the USS Tacoma speculated that the port would not be operational for months , in fact a convoy departed on 11 December and dockyard operations resumed before Christmas .
= = Legacy = =
The Halifax Explosion was one of the largest artificial non @-@ nuclear explosions . An extensive comparison of 130 major explosions by Halifax historian Jay White in 1994 concluded that " Halifax Harbour remains unchallenged in overall magnitude as long as five criteria are considered together : number of casualties , force of blast , radius of devastation , quantity of explosive material , and total value of property destroyed . " For many years afterward , the Halifax Explosion was the standard by which all large blasts were measured . For instance , in its report on the atomic bombing of Hiroshima , Time wrote that the explosive power of the Little Boy bomb was seven times that of the Halifax Explosion .
Construction began in 1964 on the Halifax North Memorial Library , designed to commemorate the victims of the explosion . The library entrance featured the first monument built to mark the explosion , the Halifax Explosion Memorial Sculpture , created by artist Jordi Bonet . The sculpture was dismantled by the Halifax Regional Municipality in 2004 and parts have been scattered and lost . The Halifax Explosion Memorial Bells were built in 1985 , relocating memorial carillon bells from a nearby church to a large concrete sculpture on Fort Needham Hill , facing the " ground zero " area of the explosion . The Bell Tower is the location of an annual civic ceremony every 6 December . A memorial at the Halifax Fire Station on Lady Hammond Road honours the firefighters killed while responding to the explosion . Fragments of Mont @-@ Blanc have been mounted as neighbourhood monuments to the explosion at Albro Lake Road in Dartmouth , at Regatta Point , and elsewhere in the area . Simple monuments mark the mass graves of explosion victims at the Fairview Lawn Cemetery and the Bayers Road Cemetery . A Memorial Book listing the names of all the known victims is displayed at the Halifax North Memorial Library and at the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic , which has a large permanent exhibit about the Halifax Explosion . Harold Gilman was commissioned to create a painting memorializing the event , although his work , Halifax Harbour at Sunset , " tells very little about the recent devastation , as the viewpoint is set back so that the harbour appears undisturbed " .
The canonical novel Barometer Rising ( 1941 ) by the Canadian writer Hugh MacLennan is set in Halifax at the time of the explosion and includes a carefully researched description of its impact on the city . Following in MacLennan 's footsteps , journalist Robert MacNeil penned Burden of Desire ( 1992 ) and used the explosion as a metaphor for the societal and cultural changes of the day . MacLennan and MacNeil 's use of the romance genre to fictionalize the explosion is similar to the first attempt by Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Frank McKelvey Bell , author of the short novella A Romance of the Halifax Disaster ( 1918 ) . This work follows the love affair of a young woman and an injured soldier . Keith Ross Leckie scripted a miniseries entitled Shattered City : The Halifax Explosion ( 2003 ) , which took the title but has no relationship to Janet Kitz 's non @-@ fiction book Shattered City : The Halifax Explosion and the Road to Recovery ( 1990 ) . The film was criticized for distortions and inaccuracies .
In 1918 , Halifax sent a Christmas tree to the City of Boston in thanks and remembrance for the help that the Boston Red Cross and the Massachusetts Public Safety Committee provided immediately after the disaster . That gift was revived in 1971 by the Lunenburg County Christmas Tree Producers Association , who began an annual donation of a large tree to promote Christmas tree exports as well as acknowledge Boston 's support after the explosion . The gift was later taken over by the Nova Scotia Government to continue the goodwill gesture as well as to promote trade and tourism . The tree is Boston 's official Christmas tree and is lit on Boston Common throughout the holiday season . In deference to its symbolic importance for both cities , the Nova Scotia Department of Natural Resources has specific guidelines for selecting the tree .
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= Odex 's actions against file @-@ sharing =
Odex 's actions against file sharing were legal actions against Internet Service Providers ( ISPs ) and their subscribers in Singapore by Odex , a Singapore @-@ based company that virtually distributes sub @-@ licensed Japanese anime . From early 2007 to January 2008 Odex took action against anyone who had downloaded anime through BitTorrent for alleged copyright infringement . Odex tracked their IP addresses without their consent and sought subpoenas to compel the ISPs to disclose the personal details of these subscribers . After rulings from the Subordinate Courts , Odex took personal data from affected ISPs and sent letters demanding payment in place of litigation . More than a third of the individuals contacted by Odex opted to settle out of court for at least S $ 3 @,@ 000 ( US $ 2 @,@ 000 ) to S $ 5 @,@ 000 ( US $ 4 @,@ 000 ) each .
The Singaporean anime community considered Odex 's actions to be controversial , sudden , and heavy @-@ handed — especially when it was discovered that the youngest person threatened was nine years old . In response , Odex dropped its pay @-@ or @-@ be @-@ sued letter approach in favour of cease @-@ and @-@ desist emails to downloaders . Odex halted active enforcement after its third subpoena was rejected by the courts and lost a lawsuit when trying to obtain customer data from another ISP . In January 2008 , Odex appealed the decision , and the High Court of Singapore ruled that one ISP was required to release data , but only directly to Japanese anime studios . Subsequently , these studios started their own legal actions against Singaporean downloaders . Some observers predicted that the High Court 's decision would set a precedent for online privacy in Singapore by making it more difficult for copyright licensees to take legal action against downloading . The case raised issues of individual privacy , intellectual property , and free use of the Internet . Odex 's actions attracted widespread criticism in Singapore and international attention and press coverage , which coincided with similar actions against consumer file sharing of music in the United States .
= = Actions = =
Odex is a Singaporean company that licenses and releases anime for local and regional consumption . The company tracked people it believed to be illegally downloading its releases in Singapore , using the method employed by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in the United States . Like the RIAA , Odex hired the American tracking company BayTSP to obtain the IP addresses of downloaders from their respective countries and to track them for several months . BayTSP singled out the website AnimeSuki as a major source of the downloads and tracked many of its BitTorrent users . This data was used to apply for subpoenas to compel ISPs to reveal personal information associated with each IP address . In May 2007 , the ISP SingNet consented in writing to release personal information about its customers , before Odex 's first application against the ISP had its hearing . On 13 August , Odex succeeded in its application against StarHub , which , as a result , was required to reveal the identities of about 1 @,@ 000 ISP users . However , it is revealed that Starhub didn 't revealed any user data to Odex as they were reviewing their rights when Odex lost their appeal to Pacific Internet ( PacNet ) . Odex was represented by law firm Rajah & Tann in all its cases against major ISPs , including its application against PacNet .
After downloading that originated from Singaporean IP addresses had been recorded by BayTSP , Odex sent letters of demand to people associated with the IP addresses it had tracked . The letters requested monetary compensation for downloads of the company 's licensed material . The recipients were asked to contact Odex within one week and pay settlement fees from S $ 3 @,@ 000 to S $ 5 @,@ 000 or face legal action . The recipients also had to sign a non @-@ disclosure agreement , promise to destroy all copies of the downloaded anime , and stop downloading the copyrighted material .
On 9 August 2007 , an Odex representative said it intended to obtain search warrants for illegally downloaded anime if necessary . The company initially believed that , unlike in other countries , mere warning letters would not stop the downloads in Singapore . Letters were sent mainly to people who had downloaded more popular series , such as Bleach , D.Gray @-@ man , Fullmetal Alchemist and InuYasha . There was speculation from the online community that the company would collect approximately S $ 15 million from 3 @,@ 000 individuals from out @-@ of @-@ court settlements , but Odex responded that it did not require each of them to pay a uniform S $ 5 @,@ 000 . The main factor it considered when deciding the level of compensation to demand was the amount of downloading by each individual . Odex confirmed that more than 3 @,@ 000 IP addresses had been disclosed as a result of the court orders , but estimated that the amount collected would cover less than 20 % of its enforcement costs . The company 's director , Peter Go , subsequently revealed that most of the compensation payments had been paid to BayTSP and to ISPs for the retrieval of their subscribers ' personal data . He justified his company 's actions by stating that , according to BayTSP 's statistics , Singapore had one of the highest rates of illegal anime downloads in the world and that Odex wanted to reduce this by 85 % .
On 3 September 2007 , Odex director Stephen Sing announced on his company 's Internet forum that Odex would no longer send letters of demand to Internet users who had stopped their illegal downloading since the beginning of the enforcement drive . Two weeks later , Odex installed an online warning system developed by BayTSP that generated cease and desist emails intended for the alleged downloaders . The company did not obtain subscribers ' information directly from ISPs , but relied on ISPs to forward such emails to their subscribers . Sing vowed that Odex would rely on weekly reports generated by BayTSP to continue its anti @-@ piracy drive , and that it would again resort to legal action if downloaders or their ISPs did not respond acceptably .
On 29 January 2008 , the High Court handed down its ruling on Odex 's appeal . It held that Pacific Internet had to release the names of the alleged illegal downloaders directly to the Japanese anime studios . In the light of this decision , Peter Go said that the company 's role would shift from active enforcement to assisting the studios in their possible courses of action .
= = Reactions = =
The company 's actions attracted national media attention and were harshly criticised by the Singaporean anime community as " sudden and severe " . Anime fans were outraged by the issuing of legal threats to children as young as nine years old , as they believed children were unable to differentiate between legal and illegal downloading . There were widespread calls in online blogs and forums to boycott Odex 's products .
Odex blamed the approximate 70 % fall in its Video CD ( VCD ) and Digital Video Disc ( DVD ) sales in 2006 and 2007 on illegal downloading . The response of anime fans was that the fall in sales was because Odex 's products were inferior , inaccurately translated , and released later than the online versions . Odex subsequently attributed the inaccurate subtitling on censorship laws against mature themes ( such as yaoi ) and on fansubbers — anime fans who had translated the Japanese dialogue — whom they had hired . In response , the Board of Film Censors said that it did not ask for subtitles to be changed , that it merely classified content , and that the onus was on distributors to ensure accurate subtitles . In addition to problems of quality and scheduling , criticisms were directed at Odex 's litigious strategy and poor public relations . Odex received support from the Anti Video Piracy Association of Singapore ( AVPAS ) in making its demands for compensation .
Stephen Sing was mocked and criticised after posting comments to an online forum which many considered to be gloating . Messages posted by Sing under the nickname " xysing " included " Me too busy suing people " [ sic ] and " Hahahahah ! I double @-@ 6 @-@ ed so many downloaders serve them right ! " Sing was labelled the " most hated man in Singapore 's anime community " by members of the blogosphere , a wanted poster with his face circulated online , and he was taunted openly in his office . Sing asserted that threats of arson , assault and even death were made against him and filed a police report . Although he expressed regret over the remarks because they were a " PR disaster " and " very wrong " , he said that he had written them while feeling frustrated and did not apologise . He dismissed his " double @-@ 6 @-@ ed " remark , an expression of joy at the threats of lawsuits , as having been made " two months ago " , but it was revealed that they had been made only three weeks earlier . A Sunday Times article condemned these online responses as " propaganda " spread by " lynch mobs " and noted that some of these netizens had revealed the home addresses of Odex 's employees . Odex placed a quarter @-@ page advertisement in The Straits Times on 22 August 2007 to explain its actions .
Allegations were made by the online community that Odex had passed off fansubs as its own work . Sing admitted that this was partially true as Odex had hired anime fans to do subtitling in 2004 who had taken " the easy way out and copied word for word the subtitles on fansubs they downloaded " . Sing explained that when Odex released its anime , the company did not realise what the anime fans had done , and it has been " paying for this mistake ever since " . It was reported at the same time that all of Odex 's translation and subtitling was now done " in house " . However , Odex 's release of The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya in September 2007 was found to contain translations strongly resembling an earlier unauthorised fansub release . Emails were also sent to the media saying that Sing and Go were directors and shareholders of a defunct company , Games Mart , that shared the same corporate address as Odex and had been raided in 1999 by the police for selling game consoles with unauthorized modifications . This information was confirmed by the press , and Go wrote a letter to the media explaining that Games Mart was not affiliated with Odex in any way .
Members of an online forum expressed their unhappiness by selling " anti @-@ Odex " T @-@ shirts . Another netizen created a video parody , entitled Xedo Holocaust , and uploaded it to YouTube and other video @-@ sharing websites . A website was established giving details of an " Odex VCD recycling drive " , where those who joined could exchange their Odex VCDs for a black awareness ribbon to wear . A protest by a few people with several action figurines took place on 25 August 2007 under intense police scrutiny , which was considered by Western observers to be a rarity in Singapore . An online group , Xedo Defense , was set up to provide support for the downloaders facing legal action . It raised funds to hire a collective lawyer from Infinitus Law Corporation to represent two of the downloaders when suits were filed against them in November 2008 by the anime studios .
There were assertions that Odex had charged 10 % interest for settlements paid through an instalment plan , but a press release by the company denied that it had required any such interest payments . By September 2007 , 105 out of the 300 SingNet subscribers who had received letters had negotiated with and paid Odex , although , in a news conference , Odex said that it had neither forced payment from nor fined anyone . The company explained that it would not profit from the enforcement process and intended to donate to charity any excess amount received . It would also release a financial audit of all the money collected at the close of proceedings . On 31 August 2007 , in an attempt to address criticisms of late releases , Odex began to offer video on demand ( VOD ) on its relaunched website . Users could legally download and unlock a digital rights management ( DRM ) -protected anime episode at S $ 2 for seven days .
In mid @-@ November 2007 , the cease @-@ and @-@ desist emails initiated by Odex and BayTSP reached several users in Japan , France , and the United States , some in the form of Digital Millennium Copyright Act ( DMCA ) notices from their ISPs . Although Odex and BayTSP announced shortly afterwards that the emails were sent out in error , Japanese commentators suggested that the enforcement action was " a step in a right direction " . On 21 November 2007 , Odex 's website was hacked and defaced and the VOD service put out of action . Its main page was replaced by an angry message against the company 's legal actions , and experts interviewed by representatives of the local media said that the perpetrator likely was from Singapore .
= = Odex v. Pacific Internet = =
= = = Subordinate Courts ' decision = = =
On 16 August 2007 , Odex initiated legal action against a third Internet Service Provider , Pacific Internet . Odex sought to have Pacific Internet disclose the personal information of about 1 @,@ 000 subscribers . The closed @-@ door hearing was held on 23 August 2007 in the Subordinate Courts , where District Judge Earnest Lau ruled that Pacific Internet did not have to reveal its subscribers ' personal information . Lau believed that Odex was not the correct party to make the application , despite having permission to prosecute on behalf of the Japanese anime studios . The decision came as a surprise to many , and Odex quickly announced its intent to appeal . Although Lau denied Odex the court order , he warned that the right to privacy was no defence for copyright infringement .
In light of the decision , the ISP StarHub , represented by Drew & Napier , said " [ we are ] assessing our options , given the different decisions rendered by the court " . Meanwhile , it was revealed that SingNet had consented to Odex 's application , had not instructed its lawyers to attend the hearing , and the two @-@ week deadline for appealing against the application had passed . SingNet 's failure to contest Odex 's application , perhaps even expediting it , was perceived by some of its subscribers as a voluntary breach of privacy . SingNet later declared that it neither " gave consent " nor assisted Odex in its application for the release of subscriber information , and that its customer subscriptions remained unaffected .
In a rare move , District Judge Earnest Lau released a 14 @-@ page judgment explaining the court 's denial of Odex 's request for Pacific Internet 's client information . He compared Odex 's demands to an Anton Piller order , which provides for the right to search premises and seize evidence without prior warning . Seen as draconian , it is only used under extreme circumstances . He held that only copyright holders themselves , or their exclusive licensees , can bring such applications and that he was not satisfied with the evidence harvested by BayTSP for the identification of downloaders . Out of all the anime licensed to Odex , only the license in respect of Mobile Suit Gundam SEED had been granted exclusively to the company . The judge noted that , out of the 13 authorisation letters presented in court , ten of them authorised the Anti Video Piracy Association of Singapore ( AVPAS ) , not Odex , to act for the copyright holders . Odex was ordered to pay Pacific Internet 's legal costs of S $ 7 @,@ 000 .
= = = High Court appeal = = =
Odex 's appeal against the Subordinate Courts ' decision began on 3 October 2007 before Justice Woo Bih Li in the High Court . BayTSP 's CEO , Mark Ishikawa , and representatives of four Japanese studios , including TV Tokyo , Gonzo and Toei Animation , flew to Singapore to testify on behalf of Odex . Although the Japanese companies intended to file lawsuits themselves should Odex fail , the High Court approved their addition as parties to Odex 's appeal .
In his judgment of 29 January 2008 , Justice Woo ordered Pacific Internet to release its subscribers ' information only to the six Japanese companies that were parties to the case . He explicitly denied Odex access to this information . He upheld District Judge Lau 's decision that Odex was not the correct party to have asked for release of subscriber data . As a result , he directed the company to pay Pacific Internet 's legal costs of S $ 20 @,@ 000 . Following the ruling , some downloaders who had already settled with Odex planned a countersuit to recover their settlement monies . The ruling may have set a precedent for online privacy in Singapore by making it more difficult for copyright licensees to take legal action against downloaders .
= = Further developments = =
= = = Subsequent action by anime studios = = =
In early August 2008 , seven months after the High Court ruling , Showgate ( previously Toshiba Entertainment ) , Geneon Entertainment , Sunrise , Gonzo and TV Tokyo initiated their own legal actions against downloaders . Like Odex , they were represented by Rajah & Tann and sent out letters of demand for payment to SingNet , StarHub and Pacific Internet subscribers asking users to " enter discussions " with the studios ' solicitors within seven days . Showgate , which supported Odex in its appeal against Pacific Internet , consulted Odex before beginning its legal actions . Settlements were reported to range between S $ 5 @,@ 000 and S $ 6 @,@ 000 per person , and in August 2008 , BayTSP was reported to be in contractual talks with other anime studios to track downloaders in Singapore .
Three months later , the anime studios filed a writ of summons with the Subordinate Courts against four " heavy downloaders " . The hearing was speculated to begin in 2009 or 2010 , with legal fees ranging from S $ 50 @,@ 000 to S $ 80 @,@ 000 . Because of its bearing on downloaders of other media , such as movies and games , the suits were closely watched by the public . In 2010 it was reported that Odex 's effort was unsuccessful as it was not the primary copyright holder .
= = = Similar actions in Singapore by other media owners = = =
In April 2015 , the makers of Dallas Buyers Club successfully obtained a court order against two major ISPs Starhub and M1 to reveal customers who have allegedly downloaded illegal copies of the movie . Samuel Seow Law Corporation represented the makers in sending demand letters to more than 500 subscribers asking for a written offer of damages and costs . This is the second reported instance of a major legal action taken by a media company against individuals in Singapore for alleged illegal downloading since Odex .
= = Legal opinions and analysis = =
The case was covered extensively by the country 's newspapers . In The Straits Times of Singapore , lawyers who were interviewed said anime fans would not have a strong defence against Odex if proof of uploading or downloading of unauthorised videos was presented . In his analysis , Thomas Koshy — a legal academic writing in Today — questioned the legality of Odex 's threatening criminal prosecution of downloaders . Koshy maintained that only the Attorney @-@ General had the power to prosecute and that there was no indication that he had authorised Odex to conduct prosecutions on his behalf . Moreover , Koshy opined that it was improper for Odex to have combined its demand for compensation with a threat of criminal prosecution ; although Odex 's letters alleged " illegal downloading activity " , the company threatened punishment associated with the more serious offence of distributing materials which infringed copyrights . Koshy noted that Odex had cited a legal provision intended to regulate people 's file sharing for monetary gain rather than downloading by a casual consumer . Burton Ong , an associate professor at the National University of Singapore Faculty of Law , suggested that an anime fan who downloaded a few episodes may have been able to rely on " fair dealing " as a defence against the charge of copyright infringement . One of the criteria for pursuing this line of defence would have been proving that the download subsequently boosted , rather than undermined , the commercial viability of the anime industry .
Anime fans and sympathisers used the Internet to raise funds and lodge a legal challenge to Odex 's methods ; one Internet user created an invitation @-@ only forum for those considering going to court against Odex over its allegations of illegal downloads . Fans solicited legal advice and put together a library of relevant material . A letter to The Straits Times pointed out that downloaders deciding to settle out of court with Odex were afforded no protection from lawsuits initiated by other companies within the anime industry .
Following District Judge Earnest Lau 's ruling in the Odex v. Pacific Internet lawsuit , Koshy expressed his belief that SingNet might be in breach of the spirit of the Telecommunications Competition Code , which protects the confidentiality of subscribers ' information and prohibits unauthorised release . Another lawyer interviewed by ZDNet , however , did not think that SingNet 's actions were improper , and a spokesman for the Infocomm Development Authority announced that SingNet was found to be in compliance with the code . Andy Ho , another The Straits Times editor , expressed concern that private entities might use intellectual property laws invasively , thus precipitating a chilling effect on free speech ; he called for privacy laws to be quickly enacted .
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= 2007 – 08 Sunderland A.F.C. season =
The 2007 – 08 season was the 113th full season in Sunderland A.F.C. ' s history , their 107th in the league system of English football and 7th in the Premier League . After finishing 1st in the Championship during the 2006 – 07 season , Sunderland were promoted to the Premier League as champions . Sunderland had been relegated in the 2005 – 06 season with the record low points tally at the time of 15 . The 2007 – 08 season was Roy Keane 's first as a manager in the Premier League having won the Championship in his debut season .
Keane introduced 12 new signings in pre @-@ season and allowed seven players to leave the club . They won their first game of the season , but subsequently started to struggle for points , winning just two games in their first 16 . Their longest winning streak came towards the end of the season as they won three consecutive games . This late run helped Sunderland finish 15th , though they only managed to win two away games , of which the first came in late March . The team suffered first round exits in two of the cup competitions they entered : in the second round of the League Cup and the third round of the FA Cup . Kenwyne Jones was the club 's top goalscorer , recording 7 goals in the league . Left @-@ back Danny Collins was named as Sunderland 's player of the season , while on loan centre @-@ back Jonny Evans was named as the club 's young player of the season for the second season running . The club 's average attendance of 42 @,@ 728 was the fifth highest in the division .
= = Background = =
Discussions of takeover were held over the summer involving an Irish group , the Drumaville Consortium , led by Niall Quinn . They completed the takeover in July for £ 10 million as Quinn 's group took 72 @.@ 59 % of the club 's shares . During the 2006 – 07 season , Roy Keane took over as manager from chairman Niall Quinn , who served as manager for the first six games of the season . Keane had a successful start to his managerial career with a 2 – 1 win over Derby County on 11 September 2006 . On transfer window deadline day , Keane signed new players ; Dwight Yorke , Liam Miller , Ross Wallace , Stanislav Varga , Graham Kavanagh and David Connolly . A 2 – 0 win over Leicester City on 1 January 2007 sparked an 18 @-@ game unbeaten streak for Sunderland , which was eventually ended on 21 April 2007 after a 3 – 1 defeat at the hands of Colchester United .
Sunderland reached the top of the Football League Championship for the first time in the season with a 2 – 1 win over Southampton , which included an 87th @-@ minute winner from Grant Leadbitter . Their promotion was confirmed as third placed team Derby County lost 2 – 0 to Crystal Palace , as a result Birmingham City were also promoted . On the last day of the season , the Championship title would be decided . Sunderland won their game 5 – 0 against Luton Town , while Birmingham suffered a defeat against Preston North End thus crowning Sunderland as champions .
= = Review = =
= = = Pre @-@ season = = =
Sunderland 's pre @-@ season was busy with transfer activity , seeing eight players come in , and five players leave . Kenny Cunningham retired , Tommy Miller , William Mocquet , Kevin Smith were released , while Robbie Weir , Jamie Chandler and David Dowson were all promoted to the first team from the club 's youth system . Their first signing of the season was of Greg Halford from Charlton Athletic , and their first transfer out of the club when Stephen Elliott moved to Wolverhampton Wanderers . On 13 July 2007 , Sunderland signed the former Newcastle United player Michael Chopra from Cardiff City for £ 5 million and Manchester United midfielder Kieran Richardson on 16 July .
Fellow north east team Darlington was Sunderland 's first pre @-@ season friendly , Sunderland won the game 2 – 0 with goals from Ross Wallace and Anthony Stokes at The Darlington Arena . This was followed up by a shock defeat to Scunthorpe United on 21 July where they were beaten 1 – 0 . Sunderland went on a tour of Ireland , where they would play Bohemians , Cork City and Galway United . They beat Bohemians 1 – 0 on 28 July thanks to a Stern John goal , but were held to a 1 – 1 draw at Cork City as Liam Miller scored the Sunderland goal . Their final game of the tour against Galway United ended as a 4 – 0 win for Sunderland , with goals from Michael Chopra , Kieran Richardson , David Connolly and Stern John . Juventus travelled to the Stadium of Light to commemorate its ten @-@ year anniversary . The game ended 1 – 1 as Daryl Murphy scored , but the Italian side scored with two minutes remaining to draw the game .
Sunderland signed Dickson Etuhu from Norwich City for £ 1 @.@ 5 million on 17 July , and Paul McShane from West Bromwich Albion on 26 July for £ 2 @.@ 5 million . With the start of the Premier League season looming , Sunderland broke their transfer record to buy Scottish international goalkeeper Craig Gordon from Heart of Midlothian for £ 9 million . The club 's last signing before the start of the season was Roy O 'Donovan from Cork City for an undisclosed fee .
= = = August = = =
Sunderland 's season started against Tottenham Hotspur on 11 August 2007 . Sunderland won the game through a last minute goal from Michael Chopra in front of an attendance of 43 @,@ 967 . Their second game of the season was an away fixture to Birmingham City , a Paul McShane own goal had put Sunderland behind in the 28th minute , but Michael Chopra scored his second goal of the season to equalise . Birmingham took the lead again through Garry O 'Connor but Sunderland scored another last minute goal , this time from Stern John to save a point . On 24 August ex Manchester United and Newcastle United striker Andy Cole joined the club on a free transfer from Portsmouth . Sunderland travelled to the JJB Stadium unbeaten on 18 August but lost 3 – 0 to Wigan Athletic . On 25 September Liverpool beat Sunderland 2 – 0 to give them their second consecutive defeat . On the same day , Tobias Hysén returned to his native Sweden with IFK Göteborg after he and his wife were suffering from home sickness . Luton Town produced a league cup shock as they beat Sunderland 3 – 0 at Kenilworth Road . Sunderland signed three more players before the transfer deadline ; Ian Harte from Levante on a free transfer , Danny Higginbotham from Stoke City for £ 3 million , and Kenwyne Jones from Southampton for £ 6 million with Stern John going in the opposite direction .
= = = September = = =
Sunderland opened the month with a 1 – 0 defeat away to Manchester United on 1 September , Louis Saha scored the winner 18 minutes from full @-@ time . Roy Keane said " I 'm delighted with the overall performance . It would have been nice to test their goalkeeper a bit more but overall I 'm delighted with the players ' efforts . " about the team 's display . Jack Pelter signed for Sunderland on 8 September , from New Zealand team Canterbury United , on a free transfer in an original one @-@ month deal . Two weeks after the defeat to Manchester United , Sunderland beat Reading 2 – 1 on 15 September . Kenwyne Jones and Ross Wallace scored the Sunderland goals in a game which was overshadowed by the tribute paid to 1973 FA Cup Final scorer Ian Porterfield who died on 11 September 2007 . Sunderland met Middlesbrough on 22 September in their first north east derby of the season . Grant Leadbitter scored in the 2nd minute to put Sunderland in front , but two ex @-@ Sunderland players ; Julio Arca and Stewart Downing put Middlesbrough into the lead . Liam Miller scored an 89th minute volley to save a point for Sunderland . Grant Leadbitter scored his second goal in as many games on 29 September as Blackburn Rovers beat Sunderland 2 – 1 .
= = = October = = =
October started with an away fixture against Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium on 7 October . Sunderland went 2 – 0 down within the first 14 minutes . However , Sunderland levelled the score at 2 – 2 with goals from Ross Wallace on the 25th minute and Kenwyne Jones on the 48 minute . Arsenal won the game 3 – 2 after a late Robin van Persie goal . Sunderland suffered back @-@ to @-@ back defeats when they lost 3 – 1 away to West Ham United on 21 October . Kenwyne Jones got the goal for Sunderland . Fulham came to the Stadium of Light on 27 October , Fulham took the lead in the 32nd minute with a 30 yard free kick from Simon Davies . Sunderland snatched a point when Kenywyne Jones scored an 86th @-@ minute equaliser . The wearsiders had gone down to ten men in the 67th minute when Greg Halford was sent off .
= = = November = = =
Sunderland lost 1 – 0 away to Manchester City on 5 November after a goal from Stephen Ireland . Manager , Roy Keane , expressed his frustration in a post match interview saying " We didn 't deserve anything . I don 't feel we did enough to get anything out of the game . I don 't think their keeper had too many saves to make , did he ? " . 10 November was the first Tyne – Wear derby of the season . Danny Higginbotham put Sunderland into the lead shortly after half time , but James Milner drew Newcastle level on the 68th minute after his cross beat goalkeeper Craig Gordon into the far post . Sunderland had a chance to win the game when ex @-@ Newcastle forward Michael Chopra headed against the bar minutes from full @-@ time . Sunderland ended the month on a low as they were beaten 7 – 1 away to Everton on 24 November . Dwight Yorke scored Sunderland 's only goal just before half time . Roy Keane said " It 's hard to take , but we lose as a team and I picked the team and sorted the tactics so I have no problem taking responsibility for what happened . "
= = = December = = =
On 1 December Sunderland beat Derby County 1 – 0 . The defeat against Everton led to Craig Gordon being dropped from the side . He was replaced by Darren Ward who made a save to push Kenny Miller 's strike onto the post . With the game looking to be heading towards a draw , Anthony Stokes scrambled to ball in to win the game . On 8 December Sunderland travelled to Stamford Bridge to play Chelsea . Sunderland went behind in the 23rd minute through an Andriy Shevchenko goal . Chelsea won the game 2 – 0 after Liam Miller was sent off whilst giving a penalty away , which Frank Lampard scored . Sunderland played Aston Villa on 15 December , Danny Higginbotham put Sunderland ahead with a 10th @-@ minute header . Villa midfielder Shaun Maloney equalised when he scored a from a 71st minute free kick . Sunderland could have won the game late on , but Danny Collins ' header was ruled out by referee Steve Bennett for a foul . Roy Keane displayed his annoyance at Bennett saying " It sums up ( the referee 's ) day . He was giving everything against us and to say we 're disappointed would be an unbelievable understatement . You could sense he was waiting to blow his whistle . It would be nice to see him later . "
Reading reversed their defeat to Sunderland previously in the season by winning 2 – 1 on 22 December . Reading had led 1 – 0 after a 69th @-@ minute goal from Ívar Ingimarsson . Michael Chopra levelled the match by scoring an 82nd @-@ minute penalty . A goal by Stephen Hunt in the 90th minute sparked controversy as it appeared not to have crossed the line . Sunderland met Manchester United on Boxing Day at the Stadium of Light , they were beaten 4 – 0 in a game were Sunderland striker Martyn Waghorn made the step up from the club 's Youth system to the first team . Martyn Waghorn promoted to first team from Youth system . Sunderland ended 2007 with a 3 – 1 home win to Bolton Wanderers on 29 December , Kieran Richardson , Kenwyne Jones and Daryl Murphy were the scorers .
= = = January = = =
Sunderland began the new year with a 1 – 0 away loss to Blackburn Rovers on 1 January . Dean Whitehead had the chance to put Sunderland in the lead , but missed his penalty kick . Minutes later , Blackburn won a penalty of their own ; Benni McCarthy converted the penalty before Dwight Yorke was sent off late on . Jonny Evans returned to Sunderland on loan for the second time for the remainder of season from Manchester United . Sunderland met Wigan Athletic in the FA Cup third round as they lost 3 – 0 on 5 January . On 12 January Kieran Richardson scored a double to beat Portsmouth 2 – 0 at the Stadium of Light . Sunderland made their first permanent signing of the January transfer window when Frenchman Jean @-@ Yves M 'voto signed from Paris Saint @-@ Germain on 15 January for an undisclosed fee . M 'voto said " This is a big opportunity for me , I 'm pleased to be at Sunderland . "
On 19 January Sunderland played Tottenham Hotspur . An early Aaron Lennon goal saw Spurs take the lead , and Robbie Keane 's 100th goal for the club in the 90th minute won the game for Tottenham at White Hart Lane . Phil Bardsley signed for the club on 22 January from Manchester United for £ 2 million , the next day Rade Prica also signed for the club , from AaB Aalborg for £ 2 million . New signing Rade Prica scored a goal on his debut for Sunderland to wrap up a 2 – 0 win at home to Birmingham City on 29 January . Daryl Murphy scored the first goal in the 15th minute . Andy Reid signed for the club on the last day of the January transfer window deadline from Charlton Athletic for £ 4 million .
= = = February = = =
Sunderland had a poor start to the month , as they lost 3 – 0 away to Liverpool on 2 February . They had two penalty appeals turned down , prompting Roy Keane to comment , " We felt they were penalties . But I didn 't feel we were going to get those decisions today . " Following a recent heart attack in a League Cup game between Leicester City and Nottingham Forest , Clive Clarke had his Sunderland contract terminated on 5 February due to the event while on loan at Leicester . Sunderland bounced back from the defeat to Liverpool with a 2 – 0 win against Wigan Athletic on 9 February . Dickson Etuhu put them in the lead before Daryl Murphy scored a 25 yard strike in off the bar . Sunderland , however , lost their next game 1 – 0 to Portsmouth on 23 February at Fratton Park .
= = = March = = =
On 1 March Sunderland drew 0 – 0 away to Derby County . Michael Chopra could have put the team in the lead , only for it to be ruled out for offside . Sunderland 's manager said , " He [ Chopra ] was clearly onside and we are always told that the advantage goes with the attacking player . " An Andrew Johnson goal on the verge of half time helped Everton to a 1 – 0 win at the Stadium of Light on 8 March . Sunderland lost consecutive games when Chelsea beat them 1 – 0 on 15 March due to a Didier Drogba goal . Andy Reid came close to putting Sunderland in front as his free kick was plucked from the top corner by Carlo Cudicini . Sunderland 's first away win of the season came on 22 March when they won 1 – 0 at Villa Park against Aston Villa . An 83rd minute Michael Chopra scored the winning goal for Sunderland . A 2 – 1 win at home to West Ham United on 29 February helped Sunderland to their first consecutive wins of the season . Kenwyne Jones ' first goal since late December levelled the score at 1 – 1 and a 95th minute Andy Reid goal won the game .
= = = April = = =
A 3 – 1 away win to Fulham on 5 April helped Sunderland to nine points in three games , as goals came from Danny Collins , Michael Chopra and Kenwyne Jones . They lost 2 – 1 at home to Manchester City on 12 April . Manchester City were awarded a dubious penalty given by Mike Riley , and Elano converted it in the 79 minute . Dean Whitehead equalised with a near post volley after Andy Reid crossed the ball . Manchester City , however , still had time to win the game and Darius Vassell scored an 89th minute scuffed shot to beat Craig Gordon . On the return fixture of the Tyne and Wear derby on 19 April Sunderland were defeated 2 – 0 away to Newcastle United . The next game was another derby for Sunderland , this time the Tees – Wear derby on 26 April . Sunderland won the game 3 – 2 at home to Middlesbrough , with goals from Danny Higginbotham , Michael Chopra and an Emanuel Pogatetz own goal , thus securing their safety and staying in the Premier League .
= = = May = = =
After ensuring their own safety , Sunderland travelled to Bolton Wanderers on 3 May , who were not yet safe from relegation . Sunderland lost the game 2 – 0 at the Reebok Stadium . On 11 May , the last game of the Premier League season , Sunderland played Arsenal at the Stadium of Light . Arsenal won the game 1 – 0 through a Theo Walcott goal . Sunderland also recorded their highest home attendance of the season , when the match was watched by 47 @,@ 802 people . Sunderland finished the season with 39 points in 15th place , with Kenwyne Jones as top goal scorer with seven goals . Left @-@ back Danny Collins was named as Sunderland 's player of the season , while on loan centre @-@ back Jonny Evans was named as the club 's young player of the season for the second season running . They finished with an average home attendance of 42 @,@ 728 which was the fifth highest in the league .
= = Match results = =
= = = Legend = = =
= = = Pre @-@ season = = =
= = = Premier League = = =
= = = FA Cup = = =
= = = League Cup = = =
= = League table = =
Source : Barclays Premier League
Rules for classification : 1 ) points ; 2 ) goal difference ; 3 ) number of goals scored1 via FA Cup 2007 @-@ 082 via UEFA Fair Play ranking3 via Football League Cup 2007 @-@ 08 ( C ) |
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