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= Wonderbra =
The Wonderbra is a type of push @-@ up underwire brassiere that gained worldwide prominence in the 1990s . Although the Wonderbra name was first trademarked in the U.S. in 1955 , the brand was developed in Canada . Moses ( Moe ) Nadler , founder and majority owner of the Canadian Lady Corset Company , licensed the trademark for the Canadian market in 1939 . By the 1960s the Canadian Lady brand had become known in Canada as " Wonderbra , the company . " In 1961 the company introduced the Model 1300 plunge push @-@ up bra . This bra became one of the best @-@ selling Canadian styles and is virtually identical to today 's Wonderbra .
In 1968 , Canadian Lady changed its name to Canadian Lady @-@ Canadelle Inc . , was sold to Consolidated Foods ( now Sara Lee Corporation ) , and later became Canadelle Inc . During the 1970s Wonderbra was repositioned as the company 's fashionable and sexy brand , and became the Canadian market leader .
In 1991 , the push @-@ up Wonderbra became a sensation in the UK , although it had been sold there since 1964 under license by the Gossard division of Courtaulds Textiles . Sara Lee Corporation did not renew Gossard 's license and redesigned the push @-@ up style for the reintroduction of the Wonderbra to the U.S. market in 1994 .
Since 1994 , the Wonderbra has expanded from the single push @-@ up design into a full @-@ range lingerie fashion label in most of the world . In most countries , the brand emphasizes sex @-@ appeal . In its native Canada , however , the brand promotes the functional qualities of its products — a departure from the strategy that made Wonderbra the top @-@ seller in the 1970s .
= = Original " Wonder @-@ Bra " design = =
Before the Second World War broke out , elastic materials were rationed and unavailable for clothing . Israel Pilot designed an improved cup with a diagonal slash , shoulder strap attachment . This innovation on existing bra design provided more comfort and freedom of movement for the wearer . He also coined the name " Wonder @-@ Bra " in 1935 .
Israel Pilot 's patent US 2245413 , granted in 1941 , allowed for greater shoulder strap elasticity by cutting the fabric so that the weave has the greatest stretch ( cutting on the " bias " ) . The photographs show the original patent sketches and close @-@ ups of a bra made in the U.S. by D 'Amour . The model is wearing a rare 1950s version of this original Wonder @-@ Bra design .
= = History = =
In 1939 , Moe Nadler founded the Canadian Lady Corset Company . He created a small sewing shop in the heart of Montreal to make a well fitting , good quality bra in the mid @-@ priced range ( from $ 1 @.@ 00 to $ 1 @.@ 50 retail ) . As part of this effort , he traveled to New York City and met with Israel Pilot and licensed the Wonder @-@ Bra trademark and diagonal slash patent . In Canada , the trademark lost the hyphen , and became " WonderBra , " and " Wonderbra " at the U.S. reintroduction .
During the wartime years , Canadian apparel manufacturers were subject to quotas on materials . Elastics were unavailable , affecting the comfort and design of women 's underwear . The diagonal slash offered a better fitting brassiere without elastics , and became a competitive advantage .
From 1939 - 1955 , Canadian Lady marketed several lines of intimate apparel including girdles , panties , slips , swimsuits , and brassieres under the Wonderbra brand . The Company also created sub @-@ brands to target different socioeconomic and lifestyle segments of the consumer market . In contrast , the U.S. market for Wonder @-@ Bra stagnated while the brand was owned by Israel Pilot 's companies . In 1952 , Canadian Lady launched Petal Burst with anticipation of tough negotiations with D 'Amour — Israel Pilot 's U.S. company — around the expiration of the patent in 1955 . This new line also adapted to a new fashion trend towards a pointed bust , inspired by Christian Dior 's " New Look " . The Petal Burst by Wonderbra line was successful and delivered 50 % of bra sales by 1957 .
The post @-@ patent negotiations were led by Moe Nadler . D 'Amour no longer had leverage with a patent , but still demanded that Canadian Lady stop using the designs , and return the pattern templates . Moe Nadler ignored this demand and instead successfully acquired the Canadian , European , and Asian rights to the Wonderbra trademarks . This allowed the company to move forward into the 1960s with the brand intact . By the mid @-@ 1960s Canadian Lady was exporting and licensing the Wonderbra line to Western Europe , Australia , South Africa , Israel and the West Indies . In the 1970s , Canadelle acquired the remaining worldwide rights to the trademark , and licensed Giltex ( a Canadian pantyhose manufacturer acquired by Sara Lee in the 1980s ) to use the Wonderbra brand on hosiery in Canada .
= = = Development of the push @-@ up bra = = =
In the late 1950s Moe Nadler started traveling to Europe to find new styles to bring to the Canadian market . In 1960 , Wonderbra introduced a lacy , half push @-@ up bra described in Europe as Pigeonnant ( meaning " pigeon @-@ breasted " in French ) . In 1961 Nadler directed Louise Poirier to develop a deeply plunged , laced push @-@ up design , numbered the 1300 . Canadian Lady licensed these models , among others , to Gossard in 1964 . It was this Wonderbra Model 1300 design that became first a UK success in the early 1990s , a European sensation in 1993 , and then the " One and Only Wonderbra " that was finally launched in the U.S. in 1994 .
= = = Canadian product , 1964 to 1980 = = =
In the late 1950s and early 1960s , the majority of women were still wearing highly structured undergarments . Girdles were considered the ladylike norm and represented close to 40 % of industry sales by volume . The 1960s also brought to Canadian Lady the challenges of feminism , fashions and the sexual revolution . The feminist movement — cultured by thought leaders like Betty Friedan and Germaine Greer — questioned the mores that defined women 's roles and appearance . Changes in fashion trends , such as pantyhose and the rise of the miniskirt , rendered the girdle unattractive and obsolete to a generation of women . While the intimate apparel industry fretted about bra @-@ burning as a precursor to the decline of all foundation garment sales , women reserved their animosity for their girdles . The Canadian sales data for foundation undergarments , from 1960 to 1971 , vividly demonstrates the shift in tastes .
It was against this backdrop that the Canadian Lady Corset Company had to act . In 1964 , Moe Nadler died and his son , Larry Nadler inherited control of the company . Larry Nadler was a Harvard @-@ trained MBA and brought modern marketing strategies to the industry . He commissioned market research that identified women 's feelings about intimate apparel . Women did not hate their bras . Rather , they saw bras as a means to feel and look beautiful , to be fashionable and sexy , and to attract men . While women sometimes went bra @-@ less , they were making a fashion choice and not a political statement . Canadian Lady 's management knew that girdles were out , but bras would remain an essential part of women 's wardrobes . So during the 1960s , while competitors were cutting back on their bra marketing and diversifying into other products , Canadian Lady aggressively pursued bra market share .
Later , Larry Nadler identified an age based bifurcation in the market . Younger women ( aged 15 to 20 ) regarded their bras as an enhancement to their sexuality but were not interested in a heavily structured garment . Nadler learned that women wanted " less bra , " not " no bra . " In 1974 , they introduced a new line of brassieres for teens called Dici ( by Wonderbra ) , and invented new hot fabric molding technologies to shape the cup . These bras were seamless and simply designed with less support than the typical bra of the period . The company designed special packaging in the shape of a die ( with holes ) .
= = = Brand development = = =
In 1966 , Canadian Lady made several important changes to their advertising strategy . They introduced television advertising and changed the emphasis from the product to the brand . Ads attempted to build consumer awareness of the single brand name : Wonderbra . Market research showed that women did not want girdles advertised on television — girdles were seen as armor against sex , while bras provided a means of attraction .
Instead of being hidden " unmentionables " , Wonderbras became more visible icons of female sex @-@ appeal . The company also used pricing to promote Wonderbra as a luxury product with the highest price of any mass @-@ merchandised brand . This strategy also provided greater profits in a very competitive industry . The goal was to have women see their Wonderbras as a cosmetic — a beauty enhancer — rather than a functional garment . Playtex , the leading brand at the time , promoted the ease of care and durability of their girdles and brassieres .
Beginning in 1967 , the advertising focused exclusively on Wonderbra brand brassieres . In 1968 , Nadler hired Goodis Advertising to develop the new campaign . The Wonderbra ads were based on fashion and emotional appeal . In various ads , the man would appear as fashion photographer ( in a fashion shoot ) or fashion buyer ( at a fashion show ) . The storyline suggested an attraction or budding romance between the man and the women . The voice @-@ over and jingle featured a man 's voice and the commercial showed an actual woman 's torso naked except for a bra . All other television ads before this era showed brassieres on a manikin or a dressmaker 's dummy to promote the functional features of the product . Every Wonderbra advertisement contained versions of the musical theme , " We care about the shape you 're in . Wonderful , wonderful , Wonderbra " . The 1979 television campaign included a commercial directed by Richard Avedon which won a Silver award for television advertisements shown in Canada .
The Dici by Wonderbra television advertisements started in 1974 . The brand was positioned to young women as a more natural alternative to the heavily @-@ structured bras worn by their mothers . The animated ads featured the iconic die @-@ shaped packaging . A bra exited the box like a bird , then metamorphosed into a seagull and flew away . The tagline reinforced a spirit of freedom and nature : " Let it be Dici . Dici or nothing . "
= = = Popularity in Canada = = =
From 1972 to 1977 , the company doubled its wholesale revenue from $ 12 @.@ 6 million to $ 24 @.@ 9 million . By 1979 Canadelle dominated with 30 % of the Canadian market and $ 27 million in sales . Playtex ( later acquired by Sara Lee ) was second . By 1980 , Wonderbra 's sales were over $ 30 million wholesale ( $ 76 million in 2006 dollars ) in a country with only 10 @.@ 3 million women and girls older than 13 .
= = Worldwide reintroduction , 1991 to 1994 = =
Around 1991 , Gossard was selling the Wonderbra lines under licenses that were to expire in January 1994 . At the time , the plunge style was a good seller in the UK market . Gossard planned to renew their license and had an option to do so under the existing agreement . Instead of simply renewing the agreement , Gossard executives decided to negotiate better terms with Sara Lee .
Soon after the negotiations started , something unexpected happened . In 1992 , the plunge style became a hit with British women and sales took off . Between 1991 and 1993 , UK sales of that Wonderbra style quadrupled to $ 28 million , accounting for 12 @.@ 5 % of the $ 225 million UK branded bra market . Several factors might have contributed to this boom including " an article in British Vogue on the return of the padded bra , a Vivienne Westwood @-@ inspired fad for corsetry and that Gaultier driven yearning for underwear as outerwear " . With this surge in sales , Sara Lee decided not to renew the license with Gossard .
In 1994 in the UK , the ( Sara Lee ) Wonderbra achieved a high profile for its racy Hello Boys campaign . The most famous campaign poster presented model Eva Herzigová in a Wonderbra gazing down at her breasts with the caption " Hello Boys " , ambiguously addressing either male admirers or her breasts . Urban myth attributed a number of car accidents to ( male ) drivers being distracted by the advertisements . The influential poster was featured in an exhibition at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London and it was voted in at number 10 in a " Poster of the Century " contest .
The Playtex Division of Sara Lee was given the responsibility of introducing " The Wonderbra " style to the United States . Although the model was already being manufactured in Montreal by Canadelle , Playtex executives decided to take a year to redesign the bra for the U.S. market . They scheduled a late 1994 national launch for the bra . During this period , Gossard introduced to Americans their Ultrabra , with a design similar to the push @-@ up Wonderbra model . Other competitors quickly followed while Playtex retooled the design . Victoria 's Secret launched television advertisements to maintain visibility for the Miracle Bra which the company launched in 1993 .
The U.S. Wonderbra rollout included events with Eva Herzigová in New York 's Times Square . The advertisements were toned down in comparison to the earlier UK campaign . The U.S. print and billboard advertising showed models wearing only the Wonderbra . Underneath read slogans such as " who cares if it 's a bad hair day " and " look me in the eyes and tell me that you love me . " The $ 25 Million campaign worked in conjunction to the ongoing media interest in the bra . Although Playtex promoted the authenticity of their " One and Only Wonderbra " , the rapid introduction of competitive products meant that the overall U.S. market benefited from a 43 % increase in push @-@ up bra sales by the end of 1994 .
Following the 1994 relaunch , the U.S. Wonderbra has expanded from the single push @-@ up bra design to a broader lingerie line . The brand remains popular around the world as a product , and a part of the cultural lexicon .
= = Recent developments = =
In 2006 , Sara Lee sold its intimate apparel brands . The Wonderbra trademark is the property of Canadelle Limited Partnership of Canada , which is a wholly owned subsidiary of HanesBrands Inc . HanesBrands Inc. owns the license to sell and distribute apparel products under the Wonderbra trademark in all countries except the member states of the European Union , several other European nations and South Africa ; in these other markets , an affiliate of Sun Capital Partners owns the license under the Dim Branded Apparel group which is headquartered in Paris .
On January 3 , 2007 , the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation ( CBC @-@ TV ) broadcast the results of their internet poll , in which Canadian respondents ranked the Wonderbra 5th out of the top 50 " Greatest Canadian Inventions " ( after Insulin , the light bulb and the telephone , but ahead of the pacemaker ) .
In a March 2008 survey of 3 @,@ 000 UK women , the Wonderbra was reported as the greatest fashion innovation in history . According to one magazine article , survey respondents were nearly unanimous in giving push @-@ up bras the number one position .
In 2009 , WonderBra Canada celebrated the 70th anniversary of the brand 's Canadian introduction .
= = Spokesmodels = =
During the 1994 reintroduction , it was thought that an international group of women models as spokespersons - they were called " spokesmodels " – would enhance marketing . The brand continues to use this tactic .
US Campaigns
" One and Only Wonderbra " ( May 9 , 1994 – ) Eva Herzigova , Czech
( 1995 – ) Madison Michele , US
( 1997 – ) Sarah O 'Hare , Australian
" Three Degrees of Wonder " ( 2000 – ) Magdalena Wróbel , Polish
( 2003 – ) Nadja Auermann , German
Wonderbra 10th Anniversary ( 2004 – ) Maja Latinović , Serbian
UK Campaigns
" Hello Boys " ( 1994 – ) Eva Herzigova , Czech
" Necklines – come on down ! " ( 2002 – 2006 ) Inna Zobova , Russian
" Who says a woman can 't get pleasure from something soft ? " Sophie Anderton , British
( 1998 – 2000 ) Adriana Sklenaříková ,
( 2008 – present ) Dita Von Teese , American
South America Campaigns
" Necklines – come on down ! " ( 2002 – 2006 ) Inna Zobova , Russian
Europe Campaigns
" Hello Boys " ( 1994 – ) Eva Herzigova , Czech
( 1996 ) Patrizia Deitos , Italy
( 1998 – 2000 ) Adriana Sklenaříková ,
" Necklines – come on down ! " ( 2002 – 2006 ) Inna Zobova , Russian
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= 20 euro note =
The twenty euro note ( € 20 ) is the third @-@ lowest value euro banknote and has been used since the introduction of the euro ( in its cash form ) in 2002 . The note is used in the 23 countries which have it as their sole currency ( with 22 legally adopting it ) ; with a population of about 332 million .
It is the third @-@ smallest note , measuring 133 x 72 mm with a blue colour scheme . The twenty euro banknotes depict bridges and arches / doorways in Gothic architecture ( between the 13th and 14th century CE ) .
The twenty euro note contains several complex security features such as watermarks , invisible ink , holograms and microprinting that document its authenticity . In October 2011 , there were approximately 2 @,@ 755 @,@ 346 @,@ 800 twenty euro banknotes in circulation around the eurozone .
The full design of the Europa series 20 euro banknote was revealed on 24 February 2015 and launched on 25 November 2015 .
= = History = =
The euro was founded on 1 January 1999 , when it became the currency of over 300 million people in Europe . For the first three years of its existence it was an invisible currency , only used in accountancy . Euro cash was not introduced until 1 January 2002 , when it replaced the national banknotes and coins of the countries in eurozone 12 , such as the Belgian franc and the Greek drachma .
Slovenia joined the Eurozone in 2007 , Cyprus and Malta in 2008 , Slovakia in 2009 , Estonia in 2011 and Latvia joined on 1 January 2014 .
= = = The changeover period = = =
The changeover period during which the former currencies ' notes and coins were exchanged for those of the euro lasted about two months , going from 1 January 2002 until 28 February 2002 . The official date on which the national currencies ceased to be legal tender varied from member state to member state . The earliest date was in Germany , where the mark officially ceased to be legal tender on 31 December 2001 , though the exchange period lasted for two months more . Even after the old currencies ceased to be legal tender , they continued to be accepted by national central banks for periods ranging from ten years to forever .
= = = Changes = = =
Notes printed before November 2003 bear the signature of the first president of the European Central Bank , Wim Duisenberg , who was replaced on 1 November 2003 by Jean @-@ Claude Trichet , whose signature appears on issues from November 2003 to March 2012 . Notes issued after March 2012 bear the signature of the third president of the European Central Bank , incumbent Mario Draghi .
Until now there has been only one complete series of euro notes ; however a new series , similar to the current one , is being released . The European Central Bank will , in due time , announce when banknotes from the first series lose legal tender status .
As of June 2012 , current issues do not reflect the expansion of the European Union to 27 member states as Cyprus is not depicted on current notes as the map does not extend far enough east and Malta is also missing as it does not meet the current series ' minimum size for depiction . Since the European Central Bank plans to redesign the notes every seven or eight years after each issue , a second series of banknotes is already in preparation . New production and anti @-@ counterfeiting techniques will be employed on the new notes , but the design will be of the same theme and colours identical of the current series ; bridges and arches . However , they would still be recognisable as a new series .
= = Design = =
The twenty euro note is the third smallest euro note at 133 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) × 72 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) with a blue colour scheme . All bank notes depict bridges and arches / doorways in a different historical European style ; the twenty euro note shows the gothic era ( between the 13th and 14th century CE ) . Although Robert Kalina 's original designs were intended to show real monuments , for political reasons the bridge and art are merely hypothetical examples of the architectural era .
Like all euro notes , it contains the denomination , the EU flag , the signature of the president of the ECB and the initials of said bank in different EU languages , a depiction of EU territories overseas , the stars from the EU flag and thirteen security features as listed below .
The ECB released a game on 5 February 2015 to discover some of the new security features embedded in the new € 20 note . The most significant new anti @-@ counterfeit measure is a transparent window , containing a hologram which shows a portrait of Europa and the number 20 . The Europa series design of the 20 euro note was officially revealed on 24 February 2015 .
= = = Security features ( First Series ) = = =
As a lower value note , the security features of the twenty euro note are not as high as the other denominations , however , it is protected by :
A hologram , tilt the note and one should see the hologram image change between the value and a window or doorway , but in the background , one should see rainbow @-@ coloured concentric circles of micro @-@ letters moving from the centre to the edges of the patch .
A EURion constellation , special printing processes give the euro notes their unique feel .
A glossy stripe , tilt the note and a glossy stripe showing the value numeral and the euro symbol will appear .
Watermarks , it appears when the banknote is against the light .
Raised printing , special methods of printing makes the ink feel raised or thicker in the main image , the lettering and the value numerals on the front of the banknotes . To feel the raised print , run your finger over it or scratch it gently with your fingernail .
Ultraviolet ink , Under ultraviolet light , the paper itself should not glow , fibres embedded in the paper should appear , and should be coloured red , blue and green , the European Union flag looks green and has orange stars , the ECB President signature turns green , the large stars and small circles on the front glow and the European map , a bridge and the value numeral on the back appear in yellow .
Microprinting , On numerous areas of the banknotes you can see microprinting , for example , inside the " EYPΩ " ( EURO in Greek characters ) on the front . You will need a magnifying glass to see it . The tiny text is sharp , and not blurred .
A security thread , The security thread is embedded in the banknote paper . Hold the banknote against the light - the thread will appear as a dark stripe . The word " EURO " and the value can be seen in tiny letters on the stripe .
Perforations , Hold the banknote against the light . You should see perforations in the hologram which will form the € symbol . You should also see small numbers showing the value .
A matted surface , the note paper is made out of pure cotton , which feels crisp and firm , but not limp or waxy .
Barcodes ,
A serial number .
= = = Security Features ( Europa Series ) = = =
Watermark : When the note is held under a normal light source , a portrait of Europa and an electrotype denomination appear on either side .
Portrait Window : When the note is held against the light , the window in the hologram becomes transparent and reveals a portrait of Europa , which is visible on both sides of the note .
Portrait Hologram : When the note is tilted , the hologram - the silver @-@ coloured stripe on the right of the note - reveals a portrait of Europa as well as the " € " symbol , the main image and the value of the banknote .
Emerald Number : When the note is tilted , the number " 20 " on the bottom left corner of the note displays an effect of the light that moves up and down . The number " 20 " also changes colour from emerald green to deep blue .
Security Thread : When the note is held to the light , the security thread appears as a dark line . The " € " symbol and the value of the note can be seen in tiny white lettering in the stripe .
Microprinting : Some areas of the banknote feature a series of tiny letters . The microprinting can be read with a magnifying glass . The letters are sharp , not blurred .
= = Circulation = =
As of May 2013 , there are approximately 2 @,@ 845 @,@ 461 @,@ 000 € 20 banknotes in circulation around the Eurozone . That is approximately € 56 @,@ 909 @,@ 220 @,@ 700 worth of € 20 banknotes ( as of May 2013 ) . The European Central Bank is closely monitoring the circulation and stock of the euro coins and banknotes . It is a task of the Eurosystem to ensure an efficient and smooth supply of euro notes and to maintain their integrity throughout the eurozone .
= = Legal information = =
Legally , both the European Central Bank and the central banks of the eurozone countries have the right to issue the seven different euro banknotes . In practice , only the national central banks of the zone physically issue and withdraw euro banknotes . The European Central Bank does not have a cash office and is not involved in any cash operations .
= = Tracking = =
There are several communities of people at European level , most of which is EuroBillTracker , that , as a hobby , it keeps track of the euro banknotes that pass through their hands , to keep track and know where they travel or have travelled . The aim is to record as many notes as possible to know details about its spread , like from where and to where they travel in general , follow it up , like where a ticket has been seen in particular , and generate statistics and rankings , for example , in which countries there are more tickets . EuroBillTracker has registered over 155 million notes as of May 2016 , worth more than € 2 @.@ 897 billion .
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= Megamaser =
A megamaser is a type of astrophysical maser , which is a naturally occurring source of stimulated spectral line emission . Megamasers are distinguished from astrophysical masers by their large isotropic luminosity . Megamasers have typical luminosities of 103 solar luminosities ( L ☉ ) , which is 100 million times brighter than masers in the Milky Way , hence the prefix mega . Likewise , the term kilomaser is used to describe masers outside the Milky Way that have luminosities of order L ☉ , or thousands of times stronger than the average maser in the Milky Way , gigamaser is used to describe masers billions of times stronger than the average maser in the Milky Way , and extragalactic maser encompasses all masers found outside the Milky Way . Most known extragalactic masers are megamasers , and the majority of megamasers are hydroxyl ( OH ) megamasers , meaning the spectral line being amplified is one due to a transition in the hydroxyl molecule . There are known megamasers for three other molecules : water ( H2O ) , formaldehyde ( H2CO ) , and methine ( CH ) .
Water megamasers were the first type of megamaser discovered . The first water megamaser was found in 1979 in NGC 4945 , a galaxy in the nearby Centaurus A / M83 Group . The first hydroxyl megamaser was found in 1982 in Arp 220 , which is the nearest ultraluminous infrared galaxy to the Milky Way . All subsequent OH megamasers that have been discovered are also in luminous infrared galaxies , and there are a small number of OH kilomasers hosted in galaxies with lower infrared luminosities . Most luminous infrared galaxies have recently merged or interacted with another galaxy , and are undergoing a burst of star formation . Many of the characteristics of the emission in hydroxyl megamasers are distinct from that of hydroxyl masers within the Milky Way , including the amplification of background radiation and the ratio of hydroxyl lines at different frequencies . The population inversion in hydroxyl molecules is produced by far infrared radiation that results from absorption and re @-@ emission of light from forming stars by surrounding interstellar dust . Zeeman splitting of hydroxyl megamaser lines may be used to measure magnetic fields in the masing regions , and this application represents the first detection of Zeeman splitting in a galaxy other than the Milky Way .
Water megamasers and kilomasers are found primarily associated with active galactic nuclei , while galactic and weaker extragalactic water masers are found in star forming regions . Despite different environments , the circumstances that produce extragalactic water masers do not seem to be very different from those that produce galactic water masers . Observations of water megamasers have been used to make accurate measurements of distances to galaxies in order to provide constraints on the Hubble constant .
= = Background = =
= = = Masers = = =
The word maser derives from the acronym MASER , which stands for " Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation " . The maser is a predecessor to lasers , which operate at optical wavelengths , and is named by the replacement of " microwave " with " light " . Given a system of atoms or molecules , each with different energy states , an atom or molecule may absorb a photon and move to a higher energy level , or the photon may stimulate emission of another photon of the same energy and cause a transition to a lower energy level . Producing a maser requires population inversion , which is when a system has more members in a higher energy level relative to a lower energy level . In such a situation , more photons will be produced by stimulated emission than will be absorbed . Such a system is not in thermal equilibrium , and as such requires special conditions to occur . Specifically , it must have some energy source that can pump the atoms or molecules to the excited state . Once population inversion occurs , a photon with a photon energy corresponding to the energy difference between two states can then produce stimulated emission of another photon of the same energy . The atom or molecule will drop to the lower energy level , and there will be two photons of the same energy , where before there was only one . The repetition of this process is what leads to amplification , and since all of the photons are the same energy , the light produced is monochromatic .
= = = Astrophysical masers = = =
Masers and lasers built on Earth and masers that occur in space both require population inversion in order to operate , but the conditions under which population inversion occurs are very different in the two cases . Masers in laboratories have systems with high densities , which limits the transitions that may be used for masing , and requires using a resonant cavity in order to bounce light back and forth many times . Astrophysical masers are at low densities , and naturally have very long path lengths . At low densities , being out of thermal equilibrium is more easily achieved because thermal equilibrium is maintained by collisions , meaning population inversion can occur . Long path lengths provide photons traveling through the medium many opportunities to stimulate emission , and produce amplification of a background source of radiation . These factors accumulate to " make interstellar space a natural environment for maser operation . " Astrophysical masers may be pumped either radiatively or collisionally . In radiative pumping , infrared photons with higher energies than the maser transition photons preferentially excite atoms and molecules to the upper state in the maser in order to produce population inversion . In collisional pumping , this population inversion is instead produced by collisions that excite molecules to energy levels above that of the upper maser level , and then the molecule decays to the upper maser level by emitting photons .
= = History = =
In 1965 , twelve years after the first maser was built in a laboratory , a hydroxyl ( OH ) maser was discovered in the plane of the Milky Way . Masers of other molecules were discovered in the Milky Way in the following years , including water ( H2O ) , silicon monoxide ( SiO ) , and methanol ( CH3OH ) . The typical isotropic luminosity for these galactic masers is 10 − 6 – 10 − 3 L ☉ . The first evidence for extragalactic masing was detection of the hydroxyl molecule in NGC 253 in 1973 , and was roughly ten times more luminous than galactic masers .
In 1982 , the first megamaser was discovered in the ultraluminous infrared galaxy Arp 220 . The luminosity of the source , assuming it emits isotropically , is roughly 103 L ☉ . This luminosity is roughly one hundred million times stronger than the typical maser found in the Milky Way , and so the maser source in Arp 220 was called a megamaser . At this time , extragalactic water ( H2O ) masers were already known . In 1984 , water maser emission was discovered in NGC 4258 and NGC 1068 that was of comparable strength to the hydroxyl maser in Arp 220 , and are as such considered water megamasers .
Over the next decade , megamasers were also discovered for formaldehyde ( H2CO ) and methine ( CH ) . Galactic formaldehyde masers are relatively rare , and more formaldehyde megamasers are known than are galactic formaldehyde masers . Methine masers , on the other hand , are quite common in the Milky Way . Both types of megamaser were found in galaxies in which hydroxyl had been detected . Methine is seen in galaxies with hydroxyl absorption , while formaldehyde is found in galaxies with hydroxyl absorption as well as those with hydroxyl megamaser emission .
As of 2007 , 109 hydroxyl megamaser sources were known , up to a redshift of <formula> . Over 100 extragalactic water masers are known , and of these , 65 are bright enough to be considered megamasers .
= = General requirements = =
Regardless of the masing molecule , there are a few requirements that must be met for a strong maser source to exist . One requirement is a radio continuum background source to provide the radiation amplified by the maser , as all maser transitions take place at radio wavelengths . The masing molecule must have a pumping mechanism to create the population inversion , and sufficient density and path length for significant amplification to take place . These combine to constrain when and where megamaser emission for a given molecule will take place . The specific conditions for each molecule known to produce megamasers are different , as exemplified by the fact that there is no known galaxy that hosts both of the two most common megamaser species , hydroxyl and water . As such , the different molecules with known megamasers will be addressed individually .
= = Hydroxyl megamasers = =
Arp 220 hosts the first megamaser discovered , is the nearest ultraluminous infrared galaxy , and has been studied in great detail at many wavelengths . For this reason , it is the prototype of hydroxyl megamaser host galaxies , and is often used as a guide for interpreting other hydroxyl megamasers and their hosts .
= = = Hosts and environment = = =
Hydroxyl megamasers are found in the nuclear region of a class of galaxies called luminous infrared galaxies ( LIRGs ) , with far infrared luminosities in excess of one hundred billion solar luminosities , or LFIR > 1011 L ☉ , and ultra @-@ luminous infrared galaxies ( ULIRGs ) , with LFIR > 1012 L ☉ are favored . These infrared luminosities are very large , but in many cases LIRGs are not particularly luminous in visible light . For instance , the ratio of infrared luminosity to luminosity in blue light is roughly 80 for Arp 220 , the first source in which a megamaser was observed .
The majority of the LIRGs show evidence of interaction with other galaxies or having recently experienced a galaxy merger , and the same holds true for the LIRGs that host hydroxyl megamasers . Megamaser hosts are rich in molecular gas compared to spiral galaxies , with molecular hydrogen masses in excess of one billion solar masses , or H2 > 109 M ☉ . Mergers help funnel molecular gas to the nuclear region of the LIRG , producing high molecular densities and stimulating high star formation rates characteristic of LIRGs . The starlight in turn heats dust , which re @-@ radiates in the far infrared and produces the high LFIR observed in hydroxyl megamaser hosts . The dust temperatures derived from far infrared fluxes are warm relative to spirals , ranging from 40 – 90 K.
The far infrared luminosity and dust temperature of a LIRG both affect the likelihood of hosting an hydroxyl megamaser , through correlations between the dust temperature and far infrared luminosity , so it is unclear from observations alone what the role of each is in producing hydroxyl megamasers . LIRGs with warmer dust are more likely to host hydroxyl megamasers , as are ULIRGs , with LFIR > 1012 L ☉ . At least one out of three ULIRGs hosts an hydroxyl megamaser , as compared with roughly one out of six LIRGs . Early observations of hydroxyl megamasers indicated a correlation between the isotropic hydroxyl luminosity and far infrared luminosity , with LOH <formula> LFIR2 . As more hydroxyl megamasers were discovered , and care was taken to account for the Malmquist bias , this observed relationship was found to be flatter , with LOH <formula> LFIR1.2 <formula> 0 @.@ 1 .
Early spectral classification of the nuclei of the LIRGs that host hydroxyl megamasers indicated that the properties of LIRGs that host hydroxyl megamasers cannot be distinguished from the overall population of LIRGs . Roughly one third of megamaser hosts are classified as starburst galaxies , one quarter are classified as Seyfert 2 galaxies , and the remainder are classified as low @-@ ionization nuclear emission @-@ line regions , or LINERs . The optical properties of hydroxyl megamaser hosts and non @-@ hosts are not significantly different . Recent infrared observations using the Spitzer Space Telescope are , however , able to distinguish hydroxyl megamaser hosts galaxies from non @-@ masing LIRGs , as 10 – 25 % of hydroxyl megamaser hosts show evidence for an active galactic nucleus , compared to 50 – 95 % for non @-@ masing LIRGs .
The LIRGs that host hydroxyl megamasers may be distinguished from the general population of LIRGs by their molecular gas content . The majority of molecular gas is molecular hydrogen , and typical hydroxyl megamaser hosts have molecular gas densities greater than 1000 cm − 3 . These densities are among the highest mean densities of molecular gas among LIRGs . The LIRGs that host hydroxyl megamasers also have high fractions of dense gas relative to typical LIRGs . The dense gas fraction is measured by the ratio of the luminosity produced by hydrogen cyanide ( HCN ) relative to the luminosity of carbon monoxide ( CO ) .
= = = Line characteristics = = =
The emission of hydroxyl megamasers occurs predominantly in the so @-@ called " main lines " at 1665 and 1667 MHz . The hydroxyl molecule also has two " satellite lines " that emit at 1612 and 1720 MHz , but few hydroxyl megamasers have had satellite lines detected . Emission in all known hydroxyl megamasers is stronger in the 1667 MHz line ; typical ratios of the flux in the 1667 MHz line to the 1665 MHz line , called the hyperfine ratio , range from a minimum of 2 to greater than 20 . For hydroxyl emitting in thermodynamic equilibrium , this ratio will range from 1 @.@ 8 to 1 , depending upon the optical depth , so line ratios greater than 2 are indicative of a population out of thermal equilibrium . This may be compared with galactic hydroxyl masers in star @-@ forming regions , where the 1665 MHz line is typically strongest , and hydroxyl masers around evolved stars , in which the 1612 MHz line is often strongest , and of the main lines , 1667 MHz emission is frequently stronger than 1612 MHz . The total width of emission at a given frequency is typically many hundreds of kilometers per second , and individual features that make up the total emission profile have widths ranging from tens to hundreds of kilometers per second . These may also be compared with galactic hydroxyl masers , which typically have linewidths of order a kilometer per second or narrower , and are spread over a velocity of a few to tens of kilometers per second .
The radiation amplified by hydroxyl masers is the radio continuum of its host . This continuum is primarily composed of synchrotron radiation produced by Type II supernovae . Amplification of this background is low , with amplification factors , or gains , ranging from a few percent to a few hundred percent , and sources with larger hyperfine ratios typically exhibiting larger gains . Sources with higher gains typically have narrower emission lines . This is expected if the pre @-@ gain linewidths are all roughly the same , as line centers are amplified more than the wings , leading to line narrowing .
A few hydroxyl megamasers , including Arp 220 , have been observed with very long baseline interferometry ( VLBI ) , which allows sources to be studied at higher angular resolution . VLBI observations indicate that hydroxyl megamaser emission is composed of two components , one diffuse and one compact . The diffuse component displays gains of less than a factor of one and linewidths of order hundreds of kilometers per second . These characteristics are similar to those seen with single dish observations of hydroxyl megamasers that are unable to resolve individual masing components . The compact components have high gains , ranging from tens to hundreds , high ratios of flux at 1667 MHz to flux at 1665 MHz , and linewidths are of order a few kilometers per second . These general features have been explained by a narrow circumnuclear ring of material from which the diffuse emission arises , and individual masing clouds with sizes of order one parsec that give rise to the compact emission . The hydroxyl masers observed in the Milky Way more closely resemble the compact hydroxyl megamaser components . There are , however , some regions of extended galactic maser emission from other molecules that resemble the diffuse component of hydroxyl megamasers .
= = = Pumping mechanism = = =
The observed relationship between the luminosity of the hydroxyl line and the far infrared suggests that hydroxyl megamasers are radiatively pumped . Initial VLBI measurements of nearby hydroxyl megamasers seemed to present a problem with this model for compact emission components of hydroxyl megamasers , as they required a very high fraction of infrared photons to be absorbed by hydroxyl and lead to a maser photon being emitted , making collisional excitation a more plausible pumping mechanism . However , a model of maser emission with a clumpy masing medium appear to be able to reproduce the observed properties of compact and diffuse hydroxyl emission . A recent detailed treatment finds that photons with a wavelength of 53 micrometres are the primary pump for main line maser emission , and applies to all hydroxyl masers . In order to provide enough photons at this wavelength , the interstellar dust that reprocesses stellar radiation to infrared wavelengths must have a temperature of at least 45 Kelvin . Recent observations with the Spitzer Space Telescope confirm this basic picture , but there are still some discrepancies between details of the model and observations of hydroxyl megamaser host galaxies such as the required dust opacity for megamaser emission .
= = = Applications = = =
Hydroxyl megamasers occur in the nuclear regions of LIRGs , and appear to be a marker in the stage of the formation of galaxies . As hydroxyl emission is not subject to extinction by interstellar dust in its host LIRG , hydroxyl masers may be useful probes of the conditions where star formation in LIRGs takes place . At redshifts of z ~ 2 , there are LIRG @-@ like galaxies more luminous than the ones in the nearby universe . The observed relationship between the hydroxyl luminosity and far infrared luminosity suggests that hydroxyl megamasers in such galaxies may be tens to hundreds of times more luminous than observed hydroxyl megamasers . Detection of hydroxyl megamasers in such galaxies would allow precise determination of the redshift , and aid understanding of star formation in these objects .
The first detection of the Zeeman effect in another galaxy was made through observations of hydroxyl megamasers . The Zeeman effect is the splitting of a spectral line due to the presence of a magnetic field , and the size of the splitting is linearly proportional to the line @-@ of @-@ sight magnetic field strength . Zeeman splitting has been detected in five hydroxyl megamasers , and the typical strength of a detected field is of order a few milligauss , similar to the field strengths measured in galactic hydroxyl masers .
= = Water megamasers = =
Whereas hydroxyl megamasers seem to be fundamentally distinct in some ways from galactic hydroxyl masers , water megamasers do not seem to require conditions too dissimilar from galactic water masers . Water masers stronger than galactic water masers , some of which are strong enough to be classified " mega " masers , may be described by the same luminosity function as galactic water masers . Some extragalactic water masers occur in star forming regions , like galactic water masers , while stronger water masers are found in the circumnuclear regions around active galactic nuclei ( AGN ) . The isotropic luminosities of these span a range of order one to a few hundred L ☉ , and are found in nearby galaxies like Messier 51 ( 0 @.@ 8 L ☉ ) and more distant galaxies like NGC 4258 ( 120 L ☉ ) .
= = = Line characteristics and pumping mechanism = = =
Water maser emission is observed primarily at 22 GHz , due to a transition between rotational energy levels in the water molecule . The upper state is at an energy corresponding to 643 Kelvin about the ground state , and populating this upper maser level requires number densities of molecular hydrogen of order 108 cm − 3 or greater and temperatures of at least 300 Kelvin . The water molecule comes into thermal equilibrium at molecular hydrogen number densities of roughly 1011 cm − 3 , so this places an upper limit on the number density in a water masing region . Water masers emission has been successfully modeling by masers occurring behind shock waves propagating through dense regions in the interstellar medium . These shocks produce the high number densities and temperatures ( relative to typical conditions in the interstellar medium ) required for maser emission , and are successful in explaining observed masers .
= = = Applications = = =
Water megamasers may be used to provide accurate distance determinations to distant galaxies . Assuming a Keplerian orbit , measuring the centripetal acceleration and velocity of water maser spots yields the physical diameter subtended by the maser spots . By then comparing the physical radius to the angular diameter measured on the sky , the distance to the maser may be determined . This method is effective with water megamasers because they occur in a small region around an AGN , and have narrow linewidths . This method of measuring distances is being used to provide an independent measure of the Hubble constant that does not rely upon use of standard candles . The method is limited , however , by the small number of water megamasers known at distances within the Hubble flow . This distance measurement also provides a measurement of the mass of the central object , which in this case is a supermassive black hole . Black hole mass measurements using water megamasers is the most accurate method of mass determination for black holes in galaxies other than the Milky Way . The black hole masses that are measured are consistent with the M @-@ sigma relation , an empirical correlation between stellar velocity dispersion in galactic bulges and the mass of the central supermassive black hole .
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= Earnings management =
Earnings management , in accounting , is the act of intentionally influencing the process of financial reporting to obtain some private gain . Earnings management involves the alteration of financial reports to mislead stakeholders about the organization 's underlying performance , or to " influence contractual outcomes that depend on reported accounting numbers . "
Earnings management has a negative effect on earnings quality , and may weaken the credibility of financial reporting . Furthermore , in a 1998 speech Securities and Exchange Commission chairman Arthur Levitt called earnings management " widespread " . Despite its pervasiveness , the complexity of accounting rules can make earnings management difficult for individual investors to detect .
= = Occurrence and response by regulators = =
Earnings management is believed to be widespread . A 1990 report on earnings management situations stated that " short @-@ term earnings are being managed in many , if not all companies " , and in a 1998 speech , Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) chairman Arthur Levitt called earnings management a " widespread , but too little @-@ challenged custom " . In a 2013 essay , Ray Ball , while opining that accounting research was not reliably documenting earnings management , wrote : " Of course earnings management goes on . [ ... ] People have been tried and convicted . "
The SEC has criticized earnings management as having adverse consequences for financial reporting , and for masking " the true consequences of management 's decisions " . It has called on standard @-@ setters to make changes to accounting standards to improve financial statement transparency , and has called for increased oversight over the financial reporting process . The SEC has also pressed charges against the management of firms involved in fraudulent earnings management .
= = Motivations and methods = =
Earnings management involves the manipulation of company earnings towards a pre @-@ determined target . This target can be motivated by a preference for more stable earnings , in which case management is said to be carrying out income smoothing . Opportunistic income smoothing can in turn signal lower risk and increase a firm 's market value . Other possible motivations for earnings management include the need to maintain the levels of certain accounting ratios due to debt covenants , and the pressure to maintain increasing earnings and to beat analyst targets .
Earnings management may involve exploiting opportunities to make accounting decisions that change the earnings figure reported on the financial statements . Accounting decisions can in turn affect earnings because they can influence the timing of transactions and the estimates used in financial reporting . For example , a comparatively small change in the estimates for uncollectible accounts can have a significant effect on net income , and a company using last @-@ in , first @-@ out accounting for inventories can increase net income in times of rising prices by delaying purchases to future periods .
= = Detecting earnings management = =
Earnings management may be difficult for individual investors to detect due to the complexity of accounting rules , although accounting researchers have proposed several methods . For example , research has shown that firms with large accruals and weak governance structures are more likely to be engaging in earnings management . More recent research suggested that linguistics @-@ based methods can detect financial manipulation , for example studies in 2012 found that whether a subsequent irregularity or deceptive restatement occurred is related to the linguistics used by top management in earnings conference calls .
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= Adenanthos cuneatus =
Adenanthos cuneatus , also known as coastal jugflower , flame bush , bridle bush and sweat bush , is a shrub of the family Proteaceae native to the south coast of Western Australia . The French naturalist Jacques Labillardière originally described it in 1805 . Within the genus Adenanthos , it lies in the section Adenanthos and is most closely related to A. stictus . A. cuneatus has hybridized with four other species of Adenanthos . Growing to 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) high and wide , it is erect to prostrate in habit , with wedge @-@ shaped lobed leaves covered in fine silvery hair . The single red flowers are insignificant , and appear all year , though especially in late spring . The reddish new growth occurs over the summer .
It is sensitive to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback , hence requiring a sandy soil and good drainage to grow in cultivation , its natural habitat of sandy soils in heathland being an example . Its pollinators include bees , honey possum , silvereye and honeyeaters , particularly the western spinebill . A. cuneatus is grown in gardens in Australia and the western United States , and a dwarf and prostrate form are commercially available .
= = Description = =
Adenanthos cuneatus grows as an erect , spreading or prostrate shrub to 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) high and wide . It has a woody base , known as a lignotuber , from which it can resprout after bushfire . The wedge @-@ shaped ( cuneate ) leaves are on short petioles , and are 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) long and 1 – 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) wide , with 3 to 5 ( and occasionally up to 7 ) rounded ' teeth ' or lobes at the ends . New growth is red and slightly translucent . It glows bright red against the light , especially when the sun is low in the sky . New growth is mainly seen in summer , and the leaves in general are covered with fine , silvery hair . Occurring throughout the year but more often from August to November , the insignificant single flowers are a dull red in colour and measure around 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) long . The pollen is triangular in shape and measures 31 – 44 µm ( 0 @.@ 0012 – 0 @.@ 0017 in ) in length , averaging around 34 µm ( 0 @.@ 0013 in ) .
The species is similar in many ways to its close relative A. stictus . The most obvious difference is in habit : the multi @-@ stemmed , lignotuberous A. cuneatus rarely grows over 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) in height , whereas A. stictus is a taller single @-@ stemmed non @-@ lignotuberous shrub that commonly reaches 5 m ( 16 ft 5 in ) in height . Leaves are similar , but the lobes at the leaf apex are regular and crenate ( rounded ) in A. cuneatus , but irregular and dentate ( toothed ) in A. stictus . Also , new growth does not have a red flush in A. stictus , and juvenile leaves of A. stictus are usually much larger than adult leaves , a difference not seen in A. cuneatus . The flowers of the two species are very similar , differing only subtly in dimension , colour and indumentum .
= = Taxonomy = =
= = = Discovery and naming = = =
Although the precise time and location of its discovery are unknown , Jacques Labillardière , botanist to an expedition under Bruni d 'Entrecasteaux , which anchored in Esperance Bay on the south coast of Western Australia on 9 December 1792 , most likely collected the first known botanical specimen of Adenanthos cuneatus on 16 December while searching the area between Observatory Point and Pink Lake for the zoologist Claude Riche , who had gone ashore two days earlier and failed to return . Following an unsuccessful search the following day , several senior members of the expedition were convinced that Riche must have perished of thirst or at the hands of the Australian Aborigines and counselled d 'Entrecasteaux to sail without him . However , Labillardière convinced d 'Entrecasteaux to search for another day , and was rewarded not only with the recovery of Riche , but also with the collection of several highly significant botanical specimens , including the first specimens of Anigozanthos ( Kangaroo Paw ) and Nuytsia floribunda ( West Australian Christmas Tree ) and , as aforementioned , A. cuneatus .
Thirteen years passed before Labillardière published a formal description of A. cuneatus , and in the meantime several further collections were made : Scottish botanist Robert Brown collected a specimen on 30 December 1801 , during the visit of HMS Investigator to King George Sound ; and , fourteen months later , Jean @-@ Baptiste Leschenault de La Tour , botanist to Nicolas Baudin 's voyage of exploration , and " gardener 's boy " Antoine Guichenot collected more specimens therein . The official account of Baudin 's expedition contain notes from Leschenault on vegetation :
" Sur les bords de la mer , croissent , en grande abondance , l 'adenanthos cuneata , l 'adenanthos sericea au feuillage velouté , et une espèce du même genre dont les feuilles sont arrondies . "
( " On the seashore , grows , in great abundance , Adenanthos cuneata , the softer @-@ leaved Adenanthos sericea , and a species of the same genus with rounded leaves . " )
Labillardière eventually published the genus Adenanthos , along with A. cuneatus and two other species , in his 1805 Novae Hollandiae Plantarum Specimen . He chose the specific name cuneata in reference to the leaves of this species , which are cuneate ( triangular ) . This name has feminine gender , consistent with the gender assigned by Labillardière to the genus . He did not designate which of the three published species was to serve as the type species of Adenanthos , but Irish botanist E. Charles Nelson has since chosen A. cuneatus as lectotype for the genus , since the holotype of A. cuneatus bears an annotation showing the derivation of the genus name , and because Labillardière 's description of it is the most detailed of the three , and is referred to by the other descriptions .
= = = Synonymy = = =
In 1809 , Richard Salisbury , writing under Joseph Knight 's name in the controversial On the cultivation of the plants belonging to the natural order of Proteeae , published the name Adenanthes [ sic ] flabellifolia , listing A. cuneata as a synonym . As no type specimen was given , and no specimen annotated by Knight could be found , this was treated as a nomenclatural synonym of A. cuneata and was therefore rejected on the principle of priority .
Also synonymised with this species is Adenanthos crenata , published by Carl Ludwig Willdenow 's in Kurt Polycarp Joachim Sprengel 's 1825 16th edition of Systema Vegetabilium . Willdenow published both A. cuneata and A. crenata , giving them different descriptions but designating the same type specimen for both . Thus A. crenata was rejected under the principle of priority , and is now regarded as a nomenclatural synonym of A. cuneatus .
= = = Infrageneric placement = = =
In 1870 , George Bentham published the first infrageneric arrangement of Adenanthos in Volume 5 of his landmark " Flora Australiensis " . He divided the genus into two sections , placing A. cuneata in A. sect . Stenolaema because its perianth tube is straight and not swollen above the middle . This arrangement still stands today , though A. sect . Stenolaema is now renamed to the autonym A. sect . Adenanthos .
A phenetic analysis of the genus undertaken by Nelson in 1975 yielded results in which A. cuneatus was grouped with A. stictus . This pairing was then neighbour to a larger group that included A. forrestii , A. eyrei , A. cacomorphus , A. ileticos , and several hybrid and unusual forms of A. cuneatus . Nelson 's analysis supported Bentham 's sections , and so they were retained when Nelson published a taxonomic revision of the genus in 1978 . He further subdivided A. sect . Adenanthos into two subsections , with A. cuneata placed into A. subsect . Adenanthos for reasons including the length of its perianth , but Nelson discarded his own subsections in his 1995 treatment of Adenanthos , for the Flora of Australia series of monographs . By this time , the ICBN had issued a ruling that all genera ending in -anthos must be treated as having masculine gender ; thus the specific epithet became cuneatus .
The placement of A. cuneatus in Nelson 's arrangement of Adenanthos may be summarised as follows :
Adenanthos
A. sect . Eurylaema ( 4 species )
A. sect . Adenanthos
A. drummondii
A. dobagii
A. apiculatus
A. linearis
A. pungens ( 2 subspecies )
A. gracilipes
A. venosus
A. dobsonii
A. glabrescens ( 2 subspecies )
A. ellipticus
A. cuneatus
A. stictus
A. ileticos
A. forrestii
A. eyrei
A. cacomorphus
A. flavidiflorus
A. argyreus
A. macropodianus
A. terminalis
A. sericeus ( 2 subspecies )
A. × cunninghamii
A. oreophilus
A. cygnorum ( 2 subspecies )
A. meisneri
A. velutinus
A. filifolius
A. labillardierei
A. acanthophyllus
= = = Hybrids = = =
Adenanthos cuneatus apparently forms hybrids with other Adenanthos species quite readily , as four putative natural hybrids have been reported :
A. × cunninghamii ( Albany Woollybush ) , a hybrid between A. cuneatus and A. sericeus , was first collected in 1827 , and published as A. cunninghamii in 1845 . Other than some dubious collections in the 1830s and 1840s , no further sightings are known to have been made until 1973 , when Nelson rediscovered it . At the time it was regarded as a distinct species , but by 1995 it was thought to be a hybrid , and this was confirmed by genetic analysis in 2002 . In appearance it is very similar to A. sericeus , but its leaf segments are flat rather than cylindrical .
A single plant discovered by Nelson near Israelite Bay , where both putative parents are found , is regarded as a hybrid between A. cuneatus and A. dobsonii . Leaves are mostly triangular like those of A. cuneatus , but whereas A. cuneatus leaves are mostly five @-@ lobed , the putative hybrid usually has three lobes , with the occasional leaf being entire like those of A. dobsonii ( though A. cuneatis itself occasionally bears entire leaves ) . Leaves of the putative hybrid lack the thick indumentum of A. cuneatus , being bright green with a sparse indumentum like that of A. dobsonii . Flower colour is like that of A. cuneatus but the style lacks an indumentum , like A. dobsonii .
Two plants found near Twilight Cove are regarded as hybrids between A. cuneatus and A. forrestii , the only two Adenanthos species to occur in the area . One was discovered by Nelson in 1972 , the other by Alex George in 1974 . They are about 5 km apart , and differ somewhat . The leaves are triangular and flat like those of A. cuneatus , but the leaves of mature shoots are very long and narrow , and the leaves of younger shoots are deeply lobed .
In his 1995 revision , Nelson refers to putative hybrids with A. dobsonii and A. apiculatus , citing the 1978 paper in which he published putative hybrids with A. dobsonii and A. forrestii . It is unclear whether the reference to A. apiculatus is an error or a fourth putative hybrid .
= = = Common names = = =
This species has several common names , some highly localised . Two names allude to its consumption by horses ; bridle bush , a name used east of Esperance , refers to the fact that horses favour it as fodder ; and sweat bush , used around Hopetoun , derived from the claim that horses break out in sweat after consuming young growth . The common name of flame bush derives from the brilliant red new growth . It is also known as coastal jugflower . Nelson also records the use of the names Templetonia and native temp , but ridicules them as obvious errors .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The most widely distributed Adenanthos species of the south coast , A. cuneatus is common and locally abundant between King George Sound and Israelite Bay , along the coast and up to 40 km ( 25 mi ) inland , with isolated populations extending west to Walpole and the Stirling Range , and as far east of Israelite Bay as Twilight Cove .
This species is restricted to siliceous sandplain soils and will not grow in calcareous soils such as the limestone plains of the Nullarbor , or even siliceous dunes with limestone at little depth . This restriction explains the disjunctions east of Israelite Bay : the species occurs only in those few locations where the existence of cliff @-@ top dunes of deep siliceous sand provide suitable habitat . Provided the soil is siliceous and fairly dry , A. cuneatus tolerates a range of edaphic conditions : it grows in both lateritic sand and sands of marine origin , and it tolerates pH levels ranging from 3 @.@ 8 to 6 @.@ 6 .
Consistent with these edaphic preferences , A. cuneatus is a frequent and characteristic member of the kwongan heathlands commonly found on the sandplains of Southwest Australia . The climate in its range is mediterranean , with annual rainfall from 275 to 1 @,@ 000 mm ( 10 @.@ 8 to 39 @.@ 4 in ) .
= = Ecology = =
Colletid bees of the genus Leioproctus visit Adenanthos cuneatus flowers . A 1978 field study conducted around Albany found the honey possum ( Tarsipes rostratus ) occasionally visited Adenanthos cuneatus , while the western spinebill much preferred the species to other flowers . A 1980 field study at Cheyne beach showed that the New Holland honeyeater and white @-@ cheeked honeyeater pollinate it A 1985 – 86 field study in the Fitzgerald River National Park found that the nectar @-@ feeding honey possum occasionally eats it . The silvereye ( Zosterops lateralis ) feeds on nectar from the flowers , and has also been observed taking dew @-@ drops from leaves early in the morning .
Adenanthos cuneatus is known to be susceptible to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback , but reports on the degree of susceptibility vary from low to high . A study of Banksia attenuata woodland 400 km ( 249 mi ) southeast of Perth across 16 years , and following a wave of P. cinnamomi infestation , showed that A. cuneatus populations were not significantly reduced in diseased areas . Phosphite ( used to combat dieback ) has some toxic effects in A. cuneatus , with some necrosis of leaf tips , but the shrub uptakes little of the compound when compared with other shrubs . Specimens in coastal dune vegetation showed some sensitivity to the fungus Armillaria luteobubalina , with between a quarter and a half of plants exposed succumbing to the pathogen .
= = Cultivation = =
Adenanthos cuneatus was taken to Great Britain in 1824 , and has been grown in cultivation in Australia and the western United States . Its attractive bronzed or reddish foliage is its main horticultural feature , along with its ability to attract birds to the garden . It requires a well @-@ drained position to do well , but will grow in full sun or semi @-@ shade , and tolerates both sand and gravelly soils . George Lullfitz , a Western Australian nurseryman , recommends growing it as a rambling ground cover in front of other shrubs , or in a rockery .
The following cultivars exist :
A. " Coral Drift " is a compact form in cultivation since at least the 1990s . It is 50 – 70 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 – 27 @.@ 6 in ) tall and 1 – 1 @.@ 5 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 9 ft ) wide . The grey foliage has pinkish purple new growth .
A. " Coral Carpet " is a prostrate form which peaks at around 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) high and spreads to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) across . The new foliage is a pinkish purple . A chance seedling from ' Coral Drift ' , it was originally developed by George Lullfitz of Lullfitz Nursery in Wanneroo . It became available to the public in 2005 , and has been registered successfully under Plant Breeders ' Rights .
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= Hatoful Boyfriend =
Hatoful Boyfriend : A School of Hope and White Wings ( Japanese : はーとふる彼氏 〜 希望の学園と白い翼 〜 , Hepburn : Hātofuru kareshi ~ kibō no gakuen to shiroi tsubasa ~ ) is a Japanese dōjin soft otome visual novel released in 2011 for Microsoft Windows and OS X. It was developed by manga artist Hato Moa 's dōjin circle PigeoNation Inc . , and is the successor of a Flash game of the same name she created for April Fools ' Day in 2011 . A free demo version of Hatoful made with the FamousWriter engine was released later that year , followed by a full commercial version released on 30 October 2011 at COMITIA 98 , and an English version released in February 2012 . An international remake by developer Mediatonic and publisher Devolver Digital , dubbed Hatoful Boyfriend HD in Japan , was released on 4 September 2014 for Microsoft Windows , OS X , and Linux and for PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita on 21 July 2015 in North America , and on 22 July 2015 in Europe , respectively . A port for iOS was released on 25 May 2016 .
Hatoful Boyfriend received generally positive reception ; reviewers praised the game 's replay value as well as its writing and characterization , while repetitive gameplay and the accessibility of the game 's Bad Boys Love mode received a more mixed response . A sequel , Hatoful Boyfriend : Holiday Star , was released on 29 December 2011 , with an English version being released on Christmas Day the following year . In addition to the main games in the series , Hatoful Boyfriend has made transitions into other media : a monthly webcomic was serialized in the anthology Manga Life WIN + , several supplementary materials and official dōjin works have been released , and four drama CDs based on the series have been made . An episodic web series began in 2014 .
= = Gameplay = =
Hatoful Boyfriend is an interactive text @-@ based visual novel that follows a branching plot line , with the player 's decisions determining which of the game 's multiple endings they receive . The title is a pun on the wasei @-@ eigo word hātofuru ( ハートフル , " heartful " , also " hurtful " ) , and the Japanese word hato ( 鳩 , " pigeon " , " dove " ) , as the game features pigeons and other birds as major characters . The game is set in a version of Earth populated by sapient , anthropomorphic birds , and its main story follows the player character and protagonist — the only human attending St. PigeoNation 's Institute , an elite school for birds — as she finds love among her avian acquaintances .
Bad Boys Love , a hidden alternate story mode , opens with the discovery of the protagonist 's corpse , after which the player follows her best friend Ryouta Kawara as he investigates the circumstances of her death and unravels darker conspiracies surrounding the school .
Gameplay in Hatoful Boyfriend is similar to most other visual novels for the PC , with the controls limited to the mouse and the only interactions being clicking to forward the game 's narrative or to choose between multiple plot choices . The keyboard can also be used instead of the mouse , with the ' enter ' key serving the same purpose as clicking . The save button can be employed at any point during the game , which also features several pages of save slots , allowing gameplay to be easily picked up from prior to a choice the player made . An arrow button in the upper right corner also allows the player to skip dialogue and interactions they have already experienced .
The player assumes control of the protagonist , a teenage human girl . As the game follows a branching plot line with multiple endings , at various points during gameplay the player is allowed to make choices that determine which character 's romance route the player will encounter . On weekdays , the player can also choose which classes to attend , which changes one of the protagonist 's three stats depending on the activity chosen . Having certain stat values are required to obtain the good endings for each love interest and to otherwise advance along certain routes . There are thirteen ( fourteen in the 2014 remake ) endings in total : one ending for each of the main love interests , three extended endings for three of the love interests based on stat values , one ending for the gaiden @-@ esque Torimi Café storyline , and one ending attained if the player fails to romance any character .
When routes are completed , documents are unlocked that provide insights into the game 's overarching storyline . These documents can be viewed at any time in the game 's archive feature , which is accessed from the title screen . After obtaining the four specific endings required to trigger it , the player is given a new prompt to either " fulfill the promise " or live " a normal life " upon starting a new game . Choosing to live a normal life will result in a normal playthrough , while choosing to fulfill the promise locks the player into the true route or scenario Bad Boys Love , or BBL ( also known as Hurtful Boyfriend ) , which explores the full extent of the underlying plot alluded to by the documents and various points of foreshadowing in the dating simulation portion of the game . If the player chooses to fulfill the promise , aside from several dream sequences , gameplay at first appears to continue normally until the in @-@ game date is 2 September . The player 's perspective then switches from the protagonist to the protagonist 's best friend , and the events of the scenario begin regardless of any other choices made by the player up to that point . If the player obtains all other possible endings prior to starting Bad Boys Love , an extended epilogue plays after the game 's credits upon completion of the scenario . In a departure from the generally lighthearted romantic routes , Bad Boys Love is presented as a murder mystery psychological thriller , and is significantly longer than any other route in Hatoful Boyfriend , making up most of the game 's actual length .
There are several changes to gameplay and the way text is displayed during Bad Boys Love in the original version of the game : saving is disabled except at certain points in the story , the function to skip dialogue and interactions is removed , and plot @-@ important dialogue and narrative are highlighted with colored text ; usually yellow , though text of particularly critical importance is highlighted in red . In the 2014 remake however , the option to save is available at all times , the skip function is retained , and text is no longer highlighted . In both versions , the game 's interface and controls change from that of a standard visual novel to similar to that of a ' 90s @-@ era turn @-@ based role @-@ playing game during certain segments of the narrative .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Hatoful Boyfriend is set in an alternate version of Earth in which sapient , anthropomorphic birds have seemingly taken the place of humans in society for reasons that are hinted at , but not fully explained in the dating simulation portion of the game . In Bad Boys Love , it is revealed that Hatoful is set in a post @-@ apocalyptic , dystopian future — in which a pandemic of a deadly , mutated strain of the H5N1 virus , or bird flu , nearly wipes out mankind in the year 2068 . The release of a counter @-@ virus , cultivated to destroy the virus ' avian carriers in a desperate attempt to stop the spread of the disease , ends up backfiring as birds who resisted the counter @-@ virus instead developed human @-@ level intelligence . War soon breaks out between the newly uplifted birds and the remnants of humanity , resulting in birds emerging as the planet 's new dominant lifeforms as humans continued to succumb to the disease . Following several terrorist attacks by a human insurgency , all remaining humans have been forced to live in the wilderness away from civilization in a form of apartheid @-@ like segregation .
The game 's story takes place primarily at St. PigeoNation 's Institute ( 聖ピジョネイション学園 , Sei Pijoneishon Gakuen ) — a bird @-@ only high school located in the fictional Japanese town of Littledove Hachiman City ( 小鳩八幡市 , Kobato Hachiman @-@ shi ) — long after open warfare between humans and birds has ended . Society has adjusted to the avian conquest , though with minor bird @-@ related cultural changes — for example , while some holidays such as Christmas and Tanabata are celebrated much as they are in the present day , a major event in the game is Legumentine 's Day , an amalgamation of the traditions of Valentine 's Day and Setsubun . In a more grim case , the terms war dove and war hawk have been re @-@ purposed as labels for two opposing political factions divided over the ongoing mutual hostility between birds and the human minority : the altruistic Dove Party , who advocate for cooperation and peace between the two groups , and the militant Hawk Party , whose goal is to exterminate humanity altogether . By the time Hatoful Boyfriend 's narrative begins , the Dove Party , the Hawk Party , and their respective schools of thought dominate much of the world 's politics .
= = = Characters = = =
The primary playable character in Hatoful Boyfriend is the human protagonist , a boisterous hunter @-@ gatherer who lives in a cave in the wilderness . Her eight potential love interests in the original version of the game , who together form the rest of the main cast , are Ryouta Kawara , a rock dove and the protagonist 's sickly but hardworking childhood friend ; Sakuya Le Bel Shirogane , a fantail pigeon and snobbish French aristocrat ; Sakuya 's older half @-@ brother Yuuya Sakazaki , a popular and flirtatious but strangely secretive fantail pigeon ; Nageki Fujishiro , a quiet , bookish mourning dove who never seems to leave the library ; San Oko , an athletic , hyperactive fantail pigeon who is obsessed with pudding ; Anghel Higure , an eccentric Luzon bleeding @-@ heart who behaves as if he were in some kind of fantasy role @-@ playing game ; Kazuaki Nanaki , a kind but narcoleptic button quail and the protagonist 's homeroom teacher ; and Shuu Iwamine , a creepy , antisocial chukar partridge who serves as the school 's doctor . Azami Koshiba , a no @-@ nonsense Java sparrow and takoyaki saleswoman , became a possible love interest in the 2014 remake .
While most of the characters are normally represented in @-@ game with pictures of birds , if the player toggles on the ICPSS ( Intra @-@ Cerebral Playback Synchro System ) feature at the start of the game , or NS3 ( 脳内再生シンクロシステム , Nōnai Saisei Shinkuro Shisutemu ) in Japan , each of the possible love interests is shown with a version of what they would look like as a human when first introduced . Although the ICPSS feature also lists voice credits for each of the main love interests in the original version of the game , the game itself is unvoiced ; however most of the voice actors who were credited later signed on to actually voice their respective characters in the drama CDs based on the series .
= = = Story = = =
The events of Hatoful Boyfriend begin in the year 2188 , when the protagonist , a teenage human girl invited to attend the prestigious bird @-@ only St. PigeoNation 's Institute , starts her second year of high school . After a hectic and surreal freshman year of attendance at St. PigeoNation 's , the protagonist has grown accustomed to the confusion of being the only human in a school full of birds , and is looking forward to her sophomore year . The story of the dating simulation portion of the game follows the protagonist , and the inter @-@ species love and hijinks — of both the mundane high school and quasi @-@ anthropomorphic bird @-@ specific varieties — that ensue as she draws the attention of and attempts to romance one of a number of eligible birds she comes in contact with over the course of the year .
= = = = Bad Boys Love = = = =
Should the player choose to fulfill the promise , the protagonist begins her sophomore year at St. PigeoNation 's largely as normal , but with one exception — she begins to have recurring dreams of her younger self and Ryouta , and her parents lying dead in front of an unfamiliar house . A mysterious man approaches them , promising to grant any wish that they make . On 2 September , she decides to check on Ryouta , who had gone to the infirmary earlier that day ; the next morning , she fails to show up for class . Kazuaki asks Ryouta to retrieve their class ' box of print handouts , and upon retrieving it , blood is discovered leaking from a corner of the box . Ryouta opens the lid , and it is revealed that the box contains the protagonist 's severed head . A siren sounds and there is an order to evacuate to the gymnasium , where Ryouta overhears other students mention that more pieces of a human corpse were found in the other print boxes . Doubting the headmaster 's explanation of a natural disaster occurring , Sakuya and Ryouta resolve to figure out the identity of the protagonist 's killer and leave the gymnasium , discovering a large metal dome surrounding the school . Upon returning to their classroom and finding the box empty , Yuuya explains that the protagonist 's body had been gathered in the chemistry lab , where Shuu performs an autopsy concluding that the protagonist died of asphyxiation caused by illness or poison with the dismemberment occurring afterwards .
Assisted by the school janitor Mister One , and pursued by a grotesque scarecrow @-@ like being named Labor 9 who suddenly appears on the school grounds , Ryouta and Sakuya begin investigating the dome and the murder . They visit the lab and compare alibis ; Shuu , who Ryouta distrusts , asks if Ryouta has forgotten anything important , to which he replies that he hasn 't . Upon investigating the headmaster 's office , they discover the headmaster had likewise been poisoned to death , what they saw earlier being merely pre @-@ recorded footage ; they also find a computer and a pair of documents , one titled The Human Representative and a torn , unreadable one titled Operation Hatoful . The Human Representative reveals that if the protagonist , a symbol of humanity , were to die , the campus would be sealed off and the birds inside handed over to humans as sacrifices — something confirmed when the computer is used to open a small hatch in the dome and students are shot dead as they attempt to flee — when the dome is lifted twelve hours after her death is reported .
In trying to find a way to escape before the dome rises , Ryouta and Sakuya uncover records in the library mentioning a medical center that was shut down due to a fire , and that the ghostly Nageki , who Ryouta previously encountered , died in that fire . Sakuya deduces that an unused building on campus was the medical center and after investigating , they find its basement blocked off . They also encounter Anghel , who recalls the protagonist going into the infirmary the day before , contradicting Yuuya and Shuu 's shared alibi . As Ryouta searches the infirmary for clues , he finds medical records for himself , the protagonist , Nageki , and Sakuya , but is knocked out immediately after . When he regains consciousness , he discovers the protagonist 's bloody student ID — now with concrete evidence , Ryouta prepares to confront the doctor and Yuuya , only to find that Sakuya had left to do so alone . Ryouta returns to the infirmary as Yuuya shields Sakuya from Shuu 's attempts to kill him ; the doctor tells Ryouta that he will be waiting for him in the medical center 's basement before escaping with Labor 9 . Yuuya apologizes , affirming that while neither he nor Shuu killed the protagonist , they were the ones who dismembered her , and asks to speak to Sakuya alone . He reveals that they are full @-@ blooded siblings , with Shuu using knowledge of Sakuya 's true heritage to blackmail Yuuya into assisting him . Yuuya dies , Shuu 's scalpel having been laced with the same neurotoxin that killed the headmaster , leaving Sakuya in a state of shock .
Ryouta , searching for a way into the medical center basement , seeks out Nageki in the library to ask him about his death . Upon discovering documents revealing that Operation Hatoful was a Hawk Party project into developing biological weapons for use against humans using the school as an experimental facility — with a focus on a strain of H5N1 almost immediately lethal to humans dubbed the Charon virus — Nageki recalls that the fire was caused by his committing suicide by self @-@ immolation after months of forced experimentation in order to destroy and remove any trace of the virus , which was isolated in his body , and that researchers often went in through the chemistry preparation room . Ryouta , Kazuaki , and Anghel make their way into the medical center 's basement through the chemistry lab and encounter Labor 9 , electrocuting it using a stun gun given to Ryouta earlier by Mister One . They confront Shuu , who imprisons Kazuaki and Anghel , leaving them to die of poison gas before leading Ryouta away . Meanwhile , San comforts Sakuya , and the two of them arrive to break Anghel and Kazuaki out of the prison .
Alone with Shuu , Ryouta finally remembers what he had forgotten due to the traumatic nature of the events : he recognizes the doctor as a man who promised to grant his wish for peace between birds and humans after he and the protagonist witnessed a human terrorist incident at a bird orphanage in which the protagonist 's parents , crisis negotiators , were killed , and that the protagonist died when she visited him in the infirmary . It is revealed that she died by Charon virus after coming in contact with Ryouta , as Shuu had induced the virus into Ryouta 's body though grafts from Nageki 's remains for the purpose of using him to exterminate humanity — since there can be no more fighting between two factions if one is wiped out , this would grant Ryouta 's wish . Shuu then remarks that Labor 9 was powered by the protagonist 's now irreversibly damaged brain . A broken Ryouta submits to Shuu 's offer of becoming a living weapon of mass destruction after these revelations , and a struggle ensues during which the protagonist 's spirit intervenes . Ryouta then asks Shuu why he decided to grant his wish , to which it is implied that Shuu 's affection towards Ryouta 's deceased father , Ryuuji , was greater than Shuu himself would like to admit , and that he was motivated by Ryuuji 's dying request : to do something for his son .
Shuu admits defeat and offers to lead them out of the school through a safe passage , but Kazuaki pulls out a gun and shoots him as the group prepares to escape . Shuu then recalls that Nageki 's only relative — his adoptive brother — was , like Kazuaki , a quail . The terrorist incident occurred at Kazuaki and Nageki 's orphanage and left them as the only survivors ; witnessing Nageki 's subsequent suicide drove Kazuaki insane , leading him to fake his own death , assume a new identity , and join the school 's faculty to take revenge against Shuu , the head of Operation Hatoful . Ryouta , channeling Nageki , eases Kazuaki 's guilt and convinces him to move on .
They reunite with the other characters and exit the school along with the other students and faculty brought there by Mister One ; however Ryouta , now thoroughly infected by the Charon virus , elects to stay behind in cryonic storage until a cure is found . The scenario ends with Sakuya vowing to come back for Ryouta , and Ryouta offering to recap the day 's events to the protagonist 's spirit as the door to the storage facility closes . If the extended epilogue is unlocked , it is revealed that Yuuya survived being poisoned long enough to receive an antidote , and the game 's closing lines imply that with Shuu 's cooperation , a cure for the Charon virus has been developed .
= = Development = =
Hatoful Boyfriend is the first game developed by manga artist and writer Hato Moa — author of the series Vairocana and a former Dengeki Comic Grand Prix honoree — under her dōjin circle PigeoNation Inc . As she had no experience with game development prior to Hatoful , Hato initially wanted to start with a visual novel , as she believed it was an easier game type for amateur developers to make ; the format also allowed visuals to easily accompany her stories , something that she , as a manga artist , was accustomed to and viewed as being necessary in her work . She first came up with the concept for Hatoful as a 2011 April Fools ' Day joke : despite her lack of familiarity with the genre , she initially intended to create a parody of otome game stereotypes . Birds in particular were used as a theme due to Hato 's fondness for pigeons ; however , this was also partially due to Hato 's prioritization of writing over illustrating , as the use of bird photographs instead of hand @-@ drawn sprites allowed her more freedom to focus on the script . The first incarnation of the game was created over the course of half a day and posted as a browser game made with Adobe Flash ; but due to strong word of mouth from social media it was taken down after immense traffic caused the web server it was hosted on to crash on two separate occasions . Following the unexpected popularity of the Flash game , development began on a longer visual novel using the FamousWriter game engine .
Most of the technical aspects of development — game direction , scripting , and programming — were handled by Hato alone , with fellow artist Damurushi assisting with some minor aspects of the script and art direction . Despite this , most of the roughly seven @-@ month period Hato spent developing Hatoful from a one @-@ off April Fools ' gag to the finished product was dedicated to the construction of the narrative . Hato 's approach towards the game 's writing was " to create something that seems ridiculous and crazy at first glance , but that once you look into the world , you would fall into the depth " ; however , resolving the darker elements of the plot , particularly the Bad Boys Love scenario , with facts established in the quickly conceived and largely comedic pilot proved to be difficult for her , with inconsistencies in the overall timeline becoming a major concern . During the writing process , Hato admitted that she was critical of the scenarios she had written and constantly doubted whether the final product " turned out well " , later remarking in a postscript written for the game 's official guidebook :
Most of the background images and photography used for the characters ' sprites in the original games and associated media are taken from royalty @-@ free sources or fan submissions , though in some cases pictures of birds and backgrounds used are Hato 's own artwork or photography — the character San Oko is depicted by and based on her real life pet bird Okosan , and several of the sprites featured in Hatoful Boyfriend were derived from pictures she had taken of birds kept at the Kobe Animal Kingdom or the Torimi Café , also located in Kobe . All of the music tracks and sound effects used in Hatoful are also similarly taken from royalty @-@ free sources .
= = = Naming and allusions = = =
The title of the game is a pun ; the wasei @-@ eigo word hātofuru ( ハートフル ) means " heartful " , however it is also phonetically identical to the Japanese pronunciation of the English word " hurtful " . This is referenced in an alternate name for the Bad Boys Love route , Hurtful Boyfriend , as well as in the subtitle for the full release of the original game , Hatoful Boyfriend : Hurtful Complete Edition . The official English transliteration of the title also incorporates the Japanese word hato ( 鳩 ) , which means " pigeon " or " dove " . Similarly , the names of several characters are puns on the Japanese names of their respective species of bird : for example , Ryouta Kawara is a rock dove , or kawarabato ( 河原鳩 ) ; Nageki Fujishiro is a mourning dove , or nagekibato ( ナゲキバト ) ; Shuu Iwamine is a chukar partridge , or iwashako ( 岩鷓鴣 ) ; and Kazuaki Nanaki is a button quail , or himeuzura ( ヒメウズラ ) — the character hime ( 姫 ) being present in his last name , Nanaki ( 七姫 ) .
Several locations and personalities featured in the game directly correspond to real life venues and people — for example , blogger Brian Pigeon is mentioned as one of the Hatoful world 's most influential writers , and the aforementioned Torimi Café , featured in @-@ game as a location where the protagonist can work during summer vacation , is an actual bird @-@ themed café located in Kobe . Likewise , some aspects of Hatoful 's narrative reference real world events , media , or people : the deadly H5N1 pandemic forming the basis of the game 's post @-@ apocalyptic setting was inspired by historical outbreaks of disease , most prominently the 1918 flu pandemic ; depictions of Hitchcock 's Winter , the in @-@ universe war between humans and birds , bear several similarities to Alfred Hitchcock 's film The Birds ; and Operation Carneades — the codename given to the human countermeasure against H5N1 that instead granted intelligence to birds in the Hatoful universe — was named after Greek philosopher Carneades and one of his thought experiments , the Plank of Carneades .
= = = Release history = = =
Hatoful Boyfriend 's first release in its current visual novel format was a freeware demo released as a downloadable application on 31 July 2011 . The demo version contains basic routes for seven of the love interests , and also functions as a benchmark for players to assess if the full game will run on their computer before purchasing it . The first commercial variant of the game , Hatoful Boyfriend : Plus , introducing Anghel as a love interest , was released on 14 August 2011 . Plus , a precursor of the full game used as a debugging site for new content and additional scenes intended for the final release , was discontinued on 28 October 2011 when it was patched with the finalized full version . The completed full game itself , Hatoful Boyfriend : Hurtful Complete Edition , was released at COMITIA 98 on 30 October 2011 , and includes all content in previous versions of the game as well as the Torimi Café and Bad Boys Love scenarios . In Japan , Plus and Hurtful Complete Edition were initially available only as physical CD @-@ ROMs ; a downloadable version of the full game in Japanese was eventually released three years later on 13 April 2014 , where the Hurtful Complete Edition was renamed to simply Full version . Due to limitations of the FamousWriter game engine , the demo , Plus , and Hurtful Complete Edition versions of Hatoful Boyfriend are only supported on computers running Windows XP or OS X 10 @.@ 1 @-@ 10 @.@ 5 , but are playable — though unsupported — on computers running Windows Vista , Windows 7 , or OS X 10 @.@ 6 with Rosetta .
= = = = 2014 remake = = = =
Plans to remake the original game in high @-@ definition first began to form when Ed Fear , a writer and creative producer at game developer Mediatonic , contacted Hato Moa about the possibility of translating any projects she was involved in to English . According to the remake 's creative director Jeff Tanton , the decision was made to remake the game following several e @-@ mail conversations between Fear and Hato , with Fear 's positive experience with the Japanese version of the game and the incompatibility of FamousWriter @-@ made games with newer operating systems — which had rendered the original game effectively unplayable on newer PCs — being major factors in the decision . An international remake of Hatoful developed by Mediatonic and published by Devolver Digital made using the Unity game engine — allowing the game to be fully compatible with computers that run Windows Vista , Windows 7 or OS X 10 @.@ 6 , and playable for the first time on those that run Linux or OS X 10 @.@ 7 or newer — was first revealed to be in development on 6 June 2014 , with a formal announcement coming shortly afterwards at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2014 .
The remake , known as Hatoful Boyfriend HD in Japan , was originally slated for release via Steam on 21 August 2014 ; however release was later postponed to 4 September 2014 to allow for final adjustments to the Japanese version . The remake includes a new route for Azami , full screen capability , and redrawn backgrounds . A collector 's edition of the remake titled Hatoful Boyfriend Summer of Dove Collector 's Edition was released for pre @-@ order along with the normal edition , and bundles together the remake , the original Hatoful Boyfriend : Hurtful Complete Edition , a digital version of the game 's soundtrack , a new comic illustrated by Hato , exclusive wallpapers of Okosan , and a St. PigeoNation 's Class of 2014 yearbook . The remake was also included in the Humble Bundle pack for Valentine 's Day 2015 , which exclusively featured dating sim games , along with a Hatoful Boyfriend pillowcase for the highest price point option . A port of the remake for PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita was released on 21 July 2015 . And one to for iOS on 25 May 2016 .
= = = English localization = = =
On 22 November 2011 , freelance translator Nazerine released a fan translation patch of the free demo version of the game . The initial project involved Nazerine translating , writing , and revising the game text , while another person hacked the game so that the translated text displayed properly on the game screen . This English patch launched the first wave of western interest in the game , with several video game publications reporting on it due to the game 's unusual concept . The success of this translation attracted the attention of Hato Moa herself , who then offered Nazerine the opportunity to translate the full game — and later its sequel , Holiday Star — for an official English release . The translation process of the full game was also a solo effort by Nazerine ; however , Hato removed the need for hacking by directly supervising the translation , adjusting images in the game for English sentences . As the demo 's English patch was made before Nazerine had access to the full version of the game , several lines of dialogue were translated differently to reflect context revealed in Bad Boys Love ; for example , third @-@ person pronouns from Kazuaki Nanaki 's route implying that he had a female lover in the fan translation were replaced with gender @-@ neutral ones in the official translation . Few dramatic changes were made , though several jokes were added in Nazerine 's translations of the game that were not present in the original Japanese text . The official English version of the game was released for download on 15 February 2012 . The 2014 remake has also been confirmed to have used Nazerine 's translation .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Books and publications = = =
Several official dōjin works and supplemental materials illustrated by Hato Moa and Damurushi have been released alongside the games . An official guidebook with extra information regarding the game 's setting and characters was released at 29 December 2011 at Comiket 81 . The second edition of the guidebook , re @-@ branded as a " fanbook " ( ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 7580 @-@ 1280 @-@ 5 ) , and Absolute ZERO , an anthology about the fantasy universe perceived by Anghel Higure , were both released on 11 August 2012 at Comiket 82 ; an English version of Absolute ZERO was later released for Amazon Kindle on 27 August 2014 . Kazuaki @-@ kun 's Book ( 一明くんの本 , Kazuaki @-@ kun no Hon ) , featuring an alternate universe retelling of events discussed in Holiday Star , was released in Japanese at COMIC CITY SPARK 7 on 7 October 2012 , and on 23 December 2013 for Kindle in English . Focus on the Hawks ! ( フォーカス ・ ホークス , Fōkasu Hōkusu ) , an anthology featuring the Hawk Party researchers , was released in Japanese at Comiket 84 on 12 August 2013 , and on 29 May 2014 for Kindle in English . Watari Bādo Kimama ni TORIARUKI Katte ni Sutema Kōbe Kachōen ( 渡りバード 気ままにTORIARUKI 勝手にステマ神戸花鳥園 ) , a side story featuring the Kobe Animal Kingdom and written as part of a fundraising event for the venue , was released on 1 February 2014 . Sabishii Uzura ( さびしいウズラ ) , a collection of haiku poems written from the perspective of the original Kazuaki Nanaki , was released on 15 August 2014 at Comiket 86 .
= = = Webcomic = = =
A webcomic based on the series , written and illustrated by Hato Moa , was serialized in publisher Takeshobo 's webcomic anthology Manga Life WIN + from 8 June 2012 until the anthology 's discontinuation , containing sixteen chapters . Each chapter is composed of several four @-@ panel comic strips , followed by a short story in which the characters are depicted in their human forms . The first twelve chapters have since been collected in one tankōbon volume ( ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 8124 @-@ 8387 @-@ 9 ) , which was released on 10 August 2013 . The volume also contains a feature where the series ' characters answered questions sent in by fans . A subsequent dōjin anthology containing chapters thirteen to sixteen plus a bonus ten @-@ page comic , Hatoful Boyfriend Overload ! Overflow ! EX ( はーとふる彼氏 はみでた ! もれでた ! EX , Hātofuru Kareshi Hamideta ! Moredeta ! EX ) , was released on 30 December 2013 at Comiket 85 in Japanese , and on Kindle in English .
= = = Drama CDs = = =
Four drama CDs by Frontier Works based on the series have been released . The first CD , titled Prologue ( プロローグ , Purorōgu ) had a preliminary release on 29 December 2011 at Comiket 81 , and was released for general distribution on 25 January 2012 . The second CD , titled Primal Feather , was released on 25 April 2012 , followed by a third CD , titled Summer Vacation , on 10 August 2012 at Comiket 82 , which had a general release on 12 September 2012 . A fourth CD with a Legumentine 's Day theme , titled Hatomame Sweet Blend ( 鳩豆スウィートブレンド , Hatomame Suwīto Burendo ) , was released on 14 February 2013 .
= = = Web radio = = =
An internet radio show for the series titled Habatake ! Sei Pijoneishon Gakuen Housōbu ! ( はばたけ ! 聖ピジョネイション学園放送部 ! ) was broadcast from 24 December 2011 to 25 January 2012 on the Animate TV website , with the voice cast from the drama CDs reprising their respective roles . The show was hosted by Shintarō Asanuma , who played Ryouta Kawara in the drama CDs , and Hirofumi Nojima , who played Kazuaki Nanaki . Each episode consisted of four segments : Hatoota ( はとおた ) , a normal talk corner , Hatalk ( ハトーク , Hatōku ) , in which various questions regarding life as birds were answered , Koi no Denshobato ( 恋の伝書鳩 ) , in which lines from the game were read , and The How and Why of St. PigeoNation 's ! ( なぜ ？ なに ？ 質問箱 , Naze ? Nani ? Shitsumonbako ) , a question and answer corner where the voice actors answered any questions from viewers in @-@ character .
= = = Web series = = =
A trailer for the web series was released in Japanese on 20 October 2013 , with an English @-@ language translation of the trailer being released on 23 May 2014 . The first episode , titled Tamesareru Ketsui ! Saraba Sei Pijoneishon ( Zenpen ) ( 試される決意 ！ さらば聖ピジョネイション ＜ 前編 ＞ ) , was released on 19 May 2014 . The series is released in visual novel format on the Adobe AIR platform , and takes place in a different universe than the game series .
= = = Plush production line = = =
On 3 November 2015 , Erick Scarecrow of Esc @-@ Toy Ltd. launched an official Kickstarter campaign , together with Hato Moa and Devolver Digital , asking for $ 25 @.@ 000 to create a production line of three characters from the Hatoful Boyfriend universe , namely , Shuu , Ryouta and Okosan . During the campaign , all stretch goals were reached , the last ending at $ 75 @.@ 000 , adding seven more characters to the production line . The campaign ended on 6 December 2015 , with a total of $ 145 @.@ 015 pledged .
= = Reception = =
As a dōjin soft title , Hatoful Boyfriend was created on a limited budget and had even more limited promotion ; however , due to strong word of mouth on Twitter and other social media Hatoful has enjoyed a degree of commercial success , especially when compared against its minimal production costs — with Mado no Mori reporting that the game was a " popular title " whose physical CD @-@ ROM copies " consistently sold out at dōjin markets and wherever it became available for purchase " , and 4Gamer.net noting that the game disk was difficult to purchase due to overwhelming demand . Outside Japan , where it is only available by download , the English release of the game is dōjin soft distributor DLsite English 's best @-@ selling title with 7 @,@ 000 separate purchases as of 2014 .
Hatoful Boyfriend has received generally favorable reception , with reviewers focusing on the surprising depth of the game 's writing and storyline . In a weekly game spotlight , Kouichi Kirishima from Mado no Mori recommends the game to " not just pigeon @-@ lovers , but anyone who enjoys visual novels " , remarking that the game is " at times surprisingly serious and emotionally involved " . On the other side of the Pacific , Julian Murdoch comments in a Gamers With Jobs analysis of the game that the scenarios featured in Hatoful are " elaborate and multifaceted " , and that Hato Moa herself " isn ’ t just a storyteller , she ’ s actually a good storyteller " . Hatoful Boyfriend was also named the best PC game of 2012 by GameCola ; Paul Franzen explains the game 's inclusion among higher budget and more technically sophisticated titles as being due to the strength of its storytelling and pathos , stating that " Hatoful Boyfriend isn 't just a weird game about heathen human @-@ animal relationships [ ... ] there ’ s an actual , serious , emotional game here , too " . In an article discussing the E3 announcement of the 2014 remake , Carly Smith for The Escapist remarks that Hatoful Boyfriend is " absolutely hilarious " , but recommends that players " start the game for a laugh , but stick with it for a ride you wouldn 't have expected by looking at the cover " .
Reviewers also praised the game 's varied scenarios and replayability . Dora from Jay Is Games praised the game , saying that " with a huge amount of replay value , creativity to burn , and some of the most shocking plot lines you could ever hope to encounter , Hatoful Boyfriend is a fascinating and surprising text adventure well worth checking out " , though she also observes that " the delayed payoff and the abruptness of some of the endings combined with the oddball concept may not appeal to every fan of the visual novel genre " . Alexa Ray Corriea 's Polygon review of the remake gave it an 8 out of 10 , concluding that the " witty dialogue and absolutely bonkers scenarios are genuinely fun to discover , and the handful of different storylines make repeated playthroughs worthwhile " . Some critics however expressed concerns over the presence of some repetitive aspects of gameplay — noted as being especially apparent when attempting multiple playthroughs — as well as the accessibility of the game 's Bad Boys Love scenario to casual players : in his review of the remake for PC Gamer , Julian Murdoch states that " I suspect few will have the patience to ride the fast forward button and suss out the romantic proclivities of each cast member to get to the extended ending — really a second half — of the game " .
Much attention was drawn to Hatoful Boyfriend 's surreal concept in both its native Japan as well as overseas . Mentions of the game 's " bird romance " spread through Japanese social media , leading several news agencies and publications to report on Hatoful and the " newness " of its premise . As translations began to make the game accessible to an English speaking audience , western media reacted similarly : Alec Meer for Rock , Paper , Shotgun commented on Hatoful 's premise , citing it as being " reason enough to play it " ; also for Rock , Paper , Shotgun , Craig Pearson stated that the game " could only be better if it was a secret game from Valve and Bioware " . One of the main spurs to the game 's popularity was a playthrough recorded by Angie Gallant on the Quarter to Three forums . In a retrospect , Jeffrey Matulef for Eurogamer remarks that Hatoful Boyfriend 's " outlandish premise caught on and the English speaking world demanded it not be left out of this surreal creation " , while Robert Fenner of RPGFan compared it favorably to Hiroki Azuma 's writings on database consumption , praising the game as a " fierce deconstruction as well as a tender celebration of dating sims " . Several Japanese commentators have also noted the game 's overseas success , especially following the E3 announcement of the remake by British developer Mediatonic and American publisher Devolver Digital .
= = Sequel = =
A sequel titled Hatoful Boyfriend : Holiday Star ( Japanese : はーとふる彼氏 HolidayStar , Hepburn : Hātofuru kareshi HolidayStar ) , was released in Japan in 29 December 2011 , with an official English patch being released a year later on Christmas Day . The game is an episodic followup set around the holiday season and takes place in a separate universe from the first game , in which the events of Bad Boys Love do not occur . The sequel , developed largely alongside the first game , makes reference to and explores several unresolved plot elements brought up in the first game 's Bad Boys Love scenario that could not be fully addressed in its main narrative . Unlike the first game , Holiday Star is a mostly linear visual novel rather than an otome game , with more standalone scenarios and fewer branching plotlines . On 4 June 2015 , it was announced that Mediatonic , the developer responsible for the 2014 remake of the original game , was also developing a remake of Holiday Star , again to be published by Devolver Digital . The remake of the sequel is slated for release in Winter 2015 . On 8 December 2015 , it was announced that the remake of Hatoful Boyfriend : Holiday Star would be released on 15 December 2015 for Microsoft Windows , OS X and Linux , and on 22 December 2015 for PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita .
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= Pitfour estate =
The Pitfour estate , in the Buchan area of north @-@ east Scotland , was an ancient barony encompassing most of the extensive Longside Parish , stretching from St Fergus to New Pitsligo . It was purchased in 1700 by James Ferguson of Badifurrow , who became the first Laird of Pitfour .
The estate was substantially renovated by Ferguson and the following two generations of his family . At the height of its development in the 18th and 19th centuries the 50 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 130 km2 ) property had several extravagant features including a two @-@ mile racecourse , an artificial lake and an observatory . The original mansion house was extended before being rebuilt . The surrounding parklands were landscaped , major renovations were undertaken , and follies such as a small replica Temple of Theseus were constructed , in which George Ferguson , the fifth laird , was thought to keep alligators in a cold bath .
The first three lairds transformed the estate into a valuable asset . Lord Pitfour , the second laird , purchased additional lands including Deer Abbey and Inverugie Castle . Pitfour 's son , James Ferguson , who became the third laird , continued to improve and expand the estate by adding the lake and bridges , and establishing planned villages . The third laird died a bachelor with no children , so the estate passed to the elderly George Ferguson , who was only in possession of the property for a few months . George was already a wealthy man , owning lands in Trinidad and Tobago , but despite not directly improving the Pitfour estate he added considerable value to the inheritance passed to his illegitimate son . The extravagant lifestyles of the fifth and sixth lairds led to the sequestration of the estate , which was sold off piecemeal to pay their debts .
What remained of the estate was sold after the First World War . The mansion house was demolished in about 1926 , and its stone used to build council houses in Aberdeen . In more recent times some of the remaining buildings , including the temple , the bridges and the stables , have been classified as at high risk by Historic Scotland because their condition has become poor . The chapel was fully renovated and converted to a private residence in 2003 ; the observatory was purchased and restored by Banff & Buchan District Council ( now Aberdeenshire Council ) and can be accessed by the public . The racecourse has been forested since 1926 , and the lake is used by members of a private fishing club .
= = Early history = =
The Pitfour estate in Mintlaw extended from St Fergus to New Pitsligo and encompassed most of the extensive Longside Parish . The meaning of Pitfour is given in the 1895 records of the Clan Fergusson as " cold croft " , but the historian John Milne breaks the name into two parts and indicates the meaning as Pit being place and feoir or feur being grass . The Pitfour estate is shown on old maps as Petfouir or Petfour . It was formerly one of Scotland 's largest and best @-@ appointed estates and was referred to as " The Blenheim of Buchan " , " The Blenheim of the North " and " The Ascot of the North " by the architectural historian Charles McKean .
Scant early records exist of the lands but Alexander Stewart ( Alexandro Senescalli ) , the natural son of King Robert II of Scotland , was given the Pitfour lands together with those of Lunan by his father in 1383 . However , writing in 1887 Cadenhead states the lands were sold to Stewart by Ricardus Mouet , also known as Richard Lownan . During the next three centuries the lands had several different owners . Transactions show it passed to a burgess of Aberdeen in 1477 from Egidia Stewart ; Walter Innes of Invermarkie gained feudal superiority to all Pitfour lands in 1493 ; and in 1506 the land was purchased by Thomas Innes , who died the following year . His son , John , inherited the property . It remained in the possession of the Innes family until at least 1581 , when it was owned by James Innes and his wife Agnes Urquhart . Between 1581 and 1667 the lands were bought by George Morrison . His son William inherited the property in 1700 , and immediately sold the estate to James Ferguson , who became the first Laird of Pitfour .
The lands purchased by Ferguson were recorded in 1667 in a charter granted by Charles II and were stated as encompassing " the lands and Barony of Toux and Pitfour in the Parish of Old Deer and Sheriffdom of Aberdeen including the towns and lands of Mintlaw , Longmuir , Dumpston in the Parish of Longside , and County of Aberdeen . " Several other lands , including " the Barony of Aden with the Tower , Fortaliss , Mains and Manor Place therof and pertinents of the same called Fortry , Rora Mill thereof , Croft Brewerie , Inverquhomrie and Yockieshill " were individually listed . State papers from the reign of Queen Anne in the 18th century record the lands in favour of James Ferguson .
= = Lairds and subsequent development = =
1st laird
James Ferguson — known as the Sheriff , reflecting the post he held , recognised by the Society of Advocates — bought the Pitfour estate after selling the lands of Badifurrow . He had inherited Badifurrow after demanding that his uncle Robert Ferguson should appear in court if he wished to contest the inheritance . Robert , nicknamed the Plotter , was in hiding to avoid charges of treachery , and after his non @-@ appearance in court James Ferguson 's inheritance was confirmed in mid @-@ June 1700 . At that time the estate contained only a small country house .
2nd laird
James was laird until his death in 1734 , after which the estate passed to his eldest son , also called James , who was born at Pitfour soon after it was purchased . A solicitor like his father , he was promoted to the bench in 1764 and became Lord Pitfour . He continued to expand and improve the estate until his death in 1777 , and set up the planned village of Fetterangus in 1752 .
Lord Pitfour purchased the lands of the last Earl Marischal , George Keith , which were adjacent to Pitfour , in 1766 . They were considered the Earl Marischal 's most significant property and had been forfeited when the Earl Marischal fell out of favour . He had bought it back from the York Buildings Company for £ 31 @,@ 000 , but Pitfour only paid £ 15 @,@ 000 for it . The 8 @,@ 000 acres ( 32 square kilometres ) of land included Deer Abbey and Inverugie Castle , but consisted predominantly of peat bogs , woods and uncultivated land . This addition made the Pitfour estate the largest in the area , at more than 30 @,@ 000 acres ( 120 square kilometres ) stretching from Buchanhaven to Maud along the course of the River Ugie .
3rd laird
The third laird , also named James , inherited the estate in 1777 ; he was usually referred to as the Member to differentiate him from previous generations . Like his forebears , he was an advocate but also became a Member of Parliament . He too continued to expand and improve the estate ; he constructed a lake and a canal , and built the new mansion . He also expanded and altered Longside at the start of the 1800s , founded Mintlaw in 1813 , assisted in the extension of New Deer and extended Buchanhaven .
The Member died unmarried , childless and intestate in 1820 . In normal circumstances his brother Patrick would have been his heir , but he died in battle in October 1780 .
4th laird
In 1820 the estate was inherited by the Member 's younger brother , George Ferguson , who was by then in his seventies . He was known as the Governor , reflecting his appointment as Lieutenant Governor of Tobago . He was laird from September 1820 , but died in December that year . The Governor had spent most of his life in Trinidad and Tobago , where he was a principal landowner , and had inherited the Castara Estate on Tobago from Patrick . George was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Tobago in 1779 , and after a battle with the French in 1781 surrendered the island to the French on 2 June . The Governor returned to Britain , although the terms of the surrender meant he still owned the Castara estate and all the slaves who worked on it . George had illegitimate children with an unknown woman . He continued to buy estates in the Caribbean and returned there in 1793 , staying until 1810 .
5th laird
The estate started to deteriorate after it was inherited by the Governor 's illegitimate son George Ferguson , known as the Admiral because of his naval career . He was already heavily in debt when he became the fifth laird in 1821 , but he still enjoyed a lavish lifestyle and undertook much extravagant construction on the estate , including the erection of follies . To cover his substantial gambling debts , he began to sell parcels of estate land , and upon inheriting Pitfour he began selling furniture , books , farm equipment and other items , realising more than £ 9 @,@ 000 .
6th laird
After the Admiral 's death in March 1867 , the estate passed to his son , George Arthur Ferguson , the sixth and final laird . He served in the Grenadier Guards and eventually became a captain . He married Nina Maria Hood , the eldest daughter of Alexander Nelson Hood , 1st Viscount Bridport , in February 1861 . Later that year Captain Ferguson was posted to Canada , where he was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel and where his first two sons , Arthur and Francis William , were born . His eldest son , Arthur , became Inspector of Constabulary for Scotland . Returning to Britain in 1864 , the family had a nomadic lifestyle , but the sixth laird and his wife were extravagant and habitual gamblers . In June 1909 , a trust deed was registered , and what remained of the estate was put on the market . After large parts of the land had been sold under the ownership of the sixth laird the estate was listed by Bateman in 1883 as being just over 23 @,@ 000 acres ( 93 square kilometres ) with an income of £ 19 @,@ 938 ; at the height of its development the estate had occupied 50 square miles ( 130 square kilometres ) , and was valued at £ 30 million .
The last laird died in 1924 and is buried in Luton .
Following its 20th @-@ century decline the estate changed hands several times until local farmer Hamish Watson purchased it in December 2010 . The local historian Alex Buchan summed up the demise of the estate : " They thought the estate was here to provide them with money , to gamble , to travel , to simply fritter away and very quickly , within a couple of decades , they had wasted the whole lot . " He added , " Eccentricity amounted to just squandering money . "
= = Mansion house = =
The original small country house was first altered during the early 18th century . In 1809 the Sheriff 's grandson James Ferguson , the third laird , employed the architect John Smith to design new accommodation . The resulting three @-@ storey house , 98 feet ( 30 metres ) square and 33 feet ( 10 metres ) high , is reputed to have had 365 windows . When the fourth laird , George ( the Governor ) , died in 1820 , the estate was worth £ 300 @,@ 000 with almost £ 35 @,@ 000 of moveable assets . George Ferguson , the fifth laird ( the Admiral ) added a large , glazed gallery when he inherited the house . The Admiral had a lavish lifestyle and despite having a healthy income incurred heavy debts .
When the Admiral died after 46 years of managing the estate it was mortgaged for £ 250 @,@ 000 , despite the sale of a number of the lands originally included in it . The house fell into disrepair under the ownership of George Arthur , the sixth and final laird , who had inherited his father 's lifestyle . The entire estate was put on the market in September 1909 but remained unsold until after the First World War ; the house and what remained of the estate were finally purchased by a speculator , Edgar Fairweather , from London in 1926 . Fairweather bought several other Scottish estates , including those nearby at Auchmeddan and Strichen ; he habitually reduced the estates into smaller holdings that he then sold on or rented out . The house was sold to an Aberdeen building company and was demolished sometime between 1927 and 1930 . After demolition , the mansion 's veranda was installed at the front of Kinloch Farmhouse in St Fergus . Other remains from the mansion have been discovered at the farmhouse , including a crest above the conservatory door and tiles inscribed with the Ferguson of Pitfour family crest . The stone from the mansion was transported to Aberdeen and used in the construction of council houses .
= = Chapels = =
The Fergusons were Episcopalian , and in 1766 , the second laird , Lord Pitfour had a small Qualified Chapel built on the estate at Waulkmill . It was a large , plain building that could accommodate up to 500 people . Saplinbrae , a house that was initially used as a coaching inn after it was built under instruction from Lord Pitfour in 1756 , was used as the minister 's manse for the first chapel .
A more modern chapel was built in 1850 after the Admiral had an argument with the Reverend Arthur Ranken , the minister at Old Deer . This was a small , private chapel for the use of the Pitfour estate . It was built in the Gothic style from rubble but was recast in 1871 . A 60 @-@ foot ( 18 @-@ metre ) tower with a battlemented top is at its western end . The chapel fell into disrepair , and by the 1980s it was a roofless ruin .
In 1990 Historic Scotland said that Kinloch Farmhouse , in St Fergus featured a bench and chair salvaged from the Pitfour Chapel . In 2003 , the second chapel was renovated and converted to a private residence . The chapel restoration won a " Highly commended " award for craftsmanship from Aberdeenshire Council in 2010 ; the council said the craftsmanship " allowed for the retention of the ecclesiastical spirit and integrity to remain prevalent both internally and externally . " It was also " Highly Commended " in the conservation category .
= = Stables and riding school = =
The stables were built in 1820 , during the early part of the Admiral 's ownership of the estate , based on a design by John Smith ; the buildings are sited to the rear of the mansion house . Built in a horseshoe @-@ shape , neo @-@ classical design , the two @-@ storey building was constructed in pinned rubble with granite dressings ; grey granite was used for the parapet and quoins . The main buildings were originally harled . A corrugated asbestos hipped roof was at some point substituted for the original slate roof . It features a columned rotunda above a timber clock tower , which has a finial and domed copper roof . The pedimented centrepiece of the symmetrical front elevation is a segmental arch and has three panels set back between columns . Each side is bordered by wings of three bays with single @-@ bay pavilions .
The stables are connected to an adjoining two @-@ storey house . They provided accommodation for ten horses and included four loose boxes , a harness room and a coachman 's house ; six bedrooms above were for servants . Two coach houses were later used as garages . The stables building was marketed in 1997 for approximately £ 70 @,@ 000 . Charles McKean describes the stables as " straddling the skyline like a palace " . The stables are listed by Historic Scotland as being at very high risk , and were described in 1997 sale literature as unused and dilapidated .
An indoor riding school slightly to the north @-@ west of the stables measured 98 feet ( 30 metres ) by 49 feet ( 15 metres ) . It was used to entertain guests when the facilities at the mansion house were not large enough . More than two hundred local farmers and other landowners celebrated the wedding of George Arthur , the sixth laird , in the riding school in 1861 . In 1883 it was again used to entertain ; on that occasion it was decorated with flags and Chinese lanterns , and pine flooring was laid . Later , it was used as indoor tennis courts before being demolished .
= = Canal and lake = =
James Ferguson , the third laird , owned the estate during the Industrial Revolution in Britain . He began work on a canal between Pitfour and Peterhead in 1797 , despite fierce opposition from adjoining landowners . The canal was proposed to cover about ten miles following the course of the River Ugie . Pitfour 's canal is sometimes called the St Fergus and River Ugie Canal . Ferguson had thought about building the canal since 1793 , but it was never completed because of " difficulties in effecting the necessary arrangements with neighbouring heritors . " Objections were raised by the Merchant Maiden Hospital , which owned the land on the south side of the Ugie . Despite being advised to take out an interdict to prevent the work , in January 1797 the hospital thought its case was not strong enough . The hospital applied for an interdict four months later however , when two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of the canal had been dug to the point where the north and south Ugie joined ; it was granted in July 1797 .
A few years after starting work on the canal , Ferguson had a lake built on flat land to the front of the mansion house . The landscape gardener William S. Gilpin was carrying out work on the adjacent Strichen estate at about the same time , and it is assumed he helped with the work at Pitfour . The lake extends to almost 50 acres ( 20 hectares ) and is 174 feet ( 53 metres ) above sea level . Designed in the same style as the lake in Windsor Great Park , the lake was stocked with trout , both rainbow and brown ; there were three bridges and four islands . The siting of the lake meant the driveway had to be moved , and ornate bridges were constructed to cross the water . Built from granite , the northern bridge has three arches with ashlar starlings , the southern bridge has a single arch and the third , smaller bridge crosses a large stream that drains into the lake .
The neighbouring Russell family of Aden were concerned their land would be flooded when the lake was built , and their animosity was fully demonstrated when a bridge had to be jointly constructed by the two landowners over the River Ugie . It was wide enough for carriages on the Pitfour side but too narrow on the Russell 's half .
= = Theseus temple = =
Alongside the lake was a six @-@ bay Greek Doric temple , a small replica styled after the Temple of Theseus . Its exact date of construction is unknown ; it may have been built during the time of James Ferguson , the third laird , or under the instruction of George Ferguson , the fifth laird . The local historian Alex Buchan attributes it to James , the third laird ; according to Historic Scotland , it was built " probably circa 1835 " . Like the mansion house , the temple is credited to the architect John Smith . Measuring 8 metres ( 26 ft ) by 16 metres ( 52 ft ) , it has six columns at both ends and thirteen columns down each side . It had a flat roof with an ornate wooden entablature and contained a cold @-@ water bath in which George , the fifth laird was believed to have kept alligators . As of 2013 the temple is in a ruinous state ; it has been held up by scaffolding since 1992 and is listed by Historic Scotland as being in critical condition .
= = Racecourse and observatory = =
George Ferguson ( the Admiral ) had a racecourse about 2 @.@ 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 5 kilometres ) long and 52 feet ( 16 metres ) wide built near White Cow Woods , an area which is quite flat . This led to the estate being called the " Ascot of the North " .
In 1845 the Admiral had an observatory built , again designed by the architect John Smith . It is an octagonal tower with a crenellated parapet and is symmetrical in design . The observatory stands at the top of a hill 396 feet ( 121 m ) above sea level . The tower is 50 feet ( 15 m ) high and is more than half a mile ( 1 kilometre ) from the racecourse . It has three storeys with square windows on the upper floor , and was fully renovated by Banff & Buchan District Council ( now Aberdeenshire Council ) in 1983 .
= = Twentieth century = =
Sales of country estates became common around the 1920s . The annual tax payable had spiralled and was twenty times greater than in 1870 resulting in the break @-@ up of many larger land @-@ holdings . Pitfour was no exception and the dispersal of the estate continued piecemeal after the sequestration of George Arthur , the sixth laird . The main estate policies including the lake and other land were purchased by Bernard Drake in November 1926 when he bought Saplinbrae , the former minister 's house . Drake was a partner in the electrical engineering company , Drake and Gorham .
Sixty years later , in 1986 the BBC Domesday Project does not give any ownership details but indicates many of the buildings are in poor condition . Other surviving structures are used for storage by a farmer who also " manages the land " .
= = Recent times = =
At the end of 2012 Aberdeenshire Council gave the go @-@ ahead for the present owner 's planned restoration work on the temple and bridges , which he hoped would enhance existing facilities at nearby Drinnies Wood surrounding the Observatory , White Cow Woods and Aden Country Park . The lake is used regularly by local fishermen , and a fishing club with about 120 members was established in 2011 . The rest of the estate is seldom used by local residents , many of whom are completely unaware of it .
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= Svetlana Kuznetsova =
Svetlana Aleksandrovna Kuznetsova ( Russian : Светла ́ на Алекса ́ ндровна Кузнецо ́ ва ; IPA : [ svʲɪtˈlanə ɐlʲɪkˈsandrəvnə kʊznʲɪˈtsovə ] ; born 27 June 1985 ) is a Russian professional tennis player . Kuznetsova has appeared in four Grand Slam singles finals , winning two , and has also appeared in seven doubles finals , winning twice . As a doubles player , Kuznetsova has reached the finals of each Grand Slam at least once , winning the Australian Open twice . She has qualified five times for the round @-@ robin stage of the WTA Tour Championships but has never reached the semifinals .
Born to an athletic family , Kuznetsova moved at the age of seven to Spain to attend the Sanchez @-@ Casal Academy . In 2001 she first took part on a WTA tournament , the Madrid Open , and a year later won her first WTA title at the Nordea Nordic Light Open in Helsinki , Finland . Her first appearance in a Grand Slam was at the 2002 Australian Open and her first Grand Slam title came at the 2004 US Open , making her the third Russian woman to win a Grand Slam title , after Anastasia Myskina and Maria Sharapova . Kuznetsova 's second Grand Slam title was the 2009 French Open , defeating compatriot Dinara Safina in the final in straight sets . At the 2006 French Open and the 2007 US Open singles tournament she was the runner @-@ up , both times to Belgian player Justine Henin . As a result , Kuznetsova obtained a career @-@ high No. 2 WTA ranking , holding that position for 24 weeks in 2007 and 2008 .
Apart from singles tournaments , Kuznetsova was also successful in doubles . With Arantxa Sánchez Vicario she won her first five WTA doubles titles . After a series of disappointing results with her she paired with Martina Navratilova , Elena Likhovtseva , Alicia Molik , and Amélie Mauresmo . Pairing with Likhovtseva she climbed to No. 3 WTA in doubles in 2004 , holding that position for 8 weeks , which remains her career @-@ high . She won the Australian Open twice in doubles , in 2005 alongside Alicia Molik and in 2012 partnering Vera Zvonareva . Kuznetsova also played various times mixed doubles at Grand Slams , most prominently in 2003 , but never went beyond the quarterfinals . In 2010 she fell from the top @-@ 10 singles rankings for the first time since 2006 and had not regained that position until July 2016 . Kuznetsova has won a total of 16 WTA and 1 ITF singles titles and 16 WTA doubles titles to date .
= = Early life = =
Svetlana Aleksandrovna Kuznetsova was born in Leningrad . Her father , Aleksandr Kuznetsov , has coached five Olympic and world cycling champions . Kuznetsova 's mother , Galina Tsareva , is a six @-@ time world champion and holder of 20 world records in cycling , and her brother , Nikolay Kuznetsov , was a silver medalist at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta and coach of the Russian cycling team Lokomotiv . Kuznetsova never showed inspiration for cycling , but rather tennis . She later stated in an interview that she liked watching tennis from an early age , preferring men 's over women 's tennis . " I had posters in my room of MaliVai Washington , Marcelo Ríos , and ( Yevgeny ) Kafelnikov . It 's very weird but this is who I liked . Later I was a big fan of ( Marat ) Safin . " , she said . Kuznetsova began to play tennis at the age of seven , and moved to Spain six years later to receive better training and coaching . While there , she became fluent in Spanish .
= = Career = =
= = = 2000 : ITF Junior Career = = =
Kuznetsova debuted in her first International Tennis Federation ( ITF ) tournament in Mallorca on 31 January . In the first round , she defeated Katia Altilia from Italy in two straight sets , 6 – 0 , 6 – 4 . However , she lost in the quarter final to Oana – Elena Golimbioschi . Her next appearance was in Talence in April . She defeated Aurore Desertin in the first round , but lost in the second round to Berengere Karpenschif , both from France . In Minsk , Belarus , in a tournament using the short sets scoring system , she reached the quarter final , after defeating the unranked Vera Zvonareva in the first round in four sets , and Daria Panova in three sets in the second round . In the quarter final , she lost to 574th ranked Elena Voropaeva in four sets , after losing two tie breaks in the two earlier sets . However , Kuznetsova was ranked in the top 900 , receiving her first ranking of 889 during the week ending 20 November 2000 . She moved to Mallorca again and joined the Mallorca 3 tournament . Kuznetsova lost in the first round to Dinara Safina after winning the first set . Her last tournament of the year was again in Mallorca , but now played in a minimum of four sets . In the Round of 32 , she defeated Silvia Disderi . However , she fell to 8th seeded Mihaela Moldovan in the last round . She ended the season ranked 889 .
= = = 2001 – 2002 : First WTA titles = = =
Kuznetsova began playing in tournaments on the ITF Circuit in 2000 , winning her first title on the circuit in April 2001 . Her first appearances in the main draws of tournaments on the main WTA Tour were at the Madrid Open in May of that year and at the Waikoloa Championships in Waikoloa , Hawaii in September , losing in the second round on both occasions . She finished the year 2001 ranked 259 .
Kuznetsova made her debut in the main draw of a Grand Slam at the 2002 Australian Open , where , as a qualifier , she reached the second round before losing to 16th seed Iroda Tulyaganova . However , she previously lost in the qualifying rounds of both the 2001 French Open and 2001 Wimbledon .
As a qualifier at the clay @-@ court Nordea Nordic Light Open in Helsinki , Finland in August , Kuznetsova won her first WTA singles title , defeating world No. 24 Patty Schnyder in the quarterfinals for her first win over a top 40 player , before defeating Denisa Chládková in the final . Kuznetsova entered the top 100 for the first time as a result of that victory . Kuznetsova qualified for the US Open , defeating 19th seed Anne Kremer in the first round for her first win over a top 20 player , before losing in the third round to 13th seed Silvia Farina Elia . In September , Kuznetsova won her second title at the hard court Commonwealth Bank Tennis Classic in Bali , Indonesia , defeating former Grand Slam champions Arantxa Sánchez Vicario and Conchita Martínez . Also during 2002 , she teamed up with Sánchez Vicario to win the first WTA doubles titles of her career , in Sopot , Poland , Helsinki and Kōtō , Japan . Kuznetsova finished the 2002 season as world No. 43 in singles .
= = = 2003 : First Grand Slam quarterfinal = = =
Kuznetsova began her season at the Brisbane International . She received a wild card , but fell in the first round in the singles to Elena Bovina . In the doubles competition , she paired with Martina Navratilova , with whom she would play throughout the year ( except on the Pacific Life Open , partnering with Slovak Janette Husárová ) , and won against Nathalie Dechy and Émilie Loit in straight sets . In the Australian Open , she lost to second seed Venus Williams in the first round . With Navratilova , they lost against ninth seed Daniela Hantuchová and Chanda Rubin in the third round . She paired with Australian Jeff Coetzee but lost to Mark Knowles and Elena Likhovtseva in two tight sets in the first round . In the singles event of the Dubai Tennis Championships in February , Kuznetsova won the first round against 6th seeded Francesca Schiavone , but was beaten by Dinara Safina in the second round . In the doubles event she and Navratilova were beaten by eventual runners @-@ up María Vento @-@ Kabchi and Angelique Widjaja . She did not reach the quarterfinals of any tournament during the first half of the year . Kuznetsova 's win over world No. 11 Anastasia Myskina in the second round of the Pacific Life Open in Indian Wells , California was her highest up to that date .
In the first round of the French Open , Kuznetsova lost to Meghann Shaughnessy . She was also unsuccessful with Jared Palmer in the mixed doubles , losing to Nadia Petrova and Paul Haarhuis in the round of 16 . Kuznetsova paired with Navratilova in the doubles match , but lost to Kim Clijsters and Ai Sugiyama in three sets in the quarter final . Kuznetsova participated at Wimbledon , where in the fourth round , she defeated wildcard Maria Sharapova to reach her first Grand Slam quarterfinal , losing to third seed Justine Henin . At the doubles , they were again defeated by Clijsters and Sugiyama . Kuznetsova paired with Australian Todd Woodbridge in the mixed doubles , but lost against Leoš Friedl and Liezel Huber in the quarter final . She then made her first semifinal appearance of the year at the Acura Classic in San Diego , before losing to Henin . At the US Open singles tournament , Kuznetsova lost in the third round to top seed Kim Clijsters . However , in the doubles competition , she again partnered with Navratilova and reached the first Grand Slam final of her career but were beaten by Paola Suárez and Virginia Ruano Pascual in two straight sets . She entered the Sparkassen Cup in Leipzig , losing to fifth seeded Daniela Hantuchová in the first round . Kuznetsova and Navratilova won the doubles title against Elena Likhovtseva and Nadia Petrova . In the doubles competition at the Ladies Kremlin Cup , they reached the semifinals before losing to Russian couple and runners @-@ up Anastasia Myskina and Vera Zvonareva . Her last appearance of the year was at the WTA Tour Championships doubles competition in Los Angeles . In her first Tour Championships participation she and Navratilova lost in the first round to eventual champions Virginia Ruano Pascual and Paola Suárez . She finished the 2003 season as world No. 36 .
= = = 2004 : First Grand Slam title ( winning US Open ) = = =
Kuznetsova reached the third round of the singles competition at the Australian Open before losing to top seed Justine Henin . She reached her second Grand Slam doubles final with new partner Elena Likhovtseva before losing to Virginia Ruano Pascual and Paola Suárez . Several weeks later , playing singles at Dubai , Kuznetsova defeated former world No. 1 Venus Williams in the quarterfinals before defeating world No. 8 Ai Sugiyama in the semifinals for her first win over a top 10 player . Kuznetsova lost the final to world No. 1 Henin . The following week , Kuznetsova defeated Henin for the first time in the semifinals of the Qatar Total Open in Doha , before losing in the final to compatriot Myskina in three sets , pushing her into the top 20 for the first time . In April , Kuznetsova reached her third singles final of the year at the start of the clay @-@ court season at the J & S Cup in Warsaw , losing to Venus Williams in the final . Kuznetsova climbed to No. 11 by the time of the French Open . There , she reached the fourth round before losing to eventual champion Myskina , after holding a match point in the third set . In doubles Kuznetsova and Likhovtseva reached the final , losing to Suarez and Ruano Pascual . Following the French Open , Kuznetsova climbed to career @-@ highs of world No. 9 in the singles rankings , her first time in the top ten , and on 7 June 2004 , world No. 3 in the doubles rankings . Kuznetsova won her third title at the Hastings Direct International Championships in Eastbourne , defeating Hantuchová in the final in three sets . At Wimbledon , Kuznetsova suffered a first @-@ round loss to 118th – ranked Virginie Razzano . She fell to No. 4 in the doubles on 26 July , losing in the LA Women 's Tennis Championships to 113th ranked Gisela Dulko and Patricia Tarabini .
Representing Russia at the Olympics in August , Kuznetsova reached the quarterfinals before losing to silver @-@ medallist Amélie Mauresmo . She went into the US Open seeded ninth . There , she defeated 14th seed Petrova in the quarterfinals , and in her first Grand Slam semifinal , defeated fifth seed and former champion Davenport , ending the American 's 22 @-@ match winning streak . In the final , Kuznetsova defeated sixth seed Dementieva . Kuznetsova was the first female Russian to win the US Open and the third to win a Grand Slam singles title , following the successes of Myskina and Maria Sharapova earlier in the year . Meanwhile , Kuznetsova teamed with Likhovtseva to reach the final of the doubles tournament before losing there to Suarez and Ruano Pascual , marking Kuznetsova 's fourth consecutive defeat by the pair in Grand Slams . Kuznetsova , however , climbed again to No. 3 on 13 September , after her loss in Los Angeles in early July . Kuznetsova continued her success by winning the Commonwealth Bank Tennis Classic in Bali , Indonesia defeating Marlene Weingärtner in the final . In the doubles she reached with Arantxa @-@ Sánchez Vicario the final , losing to Anastasia Myskina and Ai Sugiyama . This improved her singles ranking to a new high of world No. 5 , but worsen her doubles ranking to No. 4 on 20 September . The following week , at the China Open in Beijing , Kuznetsova defeated Wimbledon champion Sharapova in the semifinals to extend her winning streak to 14 matches . However , she lost in the final to Serena Williams . Making her debut at the season @-@ ending WTA Championships in Los Angeles , Kuznetsova lost two of three matches in the preliminary round @-@ robin stage and exited before the semifinals . Kuznetsova finished the season as world No. 5 .
= = = 2005 : Out of the top 10 = = =
Kuznetsova began the year by reaching the quarterfinals of the Australian Open , losing to fourth seed Sharapova in three sets . Kuznetsova teamed with Australian Alicia Molik to win her first Grand Slam doubles title , defeating Davenport and Corina Morariu . In the first round she received a bye at the Toray Pan Pacific Open and was defeated by runner @-@ up Lindsay Davenport in the semifinal . Kuznetsova did not reach any finals during the spring hard @-@ court season , with defeats including one to No. 97 Sania Mirza in the first round at Dubai . She received a first @-@ round bye at the Pacific Life Open and reached the quarterfinal before losing to Elena Dementieva . She joined the next event , the NASDAQ @-@ 100 Open in Miami , and progressed to the 4th round after receiving a bye in the 1st round . There she was defeated by Ana Ivanovic .
She made her first final of the year at the J & S Cup in Warsaw , defeating former world No. 1 Clijsters in the semis . In the final , Kuznetsova lost to Henin . At the French Open , Kuznetsova lost again to eventual champion Henin in a tightly contested fourth round match , having wasted a match point in the third set . At Wimbledon , Kuznetsova reached the quarterfinals for the second time before losing to top seed Davenport . She teamed up with Mauresmo to reach her sixth Grand Slam doubles final but suffered a heavy defeat by Cara Black and Liezel Huber .
At the US Open , she lost to No. 97 Ekaterina Bychkova in the first round , becoming the first female defending US Open champion to lose in the first round . This defeat dropped her out of the top ten . She defeated Zvonareva in the quarterfinal of the Kremlin Cup but was beaten by Francesca Schiavone in the semifinal . At the $ 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 Zurich Open Kuznetsova lost in the first round to the unseeded Nathalie Dechy . She finished the year ranked world No. 18 .
= = = 2006 : Return to form = = =
Kuznetsova started her season at the Australian Open and reached the fourth round before losing there to top seed Davenport . Several weeks later , Kuznetsova rebounded at Dubai , defeating world No. 2 Mauresmo in the quarterfinals for her first win over a top ten player since 2004 . She lost to Henin in the semifinals . In March , Kuznetsova defeated former world No. 1 Martina Hingis in the third round of the NASDAQ @-@ 100 Open in Miami , before going on to defeat world No. 1 Mauresmo in the semifinals . In the final , she defeated Sharapova to win the first Tier I title of her career and her first singles title in 18 months . This win returned her to the top ten .
Kuznetsova reached her second final of the year at the clay @-@ court J & S Cup in Warsaw , defeating Venus Williams en route . In the final , she lost to world No. 2 Clijsters , marking third consecutive runner @-@ up finish . At the French Open , Kuznetsova reached the quarterfinals for the first time , where she defeated 14th seed Dinara Safina . In the semifinals , she defeated 17 @-@ year @-@ old Czech Nicole Vaidišová after saving a match point . In her second Grand Slam final , Kuznetsova lost to Henin . Kuznetsova reached only the third round at Wimbledon , losing to 27th seed Li Na .
At the US Open Kuznetsova lost in the fourth round to 19th seed Jelena Janković . In September , she won her second title of the year at the $ 225 @,@ 000 Commonwealth Bank Tennis Classic in Bali as 1st seeded – for the first time in her career – defeating Davenport in the semifinals and Marion Bartoli in the final . The following week , she won the China Open in Beijing , after defeating world No. 1 Mauresmo in the final .
Competing at the season @-@ ending WTA Tour Championships , played in Madrid , for the second time Kuznetsova again failed to advance past the preliminary round @-@ robin stage , winning just one of her three matches . She finished the season as world No. 4 .
= = = 2007 : Continued success , world No. 2 = = =
Kuznetsova began the year by losing in the fourth round of the Australian Open to 16th seed Israeli Shahar Pe 'er . She rebounded to reach her first final of the year in February at the Qatar Total Open in Doha , losing to world No. 1 Henin in two sets . She was seed 1st and made the final of the Tier I Pacific Life Open at Indian Wells , but lost to Hantuchová in straight sets . Reaching the final improved her ranking to third during the week ending 18 March , a career high .
Kuznetsova continued on form during the clay @-@ courts season . At the J & S Cup in Warsaw , she defeated Venus Williams for the first time in her career in the quarterfinals before losing to Alona Bondarenko in the semifinals . She made the final of another Tier I tournament , at the Qatar Telecom German Open in Berlin , after defeating world No. 1 Henin for only the second time in the semifinals . In the final , the 1st seeded Kuznetsova lost to 12th seeded Ana Ivanovic . The following week , Kuznetsova reached the final of the Tier I Internazionali BNL d 'Italia in Rome , losing to 3rd seed Janković . As the third seed at the French Open , Kuznetsova advanced to the quarterfinals without dropping a set but lost there to runner @-@ up Ivanovic . Kuznetsova reached the quarterfinals of Wimbledon for the third time in July in which she lost to eventual champion Venus Williams .
In August , the 1st @-@ seeded Kuznetsova won her first title of the year at the Pilot Pen Tennis tournament in New Haven , after three of her opponents retired due to injury or illness , including her finals opponent Ágnes Szávay . At the US Open , Kuznetsova defeated sixth seed Anna Chakvetadze in the semifinals to advance to her third Grand Slam final . She lost to Henin in straight sets . As a result of this run , Kuznetsova reached world No. 2 during the week ending 9 September .
At the Porsche Tennis Grand Prix in Stuttgart , Germany , Kuznetsova recorded her first career win over Serena Williams before losing in the semifinals to Tatiana Golovin . The following week she was seeded 1st in the Kremlin Cup in Moscow , but lost to Serena Williams in the semifinals . Kuznetsova completed the year by competing at the year @-@ ending Championships in Madrid , but once again failed to progress beyond the preliminary round @-@ robin stage , losing all three matches . She finished the season as world No. 2 and as the highest @-@ ranked Russian player for the first time .
= = = 2008 : Steady ranking = = =
Kuznetsova began the season by reaching the final at the Medibank International in Sydney , losing to world No. 1 Henin in the final set . At the Australian Open , Kuznetsova was seeded second , but fell in the third round to 29th seed Agnieszka Radwańska . After her defeat at the Qatar Open to 15th seeded Sybille Bammer , she fell after 15 weeks to No. 3 on 25 February . Kuznetsova made her second final of the season in Dubai , defeating former world No. 1 Mauresmo in the quarterfinals and world No. 4 Janković in the semifinals . In the final Kuznetsova lost to Elena Dementieva . At the Tier I Pacific Life Open in March , Kuznetsova defeated Radwańska in the quarterfinals before defeating Australian Open champion Sharapova in the semifinals . In the final , Kuznetsova lost to top @-@ seeded Ivanović . This marked her eighth defeat in her nine most recent final appearances . At the Tier I Sony Ericsson Open the next fortnight , Kuznetsova defeated Venus Williams in the quarterfinals but then lost to her sister Serena in the semifinals .
Kuznetsova 's form dipped following the conclusion of the spring hard @-@ court season , as she won just three of five matches on clay leading up to the French Open . She advanced to the semifinals without dropping a set , but then lost to Safina . At Wimbledon , Kuznetsova lost in the fourth round to Agnieszka Radwańska , after leading by a break in the third and final set .
In the summer , she competed at the Beijing Olympics , losing to local favorite Li Na in the first round . Seeded third in the US Open , she fell to Katarina Srebotnik in the third round in three sets . After the latter loss , she dropped out of the top five in the world rankings for the first time in two years . The following week , Kuznetsova made her first final since March at the Tier I Toray Pan Pacific Open in Tokyo , defeating world No. 2 Janković in the quarterfinals before going losing to Safina in the final . The following week , Kuznetsova reached the final at the China Open in Beijing , but lost to Janković . This marked Kuznetsova 's 10th defeat in her last 11 finals .
She mirrored her earlier performance at the season @-@ ending WTA Tour Championships in Doha , Qatar , losing all three of her matches . Kuznetsova finished the year ranked No. 8 , the only woman in the top ten not to have won a title that year .
= = = 2009 : French Open title = = =
At the Australian Open , Kuznetsova reached the quarterfinals for the second time in her career , but lost to eventual champion Serena Williams , after being within two points of winning the match in the second set . After that , Kuznetsova did not win another match for nearly two months . She broke her losing streak at the Sony Ericsson Open in Miami , reaching the semifinals , losing to Victoria Azarenka .
At the Porsche Tennis Grand Prix in Stuttgart , Kuznetsova defeated world No. 3 Dementieva in the semifinals to reach her first final that year . She defeated world No. 1 Safina to win her first singles title since August 2007 . The following week , Kuznetsova also reached the final at the Premier 5 Internazionali BNL d 'Italia in Rome , having defeated No. 4 Janković en route . She lost the championship to Safina . In the quarterfinals of the French Open Kuznetsova defeated Serena Williams in three sets before defeating Samantha Stosur to reach her fourth Grand Slam final . There she defeated top seed Safina to win her second Grand Slam title . At Wimbledon , Kuznetsova fell in the third round to unseeded German Sabine Lisicki .
She pulled out of the LA Women 's Tennis Championships , citing a foot injury . Her next event was the Cincinnati Open , where she fell to Clijsters in the third round . She then played in the Rogers Cup and lost to Samantha Stosur in the second round . She received a wild card entrance to the Pilot Pen Tennis tournament in New Haven , but lost in the quarterfinals to Mauresmo . This became her last tournament as 1st seeded . At the US Open she won in straight set wins over Goerges , Sevastova , and Peer , but lost against Caroline Wozniacki in the fourth round . At the Toray Pan Pacific Open in Tokyo , seeded fifth , she lost to Andrea Petkovic .
A week later , she played at China Open as the sixth seed . She advanced to the final beating Petrova in the semifinal and won against Agnieszka Radwańska in the final . Soon after , she played at the WTA Tour Championships in Doha , Qatar . She entered the Maroon group along with Dementieva , Serena Williams and Venus Williams . She lost both her matches against the Williams sisters . She defeated Dementieva , breaking her 8 – match losing streak at the Championships . Kuznetsova ended the year ranked No. 3 .
= = = 2010 – 2011 : Struggles with form = = =
Kuznetsova began the year at the Medibank International Sydney . She defeated Alisa Kleybanova in the first round before falling to Dominika Cibulková in the second round . Kuznetsova was seeded 3rd for the Australian Open . She advanced to the 4th round , losing to 19th seeded Petrova . Following the tournament , Kuznetsova 's ranking dropped to world No. 4 . Kuznetsova was seeded second for the Dubai Tennis Championships but fell in a third round upset to qualifier and No. 99 ranked Regina Kulikova . At the Billie Jean King Cup exhibition , Kuznetsova lost her match to Williams . For the first as the top seed , due to Serena Williams and Safina 's withdrawal at the BNP Paribas Open , she was upset by Carla Suárez Navarro in the second round after receiving a first round bye . Kuznetsova was seeded , for the sixth and last time to date , first at the Sony Ericsson Open and after receiving a bye in the first round , managed to prevent another upset by defeating Peng Shuai in the second round . She then defeated 27th seed Ágnes Szávay to book a fourth round encounter with Marion Bartoli , losing to the French No. 1 in the quarterfinal .
Kuznetsova was the defending champion at the Porsche Tennis Grand Prix in Stuttgart , but fell to Li Na in the second round , after defeating Srebotnik . At the Internazionali BNL d 'Italia , where she had reached the final the year before , she lost in the second round to Maria Kirilenko , after receiving a first round bye . As the defending champion at the French Open , Kuznetsova was the 6th seed . She defeated Sorana Cîrstea and Andrea Petkovic in the early rounds . In the third round she lost to 30th seeded Kirilenko . Kuznetsova advanced to the quarterfinals of the Aegon International in Eastbourne , losing to Ekaterina Makarova . Kuznetsova was seeded 19th at the Wimbledon . She defeated Akgul Amanmuradova in the first round , before falling to Anastasia Rodionova in the second round .
Kuznetsova rallied by winning the Mercury Insurance Open in San Diego . She defeated Yanina Wickmayer , Sara Errani , Coco Vandeweghe , and Flavia Pennetta en route to the final which she won in three sets against Agnieszka Radwańska . She then played at the Cincinnati Open suffering an early exit to Sharapova in the first round . At the Rogers Cup , Kuznetsova made it to the semifinals before falling to Caroline Wozniacki in two sets . Kuznetsova was seeded 11th at the US Open . She defeated Kimiko Date @-@ Krumm , Anastasija Sevastova , and 23rd seed Kirilenko before falling in the fourth round to unseeded Cibulková . Kuznetsova was the 10th seed at the Toray Pan Pacific Open , but lost to Petkovic in the second round .
As the defending champion , Kuznetsova exited in the first round of the Premier tournament China Open to Roberta Vinci . She finished the year ranked world No. 27 , her lowest since 2003 .
Kuznetsova 's first tournament of 2011 was the ASB Classic Open in Auckland , New Zealand where she was the third seed . She fell to Peng Shuai in the second round , although initially up a set . She then headed to Sydney for the Medibank International Sydney where she lost in the quarterfinals to eight @-@ seeded Li . Kuznetsova was seeded 23rd at the Australian Open where she lost in the fourth round to Francesca Schiavone , squandering six match points in the final set . The match was the longest recorded women 's Grand Slam match in the Open Era , with a final scoreline of 6 – 4 , 1 – 6 , 16 – 14 , and the second @-@ longest women 's match in the Open Era . Her next tournament was the Dubai Tennis Championships . The 16th seed set up a date in the final with Caroline Wozniacki by beating Flavia Pennetta in the semifinal . Kuznetsova was defeated by the top @-@ seed . In doubles , she teamed up with Vera Zvonareva , but pulled out before the semifinal against Liezel Huber and María José Martínez Sánchez due to a right elbow injury of Zvonareva . She lost in the Qatar Ladies Open tournament against Shahar Pe 'er in the first round . Kuznetsova received a bye in the first round at the BNP Paribas Open in Indian Wells , but was defeated by wildcard Christina McHale in two tie @-@ breaks in the second round . At the doubles event , Kuznetsova teamed up with Vera Zvonareva . They received a wildcard in the first round , but were defeated by fourth seed King and Shvedova . In the singles tournament of the Sony Ericsson Open in Miami , Kuznetsova was 11th @-@ seeded and lost in the third round to Peng Shuai in straight sets . In the doubles tournament , again with Zvonareva and receiving a wildcard entry , they exited in the second round against María José Martínez Sánchez and Anabel Medina Garrigues .
Kuznetsova was seeded second at the 2011 Andalucia Tennis Experience after receiving a wildcard . She succeeded to move to the semifinal where she lost against qualifier Irina @-@ Camelia Begu . She failed to reach the second round in both the Madrid Open and Internationali BNL d 'Italia , losing to Dominika Cibulková and Gréta Arn respectively . In Madrid she partnered with Zvonareva and received a wildcard . They moved into the second round , but lost against King and Shvedova . Kuznetsova was seeded 13th at the French Open singles event where she lost against Marion Bartoli in the quarterfinal , her first in a Grand Slam tournament since 2009 . At the doubles event she paired with Zvonareva and defeated unseeded Klaudia Jans and Alicja Rosolska from Poland . They lost against third seeds King and Shvedova . She lost against Dominika Cibulková in the quarterfinal of the UNICEF Open . At the Wimbledon singles tournament she defeated Zhang Shuai and Alexandra Dulgheru , but lost against Yanina Wickmayer .
Kuznetsova was the defending champion at the Mercury Insurance Open , but withdrew due to a groin strain . She recovered quickly from the injury and entered the Rogers Cup , but lost to Simona Halep in the first round . As 14th @-@ seed , she made it to the third round of the Western & Southern Open and was beaten by eventual champion Maria Sharapova . Kuznetsova reached the fourth round of the US Open in which she lost to top @-@ seeded Wozniacki .
= = = 2012 : Injuries and out of Top 50 = = =
Kuznetsova began her season at the ASB Classic in Auckland , where she reached the semifinal , losing in three sets to Chinese Zheng Jie . At the Australian Open , she was defeated in the third round of the singles event by German Sabine Lisicki . In contrast , she partnered with Vera Zvonareva as in the previous season and won her second Grand Slam doubles title against the Italian duo Errani and Vinci , defeating them in a three sets final . It was her best doubles result since 2009 . It was the first time since 2008 that an unseeded pair won the Australian Open doubles title .
Kuznetsova was seeded 26th at the 2012 French Open . She upset world No. 3 Agnieszka Radwańska in the third round , but subsequently lost in the fourth round to eventual runner @-@ up Sara Errani .
Kuznetsova then suffered a first round loss at Wimbledon , falling to Yanina Wickmayer in straight sets . It was the first time she lost in the first round of any Grand Slam since the 2005 U.S. Open where she was the defending champion . She withdrew from the 2012 US Open , ending a streak of 40 consecutive Grand Slam appearances dating back to 2002 .
= = = 2013 : Comeback from injury , return to form = = =
Kuznetsova began her comeback at the 2013 Apia International Sydney , where she had to qualify to enter the main draw . In the second round , she upset former world No. 1 Caroline Wozniacki in three sets for her first win in a main draw of any tournament since the previous year 's French Open .
Kuznetsova entered the Australian Open unseeded , but she was able to reach the quarter @-@ finals for the third time , after defeating Wozniacki for the second time this year , in the fourth round . She subsequently lost in the quarter @-@ finals to world No. 1 , defending and eventual champion Victoria Azarenka in two sets . She next played at the Qatar Total Open and defeated ninth seed Marion Bartoli in the second round , before losing in the third to Samantha Stosur .
Kuznetsova then entered Indian Wells as an unseeded player . She matched her 2012 performance by reaching the third round , defeating former champion Jelena Janković in the second round before losing to Marion Bartoli in the third . At Miami , Kuznetsova was again unseeded , but she managed to reach the third round , losing to Ana Ivanovic in straight sets .
At the French Open , Kuznetsova reached her second consecutive Grand Slam quarter @-@ final , where she lost to world No. 1 and eventual champion Serena Williams in three sets . The second set which Kuznetsova won was the only one dropped by Williams during the tournament . She had defeated 22nd @-@ seed and compatriot Ekaterina Makarova and German sixth seed Angelique Kerber en route .
= = = 2014 : Steady ranking , first WTA title since 2010 = = =
Kuznetsova began the year with a loss to Varvara Lepchenko in the first round at Sydney . At the first round of PTT Pattaya Open , Kuznetsova defeated Zhang Shuai to record her 500th career victory . This immediately followed a first round loss to Elina Svitolina at the Australian Open . Kuznetsova lost to Petra Kvitová in three sets in the third round at the 2014 BNP Paribas Open . At the Sony Open Tennis , Kuznetsova was upset in her first match by 17 @-@ year @-@ old Croat Donna Vekić in straight sets after receiving a first round bye .
Kuznetsova reached the quarterfinals at the Porsche Tennis Grand Prix in Stuttgart , where she was defeated by eventual finalist Ivanović . In the following competition , the 7th @-@ seed Russian was finalist at the Portugal Open , losing to Carla Suárez Navarro in tough three sets . This was her first single final in more than three years .
In Roland Garros , Kuznetsova repeated her success in the previous year , climbing to the quarterfinals , before that defeating 5th @-@ seed and Wimbledon champion Petra Kvitová in the third round . The injured Kuznetsova was helpless against finalist Simona Halep , who defeated her in straight sets .
Kuznetsova was upset in the first round of the 2014 Wimbledon Championships by Portugal 's Michelle Larcher de Brito in three sets .
Winning her first WTA title in almost four years , Kuznetsova outlasted Kurumi Nara to claim the 2014 Citi Open . Seeded sixth in the tournament , the Russian broke unseeded Nara in the final game to win her fourteenth career title .
= = = 2015 : First Premier Mandatory final since Beijing 2009 = = =
Kuznetsova failed to win a match in Auckland and Sydney , losing to qualifier Lucie Hradecká and Madison Keys in the first rounds respectively . She lost her opening match again at Melbourne , losing to Caroline Garcia .
Kuznetsova scored her first win of the year at the Fed Cup , where she defeated world No. 8 Agnieszka Radwańska . However , Kuznetsova 's hard court season was disappointing , with her biggest win against 15th @-@ ranked Angelique Kerber in Miami .
She started the clay season at the International tournament Prague Open , where she lost to 98th @-@ ranked Shuai Zhang , but renewed herself at the Madrid Open , where she reached her 35th final . Kuznetsova had wins over Ekaterina Makarova , Garbiñe Muguruza , Sam Stosur and Lucie Šafářová , and then defeated Maria Sharapova in two sets . She lost to Petra Kvitová in the final in straight sets . Kuznetsova reached the 2nd round of Roland Garros , losing there to long @-@ time rival Francesca Schiavone in three tricky sets , 6 – 7 ( 9 – 11 ) , 7 – 5 , 10 – 8 . It was the third @-@ longest women 's match in the history of the French Open , lasting 3 hours and 50 minutes . This loss resulted to her exit from the top 20 , losing ten ranking positions .
Kuznetsova played a steady grass season , with a Win – Loss of 6 – 3 , the second @-@ best result judged by wins in her career on grass . She reached the second round of Wimbledon for the first time since 2011 . Kuznetsova withdrew from most of the North America tournaments , including the Rogers Cup and Cincinnati , due to a left leg injury . At the US Open , she lost in the first round to Kristina Mladenovic . Kuznetsova renewed herself in Guangzhou , reaching the quarterfinals . She eventually received her first trophy this season at the Kremlin Cup with a straight sets victory over Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova in the final , becoming the 15th title in her career .
= = = 2016 : Miami Open final , Return to the Top 10 = = =
Svetlana repeated her season start . In Auckland she reached the second round where she was knocked out by Tamira Paszek . She then triumphed in Sydney , defeating top @-@ seeded Halep in the semifinals in three tight sets , and qualifier Mónica Puig from Puerto Rico in the finals in two sets .
At the Australian Open , seeded No. 23 , she reached the second round , where she lost surprisingly to returning Kateryna Bondarenko from Ukraine .
Seeded 8th at the Dubai Tennis Championships , Kuznetsova suffered a shocking demolition by Julia Görges in the first round . Kuznetsova then traveled to Doha for the Qatar Total Open . She was seeded 12th and was drawn to face Julia Görges in the first round for consecutive tournaments . However , this time Svetlana won in straight sets but lost out to Jeļena Ostapenko in the second round .
At the BNP Paribas Open , Svetlana was seeded 16th and received a bye into the second round . However , she suffered a loss to Coco Vandeweghe . Kuznetsova then reached her 2nd Miami Open final of her career . There she beat Carina Witthöft , Caroline Garcia , Serena Williams , Ekaterina Makarova and Timea Bacsinszky , all , except Bacsinszky , in three tight sets . The last time Kuznetsova defeated a World No. 1 player was at the 2009 Roland Garros final . She also stopped the American 's 20 @-@ match winning streak . However , Kuznetsova missed her chance to return to the Top 10 for the first time since 2009 when she lost to Victoria Azarenka in the final .
Kuznetsova reached the quarterfinals of the Italian Open , where she suffered a clear loss by Serena Williams . As a result , she jumped four ranking positions , to No.15. On 15 April , Kuznetsova replaced Sharapova from the top position among Russian players , the first time since 2011 .
The Russian reached the fourth round in singles at the 2016 French Open , losing to eventual champion Garbiñe Muguruza . In doubles , she partnered with Margarita Gasparyan to reach the semifinals . This became her best Grand Slam doubles result since 2012 Australian Open , and her best French Open doubles result since 2004 .
= = Rivalries = =
= = = Kuznetsova vs. Henin = = =
Belgian tennis legend Justine Henin was one of Kuznetsova 's leading rivals during the middle portion of her career . Of the 19 matches that they played , Kuznetsova earned three victories , including their final one . Henin won their first meeting in the 2003 Wimbledon Quarterfinal when Kuznetsova , just 17 , lost in straight sets . Kuznetsova earned her first win over the Belgian at the semifinals of the 2004 Total Qatar Open , where she went on to lose in the final to Anastasia Myskina . This result projected the Russian into the world 's top 20 players for the first time . Arguably their finest match followed in the fourth round of the 2005 French Open , where Henin saved two match points en route to a three set victory . Henin went on to win the tournament that and the following two years , beating Kuznetsova in the 2006 final . Henin additionally defeated Kuznetsova in the finals of the 2007 US Open grand slam tournament in straight sets . Kuznetsova beat Henin for the second time in the finals of the 2007 Qatar Telecom German Open tournament in Berlin in three sets , becoming the second @-@ to @-@ last person to do so in 2007 . The Belgian went on a seven @-@ month , 32 @-@ match winning streak after Wimbledon , having lifted the French Open directly beforehand . Henin unexpectedly retired in 2008 , but returned to the tour briefly in 2010 , only to suffer an elbow tear at Wimbledon . Justine Henin made one final comeback following her injury at the 2011 Australian Open , where Kuznetsova defeated her in a dramatic match in the third round . Due to the recurring nature of her elbow injury , Henin retired immediately following her match with Kuznetsova , making the Russian the final person to play against and defeat her .
= = = Kuznetsova vs. Radwańska = = =
Kuznetsova and Agnieszka Radwańska have played each other fifteen times since 2007 , with Kuznetsova leading the head @-@ to @-@ head 11 – 4 . Their first meeting was at Wimbledon in 2007 with Kuznetsova winning in straight sets . Kuznetsova won their first three meetings , but in the four meetings that eventuated in 2008 , Kuznetsova lost three of them , including in the third round of the Australian Open and in the fourth round of Wimbledon . Additionally , she also lost against her at the year @-@ end championships later in the year , after Radwańska replaced an injured Ana Ivanovic . Kuznetsova subsequently dominated Radwańska in future meetings , winning the last six meetings between the pair , the most recent being an upset victory at the 2012 French Open , until Radwańska stopped the rot at the 2014 Mutua Madrid Open , saving a match point in the process . Prior to 2014 , Kuznetsova 's two most recent titles came by defeating Radwańska in the championship match , first at Beijing in 2009 and then at San Diego in 2010 . In 2015 , Kuznetsova defeated Radwańska again in the opening match of Fed Cup tie between Russia and Poland .
= = = Kuznetsova vs. Ivanovic = = =
Kuznetsova and Ana Ivanovic have played each other fourteen times since 2005 , with Ivanovic leading the head @-@ to @-@ head 11 – 3 . Ivanovic dominated their meetings on a regular basis ; she won the pair 's first encounter at the 2005 Miami tournament in what was the Serb 's first ever appearance in the main draw of a Tier I tournament in which she was not required to qualify . Kuznetsova , however , won their meeting in Sydney in 2006 ; it was the Russian 's only victory against Ivanovic outside of the Fed Cup . They have met in two finals , both going Ivanovic 's way : first in Berlin in 2007 and at Indian Wells in 2008 , the latter of which they played as the top two seeds . Additionally , at the 2007 WTA Tour Championships , Kuznetsova lost to Ivanovic in three sets on the Serb 's 20th birthday . Kuznetsova has only beaten Ivanovic twice since 2006 , both in Fed Cup matches ( 2010 and 2012 ) . Their most recent meeting was in the third round of the 2015 China Open with Kuznetsova losing in three sets .
= = Fed Cup participation = =
Kuznetsova joined team Russia in 2004 in the doubles and singles competition . Her teammates were Myskina and Zvonareva in singles and Likhovtseva in doubles . They competed against Australia in the first round in the Luzhniki Stadium in an indoor carpet court . Kuznetsova defeated Molik and Molik / Rennae Stubbs . The end result was 4 – 1 for Russia ; Myskina lost to Molik . In the quarterfinal they faced Argentina in Buenos Aires . Kuznetsova lost to Gisela Dulko . In the doubles she defeated Dulko and partner Patricia Tarabini . The final score was the same as in the first round , 4 – 1 . In the semifinal they faced Austria . Again in Moscow , Kuznetsova defeated Yvonne Meusburger , Daniela Kix and Meusburger and Patricia Wartusch all in straight sets . The final score was a straight 5 – 0 . In the final they faced France only three days after the semifinal . Kuznetsova beat Dechy , but lost to Tatiana Golovin . Russia won the final 3 – 2 for its first Fed Cup victory .
Kuznetsova did not participate in the next two years . She rejoined in 2007 and defeated Spain 's Lourdes Domínguez Lino and Anabel Medina Garrigues in the quarterfinal . She was elected in the final that year . There , she won against Mara Santangelo and Schiavone from Italy . Russia again won that year 's Cup .
The next year she again participated . Playing against the United States she defeated 282nd @-@ ranked Ahsha Rolle in the semifinal . In contrast , Kuznetsova lost the doubles competition with partner Elena Vesnina , beaten by Liezel Huber and Vania King . In the end , Russia defeated the US 3 – 2 . In the final , Russia defeated Spain as it had the prior year . Kuznetsova won against Carla Suárez Navarro and Garrigues . Team Russia won the 2008 Fed Cup with 4 – 0 .
In 2009 Kuznetsova joined the group again . She played against China in the quarterfinal and won in the singles over opponent Yan Zi , and in the doubles , together with Dementieva , over Sun Tiantian and Yan Zi , after losing the first set . Russia won against China in a straight 5 – 0 final scoreline . Russia lost to Italy in the semifinal . Kuznetsova was the only winner , defeating Pennetta .
At the 2010 Fed Cup , Russia defeated Serbia in the quarterfinal 3 – 2 . There , Kuznetsova won two of three matches , beating Ivanović , and Ivanović and Janković in doubles , with partner Kleybanova . She lost to Janković .
Kuznetsova joined the Russian team in 2011 . In the first round they faced France on 5 and 6 February . In the first round , Kuznetsova was defeated by Alizé Cornet , but defeated Virginie Razzano a day later . She teamed up with Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova and defeated Cornet / Julie Coin in the doubles . Russia became just the fourth nation to come back from 0 – 2 down in a Fed Cup tie since the best @-@ of @-@ five @-@ match format was introduced to the World Group in 1995 . Russia defeated Italy in the semifinal in 5 – 0 . There , Svetlana Kuznetsova defeated Roberta Vinci . Russia succeeded , the first time since 2008 , in a final in the Fed Cup . Russia , however , lost against Czech Republic in 3 – 2 .
The first round of the 2012 Fed Cup saw three wins in the single competition , two of which were made by Kuznetsova , the first against Silvia Soler Espinosa , the second against Carla Suárez Navarro . The pair Kuznetsova / Petrova retired in their last match due to Kuznetsova 's fatigue , but Russia still won in 3 – 2 . Team Russia lost against the Serbian team in the semifinal , 2 – 3 . Although winning the first match against Ana Ivanovic in three sets , Kuznetsova was later defeated by Jelena Janković in two straight sets .
After a two @-@ years break in the Fed Cup , Kuznetsova participated at the 2015 Fed Cup , where team Russia played against Poland in the Round Robin . With her win over Agnieszka Radwańska in three sets , Kuznetsova beat a top @-@ 10 player in the Fed Cup for the first time . In the semifinals against Germany she played two rubbers , one was won against Julia Görges , another against Andrea Petkovic . With her win over Görges , Kuznetsova became the second @-@ best Russian Fed Cup player by total wins , with 27 won rubbers ; the absolute leader is Larisa Savchenko , with 40 won rubbers . Kuznetsova was not called in the final .
Kuznetsova at the 2016 Fed Cup lost in four hours against Richèl Hogenkamp in the first day , becoming the longest Fed Cup singles match in the history .
= = Coaches = =
Kuznetsova received training at the Sanchez @-@ Casal Academy in Barcelona , Spain from the age of 14 and was coached under direction of club president Emilio Sánchez and Sergio Casal . Her major coaching relationship was with Stefan Ortega who was a regular guest in her player 's box and helped advance her game .
After a series of poor finals ' results Kuznetsova ended her relationship with the Sanchez @-@ Casal academy in 2009 and moved to Moscow on the advice of Roger Federer to start training with experienced Russian coach Olga Morozova . They ended their relationship after the BNP Paribas Open in March 2009 , after which Kuznetsova was without a coach . As of May 2009 her coach was former Russian tennis player and Fed Cup coach Larisa Neiland . She was coached for a short period by Loïc Courteau after trying unsuccessfully to convince Mauresmo to coach her . Her next coach was for a short time the former Spanish tennis player Carlos Cuadrado , until he was replaced with her former coach Neiland . After the loss in the Italian Open , Kuznetsova has switched to Morozova , then to Amos Mansdorf and finally in May 2012 to Argentine Hernán Gumy , former coach of Marat Safin . She said in an interview , that she likes working with him and understands with him well . With his help she won three matches in straight sets at the 2012 French Open , including claiming the scalp of then @-@ world No. 3 Agnieszka Radwańska .
After a poor late 2012 season , Kuznetsova has switched between Gumy and Carlos Martínez ; sometimes both serve as coaches .
= = Playing style = =
Svetlana Kuznetsova plays right @-@ handed and has a two @-@ handed backhand . She is an all @-@ round player . She has been described as technically the most complete player on tour . She is noted for her great speed on court and her strong forehand with much topspin . She is capable of producing effective volley winners providing an agile touch . According to Richard Pagliaro of ESPN , " Kuznetsova can alter the spin , speed and height of her shots and owns the variety that plays well on clay " but since her recent failures , " consistency has eluded her , and she 's prone to flakiness and frustration under pressure . " Jeff Cooper of about.com meant her greatest strengths were the " outstandingly powerful and accurate forehand . Strong topspin on forehand and backhand . Solid serve . Great speed " and outlined her basic style as " power baseliner " with " no major weakness " . She is known for her unpredictability and inconsistency .
= = Endorsements and popular culture = =
Kuznetsova extended her long standing endorsement agreements with the sport brand Fila on 13 January 2012 . She debuted with the new apparel at the 2012 Australian Open alongside fellow Fila player Kim Clijsters . According to chairman Gene Yoon , " Both players are longtime members of the Fila family and have played an important role in Fila 's rich history in tennis . "
However that contract was not extended beyond 2012 and subsequently , shortly before the start of the 2013 Australian Open , Kuznetsova signed a new apparel endorsement deal with Chinese sports apparel brand Qiaodan .
Svetlana Kuznetsova appeared in video games Top Spin 3 , Virtua Tennis 2009 and Virtua Tennis 4 as a playable character .
= = Career statistics = =
Current through 2016 Wimbledon Championships
= = = Grand Slam finals = = =
= = = = Singles : 4 ( 2 – 2 ) = = = =
= = = = Doubles : 7 ( 2 – 5 ) = = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
2002
WTA Awards – Most Impressive Newcomer ( won )
2005
Laureus World Newcomer of the Year ( nominated )
Best Female Tennis Player ESPY Award ( nominated )
2006
WTA Awards – Diamond Aces ( won )
2009
Order of Merit for the Fatherland , 2nd class
Best Female Tennis Player ESPY Award ( nominated )
= = Records = =
These records were attained in the Open Era of tennis .
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= Do @-@ Over =
" Do @-@ Over " is the first episode of the third season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the thirty @-@ seventh episode overall . It was written by the series ' creator , executive producer and lead actress , Tina Fey and directed by series producer Don Scardino . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on October 30 , 2008 . Guest stars in this episode include Will Arnett , Marceline Hugot , and Megan Mullally .
Liz Lemon ( played by Fey ) is being evaluated by Bev ( Mullally ) as a part of the adoption process while Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) returns from his job in Washington D.C. and tries to retake his position from Devon Banks ( Arnett ) at General Electric . Meanwhile , Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) grows angry with Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) for not compensating her for voice acting work on his successful adult video game .
" Do @-@ Over " has received generally positive reception from television critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , the episode was watched by 8 @.@ 7 million households during its original broadcast , becoming 30 Rock 's highest @-@ rated episode , until the December 2008 episode " Christmas Special " . " Do @-@ Over " was nominated for an Art Directors Guild Production Design Award for " Single @-@ Camera Television Series " .
= = Plot = =
As Liz Lemon is returning to studio 6H , the TGS with Tracy Jordan studio , she meets Jack Donaghy returning from Washington . Jack tells her that he intends to get his old job back and Liz tells him of her upcoming adoption evaluation . When he confronts Devon Banks in his office , Devon offers Jack a position in the mail room , laughing , but Jack accepts . Jack later tells Liz of his plan to work his way back to his old job through honest means , though Kathy Geiss ( Marceline Hugot ) shows a sexual interest in Jack he could leverage into a quicker promotion . When he discovers that Devon is planning to shut down GE , Jack , with Liz 's help , convinces Kathy to hire him as her business adviser . Devon , realizing that he has been beaten , decides on a new path to securing his financial future : hurling himself in front of a series of moving cars so that he can sue the drivers .
Tracy Jordan 's pornographic video game , Gorgasm : The Legend of Dong Slayer , has been very successfully released since it was developed in the previous episode " Cooter " . He shows off a large royalty check and Jenna Maroney grows angry that she has not been compensated for her voice acting work in the game . Liz convinces him to make it up to her , and everyone else who helped him with the video game , by buying them presents . However , while everyone else receives extravagant gifts such as Frank getting gold @-@ plated nunchucks and Pete getting a chinchilla fur coat , Jenna only gets a coupon for free hugs and decides to sue Tracy .
Following a home evaluation , Bev from the adoption agency comes to work with Liz where she checks the safety of the studio and interviews the TGS cast and crew including Jenna , Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) , Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) , and Cerie Xerox ( Katrina Bowden ) . The workplace evaluation goes badly , with many of the interviews reflecting badly on Liz or the safety of the studio for a child . However , before Bev files her report she sustains a head injury and forgets that she has done the evaluation . Liz gets the crew to help her " do over " the evaluation , hoping for a better result .
= = Production = =
" Do @-@ Over " was written by series creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey , making it her thirteenth writing credit . The episode was directed by series producer Don Scardino , making it his fourteenth for the series . " Do @-@ Over " originally aired in the United States on October 30 , 2008 , on NBC as the season premiere episode of the show 's third season and the 37th overall episode of the series .
In September 2008 , it was announced that actress Megan Mullally would guest star on 30 Rock . In this episode of 30 Rock , Mullally played Bev , a woman evaluating Liz Lemon as part of the adoption process . Actress Marceline Hugot made her fifth appearance as the character Kathy Geiss , the daughter of Don Geiss ( Rip Torn ) , in the series . Comedy actor Will Arnett reprised his role as Devon Banks for the fourth time .
Four filmed scenes from " Do @-@ Over " were cut out from the airing . Instead , the scenes were featured on 30 Rock 's season three DVD as part of the deleted scenes in the Bonus feature . In the first scene , Jack Donaghy plans to seduce Kathy so that he can get his old job back . The next scene , after Jack tells Liz he plans on reclaiming his former job back , Liz asks him how he will be able to get inside the 30 Rock building , as he does not have his employee ID card . Jack tells her you can do anything if you walk with confidence , which he does , and is permitted inside . Liz tries to do the same , but the guard asks her for ID , which she shows . In the third scene , Liz and Bev talk to NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) . Kenneth is fascinated with the adoption process , and says that his own mother worked two jobs as an animal control person for the state and selling meats door @-@ to @-@ door . The final scene , Liz introduces Bev to Tracy in the " do over " .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen Media Research , " Do @-@ Over " was watched by 8 @.@ 7 million households in its original American broadcast , and became the highest @-@ rated episode of the series , until the December 11 , 2008 , episode of 30 Rock " Christmas Special " . It earned a 4 @.@ 1 rating / 10 share in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 4 @.@ 1 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 10 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . " Do @-@ Over " was nominated for an Art Directors Guild Production Design Award for " Single @-@ Camera Television Series " .
IGN contributor Robert Canning reviewed the episode , saying it " [ set ] the bar for the rest of the season " and was " filled to capacity with comedy . " Jeremy Medina of Paste magazine commented that " Do @-@ Over " was " sort of like the first day of school after summer vacation : sort of awkward at times , but fast and buoyant and warmly familiar all the same . " Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad wrote " ... this episode manages to do what the show has always done , mix crazy , almost surreal humor with a genuine ( not manufactured ) heart . " TV Guide contributor Matt Mitovich enjoyed " Do @-@ Over " , and enjoyed Jack 's story of trying to reclaim his job , along with Jack and Liz pretending to be a couple in front of Kathy . The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin opined that premiere episodes " tend to be 30 Rock 's Achilles Heel . But the show comes roaring out of the gate with ' Do @-@ Over ' , a show that definitively breaks the premiere jinx . " He said that the " frenetic farcical plotting " of Megan Mullally 's character — in which she endured a disastrous trip to the 30 Rock studios , bumped her head , and lost her memory — " felt a little sitcommy but the laughs kept coming " . In conclusion , Rabin gave this episode an A- grade rating .
Television columnist Alan Sepinwall for The Star @-@ Ledger felt that the element 's towards Jack getting his old job back were " fairly labored " , but noted that Liz 's adoption plot was " more solid from start to finish " . He was complimentary towards the Kathy Geiss character , observing that her actions in the episode were " all frighteningly funny " , and enjoyed Mullally 's guest spot . In conclusion , Sepinwall said that this was not the best from the 30 Rock staff , but " they had some things they felt obligated to deal with , and there was more than enough comedy genius that I can 't really complain . "
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= Rosalie Slaughter Morton =
Rosalie Slaughter Morton , M.D. ( October 28 , 1876 – May 5 , 1968 ) , born Rosalie Slaughter , was an American physician and surgeon . Besides running her own medical practices , she co @-@ founded the American Women 's Hospitals Service , worked as a medic during the First World War , and was the first chairperson of the Public Health Education Committee . Morton was one of the first female members of faculty at the Polyclinic Hospital of New York , and the first at the College of Physicians and Surgeons at Columbia University .
Born in Lynchburg , Virginia , Morton studied at the Woman 's Medical College of Pennsylvania despite her family 's expectation that she would only aim to find a husband who could provide for her . She went on to further study and research across Europe and Asia before returning to the United States to open her own medical practices .
Morton received a number of awards during her career , including the Joan of Arc medal , and a park in Belgrade is named in her honor . In 1937 she published an autobiography - A Woman Surgeon : The Life and Work of Rosalie Slaughter Morton - to positive reception , and in 1940 released a second book titled A Doctor 's Holiday in Iran .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Rosalie Slaughter was born in 1876 in Lynchburg , Virginia to Mary Harker and John Favel Slaughter . She had five brothers and one sister ( three other siblings died in childhood ) , and was educated in Lynchburg before travelling to a finishing school in Baltimore . From here she chose to follow in the steps of her grandfather and two older brothers by becoming a doctor , joining the Woman 's Medical College of Pennsylvania in 1893 . In her autobiography Morton remarked that her upbringing and education had " been designed ... to make me a capable wife — not to imbue me with a desire for a career , " noting that her father had left her no money – expecting her to find a husband who could provide for her – and that many in her family did not want her to pursue a career in medicine .
= = = Later life = = =
Slaughter married George B. Morton Jr . , an attorney who had previously studied medicine , in 1905 at St. Paul 's Church , Lynchburg . In 1910 it was reported that she was filing for divorce , and he died in 1912 of an aneurism . In the early 1930s Morton suffered a bout of pneumonia , prompting her to move to Winter Park , Florida , where she died in 1968 .
= = Career = =
After graduating from college in Pennsylvania with two of the three honors available to her , Morton was appointed as resident physician at the Alumnae Hospital and Dispensary , where she worked until 1899 . She then began further studies in Europe , travelling to Berlin , Vienna , Paris , and London . During this time Morton took courses , observed surgeries , and wrote a number of scientific papers including several comparing the health of women and men . Following the advice of her instructor in London , Victor Horsley , she then travelled to the British Government Laboratory in Mumbai for six months to work on prophylactics against the bubonic plague as well as a period in Sri Lanka .
Having finished her studies , Morton returned to the United States in 1902 and opened a medical practice specialising in gynecology in Washington D.C. After marrying George Morton Jr . , she opened a new medical practice in New York , where he was an attorney . In 1909 the American Medical Association created a Public Health Education Committee with the aim of educating the public on subjects including health , hygiene , child care , and other medical topics ; they made Morton its first chairperson . Morton was appointed as a clinical assistant and instructor at the Polyclinic Hospital of New York ( where she was one of the first female faculty members ) , and later became a professor of gynecology . During this time she lectured at a number of other universities including a summer at the University of Vermont .
After the breakout of the First World War , Morton travelled to Labrador to work in the Mission Hospitals there , before being made a special commissioner of the Red Cross to take supplies from Paris to the Macedonian Front and work at the field hospitals in Macedonia . After returning to New York Morton , alongside Mary M. Crawford , led the American Women 's Hospitals Service from 1917 after it was founded by the Medical Women 's National Association with the aim of establishing American hospitals in Europe . After her request to send one thousand medical women who had volunteered for foreign service was opposed by the General Medical Board in Washington , she raised over $ 300 @,@ 000 in 10 days through a national fundraising drive to send them . At the recommendation of William C. Gorgas , Morton was made chairman of the committee of women physicians on the United States Council of National Defense , where she represented over 7000 female doctors .
Morton continued running her New York practice while attempting to aid young people in Yugoslavia and Serbia who had been disrupted during the war into education . In March 1919 she established the international Serbian Committee , through which she facilitated the placing of dozens of young Serbian people in American places of education .
After moving to Florida in the early 1930s Morton established a small clinical practice where she carried out research into arthritis and endocrinology .
= = = Awards = = =
By 1937 Morton had been awarded 9 decorations by home and foreign Governments . During her career Morton 's awards included the Cross of Czar Nicholas II , the Joan of Arc medal , and the Conspicuous Service Cross , and in 1934 she was presented a special award by the American Medical Association for her work establishing the American Women 's Hospitals . A tree was planted in Central Park in her honor , commemorating her " distinguished patriotic service " , and both a street and park in Belgrade are named after her .
= = Books = =
Morton wrote an autobiography titled A Woman Surgeon : The Life and Work of Rosalie Slaughter Morton which was published in 1937 by Frederick A. Stokes . The book was reviewed well , with praise given to both the writing and the breadth of experiences chronicled in it .
Writing for The Pittsburgh Press , Harry Hansen described Morton 's autobiography as an " excellent book on a woman 's accomplishments " commending both the descriptions of medical topics as well as political ones . In The Brooklyn Daily Eagle , George Currie wrote that " at no time is her book boring " , calling it an important book for documenting the contributions of " a woman crusader " . The Salt Lake Tribune described the book as " informative , thrilling and colorful " , and The Sydney Morning Herald called it " particularly interesting " . In their review , the Indiana Gazette rated the book as one of the best medical autobiographies of recent times .
After finishing her autobiography , Morton travelled to Iran , and in 1940 published a book on the country and her time there titled A Doctor 's Holiday in Iran .
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= Daymond Langkow =
Daymond Randolph Langkow ( born September 27 , 1976 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey centre He was the fifth overall selection of the Tampa Bay Lightning at the 1995 NHL Entry Draft . He played junior hockey with the Tri @-@ City Americans in the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) and is their franchise record holder for career goals at 159 . He won the Bob Clarke Trophy in 1995 as the WHL scoring leader with 140 points , and competed with the Canadian junior team at the 1996 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships where he won a gold medal .
Langkow made his NHL debut in 1995 with the Lightning , and also played for the Philadelphia Flyers , Phoenix Coyotes and Calgary Flames . He has scored 30 goals twice in his career , both with the Flames , and scored more than 50 points in eight consecutive seasons between 1999 and 2008 . He was a nominee for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy in 1997 and has played over 1 @,@ 000 games in the NHL . His older brother , Scott , was also a professional hockey player .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
Langkow was selected by the Tri @-@ City Americans in the second round of the 1991 Western Hockey League ( WHL ) Bantam Draft . He completed the 1991 – 92 season with the Edmonton Pats of the Alberta Midget Hockey League , scoring 81 points in 35 games while appearing in one game with the Americans as a 15 @-@ year @-@ old . He joined Tri @-@ City full @-@ time in 1992 – 93 , scoring 22 goals and 64 points in 64 games and improved to 40 goals and 83 points in 1993 – 94 . Langkow averaged nearly two points per game in 1994 – 95 , scoring 140 points in 72 games . He was named the recipient of the Bob Clarke Trophy as the top scorer in the WHL , and was named to the WHL West and Canadian Hockey League First All @-@ Star Teams . He finished as the runner @-@ up to Marty Murray for the Four Broncos Memorial Trophy as the WHL 's most valuable player .
The Tampa Bay Lightning selected Langkow fifth overall in the 1995 NHL Entry Draft . On the eve of the 1995 – 96 season , the Lightning signed him to a three @-@ year , $ 2 @.@ 4 million contract . He made his National Hockey League ( NHL ) debut on October 7 , 1995 against the Calgary Flames . Langkow appeared in four games with the Lightning before he was returned to Tri @-@ City . He scored 91 points in 48 games with the Americans and was named to the WHL 's West Second All @-@ Star Team . As of 2012 , he remains the Americans ' franchise record holder for most career goals with 159 . Langkow represented Canada at the 1996 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships where he won a gold medal .
= = = Tampa , Philadelphia and Phoenix = = =
Langkow rejoined the Lightning for the 1996 – 97 NHL season and scored 15 goals and 28 points in his rookie season . He scored his first NHL goal on November 19 , 1996 against the Los Angeles Kings , and was named the NHL 's rookie of the month for February 1997 . He fell to 22 points in 1997 – 98 and ended the season in a dispute with the Lightning when he refused a demotion to the Adirondack Red Wings of the American Hockey League . The Lightning suspended him indefinitely , but told the media they were not interested in trading him . He missed seven games and lost $ 63 @,@ 000 in salary before the Lightning relented and recalled him to finish the season in Tampa . Langkow was assigned to the Cleveland Lumberjacks of the International Hockey League to begin the 1998 – 99 season amidst trade rumours but was recalled after four games . He was traded to the Philadelphia Flyers along with Mikael Renberg on December 12 , 1998 in exchange for Chris Gratton and Mike Sillinger .
While he was considered a throw @-@ in for the Flyers who made the trade to re @-@ acquire Renberg , Langkow flourished in Philadelphia . He finished the season with 14 goals combined between Tampa and Philadelphia , and his development as a playmaking centre earned him the Pelle Lindbergh Memorial from his teammates as the Flyers ' most improved player . They re @-@ signed Langkow to a two @-@ year contract extension following the season . He set new personal highs in goals and assists in 1999 – 2000 , finishing with 50 points and helping the Flyers reach the Eastern Conference Final in the 2000 Stanley Cup Playoffs . Despite missing 11 @-@ games with two broken feet , Langkow improved to 54 points in the 2000 – 01 season .
The acquisition of Jeremy Roenick and Jiri Dopita by the Flyers in the summer of 2001 left Langkow , a restricted free agent , as the odd man out in Philadelphia . He was dealt to the Phoenix Coyotes in exchange for a second round draft pick in the 2002 NHL Entry Draft ( Dan Sprang ) and a first round pick in 2003 ( Jeff Carter ) . Unable to agree on a contract , Langkow and the Coyotes went to arbitration where he was awarded a two @-@ year contract worth $ 4 @.@ 2 million . He made an immediate impact with Phoenix , scoring his first career hat trick in a 5 – 2 victory over the Washington Capitals in the Coyotes ' home opener . He finished the 2001 – 02 season as the team leader with 62 points . He fell back to 52 points in 2002 – 03 , but scored his 100th career goal in his 500th career game on December 30 , 2002 , a 4 – 3 overtime victory against the Edmonton Oilers . He finished second in team scoring with 52 points , and served as an alternate captain for the Coyotes during the 2003 – 04 season .
= = = Calgary = = =
The Coyotes signed Langkow to a one @-@ year , $ 2 @.@ 95 million contract in August 2004 , but dealt him to the Calgary Flames less than two weeks later for Oleg Saprykin and Denis Gauthier . The season , and the contract , were wiped out by the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout ; Langkow did not play anywhere during the lost season . The Flames signed Langkow to a new contract prior to the 2005 – 06 season amidst high expectations as he was placed on the top line with Jarome Iginla . He finished the season second on the Flames in both goals ( 25 ) and points ( 59 ) and recorded his sixth consecutive season with 50 + points .
Langkow emerged as a top scorer for the Flames in 2006 – 07 , becoming the team 's offensive leader while Iginla was sidelined for several weeks by a mid @-@ season knee injury . He reached the 30 @-@ goal mark ( 33 ) for the first time in his career , finished with a career high 77 points and was the Flames nominee for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy for dedication and sportsmanship . His teammates and coaches also praised his defensive ability , suggesting that he deserved a nomination for the Frank J. Selke Trophy as the NHL 's top defensive forward . Langkow remained a top two @-@ way forward for the Flames in 2007 – 08 , recording his second consecutive 30 @-@ goal season and finishing third on the team with 65 points . The Flames re @-@ signed him to a four @-@ year , $ 18 @-@ million contract extension though the 2011 – 12 NHL season .
Langkow scored only 49 points in 2008 – 09 and missed ten games as result of a hand injury . It was the first time in nine seasons that he failed to reach the 50 @-@ point mark . He suffered another hand injury in the 2009 Stanley Cup Playoffs , though he still played all six games against the Chicago Blackhawks . He played his 1,000th game , against the Lightning , on February 6 , 2010 , one night after teammate Jarome Iginla reached the same mark . His offensive numbers continued to decline , as he finished the year with 14 goals and 37 points , his lowest totals in a decade .
He missed the final ten games of the season after he was struck in the back of the neck by a slapshot during a game in Minnesota . The injury resulted in spinal cord damage that kept Langkow out of the lineup for the first 78 games of the 2010 – 11 NHL season . His efforts to return to the Flames lineup suffered a setback in late October , after which a Flames official stated it was a " 50 / 50 proposition " on whether he would ever play another NHL game .
Following several months of rehabilitation , Langkow was cleared for light skating by a neck specialist , allowing him to begin practicing with his Flames teammates at the end of February 2011 , though he was still considered 2 – 3 months away from being able to continue his career . He joined the Flames for full practices a couple weeks later , and by mid March – nearly one year to the day of his injury – Langkow expressed hope that he would be able to return to action prior to the end of the season . That hope became reality late in the year as he was activated off injured reserve by the Flames , who announced he would return to the lineup for an April 1 game against the St. Louis Blues , 376 days and 88 games after he suffered the injury .
For his efforts at coming back from injury , Langkow was a finalist for the 2011 Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy that was ultimately won by Ian Laperriere .
= = = Phoenix = = =
The Phoenix Coyotes re @-@ acquired Langkow on August 29 , 2011 , in exchange for forward Lee Stempniak During the 2011 – 12 season , Langkow missed seven games in November after his mother died suddenly at the age of 54 . On July July 7 , 2013 , Langkow announced his retirement .
= = Personal = =
Langkow is the second child of Randy and Vivian Langkow and grew up in Vegreville , Alberta . His parents divorced when he was ten years old . His father is a plumber in Edmonton , while his mother managed a restaurant in British Columbia prior to her November 2011 death .
Langkow and his wife Stephanie have four children , and expressed a desire to put down roots in the city of Calgary as a reason for his decision to sign a long @-@ term contract extension with the Flames in 2008 rather than test free agency .
Langkow 's older brother , Scott was a goaltender who played 20 NHL games for the Winnipeg Jets , Phoenix Coyotes and Atlanta Thrashers .
He also has a younger cousin , Chris Langkow , who is a former ECHL All @-@ Star and a Kelly Cup champion with the Alaska Aces , whom he frequently mentors and often gives advice .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
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= Collared brown lemur =
The collared brown lemur ( Eulemur collaris ) , also known as the red @-@ collared brown lemur or red @-@ collared lemur , is a medium @-@ sized strepsirrhine primate and one of twelve species of brown lemur in the family Lemuridae . It is only found in south @-@ eastern Madagascar . Like most species of lemur , it is arboreal , moving quadrupedally and occasionally leaping from tree to tree . Like other brown lemurs , it lives in social groups , primarily eats fruit , is active both day and night , exhibits sexual dichromatism , and does not demonstrate female dominance . The species is listed as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) and is threatened primarily by habitat loss .
= = Taxonomy = =
Together with the twelve other true lemurs ( genus Eulemur ) , the collared brown lemur ( E. collaris ) is a type of lemur belonging to the family Lemuridae . Collectively , lemurs ( infraorder Lemuriformes ) are classified as strepsirrhine primates . Originally listed as a subspecies of the common brown lemur ( E. fulvus ) , the collared brown lemur was promoted to full species status in 2001 by biological anthropologist Colin Groves .
= = Anatomy and physiology = =
An adult collared brown lemur can reach a head @-@ body length of 39 and 40 cm ( 15 and 16 in ) and have a tail length of 50 and 55 cm ( 20 and 22 in ) for an overall length of 89 and 95 cm ( 35 and 37 in ) . It has an average body weight of 2 @.@ 25 and 2 @.@ 5 kg ( 5 @.@ 0 and 5 @.@ 5 lb ) , making it a medium @-@ sized lemur . The only form of sexual dimorphism exhibited by the collared brown lemur is dichromatism . The following table illustrates the coloration differences between the sexes :
In the wild , the collared brown lemur 's range does not overlap with other brown lemurs , so it is rarely confused with other species . However , in captivity it can be easily confused with the gray @-@ headed lemur ( Eulemur cinereiceps ) due to similar coloration . The male collared brown lemur can be distinguished by their cream @-@ colored or rufous beards , whereas the male gray @-@ headed lemur has a white beard . Females of these two species are nearly indistinguishable , even though genetic analyses support full species status for both taxa .
= = Ecology = =
Found in tropical moist lowland and montane forests in southeastern Madagascar , the collared brown lemur occurs west to the forests of Kalambatritra and in the south from Tôlanaro north to the Mananara River . The Mananara River is the boundary between the ranges of the collared brown lemur and the Gray @-@ headed Lemur to the north . The collared brown lemur can be seen in the Mandena Conservation Zone , Saint Luce Private Reserve , and Andohahela National Park .
In its environment , the collared brown lemur acts as a seed disperser , and is especially critical for the dispersal of large @-@ seeded fruiting trees within its range . However , there is no evidence that these relationships are coevolutionary and instead these lemurs may be the last remaining seed dispersers for these tree species following the extinction of larger frugivorous birds and subfossil lemurs .
= = Behavior = =
Very little is known about this species . It is thought to primarily eat fruit , like most other true lemurs . It is also cathemeral ( active both day and night throughout the year ) , a trait seen in some other members of its genus . Research has suggested that metabolic dietary @-@ related needs are the leading factor behind this behavior , although the specific hours of this activity pattern can shift based on lunar luminosity and seasonal changes in the photoperiod ( day length ) . Previous studies had ruled out effects of predators on the expression of this trait , and instead pointed to fruit availability and fiber intake as more important factors .
The collared brown lemur tends to live in social groups that are multi @-@ male / multi @-@ female , with groups ranging in size from three to seven . Population densities are estimated at 14 individuals / km2 , and it appears to be common within its range . Females give birth to one offspring between October and December , and male involvement with the young has been observed . Female dominance , a common behavioral trait in many lemur species but uncommon in most true lemurs , has not been observed in this species .
Brown lemurs at Berenty ( hybrid E. fulvus x collaris ) show linear hierarchy , adult female dominance , and the presence of conciliatory behavior after aggressions . Additionally , stress levels ( measured via self @-@ directed behaviors ) decrease at the increase of the hierarchical position of individuals within the social group and reconciliation is able to bring stress down to the baseline levels .
= = Conservation status = =
The collared brown lemur was listed as Vulnerable ( VU A2cd ) in the 2008 IUCN Red List assessment . Its greatest threat is habitat loss from slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture and charcoal production . It is also hunted for food and captured for the local pet trade . Populations of the collared brown lemur have been successfully sustained in captivity as a safeguard against their extinction .
A small group of collared brown lemurs was introduced in the 1980s into the Berenty Private Reserve and has since hybridized with introduced red @-@ fronted lemurs .
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= Oceania ( song ) =
" Oceania " is a song recorded by Icelandic singer Björk for her sixth studio album Medúlla . It was written and produced by Björk , with additional writing by Sjón and production by Mark Bell . The song was written by the singer specially for the 2004 Summer Olympics Opening Ceremony , after a request by the International Olympic Committee . " Oceania " was released as a promotional single in 2004 , by One Little Indian Records . The song was written at the ocean 's point of view , from which the singer believes all life emerged , and details the human 's evolution , whilst accompanied by a choir . " Oceania " was generally well received by music critics , who believed it was the best track from Medúlla , although some thought it was not the best choice for a promotional release .
The accompanying music video for the song , directed by Lynn Fox , features Björk as " Mother Oceania " , whilst being jewel @-@ encrusted in dark watery depths , with a colourful sunset and swirling floral creatures above her . A remix of the song , featuring additional lyrics and vocals by Kelis on her point of view of the continents , was featured as a B @-@ side to the " Who Is It " single . A piano version also appeared on the DVD single , and was assisted in its creation by Nico Muhly . The song was premiered during Björk 's performance on the Summer Olympics ceremony , and was later included on the setlist of the Volta Tour ( 2007 – 08 ) . At the 47th Grammy Awards in 2005 , it was nominated in the category of Best Female Pop Vocal Performance . Cover versions of " Oceania " were done six times , while it was sampled once .
= = Background and composition = =
The International Olympic Committee commissioned a song by Björk specially for the 2004 Summer Olympics opening ceremony . The singer revealed that the committee asked her to do a kind of " Ebony and Ivory " or " We Are the World " type of song , which are " smashing tunes " according to her , but she thought , " ' Maybe there 's another angle to this ' . When I tried to write an Olympic lyric , though , it was full of sports socks and ribbons . I ended up pissing myself laughing " . Then , she called Sjón , an Icelandic poet who had previously collaborated with her on songs such as " Bachelorette " from her fourth studio album Homogenic ( 1997 ) . When she said to him that they would need something " suitably epic " for the Olympics , the poet even took a short course about Greek mythology at Reykjavík University . " Oceania " was the last song recorded for Medúlla . Björk said about the song : " I am incredibly honoured to have been asked to write a song and sing it at the Olympics . The song is written from the point of view of the ocean that surrounds all the land and watches over the humans to see how they are doing after millions of years of evolution . It sees no borders , different races or religion which has always been at the core of these [ games ] " .
During an interview with British radio station XFM , Björk explained its recording process , saying work on " Oceania " was kept being delayed because she wanted to do it especially for the Olympics . During the last day of mixing , she thought she needed " sirenes " , like in Greek mythology . She called up an English choir to record these sounds . The singer had done an arrangement for piano on the computer that was impossible for a piano to play , and she got them to sing it . Then , she also called up beatboxer Shlomo , who was recommended to her as " the new bright hope of the hip hop scene " . He went to record the next day and Björk asked him to do a techno tango beat , which he did . Recalling her work on the song until her last day of mixing , she commented , " That was the most fun part , in the end . Sometimes it 's good for you to work with a gun against your head and just go for it , because you can sometimes sit too long with ideas . Sometimes adrenaline is a good thing . "
The song was written at the ocean 's point of view , detailing the human 's evolution . According to Jason Killingsworth from Paste magazine , it calls listeners ' attention to " Mother Oceania " from which the singer believes all life emerged , whilst she sings : " You have done well for yourselves / Since you left my wet embrace / And crawled ashore [ … ] " . The song anchors the midsection of Medúlla , " jubilantly punctuated with bubbling synth and propelled by the rolling , spitfire cadence of Rahzel 's beatbox " , according to the reviewer . The last line from the song , " Your sweat is salty / And I am why / Your sweat is salty / And I am why " , is about how " we were all little jellyfish or whatever before we made it on to land " , according to the singer . Elthan Brown from New York magazine considered these lyrics as " frank sensuality " . " Oceania " also features The London Choir . Entertainment Weekly 's writer Chris Willman commented that " the computer @-@ enhanced choir behind Björk [ suggests ] a cosmic harem of pleased dolphins . Here she imagines herself as the sea itself , proud of all the belegged creatures she 's spit out onto land over the last hundred million years . It 's the nearest evolutionists have come to having their own gospel tune " .
= = Remixes = =
A remix version of " Oceania " featuring additional lyrics and vocals by American singer Kelis was recorded . She explained they were set to perform on Fashion Rocks concert in London the previous year , and their dressing rooms were right next to each other . Björk had an album by Canadian singer Peaches that was skipping , then Kelis gave her the copy of the album she had . They started talking and eventually hung out and exchanged numbers after the show , and later Björk contacted Kelis to work together , which she agreed . Then , Kelis recorded her vocals at Electric Lady Studios in New York City , and wrote her own words in the song , from the point of view of the continents . Originally not intended to be commercially released , the remix leaked after being played on BBC Radio 1 's The Breezeblock , but was then included on the " Who Is It " single as a B @-@ side . According to The Guardian , " it 's a brilliant fusing together of two distinct voices , Kelis handling the breathy first verse , as layers of her chopped @-@ up vocals form the rhythm track , while Björk at first comes across as restrained , allowing Kelis ' ad @-@ libs to soar before unleashing a song @-@ stopping , wordless roar that heralds the song 's dramatic final coda " .
A piano version also appeared on the DVD single , which was assisted in its creation by Nico Muhly . During an interview he stated , " When Björk asked me to play piano on Oceania , she sent me the music , and it was as complicated and layered as any piece of classical music I 've played . I spent a few days figuring out how to make her vision of ' dueling lounge @-@ lizard pianists ' physically possible , and in the session , we ran through those quickly . Then , she experimented with different ways to space the progression of chords that runs through the piece - I suggested big , Brahmsy blocks - as well as the ending , for which we tried diaphanous , Debussy @-@ like arpeggios " . Björk decided to stick with the album 's vocal concept and use electronically tweaked choral voices . Before some last @-@ minute polishing by Mark Bell , this version of " Oceania " was the last track to be worked for Medúlla .
= = Critical reception = =
" Oceania " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Jennifer Vineyard from MTV News called the song " one of those polarizing songs , with its Ethel Merman @-@ like synchronized vocal sweeps that do suggest the aquatic , in a 1950s sort of way " . Entertainment Weekly 's Chris Willman labeled the track as a " strikingly beautiful " song . Alex Ross , reporter writing for The New Yorker stated that with " Oceania " , Björk " confirmed her status as the ultimate musical cosmopolitan " , acquainted with Karlheinz Stockhausen and the Wu @-@ Tang Clan . Matthew Gasteier from Prefix magazine called the track " the best song on the album " , whilst complimenting " its swooping chorus [ which ] recalls the migration of birds or the time @-@ elapsed drifting of icebergs , a swirl of beauty and power crashing down onto and then rising above the mix . It culminates in the near screech that leads into the sexy @-@ spooky coda " . According to Andy Battaglia from The A.V. Club , in a positive review , " the electronic flourish strays from her organic vocal focus , but Björk summons the same kind of tingle with choral language " in the song , " which finds The London Choir reacting to what sounds like a thrilling slow @-@ motion circus act " .
" Oceania " was " spoilt by some overenthusiastic vocal whoopings " , according to David Hooper from BBC Music . The Guardian 's writer David Peschek said that when the singer sings in the song , " choral swoops [ explodes ] like fireworks behind her " . AllMusic 's Heather Phares noted that the song , along with Medúlla 's lead single " Who Is It " , " have an alien quality that is all the stranger considering that nearly all of their source material is human ( except for the odd keyboard or two ) " . Dominique Leone of Pitchfork thought " Oceania " was hardly the most obvious choice for a promotional single release , despite its " bizarre , swooping soprano lines and cyclical chord progression outlined by a chorus of Wyatt vocal samples " . Jeremy D. Larson from Time magazine provided a mixed review to the song , stating that it was the best Olympic theme song , but during the Olympics performance , " when she sang ' Every pearl is a lynx is a girl ' we think you could hear the world collectively sigh , ' Where 's Celine Dion ? ' " . In 2005 , the song was nominated for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 47th Grammy Awards but lost out to Norah Jones ' " Sunrise " .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Oceania " was directed by Lynn Fox , and was premiered on August 13 , 2004 through Björk 's official site . According to Lynn Fox , Björk gave the team the initial sketch of the track in January 2004 . Whilst they were doing scribbles for it , they had several phone conversations with the singer and emailed her images to keep her up to date with the progress of the work . For " Oceania " , initial animations took six weeks , then had couple of days preparing for the shoot in Iceland and a few more days after to put all the shots together . Like in the song , in the music video Björk is depicted as " Mother Oceania " . The video opens with the surface of a body of water appearing yellowish and bright . Camera pans down to darker , deeper waters . Björk appears out of the dark background , singing and covered with sparkling jewels . As the second verse begins , images of sea anemones , representing the continents ( her children ) are thrown from Björk 's hands .
During the third verse they swim around and away from their mother , carried by the currents , which move in time with the song . In the bridge section , new sea flowers , with brilliant colors , emerge from the background , in contrast to the muted and darker colors of previous scenes . As the fifth verse continues , the camera pans back up to the much lighter surface , not seen since the beginning of the video . All sorts of marine life are swimming about the surface . Shortly after the sixth verse begins , Bjork is shown in deep , dark water . Several seconds later , the lighter surface of the water is shown without her . When she begins to sing " Your sweat is salty " , a somewhat rapid alternation of images ensues : the light surface is shown for one second , followed by Björk singing in the deep water ; these scenes alternate until she stops singing during the coda . Björk 's vocal repetition ceases at the same time the visual alternation stops . The surface scene recedes , and Björk in the deep water comes to the fore , slowing . At the end of the video , she stands and smiles .
= = Live performances = =
At the 2004 Summer Olympics Opening Ceremony , where Björk premiered the song , she wore a very large dress which unfolded during her performance of " Oceania " to eventually occupy the entire stadium , and showed a map of the world in sign of union . Additionally , Björk wore " bluish @-@ purple glittery eye shadow across her lids . Her dark hair dangled in tiny twists that framed her pixieish , freckled face " . Immediately after the performance at the Olympics opening ceremony , the song was downloaded more than 11 @,@ 000 times on the iTunes Store . Jake Coyle from Today commented that her dress was " reminiscent in its uniqueness to the infamous swan dress she wore to the Oscars in 2001 " . According to Jeremy D. Larson from Time , if it weren 't for the fireworks at the end of the song , he was legitimately unsure if people in the audience would have cheered . Dominique Leone of Pitchfork was surprised by the committee 's choice of bringing Björk to perform at the ceremony , and stated : " They could have had anyone-- say , a reassuring Celine Dion or a physically ideal Beyoncé-- but they chose a prickly , decidedly uncomfortable Icelandic woman . On aesthetic grounds , I can 't argue with their choice , but I continue to wonder about Björk 's significance " . " Oceania " was also performed during the Volta Tour ( 2007 – 08 ) .
= = Samples and covers = =
The song was sampled by E @-@ 40 in the track " Spend the Night " featuring Laroo , The DB 'z , Droop @-@ E and B @-@ Slimm on his 2010 Revenue Retrievin ' : Night Shift album . SPIRITWO and singer Yael Claire covered " Oceania " with a Middle Eastern theme for the 2012 London Olympic games . Aspirant singer Srbuhi Hovhannisyan also covered the song on The Voice of Armenia in 2014 . " Oceania " covers also appear on the albums by Beliss , Harmen Fraanje Quintet , Murphy 's Law and Serena Fortebraccio .
= = Track listing = =
UK Promo CD
" Oceania " – 3 : 24
" Oceania " ( Remix featuring Kelis ) – 2 : 55
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Medúlla liner notes .
Björk – performer , songwriter , programmer
Sjón – songwriter
Mark Bell – producer , programmer
The London Choir – performer
Nico Muhly – piano
Shlomo – beats
Robert Wyatt – vocal samples
Valgeir Sigurðsson – programmer
Mark " Spike " Stent – mixing
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= Effects of Hurricane Floyd in New York =
The effects of Hurricane Floyd in New York included two deaths and millions of dollars in damage . Hurricane Floyd , once a large and powerful Category 4 hurricane , made landfall in North Carolina and moved northward along the East Coast , making landfall on Long Island as a tropical storm . The threat of the hurricane prompted schools in New York City to close for the first time since 1996 , and 20 shelters were opened . Floyd produced flooding rainfall and gusty winds throughout the state , from the southern Hudson Valley to the Lake Champlain area . The flood waters damaged multiple roads and forced residents to evacuate from certain locations . Strong winds left as many as 100 @,@ 000 people without power and brought down a high number of trees due to the saturated ground . In the aftermath of the storm , 15 counties in eastern New York were declared eligible for state or federal assistance .
= = Background and preparations = =
Floyd 's origins are traced back to a westward @-@ moving tropical wave that developed into a tropical depression on September 7 , 1999 , while centered 1 @,@ 000 mi ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles . The system moved west @-@ northwestward , and intensified into a tropical storm on September 8 . Continuing to intensify , Floyd attained hurricane strength on September 10 . The hurricane ultimately peaked as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale as it struck the Bahamas . The storm turned northwestward and soon northward , brushing the coast of Florida and the southeast United States . On September 16 , Floyd made landfall as a Category 2 hurricane in North Carolina , and moved northeastward along the Eastern Seaboard . It passed through the Mid @-@ Atlantic States as it deteriorated into a tropical storm , and lost its tropical identity over southern Maine .
In advance of the storm , starting on September 15 , tropical cyclone watches and warnings were issued for much of the Eastern Seaboard , including portions of New York . These warnings were discontinued by September 19 . New York City Mayor Rudolph Giuliani urged private businesses to close early and ordered non @-@ emergency city workers to return home between 12 pm and 3 pm on September 17 . For the first time since 1996 , in an " almost unprecedented " decision , schools in the city were closed due to the hurricane 's threat . On September 16 , 20 shelters were opened , able to accommodate as many as 70 @,@ 000 people . Lawrence Reuter , president of New York City Transit , reported that in an effort to prevent flooding , storm drains were cleared and other precautions were taken . People were urged to remove loose objects that could be blown around by high winds . By September 16 , city officials had distributed 50 @,@ 000 brochures on preparing for the storm . Suffolk County Executive Robert J. Gaffney advised residents of Fire Island to evacuate before the storm made leaving by ferry impossible , and in Long Beach , officials readied emergency vehicles . Also , 4 @,@ 000 sandbags were given out there in anticipation of high storm tides .
= = Impact = =
Tropical Storm Floyd made landfall on western Long Island as it moved northward . The heaviest rainfall associated with the storm was concentrated in the southeastern section of the state . Several meteorological elements worked to enhance the moisture from the cyclone . Rainfall totals exceeding 6 in ( 150 mm ) were common , with as much as 12 in ( 300 mm ) reported locally in the Catskills . At Cairo , 12 @.@ 21 in ( 310 mm ) of rain fell . The precipitation , combined with that of Hurricane Dennis earlier in the month , helped to alleviate persistent drought conditions . Floyd also produced gusty winds , reaching 54 mph ( 87 km / h ) at Stewart International Airport , worsened by a pressure gradient between the storm and an area of high pressure over the Ohio Valley .
Floyd 's rainfall resulted in deadly and extensive flooding that killed two people in New York . Heavy flooding was reported along numerous creeks , including the Esopus , Catskill , and Schoharie . In the Albany area , the Normanskill rose to extremely high levels , and the resultant flood waters damaged nearby buildings . The Coeymans Creek in Selkirk overflowed and forced 20 families to leave their homes . The main rivers typically remained within their banks . Many roads , including U.S. Route 20 in Guilderland , were flooded or washed out , and seven families had to be evacuated along NY 32 in Menands . Further south , the Saw Mill and Bronx rivers both overflowed , and caused urban flooding . A dam on a mill pond broke near Lake Placid , leading to flooding along the Chubb River .
The strong winds , combined with saturated ground from the rainfall , brought down trees in widespread areas of the Hudson Valley and Capital District . Many of the trees would not have otherwise fallen in drier conditions . Some of the downed trees fell on structures . In a narrow swath in the Wolf Pond Valley of Warren County , where wind gusts are estimated to have reached 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , hundreds of trees were blown down . At the storm 's worst , power outages affected over 100 @,@ 000 people region @-@ wide , and some individuals remained without power for a week . At the Albany International Airport , the storm forced the cancellation of flights , and throughout the region schools were closed . Several boats sustained damage along the shore of Lake Champlain . Throughout Orange , Putnam , Rockland , and Westchester counties , initial cost estimates were $ 14 @.@ 6 million , although that figure represents only a portion of the actual monetary damage . The storm also caused about $ 2 million in property damage in Essex County .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the storm , three New York counties were declared eligible for individual assistance , eight for individual and public assistance , and four for public assistance . The initial deadline to apply for state or federal assistance was set for November 17 , although it was extended a month due to a steady flow of applications . Three disaster recovery centers were opened to provide information to residents affected by the storm . The three centers , located in Rockland , Putnam , and Westchester counties , closed in late October .
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= Jack Stivetts =
John Elmer " Jack " Stivetts ( March 31 , 1868 – April 18 , 1930 ) , was a professional baseball pitcher who played 11 seasons in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) spanning from 1889 to 1899 . He played in the American Association ( AA ) with the St. Louis Browns , and in the National League ( NL ) with the Boston Beaneaters and Cleveland Spiders . " Happy Jack " ( nicknamed due to his pleasant demeanor ) was born to German immigrants and raised in Ashland , Pennsylvania . He initially followed his father into the coal mining industry before playing professional baseball . After playing two and half seasons in minor league baseball , he was signed by the Browns . Over the next few seasons , he was regarded as one of the best pitchers in baseball .
He led the AA in earned run average ( ERA ) in his first MLB season , and then in strikeouts two seasons later . In the years spanning from 1890 through 1896 , he posted 20 or more victories in a season six times ; two in which he won more than 30 . In 1892 , he won a career @-@ high 35 games , and on August 6 , he threw a no @-@ hitter . During his seven seasons with the Beaneaters , he was part of four NL championships , and pitched alongside future Hall of Fame members John Clarkson and Kid Nichols . He was among the best hitting pitchers of his era , and was often used at other positions when he was not pitching . His season total of seven home runs in 1890 stood as the record for pitchers until 1931 . He compiled a .298 lifetime batting average , hit 35 home runs , and delivered 357 runs batted in ( RBIs ) .
In his last season in the major leagues , he played for the Spiders , widely considered to be one of the worst teams in MLB history . After his baseball career , he returned to his hometown of Ashland . He worked for the area coal mines as a brewery wagon driver and carpenter , and died there at 62 years of age .
= = Early life = =
John Elmer Stivetts was born on March 31 , 1868 in Ashland , Pennsylvania . His father , Adam , a coal worker , and mother , Amelia ( née Cooper ) , were both German immigrants . He was raised in a family of Lutherans , receiving his baptism one month after his birth , and his confirmation on April 2 , 1882 at the age of 14 from Christ 's United Lutheran Church in Ashland . He attended public schools for eight years , before following his father in the coal trade . He married Margaret Ann " Maggie " Thomas in June 1896 , and together they had one son , John , and five daughters , Ida , Mary , Leona , Margaret , and Gladys .
In June 1897 , at the age of 19 , Stivetts began his professional baseball career with the Ashland representative of the Central Pennsylvania League . He compiled a 9 – 5 win – loss record ( W – L ) that season with a 1 @.@ 35 ERA . He returned to the Ashland team in 1888 , though he later joined the Allentown Peanuts of the Central League . He began the 1889 season with the York representative of the Middle States League . It was there when an umpire named Tim Hurst noticed Stivetts ' talent ; who then recommended him to Charles Comiskey , the manager of the St. Louis Browns of the AA . Comiskey was impressed by the velocity of Stivetts ' pitches , and offered him a contract . The Philadelphia Athletics soon made an offer of their own , but he accepted the Browns ' salary offer of $ 275 a month , with a $ 200 signing bonus .
= = Career = =
= = = St. Louis = = =
= = = = 1889 season = = = =
When Stivetts joined the Browns , he became their third starting pitcher in the rotation behind Silver King and Ice Box Chamberlain . He made his major league debut on June 26 , 1889 against the Cincinnati Reds . He pitched a complete game and struck out nine batters , but lost the game by the score of 6 – 1 behind several errors made by his teammates . His performance was noted in the press to have " made a good impression . "
In his 26 games pitched that season , he had a W – L record of 12 – 7 and had a league @-@ leading 2 @.@ 25 ERA while St. Louis finished two games behind the Brooklyn Bridegrooms for the AA championship . He started 20 games , completed 18 , struck out 143 , and pitched 1912 ⁄ 3 innings . It was reported on November 13 , 1889 that he had re @-@ signed with the Browns for the 1890 season .
= = = = 1890 season = = = =
During the off @-@ season , an up @-@ start league was created , the Players ' League ( PL ) , which drew many players away from teams from both the AA and NL teams . The Browns lost a few of their best players as well , including Comiskey , their player @-@ manager , and King , the team 's top pitcher . Chamberlain re @-@ signed with the team , but he was sold to the Columbus Solons after pitching in just five games . These movements left Stivetts and Toad Ramsey as the franchise 's top two starters , with rookie Billy Hart cast as the occasional relief starter .
The Browns opened the regular season on April 18 with a four @-@ game series on the road versus the Louisville Colonels , and Stivetts started games two and four . In game two , he recorded 13 strikeouts , but lost the game 5 – 3 on a tenth @-@ inning , two run double by Tim Shinnick . In game four on April 21 , Stivetts was again credited with the loss by allowing 17 runs to score , seven of which were earned . He fared better in his third start however , allowing just one run as the Browns defeated the Solons by a 14 – 1 score . He struck out 12 batters , including the first seven he faced , and hit the first home run of his career .
On June 10 , against Fred Smith and the Toledo Maumees , he hit two home runs in one game , the first of three times in his career he accomplished the feat . The first was a two @-@ run home run in the fifth inning , and the second came with his team down by three runs in the bottom half of ninth inning and the bases loaded . It was the first , and only , grand slam of his career , and the second " ultimate grand slam " in history . In a game versus the Brooklyn Gladiators on July 6 , manager Chris von der Ahe removed the Browns ' starting pitcher Ramsey in the third inning and replaced him with Stivetts . Though the crowd momentarily interrupted the game in protest , the move proved successful . Stivetts hit a home run in the fifth inning to give the Browns a 3 runs to 1 advantage , leading the team to an eventual 7 – 2 victory . The home run was his sixth of the season , and he added another on August 9 for number seven : his final season total . His seven home runs in a season by a pitcher was neither broken nor tied until 1931 , when Wes Ferrell hit nine for the Cleveland Indians . St. Louis finished in third @-@ place among the nine AA teams , 12 games behind the Colonels . Stivetts had a W – L record of 27 – 21 , a 3 @.@ 52 ERA , and 289 strikeouts in 4191 ⁄ 3 innings pitched , along with three shutouts .
= = = = 1891 season = = = =
On January 25 , 1891 , it was reported that he had re @-@ signed with the Browns for the up @-@ coming season . The season opened April 8 , and the Browns faced the Cincinnati Kelly 's Killers at home . Stivetts was the team 's opening day starting pitcher . The game ended in the bottom of ninth inning when the umpire , former player and St. Louis native Bill Gleason , determined that Cincinnati was intentionally allowing St. Louis to score in an effort to delay the game . St. Louis was awarded the forfeit when Cincinnati refused to play . AA president , Louis Kramer , declared the forfeit illegal a short time later , and the game was re @-@ played on April 12 . St. Louis won the re @-@ match behind the pitching of Stivetts . This was Gleason 's second and last career game as an umpire . Over the course of the season , Stivetts was the Browns ' ace , pitching mostly every second or third game the team played . When not pitching , or when he occasionally played in right field , the Browns used Joe Neale , Willie McGill , and future Hall of Fame executive Clark Griffith as part of the starting rotation . On May 30 , Stivetts started both games of a doubleheader in a home series versus the Philadelphia Athletics . Due to large leads by the Browns , he was pulled from each game ; lasting two innings in the first and six in the second .
Stivetts won each of his next three starts , hitting a home run in the third game , on June 6 , against the Boston Reds . He hit two more in a game on August 6 , against Gus Weyhing of the Athletics , the second two @-@ homer game of his career . He connected for another off of Weyhing in a game on September 16 , during a four @-@ run ninth inning that gave the Browns a 10 – 7 victory . This was his seventh home run of the season , fourth as a pitcher , adding to three that he hit while playing right field . Again , he was among the best pitchers in the AA , and among the league leaders in many pitching categories . His 259 strikeouts led the league , while his 33 victories were third , and his 2 @.@ 86 ERA ranked fifth . St. Louis completed the season second in the AA among the nine teams , 8 @.@ 5 games behind the champion Reds .
= = = Boston = = =
= = = = 1892 season = = = =
Though Stivetts initially denied it , it was reported on September 28 , 1891 that he signed with the Boston Beaneaters of the National League ( NL ) for the 1892 season . Stivetts joined a pitching rotation that already included future Baseball Hall of Fame members John Clarkson and Kid Nichols , as well as veteran Harry Staley . With Boston 's solid pitching staff , and their potent mix of position players consisting of future Hall of Fame members and established veterans , the team was expected to compete for a second consecutive NL championship . When analyzing the 12 National League teams , New York Giants captain , Buck Ewing , remarked about Boston 's roster , " I think Clarkson has seen his better days . Jack Stivetts will strengthen them wonderfully . He is one of the best pitchers in the country to @-@ day . " In Stivetts ' first start of the season on April 23 , his pitching was described as " wild " , as he issued six bases on balls . He prevailed , however , and Boston won by the score of 11 – 7 . Four days later , he was victorious again , and Boston 's W – L record stood at 10 – 1 after their first 11 games . On June 23 , he hit his first home run of the season , along with a double , in a 13 – 6 victory over the Baltimore Orioles . The Pittsburg Dispatch reported on July 1 that Stivetts was leading Boston hitters in batting at that point in the season .
With Stivetts now established , Clarkson became expendable and was released from the team on June 30 , leaving Boston with a solid three @-@ man pitching rotation for the remainder of the season . On August 6 , 1892 , Stivetts pitched a no @-@ hitter against the Brooklyn Bridegrooms , an 11 – 0 victory . Later , on September 5 , he started , completed , and defeated Louisville in both games of a doubleheader . The following day , the press credited the victories to his ability to work well with runners on the bases . The regular season for the Beaneaters closed on October 15 with a doubleheader against the Washington Senators . Stivetts pitched the second game , and delivered a complete game shutout , his third shutout of the season , and his 35th victory . Although he finished within the top @-@ ten in several pitching statistical categories , his strikeout total dropped to 180 in 1892 . His 3 @.@ 9 strikeouts per 9 innings pitched ( K / 9 ) was significantly lower from the 5 @.@ 3 the previous season .
The AA had dissolved following the 1891 season , with several teams merging with the NL , re @-@ establishing itself as the lone " major league " . The NL devised a post @-@ season series to determine a champion between the two half @-@ season victors . This series pitted the Beaneaters ( the first @-@ half champions ) against the Cleveland Spiders ( the second @-@ half champions ) . The first game occurred on October 17 ; Stivetts started for Boston , and future Hall of Famer Cy Young pitched for Cleveland . The pitching duel lasted eleven scoreless innings before the game was brought to end by darkness . After Boston won game two behind Staley on October 18 , Stivetts started and gained the victory in the game on October 19 . The Beaneaters were declared the NL champion after winning five straight after the opening tie game ; Stivetts gained victories in three . This playoff scheme was abandoned after the season .
= = = = 1893 season = = = =
On January 21 , 1893 , it was reported that Stivetts re @-@ signed with Boston for the up @-@ coming season . In March , Stivetts ' name was tied to an " imminent " trade between Boston and Brooklyn that involved pitcher Tom Lovett transferring to Boston . Ultimately , the deal did not transpire , however , and each pitcher reported to their respective teams . Several rule changes were implemented before the 1893 season that intended to even the competitive balance between the pitchers and hitters . One lengthened the distance between the pitching mound and home plate from 50 feet to 60 feet 6 inches , and another required pitchers were to pitch from a rubber slab instead of being allowed to take a running start before they delivered the ball to the batter .
Stivetts struggled with the new distance initially ; his first four starts of the season were largely ineffective . On April 29 , with the weather cold and rainy , he issued bases on balls to ten New York Giants batters , and surrendered 15 runs . The next two starts were against Baltimore and he allowed seven runs to score the first game despite gaining the victory , and another 16 runs in a loss in the second game . Another ten runs scored on May 10 , in a loss versus the Washington Senators .
His troubles adjusting to the new rules , and his athletic conditioning during June and July , prompted the team to sign Hank Gastraight for added pitching strength . He struck out just 61 batters in 2832 ⁄ 3 for a 1 @.@ 6 K / 9 , and his ERA increased from 3 @.@ 03 in 1892 to 4 @.@ 41 . Despite this , he helped Boston claim their third consecutive NL championship with a 20 – 12 W – L record .
= = = = 1894 season = = = =
With the previous season 's inconsistencies behind him , Stivetts was re @-@ signed and was the team 's starting pitcher for Boston 's season @-@ opening game on April 19 ; a 13 – 2 victory versus the Bridegrooms of Brooklyn . He then lost his next eight starts , however , before beginning a ten @-@ game winning streak that lasted into mid @-@ July . On August 21 , he started and gained complete game victories in both ends of a doubleheader versus the Cincinnati Reds . Two days later , on August 23 , he pitched Boston to a 12 – 10 victory against the Spiders . That same day in Ashland , his father was killed in a coal mining accident when a load of coal fell on top on him .
Boston finished in third place among the 12 NL teams in 1894 , and Stivetts won 26 games , though most of his numbers in important statistical categories failed to improve or became worse . His ERA rose to 4 @.@ 90 , and his K / 9 moved up slightly to 2 @.@ 0 when he struck out 76 in 338 innings pitched . He issued 127 bases on balls , and surrendered a league @-@ leading 27 home runs . His biggest success in 1894 was his skill as a hitter . Beginning on July 5 , Boston played a three @-@ game series against Cleveland . While alternating game to game from pitching and playing in right field , Stivetts hit one home run in each game , the last one coming in the sixth inning off of Cy Young , completing the sweep . He hit a career @-@ high season total of eight home runs . He also achieved career @-@ highs with 64 RBIs , seven triples , and 55 runs scored , while batting .328 in 68 games played .
= = = = 1895 season = = = =
In early November , due to the threat that a new American Association was near formation , the National League clubs were quick to sign their players without much negotiating . Many of the players ' salary demands were met , including Stivetts ' . In March , shortly before the 1895 season began , Stivetts claimed he was in " excellent phycial condition " , and that he was " many pounds lighter than he was at this period last year . " The season opener was on April 19 against Brooklyn , and Stivetts got the start over Nichols for the second consecutive season . Despite being down early in the game , Boston won the game 11 – 6 behind a seven @-@ run seventh inning . Stivetts scored thrice and gathered two hits in the game , including a double .
During the 1893 season , Stivetts involved himself in a dispute between two catholic players , Tommy Tucker and Hugh Duffy , and their manager Frank Selee . The resulting rift occasionally caused strife among team members . Factions formed , with Duffy , Tucker , and Tommy McCarthy on one side ; Herman Long , Bobby Lowe , and Stivetts on the other . These disagreements , in part , led to an incident in a Louisville , Kentucky hotel dining room between Stivetts and McCarthy . In response to something Stivetts had said , McCarthy retaliated by punching him once in the face and then calmly left the restaurant .
His W – L record slid to 17 – 17 , while his ERA improved slightly to 4 @.@ 64 in 291 innings pitched , as Boston fell to fifth place , 16 @.@ 5 games behind the NL champions from Baltimore . His hitting suffered as well ; his batting average dropped to a career @-@ low .190 , and he failed to hit a home run for the first time since his rookie season . Shortly after Boston completed its schedule , Stivetts re @-@ signed for the 1896 season .
= = = = 1896 season = = = =
During the off @-@ season , trade talks were conducted , but not completed , between the Beaneaters and the Philadelphia Quakers . The deal likely involved Stivetts and Tucker , two players involved in Boston 's religious quarrel from the previous season . As the season progressed , the press noted that his season had begun better than the previous season . Stivetts claimed that it was his weight loss ( now just over 200 lbs ) , that was the main reason why he had been more of an asset to the team than in past years .
Though he lost his first start of season , he rebounded to win six starts in succession from April 25 though May 20 , including a 7 – 0 shutout victory on May 8 versus Louisville . On June 12 , he pitched Boston to a 15 – 3 victory over the Reds at home , and connected for two home runs against Chauncey Fisher . This was the third , and last , time he hit two home runs in a single game . He hit three home runs total for the season and improved his batting average to .347 in 222 at bats . He increased his win total to 22 , and his 4 @.@ 10 ERA was the lowest since 1892 .
On October 3 , it was reported that he was retained by Boston under the reserve clause . When interviewed during the off @-@ season , Stivetts claimed that he would like to quit pitching and play first , that is if a team would give him the opportunity . Selee , Boston 's manager , disagreed and claimed that the team needed Stivetts in the pitching rotation instead . It was also likely that he would have received less salary playing at first .
= = = = 1897 season = = = =
Boston re @-@ signed Stivetts for $ 2 @,@ 100 despite the view of some in the press who believed Boston would continue to sink in the standings if they didn 't rid themselves of him and the team 's manager . Shortly after Stivetts ' first start of the season , a 10 – 5 loss on April 23 in Baltimore , Selee commented that Stivetts will not be pitching much into the future , saying that " he is growing rather stiff , and will not let himself out as he did when he was at his best , some years ago . " His weight was now at 217 lbs , so as the team departed on May 10 for a western road trip , Selee sent him back to Ashland to get back into proper game condition . Although he was told not to report back to the team until his weight was below 200 lbs , he had re @-@ joined the team and played right field in the second game of a doubleheader on May 15 . His place in the rotation fell behind Nichols , Fred Klobedanz , and Ted Lewis . He made a relief appearance on May 18 , before having to take some time off for a sore arm . His next start occurred on May 31 , when Boston defeated St. Louis by a 25 – 5 score . He earned his second consecutive victory on June 11 , a 12 – 4 win over Louisville .
While he only pitched 129 1 / 3 innings in 18 games during the season , he fared well , and helped Boston re @-@ claim the NL championship , with an 11 – 4 W – L record , and 3 @.@ 41 ERA . As a hitter , he continued to flourish , with a .367 batting average , hit a career @-@ high nine triples , and added two more home runs . At the conclusion of the regular season , Boston faced the second place Orioles in a post @-@ season series , the Temple Cup . Created after the 1893 season by Pittsburgh Pirates owner William Chase Temple , the winner of the best @-@ of @-@ seven game seried was awarded possession of a silver ornate cup , and 65 % of the proceeds to be distributed to the players . Boston players were fatigued by their championship run , especially their games against second @-@ place Baltimore , and now were facing the Orioles again , in the Temple Cup . Because of the fatigue , and an agreed upon even @-@ split of the proceeds , the series was played without much enthusiasm from either team . Boston won game one , but then lost the next four games , giving Baltimore the cup . Stivetts pitched in game four , losing 12 – 11 to Jerry Nops . Due to McCarthy 's sloppy play in center field throughout the series , he was benched in the final game in favor of Stivetts . After four seasons , the series lacked popular support and was discontinued .
= = = = 1898 season = = = =
Stivetts was again reserved by Boston , and later re @-@ signed for $ 2000 . Due to the Beaneaters ' solid , four @-@ man starting pitching rotation of Nichols , Klobedanz , Lewis , and rookie Vic Willis , his role with the team was expected to be as an extra outfielder . Stivetts claimed that he had never felt better in his life and his outlook on the up @-@ coming season was positive .
In a game versus the Reds on June 9 , the score was tied 5 – 5 in the bottom of the ninth inning when Stivetts connected for a pinch @-@ hit , walk @-@ off solo home run . This was his second career walk off home run , his third as a pinch hitter , and the last home run of his career . It was reported on July 22 that a deal had been agreed upon to trade Stivetts to the St. Louis Browns of the NL for Kid Carsey and cash . The deal was contingent upon the acceptance of Stivetts . In early August , the Boston manager Selee sent Stivetts home , commenting that the team did not have use of his services any longer . Tim Hurst , now managing St. Louis , planned on using Stivetts in center field . Stivetts refused to accept the move to St. Louis , and a sale was officially conducted on August 14 that sent him to St. Louis for $ 2000 and an unnamed player . True to his word , Stivetts did not report , or play a single game for St. Louis that season . Due to his objection to being sold to St. Louis , he claimed that he would remain in Ashland and return to coal mining .
= = = St. Louis / Cleveland = = =
= = = = 1899 season = = = =
During the off @-@ season , the owners of the Cleveland Spiders purchased the St. Louis Browns from Chris von der Ahe . They changed the team name to Perfectos , and inherited their players . In early 1899 , Stivetts claimed interest in playing for the St. Louis franchise if his salary were equal to what he was paid with Boston . The new owners , to maximize their assets , transferred all the best players to St. Louis , while sending the rest , including Stivetts , to Cleveland . The Spiders released Stivetts on June 13 , and he subsequently retired from playing baseball . In 18 games for the Spiders , Stivetts had a .205 batting average and a 0 – 4 W – L record . He was claimed by St. Paul of the Western League a few days later , but did not play a game for the team . In his 11 @-@ season career , Stivetts won 203 games against 132 losses , a 3 @.@ 74 ERA , and 1223 strikeouts in 28872 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . In addition to his 35 career home runs as a hitter , he collected 593 hits in 1992 at bats for a .298 batting average , and had 357 RBIs .
= = Post @-@ baseball / Legacy = =
After his retirement from professional baseball , he worked for the coal industry in various capacities . He was listed as a carpenter in both the 1910 and 1920 Federal Census . He operated a brewery wagon for a coal company in his hometown of Ashland . In April 1912 , he was working as a carpenter for the Black Ridge mine in Conyngham , Pennsylvania . He occasionally played on small clubs around the Ashland area , and in May 1902 , he survived a bout of smallpox . By 1930 , he was no longer working . He died on April 18 , 1930 , at the age of 62 in Ashland , and is interred at Brock Cemetery .
He was described by sportswriters of the time as one of the fastest pitchers in the league , comparable to Amos Rusie and Ted Breitenstein . Kid Nichols remarked in 1902 that Stivetts ' speed was as fast as Rusie , and could have extended his career much longer had he taken better care of his body . Baseball writer O. P. Caylor wrote that Stivetts ' issues were entirely his own , blaming his hard @-@ drinking lifestyle and his inability to remain in good condition .
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= Section 116 of the Constitution of Australia =
Section 116 of the Constitution of Australia precludes the Commonwealth of Australia ( i.e. , the federal parliament ) from making laws for establishing any religion , imposing any religious observance , or prohibiting the free exercise of any religion . Section 116 also provides that no religious test shall be required as a qualification for any office or public trust under the Commonwealth . The product of a compromise in the pre @-@ Federation constitutional conventions , Section 116 is based on similar provisions in the United States Constitution . However , Section 116 is more narrowly drafted than its US counterpart , and does not preclude the states of Australia from making such laws .
Section 116 has been interpreted narrowly by the High Court of Australia : while the definition of " religion " adopted by the court is broad and flexible , the scope of the protection of religions is circumscribed . The result of the court 's approach has been that no court has ever ruled a law to be in contravention of Section 116 , and the provision has played only a minor role in Australian constitutional history . Among the laws that the High Court has ruled not to be in contravention of Section 116 are laws that provided government funding to religious schools , that authorised the dissolution of a branch of the Jehovah 's Witnesses , and that enabled the forcible removal of Indigenous Australian children from their families .
Federal Governments have twice proposed the amendment of Section 116 , principally to apply its provisions to laws made by the states . On each occasion — in 1944 and 1988 — the proposal failed in a referendum .
= = Text of the provision and location in the Constitution = =
Section 116 states :
The Commonwealth shall not make any law for establishing any religion , or for imposing any religious observance , or for prohibiting the free exercise of any religion , and no religious test shall be required as a qualification for any office or public trust under the Commonwealth .
Section 116 has four limbs . The first three limbs prohibit the Commonwealth from making certain laws : laws " for establishing any religion " ; laws " for imposing any religious observance " ; and laws " for prohibiting the free exercise of any religion " . The fourth limb proscribes the imposition of religious tests to qualify for any Commonwealth office or public trust . Only the " establishing religion " and " prohibiting free exercise " limbs have been the subject of cases before the High Court .
The section sits in Chapter V of the Constitution , which deals with the states of Australia . However , Section 116 does not apply to the states . Each state has its own constitution , and only Tasmania 's has a provision similar to Section 116 . Commentators attribute the erroneous location of Section 116 to a drafting oversight caused by the weariness of the committee charged with finalising the draft Constitution .
= = Origins = =
The Constitution was the product of a series of constitutional conventions in the 1890s . The issues of religious freedom and secularism were not prominent in the convention debates , which focused on the economic and legislative powers of the proposed Commonwealth parliament . The first draft of Section 116 , approved by the Melbourne Convention of 1891 , would have prohibited the states from passing laws prohibiting the free exercise of religion . The Commonwealth was not mentioned because it was assumed that the Commonwealth parliament would have no power to make such laws . At the Melbourne Convention of 1897 , Victorian delegate H. B. Higgins expressed concern about this assumption and moved to expand the provision to cover the Commonwealth as well as the states . The amendment was initially defeated , but Higgins later succeeded in having the eventual version of Section 116 adopted by the convention in a 25 – 16 vote . Higgins feared opposition to the provision from convention delegates concerned that the provision would impede the states ' legislative powers , so the version passed by the convention did not mention the states .
The proposed inclusion of Section 116 in the Constitution was the subject of some dissent in the 1897 Melbourne Convention and the final convention in 1898 . Protestant churches in New South Wales argued that the Constitution should state that divine providence is the " ultimate source of law " , while convention delegates John Quick and Patrick Glynn moved to have God explicitly recognised in the Constitution . The Seventh @-@ day Adventist Church campaigned for a strict separation of church and state , being concerned that the Commonwealth might prohibit its members from working on Sundays . Both sides to some extent achieved their objectives : Section 116 was approved by the final convention , while Glynn successfully moved for the symbolic mention of " Almighty God " in the preamble to the British statute that was to contain the Constitution . The Constitution was then approved by popular referendums in each of the six colonies and took effect on 1 January 1901 ( the colonies thus became the states of Australia ) .
Section 116 reflects two provisions of the United States Constitution : the First Amendment , which prohibits the making of laws for the establishment of religion and guarantees the free exercise of religion ; and Article VI , Section 3 , which prohibits the imposition of religious tests for public offices . Academic Clifford L. Pannam , writing in 1963 , called Section 116 a " fairly blatant piece of transcription " of its US counterparts . However , in practice , Section 116 has been interpreted more narrowly than the US provisions .
= = Judicial consideration = =
The High Court 's consideration of Section 116 has generally been limited to three areas : the definition of " religion " ; the meaning of " law for establishing any religion " ; and the meaning of " law for prohibiting the free exercise of any religion " . The two other elements of the provision — the clauses prohibiting the Commonwealth from imposing of religious observance and from prescribing religious tests for public offices — have not been the subject of any cases before the court . The court has never ruled a legislative provision to be in contravention of Section 116 . As a result of the court 's narrow and literal interpretation of Section 116 , the provision has played a minor role in Australian constitutional history .
= = = Meaning of " religion " = = =
A threshold test considered by courts applying Section 116 is whether a belief seeking constitutional protection is a " religion " . The leading authority on the question is the 1983 judgment of the High Court in Church of the New Faith v Commissioner for Pay @-@ Roll Tax ( Vic ) . The court found that Scientology was a religion , despite some justices commenting that its practices were " impenetrably obscure " . In reaching this finding , the court argued that the definition of religion needed to be flexible but should recognise the need to be sceptical of disingenous claims of religious practice . Justices Anthony Mason and Gerard Brennan held :
... the criteria of religion [ are ] twofold : first , belief in a supernatural , Being , Thing or Principle ; and second , the acceptance of canons of conduct in order to give effect to that belief .
Justices Ronald Wilson and William Deane were less prescriptive , setting out five " indicia " of a religion : a belief in the supernatural ; a belief in ideas relating to " man 's nature and place in the universe " ; the adherence to particular standards , codes of conduct or practices by those who hold the ideas ; the existence of an identifiable group of believers , even if not a formal organisation ; and the opinion of the believers that what they believe in constitutes a religion .
= = = " Establishing any religion " = = =
The courts have taken a narrow approach to the interpretation of the prohibition against " establishing any religion " , deriving from the 1981 case of Attorney @-@ General ( Vic ) ( Ex rel Black ) v Commonwealth ( the DOGS case ) , in which the High Court held that Commonwealth funding of religious schools did not contravene Section 116 . Chief Justice Garfield Barwick held that a law would only contravene the provision if establishing a religion was its " express and single purpose " , while Justice Harry Gibbs argued that the section only prohibits the establishment of an official state religion . Each justice in the majority contrasted Section 116 with its equivalent in the US Constitution to find that Section 116 is narrower . The court noted that the US Constitution prohibits laws respecting " establishment of religion " generally , whereas the prohibition in Section 116 is against the establishment of " any religion " : this meant that Section 116 did not encompass laws that benefit religions generally ; it only proscribed laws that established a particular religion . The approach of the High Court to the establishment limb of Section 116 thus largely reflects the views expressed by Constitutional scholars John Quick and Robert Garran in 1901 , that establishment means " the erection and recognition of a State Church , or the concession of special favours , titles , and advantages to one church which are denied to others . "
= = = " Prohibiting the free exercise of any religion " = = =
The protection of the free exercise of religion was also interpreted narrowly in early High Court judgments . In 1912 , the court in Krygger v Williams held that a person could not object to compulsory military service on the ground of religious belief . The court considered that Section 116 would only protect religious observance from government interference ; it would not permit a person to be excused from a legal obligation merely because the obligation conflicted with his or her religious beliefs . In a 1929 case , Higgins , then a Justice of the High Court , suggested ( as obiter dictum ) that a person could lawfully object to compulsory voting on the grounds of religious belief . However , in 1943 , the court continued the narrow approach it took in Krygger v Williams , upholding war @-@ time regulations that caused the Adelaide branch of the Jehovah 's Witnesses to be dissolved and have its property acquired by the Commonwealth government . The government had declared the branch to be an organisation whose activities were " prejudicial to the defence of the Commonwealth " : one of the branch 's professed beliefs was that the government was an " organ of Satan " . Chief Justice John Latham held that the Constitution permitted the court to " reconcile religious freedom with ordered government " .
In a 1997 case known as the Stolen Generations Case , the court upheld an ordinance issued in 1918 that enabled the forcible removal of Indigenous Australian children from their families . The court reasoned that the purpose of the ordinance was not to prohibit the free exercise of religion even though the ordinance may have had that effect . Peter Edge , an academic specialising in religion and the law , thus concludes that Section 116 will only " prevent legislation that has a prohibited purpose , rather than a prohibited effect " . Delivering her judgment , Justice Mary Gaudron denied that the provision confers rights upon individuals , commenting that it :
... does no more than effect a restriction or limitation on the legislative power of the Commonwealth . It is not , ' in form , a constitutional guarantee of the rights of individuals ' ... It makes no sense to speak of a constitutional right to religious freedom in a context in which the Constitution clearly postulates that the States may enact laws in derogation of that right .
= = Commentary = =
When the Constitution took effect in 1901 , Quick and Garran argued that Section 116 was redundant as the Commonwealth had not been given the legislative power under Section 51 to establish a religion or prohibit its free exercise . In 1963 , Pannam wrote that the provision was regarded " by all as having little practical value " . Pannam considered the provision would only become significant if the High Court held that it applied to laws made by governments of the territories .
Contemporary constitutional scholar George Williams criticises the court 's literal interpretation of the provision and others in the Constitution , saying the court has " transformed the Constitution into a wasteland of civil liberties " . Williams argues that as an " express guarantee of personal freedom " , the provision should be interpreted broadly and promote " individual liberty over the arbitrary exercise of legislative and executive power " . Academics Gonzalo Villalta Puig and Steven Tudor have called for the court to broaden Section 116 by finding in it an implied right to the freedom of thought and conscience . In their view most Australians correctly " believe that the Constitution protects the right to freedom of thought and conscience just like it protects other civil and political freedoms " , and that the court should give effect to that belief . They argue there is precedent for the court finding implied constitutional rights , such as the 1992 case of Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth , where the court found that the Constitution guaranteed the freedom of political communication .
In defence of Section 116 and the High Court 's interpretation of it , Joshua Puls argues that the provision is appropriately limited , suggesting that a rigid " wall of separation " between religion and the state is undesirable , and that the stronger Constitutional protection of religion in the United States has become overly politicised . Fellow academics Jennifer Clarke , Patrick Keyzer and James Stellios argue that the court 's narrow interpretation of the provision is consistent with the intention of the Constitution 's drafters , who never intended for it to be a protection of individual rights , while Kevin Booker and Arthur Glass say the provision has " symbolic value " . Booker and Glass defend the court 's interpretation of the provision and other Constitutional rights , saying " the High Court can only work with the constitutional provisions before it " .
= = Referendums = =
Federal governments have twice proposed referendums to expand the scope of Section 116 : in 1944 and in 1988 . In 1944 , John Curtin 's Labor government put a package of measures , known as the " Fourteen Powers referendum " , to the Australian public . The purpose of the package was mainly to widen the Commonwealth 's legislative powers for the purposes of post @-@ war reconstruction . The widening of powers would sunset after five years . One of the measures in the package was to extend Section 116 so that it prohibited the states , not merely the Commonwealth , from making the laws proscribed by the section . The package 's 14 measures — which included diverse matters such as powers to provide family allowances and legislate for " national health " — were bound together in a single question . H. V. Evatt , the Labor Attorney @-@ General , argued that freedom of religion was " fundamental to the whole idea of democracy " and that the suppression of civil rights by dictatorships in Europe demonstrated the need for Australia to have a strong Constitutional guarantee of the freedom . The conservative Coalition , then in opposition and led by Robert Menzies , campaigned against the package . Arthur Fadden , leader of the Country Party ( the junior member of the Coalition ) , claimed a " yes " vote would permit the government to implement a " policy of socialisation " . The package was rejected : the national " yes " vote was less than 46 per cent , and there was majority support for the package only in South Australia and Western Australia . One reason for the rejection was the bundling of multiple controversial proposals into one question : voters could not vote in favour of the measures they supported and against those they opposed , giving them reason to vote against the entire package .
A similar proposal to amend Section 116 was put to the Australian people in a referendum in 1988 . The referendum contained four questions , the last of which sought to amend Section 116 and other constitutional " rights and freedoms " . Again , the proposal was initiated by a Labor government ( under Bob Hawke ) ; again , the proposal was opposed by the Coalition ; and again , multiple controversial proposals were bound into one question , being " to alter the Constitution to extend the right to trial by jury , to extend freedom of religion , and to ensure fair terms for persons whose property is acquired by any government . " The proposal in respect of Section 116 was to extend its operation to the states , and expand the protection to cover any government act ( not just legislation ) that established a religion or prohibited its free exercise . Some church officials objected to the proposal , fearing that funding of religious schools by the states could become unlawful . The question failed to pass , being opposed by a majority of voters in each of the states . The 70 to 30 per cent nationwide vote against the proposal was the largest margin by which a proposal to amend the Constitution had ever been defeated at a referendum . Williams attributes the failure of the proposal mainly to the absence of bipartisan support for it , highlighting the " determined and effective " opposition of senior Coalition politician Peter Reith . Williams also points to the " notorious reluctance " of Australians to support Constitutional referendums : of the 44 proposals to amend the Constitution , only eight have succeeded .
= = = Cited academic texts = = =
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= Appalachian Trail =
The Appalachian National Scenic Trail , generally known as the Appalachian Trail or simply the A.T. , is a marked hiking trail in the eastern United States extending between Springer Mountain in Georgia and Mount Katahdin in Maine . The trail is about 2 @,@ 200 miles ( 3 @,@ 500 km ) long , though the precise length changes over time as parts are modified or rerouted . The trail passes through the states of Georgia , North Carolina , Tennessee , Virginia , West Virginia , Maryland , Pennsylvania , New Jersey , New York , Connecticut , Massachusetts , Vermont , New Hampshire , and Maine .
The Appalachian Trail was completed in 1937 after more than a decade of work , although improvements and changes continue . It is maintained by 31 trail clubs and multiple partnerships , and managed by the National Park Service , United States Forest Service , and the nonprofit Appalachian Trail Conservancy . The majority of the trail is in forest or wild lands , although some portions traverse towns , roads and farms . The trail conservancy claims that the Appalachian Trail is the longest hiking @-@ only trail in the world .
At least 2 million people are said to do at least one day @-@ hike on the trail each year . Thru @-@ hikers attempt to hike it in its entirety in a single season — more than 2 @,@ 700 people thru @-@ hiked the trail in 2014 — and some hike from one end to the other , then turn around and thru @-@ hike the trail the other way , known as a " yo @-@ yo " . Many books , memoirs , web sites , and fan organizations are dedicated to these pursuits .
An extension known as the International Appalachian Trail continues northeast , crossing Maine and cutting through Canada to Newfoundland , with sections continuing in Greenland , through Europe , and into Morocco . Other separate extensions continue the southern end of the Appalachian range in Alabama and continue south into Florida , creating what is known as the Eastern Continental Trail .
The Appalachian Trail , the Continental Divide Trail , and the Pacific Crest Trail form what is known as the Triple Crown of long – distance hiking in the United States .
= = History = =
The trail was conceived by Benton MacKaye , a forester who wrote his original plan — called “ An Appalachian Trail , A Project in Regional Planning ” — shortly after the death of his wife in 1921 . MacKaye 's idea detailed a grand trail that would connect a series of farms and wilderness work / study camps for city @-@ dwellers . In 1922 , at the suggestion of Major William A. Welch , director of the Palisades Interstate Park Commission , his idea was publicized by Raymond H. Torrey with a story in the New York Evening Post under a full @-@ page banner headline reading " A Great Trail from Maine to Georgia ! " The idea was quickly adopted by the new Palisades Interstate Park Trail Conference as their main project .
On October 7 , 1923 , the first section of the trail , from Bear Mountain west through Harriman State Park to Arden , New York , was opened . MacKaye then called for a two @-@ day Appalachian Trail conference to be held in March 1925 in Washington , D.C. This meeting inspired the formation of the Appalachian Trail Conference ( now called the Appalachian Trail Conservancy ) .
A retired judge named Arthur Perkins and his younger associate Myron Avery took up the cause . In 1929 , Perkins , who was also a member of the Connecticut Forest and Park Association and its Blue Blazed Trails committee , found Ned Anderson , a farmer in Sherman , Connecticut , who took on the task of mapping and blazing the Connecticut leg of the trail ( 1929 – 1933 ) . It ran from Dog Tail Corners in Webatuck , New York , which borders Kent , Connecticut , at Ashley Falls , 50 miles ( 80 km ) through the northwest corner of the state , up to Bear Mountain at the Massachusetts border . ( A portion of the Connecticut trail has since been rerouted ( 1979 – 1983 ) to be more scenic , adhering less to highways and more to wilderness , and includes a Ned K. Anderson Memorial Bridge . )
Anderson 's efforts helped spark renewed interest in the trail , and Avery ( who led the charge after Perkins ’ death in 1932 ) was able to bring other states on board . Upon taking over the ATC , Avery adopted the more practical goal of building a simple hiking trail . He and MacKaye clashed over the ATC 's response to a major commercial development along the trail 's path ; MacKaye left the organization , while Avery was willing to simply reroute the trail . Avery reigned as Chairman of the ATC from 1932 to 1952 ( he died that same year ) .
Avery became the first to walk the trail end @-@ to @-@ end , though not as a thru @-@ hike , in 1936 . In August 1937 , the trail was completed to Sugarloaf Mountain in Maine , and the ATC shifted its focus toward protecting the trail lands and mapping the trail for hikers .
In 1948 , Earl Shaffer of York , Pennsylvania , brought a great deal of attention to the project by completing the first documented thru @-@ hike . Shaffer later completed the first north @-@ to @-@ south thru @-@ hike , making him the first to do so in each direction . In 1998 , Shaffer , nearly 80 years old , again hiked the entirety of the trail , making him the oldest person to complete a thru @-@ hike .
In 1994 , a story appeared in the Appalachian Trailway News describing a 121 @-@ day Maine to Georgia thru @-@ hike in 1936 by six Boy Scouts from the Bronx . Although the story has been accepted by some members of ALDHA , a great deal of doubt has also been expressed and this earlier thru @-@ hike has never been verified . Shaffer 's 1948 journey is still generally recognized as the first A.T. thru @-@ hike .
In the 1960s , the ATC made progress toward protecting the trail from development , thanks to efforts of politicians and officials . The National Trails System Act of 1968 designated the Pacific Crest Trail and Appalachian Trail as the first national scenic trails and paved the way for a series of National Scenic Trails within the National Park and National Forest systems . Trail volunteers worked with the National Park Service to map a permanent route for the trail , and by 1971 a permanent route had been marked ( though minor changes continue to this day ) . By the close of the 20th century , the Park Service had completed the purchase of all but a few miles of the trail 's span .
= = Extensions = =
The International Appalachian Trail is a 1 @,@ 900 @-@ mile ( 3 @,@ 100 km ) extension running northeast from Maine into New Brunswick and Quebec 's Gaspé Peninsula , where it ends at Forillon National Park . It is a separate trail and not an official extension of the Appalachian Trail . Other branches are designated in parts of Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island , and along the western shore of Newfoundland , to the northern end of the Appalachian Mountain range , where it enters the Atlantic Ocean , near L 'Anse aux Meadows National Historic Site . The route has since been extended to Greenland , Europe , and Morocco .
Although the Appalachian Trail ends in Georgia , the Appalachian Mountains continue south to Flagg Mountain in Alabama . In 2008 , the Pinhoti National Recreation Trail in Alabama and Georgia , which terminates at Flagg Mountain , was connected to the southern terminus of the Appalachian Trail via the Benton MacKaye Trail . Promoters of the Southern extension refer to MacKaye 's statement at the 1925 conference that the Georgia to New Hampshire trail should , in the future , extend to Katahdin , and " then to Birmingham , Alabama " . As of March 2015 , The Pinhoti Trail terminates at the base of Flagg Mountain , near Weogufka in Coosa County , 50 miles ( 80 km ) east of Birmingham . In 2010 , the Alabama state legislature formed the Alabama Appalachian Mountain Trail Commission to provide state resources for trail improvements , although officially designating Pinhoti as part of the Appalachian Trail would require an act of the United States Congress .
= = Flora and fauna = =
The Appalachian Trail is home to thousands of species of plants and animals , including 2 @,@ 000 rare , threatened , endangered , and sensitive plant and animal species .
= = = Animals = = =
The American black bear ( Ursus americanus ) , among the largest animals along the Appalachian Trail , rarely confronts people . The black bear is the largest omnivore that may be encountered on the trail , and it inhabits all regions of the Appalachians . Bear sightings on the trail are uncommon , except in certain sections , especially Shenandoah National Park and portions of New Jersey , New York , Connecticut , and Massachusetts sections , where bear populations have increased steadily since 1980 ; confrontations are rarer still . Other hazards include venomous snakes , including the Eastern timber rattlesnake and copperhead , which are common along the trail . Both snakes are generally found in drier , rockier sections of the trail ; the copperhead 's range extends north to around the New Jersey – New York state line , while rattlesnakes are commonly found along the trail in Connecticut and have been reported , although rarely , as far north as New Hampshire . Other large mammals commonly sighted include deer ; elk , reintroduced in the Smoky Mountains ; and moose , which may be found in the vicinity of Massachusetts and northward .
For most hikers , the most persistent pests along the trail are ticks , mosquitos , and black flies along with the mice that inhabit shelters .
= = = Plants = = =
Plant life along the trail is varied . The trail passes through several different biomes from south to north , and the climate changes significantly , particularly dependent upon elevation . In the south , lowland forests consist mainly of second @-@ growth ; nearly the entire trail has been logged at one time or another . There are , however , a few old growth locations along the trail , such as Sages Ravine straddling the Massachusetts @-@ Connecticut border and atop higher peaks along the trail on either side of the same border , the Hopper ( a glacial cirque westward of the trail as it traverses Mt . Greylock in Massachusetts ) , and " The Hermitage " , near Gulf Hagas in Maine . In the south , the forest is dominated by hardwoods , including oak and tulip trees , also known as yellow poplar . Farther north , tulip trees are gradually replaced by maples and birches . Oaks begin to disappear in Massachusetts . By Vermont , the lowland forest is made up of maples , birch and beech , which provide spectacular foliage displays for hikers in September and October . While the vast majority of lowland forest south of the White Mountains is hardwood , many areas have some coniferous trees as well , and in Maine , these often grow at low elevations .
There is a drastic change between the lowland and subalpine , evergreen forest , as well as another , higher break , at tree line , above which only hardy alpine plants grow . The sub @-@ alpine region is far more prevalent along the trail than true alpine conditions . While it mainly exists in the north , a few mountains in the south have subalpine environments , which are typically coated in an ecosystem known as the Southern Appalachian spruce @-@ fir forest . Southern ranges and mountains where sub @-@ alpine environments occur include the Great Smoky Mountains , where sub @-@ alpine environments only begin around 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) in elevation , Roan Highlands on the North Carolina @-@ Tennessee border , where sub @-@ alpine growth descends below 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) , and Mount Rogers and the Grayson Highlands in Virginia , where there is some alpine growth above 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) . Appalachian balds are also found in the Southern highlands , and are believed to occur due to fires or grazing in recent centuries , or in some cases due to thin , sandy soils . Several balds are sprouting trees , and on some , the National Forest service actually mows the grasses periodically in order to keep the balds free of trees .
= = Topography = =
No sub @-@ alpine regions exist between Mount Rogers in Virginia and Mount Greylock in Massachusetts , mainly because the trail stays below 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) from Shenandoah National Park in Virginia to Mount Greylock . Mount Greylock , however , has a large subalpine region , the only such forest in Massachusetts , extending down to 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) , which in the south would be far from the sub @-@ alpine cutoff . This is especially low because Greylock is exposed to prevailing westerly winds , as the summits along its ridgeline rise approximately 200 to 650 feet ( 61 to 198 m ) higher than any other peak in Massachusetts . Farther north , several peaks in Vermont reach into the sub @-@ alpine zone , the bottom of which steadily descends as one proceeds northward , so that by the White Mountains in New Hampshire , it often occurs well below 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) . At Mount Moosilauke , which summits at 4 @,@ 802 feet ( 1 @,@ 464 m ) , the first alpine environment on the trail is reached , where only thin , sporadic flora is interspersed with bare rocks . Between the two regions is the krummholz region , where stunted trees grow with their branches oriented away from the winter 's prevailing northwest wind , thus giving the appearance of flags ( they are often called " flag trees " ) . This region resembles lowland terrain hundreds of miles north in Canada . It also contains many endangered and threatened species . The trail has been rerouted over New Hampshire 's Presidential Range so the Appalachian Mountain Club can protect certain plant life . The alpine cutoff in the Whites is generally between 4 @,@ 200 and 4 @,@ 800 feet ( 1 @,@ 300 and 1 @,@ 500 m ) . Mountains traversed by the A.T. above treeline include Mount Moosilauke , several miles along the Franconia Range and along the Presidential Range . In the Presidentials , the trail climbs as high as 6 @,@ 288 feet ( 1 @,@ 917 m ) on Mount Washington and spends about 13 miles ( 21 km ) continuously above treeline , in the largest alpine environment in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains .
The segments of the trail through Pennsylvania are so rocky that hikers refer to the region as " Rocksylvania " . These small rocks — the result of erosion that has worn away the dirt along the trails — can be tough to walk on for extended periods of time without proper hard @-@ soled shoes .
In Maine , the trail extends into even harsher environments , and sub @-@ alpine and alpine growth descends to lower elevations . Alpine growth in the state ranges from around 2 @,@ 500 feet ( 760 m ) in the Mahoosuc Range to below 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) in parts of the Hundred @-@ Mile Wilderness , where nearly every area higher than 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) is evergreen forest . These forests include more species of evergreen , as well . In addition to the white pine , spruce and hemlock prevalent further south , Maine has many cedar trees along the trail . Near the northern terminus , there are even some tamarack ( larch ) , a coniferous , pine @-@ needled deciduous tree , which provides displays of yellow in the late fall after the birches and maples have gone bare . The hemlocks in Maine are also notable , as the woolly adelgid , which has ravaged populations further south , has not come into the state yet , and may be unable to make it so far north due to the cold climate .
Maine also has several alpine regions . In addition to several areas of the Mahoosuc Range , the Baldpates and Old Blue in southern Maine have alpine characteristics despite elevations below 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) . Saddleback Mountain and Mount Bigelow , further north , each only extend a bit above 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) , but have long alpine areas , with no tree growth on the summits and unobstructed views on clear days . From Mount Bigelow , the trail extends for 150 miles ( 240 km ) with only a small area of alpine growth around 3 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) on the summit of White Cap Mountain . Mount Katahdin , the second largest alpine environment in the eastern United States , has several square miles of alpine area on the flat " table land " summit as well as the cliffs and aretes leading up to it . Treeline on Mount Katahdin is only around 3 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) . This elevation in Massachusetts would barely be a sub @-@ alpine region , and , south of Virginia , consists of lowland forest . This illustrates the drastic change in climate over 2 @,@ 000 miles ( 3 @,@ 200 km ) .
Despite the alpine environments well below 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) in New Hampshire and Maine , some higher places farther south are not alpine . Examples include Wayah Bald in North Carolina 5 @,@ 342 feet ( 1 @,@ 628 m ) and Clingmans Dome in Great Smoky Mountains National Park 6 @,@ 643 feet ( 2 @,@ 025 m ) .
= = Hiking the trail = =
The Appalachian Trail is much more frequently hiked south to north ( that is , Georgia to Maine ) than vice versa . Hikers typically begin in March or April and finish in late summer or early to late fall of that particular year . Bicycles are prohibited from the trail except for the sections which follow the C & O Canal in Maryland and the Virginia Creeper Trail in Virginia . Horses and pack animals are prohibited except horses on the C & O Canal and in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park . Several short segments of the trail , in towns and scenic natural areas , were built to ADA accessibly standards for wheelchair use .
= = = Navigation = = =
Throughout its length , the AT is marked by 2 by 6 inches ( 5 by 15 cm ) white paint blazes . Side trails to shelters , viewpoints and parking areas use similarly shaped blue blazes . In past years , some sections of the trail also used metal diamond markers with the AT logo , few of which survive .
= = = Lodging and camping = = =
Most hikers carry a lightweight tent , tent hammock or tarp . The trail has more than 250 shelters and campsites available for hikers . The shelters , sometimes called lean @-@ tos ( in Maine , Massachusetts , and Connecticut ) , huts ( in Shenandoah National Park ) , or Adirondack shelters , are generally open , three @-@ walled structures with a wooden floor , although some shelters are much more complex in structure . Shelters are usually spaced a day 's hike or less apart , most often near a water source ( which may be dry ) and with a privy . They generally have spaces for tent sites in the vicinity as the shelters may be full . The Appalachian Mountain Club ( AMC ) operates a system of eight huts along 56 miles ( 90 km ) of New Hampshire 's White Mountains . These huts are significantly larger than standard trail shelters and offer full @-@ service lodging and meals during the summer months . The Fontana Dam Shelter in North Carolina is more commonly referred to as the Fontana Hilton because of amenities ( e.g. flush toilets ) and its proximity to an all @-@ you @-@ can @-@ eat buffet and post office . Several AMC huts have an extended self @-@ service season during the fall , with two extending self @-@ service seasons through the winter and spring . The Potomac Appalachian Trail Club maintains trail cabins , shelters , and huts throughout the Shenandoah region of Virginia .
Shelters are generally maintained by local volunteers . Almost all shelters have one or more pre @-@ hung food hangers ( generally consisting of a short nylon cord with an upside @-@ down tuna can suspended halfway down its length ) where hikers can hang their food bags to keep them out of the reach of rodents . In hiker lingo , these are sometimes called " mouse trapezes . "
In addition to official shelters , many people offer their homes , places of business , or inns to accommodate AT hikers . One example is the Little Lyford Pond camps maintained by the Appalachian Mountain Club . Inns are more common in sections of the trail that coincide with national parks , most notably Virginia 's Shenandoah National Park .
= = = Trail towns = = =
The trail crosses many roads , thus providing ample opportunity for hikers to hitchhike into town for food and other supplies . Many trail towns are accustomed to hikers passing through , and thus many have hotels and hiker @-@ oriented accommodations . Some of the most well @-@ known trail towns are Hot Springs , North Carolina ; Erwin , Tennessee ; Damascus , Virginia ; Harpers Ferry , West Virginia ; Duncannon , Pennsylvania ; Port Clinton , Pennsylvania ; Hanover , New Hampshire ; and Monson , Maine . In the areas of the trail closer to trail towns , many hikers have experienced what is sometimes called " trail magic , " or assistance from strangers through kind actions , gifts , and other forms of encouragement . Trail magic is sometimes done anonymously . In other instances , persons have provided food and cooked for hikers at a campsite .
= = = Hazards = = =
The Appalachian Trail is relatively safe . Most injuries or incidents are consistent with comparable outdoor activities . Most hazards are related to weather conditions , human error , plants , animals , diseases , and fellow humans encountered along the trail .
Many animals live around the trail , with bears , snakes , and wild boars posing the greatest threat to human safety . Several rodent- and bug @-@ borne illnesses are also a potential hazard . In scattered instances , foxes , raccoons , and other small animals may bite hikers , posing risk of rabies and other diseases . There has been one reported case ( in 1993 ) of hantavirus ( HPS ) , a rare but dangerous rodent @-@ borne disease affecting the lungs . The afflicted hiker recovered and hiked the trail the following year . The section of the trail that runs through the Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England states has a very high population of deer ticks carrying Lyme and other tick @-@ borne diseases , and corresponds to the highest density of reported Lyme Disease in the country .
Poison ivy is common the length of the trail , and more plentiful in the South .
The weather is another major consideration of hikers on the trail . Hiking season of the trail generally starts in mid @-@ to @-@ late spring , when conditions are much more favorable in the South . However , this time may also be characterized by extreme heat , sometimes in excess of 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) . Under such conditions , hydration is imperative . Light clothing and sunscreens are a must at high elevations and areas without foliage , even in relatively cool weather . Farther north and at higher elevations , the weather can be cold , characterized by low temperatures , strong winds , hail or snow storms and reduced visibility . Prolonged rain , though not typically life @-@ threatening , can undermine stamina and ruin supplies . In March 2015 , a hiker was killed on the trail in Maryland when a large tree blew over and fell onto him .
Violent crime , including murder , has occurred on the trail in a few instances . Most have been crimes by non @-@ hikers who crossed paths relatively randomly with the AT hiker @-@ victims . The official website of the Appalachian Trail Conservancy points out that the number of violent crimes is extremely low when compared against the number of people ( 3 to 4 million ) who hike on the trail every year .
The first reported homicide on the trail was in 1974 in Georgia . In 1981 , the issue of violence on the Appalachian Trail received national attention when Robert Mountford , Jr. and Laura Susan Ramsay , both social workers in Ellsworth , Maine , were murdered by Randall Lee Smith . Another homicide occurred in May 1996 , when two women were abducted , bound and murdered near the trail in Shenandoah National Park . The primary suspect was later discovered harassing a female bicycler in the vicinity , but charges against him were dropped , and the case remains unsolved .
Human error can lead to casualties as well . In July 2013 , 66 @-@ year @-@ old lone hiker Geraldine Largay disappeared on the trail in Maine . She got very lost and survived 26 days before dying . Her remains were found 2 years later in October 2015 . In October 2015 , a hiker visiting from England was killed on the trail by falling while taking photos at the Annapolis Rocks overlook in Maryland .
= = = Trail completion = = =
Trail hikers who attempt to complete the entire trail in a single season are called " thru @-@ hikers " ; those who traverse the trail during a series of separate trips are known as " section @-@ hikers " . Rugged terrain , weather extremes , illness , injury , and the time and effort required make thru @-@ hiking difficult to accomplish . Per 2014 estimates around 2700 hikers attempted to thru @-@ hike the trail .
Historically , only about 10 % to 15 % of those who make the attempt report to the Appalachian Trail Conservancy that they completed it . However , since 2001 , the number of people starting out in Georgia to do a thru @-@ hike ( or at least registering to do so ) has dropped considerably , yet the number of people reporting that they have completed a thru @-@ hike has remained approximately the same . This has resulted in an apparent increase in the completion rate to 29 % ( as of 2006 ) .
A thru @-@ hike generally requires five to seven months , although some have done it in three months , and several trail runners have completed the trail in less time . Trail runners typically tackle the AT with automobile support teams , without backpacks , and without camping in the woods .
The current speed record for a supported thru @-@ hike of the AT was set by Scott Jurek in 2015 , at 46 days , 8 hours , and 7 minutes . Jurek made the trip northbound , from late May to mid @-@ July , breaking the previous ( 2011 ) record by Jennifer Pharr Davis by just 3 hours . The current speed record for a self @-@ supported ( meaning no vehicle or crew support , implying carrying a heavy backpack ) thru @-@ hike was set by Heather " Anish " Anderson . She completed the trail , southbound , on September 24 , 2015 , in 54 days 7 hours and 48 minutes . She broke the previous ( 2013 ) record by Matthew Kirk by 4 days and 2 hours .
Thru @-@ hikers are classified into many informal groups . " Purists " are hikers who stick to the official AT trail , follow the white blazes , except for side trips to shelters and camp sites . " Blue Blazers " cut miles from the full route by taking side trails marked by blue blazes . The generally pejorative name " Yellow Blazers , " a reference to yellow road stripes , is given to those who hitchhike to move either down or up the trail .
Most thru @-@ hikers walk northward from Georgia to Maine , and generally start out in early spring and follow the warm weather as it moves north . These " north @-@ bounders " are also called NOBO ( NOrthBOund ) or GAME ( Georgia ( GA ) -to @-@ Maine ( ME ) ) , while those heading in the opposite direction are termed " south @-@ bounders " ( also SOBO or MEGA ) .
Part of hiker subculture includes making colorful entries in logbooks at trail shelters , signed using pseudonyms called " trail names " .
The Appalachian Trail Conservancy gives the name " 2000 Miler " to anyone who completes the entire trail . The ATC 's recognition policy for " 2000 Milers " gives equal recognition to thru @-@ hikers and section @-@ hikers , operates on the honor system , and recognizes blue @-@ blazed trails or officially required roadwalks as substitutes for the official , white @-@ blazed route during an emergency such as a flood , forest fire , or impending storm on an exposed , high @-@ elevation stretch . As of 2010 , more than 11 @,@ 000 people had reported completing the entire trail . About three @-@ quarters of these are thru @-@ hikers .
The Appalachian Trail , the Continental Divide Trail , and the Pacific Crest Trail form what is known as the Triple Crown of long @-@ distance hiking in the United States . In 2001 , Brian Robinson became the first one to complete all three trails in a year . In 2015 , Heather Anderson ( trail name " Anish " ) became the first woman to hold the unsupported record on the Appalachian Trail and the Pacific Crest Trail simultaneously .
= = Route = =
The trail is currently protected along more than 99 % of its course by federal or state ownership of the land or by right @-@ of @-@ way . The trail is maintained by a variety of citizen organizations , environmental advocacy groups , governmental agencies and individuals . Annually , more than 4 @,@ 000 volunteers contribute over 175 @,@ 000 hours of effort on the Appalachian Trail , an effort coordinated largely by the Appalachian Trail Conservancy ( ATC ) organization . In total , the AT passes through eight national forests and two national parks .
In the course of its journey , the trail follows the ridge line of the Appalachian Mountains , crossing many of its highest peaks , and running , with only a few exceptions , almost continuously through wilderness . The trail used to traverse many hundreds of miles of private property ; currently 99 % of the trail is on public land .
= = = Georgia = = =
Georgia has 75 miles ( 121 km ) of the trail , including the southern terminus at Springer Mountain at an elevation of 3 @,@ 782 feet ( 1 @,@ 153 m ) . At 4 @,@ 461 feet ( 1 @,@ 360 m ) , Blood Mountain is the highest point on the trail in Georgia . The AT and approach trail , along with many miles of blue blazed side trails , are managed and maintained by the Georgia Appalachian Trail Club . See also : Georgia Peaks on the Appalachian Trail .
= = = North Carolina = = =
North Carolina has 88 miles ( 142 km ) of the trail , not including more than 200 miles ( 320 km ) along the Tennessee Border . Altitude ranges from 1 @,@ 725 to 5 @,@ 498 feet ( 526 to 1 @,@ 676 m ) . The trail enters from Georgia at Bly Gap , ascending peaks such as Standing Indian Mountain , Mt . Albert , and Wayah Bald . It then goes by Nantahala Outdoor Center at the Nantahala River Gorge and the Nantahala River crossing . Up to this point , the trail is maintained by the Nantahala Hiking Club . Beyond this point , it is maintained by the Smoky Mountains Hiking Club . 30 miles ( 48 km ) further north , Fontana Dam marks the entrance to Great Smoky Mountains National Park .
= = = Tennessee = = =
Tennessee has 71 miles ( 114 km ) of the trail , not including more than 200 miles ( 320 km ) along or near the North Carolina Border . The section that runs just below the summit of Clingmans Dome in Great Smoky Mountains National Park is along the North Carolina and Tennessee border and is the highest point on the trail at 6 @,@ 643 feet ( 2 @,@ 025 m ) . The Smoky Mountains Hiking Club ( Knoxville , TN ) maintains the trail throughout the Great Smoky Mountains National Park to Davenport Gap . North of Davenport Gap , the Carolina Mountain Club ( Asheville , NC ) maintains the trail to Spivey Gap . Then the remaining Tennessee section is maintained by the Tennessee Eastman Hiking & Canoeing Club ( Kingsport , TN ) .
= = = Virginia = = =
Virginia has 550 miles ( 890 km ) of the trail , by far the longest of any state , including about 20 miles ( 32 km ) along the West Virginia border . With the climate , and the timing of northbound hikers , this section is wet and challenging because of the spring thaw and heavy spring rainfall . Substantial portions closely parallel the Blue Ridge Parkway and , in Shenandoah National Park , Skyline Drive . Parts of the trail near the Blue Ridge Parkway and the Skyline Drive are often considered the best for beginner hikers . In the southwestern portion of the state , the trail goes within one half mile of the highest point in Virginia , Mount Rogers , which is a short side @-@ hike from the AT .
= = = West Virginia = = =
West Virginia has 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) of the trail , not including about 20 miles ( 32 km ) along the Virginia border . Here the trail passes through the town of Harpers Ferry , headquarters of the Appalachian Trail Conservancy . Harpers Ferry is what many consider to be the mental midpoint of the entire A.T. , although the actual midpoint is further north in southern Pennsylvania . ( The exact midpoint moves due to trail rerouting . )
= = = Maryland = = =
Maryland has 41 miles ( 66 km ) of the trail , with elevations ranging from 230 to 1 @,@ 880 feet ( 70 to 573 m ) . Most of the trail runs along the ridgeline of South Mountain in South Mountain State Park . Hikers are required to stay at designated shelters and campsites . The trail runs through the eastern edge of Greenbrier State Park . This can serve as a luxurious stop point for a hot shower and a visit to the camp store . The trail runs along the C & O Canal Towpath route for 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) . Hikers will also pass High Rock , which offers spectacular views and is a popular hang @-@ gliding site . The section ends at Pen Mar Park , which sits on the border of Maryland and Pennsylvania .
= = = Pennsylvania = = =
Pennsylvania has 229 @.@ 6 miles ( 369 @.@ 5 km ) of the trail . The trail extends from the Pennsylvania – Maryland line at Pen Mar , a tiny town straddling the state line , to the Delaware Water Gap , at the Pennsylvania – New Jersey border . The Susquehanna River is generally considered the dividing line between the northern and southern sections of the Pennsylvania AT . South of the Susquehanna , the trail passes through Pine Grove Furnace State Park . The Pennsylvania section of the trail north of the Susquehanna , from Duncannon until the Delaware Water Gap , is noted for its eroded and rocky terrain which can slow hiking .
= = = New Jersey = = =
New Jersey is home to 72 @.@ 2 miles ( 116 @.@ 2 km ) of the trail . The trail enters New Jersey from the south on a pedestrian walkway along the Interstate 80 bridge over the Delaware River , ascends from the Delaware Water Gap to the top of Kittatinny Mountain in Worthington State Forest , passes Sunfish Pond ( right ) , continues north through the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area and Stokes State Forest and eventually reaches High Point State Park , the highest peak in New Jersey ( a side trail is required to reach the actual peak ) . It then turns in a southeastern direction along the New York border for about 30 miles ( 48 km ) , passing over long sections of boardwalk bridges over marshy land , then entering Wawayanda State Park and then the Abram S. Hewitt State Forest just before entering New York near Greenwood Lake . In New Jersey the New York - New Jersey Trail Conference maintains and updates the Appalachian Trail .
Black bear activity along the trail in New Jersey increased rapidly starting in 2001 . Hence , metal bear @-@ proof trash boxes are in place at all New Jersey shelters .
= = = New York = = =
New York 's 88 @.@ 4 miles ( 142 @.@ 3 km ) of trail contain very little elevation change compared to other states . From south to north , the trail summits many small mountains under 1 @,@ 400 feet ( 430 m ) in elevation , its highest point in New York being Prospect Rock at 1 @,@ 433 feet ( 437 m ) , and only 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) from the border with New Jersey . The trail continues north , climbing near Fitzgerald Falls , passing through Sterling Forest , and then entering Harriman State Park and Bear Mountain State Park . The lowest point on the entire Appalachian Trail is in the Bear Mountain Zoo 124 feet ( 38 m ) . It crosses the Hudson River on the Bear Mountain Bridge . It then passes through Fahnestock State Park , and continues northeast and crosses the Metro @-@ North Railroad 's Harlem Line . This track crossing is the site of the only train station along the trail 's length . It enters Connecticut via the Pawling Nature Reserve . The section of the trail that passes through Harriman and Bear Mountain State Parks is the oldest section of the trail , completed in 1923 . A portion of this section was paved by 700 volunteers with 800 granite @-@ slab steps followed by over a mile of walkway supported by stone crib walls with boulders lining the path . The project took four years , cost roughly $ 1 million , and was officially opened in June 2010 . The project was done by the New York – New Jersey Trail Conference . The New York – New Jersey Trail Conference maintains and updates the Appalachian Trail in New York .
= = = Connecticut = = =
Connecticut 's 52 miles ( 84 km ) of trail lie almost entirely along the ridges to the west above the Housatonic River valley .
The state line is also the western boundary of a 480 acres ( 190 ha ) Connecticut reservation inhabited by Schaghticoke Indians . Inside it , the AT roughly parallels its northern boundary , crossing back outside it after 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) . The trail proceeds northward through the Housatonic River valley and hills to its west , veering northwesterly and , at Salisbury , ascending the southern Taconic mountains , at Lion 's Head affording a view northeasterly towards Mt . Greylock and other points in Massachusetts , and at Bear Mountain , reaching over 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) in elevation for the first time since Pennsylvania and yielding views across the Hudson River valley to the Catskills and across the broad expanse of the Housatonic valley and the Berkshire and Litchfield Hills to the east . Just north of Bear , the trail , as it crosses into Massachusetts , descends into Sages Ravine , a deep gorge in the eastern Taconic ridgeline which is home to a fragile old growth forest . As the trail crosses the brook in the ravine , it leaves the area maintained by the Connecticut section of the Appalachian Mountain Club .
= = = Massachusetts = = =
Massachusetts has 90 miles ( 140 km ) of trail . The entire section of trail is in western Massachusetts ' Berkshire County . It summits the highest peak in the southern Taconic Range , Mount Everett ( 2 @,@ 604 feet ( 794 m ) ) , then descends to the Housatonic River valley and skirts the town of Great Barrington . The trail passes through the towns of Dalton and Cheshire , and summits the highest point in the state at 3 @,@ 491 feet ( 1 @,@ 064 m ) , Mount Greylock . It then quickly descends to the valley within 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of North Adams and Williamstown , before ascending again to the Vermont state line . The trail throughout Massachusetts is maintained by the Berkshire Chapter of the Appalachian Mountain Club .
= = = Vermont = = =
Vermont has 150 miles ( 240 km ) of the trail . Upon entering Vermont , the trail coincides with the southernmost sections of the generally north / south @-@ oriented Long Trail . It follows the ridge of the southern Green Mountains , summitting such notable peaks as Stratton Mountain , Glastenbury Mountain , and Killington Peak . After parting ways with the Long Trail at Maine Junction , the AT turns in a more eastward direction , crossing the White River , passing through Norwich , and entering Hanover , New Hampshire , as it crosses the Connecticut River . The Green Mountain Club maintains the AT from the Massachusetts state border to Route 12 . The Dartmouth Outing Club maintains the trail from VT Route 12 to the New Hampshire state line .
= = = New Hampshire = = =
New Hampshire has 161 miles ( 259 km ) of the trail . The New Hampshire AT is nearly all within the White Mountain National Forest . For northbound thru @-@ hikers , it is the beginning of the main challenges that go beyond enduring distance and time : in New Hampshire and Maine , rough or steep ground are more frequent and alpine conditions are found near summits and along ridges . The trail reaches 17 of the 48 four @-@ thousand footers of New Hampshire , including 6 @,@ 288 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 917 m ) Mount Washington , the highest point of the AT north of Tennessee . The Dartmouth Outing Club maintains the AT from the Vermont border past Mount Moosilauke to Kinsman Notch , northwest of Woodstock , New Hampshire , Randolph Mountain Club maintains 2 @.@ 2 miles from Osgood Trail near Madison Hut to Edmands Col , with the AMC maintaining the remaining miles through the state . The weather includes strong winds and fog .
= = = Maine = = =
Maine has 281 miles ( 452 km ) of the trail . The northern terminus of the Appalachian Trail is on Mount Katahdin 's Baxter Peak in Baxter State Park .
In some parts of the trail in Maine , such as Mahoosuc Notch , even the strongest hikers may only average 1 mile per hour ( 1 @.@ 6 km / h ) . There are other parts in which hikers must hold on to tree limbs and roots to climb and descend , which are especially dangerous and hazardous in wet weather conditions .
The western section includes a mile @-@ long ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) stretch of boulders , some of which hikers must pass under , at Mahoosuc Notch , sometimes called the trail 's hardest mile . Although there are dozens of river and stream fords on the Maine section of the trail , the Kennebec River is the only one on the trail that requires a boat crossing . The most isolated portion of the Appalachian Trail , known as the " Hundred @-@ Mile Wilderness " , occurs in Maine . It heads east @-@ northeast from the town of Monson and ends outside Baxter State Park just south of Abol Bridge .
Park management strongly discourages thru @-@ hiking within the park before May 15 or after October 15 .
The AMC maintains the AT from the New Hampshire border to Grafton Notch , with the Maine Appalachian Trail Club responsible for maintaining the remaining miles to Mt . Katahdin . The international extension , called the International Appalachian Trail begins at Mt . Katahdin .
= = Major intersections = =
Listed from south to north .
Southern terminus : Springer Mountain , Georgia
U.S. Route 76 in northeast Georgia
U.S. Route 64 near Nantahala River , North Carolina
U.S. Route 19 / U.S. Route 74 near Fontana Lake , North Carolina
U.S. Route 441 at North Carolina / Tennessee border
Interstate 40 at North Carolina / Tennessee border
U.S. Route 25 / U.S. Route 70 in Hot Springs , North Carolina
Interstate 26 / U.S. Route 23 at North Carolina / Tennessee border
U.S. Route 19W at North Carolina / Tennessee border
U.S. Route 19E near Roan Mountain , Tennessee
U.S. Route 321 at Watauga Lake , Tennessee
U.S. Route 421 near South Holston Lake , Tennessee
U.S. Route 58 in Damascus , Virginia
Interstate 81 near Marion , Virginia
Interstate 77 / U.S. Route 52 near Wytheville , Virginia
U.S. Route 460 in Pearisburg , Virginia
Interstate 81 near Roanoke , Virginia
U.S. Route 501 at James River , Virginia
U.S. Route 60 near Buena Vista , Virginia
Interstate 64 near Waynesboro , Virginia
U.S. Route 250 near Waynesboro , Virginia
U.S. Route 33 in Shenandoah National Park
U.S. Route 211 near Luray , Virginia
U.S. Route 522 near Front Royal , Virginia
Interstate 66 in Front Royal , Virginia
U.S. Route 17 / U.S. Route 50 near Waterloo , Virginia
U.S. Route 340 in Harpers Ferry , West Virginia
U.S. Route 340 in Sandy Hook , Maryland
Interstate 70 / U.S. Route 40 near Hagerstown , Maryland
U.S. Route 30 near Fayetteville , Pennsylvania
Interstate 76 in Middlesex Township , Pennsylvania
U.S. Route 11 in Middlesex Township , Pennsylvania
Interstate 81 in Middlesex Township , Pennsylvania
U.S. Route 11 / U.S. Route 15 in Duncannon , Pennsylvania
U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 in Duncannon , Pennsylvania
Interstate 81 near Fort Indiantown Gap , Pennsylvania
Interstate 476 near Slatington , Pennsylvania
Interstate 80 at Pennsylvania / New Jersey border
U.S. Route 206 near Frankford , New Jersey
Interstate 87 near Harriman , New York
U.S. Route 6 / U.S. Route 9W / U.S. Route 202 near Fort Montgomery , New York
U.S. Route 9 near Garrison , New York
Taconic State Parkway near Shenandoah , New York
Interstate 84 near Whaley Lake , New York
U.S. Route 7 near Falls Village , Connecticut
U.S. Route 44 near Salisbury , Connecticut
U.S. Route 7 near Great Barrington , Massachusetts
Interstate 90 near Lee , Massachusetts
U.S. Route 20 near Lee , Massachusetts
U.S. Route 4 near Rutland , Vermont
Interstate 89 near West Hartford , Vermont
U.S. Route 5 in Norwich , Vermont
Interstate 91 in Norwich , Vermont
Interstate 93 / U.S. Route 3 near Franconia , New Hampshire
U.S. Route 302 in White Mountain National Forest
U.S. Route 2 near Gorham , New Hampshire
U.S. Route 201 in Caratunk , Maine
Northern terminus : Mt . Katahdin , Maine
= = Use in research = =
The Appalachian Trail has been a resource for researchers in a variety of disciplines . Portions of the trail in Tennessee were used on a study on trail maintenance for the trail 's " uniform environmental conditions and design attributes and substantial gradient in visitor use . " Beginning in 2007 , various citizen groups , including the Appalachian Trail Conservancy and the American Hiking Society , began a study to monitor environmental changes that have resulted from higher ozone levels , acid rain , smog , and other air quality factors . Such research has been supported by the National Park Service , U.S. Forest Service , Cornell University , the National Geographic Society , and Aveda Corporation .
Behavioral studies have also been conducted on hikers themselves . A 2007 study on hikers found that most persons hike the trail " for fun and enjoyment of life and for warm relationships with others " and that " environmental awareness , physical challenge , camaraderie , exercise , and solitude " were chief results among hikers . Since the highest single demographic of thru @-@ hikers are males between the ages of 18 – 29 , one informal study sought to find the correlation between this group and male college drop @-@ outs .
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= Battle of Prokhorovka =
The Battle of Prokhorovka was fought on 12 July 1943 near Prokhorovka , 87 kilometres ( 54 mi ) southeast of Kursk , in the Soviet Union , during the Second World War . Taking place on the Eastern Front , the fighting was part of the wider Battle of Kursk , and occurred when the 5th Guards Tank Army of the Soviet Red Army attacked the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps of the German Wehrmacht in one of the largest tank battles in military history .
In April 1943 , the German high command began preparing for Operation Citadel , with the aim of enveloping and destroying the Soviet forces in the Kursk salient . The Soviet high command , Stavka , learned of the German intentions and prepared a series of defensive lines along the routes of the planned German offensive . The Soviets also massed several armies deep behind their defences as a reserve . This group , the Steppe Front , was to be used to launch their own counteroffensives once the German strength had dissipated . The 5th Guards Tank Army was the primary offensive formation of the Steppe Front . On 5 July 1943 the Germans launched their offensive . On the southern side of the salient , the German 4th Panzer Army , with Army Detachment Kempf on its eastern flank , attacked the Soviet defences of the Voronezh Front .
A week into the German offensive the Soviets counterattacked . On the southern side of the salient near Prokhorovka the 5th Guards Tank Army engaged the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps of the 4th Panzer Army , resulting in a large clash of armour . The 5th Guards Tank Army was decimated in the attack , but succeeded in preventing the Germans from capturing Prokhorovka and breaking through the third defensive belt to achieve operational freedom . The German offensive was later cancelled and their forces were withdrawn . The Red Army went on a general offensive and seized the strategic initiative on the Eastern Front , which it was to hold for the rest of the war .
= = Background = =
As the spring rasputitsa ( mud ) season came to an end in 1943 , both the German and Soviet commands considered their plans for future operations . The Soviet premier Joseph Stalin and some senior Soviet officers wanted to seize the initiative first and attack the German forces inside the Soviet Union , but they were convinced by a number of key commanders , including the Deputy Supreme Commander Georgiy Zhukov , to assume a defensive posture instead . This would allow the Germans to weaken themselves in attacking prepared positions , after which the Soviet forces would be able to reposture and go on the offensive . A similar strategy discussion occurred on the German side , with Field Marshal Erich von Manstein arguing for a mobile defence that would give up terrain and allow the Soviets to advance , while the Germans launched a series of sharp counterattacks against their flanks to inflict heavy attrition . But for political reasons Adolf Hitler insisted that the German forces go on the offensive , choosing the Kursk salient for the attack . On 15 April 1943 he authorised preparations for Unternehmen Zitadelle ( " Operation Citadel " ) .
The German offensive plan envisioned an assault at the base of the Kursk salient from both the north and south , with the intent of enveloping and destroying the Soviet forces in the salient . The two spearheads were to meet near Kursk . From the south , the XLVIII Panzer Corps and General Paul Hausser 's II SS @-@ Panzer Corps , forming the left and right wings of the 4th Panzer Army commanded by Colonel General Hermann Hoth , would drive northward . The III Panzer Corps of Army Detachment Kempf was to protect Hoth 's right flank from counterattack by the Soviet strategic reserves known to be located east of the salient . The 4th Panzer Army and Army Detachment Kempf were under Army Group South , commanded by Manstein . Air support over the southern portion of the offensive was provided by Colonel General Otto Deßloch 's Luftflotte 4 , whose major air formation , the VIII Fliegerkorps , was commanded by General Hans Seidemann .
Multiple delays by the Germans allowed the Soviets a great deal of time to prepare their defences . Employing defence in depth , they constructed a series of defensive lines to wear down the attacking panzer formations . Three belts made up of extensive minefields , anti @-@ tank ditches , and anti @-@ tank gun emplacements were created , with an additional three belts that were mostly unoccupied and less fortified backing the first three . The Voronezh Front , commanded by General Nikolai Vatutin , defended the southern face of the salient . The Steppe Front , commanded by Colonel General Ivan Konev , formed the strategic reserve . It was to be held back until the time was right for the Soviet counteroffensive . This formation included Lieutenant General Alexei Zhadov 's 5th Guards Army and Lieutenant General Pavel Rotmistrov 's 5th Guards Tank Army .
= = = German advance leading up to Prokhorovka = = =
The Germans launched their attack on the morning of 5 July 1943 and met heavy resistance . There were far more Soviet anti @-@ tank guns , minefields , anti @-@ tank ditches than had been anticipated , making a breakthrough more difficult to achieve . Furthermore , from the outset they were subjected to frequent counterattacks from Soviet tank units . Despite this , by the end of 5 July the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps had advanced through the first defensive belt and reached the second , although the plan was to breach the first two belts and reach the third on the first day . Nonetheless , the panzer corps ' penetration caused great concern among Soviet commanders , compelling Vatutin to commit almost all of Voronezh Front 's operational reserves by the end of the first day .
To the southeast , III Panzer Corps met with stiff resistance as well and had great difficulty creating and maintaining a bridgehead across the Northern Donets River . They eventually succeeded by the morning of 6 July , but the delay in their advance kept them from protecting the east flank of the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps .
Late on 6 July , the 5th Guards Tank and the 5th Guards Armies of the Steppe Front began moving up from their reserve position , travelling at night to avoid detection . The 5th Guards Tank Army covered the 390 kilometres ( 240 mi ) over three nights , and arrived at the Prokhorovka area on the night of 9 July , and the 5th Guards Army 's 33rd Guards Rifle Corps arrived at the settlement on the night of 10 July .
Slow progress by the XLVIII Panzer Corps , caused Hoth to shift elements of the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps on 8 July to aid the XLVIII Panzer Corp 's drive toward Oboyan and Kursk . On the same day , the Soviets counterattacked the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps with several tank corps . These attacks did not destroy the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps as hoped , but slowed its progress . By the end of 8 July , II SS @-@ Panzer Corps had advanced about 29 kilometres ( 18 mi ) and broken through the first and second defensive belts .
On the following day , 9 July , a meeting of the German commanders of the forces on the northern side of the Kursk salient concluded that a breakthrough in the northern side of salient was unlikely . Nevertheless , they decided to continue their offensive to maintain pressure and inflict casualties , thereby tying down the Soviet forces there . The success of Operation Citadel now depended on a breakthrough being achieved by 4th Panzer Army and Army Detachment Kempf . On the evening of 9 July , the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps was ordered to shift its own forward progress , from due north to the northeast toward the settlement Prokhorovka . Hoth had formulated this move , and had discussed it with Manstein since early May , as he expected large Soviet armoured reserve forces to arrive from the east , and he did not want his corps to be caught crossing the Psel when they arrived . The plan originally envisioned elements of XLVIII Panzer Corps and III Panzer Corps joining in the attack toward Prokhorovka , but this could not be realised . The Soviet command , however , interpreted the change in direction to be a response to the heavy resistance the Germans had faced driving toward Oboyan , and believed the change indicated the German panzer forces were weakening .
Soviet intelligence reports issued from 8 to 9 July reported that defensive works were being constructed by German infantry on the flanks of the 4th Panzer Army , and that German armoured formations were not present in these locations , despite the fact that Soviet armoured formations were situated opposite these flanks . Voronezh Front headquarters supposed the Germans must be reaching their limit , and on 10 July decided to set its counteroffensive to coincide with the Soviet counteroffensive in the northern side of the Kursk salient .
Starting on the morning of 10 July , the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps began its attack toward Prokhorovka . Its 3rd SS Panzergrenadier Division Totenkopf attacked across the Psel River and secured a bridgehead . The 1st SS Panzergrenadier Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler captured Komsomolets State Farm and Hill 241 @.@ 6 . The 2nd SS Panzergrenadier Division Das Reich defended the panzer corps ' flank from Soviet armoured counterattacks .
The II SS @-@ Panzer Corps continued its attack toward Prokhorovka on 11 July . The advance of Leibstandarte was checked by the 2nd Tank Corps , which had been reinforced by the 9th Guards Airborne Division and 301st Anti @-@ tank Artillery Regiment , both from the 33rd Guards Rifle Corps . Totenkopf was resisted by the 31st Tank Corps , the 33rd Guards Rifle Corps ' 95th Guards Rifle Division , and 11th Motorized Rifle Brigade of the 10th Tank Corps . To the south of Leibstandarte , the 2nd Guards Tank Corps and the 48th Rifle Corps ' 183rd Rifle Division opposed the advance of Das Reich .
By day 's end on 11 July Leibstandarte had advanced deep into the Soviet third defensive belt . They had moved up the Psel corridor , cleared Soviet resistance at the Oktyabrsky ( " October " ) State Farm ( Russian : Совхоз Октябрьский ) , crossed a 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) -deep antitank ditch at the base of Hill 252 @.@ 2 and seized the hill itself after a brief but bloody battle , leaving them only 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) south of Prokhorovka . To its north the panzergrenadiers of Totenkopf achieved a bridgehead across the Psel and tanks had been brought across , but they had yet to take Hill 226 @.@ 6 and there was a 5 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) gap between Totenkopf and Leibstandarte . To the south Das Reich had also met stiff resistance and lagged behind some 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) to the south . With its advance Leibstandarte ' s flanks were exposed both to the north and the south , placing them under sporadic counterattacks from the 95th Guards Rifle Division and the remnants of 2nd Tank Corps .
Late on 11 July the 5th Guards Tank Army prepared for its forthcoming counterattack . Leibstandarte 's advance had disrupted Rotmistrov 's preparations , as the assembly areas he intended to use for the tank army 's 18th and 29th Tank Corps were in German hands by the end of the day , forcing him to hastily revise his plans and select new positions . The late arrival of the 5th Guard Tank Army was impactful in two major ways . The tank unit commanders did not have an opportunity to reconnoiter the terrain they would be traveling across . Equally , if not more importantly , the supporting artillery was unable to site and spot their fire . Thus the artillery fire which the tankers depended upon to sweep their path of advance and suppress German anti @-@ tank gunners was not adequately present .
= = Planning = =
= = = German plans for 12 July = = =
Late on the evening of 11 July , General Paul Hausser , the commander of the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps , issued orders for a classic battle manoeuvre for the following day 's advance on Prokhorovka . It was known that the Soviets had dug in many anti @-@ tank guns on the west slopes of Prokhorovka , making a direct attack by Leibstandarte very difficult . The plan was for Totenkopf to capture Hill 226 @.@ 6 , and advance northeast along the Psel River to the Kartashёvka @-@ Prokhorovka road , and then strike southeast into the flank and rear of Soviet forces at Prokhorovka . Leibstandarte was ordered to nudge forward and secure Storozhevoe and Lamki just outside Prokhorovka , then it and Das Reich were to wait until Totenkopf 's attack had disrupted the Soviet positions , after which Leibstandarte was to attack the main Soviet defences on the west slope of Prokhorovka . To Leibstandarte 's right , elements of Das Reich were also to advance eastward to the high ground south of Prokhorovka , then turn south away from Prokhorovka to roll up the Soviet defences opposing the III Panzer Corps ' advance and force a gap . The VIII Fliegerkorps was to make its main effort in support of the advance of the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps , with the XLVIII Panzer Corps to the west assigned limited air resources .
Unbeknownst to Hausser , on the night of 11 July Rotmistrov had moved his 5th Guards Tank Army to an assembly area just south of Prokhorovka in preparation for a massive armoured attack the following day . Throughout the night , German frontline troops could hear Soviet tank engines as the 18th and 29th Tank Corps moved into their assembly areas . A battalion from Leibstandarte ' s 2nd SS @-@ Panzergrenadier Regiment situated on the reverse slope of Hill 252 @.@ 2 had been listening to the engines of the Soviet tanks and were uneasy about the impending attack it implied .
= = = Soviet plans for 12 July = = =
The 5th Guards Army and 5th Guards Tank Army of the Steppe Front had been brought up from reserve and reassigned to the Voronezh Front on 8 and 11 July respectively . On 11 July Vatutin ordered the armies of the Voronezh Front to go over onto the offensive on the following day . This counterattack was planned to coincide with the Soviet offensive on the northern side of the Kursk Salient , Operation Kutuzov . Vatutin ordered Rotmistrov to destroy the German forces near Prokhorovka with his 5th Guards Tank Army , without allowing the Germans to withdraw southward .
For the battle , Rotmistrov ordered his tanks to move forward at high speed to engage the German armour in order to nullify the advantages the Tiger tanks had in the range and firepower of their 88 mm guns . He believed the more manoeuvrable T @-@ 34 would be able to quickly close in and obtain effective flanking shots against the German heavy tanks . In fact , Soviet intelligence had greatly overestimated the numbers of Ferdinands and Tigers possessed by the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps . In actuality there were no Ferdinands with the 4th Panzer Army or Army Group South , as they were all deployed on the northern side of the Kursk salient with the 9th Army . Soviet tank @-@ crews frequently mistook the versions of Panzer IV tanks that were armed with the KwK 40 anti @-@ tank gun , which also had extra armour added to their turret , for Tigers ; therefore Soviet reports tended to overestimate the number of Tigers employed by the Germans during the Battle of Kursk .
Soviet air support in the southern part of the salient was provided by the 2nd Air Army and the 17th Air Army , commanded by Lieutenant General Stepan Krasovsky and Lieutenant General Vladimir Sudets , respectively . However , the bulk of the air support was committed in support of Soviet units attacking XLVIII Panzer Corps to the west of Prokhorovka and the III Panzer Corps to the southeast , and only limited numbers of aircraft were available to support 5th Guards Tank Army 's attack .
Rotmistrov 's plans for a counterattack were threatened by events to the south . III Panzer Corps managed to cross the Northern Donets at Rzhavets on the night of 11 July , and were about 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) southeast of Prokhorovka , and advancing northwards . This threat jeopardised Rotmistrov 's entire plan by threatening the rear of the 5th Guards Tank Army . Early on 12 July , Vatutin ordered Rotmistrov to send reinforcements to the Soviet 7th Guards and 69th Armies facing the III Panzer Corps . He organised a task force under the command of his deputy , Major General Kuzma Trufanov , which consisted of the 26th Guards Tank Brigade from the 2nd Guards Tank Corps , the 11th and 12th Guards Mechanized Brigades from the 5th Guards Mechanized Corps , and the 53rd Guards Tank Regiment of the 5th Guards Tank Army . Other units of the Voronezh Front also joined the group on its way south . In doing so Rotmistrov committed over half of his army 's reserves before the Battle of Prokhorovka had begun .
= = Opposing forces = =
= = = Disposition of German forces = = =
The German forces involved in the Battle of Prokhorovka were from the three Waffen @-@ SS divisions of the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps : Leibstandarte , Das Reich , and Totenkopf . On the evening of 11 July , the serviceable armour strength of the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps was 294 tanks and assault guns , which included 15 Tigers . The armoured strength of Leibstandarte , Das Reich , and Totenkopf were 77 , 95 , and 122 tanks and assault guns respectively . Ten of the Tigers were to the north of the Psel River with Totenkopf , four were with Leibstandarte , and Das Reich had just one .
Leibstandarte had advanced the most deeply toward Prokhorovka and was situated in the centre of the German position . A railway line , with a 30 @-@ feet high railbed , divided the area of Leibstandarte division north and south . The bulk of the division was positioned to the north of the rail line , including the division 's 1st SS @-@ Panzer Regiment and 2nd SS @-@ Panzergrenadier Regiment , as well as its reconnaissance , artillery and command units . To the south of the rail line was Leibstandarte 's 1st SS @-@ Panzergrenadier Regiment , along with the division 's 1st SS @-@ Panzerjäger battalion . Das Reich was positioned to the southeast of Leibstandarte , and it protected the southern flank of the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps . Totenkopf was positioned to the northwest of Leibstandarte . The division 's 3rd SS @-@ Panzer Regiment had largely crossed over the Psel in preparation for the assault . Leibstandarte placed its lightly armed 1st SS @-@ Panzer Reconnaissance Battalion in the 5 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) gap between it and Totenkopf to provide some flank protection . The unit was later buttressed by the division 's four remaining Tigers , commanded by SS @-@ Second Lieutenant Michael Wittmann .
= = = Disposition of Soviet forces = = =
The main Soviet armoured formation involved in the battle was the 5th Guards Tank Army , which controlled five corps by 12 July : the 2nd Guards , 2nd , 5th Guards Mechanized , 18th and 29th Tank Corps . All together they fielded 793 tanks and 37 to 57 self @-@ propelled guns for a total of approximately 840 armoured fighting vehicles . About two @-@ thirds of these tanks were T @-@ 34s , while the remainder were T @-@ 70 light tanks , with some 31 to 35 Churchill heavy tanks as well . Not all of the 5th Guards Tank Army was present in the Prokhorovka area during the battle , as part of the formation had been sent south to check the advance of the III Panzer Corps . The Soviet armour of the 5th Guards Tank Army – including the newly attached 2nd Guards Tank Corps and 2nd Tank Corps , as well as the 5th Guards Mechanized Corps held in reserve – that faced the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps on 12 July was about 616 tanks and self @-@ propelled guns . In addition , five artillery regiments , one artillery brigade , and one anti @-@ aircraft artillery division were attached to the 5th Guards Tank Army for the assault .
The main attack of the 5th Guards Tank Army was conducted against Leibstandarte by its fresh 29th and 18th Tank Corps that had been brought up from the Soviet strategic reserve . These two Soviet tank formations together provided the greatest number of tanks in the attack , with the 18th Tank Corps fielding 190 tanks and self @-@ propelled guns , and the 29th Tank Corps fielding 212 tanks and self @-@ propelled guns . Infantry support to the 18th and 29th Tank Corps was provided by the 9th Guards Airborne Division . A portion of the 18th Tank Corps was directed against the eastern flank of Totenkopf 's 6th SS @-@ Panzergrenadier Regiment Eicke . On the southeastern wing of the 5th Guards Tank Army , Rotmistrov deployed the 120 surviving tanks of the 2nd Guards Tank Corps ; later on 12 July during the battle , the tank corp 's 26th Guards Tank Brigade with its estimated 40 tanks were sent south to face the III Panzer Corps . The 2nd Guards Tank Corps , supported by the remnants of the 2nd Tank Corps , was to attack Das Reich . Their infantry support was provided by the 183rd Rifle Division . The western flank of the 5th Guards Tank Army , which faced Totenkopf , was defended by the 33rd Guards Rifle Corps ' 42nd and 95th Guards Rifle Divisions , which were supported by the remnants of the 31st Tank Corps and the heavily depleted 23rd Guards Rifle Corps ' 52nd Guards Rifle Division . The forces of the 5th Guards Mechanized Corps that were not sent south were held as reserve northwest of Prokhorovka , and they numbered about 113 tanks and self @-@ propelled guns .
Vatutin directed Soviet air assets to make their primary effort in attempting to check the III Panzer Corps ' drive northward , and in supporting the attack against the XLVIII Panzer Corps . Missions were flown in support of the attack of the 5th Guards Tank Army as well , but to a limited extent . The 2nd Air Army had some 472 aircraft operational on 12 July , while the 17th Air Army had 300 operational aircraft .
= = Battle = =
At 05 : 45 on 12 July , Leibstandarte 's headquarters started receiving reports of the sound of many tank engines as the Soviet tanks moved into their assembly areas for the attack . At around 06 : 50 , elements of Leibstandarte 's 1st SS @-@ Panzergrenadier Regiment nudged forward and drove the Soviet infantry out of Storozhevoe , while elements of the division 's 2nd SS @-@ Panzergrenadier Regiment fanned out from the October State Farm . The Soviets began a preparatory artillery barrage at around 08 : 00 , and as the last shells fell at 08 : 30 , Rotmistrov radioed the code words " Stal ! Stal ! Stal ! " ( " Steel , Steel , Steel ! " ) – the order to commence the attack . With that the Soviet armour of the 5th Guards Tank Army began their advance .
= = = Ground engagement = = =
In total , about 500 tanks and self @-@ propelled guns of the 5th Guards Tank Army attacked the positions of the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps on 12 July , doing so in two massive waves , with 430 tanks in the first echelon and 70 more in the second .
Down from the slopes in front of Prokhorovka , the massed Soviet armour charged with five tank brigades of the 18th and 29th Tank Corps , firing as they came at Leibstandarte 's positions . As the Soviet tanks rolled down the slopes , they carried the men of the 9th Guards Airborne Division on their hulls . The troops of Leibstandarte were not slated to go into action until later in the day . Exhausted from the previous week 's fighting , many were just starting their day at the outset of the attack and were largely taken by surprise . As the Soviet armour appeared , German outposts all across the corp 's frontage began firing purple warning flares signaling a tank attack . Obersturmbannführer Rudolf von Ribbentrop , commander of a panzer company under the 1st SS @-@ Panzer Regiment , stated that he knew at once a major attack was underway . He ordered his company of seven Panzer IVs to follow him over a bridge across an anti @-@ tank ditch . Crossing the bridge they fanned out on the lower slope of Hill 252 @.@ 2 . On the crest of the hill , Sturmbannführer Joachim Peiper 's 3rd Panzergrenadier Battalion of the 2nd SS @-@ Panzergrenadier Regiment were being overrun . As Ribbentrop 's tanks spread out , he and the 1st SS @-@ Panzer Regiment were suddenly confronted by Soviet tanks of the 29th Tank Corp 's 31st and 32nd Tank Brigades : " About 150 – 200 meters in front of me appeared fifteen , then thirty , then forty tanks . Finally there were too many of them to count . " The Soviet armour , firing on the move , charged down the western slopes of Hill 252 @.@ 2 into the panzer company , and a hotly contested tank battle ensued . Four of the Panzer IVs under Ribbentrop were destroyed by the time their position was overrun . The three surviving tanks rode along with the advancing Soviet armour unnoticed , and they reported that they destroyed 14 Soviet tanks from close range . Rotmistrov 's tactic to close at high speed disrupted the control and co @-@ ordination of the Soviet tank formations and also greatly reduced their accuracy . In a three @-@ hour battle , the 1st SS @-@ Panzer Regiment engaged the attacking Soviet tanks and repulsed them , reporting that they destroyed about 62 Soviet tanks . Later that afternoon , tanks from the 31st Tank Brigade and the 53rd Motorized Brigade overran elements of the 1st SS @-@ Panzer Reconnaissance Battalion and reached Komsomolets State Farm , threatening Leibstandarte 's lines of communication and the division command post , located at Hill 241 @.@ 6 . The Soviet tanks attacked the division 's 1st SS @-@ Panzer Artillery Regiment , killing a number of the crews before they themselves were destroyed by direct fire and anti @-@ tank teams .
Wittman 's group of four Tigers supported the reconnaissance group in its effort to protect Leibstandarte 's left flank , and faced the 18th Tank Corps ' advancing 181st Tank Brigade . In a three @-@ hour battle the Tigers engaged the Soviet tanks at ranges from 1000 meters down to point @-@ blank , inflicting heavy losses on the Soviet tankers and successfully repelling their attack . Later , elements of the 170th Tank Brigade engaged the 1st SS @-@ Panzer Regiment , which was already fighting the 31st and 32nd Tank Brigades . Despite losing its commander and about 30 tanks in the fight , by early afternoon the 170th Tank Brigade had forced the 1st SS @-@ Panzer Regiment back to the October State Farm and reached the position of the 1st SS @-@ Panzer Reconnaissance Battalion . At around 18 : 00 , the 170th and 181st Tank Brigades penetrated the German line connecting Totenkopf and Leibstandarte . Assault guns and panzers supporting Totenkopf 's Eicke regiment repelled the Soviet attack and re @-@ established the line , forcing the Soviet tanks to withdraw to the village of Andreevka .
The advance of Soviet armour down Hill 252 @.@ 2 was disrupted abruptly when they reached the anti @-@ tank ditch at the base of the hill . A number of tanks crashed into the 15 @-@ foot deep ditch while others moved along the edge looking for a way to cross . Heavy fire was exchanged between the Soviet tanks and two companies of a panzergrenadier battalion on the opposite side of the ditch . Peiper 's surviving panzergrenadiers engaged the Soviet infantry and attacked the Soviet tanks with magnetic anti @-@ tank grenades . Twenty of his battalion 's half @-@ tracks were lost in the fighting , some destroyed in ramming the much heavier Soviet tanks in an effort to stop them . Eventually , due to heavy Soviet pressure and dangerously exposed flanks , Leibstandarte tactically withdrew from the October State Farm and established firmer defensive lines 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) to the south .
= = = Air combat = = =
The 2nd and 17th Air Armies flew 893 sorties compared to the VIII Fliegerkorps 's 654 sorties over the southern part of the salient . Of note , most of the Soviet sorties flown that day were flown against the XLVIII Panzer Corps to the west and the III Panzer Corps to the south . Low clouds in the morning and thunderstorms in the afternoon inhibited air operations in Prokhorovka for both sides . Over the Prokhorovka battlefield the Luftwaffe gained control of the air . Formations of Stukas , including a small number of G @-@ 2s experimentally equipped with 3 @.@ 7 @-@ centimetre ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) BK 37 cannon that were commanded by Staffelkapitän Hans @-@ Ulrich Rudel , attacked the Soviet formations , along with Fw 190 fighter @-@ bombers and Hs 129 ground @-@ attack aircraft equipped with 3 @-@ centimetre ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) anti @-@ tank cannon . The 31st Tank Brigade reported : " We suffered heavy losses in tanks through enemy artillery and aircraft . At 10 : 30 our tanks reached the Komsomolets State Farm , but due to continuous air attacks , they were unable to advance any further and shifted to the defence . " The tank brigade also reported : " our own air cover was fully absent until 13 : 00 . " The 5th Guards Tank Army reported : " the enemy 's aircraft literally hung above our combat formations throughout the entire battle , while our own aircraft , and particularly the fighter aviation , was totally insufficient . "
= = = Result of the engagement = = =
By the end of the day , Leibstandarte still held Hill 252 @.@ 2 , but had been exhausted by the effort of turning back five tank brigades . To its left , Totenkopf had succeeded in capturing Hill 226 @.@ 6 and had advanced along the northern bank of the Psel River to reach the Karteschevka – Prokhorovka road , 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) northwest of Prokhorovka . It was in position to outflank the Soviet forces at Prokhorovka , but was under pressure from Soviet attacks and its hold on the forward ground was tenuous . Das Reich had been unable to push forward at all . Forced onto the defensive by the attacks of the 2nd Guards and 2nd Tank Corps , Das Reich was unable to conduct its planned offensive maneuvers .
On the Soviet side , all the tank units under Rotmistrov 's 5th Guards Tank Army involved in the battle on 12 July suffered heavy losses . Rotmistrov later wrote that the 29th Tank Corps lost 60 percent of its armour and the 18th Tank Corps lost 30 percent on 12 July . A Soviet General Staff report recorded : " Thus on 12 July , the 5th Guards Tank Army failed to accomplish its assigned mission . As a result of the frontal attack , the army 's corps fought heavy battles against large enemy tank forces during which they were forced to assume defence . " Rotmistrov was forced to shift the 18th and 29th Tank Corps over to defence and reinforce them with infantry . They dug more trenches , dug in some of their tanks , laid new minefields , prepared anti @-@ tank strong points and massed artilleries . The 10th Guards Mechanized and 24th Guards Tank Brigades of the 5th Guards Mechanized Corps made preparations to push back Totenkopf the next morning . On the evening of 12 July , Stalin dispatched Zhukov to Vatutin 's headquarters as Stavka representative , in order to coordinate the Voronezh and Steppe Fronts ' operations .
= = Following the main engagement = =
On the night of 12 July , Vatutin ordered Soviet forces to prevent any further German advance on Prokhorovka , destroy German forces that had advanced along the northern bank of the Psel River , and stop the III Panzer Corps from making further progress . Orders issued by the Germans for 13 July instructed Totenkopf to consolidate its gains of the previous day and then attack into the flank and rear of the Soviet forces around Prokhorovka . Leibstandarte was to strengthen its front line and co @-@ ordinate its attack on Prokhorovka from the south with Totenkopf 's attack from the northwest . Das Reich was to consolidate and strengthen its front line and prepare for an offensive operation to link up with the III Panzer Corps .
= = = Further fighting around Prokhorovka = = =
On the morning of 13 July , the 10th Guards Mechanized and 24th Guards Tank Brigades , in cooperation with the 95th and 52nd Guards Rifle Corps , launched attacks against Totenkopf . These Soviet attacks preoccupied Totenkopf and prevented it from attacking south toward Prokhorovka . Around noon , Leibstandarte 's 1st SS @-@ Panzer Reconnaissance Battalion was ordered to attack northward toward the Psel River to consolidate its front line with Totenkopf , while the division 's panzer units were to attack toward Soviet positions northeast of the October State Farm toward Prokhorovka . The 1st SS @-@ Panzer Reconnaissance Battalion attacked the defensive positions held by the 42nd Guards Rifle Division and the remaining armour of the 18th Tank Corps , while the panzer units attacked the defences of 9th Guards Airborne Division and the 29th Tank Corps . These German attacks were repelled by massive anti @-@ tank artillery fire . The 29th Tank Corps followed up with a counterattack and penetrated German lines , reaching Komsomolets State Farm before being beaten back by direct fire from German artillery . That afternoon , Totenkopf was ordered to abandon their positions northwest of Prokhorovka and return to more defendable positions around Hill 226 @.@ 6 . Soviet attempts to sever the narrow salient were unsuccessful , and Totenkopf completed its withdrawal by nightfall .
= = = German decision = = =
On 13 July Hitler summoned Manstein and the commander of Army Group Center Field Marshal Günther von Kluge to his headquarters , the Wolfsschanze in East Prussia . The Allied invasion of Sicily on the night of 9 – 10 July , combined with the Soviet counteroffensive of Operation Kutuzov against the flank and rear of General Walter Model 's 9th Army in the northern side of the Kursk salient on 12 July , and the violent attacks by strong Soviet forces at Prokhorovka the same day had caused Hitler to stop the offensive and shift forces to the Mediterranean theatre . He ordered his generals to terminate Operation Citadel .
Kluge welcomed the decision , as he was already in the process of withdrawing units of the 9th Army from the northern side of the Kursk salient to deal with Soviet attacks on his flank . But Manstein was greatly disappointed . He argued that his forces were now on the verge of achieving a major breakthrough in the southern side of the salient . As he saw it , with his III Panzer Corps about to link up with the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps at Prokhorovka , and with the XXIV Panzer Corps available as his operational reserve , they would be halting the offensive just at the moment when victory was in hand . With an eye toward the west , Hitler was unwilling to continue the offensive . Manstein persisted , proposing that his forces should at least destroy the Soviet reserves in the southern Kursk salient before Citadel was finally terminated , so the Soviet fighting capacity in the sector would be depleted for the rest of the summer . Hitler agreed to continue offensive operations in the southern salient until Manstein 's goal was achieved .
= = = Operation Roland = = =
Manstein hastily put together the plans for Operation Roland , realizing that he only had a few days to conduct the operation before he lost the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps . The plan called for Das Reich to attack east and south and link up with III Panzer Corps , which would attack to the northwest . Totenkopf and Leibstandarte were to anchor the western and northern flanks of Das Reich , respectively . Once the link was achieved and the Soviet forces encircled , the Soviet defence would be crippled and Prokhorovka would likely fall shortly thereafter to the combined forces of the two panzer corps . The goal of the operation was to destroy the Soviet armoured reserves massed in the southern sector of the Kursk salient , and thereby check Soviet offensive capacity for the rest of the summer .
The orders for Operation Roland were issued in the closing hours of 13 July 1943 . However , after Hitler 's meeting with Manstein , Hitler countermanded the XXIV Panzer Corps ' deployment to the Kursk salient , sending them on 14 July to support the 1st Panzer Army to the south . The assault began at 04 : 00 on 14 July . Following a brief artillery barrage , the 4th SS @-@ Panzergrenadier Regiment Der Führer of Das Reich struck out for the high ground south @-@ west of Pravorot , evicting the remnants of the 2nd Guards Tank Corps from the village of Belenikhino following violent house @-@ to @-@ house and hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting . Das Reich 's 2nd SS @-@ Panzer Regiment fought off a series of counterattacks and forced the Soviets to withdraw eastward to a new line . Zhukov ordered the 10th Guards Mechanized Brigade of the 5th Guards Mechanized Corps to reinforce the line . The 7th Panzer Division of the III Panzer Corps made contact with Das Reich , but Trufanov , commanding the Soviet forces in the gap , was aware of the threat and conducted a fighting withdrawal . The link @-@ up failed to trap the Soviet forces , though they abandoned a substantial number of their anti @-@ tank guns . Operation Roland failed to produce a decisive result for the Germans , and Totenkopf began withdrawing from its positions north of the Psel , following orders issued late on 15 July , as the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps assumed a defensive stance along its entire front .
On 17 July the Soviet Southwestern and Southern Fronts launched a major offensive across the Mius and Donets Rivers against the southern wing of Army Group South , pressing upon the 6th and 1st Panzer Armies . In the early afternoon of 17 July , Operation Roland was terminated with an order for the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps to begin withdrawing from the Prokhorovka sector back to Belgorod . The 4th Panzer Army and Army Detachment Kempf anticipated the order and began executing it as early as the evening of 16 July . Leibstandarte 's tanks were distributed between Das Reich and Totenkopf , and the division was hastily redeployed to Italy , while Das Reich and Totenkopf were dispatched south to meet the new Soviet offensives .
= = Casualties and losses = =
Losses are difficult to establish for either combatant . Tank losses attributed to the Germans vary , in part due to the Wehrmacht 's methodology for counting and reporting equipment losses . Only equipment that could not be repaired or that had to be abandoned were counted as losses , but damaged equipment that could be recovered and repaired were simply listed as such . Likewise , reliable figures for tank and personnel casualties for the Soviets in the Battle of Prokhorovka are difficult to establish .
= = = German = = =
The II SS @-@ Panzer Corps reported 842 men killed , wounded , or missing for 12 July . Since the Germans controlled the Prokhorovka battlefield until 17 July , they were able to recover most of their disabled armoured vehicles . German historian Karl Frieser attributed three to five permanent tank losses to the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps for 12 July , while a study by the US Army ’ s Center for Strategy and Force Evaluation attributed six permanent tank losses , not counting Panzer I and Panzer II light tanks or German assault guns .
Archival data of the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps shows that the corps had 294 operable tanks and assault guns on the evening of 11 July , and 251 on the evening of 13 July . Allowing for the possibility that some repaired tanks were returned to service on 13 July , these numbers indicate that at least 43 tanks and assault guns became inoperable during the battle of Prokhorovka , which includes all ten Tigers belonging to Totenkopf and one belonging to Leibstandarte . However , all of the inoperable Tiger tanks were repairable , and none were write @-@ offs . An estimated total of between 60 and 80 tanks and assault guns of the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps were damaged or destroyed in combat on 12 July . By the end of 16 July , the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps had 292 serviceable tanks and assault guns , almost the same number it had at the beginning of the battle on 12 July . On 12 July , Schlachtgeschwader 1 of the VIII Fliegerkorps and its attached squadron of Stukas reported eleven aircraft damaged , of which six were total write @-@ offs , all by Soviet anti @-@ aircraft artillery .
= = = Soviet = = =
A document prepared on 17 July 1943 by the 5th Guards Tank Army headquarters summarised the combat losses incurred by the formation from 12 to 16 July inclusive for all of its five corps , as well as smaller units directly subordinated to the army headquarters . The document reported the following irrecoverable losses : 222 T @-@ 34s , 89 T @-@ 70s , 12 Churchill tanks , 8 SU @-@ 122s , 3 SU @-@ 76s , and 240 support vehicles . The document reported damaged vehicles still under repair as 143 T @-@ 34s , 56 T @-@ 70s , 7 Churchill tanks , 3 SU @-@ 122s , and 3 SU @-@ 76s , with no figures for support vehicles . The document reported personnel casualties as 2 @,@ 940 killed in action , 3 @,@ 510 wounded in action , and 1 @,@ 157 missing in action . This totals 334 irrevocable losses in tanks and self @-@ propelled guns , with another 212 tanks and self @-@ propelled guns under repair , and 7 @,@ 607 casualties .
Soviet personnel losses at Prokhorovka for 12 July were estimated by the historian Christer Bergström to have been as high as 5 @,@ 500 men . For equipment damaged or destroyed , David Glantz and Jonathan House estimate that the whole 5th Guards Tank Army lost at least 400 tanks in its attacks on 12 July . The Soviet historians Grigoriy Koltunov and Boris Soloviev estimate about 300 tanks and self @-@ propelled guns of 5th Guards Tank Army were damaged or destroyed on 12 July . The study by the US Army ’ s Center for Strategy and Force Evaluation reports that the 2nd Guards , 18th and 29th Tanks Corps altogether permanently lost 144 tanks on 12 July , not including self @-@ propelled guns . George Nipe estimates that between 600 and 650 tanks of the 5th Guards Tank Army were damaged or destroyed while fighting the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps on 12 July .
= = Outcome = =
Debate exists over the significance and outcome of the battle . The Germans destroyed many Soviet tanks and temporarily degraded the striking power of the 5th Guards Tank Army , but they were unable to take Prokhorovka or break through into open ground . For the Soviets , the massive armoured attack of 12 July failed to destroy the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps or throw it onto the defensive , but succeeded in exhausting the Germans and eventually contributed to checking their advance . Thus , neither the 5th Guards Tank Army nor the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps accomplished their objectives for the day . While the battle is generally considered a tactical success for the Germans due to the high numbers of Soviet tanks destroyed , ultimately there was no German breakthrough at Prokhorovka , and with the end of Operation Citadel the strategic initiative permanently swung over to the Red Army .
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= The Sting ( The Office ) =
" The Sting " is the fifth episode of the seventh season of the American comedy television series The Office and the shows 131st episode overall . It originally aired on NBC on October 21 , 2010 . The episode was written by co @-@ executive producer Mindy Kaling and directed by Randall Einhorn . " The Sting " guest stars Timothy Olyphant as Danny Cordray .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , a Dunder Mifflin client is stolen by a rival salesman named Danny Cordray ( Olyphant ) , and Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) , and Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) decide to set up a sting in order to uncover his sales secret . Meanwhile , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) starts a band when he learns that one of his old college friends has a successful music career .
" The Sting " is the first episode of the series to feature Olyphant ; he would later return for short scenes in several other episodes during the seventh season . The episode received largely positive reviews from television critics , many of whom felt that — while the main plot was not realistic — it was very humorous . " The Sting " was viewed by 6 @.@ 87 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 4 rating among adults between the age of 18 and 49 , marking a slight drop in the ratings when compared to the previous week . Despite this , the episode ranked second in its timeslot was the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night that it aired .
= = Plot = =
Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) and Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) are sent on assignment to make a sales pitch to a client , and are eager to land the sale . However , Danny Cordray ( Timothy Olyphant ) , a rival paper salesman from the very small Osprey company who steals more potential sales away from Dunder Mifflin than anyone , has also arrived for a sales pitch . Dwight also reveals that Danny had a romantic history with Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) four years previously . Jim and Dwight call in Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) , who is ecstatic at getting a chance to make a sale , to come and try to save them . The company ends up taking Danny 's offer , even after Michael promises at @-@ cost paper sales and weekend delivery . The trio leaves the client 's office and head back home , defeated .
During a brainstorm session , Michael , Jim , and Dwight decide to set up a sting operation to observe Danny 's sales techniques . They set up Meredith Palmer ( Kate Flannery ) as the CEO of the fictional company Solartech in Dwight 's office , fitted with security cameras , and watch from another room . Danny is then sent in to try to make a sale . All starts well until Meredith attempts to seduce him . Dwight and Jim send in Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) and Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) to save the sting . When Meredith strong @-@ arms both of them , Michael rushes in to call the whole thing off . Danny becomes infuriated and walks off . Michael catches up to him and offers him a job , pointing out that with Sabre 's better pricing , he could make more sales as a traveling salesman for them . He accepts the offer , and Michael introduces him as the new salesman to the office . The rest of the sales staff act disrespectful towards him , worrying that Danny will take their clients . Michael tells them how well sales numbers will go up with Danny as a part of the branch , and that he is not going to rescind Danny 's job offer just because it makes the other salespeople uncomfortable . Before Dwight leaves for the day , he viciously insults Danny about his alleged mistreatment of Pam and client @-@ stealing past , then immediately welcomes him to the company .
Meanwhile , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) starts a band after reading about how well one of his friends is doing in the music business . He manages to get Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) and Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) to join him in writing a song , with Andy singing an anti @-@ war song from the perspective of a little girl in falsetto . The song is poorly received by the rest of the office , and Andy returns to the drawing board . Seeing that Andy is dejected , Kevin and Darryl offer to stay and jam with him for a little extra time , and the trio come up with a lively song called " Bullfrog In Love " .
= = Production = =
" The Sting " was directed by Randall Einhorn and written by Mindy Kaling , who also plays Kelly Kapoor in the show . It was the first episode to feature Timothy Olyphant in a guest appearance as Danny Cordray , a rival paper salesman . Olyphant would return for the season 's Halloween special , " Costume Contest " , and would appear in a deleted scene for Carell 's penultimate episode , " Michael 's Last Dundies " . Olyphant enjoyed his stint on the show , later telling IGN that filming both " The Sting " and his scenes for other episodes was " a blast " and " a kick to do " because The Office is " such a fun show , the nature of the whole thing . The way they do it is just so fun and easy . "
The Season Seven DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Jim and Danny discussing Danny 's success at selling his father 's restaurant for a large amount of money , Michael expressing his delight at helping Jim and Dwight despite the fact that he is " an old man " , Michael mistaking Danny for a male model , extended scenes of Andy 's band , extra footage of Meredith flirting with Danny , Michael remembering that Danny was once a backpack model , and Danny saying that the only reason he will be working at Dunder Mifflin is because " they offered [ him ] a stupid amount of money " .
= = Cultural references = =
In the cold opening , Oscar shows the office his new bicycle , which Dwight notes is a Lance Armstrong model . Kelly is offended , because she is " team Sheryl Crow " , a reference to the two 's engagement and break up . The potential customer that Jim and Dwight are trying to woo shares the same name with famous athlete Steve Nash , and Jim has to explain to Dwight that the famous Nash is a point guard for the Phoenix Suns basketball team . Michael compares the plot to learn Danny 's secret to the 1973 film The Sting , which starred Paul Newman and Robert Redford . Kelly notes that Danny reminds her of actor Josh Duhamel . The reason for Andy forming a band is that he discovers that his friend and rival Brocolli Rob ( later played in the series by Stephen Colbert ) collaborated with Trey Anastasio , the lead singer and songwriter from the jam band Phish , and wrote a song together . This plot device would later be mentioned in the ninth season episode " Here Comes Treble " . Andy 's band would become a minor story arc , and would reappear in the eight season episode " Pam 's Replacement " .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on October 21 , 2010 , " The Sting " was viewed by an estimated 6 @.@ 87 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 4 rating / 9 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 4 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode 's rating dropped 11 percent from the previous episode to its lowest ever fall telecast at the time . The episode ranked second in its timeslot , after an episode of the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) series Grey 's Anatomy , and was the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club rated the episode with an " A " grade . He felt the episode was the " highlight " of the season . McNutt applauded the fact that Michael was portrayed in a way that was neither " too dumb or too ignorant " and that he was able to have the final moment where he showed that he was a skilled salesman . Despite noting that the sting was not realistic , he further enjoyed that Michael , Dwight , and Jim were allowed to react to the situation rather than becoming part of it . Jason Hughes of AOL 's TV Squad gave the episode a positive review and praised the use of Meredith , calling her " hilarious and so spot @-@ on " . Furthermore , he , like McNutt , enjoyed that Michael was portrayed as competent in the end . Hughes also enjoyed the B @-@ story and wrote that " it was a sweet moment when Darryl told Andy he didn 't have to pay him any more to jam with them " .
Entertainment Weekly 's Margaret Lyons wrote that , while " its out @-@ and @-@ out silliness wasn 't in the supertraditional Office style " , she " totally dug it " . Furthermore , she praised Kaling 's writing , saying " Leave it to Mindy Kaling to deliver the best episode of The Office in a long , long time . " Alan Sepinwall of HitFix gave the episode a mixed review . He felt the episode " was a complete cartoon " and also stated " It bore very little resemblance to what the show once was " . Despite this he also stated , that " on its own completely absurd level , it worked " because it was very humorous ; Sepinwall noted that he " found [ himself ] laughing a surprising amount of the time , even more than at previous episodes this season that felt more Office @-@ like " .
Bonnie Stiernberg of Paste magazine awarded the episode an 8 @.@ 2 rating out of 10 , noting that " The Office is at its best when it has one foot planted in reality and the other drifting off into the absurd . " She also enjoyed that the show illustrated Michael 's actual talents as a salesmen . Furthermore , Stiernberg felt that Andy 's subplot helped balance the " silliness " of Michael 's main plot . Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic awarded the episode four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five and praised Olyphant 's acting , writing that he " just killed it " during his appearance . He also called the entry " a big step up from last week " , largely due to its entertaining main plot and its " pleasant " B @-@ story .
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= John F. Tierney =
John F. Tierney ( born September 18 , 1951 ) is an American politician who served as a U.S. Representative from Massachusetts from January 3 , 1997 , to January 3 , 2015 . He is a Democrat who represented the state 's 6th district , which includes the state 's North Shore and Cape Ann . Born and raised in Salem , Massachusetts , Tierney graduated from Salem State College and Suffolk University Law School . He worked in private law and served on the Salem Chamber of Commerce ( 1976 – 97 ) . Tierney first ran for the House of Representatives in 1994 against Republican incumbent Peter G. Torkildsen , losing by a small margin ; but he defeated Torkildsen in the subsequent election and was sworn in as a U.S. representative in 1997 .
A liberal member of Congress , Tierney voted along with other Democratic Representatives from Massachusetts . He sat on the House Committee on Education and Labor , where his priorities included green energy and increased college access . He co @-@ authored several pieces of legislation , including the Green Jobs Act of 2007 and the College Affordability and Accountability Act of 2008 . He is the former chairman of the Subcommittee on National Security and Foreign Affairs , where he helped establish the Commission on Wartime Contracting in Iraq and Afghanistan . From 1996 to 2012 , Tierney won re @-@ election in each election cycle . He faced a tougher challenge after his wife Patrice was convicted of felony tax fraud in 2010 . In 2014 , he lost the Democratic nomination to Seth Moulton , who went on to win the seat in the general election .
= = Early life , education , and career = =
John F. Tierney was born September 18 , 1951 , in Salem , Massachusetts . His mother , Doris H. ( née Gelineau ) Tierney , was a Salem native who worked a split shift at the New England Telephone Company , where she remained for 42 years . His father , Albert R. Tierney , was a bookkeeper for Nabisco and a local fuel company . Tierney was one of three children , along with his brother Michael A. and sister Catherine . His father was of Irish descent and his mother was of half French @-@ Canadian and half Irish ancestry . He moved with his family to his grandmother 's home when he was five years old . He began working at the Kernwood Country Club in Salem as a caddy when he was 8 and soon adopted a paper route . He later attended Salem High School . When he was young , Tierney campaigned for his uncle , a Peabody ward councilor , and he ascribes his political interest in part to this experience .
Tierney attended Salem State College , majoring in political science . While in college he performed work study , while also stocking shelves at a grocery store , working in sales at a clothing store , and performing deliveries . For three years he was President of his class , and his final year he served as President of the Salem State Student Government Association ( SGA ) . As SGA President Tierney responded to racial incidents on campus by organizing a school @-@ wide meeting leading to several days of discussion . He graduated in 1973 , and returned in 2009 to give a commencement address , receiving an honorary degree .
While working as a law office clerk and a State House janitor , Tierney attended Suffolk University Law School . Tierney graduated with a Juris Doctor in 1976 , and was admitted to the Massachusetts bar . Tierney worked as a solo practitioner until 1981 , when he became a partner at the North Shore community law firm Tierney , Kalis , & Lucas . Tierney remained at the firm until taking office in 1997 . Tierney served on the Salem Chamber of Commerce from 1976 to 1997 , becoming the organization 's president in 1995 .
= = U.S. House of Representatives = =
= = = Elections = = =
Tierney first ran for Congress in 1994 against one @-@ term Republican incumbent Peter G. Torkildsen , having won a competitive Democratic primary with a plurality of 33 @.@ 8 percent . He ran on a platform promoting a stronger federal focus on drug abuse , federal aid to promote after @-@ school programs , consideration of means testing for Social Security , and single @-@ payer health care . A primary issue in the campaign was crime : Tierney criticized Torkildsen for his vote against a 1994 crime bill , and advocated stronger gun control , while Torkildsen criticized Tierney 's positions on gun control and drug legalization . Tierney was defeated in the general election by 4 % . Tierney successfully ran for Congress in 1996 , defeating Torkildsen by a narrow margin and increasing his margin in a 1998 rematch . Over the next five elections , Tierney won with over 60 % of the vote . In 2010 he faced a challenge from Republican candidate Bill Hudak , after his wife Patrice was convicted of felony tax fraud ; he won with 57 % of the vote .
In his 2012 race for re @-@ election , Tierney faced former State Senator and 2010 nominee for Lieutenant Governor , Richard Tisei . Tisei , who is openly gay , was endorsed by the Log Cabin Republicans ( LCR ) . Rep. Barney Frank endorsed Tierney . Tierney was also endorsed by The Rainbow Times , a Boston @-@ based LGBT newspaper . Tierney won reelection on November 6 , 2012 , with 48 % of the vote to Tisei 's 47 % .
= = = Tenure = = =
Tierney , described as " an unwavering liberal " by CQ 's Politics in America , has consistently high approval ratings from Democratic and liberal interest groups such as Americans for Democratic Action , and low approval ratings from conservative groups such as the American Conservative Union . His votes have been closely aligned with the other Democratic representatives from his state . Described as " a favorite of the House Democratic leadership , " he maintains a close relationship with former House Speaker Nancy Pelosi ; her daughter Christine Pelosi served as his chief of staff from 2001 to 2005 . Tierney was speculated as a candidate to succeed United States Senator Ted Kennedy in a special election after Kennedy 's death in 2009 , but he decided not to run . In 2010 Washington paper The Hill published a speculation that Tierney , with a $ 1 @.@ 3 million war chest , was a likely candidate to run against Kennedy 's successor Scott Brown in the 2012 election . Tierney later stated that he would not contest the Senate seat and would instead seek a ninth term as Congressman .
= = = = Domestic policy = = = =
Tierney and Rep. Hilda Solis coauthored the Green Jobs Act of 2007 , which allocated $ 125 million to green jobs training . The bill was incorporated into the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 and signed into law . Tierney was initially opposed to the Troubled Asset Relief Program proposal of 2008 , although he ultimately voted for the bill , saying , " The state of panic in the markets compels Congress to act . "
The House included several of his proposals in the Higher Education Opportunity Act of 2008 , one which prevented states from cutting education funding as federal aid increased , and one which forgave federal loans for students who went into some public service professions . Throughout his career , Tierney has repeatedly introduced a bill called " Clean Money , Clean Elections " , which would create a national , publicly financed clean elections system . With little support in Congress , the proposal has been unsuccessful .
Tierney is a supporter of universal health care . In early 2010 , Tierney came under fire from some in his district for his support of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act .
On March 6 , 2013 Tierney and several House Democrats walked out on a Committee on Education and the Workforce vote , accusing Republican counterparts on the committee of not negotiating “ in a bipartisan manner . ” Tierney has introduced a version of Elizabeth Warren 's " Bank on Student Loans Fairness Act " into the House , which would reduce federally subsidized education loans to 0 @.@ 75 % , the rate paid by banks .
A February 2012 Washington Post report revealed that 33 members of Congress helped direct more than $ 300 million in earmarks to public projects in close proximity to commercial and residential real estate owned by the lawmakers or their family members . According to the investigation , Tierney has helped direct about $ 3 @.@ 5 million toward a 950 @-@ space parking garage and commuter rail station in Salem , Mass . The facility will be located roughly 1 / 4 mile from a commercial building Tierney co @-@ owns .
= = = = Foreign policy = = = =
Tierney was a member of the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform and chairman of the Subcommittee on National Security and Foreign Affairs during the 110th and 111th Congresses . Tierney introduced the 2007 House legislation that created the Commission on Wartime Contracting in Iraq and Afghanistan to study government contracting related to the Afghanistan War and the Iraq War . The same year Tierney chaired a congressional hearing over conditions at Walter Reed Army Medical Center . The center had been criticized in the press for its dilapidated conditions and inadequate care , as well as for prioritizing a " VIP ward " for non @-@ soldiers . The House approved Tierney 's amendment to direct $ 75 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to secular school construction in Pakistan to compete against Islamic madrassas .
Tierney is a critic of U.S. investment in missile defense , and has called for large budget cuts to the Missile Defense Agency . He introduced an amendment to redirect $ 966 million in funding from missile defense systems to other military initiatives . The proposal , opposed by Armed Services Committee leaders as " going too far " , was rejected in a House vote .
= = 2014 election campaign = =
Tierney ran for re @-@ election against four challengers for the Democratic nomination . With 27 percent of precincts reporting , Tierney trailed Seth Moulton 51 percent to 40 percent and conceded .
= = Personal life = =
Tierney dated Patrice M. ( Eremian ) Chew of Marblehead throughout his 1996 campaign . They married in a small ceremony in April 1997 and now live in Salem , where Patrice works as a jewelry designer . Tierney has three stepchildren from his wife 's first marriage . In June 2000 , Tierney 's stepson John Chew was arrested when about 25 grams ( 0 @.@ 9 oz ) of cocaine and $ 1 @,@ 000 in cash were found in his Marblehead apartment .
= = = Wife 's tax fraud conviction = = =
In August 2010 , Tierney 's wife Patrice 's brothers Robert and Daniel Eremian were indicted in federal court for operating an illegal internet gambling business . Robert had allegedly , with Daniel 's help , operated the business out of St. John 's , Antigua and Barbuda , and funneled a portion of the profits into a Bank of America account in Massachusetts . In October 2010 , Patrice was charged in U.S. District Court with four counts of " aiding and abetting the filing of false tax returns " by Robert . John Tierney issued a statement announcing his wife 's intention to plead guilty , stating that Patrice accepted " full responsibility for being ' willfully blind ' to what her brother was doing . " Patrice pleaded guilty on October 6 , 2010 , and on January 13 , 2011 , was sentenced to 30 days in prison followed by five months of house arrest . The conviction bolstered the campaign of Bill Hudak , Tierney 's Republican opponent in the November 2010 election , but Tierney was re @-@ elected . In June 2012 , a federal judge ordered Daniel Eremian to forfeit $ 7 @.@ 7 million in assets for his role in the illegal offshore sports betting scheme . Following his sentencing , Daniel Eremian told reporters that the congressman " knew everything that was going on " , a charge which Tierney rebutted .
= = Electoral history = =
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= Italian cruiser Elba =
Elba was a protected cruiser of the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) . She was the fifth of six Regioni @-@ class ships , all of which were named for regions of Italy , with the exception of Elba , which was named for the island . Elba was built by the Regio Cantieri di Castellammare di Stabia ; her keel was laid in September 1890 , she was launched in August 1893 , and she was commissioned in February 1896 . The ship was equipped with a main armament of four 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) and six 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns , and she could steam at a speed of nearly 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
Elba spent much of her career abroad . She participated in the blockade of Venezuela during the Venezuelan crisis of 1902 – 03 and was present in East Asia during the Russo @-@ Japanese War in 1904 – 05 . In February 1904 , her crew witnessed the Battle of Chemulpo Bay between Japanese and Russian warships ; after the battle ended in Russian defeat , Elba and British and French cruisers picked up survivors . She took part in the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1911 – 12 but saw no action , being used primarily to blockade Turkish ports in the Red Sea . In 1914 , Elba was converted into the first seaplane tender of the Regia Marina , with equipment to handle three seaplanes . This service did not last long , however , as she was too small and too old . Decommissioned by 1916 , the old warship was sold for scrap in January 1920 and broken up .
= = Design = =
Elba was slightly larger than her sister ships . She was 88 @.@ 2 meters ( 289 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 12 @.@ 72 m ( 41 @.@ 7 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 86 m ( 15 @.@ 9 ft ) . She displaced up to 3 @,@ 110 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 060 long tons ; 3 @,@ 430 short tons ) at full load . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of horizontal triple @-@ expansion engines , with steam supplied by four cylindrical water @-@ tube boilers . On her speed trials , she reached a maximum of 17 @.@ 9 knots ( 33 @.@ 2 km / h ; 20 @.@ 6 mph ) at 7 @,@ 471 indicated horsepower ( 5 @,@ 571 kW ) . The ship had a cruising radius of about 2 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 900 km ; 2 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of between 213 – 278 . Also unlike her sisters , she had a copper @-@ sheathed hull , which reduced fouling during lengthy periods between dockyard maintenance .
Elba was armed with a main battery of four 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) L / 40 guns mounted singly , with two side by side forward and two side by side aft . Six 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 40 guns were placed between them , with three on each broadside . Light armament included ten 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) guns , six 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and a pair of machine guns . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . Elba was protected by a 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick deck , and her conning tower had 50 mm thick sides .
= = Service history = =
The keel for Elba was laid down at the Regio Cantieri di Castellammare di Stabia in the eponymous city on 22 September 1890 . Her completed hull was launched on 12 August 1893 , and fitting @-@ out work proceeded at a leisurely pace . Elba was finally ready for service on 27 February 1896 . Elba was stationed in East Asian waters in 1899 , along with the armored cruiser Marco Polo and the old sail cruiser Amerigo Vespucci . In 1901 she was replaced by her sister Lombardia and returned to Italy . Elba was sent to Venezuelan waters in 1902 during the Venezuelan crisis of 1902 – 03 , when an international force of British , German , and Italian warships blockaded Venezuela over the country 's refusal to pay foreign debts . Elba was joined by the protected cruiser Giovanni Bausan and the armored cruiser Carlo Alberto .
Elba was present , along with the British cruiser HMS Talbot , the French cruiser Pascal , and the United States ' gunboat USS Vicksburg during the Battle of Chemulpo Bay on 9 February 1904 during the Russo @-@ Japanese War . Elba , Talbot , and Pascal cleared for action in the event that the Japanese warships opened fire on them . After the battle ended in a Russian defeat , the three cruisers sent boats to pick up the survivors from the sinking cruiser Varyag and gunboat Korietz . Elba took off a total of 6 officers and 172 enlisted men from the two vessels , out of a total of 27 officers and 654 enlisted saved from the ships . Elba thereafter went to Seoul to protect the Italian embassy there . On 24 February , the cruiser Piemonte arrived to relieve Elba . The latter ship departed the following morning for Hong Kong , where she would deposit the Russian sailors . It was not until 10 March , however , that a French mail ship was available for Elba to discharge her passengers for their return trip to Europe .
Starting in October 1907 , Elba was modified to handle an observation balloon . The balloon was linked to the ship via a telephone line , and was used to spot naval mines . During the annual fleet maneuvers in 1908 , Elba and her balloon were used to keep watch on the harbor entrance of Augusta , Sicily , which proved to be effective in alerting defenders to attacking warships . By the outbreak of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in September 1911 , Elba had been stationed in Italy 's East African colonies , Eritrea and Somaliland . In January 1912 , she and her sister Liguria escorted a pair of mail steamships to the Red Sea , where they were used to enforce the blockade of several Ottoman ports . Elba remained in the region for the remainder of the war , assisting in the blockade effort . Ottoman naval forces had already been defeated at the Battle of Kunfuda Bay , so there was no chance for Elba to see action . The Ottomans eventually agreed to surrender in October , ending the war .
Elba operated the observation balloon through 1913 . The following year , she was modified to serve as a depot ship for three seaplanes , and she entered service in this new role on 4 June 1914 . During this period she operated Nieuport IV seaplanes . She was the first dedicated seaplane tender of the Italian navy , though seaplanes had already been operated aboard several battleships and cruisers . Elba was nevertheless too small and too old for her intended role , and she was retired in 1916 . She remained in the Italian inventory until 4 January 1920 , when she was sold for scrap .
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= The Hawking Excitation =
" The Hawking Excitation " is the 21st episode of the fifth season of The Big Bang Theory that first aired on CBS on April 5 , 2012 . It is the 108th episode overall . After learning that Stephen Hawking is coming to lecture at Caltech , Howard ( Simon Helberg ) is hired to maintain his wheelchair equipment . When Sheldon ( Jim Parsons ) discovers this , he is desperate to meet Hawking . Howard says he can , but only if he completes a humiliating series of tasks .
The final scene of the episode features a short cameo appearance by cosmologist Stephen Hawking . Hawking was revealed to appear on the show in March 2012 ; he was the third high @-@ profile guest star in season 5 . The episode had 13 @.@ 29 million viewers in America and garnered mixed reviews .
= = Plot = =
Raj ( Kunal Nayyar ) and Leonard ( Johnny Galecki ) are at lunch with Howard when he gets an e @-@ mail from Stephen Hawking 's office ; Hawking is coming to lecture at Caltech and needs an engineer to help maintain his wheelchair equipment . Sheldon is a big fan of Hawking , so Howard considers bringing Sheldon along to meet Hawking . Sheldon then arrives and says that he has revolutionized understanding of the Higgs boson particle ; he explains it to Raj and Leonard but ignores Howard , thinking he wouldn 't understand .
Howard , feeling insulted , refuses to introduce Sheldon to Hawking even after Sheldon pleads . The next day , Howard talks about his work with Hawking to frustrate Sheldon . After Sheldon begs , Howard agrees to give Sheldon 's paper on the Higgs boson to Hawking on the condition that Sheldon performs several tasks for him .
The first task is to polish Howard 's belt buckles . Howard tends to stand too close to the urinal and urine often splashes back onto the buckles . Sheldon is given a black light and several dozen belt buckles to clean . Sheldon performs the task flawlessly . For his second task , Sheldon is forced to wear a French maid costume that Howard originally bought for his girlfriend Bernadette ( Melissa Rauch ) . Sheldon is seen in the cafeteria at Caltech with everyone staring at him .
When Penny ( Kaley Cuoco ) goes to do her laundry , she finds Sheldon washing Howard 's panties . Sheldon explains that he is being punished for being , according to Howard , a " condescending jerk " , and asks Penny if she thinks he is condescending . Penny agrees with Howard .
Howard shows Bernadette a picture of Sheldon wearing the French maid costume . She thinks Howard is being too cruel and says that Sheldon is unaware of how mean he is . Howard agrees to stop making Sheldon perform tasks . Howard 's mother interrupts to remind Bernadette that they made plans to go dress shopping ; Bernadette says that she cannot make it , but that Sheldon will accompany her instead . Sheldon is forced to go shopping with Mrs. Wolowitz .
Sheldon 's final task is to give Howard a compliment about his work : he says that Howard is good at his job , although Sheldon does not consider his work to be " worth doing " . Howard reveals that he gave Hawking the paper three days ago . Sheldon finally gets to meet Hawking in person . When they meet , Hawking points out an arithmetic error in Sheldon 's paper that makes the whole paper incorrect : at this , a shocked Sheldon faints .
= = Production = =
Stephen Hawking has been mentioned several times on the show , including in the Pilot . Hawking has appeared on comedy television shows previously : he did the voice @-@ over for cartoon versions of himself in Futurama , and in four episodes of The Simpsons .
On March 9 , 2012 , Bill Prady announced that a " super @-@ secret , super @-@ cool guest star " would appear on the show . On March 12 , 2012 , CBS announced that Hawking would be guest starring on the show on April 5 . Photos of Hawking 's appearance were published by The Hollywood Reporter on April 2 .
Hawking had been asked to appear on the show previously but was too ill to do so . Bill Prady stated that Stephen Hawking was always their " dream guest star " for the show , but that Hawking appearing was " a long shot of astronomical proportions " . Hawking is a fan of The Big Bang Theory and requested to watch a rehearsal of the episode after filming his scene . Simon Helberg , who plays Howard , does an impression of Hawking 's voice in the episode ; he felt slightly uncomfortable mimicking Hawking , but Hawking seemed to enjoy the impression .
Hawking is the third high @-@ profile guest star to appear in season 5 , after Mike Massimino and Leonard Nimoy . Hawking later appeared in the season 6 episode " The Extract Obliteration " , the season 7 episode " The Relationship Diremption " and the season 8 episode " The Troll Manifestation " , but in these episodes only his voice is heard . Hawking was shown in a pre @-@ recorded video segment at the Big Bang Theory panel at Comic @-@ Con 2013 . He apologized for not being there in person and sang the show 's theme tune .
Following " The Hawking Excitation " , there was a three @-@ week break before the next episode , " The Stag Convergence " , aired .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
On the night of its first broadcast on CBS on April 5 , 2012 , the episode was watched by 13 @.@ 29 million U.S. households and received a Nielsen rating of 4 @.@ 2 / 14 among viewers aged between 18 and 49 ( meaning that 4 @.@ 2 % of 18 – 49 years olds watched the episode ) . It aired at 8 p.m. alongside American Idol on Fox , Missing on ABC , NBC 's Community and a repeat episode of The Vampire Diaries on The CW . The episode was the third most watched program that night , and second most watched on CBS .
In Canada , the episode received 3 @.@ 18 million viewers , making it the most watched episode that week . In the UK , the episode aired on May 17 , 2012 and 1 @.@ 83 million households watched it on E4 . It garnered 0 @.@ 34 million viewers on E4 + 1 , so was watched by 2 @.@ 17 million viewers overall . On E4 , it was the most watched show that week while on E4 + 1 , it ranked third . In Australia , the episode aired on April 24 , 2013 and had 1 @.@ 87 million viewers . It was the second most watched show on television that night .
= = = Reviews = = =
Overall , the episode received mixed reviews . Carla Day from TV Fanatic gave the episode a very positive review , describing it as " Possibly , the best episode . Ever . " and giving it the maximum possible editor rating ( 5 @.@ 0 ) . Oliver Sava of the The A.V. Club gave the episode a B – . Sava complimented Hawking 's line , " it was quite a boner " , calling it " the big pay @-@ off of the story " and enjoyed the scene with Bernadette . However , Sava also said the " personal slave " storyline was a " classic sitcom plot " and noted that it was " the second episode in a row with no Amy " .
R. L. Shaffer of IGN rated it 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 and wrote that the episode " played like filler " but was " a very good filler episode " . Shaffer described the final scene with Hawking as " fun " and " effective " , although claimed some of the subplots " were only so @-@ so " . Robin Pierson of The TV Critic rated the episode 36 out of 100 , stating that " the craft has gone from the stories and jokes in favour of the most basic stories and punch lines . " Pierson thought Helberg " did a nice job showing vulnerability " as Howard , but that the episode overall was " one utterly predictable , unimaginative joke after another . "
Simon Helberg complimented Stephen Hawking on his comedic timing via Twitter . The Huffington Post said that " none of [ Hawking 's guest appearances ] felt quite as right as when he appeared as himself on " The Big Bang Theory " . "
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= HMS Achilles ( 1905 ) =
HMS Achilles was a Warrior @-@ class armoured cruiser built for the Royal Navy in the first decade of the 20th century . She served with the 2nd Cruiser Squadron for most of the First World War . The ship did not participate in the Battle of Jutland in 1916 , but did sink the German raider Leopard in 1917 . Achilles became a training ship in 1918 and was sold for scrap in 1921 .
= = General description = =
Achilles displaced 13 @,@ 550 long tons ( 13 @,@ 770 t ) as built and 14 @,@ 500 long tons ( 14 @,@ 700 t ) fully loaded . The ship had an overall length of 505 feet 4 inches ( 154 @.@ 0 m ) , a beam of 73 feet 6 inches ( 22 @.@ 4 m ) and a draught of 27 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 4 m ) . She was powered by four @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 23 @,@ 650 indicated horsepower ( 17 @,@ 640 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 23 @.@ 3 knots ( 43 @.@ 2 km / h ; 26 @.@ 8 mph ) . The engines were powered by 19 Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers and six cylindrical boilers . The ship carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 050 long tons ( 2 @,@ 080 t ) of coal and an additional 600 long tons ( 610 t ) of fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full capacity , she could steam for 7 @,@ 960 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 740 km ; 9 @,@ 160 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Her main armament consisted of six BL 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 234 mm ) Mark X guns in single Mk V turrets distributed in two centerline turrets ( one each fore and one aft ) and four turrets disposed in the corners about the funnels . Her secondary armament of four BL 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 191 mm ) Mark II or Mark V guns in single Mk II turrets was carried amidships , between the wing 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch guns . Twenty @-@ six Vickers QF 3 @-@ pounders were fitted , ten on turret roofs and eight each on the forward and aft superstructures . The last four ships of the Duke of Edinburgh @-@ class cruisers had a secondary armament of turreted 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns rather than the 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns in open barbettes of the first two ships ; these latter four were sometimes referred to as the Warrior class . Because of the extra topweight of the turrets in comparison to their half @-@ sisters their stability was reduced which made them very good seaboats and steady gun platforms because they did not roll as much . The ship also mounted three submerged 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedo tubes , one of which was mounted in the stern .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
A single Hotchkiss QF 6 @-@ pounder anti @-@ aircraft gun on a high @-@ angle Mark Ic mounting was mounted on the quarterdeck in 1915 . It had a maximum depression of 8 ° and a maximum elevation of 60 ° . The gun fired a 6 @-@ pound ( 2 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 765 ft / s ( 538 m / s ) at a rate of fire of 20 rounds per minute . They had a maximum ceiling of 10 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) , but an effective range of only 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) . Achilles 's foremast was converted to a tripod mast to support the weight of a fire @-@ control director after the Battle of Jutland in 1916 , but when the director was actually fitted is not known .
= = Service = =
Achilles was ordered as part of the 1903 – 04 naval construction programme as the third of four armoured cruisers . She was laid down on 22 February 1904 at Elswick by Armstrong Whitworth . The ship was launched on 17 June 1905 and completed on 22 April 1907 at the cost of £ 1 @,@ 191 @,@ 103 . Like her sister ships , she joined the 5th Cruiser Squadron in 1907 , and made a port visit to Russia in 1908 . The ship was later transferred to the 2nd Cruiser Squadron in 1909 . Achilles , accompanied by her sister Cochrane , and three other armoured cruisers were sent to reinforce the defences of the Shetland Islands on 2 August 1914 , days before the start of the First World War . She , and her squadron , was assigned to the Grand Fleet after the beginning of the war .
Achilles missed the Battle of Jutland on 31 May 1916 because she was refitting . On the evening of 18 August , the Grand Fleet put to sea in response to a deciphered message that the High Seas Fleet , minus the II Battle Squadron , would be leaving harbour that night . The Germans planned to bombard the port of Sunderland on 19 August , with extensive reconnaissance provided by airships and submarines . The Germans broke off their planned attack to pursue a lone British battle squadron reported by an airship , which was in fact the Harwich Force under Commodore Tyrwhitt . Realising their mistake , the Germans then set course for home . During the Grand Fleet 's sortie , Achilles spotted a U @-@ boat . During another sortie by the High Seas Fleet on 18 October 1916 , Achilles and three other armoured cruisers were ordered to patrol the northern end of the North Sea , between the approaches to Pentland Firth and Hardangerfjord in Norway , but they saw no German ships .
On 16 March 1917 , Achilles and the armed boarding steamer Dundee were patrolling north of the Shetland Islands when they encountered the disguised German auxiliary cruiser Leopard . The latter ship heaved to when commanded , but manoeuvred to prevent Dundee from boarding her and then fired two torpedoes which missed . Dundee retaliated by raking Leopard 's stern , badly damaging the German ship and then Achilles opened fire herself . The German ship sank an hour later with no survivors . Achilles was transferred to the North America and West Indies Station in August 1917 for convoy escort duties , but returned to Britain for a refit between February and December 1918 . Upon completion of this refit Achilles became a stoker 's training ship at Chatham . The ship was sold for scrap on 9 May 1921 .
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= HMS Hesperus ( H57 ) =
HMS Hesperus was an H @-@ class destroyer that had originally been ordered by the Brazilian Navy with the name Juruena in the late 1930s , but was bought by the Royal Navy after the beginning of World War II in September 1939 and later renamed . She was damaged by German aircraft during the Norwegian Campaign in May 1940 and was assigned to convoy escort and anti @-@ submarine patrols after her repairs were completed . The ship was assigned to the Western Approaches Command for convoy escort duties in late 1940 . She was briefly assigned to Force H in 1941 , but her anti @-@ aircraft armament was deemed too weak and she was transferred to the Newfoundland Escort Force the next month for escort duties in the North Atlantic . Hesperus was transferred to the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force in late 1941 and continued to escort convoys in the North Atlantic for the next three years . She was converted to an escort destroyer in early 1943 after suffering damage from one of her two ramming attacks that sank German submarines . The ship sank two other submarines during the war by more conventional means . After the end of the war , Hesperus escorted the ships carrying the Norwegian government in exile back to Norway and served as a target ship through mid @-@ 1946 . She was scrapped beginning in mid @-@ 1947 .
= = Description = =
Hesperus displaced 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 883 long tons ( 1 @,@ 913 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Hesperus carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil , giving her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 152 officers and enlisted men .
The vessel was designed for four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear , but ' Y ' gun was removed to compensate for the additional depth charges added . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Hesperus had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were originally fitted , but this was increased to three sets of rails and eight throwers while fitting @-@ out . The ship 's load of depth charges was increased from 20 to 110 as well .
Hesperus was completed without a director @-@ control tower ( DCT ) so the three remaining 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch low @-@ angle guns fired in local control using ranges provided by a rangefinder . She was fitted with an ASDIC set to detect submarines by reflections from sound waves beamed into the water .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
Hesperus had her rear torpedo tubes replaced by a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun while under repair in May – June 1940 . The ship received a HF / DF radio direction finder mounted on a pole mainmast and a Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar during her mid @-@ 1941 refit . While under repair at Immingham , she received her DCT . During her early 1942 refit at Falmouth , Cornwall , the ship 's short @-@ range AA armament was augmented by two Oerlikon 20 mm guns on the wings of the ship 's bridge . In addition , her recently installed DCT and rangefinder above the bridge were replaced by a Type 271 target indication radar . Whilst under repair in early 1943 , the ship was converted to an escort destroyer . ' A ' gun was replaced by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar and the .50 @-@ calibre machine gun mounts were replaced by a pair of Oerlikons . Additional depth charge stowage replaced the 12 @-@ pounder high @-@ angle gun and Hesperus received the one @-@ ton Mk X depth charge and four Mk IV depth @-@ charge throwers during the same refit . Hesperus was also fitted with the Foxer acoustic decoy to protect her against German acoustically guided torpedoes .
= = History = =
She was originally ordered as Juruena on 16 December 1937 by the Brazilian Navy . The ship was laid down by John I. Thornycroft and Company at Woolston , Hampshire on 6 July 1938 and launched by Senhora Heitora Gallienz on 1 August 1939 . The ship was purchased by the British on 5 September 1939 after the beginning of World War II . Renamed HMS Hearty , the ship was commissioned on 22 January 1940 under command of former Fleet Air Arm pilot Commander Donald Macintyre . Hearty was renamed Hesperus on 27 February , after the Hesperus of mythology , to avoid confusion with the destroyer Hardy .
The six Brazilian H @-@ class or Havant @-@ class destroyers initially formed the 9th Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet assigned to anti @-@ submarine protection of Scapa Flow . Upon the German occupation of Denmark , Hesperus and her sister Havant were assigned to cover the British occupation of the Faroe Islands in mid @-@ April . During the Norwegian Campaign , Hesperus transported elements of the Scots Guards to Mo i Rana on 15 May and was damaged by near misses from Junkers Ju @-@ 87 dive @-@ bombers that same day . The ship was sent to Dundee for repairs that lasted a month . Upon their completion , the ship was assigned to convoy escort and anti @-@ submarine patrol duties .
In November 1940 , the 9th Destroyer Flotilla was transferred to the Western Approaches Command and re @-@ designated the 9th Escort Group . During a tropical storm in January 1941 , the platform on which ' B ' gun was mounted was lifted until the gun pressed against the bridge . After repairs , she resumed her convoy escort duties until April when she was assigned to Force H in Gibraltar whilst Macintyre transferred to the destroyer Walker in March . Hesperus escorted ships during Operations Tiger and Tracer in May and June . Hesperus was transferred out of Force H as her anti @-@ aircraft capability was believed by Admiral James Somerville to be too weak for operations in the Mediterranean . She received a brief refit in Liverpool and was transferred to the Newfoundland Escort Force on 7 July .
In August 1941 , Hesperus was one of the destroyers that escorted the battleship Prince of Wales carrying Prime Minister Winston Churchill to the Atlantic Charter meeting with President Franklin D. Roosevelt at Placentia Bay . The ship was structurally damaged by heavy weather and was temporarily repaired by a repair ship in Iceland and then was given permanent repairs at Immingham . Upon their completion Hesperus rejoined the 9th Escort Group before she was attached to Force H in December for convoy duties at Gibraltar .
Together with her sister Harvester , Hesperus sank the German submarine U @-@ 208 on 7 December 1941 in the Atlantic west of Gibraltar . On 15 January 1942 , whilst defending Convoy HG 78 , the ship 's radar detected U @-@ 93 on the surface and the captain , Lieutenant Commander A. A. Tait , ordered Hesperus to ram . Although a glancing hit , the collision was so violent that it flung the U @-@ boat 's captain and first lieutenant from the submarine 's conning tower into the motorboat stowed on the destroyer 's deck . By dropping depth charges at their shallowest setting and hitting the submarine multiple times with 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch shells , the submarine 's crew was persuaded to abandon ship . Hesperus rescued 40 of the submarine 's crew , but was unable to board the submarine before it sank . The impact flooded part of the forward hull , buckled her starboard hull plating and bent the tips of her starboard propeller . She received temporary repairs at Gibraltar and then was given permanent repairs in Falmouth between 9 February and April .
In March 1942 , the remaining five Havant @-@ class destroyers were designated leaders of Escort Groups B @-@ 1 through B @-@ 5 . Commander Tait was transferred to Harvester ; and Commander A.F.St.G. Orpen assumed command of Hesperus and B @-@ 2 Escort Group when Hesperus completed repairs in April . Commander Macintyre returned to the ship when Orpen was promoted to captain in June . Whilst escorting Convoy HX 219 near Rockall on 26 December , Hesperus and the destroyer Vanessa sank the German submarine U @-@ 357 by ramming . This time , the ship 's bottom was ripped open for nearly a quarter of her length and she needed three months of repairs in Liverpool .
The ship rejoined her group on 17 March and sank U @-@ 191 with her Hedgehog on 23 April 1943 whilst escorting Convoy ONS 4 . Almost three weeks later , she sank U @-@ 186 whilst defending convoy SC 129 on 12 May 1943 . Hesperus remained on convoy escort duties until she was refitted between January and 29 March 1944 . Commander G.V. Legassick assumed command of Hesperus in March 1944 and the group escorted convoys between Gibraltar and the United Kingdom . In July 1944 , the ship transported the remains of Captain Frederic John Walker for burial at sea . Later that year , she was transferred to the 19th Escort Group . In January 1945 , Commander R.A. Currie assumed command of Hesperus as commander of the 14th Escort Group , based in Plymouth . On 30 April 1945 , the ship , together with her sister Havelock , attacked the wreck of U @-@ 246 northwest of the island of Anglesey thinking that it was U @-@ 242 which had been spotted by a Short Sunderland flying boat earlier that day .
Two weeks later , Hesperus and the 14th Escort Group escorted a group of surrendered German U @-@ boats from Loch Alsh to Lough Foyle . On 27 May , the ship and her sister Havelock escorted the exiled Norwegian government back to Oslo and remained there until 1 June . Ten days later , she began service as an aircraft target , a role that lasted for the next year . Hesperus was approved for scrapping on 18 February 1946 and was placed in Category C reserve in May . She was towed to Grangemouth for scrapping , but that did not begin until 17 May 1947 . Hesperus 's ensign was preserved in Yeovil Parish Church .
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= Bold Orion =
The Bold Orion missile , also known as Weapons System 199B ( WS @-@ 199B ) , was a prototype air @-@ launched ballistic missile ( ALBM ) developed by Martin Aircraft during the 1950s . Developed in both one- and two @-@ stage designs , the missile was moderately successful in testing , and helped pave the way for development of the GAM @-@ 87 Skybolt ALBM . In addition , the Bold Orion was used in early anti @-@ satellite weapons testing , performing the first interception of a satellite by a missile .
= = Design and development = =
The Bold Orion missile was developed as part of Weapons System 199 , initiated by the United States Air Force ( USAF ) in response to the U.S. Navy 's Polaris program , with funding authorised by the United States Congress in 1957 . The purpose of WS @-@ 199 was the development of technology that would be used in new strategic weapons for the USAF 's Strategic Air Command , not to deliver operational weapons ; a primary emphasis was on proving the feasibility of an air @-@ launched ballistic missile .
The designation WS @-@ 199B was assigned to the project that , under a contract awarded in 1958 to Martin Aircraft , would become the Bold Orion missile . The design of Bold Orion was simple , using parts developed for other missile systems to reduce the cost and development time of the project . The initial Bold Orion configuration was a single @-@ stage vehicle , using a Thiokol TX @-@ 20 Sergeant solid @-@ fuel rocket . Following initial testing , the Bold Orion configuration was altered to become a two @-@ stage vehicle , an Allegany Ballistics Laboratory Altair upper stage being added to the missile .
= = Operational history = =
Having been given top priority by the Air Force , the first flight test of the Bold Orion missile was conducted on May 26 , 1958 , from a Boeing B @-@ 47 Stratojet carrier aircraft , which launched the Bold Orion vehicle at the apex of a high @-@ speed , high @-@ angle climb . The zoom climb tactic , combined with the thrust from the rocket motor of the missile itself , allowed the missile to achieve its maximum range , or , alternatively , to reach space .
A twelve @-@ flight test series of the Bold Orion vehicle was conducted ; however , despite suffering only one outright failure , the initial flight tests of the single @-@ stage rocket proved less successful than hoped . Authorisation was received to modify the Bold Orion to become a two @-@ stage vehicle ; in addition to the modifications improving the missile 's reliability , they increased the range of Bold Orion to over 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) . Four of the final six test firings were of the two @-@ stage vehicle ; these were considered completely successful , and established that the ALBM was a viable weapon .
= = = ASAT test = = =
The final test launch of Bold Orion , conducted on October 13 , 1959 , was a test of the vehicle 's capabilities in the anti @-@ satellite role . Launched from an altitude of 35 @,@ 000 feet ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) from its B @-@ 47 mothership , the missile successfully intercepted the Explorer 6 satellite , passing its target at a range of less than 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) at an altitude of 156 miles ( 251 km ) . Had the missile been fitted with a nuclear warhead , the satellite would have been destroyed .
The Bold Orion ASAT test was the first interception of a satellite by any method , proving that anti @-@ satellite missiles were feasible . However this test , along with an earlier , unsuccessful test of the High Virgo missile in the anti @-@ satellite role , had political repercussions ; the Eisenhower administration sought to establish space as a neutral ground for everyone 's usage , and the " indication of hostile intent " the tests were seen to give was frowned upon , with anti @-@ satellite weapons development being curtailed shortly thereafter .
= = = Legacy = = =
The results of the Bold Orion project , along with those from the testing of the High Virgo missile , also developed under WS @-@ 199 , provided data and knowledge that assisted the Air Force in forming the requirements for the follow @-@ on WS @-@ 138A , which would produce the GAM @-@ 87 Skybolt missile .
= = Launch history = =
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= Vasa ( ship ) =
Vasa ( or Wasa ) is a Swedish warship built between 1626 and 1628 . The ship foundered and sank after sailing about 1 @,@ 300 m ( 1 @,@ 400 yd ) into her maiden voyage on 10 August 1628 . She fell into obscurity after most of her valuable bronze cannons were salvaged in the 17th century until she was located again in the late 1950s in a busy shipping lane just outside the Stockholm harbor . Salvaged with a largely intact hull in 1961 , she was housed in a temporary museum called Wasavarvet ( " The Wasa Shipyard " ) until 1988 and then moved to the Vasa Museum in Stockholm . The ship is one of Sweden 's most popular tourist attractions and has been seen by over 29 million visitors since 1961 . Since her recovery , Vasa has become a widely recognized symbol of the Swedish " great power period " and is today a de facto standard in the media and among Swedes for evaluating the historical importance of shipwrecks .
The ship was built on the orders of the King of Sweden Gustavus Adolphus as part of the military expansion he initiated in a war with Poland @-@ Lithuania ( 1621 – 1629 ) . She was constructed at the navy yard in Stockholm under a contract with private entrepreneurs in 1626 – 1627 and armed primarily with bronze cannons cast in Stockholm specifically for the ship . Richly decorated as a symbol of the king 's ambitions for Sweden and himself , upon completion she was one of the most powerfully armed vessels in the world . However , Vasa was dangerously unstable and top @-@ heavy with too much weight in the upper structure of the hull . Despite this lack of stability she was ordered to sea and foundered only a few minutes after encountering a wind stronger than a breeze .
The order to sail was the result of a combination of factors . The king , who was leading the army in Poland at the time of her maiden voyage , was impatient to see her take up her station as flagship of the reserve squadron at Älvsnabben in the Stockholm Archipelago . At the same time the king 's subordinates lacked the political courage to openly discuss the ship 's structural problems or to have the maiden voyage postponed . An inquiry was organized by the Swedish Privy Council to find those responsible for the disaster , but in the end no one was punished for the fiasco .
During the 1961 recovery , thousands of artifacts and the remains of at least 15 people were found in and around the Vasa 's hull by marine archaeologists . Among the many items found were clothing , weapons , cannons , tools , coins , cutlery , food , drink and six of the ten sails . The artifacts and the ship herself have provided scholars with invaluable insights into details of naval warfare , shipbuilding techniques and everyday life in early 17th @-@ century Sweden .
= = Historical background = =
During the 17th century , Sweden went from being a sparsely populated , poor , and peripheral northern European kingdom of little influence to one of the major powers in continental politics . Between 1611 and 1718 it was the dominant power in the Baltic , eventually gaining territory that encompassed the Baltic on all sides . This rise to prominence in international affairs and increase in military prowess , called stormaktstiden ( " age of greatness " or " great power period " ) , was made possible by a succession of able monarchs and the establishment of a powerful centralized government , supporting a highly efficient military organization . Swedish historians have described this as one of the more extreme examples of an early modern state using almost all of its available resources to wage war ; the small northern kingdom transformed itself into a fiscal @-@ military state and one of the most militarized states in history .
Gustavus Adolphus ( 1594 – 1632 ) has been considered one of the most successful Swedish kings in terms of success in warfare . When Vasa was built , he had been in power for more than a decade . Sweden was embroiled in a war with Poland @-@ Lithuania , and looked apprehensively at the development of the Thirty Years ' War in present @-@ day Germany . The war had been raging since 1618 and from a Protestant perspective it was not successful . The king 's plans for a Polish campaign and for securing Sweden 's interests required a strong naval presence in the Baltic .
The navy suffered several severe setbacks during the 1620s . In 1625 , a squadron cruising in the Bay of Riga was caught in a storm and ten ships ran aground and were wrecked . In the Battle of Oliwa in 1627 , a Swedish squadron was outmaneuvered and defeated by a Polish force and two large ships were lost . Tigern ( " The Tiger " ) , which was the Swedish admiral 's flagship , was captured by the Poles , and Solen ( " The Sun " ) was blown up by her own crew when she was boarded and near capture . In 1628 , three more large ships were lost in less than a month ; Admiral Klas Fleming 's flagship Kristina was wrecked in a storm in the Gulf of Danzig , Riksnyckeln ( " Key of the Realm " ) ran aground at Viksten in the southern archipelago of Stockholm and Vasa foundered on her maiden voyage . Gustavus Adolphus was engaged in naval warfare on several fronts , which further exacerbated the difficulties of the navy . In addition to battling the Polish navy , the Swedes were indirectly threatened by Imperial forces that had invaded Jutland . The Swedish king had little sympathy for the Danish king , Christian IV , and Denmark and Sweden had been bitter enemies for well over a century . However , Sweden feared a Catholic conquest of Copenhagen and Zealand . This would have granted the Catholic powers control over the strategic passages between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea , which would be disastrous for Swedish interests . As it turned out , the Imperial occupation of Denmark ended before Swedish intervention was necessary , and a squadron assigned to assist Denmark was retasked to help lift the Imperial siege of Stralsund .
Until the early 17th century , the Swedish navy was composed primarily of small to medium @-@ sized ships with a single gundeck , normally armed with 12 @-@ pounder and smaller cannons ; these ships were cheaper than larger ships and were well @-@ suited for escort and patrol . They also suited the prevailing tactical thinking within the navy , which emphasized boarding as the decisive moment in a naval battle rather than gunnery . The king , who was a keen artillerist , saw the potential of ships as gun platforms , and large , heavily armed ships made a more dramatic statement in the political theater of naval power . Beginning with Vasa , he ordered a series of ships with two full gundecks , outfitted with much heavier guns . Five such ships were built after Vasa ( Äpplet , Kronan , Scepter and Göta Ark ) before the Privy Council cancelled the orders for the others after the king 's death in 1632 . These ships , especially Kronan and Scepter , were much more successful and served as flagships in the Swedish navy until the 1660s . The second of the so @-@ called regalskepp ( usually translated as " royal ships " ) , Äpplet ( " The Apple " ; the Swedish term for the globus cruciger ) , was built simultaneously with Vasa . The only significant difference between the design of Vasa and her sister ship was an increase in width of about a meter ( 3 @.@ 1 ft ) .
= = Construction = =
In the early 1620s , work at the Stockholm navy yard was led by a pair of Dutch @-@ born entrepreneurs , Antonius Monier and master shipwright Henrik Hybertsson , who was usually referred to as " Master Henrik " . When a new contract for operation of the navy yard was negotiated in the winter of 1624 – 1625 , Monier withdrew and Master Henrik took on a young merchant from Amsterdam , Arendt de Groote , as partner . On 16 January 1625 , Henrik and Arendt signed a contract to build four ships , two larger with a keel length of 128 feet ( 38 m ) and two smaller , with dimensions to match the earlier ship Gustavus .
Master Henrik and Arendt de Groote began buying the raw materials needed for the first ships in 1625 , purchasing timber from individual estates in Sweden as well as buying rough @-@ sawn planking in Riga , Königsberg ( modern Kaliningrad ) , and Amsterdam . As they prepared to begin the first of the new ships in the autumn of 1625 , Henrik corresponded with the king through the Vice Admiral Fleming about which ship to build first . The loss of ten ships in the Bay of Riga led the king to propose building two ships of a new , medium size as a quick compromise , and he sent a specification for this , a ship which would be 120 feet ( 35 @.@ 6 m ) long on the keel . Henrik declined , since he had already cut the timber for a large and a small ship . He laid the keel for a larger ship in late February or early March 1626 . Master Henrik never saw Vasa completed ; he fell ill in late 1625 , and by the summer of 1626 he had handed over supervision of the work in the yard to another Dutch shipwright , Henrik " Hein " Jacobsson . He died in the spring of 1627 , probably about the same time as the ship was launched .
After launching , work continued on finishing the upper deck , the sterncastle , the beakhead and the rigging . Sweden had still not developed a sizeable sailcloth industry , and material had to be ordered from abroad . In the contract for the maintenance of rigging , French sailcloth was specified , but the cloth for the sails of Vasa most likely came from Holland . The sails were made mostly of hemp and partly of flax . The rigging was made entirely of hemp imported from Latvia through Riga . The king visited the shipyard in January 1628 and made what was probably his only visit aboard the ship .
In the summer of 1628 , the captain responsible for supervising construction of the ship , Söfring Hansson , arranged for the ship 's stability to be demonstrated for the Vice Admiral responsible for procurement , Klas Fleming , who had recently arrived in Stockholm from Prussia . Thirty men ran back and forth across the upper deck to start the ship rolling , but the admiral stopped the test after they had made only three trips , as he feared the ship would capsize . According to testimony by the ship 's master , Göran Mattson , Fleming remarked that he wished the king were at home . Gustavus Adolphus had been sending a steady stream of letters insisting that the ship put to sea as soon as possible .
There has been much speculation about whether Vasa was lengthened during construction and whether an additional gun deck was added late during the build . Little evidence suggests that Vasa was substantially modified after the keel was laid . Ships contemporary to Vasa that were elongated were cut in half and new timbers spliced between the existing sections , making the addition readily identifiable , but no such addition can be identified in the hull , nor is there any evidence for any late additions of a second gundeck . The king ordered 72 24 @-@ pound cannons for the ship on 5 August 1626 , and this was too many to fit on a single gun deck . Since the king 's order was issued less than five months after construction started , it would have come early enough for the second deck to be included in the design . The French Galion du Guise , the ship used as a model for Vasa , according to Arendt de Groote , also had two gun decks . Laser measurements of Vasa 's structure conducted in 2007 – 2011 confirmed that no major changes were implemented during construction , but that the center of gravity was too high .
Vasa was an early example of a warship with two full gun decks , and was built when the theoretical principles of shipbuilding were still poorly understood . There is no evidence that Henrik Hybertsson had ever built a ship like it before , and two gundecks is a much more complicated compromise in seaworthiness and firepower than a single gundeck . Safety margins at the time were also far below anything that would be acceptable today . Combined with the fact that 17th @-@ century warships were built with intentionally high superstructures ( to be used as firing platforms ) , this made Vasa a risky undertaking .
= = = Armament = = =
Vasa was built during a time of transition in naval tactics , from an era when boarding was still one of the primary ways of fighting enemy ships to an era of the strictly organized ship @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line and a focus on victory through superior gunnery . Vasa was armed with powerful guns and built with a high stern , which would act as a firing platform in boarding actions for some of the 300 soldiers she was supposed to carry , but the high @-@ sided hull and narrow upper deck were not optimized for boarding . She was neither the largest ship ever built , nor the one carrying the greatest number of guns . What made her arguably the most powerful warship of the time was the combined weight of shot that could be fired from the cannon of one side : 588 pounds ( 267 kg ) , excluding stormstycken , guns used for firing anti @-@ personnel ammunition instead of solid shot . This was the largest concentration of artillery in a single warship in the Baltic at the time , perhaps in all of northern Europe , and it was not until the 1630s that a ship with more firepower was built . This large amount of naval artillery was placed on a ship that was quite small relative to the armament carried . By comparison , USS Constitution , a famous Napoleonic era frigate built 169 years after Vasa , had roughly the same firepower , but was over 700 tonnes heavier .
The Constitution , however , belonged to a later era of naval warfare that employed the line of battle @-@ tactic , where ships fought in single file ( or line ahead ) while the group as a whole attempted to present the batteries of one side toward the enemy . The guns would be aimed in the same direction and fire could be concentrated on a single target . In the 17th century , tactics involving organized formations of large fleets had still not been developed . Rather , ships would fight individually or in small improvised groups , and focused on boarding . Vasa , though possessing a formidable battery , was built with these tactics in mind , and therefore lacked a unified broadside with guns that were all aimed in roughly the same direction . Rather , the guns were intended to be fired independently and were arranged according to the curvature of the hull , meaning that the ship would be bristled with artillery in all directions , covering virtually all angles .
Naval gunnery in the 17th century was still in its infancy . Guns were expensive and had a much longer lifespan than any warship . Guns with a lifetime of over a century were not unheard of , while most warships would be used for only 15 to 20 years . In Sweden and many other European countries , a ship would normally not " own " its guns , but would be issued armament from the armory for every campaign season . Ships were therefore usually fitted with guns of very diverse age and size . What allowed Vasa to carry so much firepower was not merely that an unusually large number of guns were crammed into a relatively small ship , but also that the 46 main 24 @-@ pounder guns were of a new and standardized lightweight design , cast in a single series at the state gun foundry in Stockholm , under the direction of the Swiss @-@ born founder Medardus Gessus . Two additional 24 @-@ pounders , of a heavier and older design , were mounted in the bows , the so @-@ called bow chasers . Four more heavy guns were intended for the stern , but the cannon foundry could not cast guns as fast as the navy yard could build ships , and Vasa waited nearly a year after construction was finished for its armament . When the ship sailed in August 1628 , eight of the planned armament of 72 guns had still not been delivered . All cannons during this time had to be made from individually made moulds that could not be reused , but Vasa 's guns had such uniform precision in their manufacturing that their primary dimensions varied by only a few millimeters , and their bores were almost exactly 146 mm ( 5 @.@ 7 in ) . The remaining armament of Vasa consisted of eight 3 @-@ pounders , six large caliber stormstycken ( similar to what the English called howitzers ) for use during boarding actions , and two 1 @-@ pound falconets . Also included on board were 894 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 970 lb ) of gunpowder and over 1000 shot of various types for the guns .
= = = Ornamentation = = =
As was the custom with warships at the time , Vasa was decorated with sculptures intended to glorify the authority , wisdom and martial prowess of the monarch and also to deride , taunt and intimidate the enemy . The sculptures made up a considerable part of the effort and cost of building the ship . The symbolism used in decorating the ship was mostly based on the Renaissance idealization of Roman and Greek antiquity , which had been imported from Italy through German and Dutch artists . Imagery borrowed from Mediterranean antiquity dominates the motifs , but also include figures from the Old Testament and even a few from ancient Egypt . Many of the figures are in Dutch grotesque style , depicting fantastic and frightening creatures , including mermaids , wild men , sea monsters and tritons . The decoration inside the ship is much sparser and is largely confined to the steerage and the great cabin , at the after end of the upper gundeck .
Residues of paint have been found on many sculptures and on other parts of the ship . The entire ornamentation was once painted in vivid colors . The sides of the beakhead ( the protruding structure below the bowsprit ) , the bulwarks ( the protective railing around the weather deck ) , the roofs of the quarter galleries , and the background of the transom ( the flat surface at the stern of the ship ) were all painted red , while the sculptures were decorated in bright colors , and the dazzling effect of these was in some places emphasized with gold leaf . Previously , it was believed that the background color had been blue and that all sculptures had been almost entirely gilded , and this is reflected in many paintings of Vasa from the 1970s to the early ' 90s , such as the lively and dramatic drawings of Björn Landström or the painting by Francis Smitheman . In the late 1990s , this view was revised and the colors are properly reflected in more recent reproductions of the ship 's decoration by maritime painter Tim Thompson and the 1 : 10 scale model in the museum . Vasa is an example not so much of the heavily gilded sculptures of early Baroque art but rather " the last gasps of the medieval sculpture tradition " with its fondness for gaudy colors , in a style that today would be considered extravagant or even vulgar .
The sculptures are carved out of oak , pine or linden , and many of the larger pieces , like the huge 3 @-@ meter ( 10 ft ) long figurehead lion , consist of several parts carved individually and fitted together with bolts . Close to 500 sculptures , most of which are concentrated on the high stern and its galleries and on the beakhead , are found on the ship . The figure of Hercules appears as a pair of pendants , one younger and one older , on each side of the lower stern galleries ; the pendants depict opposite aspects of the ancient hero , who was extremely popular during antiquity as well as in 17th @-@ century European art . On the transom are biblical and nationalistic symbols and images . A particularly popular motif is the lion , which can be found as the mascarons originally fitted on the insides of the gunport doors , grasping the royal coat of arms on either side , the figurehead , and even clinging to the top of the rudder . Each side of the beakhead originally had 20 figures ( though only 19 have actually been found ) that depicted Roman emperors from Tiberius to Septimius Severus . Overall , almost all heroic and positive imagery is directly or indirectly identified with the king and was originally intended to glorify him as a wise and powerful ruler . The only actual portrait of the king , however , is located at the very top of the transom in the stern . Here he is depicted as a young boy with long , flowing hair , being crowned by two griffins representing the king 's father , Charles IX .
A team of at least six expert sculptors worked for a minimum of two years on the sculptures , most likely with the assistance of an unknown number of apprentices and assistants . No direct credit for any of the sculptures has been provided , but the distinct style of one of the most senior artists , Mårten Redtmer , is clearly identifiable . Other accomplished artists , like Hans Clausink , Johan Didrichson Tijsen ( or Thessen in Swedish ) and possibly Marcus Ledens , are known to have been employed for extensive work at the naval yards at the time Vasa was built , but their respective styles are not distinct enough to associate them directly with any specific sculptures .
The artistic quality of the sculptures varies considerably , and about four distinct styles can be identified . The only artist who has been positively associated with various sculptures is Mårten Redtmer , whose style has been described as " powerful , lively and naturalistic " . He was responsible for a considerable number of the sculptures . These include some of the most important and prestigious pieces : the figurehead lion , the royal coat of arms , and the sculpture of the king at the top of the transom . Two of the other styles are described as " elegant ... a little stereotyped and manneristic " , and of a " heavy , leisurely but nevertheless rich and lively style " , respectively . The fourth and last style , deemed clearly inferior to the other three , is described as " stiff and ungainly " and was done by other carvers , perhaps even apprentices , of lesser skill .
= = Maiden voyage = =
On 10 August 1628 , Captain Söfring Hansson ordered Vasa to depart on her maiden voyage to the naval station at Älvsnabben . The day was calm , and the only wind was a light breeze from the southwest . The ship was warped along the eastern waterfront of the city to the southern side of the harbor , where four sails were set , and the ship made way to the east . The gun ports were open , and the guns were out to fire a salute as the ship left Stockholm .
As Vasa passed under the lee of the bluffs to the south ( what is now Södermalm ) , a gust of wind filled her sails , and she heeled suddenly to port . The sheets were cast off , and the ship slowly righted herself as the gust passed . At Tegelviken , where there is a gap in the bluffs , an even stronger gust again forced the ship onto its port side , this time pushing the open lower gunports under the surface , allowing water to rush in onto the lower gundeck . The water building up on the deck quickly exceeded the ship 's minimal ability to right itself , and water continued to pour in until it ran down into the hold ; the ship quickly sank to a depth of 32 m ( 105 ft ) only 120 m ( 390 ft ) from shore . Survivors clung to debris or the upper masts , which were still above the surface , to save themselves , and many nearby boats rushed to their aid , but despite these efforts and the short distance to land , 30 people perished with the ship , according to reports . Vasa sank in full view of a crowd of hundreds , if not thousands , of mostly ordinary Stockholmers who had come to see the great ship set sail . The crowd included foreign ambassadors , in effect spies of Gustavus Adolphus ' allies and enemies , who also witnessed the catastrophe .
= = = Inquest = = =
The Council sent a letter to the king the day after the loss , telling him of the sinking , but it took over two weeks to reach him in Poland . " Imprudence and negligence " must have been the cause , he wrote angrily in his reply , demanding in no uncertain terms that the guilty parties be punished . Captain Söfring Hansson , who survived the disaster , was immediately taken for questioning . Under initial interrogation , he swore that the guns had been properly secured and that the crew was sober . A full inquest before a tribunal of members of the Privy Council and Admiralty took place at the Royal Palace on 5 September 1628 . Each of the surviving officers was questioned as was the supervising shipwright and a number of expert witnesses . Also present at the inquest was the Admiral of the Realm , Carl Carlsson Gyllenhielm . The object of the inquest was as much or more to find a scapegoat as to find out why the ship had sunk . Whoever the committee might find guilty for the fiasco would face a severe penalty .
Surviving crew members were questioned one by one about the handling of the ship at the time of the disaster . Was it rigged properly for the wind ? Was the crew sober ? Was the ballast properly stowed ? Were the guns properly secured ? However , no one was prepared to take the blame . Crewmen and contractors formed two camps ; each tried to blame the other , and everyone swore he had done his duty without fault and it was during the inquest that the details of the stability demonstration were revealed .
Next , attention was directed to the shipbuilders . " Why did you build the ship so narrow , so badly and without enough bottom that it capsized ? " the prosecutor asked the shipwright Jacobsson . Jacobsson stated that he built the ship as directed by Henrik Hybertsson ( long since dead and buried ) , who in turn had followed the specification approved by the king . Jacobsson had in fact widened the ship by 1 foot 5 inches ( c . 42 cm ) after taking over responsibility for the construction , but construction of the ship was too far advanced to allow further widening .
In the end , no guilty party could be found . The answer Arendt de Groote gave when asked by the court why the ship sank was " Only God knows " . Gustavus Adolphus had approved all measurements and armaments , and the ship was built according to the instructions and loaded with the number of guns specified . In the end , no one was punished or found guilty for negligence , and the blame effectively fell on Henrik Hybertsson .
= = Vasa as a wreck = =
Less than three days after the disaster , a contract was signed for the ship to be raised . However , those efforts were unsuccessful . The earliest attempts at raising Vasa by English engineer Ian Bulmer , resulted in righting the ship but also got it more securely stuck in the mud and was most likely one of the biggest impediments to the earliest attempts at recovery . Salvaging technology in the early 17th century was much more primitive than today , but the recovery of ships used roughly the same principles as were used to raise Vasa more than 300 years later . Two ships or hulks were placed parallel to either side above the wreck , and ropes attached to several anchors were sent down and hooked to the ship . The two hulks were filled with as much water as was safe , the ropes tightened , and the water pumped out . The sunken ship then rose with the ships on the surface and could be towed to shallower waters . The process was then repeated until the entire ship was successfully raised above water level . Even if the underwater weight of Vasa was not great , the mud in which it had settled made it sit more secure on the bottom and required considerable lifting power to overcome . More than 30 years after the ship 's sinking , in 1663 – 1665 , Albreckt von Treileben and Andreas Peckell mounted an effort to recover the valuable guns . With a simple diving bell , the team of Swedish and Finnish divers retrieved more than 50 of them .
Such activity waned when it became clear that the ship could not be raised by the technology of the time . However , Vasa did not fall completely into obscurity after the recovery of the guns . The ship was mentioned in several histories of Sweden and the Swedish Navy , and the location of the wreck appeared on harbor charts of Stockholm in the 19th century . In 1844 , the navy officer Anton Ludwig Fahnehjelm turned in a request for salvaging rights to the ship , claiming he had located it . Fahnehjelm was an inventor who designed an early form of light diving suit and had previously been involved in other salvage operations . There were dives made on the wreck in 1895 – 1896 , and a commercial salvage company applied for a permit to raise or salvage the wreck in 1920 , but this was turned down . In 1999 , a witness also claimed that his father , a petty officer in the Swedish navy , had taken part in diving exercises on Vasa in the years before World War I. There is no evidence that anyone visited the wreck site after this until the beginning of the modern Vasa project .
= = = Deterioration = = =
In the 333 years that Vasa lay on the bottom of Stockholm harbor ( called Stockholms ström , " the Stream " , in Swedish ) , the ship and its contents were subject to several destructive forces , first among which were decomposition and erosion . Among the first things to decompose were the thousands of iron bolts that held the beakhead and much of the sterncastle together , and this included all of the ship 's wooden sculptures . Almost all of the iron on the ship rusted away within a few years of the sinking , and only large objects , such as anchors , or items made of cast iron , such as cannonballs , survived . Organic materials fared better in the anaerobic conditions , and so wood , cloth and leather are often in very good condition , but objects exposed to the currents were eroded by the sediment in the water , so that some are barely recognizable . Objects which fell off the hull into the mud after the nails corroded through were well protected , so that many of the sculptures still retain areas of paint and gilding . Of the human remains , most of the soft tissue was quickly consumed by bacteria , fish and crustaceans , leaving only the bones , which were often held together only by clothing , although in one case , hair , nails and brain tissue survived .
The parts of the hull held together by joinery and wooden treenails remained intact for as much as two centuries , suffering gradual erosion of surfaces exposed to the water , unless they were disturbed by outside forces . Eventually the entire sterncastle , the high , aft portion of the ship that housed the officers ' quarters and held up the transom , gradually collapsed into the mud with all the decorative sculptures . The quarter galleries , which were merely nailed to the sides of the sterncastle , collapsed fairly quickly and were found lying almost directly below their original locations .
Human activity was the most destructive factor , as the initial salvage efforts , the recovery of the guns , and the final salvage in the 20th century all left their marks . Peckell and Treileben broke up and removed much of the planking of the weather deck to get to the cannons on the decks below . Peckell reported that he had recovered 30 cartloads of wood from the ship ; these might have included not just planking and structural details but also some of the sculptures which today are missing , such as the life @-@ size Roman warrior near the bow and the sculpture of Septimius Severus that adorned the port side of the beakhead . Since Vasa lay in a busy shipping channel , ships occasionally dropped anchor over the ship , and one large anchor demolished most of the upper sterncastle , probably in the 19th century . Construction work in Stockholm harbor usually results in blasting of bedrock , and the resulting tons of rubble were often dumped in the harbor ; some of this landed on the ship , causing further damage to the stern and the upper deck .
= = = Vasa rediscovered = = =
In the early 1950s , amateur archaeologist Anders Franzén considered the possibility of recovering wrecks from the cold brackish waters of the Baltic because , he reasoned , they were free from the shipworm Teredo navalis , which usually destroys submerged wood rapidly in warmer , saltier seas . By 1953 , he was actively searching for Vasa , using a dragline and coring device to locate and test possible targets on the bottom of the harbor . He initially searched the southern side of the harbor , near Tegelviken , but in the winter of 1955 – 1956 he discovered documents in the national archives which provided better information on the location of the wreck . He also received the results of soundings made in his target area which revealed a suspicious lump on the bottom just off the island of Beckholmen . Together with the navy 's chief salvage diver , Per Edvin Fälting , he spent the summer of 1956 carefully searching the waters just off the Gustav V drydock . On 25 August , they found a large object , and the coring device returned plugs of black oak , timber that had been underwater so long that it had turned black . The navy sent a diving team to the site in September , and Fälting was able to report climbing up the side of a large wooden ship with two rows of gunports – Vasa had been found .
The Vasa Committee was established to investigate the possibility of raising and preserving the ship , and Franzén persuaded the navy , the National Heritage Board , the National Maritime Museum and a large private salvage company , the Neptune Company , to back the project . They began exploratory dives in the fall of 1956 and discussed how the ship might be raised .
= = = Recovery = = =
A number of possible recovery methods were proposed , including filling the ship with ping @-@ pong balls and freezing it in a block of ice , but the method chosen by the Vasa Board ( which succeeded the Vasa Committee ) was essentially the same one attempted immediately after the sinking . Divers spent two years digging six tunnels under the ship for steel cable slings , which were taken to a pair of lifting pontoons at the surface . The work under the ship was extremely dangerous , requiring the divers to cut tunnels through the clay with high @-@ pressure water jets and suck up the resulting slurry with a dredge , all while working in total darkness with hundreds of tons of mud @-@ filled ship overhead . A persisting risk was that the wreck could shift or settle deeper into the mud while a diver was working in a tunnel , trapping him underneath the wreckage . The almost vertical sections of the tunnels near the side of the hull could also potentially collapse and bury a diver inside . Despite the dangerous conditions , more than 1 @,@ 300 dives were made in the salvage operation without any serious accidents .
Each time the pontoons were pumped full , the cables tightened and the pontoons were pumped out , the ship was brought a meter closer to the surface . In a series of 18 lifts in August and September 1959 , the ship was moved from depth of 32 meters ( 105 ft ) to 16 meters ( 52 ft ) in the more sheltered area of Kastellholmsviken , where divers could work more safely to prepare for the final lift . Over the course of a year and a half , a small team of commercial divers cleared debris and mud from the upper decks to lighten the ship , and made the hull as watertight as possible . The gun ports were closed by means of temporary lids , a temporary replacement of the collapsed sterncastle was constructed , and many of the holes from the iron bolts that had rusted away were plugged . The final lift began on 8 April 1961 , and on the morning of 24 April , Vasa was ready to return to the world for the first time in 333 years . Press from all over the world , television cameras , 400 invited guests on barges and boats , and thousands of spectators on shore watched as the first timbers broke the surface . The ship was then emptied of water and mud and towed to the Gustav V dry dock on Beckholmen , where the ship was floated on its own keel onto a concrete pontoon , on which the hull still stands .
From the end of 1961 to December 1988 , Vasa was housed in a temporary facility called Wasavarvet ( " The Vasa Shipyard " ) , which included exhibit space as well as the activities centred on the ship . A building was erected over the ship on its pontoon , but it was very cramped , making conservation work awkward . Visitors could view the ship from just two levels , and the maximum viewing distance was in most places only a couple of meters , which made it difficult for viewers to get an overall view of the ship . In 1981 , the Swedish government decided that a permanent building was to be constructed , and a design competition was organized . The winning design , by the Swedish architects Månsson and Dahlbäck , called for a large hall over the ship in a polygonal , industrial style . Ground was broken in 1987 , and Vasa was towed into the half @-@ finished Vasa Museum in December 1988 . The museum was officially opened to the public in 1990 .
= = Archaeology = =
Vasa posed an unprecedented challenge for archaeologists . Never before had a four @-@ story structure with most of its original contents largely undisturbed been available for excavation . The conditions under which the team had to work added to the difficulties . The ship had to be kept wet in order that it not dry out and crack before it could be properly conserved . Digging had to be performed under a constant drizzle of water and in a sludge @-@ covered mud that could be more than one meter ( approximately three feet ) deep . In order to establish find locations , the hull was divided into several sections demarcated by the many structural beams , the decking and by a line drawn along the center of the ship from stern to bow . For the most part , the decks were excavated individually , though at times work progressed on more than one deck level simultaneously .
= = = Finds = = =
Vasa had four preserved decks : the upper and lower gun decks , the hold and the orlop . Because of the constraints of preparing the ship for conservation , the archaeologists had to work quickly , in 13 @-@ hour shifts during the first week of excavation . The upper gun deck was greatly disturbed by the various salvage projects between 1628 and 1961 , and it contained not only material that had fallen down from the rigging and upper deck , but also more than three centuries of harbor refuse . The decks below were progressively less disturbed . The gundecks contained not just gun carriages , the three surviving cannons , and other objects of a military nature , but were also where most of the personal possessions of the sailors had been stored at the time of the sinking . These included a wide range of loose finds , and also chests and casks with spare clothing and shoes , tools and materials for mending , money ( in the form of low @-@ denomination copper coins ) , privately purchased provisions , and all of the everyday objects needed for life at sea . Most of the finds are of wood , testifying not only to the simple life on board , but to the generally unsophisticated state of Swedish material culture in the early 17th century . The lower decks were primarily used for storage , and so the hold was filled with barrels of provisions and gunpowder , coils of anchor cable , iron shot for the guns , and the personal possessions of some of the officers . On the orlop , a small compartment contained six of the ship 's ten sails , rigging spares and the working parts for the ship 's pumps . Another compartment contained the possessions of the ship 's carpenter , including a large tool chest .
After the ship itself had been salvaged and excavated , the site of the loss was excavated thoroughly during 1963 – 1967 . This produced many items of rigging tackle as well as structural timbers that had fallen off , particularly from the beakhead and sterncastle . Most of the sculptures that had decorated the exterior of the hull were also found in the mud , along with the ship 's anchors and the skeletons of at least four people . The last object to be brought up was the nearly 12 @-@ meter @-@ long longboat , called esping in Swedish , found lying parallel to the ship and believed to have been towed by Vasa when she sank .
Many of the more recent objects contaminating the site were disregarded when the finds were registered , but some were the remains of the 1660s salvage efforts and others had their own stories to tell . Among the best known of these was a statue of 20th @-@ century Finnish runner Paavo Nurmi , which was placed on the ship as a prank by students of Helsinki University of Technology the night before the final lift .
= = Causes of sinking = =
Vasa sank because it had very little initial stability , which can be thought of as resistance to heeling over under the force of wind or waves acting on the hull . The reason for this is that the distribution of mass in the hull structure and the ballast , guns , provisions , and other objects loaded on board puts too much weight too high in the ship . The center of gravity is too high , and so it takes very little force to make the ship heel over , and there is not enough righting moment , force trying to make the ship return to an upright position . The reason that the ship has such a high center of gravity is not due to the guns . These weighed little over 60 tons , or about 5 % of the total displacement of the loaded ship . This is relatively low weight and should be bearable in a ship this size . The problem is in the hull construction itself . The part of the hull above the waterline is too high and too heavily built in relation to the amount of hull in the water . The headroom in the decks is higher than necessary for crewmen who were , on average , only 1 @.@ 67 meters ( 5 feet 5 ½ inches ) tall , and thus the weight of the decks and the guns they carry is higher above the waterline than needed . In addition , the deck beams and their supporting timbers are over @-@ dimensioned and too closely spaced for the loads they carry , so they contribute too much weight to the already tall and heavy upper works .
The use of different measuring systems on either side of the vessel caused its mass to be distributed asymmetrically , heavier to port . During construction both Swedish feet and Amsterdam feet were in use by different teams .
Although the mathematical tools for calculating or predicting stability were still more than a century in the future , and 17th @-@ century scientific ideas about how ships behaved in water were deeply flawed , the people associated with building and sailing ships for the Swedish navy were very much aware of the forces at work and their relationships to each other . In the last part of the inquest held after the sinking , a group of master shipwrights and senior naval officers were asked for their opinions about why the ship sank . Their discussion and conclusions show very clearly that they knew what had happened , and their verdict was summed up very clearly by one of the captains , who said that the ship did not have enough " belly " to carry the heavy upperworks .
Ship design was not yet a science , but was an empirical process based on experience rather than calculation . Balancing the military need for firepower against the maritime need for seaworthiness resulted in some compromises that would not pass modern standards for stability . A ship with two gundecks was an even more demanding proposition , as the lower tier of gunports had to be uncomfortably close to the water , and there was an unavoidably large amount of weight being carried above the waterline . One of the solutions which became common was graduated armament , in which the guns of the upper decks were progressively lighter . Such an armament , with 24 @-@ pounders on the lower gundeck and 12 @-@ pounders on the upper gundeck , was considered for Vasa in 1627 , but eventually the armament plan reverted to the king 's original desire of 24 @-@ pounders on both decks . Vasa 's sister ship , Äpplet , had her upper gundeck 24 @-@ pounders changed for 12 @-@ pounders early in her career , probably in attempt to improve her stability .
Vasa might not have sunk on 10 August 1628 , if the ship had been sailed with the gunports closed . Ships with multiple tiers of gunports normally had to sail with the lowest tier closed , since the pressure of wind in the sails would usually push the hull over until the lower gunport sills were under water . For this reason , the gunport lids are made with a double lip which is designed to seal well enough to keep out most of the water . Captain Söfring Hansson had ordered the lower gundeck ports closed once the ship began to take on water , but by then it was too late . If he had done it before he sailed , Vasa might not have sunk on that day .
= = Conservation = =
Although Vasa was in surprisingly good condition after 333 years at the bottom of the sea , it would have quickly deteriorated if the hull had been simply allowed to dry . The large bulk of Vasa , over 600 cubic meters ( 21 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of oak timber , constituted an unprecedented conservation problem . After some debate on how to best preserve the ship , conservation was carried out by impregnation with polyethylene glycol ( PEG ) , a method that has since become the standard treatment for large , waterlogged wooden objects , such as the 16th @-@ century English ship Mary Rose . Vasa was sprayed with PEG for 17 years , followed by a long period of slow drying , which is not yet entirely complete .
The reason that Vasa was so well @-@ preserved was not just that the shipworm that normally devours wooden ships was absent but also that the water of Stockholms ström was heavily polluted until the late 20th century . The highly toxic and hostile environment meant that even the toughest microorganisms that break down wood had difficulty surviving . This , along with the fact that Vasa had been newly built when she sank , contributed to her conservation . Unfortunately , the properties of the water also had a negative effect . Chemicals present in the water around Vasa had penetrated the wood , and the timber was full of the corrosion products from the bolts and other iron objects which had disappeared . Once the ship was exposed to the air , reactions began inside the timber that produced acidic compounds . In the late 1990s , spots of white and yellow residue were noticed on Vasa and some of the associated artifacts . These turned out to be sulfate @-@ containing salts that had formed on the surface of the wood when sulfides reacted with atmospheric oxygen . The salts on the surface of Vasa and objects found in and around it are not a threat themselves ( even if the discoloring may be distracting ) , but if they are from inside the wood , they may expand and crack the timber from inside . As of 2002 , the amount of sulfuric acid in Vasa 's hull was estimated to be more than 2 tonnes , and more is continually being created . Enough sulfides are present in the ship to produce another 5 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 11 @,@ 000 lb ) of acid at a rate of about 100 kilograms ( 220 lb ) per year ; this might eventually destroy the ship almost entirely .
While most of the scientific community considers that the destructive substance responsible for Vasa 's long @-@ term decay is sulfuric acid , Ulla Westermark , professor of wood technology at Luleå University of Technology , has proposed another mechanism with her colleague Börje Stenberg . Experiments done by Japanese researchers show that treating wood with PEG in an acidic environment can generate formic acid and eventually liquify the wood . Vasa was exposed to acidic water for more than three centuries , and therefore has a relatively low pH . Samples taken from the ship indicate that formic acid is present , and that it could be one of the multiple causes of a suddenly accelerated rate of decomposition .
The museum is constantly monitoring the ship for damage caused by decay or warping of the wood . Ongoing research seeks the best way to preserve the ship for future generations and to analyze the existing material as closely as possible . A current problem is that the old oak of which the ship is built has lost a substantial amount of its original strength and the cradle that supports the ship does not match up very well with the distribution of weight and stress in the hull . " The amount of movement in the hull is worrying . If nothing is done , the ship will most likely capsize again " , states Magnus Olofson from the Vasa Museum . An effort to secure Vasa for the future is under way , in cooperation with the Royal Institute of Technology and other institutions around the globe .
To deal with the problem of the inevitable deterioration of the ship , the main hall of the Vasa Museum is kept at a temperature of 18 – 20 ° C ( 64 – 68 ° F ) and a humidity level of 53 % . To slow the destruction by acidic compounds , different methods have been tried . Small objects have been sealed in plastic containers filled with an inert atmosphere of nitrogen gas , for halting further reactions between sulfides and oxygen . The ship itself has been treated with cloth saturated in a basic liquid to neutralize the low pH , but this is only a temporary solution as acid is continuously produced . The original bolts rusted away after the ship sank but were replaced with modern ones that were galvanized and covered with epoxy resin . Despite this , the new bolts have also started to rust and are releasing iron into the wood , which accelerates the deterioration . These bolts are currently being replaced with bolts made of stainless steel .
= = Legacy = =
Vasa has become a popular and widely recognized symbol for a historical narrative about the Swedish stormaktstiden ( " the Great Power @-@ period " ) in the 17th century , and about the early development of a European nation state . Within the disciplines of history and maritime archaeology the wrecks of large warships from the 16th , 17th and 18th centuries have received particularly widespread attention as perceived symbols of a past greatness of the state of Sweden . Among these wrecks , Vasa is the single most well @-@ known example , and has also become recognized internationally , not least through a deliberate use of the ship as a symbol for marketing Sweden abroad . The name Vasa has in Sweden become synonymous with sunken vessels that are considered to be of great historical importance , and these are usually described , explained and valued in relation to Vasa itself . The Swedish maritime archaeologist Carl @-@ Olof Cederlund , who has been active in the various Vasa @-@ projects , has described the phenomenon as regalskepps @-@ syndromet , " the royal ship syndrome " ( after the term used in the 17th century for the largest warships in the Swedish navy ) . He associates the " syndrome " to a nationalist aspect of the history of ideas and traditional perceptions about hero @-@ kings and glory through war . The focus of this historical theory lies on the " great periods " in " our [ Swedish ] history " and shares many similarities with the nationalist views of the Viking era in the Nordic countries and the praising of Greek and Roman Antiquity in the Western world in general . Cederlund has stressed the ritualized aspects of the widely publicized salvage in 1961 and has compared the modern Vasa Museum with " a temple in the Classical sense of the word " . The placement of the museum on Djurgården , traditional crown property , and its focus on " the King 's ship " has led him to suggest a description of it as " The Temple of the Royal Ship " .
= = = Literature and popular culture = = =
Vasa has been the subject of hundreds of books , articles and papers on topics ranging from marine archaeology to culinary history . Three children 's books about Vasa have been written in Swedish and later translated into English , German , Danish , and Norwegian : The Vasa Saga by Bertil Almqvist , The Vasa Sets Sail by Mats Wahl ( illustrated by Sven Nordqvist ) , and The Vasa Piglet by Björn Bergenholtz .
Vasa 's unique status has drawn considerable attention and captured the imagination of more than two generations of scholars , tourists , model builders , and authors . Though historically unfounded , the popular perception of the building of the ship as a botched and disorganized affair ( dubbed " the Vasa @-@ syndrome " ) has been used by many authors of management literature as an educational example of how not to organize a successful business .
The Vasa Museum has co @-@ sponsored two versions of a documentary about the history and recovery of the ship , both by documentary filmmaker Anders Wahlgren . The second version is currently shown in the museum and has been released on VHS and DVD with narration in 16 languages . In late 2011 , a third Vasa @-@ film premiered on Swedish television , with a longer running time and a considerably larger budget ( with over 7 @.@ 5 million kronor provided by SVT ) . An educational computer game , now in its second generation , has been made and is used in the museum and on its website to explain the fundamentals of 17th century ship construction and stability . Several mass @-@ produced model kits and countless custom @-@ built models of the ship have been made . In 1991 , a 308 @-@ tonne pastiche reproduction of the ship was built in Tokyo to serve as a 650 @-@ passenger sightseeing ship . Vasa has inspired many works of art , including a gilded Disney @-@ themed parody of the pilaster sculptures on the ship 's quarter galleries . Being a popular tourist attraction , Vasa is used as a motif for various souvenir products such as T @-@ shirts , mugs , refrigerator magnets , and posters . Commercially produced replicas — such as drinking glasses , plates , spoons , and even a backgammon game — have been made from many of the objects belonging to the crew or officers found on the ship .
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= Next ( Desperate Housewives ) =
" Next " is the second season premiere episode of the American comedy @-@ drama series Desperate Housewives , and the 24th episode overall . It was originally broadcast in the United States on September 25 , 2005 , on ABC . It was written by Jenna Bans and Kevin Murphy and was directed by Larry Shaw .
In the episode , Susan ( Teri Hatcher ) recovers from having been held hostage while Gabrielle ( Eva Longoria ) attempts to salvage her marriage to her incarcerated husband , Carlos ( Ricardo Antonio Chavira ) . Meanwhile , Bree ( Marcia Cross ) deals with her mother @-@ in @-@ law following her husband 's death and Lynette ( Felicity Huffman ) goes back to work . The episode also introduces the mystery storyline revolving around Betty Applewhite ( Alfre Woodard ) and her family .
According to Nielsen ratings , " Next " was watched by 28 @.@ 4 million viewers , making it the most watched season premiere on ABC in nine years . The episode also ranks as the second @-@ most watched in series history , behind the first season finale in May 2005 . The episode received general positive reviews , with Cross earning universal praise for her performance . Critics enjoyed Woodard 's acting as well as her character 's storyline .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
Desperate Housewives focuses on the residents living in the suburban neighborhood of Wisteria Lane . In previous episodes , Mike Delfino ( James Denton ) learns that he is the biological father of Zach Young ( Cody Kasch ) , whose adopted parents , Mary Alice ( Brenda Strong ) and Paul ( Mark Moses ) , killed Mike 's previous girlfriend and Zach 's biological mother years earlier . Mike kidnapped Paul and left him stranded in the desert while Zach holds Mike 's current girlfriend , Susan Mayer ( Teri Hatcher ) hostage as part of his plan to kill Mike . Tom Scavo ( Doug Savant ) quit his job and decided to become a stay @-@ at @-@ home father , forcing his wife , Lynette ( Felicity Huffman ) to reenter the work force . Gabrielle Solis 's ( Eva Longoria ) affair with her teenage gardener , John Rowland ( Jesse Metcalfe ) , is exposed just as she discovers she is pregnant and her husband , Carlos ( Ricardo Antonio Chavira ) , is sentenced to time in prison . Bree Van de Kamp ( Marcia Cross ) learned that her husband , Rex ( Steven Culp ) , died while awaiting surgery . Also , Betty Applewhite ( Alfre Woodard ) and her son , Matthew ( Mehcad Brooks ) , moved to Wisteria Lane .
= = = Episode = = =
Mike arrives home to find Zach holding Susan hostage . Before Zach has the opportunity to kill Mike , Susan wrestles the gun away from him and Zach runs away . Later , Susan discovers that Mike does not want to press charges against Zach , who is still missing . When she questions him , Mike confesses that Zach is his biological son . Susan tearfully congratulates Mike , but tells him that she cannot keep dating him if he continues to search for Zach , given Zach 's history with her daughter Julie .
Rex 's mother , Phyllis Van de Kamp ( Shirley Knight ) , comes to town for Rex 's funeral . She and Bree clash heads throughout her visit , especially when Phyllis claims that Bree made Rex miserable during his last years , prompting Bree to disinvite her from the funeral . Eventually , Bree reconsiders ; however , during the service , Bree discovers that Rex is being buried in his high school tie , which Phyllis insisted but Bree expressly forbade . Bree changes Rex 's tie in the middle of the funeral .
With Carlos in prison , John assumes that he and Gabrielle will continue their relationship , but Gabrielle is livid after John told Carlos about their affair . Meanwhile , Carlos demands a paternity test if he and Gabrielle are to work on their marriage . Unwilling to actually take a test , Gabrielle obtains another patient 's results and passes them off to Carlos as her own . Nevertheless , Carlos tells her that he still is not unsatisfied .
Lynette interviews for a job in an advertisement firm . Her interviewer , an irritable woman named Nina Fletcher ( Joely Fisher ) , is skeptical of Lynette 's competence after learning that she has four children , but asks her to come back for a final interview with her boss anyway . After Tom throws out his back , Lynette is forced to bring Penny , her toddler , to the second interview . Despite these unusual circumstances , Lynette manages to impress Nina 's boss , Ed Ferrara ( Currie Graham ) , who hires her on the spot .
As Betty , a former concert pianist , continues to get settled in the neighborhood , she agrees to play at Rex 's funeral . Later , she and Matthew bring a tray of food to a chained prisoner in their basement .
= = Production = =
" Next " was written by Jenna Bans and Kevin Murphy and directed by Larry Shaw . While developing storylines for the second season , series creator Marc Cherry stated , " I want to keep finding new ways to talk about issues that relate to everyday women , " explaining that the show needs to focus on " small , real , everyday issues " in order to keep the audience interested . Cherry cited the Lynette storyline as an example of this strategy : " Lynette will have a job next season ( returning to her advertising roots ) , so I want to address how difficult it is to go to work all day and then come home and be expected to also take care of your house . " Huffman recognized that her character 's storylines needed a change of pace , but hoped that Lynette 's domestic life would still play an integral role this season . " My hope is to not get lost in the corporate world ; that it 's still a home and family / husband and children story , " she explained . " But how many times can you go , ' Kids , clear your plates ! ' " The episode also introduced Joely Fisher as Lynette 's new boss , Nina Fletcher . Fisher describes her character as " nasty , " elaborating : " Lynette suddenly has to come up against this tiger lady who never stops reminding Lynette that she 's childless by choice . Even though Nina is not a housewife , she is desperate in her own way . " Due to the death of his character , Steven Culp did not return to the series for the second season . For the open casket scene in " Next " , producers created a life mask of the actor . Savant was promoted to series regular after appearing as a recurring guest star throughout the first season .
The episode is the first to feature Alfre Woodard and Mehcad Brooks as series regulars after they were introduced in the final two episodes of the first season . Woodard played Betty Applewhite , a " deeply religious , overbearing single mother " while Mehcad portrayed her son , Matthew . In regards to the characters and their mystery storyline , Cherry stated : " They come on the street ; they seem like nice people — but they 've got a secret . And it 's pretty gothic . It 's real and human and awful all at the same time . " Woodard commented that her character " never means harm ... Let 's just say she has flaws . She had to make some really tough decisions quick and if the law ever catches up with her , she 'll have to serve time ... But they 'll never catch her . " The final scene in which Betty and Matthew bring food to the prisoner in their basement was originally intended for the first season finale but saved for " Next " instead .
While the Applewhites are regarded as the first major black characters on the series , Cherry stated that the role of Betty was originally offered to two white film actresses , both of whom turned it down due to financial and time commitment issues . He clarified : " There 's nothing strategically black about her character . Her color is incidental . " Woodard had never seen the show before accepting the role . Desperate Housewives producers sent her fifteen episodes of the show , which she divided amongst various family members . After they compared storylines , Woodard recalled that she became " instantly hooked " on the series . Woodard reported experiencing heavy media attention after accepting the role . Both Brooks and his brother , Billy , auditioned for the role of Matthew . The final decision came down to both brothers as well as two other actors . According to Cherry , Brooks was cast because he exuded a " dangerous " element , as well as " a combination of this wholesome , sweet quality and a dark , brooding quality . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
According to Nielsen ratings , " Next " was watched by 28 @.@ 4 million viewers . It held a 12 @.@ 1 rating / 26 share on its original broadcast , indicating a 36 percent increase since the series premiere one year earlier and helping ABC earn its largest Sunday night audience in 10 years . Additionally , it was ABC 's most watched season premiere in nine years . The episode was the second @-@ most watched program of the week , behind only CSI on CBS . It was the most watched program among viewers 18 to 49 years of age . The episode is the second @-@ most watched episode of the series , following the first season finale in May 2005 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Variety 's Brian Lowry gave the episode a positive review . He opined that the Lynette storyline looked " extremely promising " and enjoyed the addition of Joely Fisher to the cast as Lynette 's " tight @-@ assed new boss . " He identified the Bree storyline as " the real water @-@ cooler sequence " and complimented Marcia Cross ' performance . However , Lowry criticized the Gabrielle and Susan storylines , opining that they are " exhibiting signs of wear and tear . " Michael Slezak of Entertainment Weekly noted that the episode had " a particularly sleepy opening 20 minutes " while its exciting plot points all occurred in the second half of the episode . He praised the scene in which Bree changes the tie on Rex 's corpse and called Cross ' performance throughout the episode " pitch @-@ perfect . " Slezak also complimented Huffman 's performance , but wondered if Fisher was " a steely enough an actress to go Manolo @-@ a @-@ Manolo with Huffman every week . " Though he criticized the repetitive nature of the Susan and Gabrielle storylines , Slezak thought that the Applewhite mystery would help reduce the show 's chances of falling into a sophomore slump . He praised Woodward 's acting as well as her character 's storyline , opining , " there 's something so inherently warm and maternal in Woodard 's performance , such apple @-@ pie wholesomeness , that it makes her touches of menace all the more chilling . "
Gael Fashingbauer Cooper of MSNBC complimented that Applewhite storyline , writing : " Forget Lynette 's career stress , Gabrielle 's baby daddy drama , and even Bree 's new widowhood : This story has legs , and apparently arms . " She found it strange that the Bree , Andrew , and Danielle characters showed little emotion in regards to Rex 's death . Additionally , she noted that the Lynette and Gabrielle storylines provided comic relief while Susan , a character " so often saddled with the comic relief of the show , had a sad and serious premiere . " Sarah Gilbert of TV Squad gave the episode a positive review , stating the episode delivered " lots of juicy resolution , several power suits , and ( you guessed it ) lots of tears and shouting . " The Futon Critic selected " Next " as the 42nd best television episode of 2005 , writing , " Say what you will about the show 's rocky sophomore season but one can 't deny how strongly it started , " and citing the tie @-@ changing scene as the episode 's most memorable moment .
In 2005 , Bans and Murphy were nominated for a Writers Guild of America Award for Best Episodic Comedy writing , but lost to Jenji Kohan , who penned the pilot episode of the Showtime series Weeds .
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= Clannad ( visual novel ) =
Clannad ( クラナド , Kuranado ) is a Japanese visual novel developed by Key and released on April 28 , 2004 for Windows PCs . While both of Key 's first two previous works , Kanon and Air , had been released first as adult games and then censored for the younger market , Clannad was released with a rating for all ages . It was later ported to the PlayStation 2 , PlayStation Portable , Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Vita consoles . An English version for Windows was released on Steam by Sekai Project in 2015 .
The story follows the life of Tomoya Okazaki . In the first story arc , called School Life , he is a high school delinquent who meets many people in his last year at school , including five girls , and helps resolve their individual problems . The second story arc , called After Story , follows his life as an adult after graduating from school . The gameplay of Clannad follows a branching plot line which offers a number of alternate scenarios with dialogue choices and courses of interaction , focusing on the player character 's interactions with various non @-@ player characters .
The game was ranked as the best @-@ selling PC game sold in Japan for the time of its release , and charted in the national top 50 several more times afterwards . Key went on to produce an adult spin @-@ off titled Tomoyo After : It 's a Wonderful Life in November 2005 , which expanded on the scenario of Tomoyo Sakagami , one of the five heroines from Clannad .
Clannad has made several transitions to other media . There have been four manga adaptations published by ASCII Media Works , Flex Comix , Fujimi Shobo and Jive . Comic anthologies , light novels and art books have also been published , as have audio dramas and several albums of music . An animated film by Toei Animation was released in September 2007 , followed by two TV anime series including two original video animation ( OVA ) episodes by Kyoto Animation produced between 2007 and 2009 . Both anime series and their accompanying OVAs are licensed by Sentai Filmworks and were released in North America in 2009 . The animated adaptations have received high sales figures in Japan as well as critical acclaim abroad .
= = Gameplay = =
Clannad is a drama and romance visual novel in which the player assumes the role of Tomoya Okazaki . Much of its gameplay is spent on reading the story 's narrative and dialogue . Clannad follows a branching plot line with multiple endings ; depending on the decisions that the player makes during the game , the plot will progress in a specific direction .
There are six main plot lines that the player will have the chance to experience , five which are initially available . Throughout gameplay , the player is given multiple options to choose from , and text progression pauses at these points until a choice is made . To view all plot lines in their entirety , the player must replay the game multiple times and make different choices to change the plot progression .
When first playing the game , the scenarios for all five heroines and additional smaller scenarios are available in what is called the School Life story arc . When the player completes a character 's scenario , he or she receives an orb of light . When eight of these lights are obtained , the game 's second story arc , called After Story , is made available . One of the lights disappears during School Life , but reappears in After Story . To view the true ending of Clannad , all 13 lights must be obtained . Originally , the lights were meant to be items that players could use in the game , but since this increased the game 's complexity , and detracted from the storyline , the function of the lights was simplified and made less intrusive .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and themes = = =
The first half of the story takes place primarily at Hikarizaka Private High School , a fictional school located in Japan . Outside of the school , frequented locations include the bakery run by Nagisa 's parents , and the dormitory where Youhei Sunohara lives . Throughout the story , glimpses into an Illusionary World are shown . This world is devoid of all life except for a young girl , though she later makes a body out of junk pieces through which the player can interact with her . The remaining half of the story takes place in the same city , after the conclusion of the first half . While the town 's name was never directly mentioned , one can infer that the town 's name is Hikarizaka based on the many companies and establishments that share this name .
There are recurring themes that appear throughout the story . The main theme is the value of having a family , as the title of the series implies because the main scenario writer Jun Maeda mistakenly thought the name of the Irish band Clannad meant " clan " or " family " in Irish . Of the six main characters , Tomoya , Nagisa , and Kotomi have no siblings , though their parents are major factors in their stories . Nagisa 's story was written to incorporate what Maeda described as a " perfect family " with a focus on mental consciousness . In Nagisa 's story , there is a recurring appearance of " The Big Dango Family " ( だんご大家族 , Dango Daikazoku ) ( a fictional group mascot for children ) that Nagisa is fond of . Tomoya 's and Nagisa 's characters were written in a style to exemplify a " growth to adulthood " by the end of the story . Fuko 's and Kyou 's stories have their sisters playing an integral part , and Tomoyo 's story is influenced by her entire family . A minor motif of Irish words continues with the opening theme of the game , " Mag Mell " , which means roughly " plain of joy " and is connected with Irish mythology . The arrange album , a short music CD that contained remixed versions of songs in the game , that was bundled with the original game release was titled Mabinogi , which was a collection of prose stories from medieval Welsh manuscripts .
= = = Main characters = = =
The player assumes the role of Tomoya Okazaki , the protagonist of Clannad . Tomoya has been labeled a delinquent ; at the beginning of the story , he even expresses hatred toward the city he has lived in all his life where Clannad is set . He is very straightforward in his comments to others and will not hesitate to speak his mind , even if he comes off as rude during such times . Despite this , Tomoya is very loyal to his friends , and has been known to dedicate himself for those around him in need of help or support . He generally has a selfless personality and does not ask much from others in return for what he does for them .
Tomoya meets Nagisa Furukawa , the main heroine of Clannad , at the onset of the story . Nagisa is a soft @-@ spoken girl who has very low self @-@ esteem and self @-@ confidence which causes her to rely on those around her for support . She has developed the strange habit of muttering the names of favorite foods that she plans to eat as a way to motivate herself , such as anpan . Kyou Fujibayashi , another of Clannad 's heroines , is a bad @-@ mouthed and aggressive girl well known as a good cook among her friends and family . When angry she does not hesitate to throw a dictionary at people that she often carries around for such purposes . Despite this attitude , she also has a more subdued side , especially towards her younger fraternal twin sister Ryou Fujibayashi .
Tomoya meets a genius girl named Kotomi Ichinose , one day in the school library . She is ranked in the top 10 throughout the whole country in standardized exam results of every subject — she always goes to library to read extra materials , especially books in foreign languages . Kotomi is a very quiet girl with poor social skills and it is quite difficult to communicate with her ; Kotomi can even completely ignore someone when reading , even if they make loud disturbances around her . Clannad 's fourth heroine is a second @-@ year student named Tomoyo Sakagami who transfers into Tomoya 's school . Tomoyo , like Kyou , can be extremely aggressive , and Tomoyo is a very strong fighter , preferring to use kicking over punching , and is very athletic . Although Tomoya is older than her , Tomoyo does not show him respect as a senior student . Tomoyo appears in Key 's fifth game , Tomoyo After : It 's a Wonderful Life , as the main heroine .
The last heroine in Clannad is a first @-@ year student named Fuko Ibuki who has a distant attitude towards others and , before she met Tomoya , was generally seen alone by herself making wood carvings of starfish with a small knife to give to others as presents . Fuko is extremely enthralled by starfish , or things that are star @-@ shaped , and will often go into short euphoric bouts where her awareness of her surroundings is completely overtaken .
= = = Story = = =
Clannad 's story revolves around Tomoya Okazaki , a third year high school student who dislikes his life . Tomoya 's mother ( Atsuko ) died when Tomoya was young , leaving his father ( Naoyuki ) to raise him . After the accident , Tomoya 's father turned to alcohol and gambling , and had frequent fights with his son . One day , Naoyuki , while arguing with his son , slammed Tomoya against the window , dislocating Tomoya 's shoulder . This injury prevents Tomoya from playing on the basketball team , and causes him to distance himself from others . Ever since then , his father has treated Tomoya nicely , but distantly , as if Tomoya and he were strangers rather than a family . This hurts Tomoya more than his previous relationship with his father , and the awkwardness of returning home leads Tomoya constantly to stay out all night . Thus his delinquent life begins . Tomoya 's good friend Youhei Sunohara , who was thrown out of the soccer club over a dispute with his seniors , is also a delinquent and often hangs out in his dorm room with Tomoya doing nothing much .
The story opens on Monday April 14 , 2003 at the beginning of the school year , when Tomoya meets Nagisa Furukawa , a soft @-@ spoken girl who is one year older than he is but is repeating her last year in high school due to being sick much of the previous year . Her goal is to join the drama club which she was unable to do due to her sickness , but they find that the drama club was disbanded after the few remaining members graduated . Since Tomoya has a lot of time to kill , he helps Nagisa in reforming the drama club . During this period , Tomoya meets and hangs out with several other girls whom he gets to know well and help with their individual problems .
= = = = After Story = = = =
In the second part of the story , which starts immediately after the end of the first part but extends into the next seven years , Tomoya and Nagisa start living together , and eventually get married . Tomoya has to endure several hardships that the family has been suffering from , especially Nagisa 's illness . Just after Nagisa gives birth to their daughter Ushio , she dies , which causes Tomoya to become severely depressed . He is barely able to function , let alone look after an infant . As a result , Nagisa 's parents , Akio and Sanae , take care of their granddaughter . Five years later , Tomoya meets with Shino Okazaki , his paternal grandmother . Shino tells Tomoya of his father 's traumatic past , which is eerily similar to Tomoya 's current situation . Afterwards , Tomoya resolves to raise Ushio and acknowledges Naoyuki as his father . Shortly after Tomoya overcomes his depression , Ushio is stricken with the same disease that Nagisa had . Tomoya , Sanae and Akio struggle to save her — Tomoya even quits his job — but all of their efforts turn out to be in vain . In the coming winter , wanting to do anything for his daughter , Tomoya takes her on a trip , but she dies shortly after .
Tomoya 's psychology is developed in his dreams of a bleak world , called the Illusionary World ( 幻想世界 , Gensō Sekai ) , where small orbs of light float around . In the first few dreams , he sees a world devoid of all life , except for one girl . Each time he dreams , he finds out more about the world . Tomoya discovers that the girl has a special ability to fuse junk together to create new things , which she uses to create a body for him . Over time , Tomoya comes to the conclusion that only the two of them are " alive " . To pass time , Tomoya and the girl try to build another doll with more junk they find , but as it has no soul , it fails to come to life . Remembering the distant world where he came from , Tomoya convinces the girl to build a ship so that the two can escape the approaching winter and continue to live a happy life . Eventually , winter sets in , and the girl becomes cold to the point where she cannot move any more . The girl tells Tomoya that he has another chance to go back and make things right . To do so , he must collect certain " lights " ( symbols of happiness ) similar to those floating around in the Illusionary World . If all the " lights " are collected throughout both story parts , a chance to save Nagisa from dying will become available , as well as the true ending , where she survives and lives with Tomoya and Ushio .
= = Development = =
The executive producer for Clannad was Takahiro Baba from VisualArt 's , the publishing company which controls Key . Jun Maeda , who was one of three main scenario writers with Kai , and Yūichi Suzumoto , led the planning for Clannad and wrote the majority of the scenarios . Scenario assistance was provided by Tōya Okano . Itaru Hinoue headed the art direction , and also worked on the character design . Miracle Mikipon , Mochisuke , Na @-@ Ga , and Shinory supplemented the computer graphics . Torino provided the background art . The game 's music was composed by Maeda , Shinji Orito , and Magome Togoshi .
For Key 's second visual novel Air , Maeda admitted he felt he was able to write what he wanted to for the game 's scenario , but he later discovered that Air was difficult for players to receive and experience . Due to this , Maeda felt that for Key 's next work Clannad , he had a sense of duty to make the game easier to receive for as many users as possible . In any case , he wanted to make it an entertaining game , and started planning on Clannad almost immediately after Air 's completion . From the start of Clannad 's planning , Maeda did not want to write a story like in Air , but instead wanted to focus on writing a deep connection between the ' people and the town ' , and ' humanity ' . Maeda noted that he exceeded his writing ability when writing most of the scenarios in Clannad , and equates Clannad 's writing process as a " wall that I will never be able to get over again . " While at the beginning Maeda felt he was prepared , the entire game 's story started to increase to a level Maeda never predicted , and Suzumoto noted that it approximately doubled in size from the original projected length . Suzumoto attributed the increase due to the lengthening structure of the game 's base scenario which caused the ' branch ' scenarios to increase as well .
There were more concerns about Clannad being similar to Air . When Nagisa 's scenario was being written , there were some disputes concerning the length of her scenario , and thus putting too much focus on the main heroine . Some were concerned that having a single prominent character with a unique storyline would be too much like how Air was structured with the overall focus on Misuzu Kamio . Takahiro Baba , the company president of VisualArt 's , is even noted as suggesting to minimize the differences between the other characters ' scenarios , but this was ultimately ignored since Maeda thought the game 's evaluation by players would not decrease on account of the scenarios being vastly different , and thought the end result was a good one . Maeda was concerned that the After Story arc , mainly a continuation of Nagisa 's scenario , would eclipse the entire game 's scenario , much like what happened with Air according to Maeda . In order to prevent the same thing happening in Clannad , Maeda focused on making the first half of the story , the School Life arc , just as enjoyable by making it long and heart @-@ breaking . Clannad is Key 's second longest work , as reported by Yūto Tonokawa where he stated that Clannad is about 4 @,@ 000 words fewer than Key 's 2008 game Little Busters ! Ecstasy .
= = = Release history = = =
Key announced in 2001 a release date of 2002 for Clannad and , after several postponements , Clannad was released on April 28 , 2004 as a limited edition version , playable on a Windows PC as a DVD . The limited edition came bundled with the remix album Mabinogi remixing background music tracks featured in the visual novel . The regular edition was released on August 6 , 2004 ; While Clannad originally had no voice acting , Key released a version for Windows titled Clannad Full Voice on February 29 , 2008 with full voice acting ( except for Tomoya ) . Clannad Full Voice contained one new CG , and had updated support for Windows Vista PCs . Clannad Full Voice was re @-@ released by Key under the name Clannad on July 31 , 2009 in a box set containing five other Key visual novels called Key 10th Memorial Box . An updated version compatible for Windows 7 PCs titled Clannad Memorial Edition was released on May 28 , 2010 .
Clannad was released for Windows on Steam by Sekai Project in English on November 23 , 2015 . In November 2014 , Sekai Project used the crowdfunding website Kickstarter to raise funds to produce the English translation of Clannad . After less than 24 hours , the project reached its goal of US $ 140 @,@ 000 . When the Kickstarter campaign reached its US $ 320 @,@ 000 stretch goal , Sekai Project announced that they would also be translating and releasing the Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de side stories for Windows . Overall , the Kickstarter campaign raised US $ 541 @,@ 161 , exceeding all of its stretch goals . Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de was released on Steam on June 2 , 2016 .
The first consumer console port of the game was released for the PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) on February 23 , 2006 by Interchannel . The PS2 version was re @-@ released as a " Best " version on July 30 , 2009 . The PS2 version was bundled in a " Key 3 @-@ Part Work Premium Box " package together with the PS2 versions of Kanon and Air released on July 30 , 2009 . An Xbox 360 version was released on August 28 , 2008 also by Prototype . A PlayStation 3 ( PS3 ) version was released by Prototype on April 21 , 2011 . A downloadable version of the PS3 release via the PlayStation Store was released by Prototype on February 14 , 2013 .
A version produced by NTT DoCoMo playable on FOMA mobile phones was released by Prototype through VisualArt 's Motto in late 2007 . Prototype later released a version playable on SoftBank 3G phones in January 2008 . A version playable on Android devices was released on September 18 , 2012 . A PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) version of the game was released in Japan on May 29 , 2008 by Prototype , which included the additions from the Windows full voice version . The limited edition release of the PSP and Xbox 360 versions came bundled with a " digest " edition of the drama CD series released by Prototype containing five separate stories each ; the CD bundled with the PSP release is different from the CD bundled with the Xbox 360 version . Prototype also released a port of the game for the PlayStation Vita on August 14 , 2014 to mark the 10 @-@ year anniversary of the game .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Books and publications = = =
A magazine @-@ sized 39 @-@ page book called pre @-@ Clannad was published by SoftBank Creative on April 15 , 2004 . The book contained images from the visual novel , and short explanations of the characters , along with production sketches and concept drawings . A 160 @-@ page visual fan book was published by Enterbrain on October 12 , 2004 which contained detailed story explanations , computer graphics , sheet music for the opening and ending themes , and interviews from the creators . Near the end of the book contains original illustrations of Clannad characters from various artists , three additional chapters of the Official Another Story , and production sketches .
A set of 14 illustrated short stories which added to Clannad 's story were serialized between the September 2004 and October 2005 issues of ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki G 's Magazine . Titled Official Another Story Clannad : Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de ( Official Another Story Clannad 光見守る坂道で , Official Another Story Clannad : On the Hillside Path that Light Watches Over ) , there were 13 regular chapters and one extra bonus chapter . The installments were written by Key 's scenario staff and each story was accompanied by illustrations by Japanese artist GotoP . Two more stories were included when they were collected into a 103 @-@ page bound volume released on November 25 , 2005 .
Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de was later re @-@ released via SoftBank 3G and FOMA mobile phones produced by Prototype through VisualArt 's Motto starting in January 2008 . One chapter was released weekly with the SoftBank 3G releases three weeks behind the version for FOMA phones . Prototype again re @-@ released the short story collection , this time on the PSP in two volumes , each containing eight chapters and including the original art by GotoP . The first volume was released on June 3 , 2010 and the second followed on July 15 , 2010 ; the re @-@ release is described by the developers as a " visual sound novel " . Prototype released the short story collection as downloadable content on July 6 , 2011 for the PS3 version of Clannad . Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de was released in two volumes on Android devices : the first volume on November 30 , 2011 , and volume two on April 11 , 2012 .
Two Clannad anthology character novels were written by several authors and published by Jive in September and December 2004 . The first volume of a short story anthology compilation series written by Hiro Akizuki and Mutsuki Misaki titled Clannad . ( くらなど 。 ) was released in November 2008 published by Harvest ; the third volume was released in October 2009 . Three volumes of a short story compilation series by several authors titled Clannad SSS were published by Harvest between June and August 2009 . Harvest published a novel titled Clannad Mystery File in August 2010 and another novel titled Clannad : Magic Hour in December 2010 .
= = = Manga = = =
The first manga illustrated by Juri Misaki titled Clannad Official Comic was serialized in Jive 's manga magazine Comic Rush between the May 2005 and April 2009 issues . Jive published eight tankōbon volumes between November 7 , 2005 and March 7 , 2009 . The second manga , titled Official Another Story Clannad : Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de and illustrated by Rino Fujii , was serialized between June 21 , 2007 and August 21 , 2008 in Flex Comix 's Comi Digi + magazine , and contained 11 chapters . The story for the second manga was adapted from the Clannad short story collection of the same name . The first volume for Official Another Story Clannad was released by Broccoli on February 21 , 2008 in a limited and regular edition , each with their own cover . The limited edition comes bundled with a small black notebook with the school emblem of Tomoya 's school on the cover . In order to commemorate the sale , an autograph session with the manga 's illustrator signing copies was held on March 2 , 2008 at Gamers in Nagoya , Japan . The second and final volume , again in limited and regular editions , was released on December 20 , 2008 .
A third Clannad manga illustrated by Shaa began serialization in the August 2007 issue of ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki G 's Magazine , published on June 30 , 2007 . The manga ended serialization in Dengeki G 's Magazine in the July 2009 issue , and was serialized in Dengeki G 's Festival ! Comic between October 26 , 2009 and April 28 , 2014 . ASCII Media Works published five volumes for Shaa 's Clannad manga under their Dengeki Comics imprint between February 27 , 2008 and July 26 , 2014 . A fourth manga , titled Clannad : Tomoyo Dearest and illustrated by Yukiko Sumiyoshi , was serialized between February 20 and August 20 , 2008 in Fujimi Shobo 's Dragon Age Pure magazine . The story centers on Tomoyo 's arc from the Clannad visual novel . A single volume for Clannad : Tomoyo Dearest was released on October 9 , 2008 .
There have also been four sets of manga anthologies produced by different companies and drawn by a multitude of different artists . The first volume of the earliest anthology series , released by Ohzora under the title Clannad , was released in June 2004 under their Twin Heart Comics imprint . Volumes for this series continued to be released until April 2005 with the fifth volume . The second anthology was released in a single volume by Jive on January 25 , 2005 titled Clannad Comic Anthology : Another Symphony . The third anthology series was released in two volumes by Ichijinsha on June 25 , 2004 and July 24 , 2004 under their DNA Media Comics ; a third special volume was released much later on December 25 , 2007 . The first volume of the last anthology series , a collection of four @-@ panel comic strips released by Enterbrain under the title Magi @-@ Cu 4 @-@ koma Clannad , was released on February 25 , 2008 under their MC Comics imprint ; the tenth volume in the series was released on August 26 , 2009 . Each of the anthology series are written and drawn by an average of 20 people per volume .
= = = Drama CDs = = =
There are two separate sets of drama CDs based on the Clannad series . The first set , produced by Frontier Works , contains five CDs each focusing on a different heroine in Clannad 's story ranging from Nagisa , to Kotomi , Fuko , Kyou , and Tomoyo . The first volume was released in Japan on April 25 , 2007 as a limited edition with an extra track added . The second through fifth volumes followed in one month increments between May 25 , 2007 and August 24 , 2007 . The second set , produced by Prototype , contains four CDs ; the first was released on July 25 , 2007 . Volumes two through four were released in one month intervals after that , with the last being released on October 24 , 2007 . Each CD is based on the stories from the Official Another Story Clannad : Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de collection . The artist GotoP , who provided the illustrations for the short stories , also illustrates the drama CD covers . The drama CDs , with text and visuals , are available as downloadable content via Xbox Live and the PlayStation Store when playing the Xbox 360 and PS3 versions of Clannad , respectively .
= = = Film = = =
Toei Animation ( the same team who worked on the original Kanon anime and Air film ) announced at the Tokyo Anime Fair on March 23 , 2006 that an animated film would be produced . The Clannad film was released on September 15 , 2007 , directed by the same director of the Air film , Osamu Dezaki , and the screenplay was written by Makoto Nakamura . The film is a reinterpretation of the Clannad storyline which centers on the story arc of the female lead Nagisa Furukawa . The film was released on DVD in three editions : the Collector 's Edition , the Special Edition , and the Regular Edition on March 7 , 2008 . Sentai Filmworks released an English @-@ subbed and dubbed version of the film in March 2011 .
= = = Anime series = = =
On March 15 , 2007 , the Japanese television station BS @-@ i announced a Clannad anime series via a short 30 @-@ second teaser trailer that was featured at the end of the final episode of the second Kanon anime series . Clannad is produced by Kyoto Animation and directed by Tatsuya Ishihara , who also worked on other adaptations of Key 's visual novels Air , and Kanon . The anime aired between October 4 , 2007 and March 27 , 2008 , containing 23 aired episodes out of a planned 24 ; the broadcast time was first announced on August 11 , 2007 at the TBS festival Anime Festa , which is also when the first episode was showcased . The anime series was released in a set of eight DVD compilations released between December 19 , 2007 and July 16 , 2008 by Pony Canyon , with each compilation containing three episodes . Of the 24 episodes , 23 were aired on television with the first 22 being regular episodes , followed by an additional extra episode . The last episode was released as an original video animation ( OVA ) on the eighth DVD on July 16 , 2008 and is set in an alternate universe from the anime series where Tomoya and Tomoyo are dating , which is based on Tomoyo 's scenario in the game . The OVA episode was previewed on May 31 , 2008 for an audience of four @-@ hundred people picked via a mail @-@ in postcard campaign . A Blu @-@ ray Disc ( BD ) box set of Clannad was released on April 30 , 2010 .
After the ending of the 23rd episode of the first Clannad anime series , a 15 @-@ second teaser trailer aired promoting a second season titled Clannad After Story . The anime is again animated by Kyoto Animation , and animates the After Story arc from the visual novel , which is a continuation of Nagisa 's story , into 24 episodes . The same staff and cast from the first anime were used and the series broadcast in Japan between October 3 , 2008 and March 26 , 2009 . Of the 24 episodes , 22 are regular episodes , the 23rd is an extra episode , and the last episode is a summary episode showcasing highlights from the series . The episodes were released on eight DVD compilation volumes between December 3 , 2008 and July 1 , 2009 . The eighth DVD volume came with an additional OVA episode set in an alternate universe from the anime series where Tomoya and Kyou are dating . The OVA episode was previewed on May 24 , 2009 to a limited number of people . A BD box set of Clannad After Story was released on April 20 , 2011 in Japan with English subtitles .
The license holding company Sentai Filmworks licensed the Clannad anime series , and ADV Films localized and distributed the television series and the OVA starting with the first half season box set consisting of 12 episodes with English subtitles , Japanese audio , and no English language track , which was released on March 3 , 2009 . The second half season box set containing the remaining episodes was released on May 5 , 2009 . Sentai Filmworks licensed the Clannad After Story anime series ; Section23 Films localized and distributed both the television series and OVA starting with the first half season box set with English subtitles released on October 20 , 2009 . The second half box set was released on December 8 , 2009 . Sentai Filmworks re @-@ released Clannad in a complete collection set on June 15 , 2010 , which featured an English dub , produced at Seraphim Digital . The English dub premiered on March 25 , 2010 on the Anime Network . Sentai Filmworks re @-@ released Clannad After Story with an English dub on April 19 , 2011 , and re @-@ released Clannad on BD in November 2011 .
The opening theme for the first season is " ' Mag Mell ' ( cuckool mix 2007 ) " by Eufonius , a remix of the song " ' Mag Mell ' ( cockool mix ) " , featured on the third disc of the game 's original soundtrack , which is itself a remix of the game 's opening theme " Mag Mell " ( メグメル , Megu Meru ) . The first season 's ending theme is " Dango Daikazoku " ( だんご大家族 , The Big Dango Family ) by Chata . It carries the same tune as " Chiisana Tenohira " ( 小さなてのひら , Small Palms ) , the ending theme from the After Story arc of the game . The second season 's opening theme is " Toki o Kizamu Uta " ( 時を刻む唄 , A Song to Pass the Time ) which uses the same tune as the background music track " Onaji Takami e " ( 同じ高みへ , To the Same Heights ) from the game 's soundtrack . The ending theme is " Torch " , and both the opening and ending themes are sung by Lia . The rest of the soundtrack for both anime series is sampled from several albums released for the Clannad visual novel including the Clannad Original Soundtrack , Mabinogi , -Memento- , Sorarado , and Sorarado Append . The cover art for Sorarado Append is also visible as the last shot in the ending video animation of the first season .
= = = Internet radio shows = = =
An Internet radio show to promote the Clannad anime series called Nagisa to Sanae no Omae ni Rainbow ( 渚と早苗のおまえにレインボー ) was broadcast between October 5 , 2007 and October 3 , 2008 , containing 52 episodes . The show , produced by Onsen and Animate TV , was hosted by Mai Nakahara , who played Nagisa Furukawa in the anime , and Kikuko Inoue , who played Sanae Furukawa , and was streamed online every Friday . Several voice actors from the anime adaptation appeared on the show as guests who included Ryō Hirohashi ( as Kyou ) , Atsuko Enomoto ( as Yukine ) , Akemi Kanda ( as Ryou ) , Yuichi Nakamura ( as Tomoya ) , and Daisuke Sakaguchi ( as Youhei ) . A two @-@ disc CD compilation containing the show 's first 13 broadcasts was produced on June 18 , 2008 . The second two @-@ disc CD compilation containing the 14th through 26th broadcasts was released on October 15 , 2008 , and a third CD volume followed on November 19 , 2008 . A fourth and final volume was released on February 18 , 2009 containing the rest of the broadcasts .
A second Internet radio show to promote the Clannad After Story anime series called Nagisa to Sanae to Akio no Omae ni Hyper Rainbow ( 渚と早苗と秋生のおまえにハイパーレインボー ) was broadcast between October 10 , 2008 and April 10 , 2009 , containing 26 episodes . The show was also produced by Onsen and Animate TV , and was streamed online every Friday . The show had three hosts including the previous two plus Ryōtarō Okiayu who plays Akio Furukawa in the anime series . Two two @-@ disc CD compilations were released containing the second radio shows broadcasts , the first released on February 18 , 2009 , followed by the second on May 29 , 2009 .
= = Music = =
The Clannad visual novel has four pieces of theme music : one opening theme , two ending themes , and an insert song . The opening theme is " Mag Mell " ( メグメル , Megu Meru ) by Eufonius . The two ending themes are " -Kage Futatsu- " ( -影二つ- , -Two Shadows- ) and " Chiisana Tenohira " ( 小さなてのひら , Small Palms ) sung by Riya of Eufonius ; the latter is used as the ending theme in the After Story arc . The insert song " Ana " is sung by Lia . Six of the characters have background music leitmotifs — the five heroines , and Yukine Miyazawa . Nagisa 's theme is the self @-@ titled " Nagisa " ( 渚 ) ; Kyou 's theme is " Sore wa Kaze no Yōni " ( それは風のように , That 's Like the Wind ) ; Kotomi 's theme is " Étude Pour les Petites Supercordes " ; Tomoyo 's theme is " Kanojo no Honki " ( 彼女の本気 , Her Determination ) ; Fuko 's theme is " Hurry , Starfish " ( は 〜 りぃすたーふぃしゅ , Ha ~ rī Sutāfisshu ) ; lastly , Yukine 's theme is " Shiryōshitsu no Ochakai " ( 資料室のお茶会 , Tea Party in the Reference Room ) .
An image song album titled Sorarado was released in December 2003 featuring songs sung by Riya . A remix album , Mabinogi , came bundled with the original release of Clannad in April 2004 . The game 's original soundtrack was released in August 2004 containing three discs containing 56 tracks . A follow @-@ up to Sorarado was released in December 2004 called Sorarado Append ; the songs were again sung by Riya . A remix album titled -Memento- was also released in December 2004 and contained two discs . A piano arrangement album was released in December 2005 called Piano no Mori , which contained five tracks from Clannad and five from Tomoyo After : It 's a Wonderful Life . Each of the albums released for the visual novel version were released on Key 's record label Key Sounds Label .
A maxi single by Eufonius was released in July 2007 for the Clannad film called " Mag Mell ( frequency ⇒ e Ver . ) " . The single contained a remix version of the game 's opening theme , and instrumental track of that remix , and an original track . An image album titled Yakusoku was released in August 2007 featuring a song sung by Lia , an instrumental version of that song , and two background music tracks used in the film . The film 's original soundtrack was released in November 2007 . The albums released for the film were produced by Frontier Works . A single was released in October 2007 for the first anime series called " Mag Mell / Dango Daikazoku " which contained the anime 's opening and ending themes in original , short , and instrumental versions plus a remix version of " Shōjo no Gensō " ( 少女の幻想 , The Girl 's Fantasy ) , a track featured in Sorarado sung by Riya . A single for the second season anime series was released in November 2008 called " Toki o Kizamu Uta / Torch " , and contains the anime 's opening and ending themes sung by Lia . A remix album containing piano arrangement versions of the second anime series ' opening and ending themes was released in December 2008 called " Toki o Kizamu Uta / Torch " Piano Arrange Disc . The anime series ' two singles and one album are released on Key Sounds Label .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
In the October 2007 issue of Dengeki G 's Magazine , poll results for the 50 best bishōjo games were released . Out of 249 titles , Clannad ranked first at 114 votes ; in comparison , the second place title , Fate / stay night , got 78 votes . The PlayStation 2 release in 2006 was reviewed by the Japanese video game magazine Famitsu , which gave it an overall score of 26 / 40 ( out of the four individual review scores of 7 , 7 , 6 , and 6 ) . In 2008 , Clannad was voted No. 2 in the Dengeki poll of the most emotional games of all time . In 2011 , Clannad was voted No. 4 in Famitsu 's poll of the most tear @-@ inducing games of all time . In 2014 , Sony Computer Entertainment conducted a poll with over 10 @,@ 000 Japanese fans , where Clannad was voted No. 18 on the " Most Moving Games Over Books and Movies " list .
Multiplayer.it reviewed the Windows version and scored it 9 @.@ 2 out of 10 . They referred to it as " one of the best visual novels ever made " , praising the " rich " dialogues and storytelling , " deep " branching narrative , and " lifelike " characterization , referring to the cast as some of the best " characters ever seen " in " the world of video games . " RPGFan gave it an overall score of 83 % , including 88 % for story , 86 % gameplay , 74 % control , 72 % graphics , and 82 % sound . The review praised the large number of dialogue choices which " lets you feel involved in how the tale plays out " , " many genuinely funny moments , " and " emotionally touching " stories , particularly the After Story arc where Clannad " truly excels " with " heart @-@ wrenching " and " emotionally @-@ charged " storytelling , but criticized it for not having enough visuals and for having some " less interesting " side @-@ story paths in the School Life arc which require completion to unlock the After Story arc .
For the anime television adaptations , the first season of Clannad received reviews ranging from positive to mixed , while the second season Clannad After Story received wide critical acclaim . The THEM Anime Reviews website gave the entire series a score of 4 out of 5 stars , with reviewer Tim Jones describing the first season as " the most fleshed @-@ out and real Key animated adaption to date , " and reviewer Stig Høgset stating that the second season After Story " will play up the tragedies and the drama considerably , quite possibly tearing out your heart in the process . This is where time truly starts to fly by , lending the show some real weight in the emotional departments . "
Theron Martin of Anime News Network gave the first season a ' B + ' rating , criticizing its extensive use of moe elements , but considered it appealing entertainment for a " fan base who revels in this kind of thing . " His review for the second season After Story was much more positive , giving it an ' A- ' rating . He praised the second half of the season as " the best @-@ written quarter of Clannad , " stating that it " effectively builds up and delivers its emotional appeal , reinforces the series ' central theme ( i.e. the importance of family ) , and peaks visually , " and concluding that " only the most cynical of souls will avoid shedding at least a few tears at certain points . " On the DVD Talk website , the reviewer Todd Douglass Jr. gave Clannad After Story a " Highly Recommended " rating , stating that " the range of emotions Clannad takes you through is quite daunting . It 's charming , cute , hilarious , mysterious , and tragic all at the same time . Few shows are as memorable , and few are this good for this long . " He concludes that the storytelling is " heartfelt " and " memorable in so many ways , " and that " few shows rise to the levels this one does . "
= = = Sales = = =
Across the national ranking of bishōjo games in amount sold in Japan , the Clannad limited edition Windows release premiered at number one twice since its release , and the third ranking brought the Windows release down to 46 out of 50 . The first two weeks of June 2004 held the final ranking for the original release at 40 out of 50 . The Clannad regular edition Windows release premiered at number 26 in the rankings . The next two rankings for the regular edition were at 37 and 41 . According to sales information taken from the Japanese Amazon website , the original Windows version of Clannad sold 100 @,@ 560 copies in 2004 . Clannad Full Voice ranked twice in terms of highest selling PC games nationally in Japan , achieving sales rankings of 7 and 20 in February and March 2008 , respectively . For the week of April 18 , 2011 , the PlayStation 3 port of Clannad sold 7 @,@ 466 units . As of April 18 , 2011 , the console versions of Clannad had sold over 113 @,@ 000 copies . The two @-@ volume PSP editions of Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de sold 28 @,@ 984 copies by the end of 2010 . The English release of the Windows version debuted on the Steam charts at number three , above Call of Duty : Black Ops III and Grand Theft Auto V , and just below Fallout 4 and Counter @-@ Strike : Global Offensive .
The two anime series and film DVDs have shown consistent high sales figures . The first anime limited edition DVD ranked third for the week of December 19 and December 25 , 2007 . The second through fifth limited edition DVDs all ranked first during their first week of sales , while the sixth limited edition DVD volume was ranked fourth for the week of May 21 and May 27 , 2008 . The seventh and eighth limited edition DVD volumes both ranked first during their first week of sales . The third limited edition DVD ranked sixth for the most anime DVDs sold between December 2007 and November 2008 . A Blu @-@ ray Disc box set of Clannad ranked third for the week of April 26 and May 2 , 2010 , and ranked again at 13 the following week . The special edition film DVD first ranked at number three during its first week of sales , and dropped down to number 10 the following week .
The first limited edition DVD for Clannad After Story ranked second during its first week of sales selling 17 @,@ 521 units . The second through fourth limited edition DVDs for Clannad After Story ranked first during their first week of sales each selling over 16 @,@ 000 units each . The fifth through seventh limited edition DVDs for Clannad After Story ranked first during their first week of sales selling over 14 @,@ 000 units each . The eighth limited edition DVD for Clannad After Story ranked second during its first week of sales selling over 19 @,@ 800 units . The sixth limited edition DVD volume ranked again the week of May 11 and May 17 , 2009 at number three for anime DVDs . The seventh limited edition DVD volume ranked again the week of June 8 and June 14 , 2009 at number six for anime DVDs . The eighth limited edition DVD volume ranked again the week of July 6 and July 12 , 2009 at number five for anime DVDs .
= = = Legacy = = =
Gamania Entertainment hosted a collaboration event with Clannad and their two massively multiplayer online games ( MMOGs ) Hiten Online and Holy Beast Online . Between March 26 and June 26 , 2008 , the two games offered costumes characters could wear which looked like the winter school uniforms from Clannad , along with offering Kyou 's pet boar Botan for players to adopt . Players of either game who had a character over level 20 could enter a lottery where 500 people were chosen to win Clannad @-@ related goods which included virtual and real @-@ world items such as file folders , " netcash " cards , sports towels , tapestries , and various items used during gameplay .
ASCII Media Works and Vridge produced the PlayStation 2 visual novel Nogizaka Haruka no Himitsu : Cosplay Hajimemashita ( 乃木坂春香の秘密 こすぷれ 、 はじめました ♥ , lit . Haruka Nogizaka 's Secret : Cosplaying Has Begun ) based on the light novel series Nogizaka Haruka no Himitsu . Released in September 2008 , the game features the series ' characters cosplaying in various costumes either depicting characters from five popular light novel series published by ASCII Media Works , or three Clannad heroines . Haruka Nogizaka can cosplay as Kotomi Ichinose , Mika Nogizaka can cosplay as Nagisa Furukawa ( albeit with long hair ) , and Shiina Amamiya can cosplay as Tomoyo Sakagami . The player can also view exclusive CGs in the game if one of the girls is taken out to various places while cosplaying as one of the aforementioned five light novel series characters , or as the Clannad heroines . For example , if Mika is cosplaying as Nagisa , a CG of her eating dango can become viewable . When cosplaying as one of these tie @-@ in characters , the voice of the girl cosplaying changes to the voice actress of the character they are cosplaying ; for example , if Shiina cosplays as Tomoyo , she is voiced by Tomoyo 's voice actress Houko Kuwashima .
A 3D virtual world called Ai Sp @ ce was developed by the video game developer Headlock where users can interact with bishōjo game heroines from Clannad , Shuffle ! , and Da Capo II . Released in October 2008 , the world recreates each game franchise on its own virtual island which are linked with a central Akihabara Island where users can interact , bridging the gap between the separate franchises . Users are able to create a customizable avatar to represent themselves in the game , along with choosing one game heroine to live with , which is referred to as a character doll , or chara @-@ doll for short . The user and chara @-@ doll reside together on one of the three in @-@ game " islands " depending on which franchise the heroine is from , which includes a house with furniture and clothes that can be purchased . The chara @-@ dolls can also be customizable in that they can develop a unique personality for each user .
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= Sandra Schmirler =
Sandra Marie Schmirler , SOM ( June 11 , 1963 – March 2 , 2000 ) was a Canadian curler who captured three Canadian Curling Championships ( Scott Tournament of Hearts ) and three World Curling Championships . Schmirler also skipped ( captained ) her Canadian team to a gold medal at the 1998 Winter Olympics , the first year women 's curling was a medal sport . At tournaments where she was not competing , Schmirler sometimes worked as a commentator for CBC Sports , which popularized her nickname " Schmirler the Curler " and claimed she was the only person who had a name that rhymed with the sport she played . She died in 2000 at 36 of cancer , leaving a legacy that extended outside of curling . Schmirler was honoured posthumously with an induction into the Canadian Sports Hall of Fame and was awarded the World Curling Freytag Award , which later led to her induction into the World Curling Federation Hall of Fame .
= = Curling career = =
While attending Biggar Composite School in Biggar , Saskatchewan , Canada , Schmirler started curling in Grade 7 as part of the school 's physical education program . She grew up an athlete , playing volleyball , badminton , and softball . She was also an avid speed swimmer . She continued to curl on the local scene , participating in the Biggar Curling Club ladies ' league in Grade 9 . Playing as third on her high school team , she won a provincial championship in Grade 12 , when her team went undefeated throughout the season . She continued to curl after graduating from high school , while attending the University of Saskatchewan . While in university , Schmirler made her first appearance in Saskatchewan 's provincial playdowns in 1983 . After graduating university , Schmirler moved to Regina to take a job at the North West Leisure Centre . She continued to curl , and was given the nickname " Schmirler the Curler " by a supervisor at the facility . In 1987 , as a member of Kathy Fahlman 's rink , Schmirler won her first provincial championship , sending her to her first national championship , where she and her team finished in fourth place with a 7 – 5 win @-@ loss record .
Prior to the 1988 – 89 curling season , Schmirler and Jan Betker found themselves curling with different teammates , attempting to put together a stable squad . After a disappointing season , Schmirler decided to skip for the 1990 – 91 season , with Betker playing third . They recruited Joan Inglis ( McCusker ) to play second , and McCusker recommended Marcia Gudereit as a lead . This rink won the provincials in their first year together and finished in fourth place at the Scott Tournament of Hearts . In 1993 , the Schmirler rink again won the provincial title to move on to the Tournament of Hearts . Her rink defeated Maureen Bonar in the finals , giving Saskatchewan its first national women 's curling championship since Marj Mitchell 's win in 1980 . The rink moved on to the World Championship and defeated Janet Clews @-@ Strayer from Germany in the final that year , winning Canada its sixth world women 's title . The next season , she and her rink competed at the Tournament of Hearts as defending champions . The team finished first in the round robin , and defeated Connie Laliberte in the final to clinch a second consecutive Canadian championship . She and her team then represented Canada at the World Women 's Curling Championship , where they finished first in the round robin . She then advanced to the playoffs , and won the semifinal against Josefine Einsle of Germany and the final against Christine Cannon of Scotland . With her win in the final , she and her team clinched their second world championships , equalling their run from the previous season . At the time , no other Canadian rink ( men or women ) had won consecutive world championships . Schmirler returned to the Tournament of Hearts the next year as the defending champion . She and her team finished with an 8 – 3 win @-@ loss record and advanced to the playoffs as the second seed . She lost her next two games , however , and failed to advance to the final , losing a chance to win a third consecutive title . In 1997 , Schmirler and her rink returned to the Tournament of Hearts , where they finished with a 9 – 2 win @-@ loss record in the round robin . They advanced to the playoffs , and defeated Alison Goring of Ontario twice en route to winning her third Canadian championship . They then went to the World Championships , where they again finished first in the round robin and advanced to the playoffs , defeating Helena Blach Lavrsen of Denmark in the semifinals and Andrea Schöpp of Germany in the final to win a third world title . After each of these three seasons , her rink was named " Team of the Year " by Sask Sport .
In the 1998 Winter Olympics , curling became a medal sport for the first time . Olympic trials were held in November 1997 to select Canada 's representatives at the Olympics . The Schmirler rink finished first in the round robin , and defeated Shannon Kleibrink in the final with a score of 9 – 6 , behind strong shot making from Schmirler and McCusker . Schmirler made a difficult in @-@ off to win and clinch the berth to the Olympics . The 1998 Winter Olympics were held in Nagano , Japan . The Schmirler rink was among the favourites for gold , but there was a strong field in the event . After finishing the round robin in first place with six wins and one loss , Canada played their semifinal game against Great Britain 's Kirsty Hay . The game was tied after regulation play and went to an extra end , where Schmirler barely made a draw with her last rock to win the game . In the final against Denmark 's Helena Blach Lavrsen , Schmirler secured a win in nine ends , winning Canada the gold medal . After winning the gold medal , Sandra appeared on the front page of the New York Times . After the Olympics , the Schmirler rink was named ' Team of the Year ' by the Canadian Press . The team were also inducted into the Canadian Curling Hall of Fame in 1999 . After returning from the Olympics , Schmirler and her rink had to compete almost immediately in the Scott Tournament of Hearts as Team Canada . Schmirler and her team made the playoffs , and won the 3 vs. 4 playoff game before dropping the semifinal to Anne Merklinger . After losing in the semis , Schmirler joined CBC as a colour commentator for the final match .
= = = Teams = = =
= = = Career statistics = = =
Notes
^ Shot percentage . Round robin only , except for career total .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Family and education = = =
Schmirler was born to parents Shirley and Art Schmirler . She was born with a club foot , which required her to wear a cast for two months . She had two older sisters , Carol and Beverley . She attended high school in Biggar , and moved to Saskatoon to attend university . She started out towards a degree in computer science , but transferred after her first year to work for a degree in physical education . She convocated with a Bachelor of Science in Physical Education in 1985 .
In 1993 , teammate Marcia Gudereit introduced Schmirler to Shannon England . On June 22 , 1996 , they were married . In 1997 , Schmirler was pregnant with their first child . When this information was revealed to reporters at the Scott Tournament of Hearts , they jokingly dubbed her " Schmirler the Hurler " . On September 15 , 1997 , their daughter Sara Marion was born . In April 1999 , Sandra 's father Art Schmirler died from esophageal cancer . On June 30 , 1999 , the couple 's second daughter , Jenna Shirley , was born .
= = = Illness and death = = =
After Jenna 's birth , Schmirler experienced many health problems . She had suffered from back pain , which was thought to be pregnancy related , and following Jenna 's birth , she began to suffer from stomach pains . Tests showed that a cancerous node the size of a fist had developed behind her heart . As her condition worsened , she underwent surgery on September 6 , 1999 . During surgery , a dead piece of the tumour broke off and released a blood clot into her lung . Her heart stopped beating , and only emergency heart massage kept her alive . Almost a month after being diagnosed with cancer , doctors finally provided a specific diagnosis – metastatic adenocarcinoma , with an unknown primary site . Because no one could pin down where the cancer came from , Sandra referred to it as " the cancer from Mars . " In addition to chemotherapy and radiation , Schmirler explored orthomolecular medicine through the Canadian Cancer Research Group . This form of alternative medicine involves large doses of vitamins and nutrients .
In 2000 , Schmirler worked as colour commentator for CBC during Canada 's national junior curling championships . During her illness , Schmirler had been largely removed from the public eye . While in Moncton for the championships , Schmirler held a press conference to update her situation . In speaking publicly about her ordeal for the first time , Schmirler spared few details about what she had gone through , while also expressing her hope for the future : " There were three goals I had coming out of this thing , and the first one was to look after my family . And the second one ... because I curl so much , I 've never taken a hot vacation , so I 'm going to put my feet in the sand in a warm place . And the last one was to actually be here today , and I thank CBC , I thank Lawrence ( Kimber ) , and Joan Mead . "
After returning from Moncton , Schmirler felt physically well , but suffered a setback when a CAT scan revealed spots around her lungs . The decision was made not to proceed with further chemotherapy , but she continued with the orthomolecular therapy . She had been scheduled to work the 2000 Scott Tournament of Hearts , but was unable to do so . She faxed a statement from the hospital , which was read by TSN 's Vic Rauter . " I 'm still fighting hard and I still hope to make it to the Brier , not playing but talking . For Saskatchewan , I was hoping to be in your green shoes ( at the Scott ) . But keep things in perspective . There are other things in life besides curling , which I have found . But I hope to be on the curling trail again next year . And I 'll see you all in Sudbury ( the next Scott site ) in 2001 . Your curling friend , Sandra . " However , the optimism in her statement belied the seriousness of her condition . She had been moved to palliative care . She died in her sleep at the Pasqua Hospital Palliative Care Unit on the morning of March 2 , 2000 at age 36 . She was survived by her husband and her two daughters .
Her death caused reactions not just within Saskatchewan and the curling community , but also across the country . Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien said in a statement : " All Canadians have been touched by the untimely death of Sandra Schmirler . Most of us came to know her through her exploits as a champion curler and as an exemplary sports ambassador for Canada . But what really set her apart was her bright , engaging personality and her incredible zest for life , qualities that were so clearly in evidence as she fought so valiantly against her illness . She will be sorely missed . " In honour of Schmirler , flags at provincial office buildings in Saskatchewan were lowered to half @-@ staff .
TSN offered to broadcast her funeral live and to make the signal available to any other stations at no charge . Her husband , Shannon England , agreed to the broadcast on the condition that the family would not be shown during the service . CBC also broadcast the service , marking the first time a Canadian athlete 's funeral had been televised live on two networks . The Brier was just getting underway and games in the afternoon draw were delayed to allow curlers and fans to watch the funeral , which was broadcast on screens at the rink . Regina 's Agridome and Schmirler 's home Caledonian Curling Club also opened to show the funeral . Nine hundred people attended the service at the Regina Funeral Home , thousands watched at satellite locations around the province , and hundreds of thousands watched on television . The funeral was conducted by the Rev. Don Wells , and Sandra was eulogized by Brian McCusker , teammate Joan McCusker 's husband .
= = Awards and honours = =
In addition to the titles captured by her team on the ice , Schmirler has been recognized in several different ways off the ice as well . In 2000 , Schmirler was awarded the Saskatchewan Order of Merit , becoming the first posthumous recipient . Along with the other members of her rink , she had been previously awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from the University of Regina . In the fall of 2000 , Schmirler was inducted into the Canadian Sports Hall of Fame . Schmirler and her team were inducted into the Saskatchewan Sports Hall of Fame on two separate occasions , once in 1997 for winning three World Curling Championships and once in 2001 for winning the gold medal at the Olympics . At the annual Scotties Tournament of Hearts , the top player in the playoff round is awarded the Sandra Schmirler Most Valuable Player Award .
After her death , the city of Regina honoured Schmirler in several ways . The South East Leisure Centre where she used to work was renamed the " Sandra Schmirler Leisure Centre , " and the road leading up to the Callie Curling Club , where her team curled out of , was renamed " Sandra Schmirler Way . " Schmirler 's hometown of Biggar also honoured her memory with the construction of " The Sandra Schmirler Olympic Gold Park . "
Scott Paper created the Sandra Schmirler Foundation in January 2001 , with the assistance of the Canadian Curling Association and Scott Paper Limited . The foundation raises funds to help care for babies in crisis through direct donations to benefit neonatal care across Canada . In the charity 's first four years of existence donations were made to the Children 's Miracle Network , Canadian Cystic Fybrosis Foundation and Canadian Ronald McDonald Houses . After altering the charity 's mission to focus on neonatal care , donations have been made directly to hospitals in Halifax , Regina , London , Lethbridge , Hamilton and Victoria .
On January 7 , 2009 , Sandra was named the winner of the 2009 World Curling Freytag Award ( later incorporated into the WCF Hall of Fame ) . The award , named after American Elmer Freytag , who founded the World Curling Federation , honours curlers for championship play , sportsmanship , character and extraordinary achievement . Her husband and daughters accepted the award on her behalf at the 2009 World Men 's Curling Championship .
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= Columbia , Missouri =
Columbia / kəˈlʌmbiə / is a city in and the county seat of Boone County , Missouri , United States . Founded in 1820 as the county seat and home to the University of Missouri , it had a 2015 estimated population of 119 @,@ 108 , and it is the principal city of the Columbia Metropolitan Area , the state 's fourth most populous metropolitan area . As a midwestern college town , the city has a reputation for progressive politics , public art , and powerful journalism . The tripartite establishment of Stephens College ( 1833 ) , the University of Missouri ( 1839 ) , and Columbia College ( 1851 ) has long made the city a center of education , culture , and athletic competition . These three schools surround Downtown Columbia on the east , south , and north ; at the center is the Avenue of the Columns , which connects Francis Quadrangle and Jesse Hall to the Boone County Courthouse and the City Hall . Originally an agricultural town , the cultivation of the mind is Columbia 's chief economic concern today . Never a major center of manufacturing , the city also depends on healthcare , insurance , and technology businesses . Several companies , such as Shelter Insurance , Carfax , and Slackers CDs and Games , were founded in the city . Cultural institutions include the State Historical Society of Missouri , the Museum of Art and Archaeology , and the annual True / False Film Festival . The Missouri Tigers , the state 's only major athletic program , play football at Faurot Field and basketball at Mizzou Arena as members of the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) .
The city is built upon the forested hills and rolling prairies of Mid @-@ Missouri , near the Missouri River valley , where the Ozark Mountains begin to transform into plains and savanna ; limestone forms bluffs and glades while rain carves caves and springs which water the Hinkson , Roche Perche , and Petite Bonne Femme creeks . Surrounding the city , Rock Bridge Memorial State Park , Mark Twain National Forest , and Big Muddy National Fish and Wildlife Refuge all form a greenbelt preserving sensitive and rare environments . The first humans were nomadic hunters who entered the area at least twelve thousand years ago . Later , woodland tribes lived in villages along waterways and built mounds in high places . The Osage and Missouria nations were expelled by the exploration of French traders and the rapid settlement of American pioneers . The latter arrived by the Boone 's Lick Trail and hailed from the slave @-@ owning culture of the Upland South , especially Virginia , Kentucky , and Tennessee , giving Boonslick the name " Little Dixie " during the American Civil War . German , Irish , and other European immigrants soon joined . The modern populace is unusually diverse , over eight percent foreign @-@ born . While White and Black remain the largest ethnicities , Asians are now the third @-@ largest group . Today 's Columbians are remarkably highly educated and culturally midwestern , though traces of their Southern past remain . The city has been called the " Athens of Missouri " or a reference to its classic beauty and educational emphasis , but is more commonly called " CoMo " .
= = History = =
The Columbia area was once part of the Mississippian culture and home to the Mound Builders . When European explorers arrived , the area was populated by the Osage and Missouri Indians . In 1678 , La Salle claimed all of Missouri for France . The Lewis and Clark Expedition passed by the area on the Missouri River in early June 1804 . In 1806 , two sons of Daniel Boone established a salt lick 40 miles ( 64 km ) northwest of Columbia. giving the area its early name : Boonslick . The Boone 's Lick Trail wound from St. Charles to the lick in present @-@ day Howard County . In 1818 , a group of settlers , incorporated under the Smithton Land Company , purchased over 2 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 @.@ 1 km2 ) and established the village of Smithton less than a mile from current day downtown Columbia . In 1821 , the settlers moved , because of lack of water , across the Flat Branch to the plateau between the Flat Branch and Hinkson creeks in what is now the downtown district . They renamed the settlement Columbia — a poetic personification of the United States .
The roots of Columbia 's three economic foundations — education , medicine , and insurance — can be traced back to incorporation in 1821 . Original plans for the town set aside land for a state university . In 1833 , Columbia Baptist Female College opened , which later became Stephens College . Columbia College ( distinct from today 's ) , later to become the University of Missouri , was founded in 1839 . When the state legislature decided to establish a state university , Columbia raised three times as much money as any other competing city and James S. Rollins donated the land that is today the Francis Quadrangle . Soon other educational institutions were founded in Columbia such as Christian Female College , the first college for women west of the Mississippi , which later became the current Columbia College . The city benefited from being a stagecoach stop of the Santa Fe and Oregon trails , and later from the Missouri @-@ Kansas @-@ Texas Railroad . In 1822 the first hospital was set up by William Jewell . In 1830 , the first newspaper began ; in 1832 , the first theater in the state was opened ; and in 1835 , the state 's first agricultural fair was held . By 1839 , the population ( 13 @,@ 000 ) and wealth of Boone County was exceeded in Missouri only by that of St. Louis County , which at that time included the City of St. Louis .
Columbia 's infrastructure was relatively untouched by the Civil War . Missouri , as a slave state , had Southern sympathies , but remained in the Union . The majority of the city was pro @-@ Union , however , the surrounding agricultural areas of Boone County and the rest of central Missouri were decidedly pro @-@ Confederate . Because of this , the University of Missouri became a base from which Union troops operated . No battles were fought within the city because the presence of Union troops dissuaded Confederate guerrillas from attacking , though several major battles occurred nearby at Boonville and Centralia . After the Civil War , race relations in Columbia followed the Southern pattern ; a black man , George Burke , was lynched in 1889 .
In 1963 , Columbia become home to the headquarters of both the University of Missouri System , which today serves over 71 @,@ 000 students , and the Columbia College system , which today serves about 25 @,@ 000 students . The insurance industry also became important to the local economy as several companies established headquarters in Columbia , including Shelter Insurance , Missouri Employers Mutual , and Columbia Insurance Group . State Farm Insurance has a regional office in Columbia . In addition , the now defunct Silvey Insurance was once a large local employer . Columbia became a transportation crossroads when U.S. Route 63 and U.S. Route 40 ( which became present @-@ day Interstate 70 ) were routed through the city . Soon after the city opened the Columbia Regional Airport . The latter 20th century saw tremendous growth , and by 2000 the population was nearly 85 @,@ 000 in the city proper .
In early 2006 , Columbia embarked on a plan to manage the continued growth as the city passed 100 @,@ 000 population . The city continues to grow , especially east around the newly opened Battle High School . The downtown district has maintained its status as a cultural center and is undergoing significant development in both residential and commercial sectors . The University of Missouri , which has tremendous economic impact on the city , experienced record enrollment in 2006 and is undertaking significant construction .
= = Geography = =
Columbia , located in northern mid @-@ Missouri , is 120 miles ( 190 km ) away from both St. Louis and Kansas City , and 29 miles ( 47 km ) north of the state capital Jefferson City . The city is near the Missouri River between the Ozark Plateau and the Northern Plains . Trees are mainly oak , maple , and hickory ; common understory trees include eastern redbud , serviceberry , and flowering dogwood . Riparian areas are forested with mainly American sycamore . Much of the residential area of the city is planted with large native shade trees . In Autumn , the changing color of the trees is notable . Most species here are typical of the Eastern Woodland .
According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 63 @.@ 5 square miles ( 164 @.@ 46 km2 ) , of which , 63 @.@ 08 square miles ( 163 @.@ 38 km2 ) is land and 0 @.@ 42 square miles ( 1 @.@ 09 km2 ) is water .
= = = Topography = = =
The city generally slopes from the highest point in the Northeast to the lowest point in the Southwest towards the Missouri River . Prominent tributaries of the river are Perche Creek , Hinkson Creek , and Flat Branch Creek . Along these and other creeks in the area can be found large valleys , cliffs , and cave systems such as that in Rock Bridge State Park just south of the city . These creeks are largely responsible for numerous stream valleys giving Columbia hilly terrain similar to the Ozarks while also having prairie flatland typical of northern Missouri . Columbia also operates several greenbelts with trails and parks throughout town .
= = = Animal life = = =
Large mammals found in the city includes urbanized coyotes and numerous whitetail deer . Eastern gray squirrel , and other rodents are abundant , as well as cottontail rabbits and the nocturnal opossum and raccoon . Large bird species are abundant in parks and include the Canada goose , mallard duck , as well as shorebirds , including the great egret and great blue heron . Turkeys are also common in wooded areas and can occasionally be seen on the MKT recreation trail . Populations of bald eagles are found by the Missouri River . The city is on the Mississippi Flyway , used by migrating birds , and has a large variety of small bird species , common to the eastern U.S. The Eurasian tree sparrow , an introduced species , is limited in North America to the counties surrounding St. Louis . Columbia has large areas of forested and open land and many of these areas are home to wildlife .
Frogs are commonly found in the springtime , especially after extensive wet periods . Common species include the American toad and species of chorus frogs , commonly called " spring peepers " that are found in nearly every pond . Some years have outbreaks of cicadas or ladybugs . Mosquitos and houseflies are common insect nuisances ; because of this , windows are nearly universally fitted with screens , and " screened @-@ in " porches are common in homes of the area .
= = = Climate = = =
Columbia has a climate marked by sharp seasonal contrasts in temperature , falling between a humid continental and humid subtropical climate ( Köppen Dfa / Cfa , respectively ) , and is located in USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 6a . The monthly daily average temperature ranges from 29 @.@ 7 ° F ( − 1 @.@ 3 ° C ) in January to 77 @.@ 3 ° F ( 25 @.@ 2 ° C ) in July , while the high reaches or exceeds 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) on an average 32 days per year , 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) on 2 @.@ 0 days , while 4 @.@ 0 nights of sub @-@ 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) lows can be expected . Precipitation tends to be greatest and most frequent in the latter half of spring , when severe weather is also most common . Snow averages 18 @.@ 0 inches ( 46 cm ) per season , mostly from December to March , with occasional November accumulation and falls in April being rarer ; historically seasonal snow accumulation has ranged from 3 @.@ 4 in ( 8 @.@ 6 cm ) in 2005 – 06 to 54 @.@ 9 in ( 139 cm ) in 1977 – 78 . Extreme temperatures have ranged from − 26 ° F ( − 32 ° C ) on February 12 , 1899 to 113 ° F ( 45 ° C ) on July 12 and 14 , 1954 . Readings of − 10 ° F ( − 23 ° C ) or 105 ° F ( 41 ° C ) are uncommon , the last occurrences being January 7 , 2014 and July 31 , 2012 .
= = Cityscape = =
Columbia 's most commonly recognizable architectural attributes reside downtown and within the university campuses . Widely used icons of the city are the University of Missouri 's Jesse Hall and the neo @-@ gothic Memorial Union . The David R. Francis Quadrangle is an example of Thomas Jefferson 's academic village concept . There are four historic districts listed on the National Register of Historic Places within the city : Downtown Columbia , East Campus Neighborhood , Francis Quadrangle , and North Ninth Street Historic District . The downtown skyline is relatively low and is dominated by the 10 @-@ story Tiger Hotel , and the 15 @-@ story Paquin Tower .
Downtown Columbia is an area of approximately one square mile surrounded by the University of Missouri on the south , Stephens College to the east and Columbia College on the north . The area serves as Columbia 's financial and business district and is the topic of a large initiative to draw tourism , which includes plans to capitalize on the area 's historic architecture , and Bohemian characteristics .
The city 's historic residential core lies in a ring around downtown , extending especially to the west along Broadway , and south into the East Campus neighborhoods . The city government recognizes 63 neighborhood associations . The city 's most dense commercial areas are primarily located along Interstate 70 , U.S. Route 63 , Stadium Boulevard , Grindstone Parkway , and the downtown area .
= = Demographics = =
= = = 2010 census = = =
As of the census of 2010 , there were 108 @,@ 500 people , 43 @,@ 065 households , and 21 @,@ 418 families residing in the city . The population density was 1 @,@ 720 @.@ 0 inhabitants per square mile ( 664 @.@ 1 / km2 ) . There were 46 @,@ 758 housing units at an average density of 741 @.@ 2 per square mile ( 286 @.@ 2 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 79 @.@ 0 % White , 11 @.@ 3 % African American , 0 @.@ 3 % Native American , 5 @.@ 2 % Asian , 0 @.@ 1 % Pacific Islander , 1 @.@ 1 % from other races , and 3 @.@ 1 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3 @.@ 4 % of the population .
There were 43 @,@ 065 households of which 26 @.@ 1 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 35 @.@ 6 % were married couples living together , 10 @.@ 6 % had a female householder with no husband present , 3 @.@ 5 % had a male householder with no wife present , and 50 @.@ 3 % were non @-@ families . 32 @.@ 0 % of all households were made up of individuals and 6 @.@ 6 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 32 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 94 .
In the city the population was spread out with 18 @.@ 8 % of residents under the age of 18 ; 27 @.@ 3 % between the ages of 18 and 24 ; 26 @.@ 7 % from 25 to 44 ; 18 @.@ 6 % from 45 to 64 ; and 8 @.@ 5 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age in the city was 26 @.@ 8 years . The gender makeup of the city was 48 @.@ 3 % male and 51 @.@ 7 % female .
= = = 2000 census = = =
As of the census of 2000 , there were 84 @,@ 531 people , 33 @,@ 689 households , and 17 @,@ 282 families residing in the city . The population density was 1 @,@ 592 @.@ 8 people per square mile ( 615 @.@ 0 / km ² ) . There were 35 @,@ 916 housing units at an average density of 676 @.@ 8 per square mile ( 261 @.@ 3 / km ² ) . The racial makeup of the city was 81 @.@ 54 % White , 10 @.@ 85 % Black or African American , 0 @.@ 39 % Native American , 4 @.@ 30 % Asian , 0 @.@ 04 % Pacific Islander , 0 @.@ 81 % from other races , and 2 @.@ 07 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2 @.@ 05 % of the population .
There were 33 @,@ 689 households out of which 26 @.@ 1 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 38 @.@ 2 % were married couples living together , 10 @.@ 3 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 48 @.@ 7 % were non @-@ families . 33 @.@ 1 % of all households were made up of individuals and 6 @.@ 5 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 26 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 92 .
In the city the population was spread out with 19 @.@ 7 % under the age of 18 , 26 @.@ 7 % from 18 to 24 , 28 @.@ 7 % from 25 to 44 , 16 @.@ 2 % from 45 to 64 , and 8 @.@ 6 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 27 years . For every 100 females , there were 91 @.@ 8 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 89 @.@ 1 males .
The median income for a household in the city was $ 33 @,@ 729 , and the median income for a family was $ 52 @,@ 288 . Males had a median income of $ 34 @,@ 710 versus $ 26 @,@ 694 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 19 @,@ 507 . About 9 @.@ 4 % of families and 19 @.@ 2 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 14 @.@ 8 % of those under age 18 and 5 @.@ 2 % of those age 65 or over .
= = Economy = =
Columbia 's economy is historically dominated by education , healthcare , and the insurance industry . Jobs in government are also common , either in Columbia or a half @-@ hour south in Jefferson City . Commutes into the city are also common and in 2000 , the city had a day time population of 106 @,@ 487 . The Columbia Regional Airport and the Missouri River Port of Rocheport connect the region with trade and transportation . The University of Missouri is by far the city 's largest employer .
The economy of Columbia 's metro area is slightly larger than that of the Bahamas . With a Gross Metropolitan Product of $ 5 @.@ 84 billion in 2004 , Columbia 's economy makes up 2 @.@ 9 % of the Gross State Product of Missouri . Insurance corporations headquartered in Columbia include Shelter Insurance , and the Columbia Insurance Group . Other organizations include MFA Incorporated , the Missouri State High School Activities Association , and MFA Oil . Companies such as Socket , Datastorm Technologies , Inc . ( no longer existent ) , Slackers CDs and Games , Carfax , and MBS Textbook Exchange were founded in Columbia .
= = = Top employers = = =
According to Columbia 's 2012 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report , the top employers in the city are :
= = Culture = =
The Missouri Theatre Center for the Arts and Jesse Auditorium are Columbia 's largest fine arts venues . Ragtag Cinema annually hosts the well @-@ known True / False Film Festival . In 2008 , filmmaker Todd Sklar completed Box Elder , which was filmed entirely in and around Columbia and the University of Missouri . The University of Missouri 's Museum of Art and Archaeology displays 14 @,@ 000 works of art and archaeological objects in five galleries for no charge to the public . Libraries include the Columbia Public Library , the University of Missouri Libraries , with over three million volumes in Ellis Library , and the State Historical Society of Missouri . The " We Always Swing " Jazz Series and the Roots N Blues N BBQ Festival bring some of the country 's finest Jazz and Blues to Columbia and Central Missouri . One of the last remaining traditional arcades in the country , Gunther 's Games , is a popular destination for gamers .
Columbia has a flourishing and progressive music scene thanks in large part to many acts that come out of the University . The indie band White Rabbits was formed while the members were students at the University of Missouri before moving to Brooklyn to record and gain a higher profile . Musical artists from Columbia have been compiled by Painfully Midwestern Records with the ComoMusic Anthology series , and the " Das Kompilation " release . Although the hip genre continues to give Columbia some music recognition , it is their progressive psychedelic @-@ heavy metal music scene that has garnered some attention lately . There are also local punk and hip @-@ hop scenes that are gaining momentum locally . Country music singer @-@ songwriter Brett James is also a native of Columbia . The song " Whiskey Bottle , " by Uncle Tupelo , is rumored to be about the city of Columbia as it makes specific reference to a sign which used to be displayed on a Columbia tackle shop sign which read , " Liquor , Guns , and Ammo . " The sign is now displayed at the downtown location of Shakespeare 's Pizza .
= = = Sports = = =
The University of Missouri 's sports teams , the Missouri Tigers , play a significant role in the city 's sports culture . Faurot Field at Memorial Stadium capacity 71 @,@ 168 , is host to both home football games and concerts . The Hearnes Center and Mizzou Arena are two other large sport and event venues , the latter being the home arena for Mizzou 's basketball team . Taylor Stadium is host to their baseball team and was the regional host for the 2007 NCAA Baseball Championship . Columbia College has several men and women collegiate sports teams as well . In 2007 , Columbia hosted the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics Volleyball National Championship , which the Lady Cougars participated in .
Columbia also hosts the Show @-@ Me State Games , a non @-@ profit program of the Missouri Governor 's Council on Physical Fitness and Health . They are the largest state games in the United States . These games consist of 26 — 28 @,@ 000 Missouri amateur athletes ( 35 @,@ 000 total ) of all ages and ability levels who compete in the Olympic @-@ style sports festival during July and August every year . It recently made ESPN 's list of " 101 Things All Sports Fans Must Experience Before They Die " .
Situated midway between St. Louis and Kansas City , Columbians will often have allegiances to the professional sports teams housed there , such as the St. Louis Cardinals , the Kansas City Royals , the Kansas City Chiefs , and the St. Louis Blues .
The NRA Bianchi Cup is held in Columbia every year . It is among the most lucrative of all the shooting sports championships .
= = = Media = = =
The city has two daily newspapers : the Columbia Missourian in the morning and the Columbia Daily Tribune in the afternoon . The Missourian is directed by professional editors and staffed by Missouri School of Journalism students who do reporting , design , copy editing , information graphics , photography and multimedia . The Missourian is associated with the Spanish @-@ English bilingual publication Adelante ! and Vox magazine . With a daily circulation of nearly 20 @,@ 000 , the Daily Tribune is the most widely read newspaper in central Missouri . The University of Missouri has the independent but official student newspaper called The Maneater , which is printed bi @-@ weekly . The now @-@ defunct Prysms Weekly was also published in Columbia . In Fall 2009 , KCOU News launched full operations out of KCOU 88.1FM on the MU Campus . The entirely student @-@ run news organization airs a daily newscast , " The Pulse " , weekdays from 4 : 30 to 5 : 30 p.m.
The city has 14 radio stations and 4 television channels .
= = Government and politics = =
The City of Columbia 's current government was established by a home rule charter adopted by voters on November 11 , 1974 , which established a Council @-@ manager government that invested power in the City Council . The City Council is made up of seven members – six elected by each of Columbia 's six wards , plus an at @-@ large council member , the Mayor , who is elected by all city voters . The mayor currently receives a $ 9 @,@ 000 annual stipend and the six remaining council members receive a $ 6 @,@ 000 annual stipend . They are elected to staggered three @-@ year terms . The Mayor , in addition to being a voting member of the City Council , is recognized as the head of city government for ceremonial purposes . Chief executive authority is invested in a city manager , who oversees the day @-@ to @-@ day operations of government .
Columbia is the county seat of Boone County , and the county court and government center are located there . The City is located in Missouri 's 4th congressional district . The 19th Missouri State Senate district covers all of Boone County . There are five Missouri House of Representatives districts ( 9 , 21 , 23 , 24 , 25 ) in the city . Columbia is home to a plethora of attorneys and serves as a legal hub and testing grounds for many new laws and grassroot efforts . The principal law enforcement agency is the Columbia Police Department , with the Columbia Fire Department providing fire protection . The University of Missouri Police Department patrols areas on and around the MU campus and has jurisdiction throughout the city and Boone County . The Public Service Joint Communications Center coordinates efforts between the two organizations as well as the Boone County Fire Protection District which operates Urban Search and Rescue Missouri Task Force 1 .
The population generally supports progressive causes such as the extensive city recycling programs and the decriminalization of cannabis both for medical and recreational use at the municipal level ( though the scope of latter of the two cannabis ordinances has since been restricted ) . The city is also one of only four in the state to offer medical benefits to same @-@ sex partners of city employees . The new health plan also extends health benefits to unmarried heterosexual domestic partners of city employees . On October 10 , 2006 , the City Council approved an ordinance to prohibit smoking in public places , including restaurants and bars . The ordinance was passed with protest , and several amendments to the ordinance reflect this . Today 's Columbians are unusually highly educated ; over half of citizens possess at least a bachelor 's degree , while over a quarter hold a graduate degree , making it the thirteenth most highly educated municipality in the United States .
= = Education = =
Columbia and much of the surrounding area lies within The Columbia Public School District . The district enrolls over 17 @,@ 000 students and had a revenue of nearly $ 200 million for the 2007 – 2008 school year . It is above the state average in attendance percentage and in graduation rate . The city operates four public high schools which cover grades 9 – 12 : David H. Hickman High School , Rock Bridge High School , Muriel Battle High School , and Frederick Douglass High School . Rock Bridge is one of two Missouri high schools to receive a silver medal by U.S. News & World Report , putting it in the top 3 % of all high schools in the nation . Hickman has been on Newsweek magazine 's list of top 1 @,@ 300 schools in the country for the past three years and has more named presidential scholars than any other public high school in the United States . There are also several private high schools including : Christian Fellowship School , Columbia Independent School , Heritage Academy , Christian Chapel Academy , and the newly constructed Father Augustine Tolton Regional Catholic High School .
The city has three institutions of higher education : the University of Missouri , Stephens College , and Columbia College all of which surround Downtown Columbia . The city is the headquarters of the University of Missouri System , which also operates campuses in St. Louis , Kansas City , and Rolla . The University of Missouri was founded in 1839 as the first state university west of the Mississippi River . Stephens College prepares students to become leaders and innovators in a rapidly changing world , and engages lifelong learners in an educational experience characterized by intellectual rigor , creative expression and professional practice as well as offering innovative , career @-@ focused programs sound in the liberal arts with focuses on creative arts and sciences . Columbia College offers day and evening classes on its Columbia Campus , extension courses through its 34 nationwide campuses , and ties with U.S. military bases ( including Guantanamo Bay , Cuba ) , and online courses .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
The Columbia Transit provides public bus and para @-@ transit service , and is owned and operated by the city . In 2008 , 1 @,@ 414 @,@ 400 passengers boarded along the system 's six fixed routes and nine University of Missouri shuttle routes , and 27 @,@ 000 boarded the Para @-@ transit service . The system is constantly experiencing growth in service and technology . A $ 3 @.@ 5 million project to renovate and expand the Wabash Station , a rail depot built in 1910 and converted into the city 's transit center in the mid @-@ 1980s , was completed in summer of 2007 . In 2007 , a Transit Master Plan was created to address the future transit needs of the city and county with a comprehensive plan to add infrastructure in three key phases . The five to 15 @-@ year plan intends to add service along the southwest , southeast and northeast sections of Columbia and develop alternative transportation models for Boone County . Fares are $ 1 @.@ 50 for adults , and $ .75 for children 5 – 11 , for students with valid I.D , for handicapped / Medicare recipients , and for senior citizens age 65 and up . Columbia Transit offers FASTPass electronic fare cards and issues electronic transfers for accuracy and convenience . Para @-@ transit fares are $ 2 @.@ 00 for a one @-@ way trip , and the service area includes all of Columbia . Buses operate Monday through Saturday , from 6 : 25am to 6 : 25pm Monday @-@ Wednesday , 6 : 25am to 10 : 25pm Thursday and Friday , and from 1 : 00am to 7 : 30pm on Saturday . Buses do not operate on Sunday .
The city 's former mayor , Darwin Hindman , is largely in favor of a non @-@ motorized transportation system , and can often be seen riding his bicycle around the city . Columbia is also known for its MKT Trail , a spur of the Katy Trail State Park , which allows foot and bike traffic across the city , and , conceivably , the state . It consists of a soft gravel surface , excellent for running and biking . Columbia also is preparing to embark on construction of several new bike paths and street bike lanes thanks to a $ 25 million grant from the federal government . The city is also served by American Air Lines at the Columbia Regional Airport , the only commercial airport in mid @-@ Missouri .
I @-@ 70 ( concurrent with US 40 ) and US 63 are the two main freeways used for travel to and from Columbia . Within the city , there are also three state highways : Routes 763 ( Rangeline St & College Ave ) , 163 ( Providence Rd ) , and 740 ( Stadium Blvd ) .
Rail service is provided by the city @-@ owned Columbia Terminal ( COLT ) Railroad , which runs from the north side of Columbia to Centralia and a connection to the Norfolk Southern Railway .
= = = Health systems = = =
Health care is a big part of Columbia 's economy , with nearly one in six people working in a health @-@ care related profession and a physician density that is about three times the United States average . Columbia 's hospitals and supporting facilities are a large referral center for the state , and medical related trips to the city are common . There are three hospital systems within the city and five hospitals with a total of 1 @,@ 105 beds .
The University of Missouri Health Care operates three hospitals in Columbia : the University of Missouri Hospital , the University of Missouri Women 's and Children 's Hospital ( formerly Columbia Regional Hospital ) , and the Ellis Fischel Cancer Center . Boone Hospital Center is administered by BJC Healthcare and operates several clinics as well as outpatient locations . The Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans ' Hospital , located next to University Hospital , is administered by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs .
There are also a large number of medically @-@ related industries in Columbia . The University of Missouri School of Medicine uses university @-@ owned facilities as teaching hospitals . The University of Missouri Research Reactor Center is the largest research reactor in the United States and produces radioisotopes used in nuclear medicine . The center serves as the sole supplier of the active ingredients in two U.S. Food and Drug Administration @-@ approved radiopharmaceuticals and produces Fluorine @-@ 18 used in PET imaging with its cyclotron .
= = Sister cities = =
In accordance with the Columbia Sister Cities Program , which operates in conjunction with Sister Cities International Columbia has been paired with five international sister cities in an attempt to foster cross @-@ cultural understanding :
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= Black Thunder ( chocolate bar ) =
Black Thunder ( ブラックサンダー , Burakku Sandā ) is a chocolate bar made and sold in Japan by the Yuraku Confectionery Company . It contains a cocoa @-@ flavored cookie bar mixed with Japanese @-@ style rice puffs , coated with chocolate . The manufacturer 's suggested retail price is 30 yen , before tax . The main advertising slogan translates to " Delicious taste in a flash of lightning ! " The story of the Yuraku Confectionery Company and its Black Thunder bar has been treated in the Japanese business press as something of a modern @-@ day rags to riches story .
The Black Thunder bar was conceived as an easily marketable candy bar with three popular components and a reasonable price . The name was partially inspired by the Japanese god of thunder . Black Thunder bars were first made in a factory in the city of Toyohashi in 1994 . The target demographic was university students in the Kanto region and sales growth depended mostly on word @-@ of @-@ mouth recommendations . Through a series of marketing deals starting in 2004 , sales of Black Thunder gradually climbed . In 2008 , the Yuraku Confectionery company sponsored the Men 's Gymnastics team at the 2008 Summer Olympics , and brand recognition correspondingly increased .
Starting in 2008 , Yuraku Confectionery company began developing and marketing variations on the Black Thunder bar . Similar products in the same line include the Big Thunder , Black Thunder Mini @-@ bar , " White Black Thunder " , and the Morning Thunder breakfast bar . In 2009 , Yuraku began collaborative efforts with other agencies to develop related products inspired by the Black Thunder candy bar .
= = Product = =
The original concept was a candy bar that would have three main components , a heavy texture , rich flavor , and a reasonable price ; the combination of these qualities would ensure that it would be an easily marketable product . It was later decided it should be appealing to as many demographic groups as possible , including children . A candy bar was developed with a dark cocoa @-@ flavored cookie pieces mixed with Japanese @-@ style crisped rice , and finally coated with dark milk chocolate . The cookie bar is pressed relatively flat on five sides ; however , the top of the bar presents an uneven surface , even with the chocolate coating . When it came to a name for the product , it was decided that the keyword should be the color " black " , which would allude to the dark chocolate flavor . This is in keeping with other marketing trends in Japan , where the color " black " is associated with dark or bittersweet chocolate , such as the popular Meiji Black chocolate bar . To give the product some " impact " with consumers , it was decided to name it after the Japanese god of thunder , Raijin . Although the name of the product uses the English words " Black Thunder " ( pronounced or transliterated as Burakku Sandah ) , the outer package also carries the Japanese kanji term for the product in a smaller font ( 黒い雷神 , pronounced kuroi raijin ) , so that the meaning would not be lost on consumers . An advertising slogan recorded from the development period translates to , " Delicious taste like a flash of lightning ! " ( おいしさイナズマ級 ! ) , but was initially rejected in favor of the basic one @-@ line descriptive " Black cocoa crunch " .
= = History = =
During initial development , a chocolate bar with three kinds of nuts was developed , called " ChocoNuts 3 " . However , it was terminated within a short time , as it was thought it would not appeal to children . The Black Thunder bar was then developed based on the original concept specifications but also with the idea that it would appeal to multiple demographic segments , including children .
In 1994 , a small factory with only twenty employees in Toyohashi city , Aichi @-@ ken , began making the Black Thunder chocolate bars . The packaging at that time used alphabetic script that read " Black Thunder " , and the suggested retail price was set at 30 yen . By the year 2000 , sales were not impressive , but it was decided to keep the product . At the same time , the package design was altered , and the concept slogan was added : " Delicious taste in a flash of lightning ! " In August 2003 , the package was changed again to its current design , in which alphabetic font for the brand name was replaced with Japanese lettering in katakana . Finally , a new advertising slogan aimed at a specific demographic was added to the front of the package : " A big hit among young women ! " Throughout this early period , sales growth was largely dependent on word @-@ of @-@ mouth recommendations .
Though initially distributed only to 7 @-@ Eleven stores in the Kanto region , a potential for expanded marketing was realized , and Black Thunder was released for sale through a cooperative business association into more areas . During the 2004 to 2005 sales year , Black Thunder bars saw a sudden surge in popularity in the Kyushu region . During the summer of 2005 , Black Thunder bars were distributed in more regions across the country . By the end of the year , over 900 @,@ 000 units had been sold and Black Thunder bars were the best @-@ selling product of the Yuraku Confectionery Company . In 2006 , it was picked up by the Shiraishi @-@ san Co @-@ op and sold over the internet , and product sales received a boost as it gained in popularity among university students . In the first three years after sales commenced over the internet , about ten times the number of Black Thunder bars were sold since its inception eleven years earlier . In 2008 , the Yuraku Confectionery company sponsored the Men 's Gymnastics team at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . The team earned the Silver Medal , as did individual gymnast Kōhei Uchimura . After the 19 @-@ year @-@ old gymnast actively endorsed the product in news media , brand recognition jumped considerably and from 2008 to 2009 , total sales jumped from just under 50 million units to the landmark number of 100 million . By 2010 , sales had reached 130 million units .
At present , Black Thunder bars are made in four factories located in Sapporo , Tokyo , Osaka , and the original factory in Toyohashi . From any of these , Black Thunder bars can be shipped to various convenience stores and discount stores across the country , and they are still distributed to all university student co @-@ operatives in the Kanto area .
= = Nutritional information = =
The following tables presents the nutritional information of a standard Black Thunder chocolate bar .
= = Variations = =
Yuraku has produced a number of variations on the original Black Thunder bar , with different target demographics , or in collaboration with other commercial ventures . This section includes some of the more notable products by Yuraku . Other Black Thunder products may be available to a restricted market or for a limited time period .
= = = Big Thunder = = =
In 2008 , Yuraku decided to branch out with the product in an effort to appeal to a broader demographic . The " Big Thunder " candy bar was developed , which is about twice the length and width of the original bar , but about half the thickness . The main slogan can be translated to " Big satisfaction for the glutton ! ! " ( くいしんぼうも大満足 ！ ！ ) , though the package also bears the slogans " Deliciousness ! Size ! Double the lightning strike ! " ( おいしさ ！ 大きさ ！ ダブルイナズマ ！ ) and " The great rage of Raijin ! " ( 雷神大暴れ ！ ) .
= = = Black Thunder Mini @-@ bar = = =
Black Thunder was also put in the form of a " Mini @-@ bar " in 2008 . The mini @-@ bars are about half the size and width of the regular size , and sold in packages . It was thought that the greater volume would appeal to cost @-@ conscious families . While the regular Big Thunder bar is sold mainly in convenience stores , the target venue for the Mini @-@ bars has been grocery stores .
= = = Dear Girl Thunder = = =
In March 2009 , in collaboration with the radio show Dear Girl Stories with Hiroshi Kamiya and Daisuke Ono and Nippon Cultural Broadcasting , the " Dear Girl Thunder " candy bar was developed . The flavor of the Dear Girl Thunder bar was advertised as " The Taste of First Love : Salt and Chocolate " ( 初恋の味 ・ 塩チョコ ) . In Japan , chocolate is associated with Valentine 's Day and is considered an appropriate gift between sweethearts ; salty foods are considered " adult " and are thus associated with maturity . A person 's " first love " is , like in other cultures , something of a rite of passage ; an episode in life sweet in sentiment , but with maturing results . In July 2009 , a limited edition of 480 units of the Dear Girl Thunder bar went on sale and quickly sold out . In October 2010 , the Dear Girl Thunder bar went on sale in FamilyMart convenience stores ( with the exception of the stores in one region ) . During 2010 , consumers questioned why Black Thunder bars were not distributed to areas of Hokkaido , Miyazaki , Kagoshima , and Okinawa , and the company responded with research into the feasibility of nationwide distribution . In January 2011 , it was decided that a second edition of the Dear Girl Thunder bar would be distributed to Animate stores , a retailer that specializes in anime , manga , and video games . It would also be marketed on the mail order website of Cho ! A & G + , a branch of Nippon Cultural Broadcasting , Inc . , that focuses on digital radio broadcasting . Both deals ensure that consumers across the country can purchase the Dear Girl Thunder bars .
= = = " White Black Thunder " = = =
In December 2010 , Yuraku Confectionery Company introduced " White Black Thunder " bars , called Shiroi Black Thunder ( 白いブラックサンダー ) , for a limited run of six months . The cookie and rice puff core are the same as Black Thunder , but the outer chocolate coating is white . The package mentions " From Hokkaido " , an area which has been associated with white chocolate since its introduction by the Rokkatei Confectionery , based in Obihiro , Hokkaido , in the 1970s . The advertising slogan can be translated as : " Straight descent into deliciousness ! " ( おいしさ直滑降 ) , and uses a term distinctly related to the steep slopes of Alpine skiing . Within a short time , the White Thunder bar has proven to be quite popular , as demonstrated by the rapid depletion of stocks .
= = = Morning Thunder = = =
In January 2011 , the Morning Thunder bar was introduced ( モーニングサンダー ) . Intended as a breakfast bar , the Morning Thunder contains a cinnamon @-@ flavored cookie mixed with peanuts and soy bean puffs , fortified with extra protein , and coated in milk chocolate . The slogan on the front of the package states : " Protein and peanuts in a filling chocolate bar " ( ブチプロテイン ＆ ピーナッツin満足系チョコバー ) . A limited run of twelve months is planned for the Morning Thunder bar .
= = = Other products = = =
Various other products related to Black Thunder are or have been marketed by Yuraku for limited periods , including the Chibi Thunder ( " Tiny Thunder " ) , Black Thunder Manjū , and Toyohashi Special Edition of Black Thunder Mini @-@ bars .
= = Related Products = =
In 2009 , Yuraku collaborated with Royal Foods Company , which began making Black Thunder ice cream bars and Black Thunder Monaka ( similar to an ice cream sandwich ) . Distribution is restricted to 7 @-@ Eleven stores .
In April 2010 , it was announced that there would be a collaboration with Guacamole brand clothing designers . The result was a line of swimwear for men and women , and a selection of men 's underwear . Most items sport black or gold lightning designs .
In 2011 , a hardcover book was published about the history and various trivia related to Black Thunder bars . Released on February 9 , 2011 to book stores and convenience stores , the title translates to The Mystery of Black Thunder ( 謎のブラックサンダー ) .
= = Competitors = =
Starting in 2000 , a candy bar called Golden Chop ( ゴールデンチョップ ) appeared on the market containing similar ingredients as the Black Thunder , and the outer package presents similar colors , design , and font style . It uses the advertising slogan " Fit to be eaten at lightning speed " .
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= Nagorno @-@ Karabakh War =
The Nagorno @-@ Karabakh War ( Azerbaijani : Qarabağ Müharibəsi ) , referred to as the Artsakh Liberation War ( Armenian : Արցախյան ազատամարտ , Artsakhyan azatamart ) by Armenians , was an ethnic conflict that took place in the late 1980s to May 1994 , in the enclave of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh in southwestern Azerbaijan , between the majority ethnic Armenians of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh backed by the Republic of Armenia , and the Republic of Azerbaijan . As the war progressed , Armenia and Azerbaijan , both former Soviet Republics , entangled themselves in a protracted , undeclared war in the mountainous heights of Karabakh as Azerbaijan attempted to curb the secessionist movement in Nagorno @-@ Karabakh . The enclave 's parliament had voted in favor of uniting itself with Armenia and a referendum , boycotted by the Azerbaijani population of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh , was held , whereby most of the voters voted in favor of independence . The demand to unify with Armenia , which began anew in 1988 , began in a relatively peaceful manner ; however , in the following months , as the Soviet Union 's disintegration neared , it gradually grew into an increasingly violent conflict between ethnic Armenians and ethnic Azerbaijanis , resulting in claims of ethnic cleansing by both sides .
Inter @-@ ethnic clashes between the two broke out shortly after the parliament of the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Autonomous Oblast ( NKAO ) in Azerbaijan voted to unify the region with Armenia on 20 February 1988 . The declaration of secession from Azerbaijan was the final result of a territorial conflict regarding the land . As Azerbaijan declared its independence from the Soviet Union and removed the powers held by the enclave 's government , the Armenian majority voted to secede from Azerbaijan and in the process proclaimed the unrecognized Republic of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh .
Full @-@ scale fighting erupted in the late winter of 1992 . International mediation by several groups including the Organization for Security and Co @-@ operation in Europe ( OSCE ) failed to bring an end resolution that both sides could work with . In the spring of 1993 , Armenian forces captured regions outside the enclave itself , threatening the involvement of other countries in the region . By the end of the war in 1994 , the Armenians were in full control of most of the enclave and also held and currently control approximately 9 % of Azerbaijan 's territory outside the enclave . As many as 230 @,@ 000 Armenians from Azerbaijan and 800 @,@ 000 Azeris from Armenia and Karabakh have been displaced as a result of the conflict . A Russian @-@ brokered ceasefire was signed in May 1994 and peace talks , mediated by the OSCE Minsk Group , have been held ever since by Armenia and Azerbaijan .
= = Background = =
The territorial ownership of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh today is still heavily contested between Armenians and Azerbaijanis . The current conflict has its roots in events following World War I. Shortly before the Ottoman Empire 's capitulation in the war , the Russian Empire collapsed in November 1917 and fell under the control of the Bolsheviks . The three nations of the Caucasus , Armenians , Azerbaijanis and Georgians , previously under the rule of the Russians , declared the formation of the Transcaucasian Federation which dissolved after only three months of existence .
= = = Armenian – Azerbaijani war = = =
Fighting soon broke out between the First Republic of Armenia and the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in three specific regions : Nakhchevan , Zangezur ( today the Armenian province of Syunik ) and Karabakh itself , in Azerbaijan .
Armenia and Azerbaijan quarreled about the putative boundaries of the three provinces . The Karabakh Armenians attempted to declare their independence but failed to make contact with the Republic of Armenia . Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I , Armenian General Andranik Ozanian entered Karabakh with military success and was headed towards the region capital of Shusha in December 1918 . British troops occupied the South Caucasus in 1919 , and the British command suggested Andranik cease his offense and allow the conflict to be solved at the Paris Peace Conference . Afterward , the British provisionally affirmed Azerbaijani statesman Khosrov bey Sultanov as the governor @-@ general of Karabakh and ordered him to " squash any unrest in the region " . Afterward followed the Shusha massacre of an estimated 20 @,@ 000 Armenians .
= = = Soviet division = = =
Two months later however , the Soviet 11th Army invaded the Caucasus and within three years , the Caucasian republics were formed into the Transcaucasian SFSR of the Soviet Union . The Bolsheviks thereafter created a seven @-@ member committee , the Caucasus Bureau ( typically referred to as the Kavburo ) . Under the supervision of the People 's Commissar for Nationalities , the future Soviet ruler Joseph Stalin , the Kavburo was tasked to head up matters in the Caucasus . On 4 July 1921 the committee voted 4 – 3 in favor of allocating Karabakh to the newly created Soviet Socialist Republic of Armenia but a day later the Kavburo reversed its decision and voted to leave the region within Azerbaijan SSR . The Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Autonomous Oblast ( NKAO ) was created in 1923 , leaving it with a population that was 94 % Armenian . The reversal was substantiated with the economic connections the region had with Azerbaijan . The capital was moved from Shusha to Khankendi , which was later renamed as Stepanakert .
Armenian and Azeri scholars have speculated that the decision was an application of the principle of " divide and rule " by Soviet Union . This can be seen , for example , by the odd placement of the Nakhichevan exclave , which is separated by Armenia but is a part of Azerbaijan . Others have also postulated that the decision was a goodwill gesture by the Soviet government to help maintain " good relations with Atatürk 's Turkey . " Over the following decades of Soviet rule the Armenians retained a strong desire for unification of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh with Armenia , an aim that some members of the Armenian Communist Party attempted to accomplish . First Secretary of the Communist Party of Armenia Aghasi Khanjian was murdered by Deputy Head ( and soon Head ) of the NKVD Lavrentiy Beria after submitting Armenian grievances to Stalin , which included requests to return Nagorno @-@ Karabakh and Nakhichevan to Armenia . The Armenians insisted that their national rights had been suppressed and their cultural and economic freedoms were being curtailed .
= = Revival of the Karabakh issue = =
After Stalin 's death , Armenian discontent began to be voiced . In 1963 , around 2 @,@ 500 Karabakh Armenians signed a petition calling for Karabakh to be put under Armenian control or to be transferred to Russia . Also in 1963 , there were violent clashes in Stepanakert , leading to the death of 18 Armenians . In 1965 and 1977 , there were large demonstrations in Yerevan , which also called for unifying Karabakh with Armenia . As the new general secretary of the Soviet Union , Mikhail Gorbachev , came to power in 1985 , he began implementing his plans to reform the Soviet Union . These were encapsulated in two policies : perestroika and glasnost . While perestroika had more to do with economic reform , glasnost or " openness " granted limited freedom to Soviet citizens to express grievances about the Soviet system itself and its leaders . Capitalizing on this new policy of Moscow , the leaders of the Regional Soviet of Karabakh decided to vote in favor of unifying the autonomous region with Armenia on 20 February 1988 . The resolution read :
Welcoming the wishes of the workers of the Nagorny Karabakh Autonomous Region to request the Supreme Soviets of the Azerbaijani SSR and the Armenian SSR to display a feeling of deep understanding of the aspirations of the Armenian population of Nagorny Karabakh and to resolve the question of transferring the Nagorny Karabakh Autonomous Region from the Azerbaijani SSR to the Armenian SSR , at the same time to intercede with the Supreme Soviet of the USSR to reach a positive resolution on the issue of transferring the region from the Azerbaijani SSR to the Armenian SSR .
On 24 February , Boris Kevorkov , the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh autonomous region party secretary and an Azerbaijan loyalist , was dismissed .
Karabakh Armenian leaders complained that the region had neither Armenian language textbooks in schools nor in television broadcasting , and that Azerbaijan 's Communist Party General Secretary Heydar Aliyev had extensively attempted to " Azerify " the region and increase the influence and the number of Azeris living in Nagorno @-@ Karabakh , while at the same time reducing its Armenian population ( in 1987 , Aliyev would step down as General Secretary of Azerbaijan 's Politburo ) . By 1988 , the Armenian population of Karabakh had dwindled to nearly three @-@ quarters of the total population .
The movement was spearheaded by popular Armenian figures and found support among intellectuals in Russia as well . According to journalist Thomas De Waal some members of the Russian intelligentsia , such as the dissident Andrei Sakharov expressed support for Armenians . More prominent support for the movement among the Moscow elite was interpreted by some in the public : in November 1987 L 'Humanité published the personal comments made by Abel Aganbegyan , an economic adviser to Gorbachev , to Armenians living in France , in which he suggested that Nagorno @-@ Karabakh could be ceded to Armenia . Prior to the declaration , Armenians had begun to protest and stage workers ' strikes in Yerevan , demanding a unification with the enclave . This prompted Azeri counter @-@ protests in Baku . After the demonstrations in Yerevan to demand unification of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh with Armenia began , Gorbachev met with two leaders of the Karabakh movement , Zori Balayan and Silva Kaputikyan on 26 February 1988 . Gorbachev asked them for a one @-@ month moratorium on demonstrations . When Kaputikyan returned to Armenia the same evening , she told the crowds the " Armenians [ had ] triumphed " although Gorbachev hadn 't made any concrete promises . According to Svante Cornell , this was an attempt to pressure Moscow . On March 10 , Gorbachev stated that the borders between the republics would not change , in accordance with Article 78 of the Soviet constitution . Gorbachev also stated that several other regions in the Soviet Union were yearning for territorial changes and redrawing the boundaries in Karabakh would thus set a dangerous precedent . But the Armenians viewed the 1921 Kavburo decision with disdain and felt that in their efforts they were correcting a historical error through the principle of self @-@ determination , a right also granted in the constitution . Azeris , on the other hand , found such calls for relinquishing their territory by the Armenians unfathomable and aligned themselves with Gorbachev 's position .
On 19 February 1988 , during the seventh day of the Armenian rallies , the first counterprotest was held in Baku . The poet Bakhtiyar Vahabzadeh and the historian Suleyman Aliyarov published an open letter in the newspaper Azerbaijan , declaring that Karabakh was historically Azerbaijani territory .
= = = Askeran and Sumgait = = =
Ethnic infighting soon broke out between Armenians and Azerbaijanis living in Karabakh . It is claimed as early as the end of 1987 Azerbaijanis from the villages of Ghapan and Meghri in Armenia were forced to leave their homes as a result of tensions between them and their Armenian neighbors and in November 1987 two freight cars full of Azerbaijanis are alleged to have arrived at the train station in Baku . In later interviews , the mayors of the two villages denied that any such tension existed at the time and no such documentation has been adduced to support the notion of forced expulsions .
On 20 February 1988 two Azerbaijani trainee female students in Stepanakert hospital were allegedly raped by Armenians . On 22 February 1988 a direct confrontation between Azerbaijanis and Armenians , near the town of Askeran ( located on the road between Stepanakert and Agdam ) in Nagorno @-@ Karabakh , degenerated into a skirmish . During the clashes two Azerbaijani youths were killed . One of them was probably shot by a local policeman , possibly an Azerbaijani , either by accident or as a result of a quarrel . On 27 February 1988 , while speaking on Baku 's central television , the Soviet Deputy Procurator Alexander Katusev reported that " two inhabitants of the Agdam district fell victim to murder " and gave their Muslim names .
The clash in Askeran was the prelude to the pogroms in Sumgait , where emotions , already heightened by news about the Karabakh crisis , turned even uglier in a series of protests starting on 27 February . Speaking at the rallies , Azerbaijani refugees from the Armenian town of Ghapan accused Armenians of " murder and atrocities " . According to the Soviet media , these allegations were disproved and many of the speakers were reportedly agents provocateurs . Within hours , a pogrom against Armenian residents began in Sumgait , a city some 25 kilometers north of Baku . The pogroms resulted in the deaths of 32 people ( 26 Armenians and 6 Azerbaijanis ) , according to official Soviet statistics , although many Armenians felt that the true figure was not reported . Nearly all of Sumgait 's Armenian population left the city after the pogrom . Armenians were beaten , raped , mutilated and killed both on the streets of Sumgait and inside their apartments during three days of violence ( with no intervention from the police or the local bodies ) that only subsided when Soviet armed forces entered the city and quelled much of the rioting on 1 March . The manner in which they were killed reverberated among Armenians , recalling memories of the Armenian Genocide .
On 23 March 1988 the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union rejected the demands of Armenians to cede Nagorno @-@ Karabakh to Armenia . Troops were sent to Yerevan to prevent protests against the decision . Gorbachev 's attempts to stabilize the region were to no avail , as both sides remained equally intransigent . In Armenia , there was a firm belief that what had taken place in the region of Nakhichevan would be repeated in Nagorno @-@ Karabakh : prior to its absorption by Soviet Russia , it had a population which was 40 % Armenian ; by the late 1980s , its Armenian population was virtually non @-@ existent .
= = Interethnic violence = =
Armenians refused to allow the issue to subside despite a compromise made by Gorbachev , which included a promise of a 400 million @-@ ruble package to introduce Armenian language textbooks and television programming in Karabakh . At the same time , Azerbaijan was unwilling to cede any territory to Armenia . Calls to transfer Karabakh to Armenia briefly subsided when a devastating earthquake hit Armenia on 7 December 1988 , which leveled the towns of Leninakan ( now Gyumri ) and Spitak , killing an estimated 25 @,@ 000 people . But conflict brewed up once more when the eleven members of the newly formed Karabakh Committee , including the future president of Armenia Levon Ter @-@ Petrosyan , were jailed by Moscow officials in the ensuing chaos of the earthquake . Such actions polarized relations between Armenia and the Kremlin ; Armenians lost faith in Gorbachev , despising him even more because of his handling of the earthquake relief effort and his uncompromising stance on Nagorno @-@ Karabakh .
In the months following the Sumgait pogroms , a forced population exchange took place as Armenians living in Azerbaijan and Azerbaijanis living in Armenia were compelled to abandon their homes . According to the Azerbaijani government , between 27 and 29 November 1988 33 Azerbaijanis were killed in Spitak , Gugark , and Stepanavan and 216 in the 1987 – 1989 period . According to Azerbaijani MP Arif Yunusov in November of the same year twenty Azerbaijanis from the Armenian village of Vartan were reportedly burned to death . However , according to Armenian sources , the number of Azerbaijanis killed in the 1988 – 1989 period was 25 .
Interethnic fighting also spread throughout cities in Azerbaijan , including , in December 1988 , in Kirovabad and Nakhichevan , where seven people ( among them four soldiers ) were killed and hundreds injured when Soviet army units attempted once more to stop attacks directed at Armenians . Estimates differ on how many people were killed during the first two years of the conflict . The Azerbaijani government alleges that 216 Azerbaijanis were killed in Armenia , while the researcher Arif Yunusov gives 127 to those killed in 1988 alone . An October 1989 piece by Time , however , stated that over 100 people were estimated to have been killed since February 1988 , in both Armenia and Azerbaijan .
By the end of 1988 , dozens of villages in Armenia had become deserted , as most of Armenia 's more than 200 @,@ 000 Azerbaijanis and Muslim Kurds left . While Muslim Kurds did not take up arms against Armenians , almost all of them fled their homes from the Armenian controlled areas ( at most , 1 @,@ 000 Muslim Kurds are estimated to remain in Armenia today ) .
= = = Black January = = =
Inter @-@ ethnic strife began to take a toll on both countries ' populations , forcing most of the Armenians in Azerbaijan to flee to Armenia and most of the Azeris in Armenia to Azerbaijan . The situation in Nagorno @-@ Karabakh had grown so out of hand that in January 1989 the central government in Moscow temporarily took control of the region , a move welcomed by many Armenians . In September 1989 , Popular Front ( APF ) leaders and their ever @-@ increasing supporters managed to institute a railway blockade against Armenia and the NKAO , effectively crippling Armenia 's economy , as 85 % of the cargo and goods arrived through rail traffic , although some claim this was a response to Armenia 's embargo against Nakhichevan ASSR that had started earlier that summer . The disruption of rail service to Armenia was , accordingly , in part due to the attacks of Armenian militants on Azerbaijani train crews entering Armenia .
In January 1990 , another pogrom directed at Armenians in Baku forced Gorbachev to declare a state of emergency and send troops from the MVD to restore order . Amid the rising independence movement in Azerbaijan , Gorbachev dispatched the military to dragoon the events , as the Soviet regime inched closer to collapse . Soviet troops received orders to occupy Baku at midnight on January 20 , 1990 . City residents , who saw tanks coming at about 5 AM , said the troops were the first to open fire . The Shield Report , an independent commission from the USSR military procurator 's office , rejected the military claims of returning fire , finding no evidence that those manning the barricades on the roads to Baku were armed . A curfew was established and violent clashes between the soldiers and the surging Azerbaijan Popular Front were common , in the end leading to the deaths of 120 Azerbaijanis and eight MVD soldiers in Baku . During this time , however , Azerbaijan 's Communist Party had fallen and the belated order to send the MVD forces had more to do with keeping the Party in power than with protecting the city 's Armenian population . The events , referred to as " Black January " , also strained the relations between Azerbaijan and the central government .
= = = Fighting in Qazakh = = =
Azerbaijan has several exclaves within the territory of Armenia : Yukhari Askipara , Barkhudarli and Sofulu in the northwest and an exclave of Karki in the Nakhchivan exclave of Azerbaijan Republic . In early 1990 , the road alongside the border village of Baganis came under routine attack by militia members from Azerbaijan . At the same time , Armenian forces attacked both these Azerbaijani enclaves within the Armenian territory and the border villages of Qazakh and Sadarak rayon in Azerbaijan proper . On 26 March 1990 several cars with Armenian paramilitaries arrived in the Armenian border village of Baganis . At dusk , they crossed the border storming the Azerbaijani village Bağanis Ayrum . About 20 houses were burned and 8 to 11 Azerbaijani villagers killed . The bodies of members of one family , including infants , were found in the charred ruins of their burned homes . By the time the Soviet Interior Ministry troops arrived in Bağanis Ayrum , the attackers had already fled .
On 18 August a significant accumulation of Armenian militants near the border was observed . The following day , units of the Armenian national army bombarded Azeri villages Yuxarı Əskipara , Bağanis Ayrum , Aşağı Əskipara and Quşçu Ayrım , and according to eyewitnesses used rocket @-@ propelled grenades and mortars . The first attack was repulsed with additional reinforcements arriving from Yerevan , Armenian forces were able to seize Yuxarı Əskipara and Bağanis Ayrum . On 20 August tanks , anti @-@ aircraft guns and helicopter gunships of the Soviet army under the command of Major General Yuri Shatalin were brought in and by the end of the day the Armenians were driven off . According to the Soviet Ministry of Interior , one internal ministry officer and two police officers were killed , nine soldiers and thirteen residents were injured . According to Armenian media reports , five militants were killed and 25 were wounded ; according to Azerbaijani media , about 30 were killed and 100 wounded .
= = = Operation Ring = = =
In the spring of 1991 , President Gorbachev held a special countrywide referendum called the Union Treaty which would decide if the Soviet republics would remain together . Newly elected , non @-@ communist leaders had come to power in the Soviet republics , including Boris Yeltsin in Russia ( Gorbachev remained the President of the Soviet Union ) , Levon Ter @-@ Petrosyan in Armenia , and Ayaz Mutalibov in Azerbaijan . Armenia and five other republics boycotted the referendum ( Armenia would hold its own referendum and declared its independence from the Soviet Union on 21 September 1991 ) , whereas Azerbaijan voted in compliance to the Treaty .
As many Armenians and Azeris in Karabakh began an arms build up ( by acquiring weaponry located in caches throughout Karabakh ) in order to defend themselves , Mutalibov turned to Gorbachev for support in launching a joint military operation in order to disarm Armenian militants in the region . Termed Operation Ring , Soviet forces acting in conjunction with the local Azerbaijani OMON forcibly deported Armenians living in the villages of the region of Shahumyan . The operation involved the use of ground troops , military , armored vehicles and artillery . The deportations of the Armenian civilians were carried out with gross human rights violations documented by international human rights organizations .
Ring was perceived by both Soviet and Armenian government officials as a method of intimidating the Armenian populace to giving up their demands for unification . Operation Ring proved counter @-@ productive to what it had originally sought to accomplish . The violence that took place during the operation only reinforced the belief among Armenians that the only solution to the Karabakh conflict was through armed resistance . The initial Armenian resistance inspired volunteers to start forming irregular volunteer detachments .
= = = First attempt to mediate peace = = =
First peace mediation efforts were started by the Russian President , Boris Yeltsin and Kazakhstan President , Nursultan Nazarbayev in September 1991 . After peace talks in Baku , Ganja , Stepanakert ( Khankendi ) and Yerevan on 20 – 23 September , the sides agreed to sign the Zheleznovodsk Communiqué in the Russian city of Zheleznovodsk taking the principles of territorial integrity , non @-@ interference in internal affairs of sovereign states , observance of civil rights as a base of the agreement . The agreement was signed by Yeltsin , Nazarbayev , Mutalibov , and Ter @-@ Petrosian . The peace efforts came to a halt due to continuing bombardment and atrocities by Azerbaijani OMON in Stepanakert and Chapar in late September . With the final blow being the Azerbaijani MI @-@ 8 helicopter shoot down near the village of Karakend in the Martuni District with peace mediating team consisting of Russian , Kazakh observers and Azerbaijani high @-@ ranking officials on board .
= = = Conflict in the last days of the USSR = = =
In late 1991 , Armenian militias launched offensives to capture Armenian @-@ populated villages seized by Azerbaijani OMON in May – July 1991 . Leaving these villages , the Azerbaijani units in some cases burned them . According to the Moscow @-@ based Human Rights organization Memorial , at the same time , as a result of attacks by Armenian armed forces , several thousand residents of Azerbaijani villages in the former Shahumian , Hadrut , Martakert , Askeran , Martuni rayons of Azerbaijan had to leave their homes , too . Some villages ( e.g. , Imereti and Gerevent ) were burned by the militants . There were instances of serious violence against the civilian population ( in particular , in the village Meshali ) .
Starting in late autumn of 1991 , when the Azerbaijani side started its counter @-@ offensive , the Armenian side began targeting Azerbaijani villages . According to Memorial , the villages Malibeyli and Gushchular , from which Azeri forces regularly bombarded Stepanakert , were attacked by Armenians where the houses were burned and dozens of civilians were killed . Each side accused the other of using the villages as strategic gathering points , covering the artillery positions . On 19 December , Internal Ministry troops began to withdraw from Nagorno @-@ Karabakh , which was completed by 27 December . With the collapse of the Soviet Union and the withdrawal of internal troops from Nagorno @-@ Karabakh , the situation in the conflict zone became uncontrollable .
= = Weapons vacuum = =
As the disintegration of the Soviet Union became a reality for Soviet citizens in the autumn of 1991 , both sides sought to acquire weaponry from military caches located throughout Karabakh . The initial advantage tilted in Azerbaijan 's favor . During the Cold War , the Soviet military doctrine for defending the Caucasus had outlined a strategy where Armenia would be a combat zone in the event that NATO member Turkey were to have invaded from the west . Thus , there were only three divisions stationed in the Armenian SSR and no airfields , while Azerbaijan had a total of five divisions and five military airfields . Furthermore , Armenia had approximately 500 railroad cars of ammunition in comparison to Azerbaijan 's 10 @,@ 000 .
As MVD forces began pulling out , they bequeathed the Armenians and Azerbaijanis a vast arsenal of ammunition and stored armored vehicles . The government forces initially sent by Gorbachev three years earlier were from other republics of the Soviet Union and many had no wish to remain any longer . Most were poor , young conscripts and many simply sold their weapons for cash or even vodka to either side , some even trying to sell tanks and armored personnel carriers ( APCs ) . The unsecured weapons caches led both sides to blame Gorbachev 's policies as the ultimate cause of the conflict . The Azerbaijanis purchased a large quantity of these vehicles , as reported by the Foreign Ministry of Azerbaijan in November 1993 , which reported it had acquired 286 tanks , 842 armored vehicles , and 386 artillery pieces during the power vacuum . The emergence of black markets helped facilitate the import of Western weaponry .
Most weaponry was Russian @-@ made or came from the former Eastern bloc countries ; however , some improvisation was made by both sides . Azerbaijan received substantial military aid and provisions from Turkey , Israel and numerous Arab countries . The Armenian Diaspora donated a significant amount of aid to Armenia through the course of the war and even managed to push for legislation in the United States Congress to pass a bill entitled Section 907 of the Freedom Support Act in response to Azerbaijan 's blockade against Armenia , placing a complete ban on military aid from the United States to Azerbaijan in 1992 . While Azerbaijan charged that the Russians were initially helping the Armenians , it was said that " the Azeri fighters in the region [ were ] far better equipped with Soviet military weaponry than their opponents . "
With Gorbachev resigning as Soviet General @-@ Secretary on 26 December 1991 , the remaining republics including Ukraine , Belarus , and Russia , declared their independence and the Soviet Union ceased to exist on 31 December 1991 . This dissolution gave way to any barriers that were keeping Armenia and Azerbaijan from waging a full @-@ scale war . One month prior , on 21 November , the Azerbaijani Parliament had rescinded Karabakh 's status as an autonomous region and renamed its capital " Xankandi . " In response , on 10 December , a referendum was held in Karabakh by parliamentary leaders ( with the local Azerbaijani community boycotting it ) , whereby the Armenians voted overwhelmingly in favor of independence . On 6 January 1992 , the region declared its independence from Azerbaijan .
The withdrawal of the Soviet interior forces from Nagorno @-@ Karabakh in the Caucasus region was only temporary . By February 1992 , the former Soviet states were consolidated as the Commonwealth of Independent States ( CIS ) . While Azerbaijan abstained from joining , Armenia , fearing a possible invasion by Turkey in the escalating conflict , entered the CIS , which brought it under the organization 's " collective security umbrella . " In January 1992 , CIS forces established their new headquarters at Stepanakert and took up a slightly more active role in peacekeeping , incorporating old units , including the 366th Motorized Rifle Regiment and elements of the Soviet 4th Army .
= = Building armies = =
The sporadic battles between Armenians and Azeris had intensified after Operation Ring recruited thousands of volunteers into improvised armies from both Armenia and Azerbaijan . In Armenia , a recurrent and popular theme at the time compared and idolized the separatist fighters to historical Armenian guerrilla groups and revered individuals such as Andranik Ozanian and Garegin Nzhdeh , who fought against the Ottoman Empire during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries . In addition to the government 's conscription of males aged 18 – 45 , many Armenians volunteered to fight and formed jokats , or detachments of about forty men , which , combined with several others , came under the command of a Lieutenant Colonel . Initially , many of these men chose when and where to serve and acted on their own behalf , rarely with any oversight , when attacking or defending areas . Direct insubordination was common as many of the men simply did not show up , looted the bodies of dead soldiers and commodities such as diesel oil for armored vehicles disappeared only to be sold in black markets .
Many women enlisted in the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh military , taking part in the fighting as well as serving in auxiliary roles such as providing first @-@ aid and evacuating wounded men from the battlefield .
Azerbaijan 's military functioned in much the same manner ; however , it was better organized during the first years of the war . The Azeri government also carried out conscription and many Azeris enthusiastically enlisted for combat in the first months after the Soviet Union collapsed . Azerbaijan 's National Army consisted of roughly 30 @,@ 000 men , in addition to nearly 10 @,@ 000 in its OMON paramilitary force and several thousand volunteers from the Popular Front . Suret Huseynov , a wealthy Azeri , also improvised by creating his own military brigade , the 709th of the Azerbaijani Army and purchasing many weapons and vehicles from the 23rd Motor Rifle Division 's arsenal . İsgandar Hamidov 's bozqurt or Grey Wolves brigade also mobilized for action . The government of Azerbaijan also poured a great deal of money into hiring mercenaries from other countries through the revenue it was making from its oil field assets on and near the Caspian Sea .
Former troops of the Soviet Union also offered their services to either side . For example , one of the most prominent officers to serve on the Armenian side was former Soviet General Anatoly Zinevich , who remained in Nagorno @-@ Karabakh for five years ( 1992 – 1997 ) and was involved in planning and implementation of many operations of the Armenian forces . By the end of war he held the position of Chief of Staff of the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Republic ( NKR ) armed forces . The estimated amount of manpower and military vehicles each entity involved in the conflict had in the 1993 – 1994 time period was :
Because at the time Armenia did not have the kind of far reaching treaties with Russia ( signed later in 1997 and 2010 ) , and because CSTO did not exist then , Armenia had to protect its border with Turkey by itself . For the duration of the war most of the military personnel and equipment of the Republic of Armenia stayed in Armenia proper guarding the Armenian @-@ Turkish border against possible aggression .
In an overall military comparison , the number of men eligible for military service in Armenia , in the age group of 17 – 32 , totalled 550 @,@ 000 , while in Azerbaijan it was 1 @.@ 3 million . Most men from both sides had served in the Soviet Army and so had some form of military experience prior to the conflict , including tours of duty in Afghanistan . Among Karabakh Armenians , about 60 % had served in the Soviet Army . Most Azeris , however , were often subject to discrimination during their service in the Soviet military and relegated to work in construction battalions rather than fighting corps . Despite the establishment of two officer academies including a naval school in Azerbaijan , the lack of such military experience was one factor that rendered Azerbaijan unprepared for the war . The Azerbaijani military was assisted by Afghan commander Gulbuddin Hekmatyar . The recruitment for the purpose was mostly made in Peshawar by commander Fazle Haq Mujahid and several groups were dispatched to Azerbaijan for different duties .
= = Early Armenian offensives = =
= = = Khojaly = = =
On 2 January 1992 Ayaz Mutalibov assumed the office of the presidency of Azerbaijan . Officially , the newly created Republic of Armenia publicly denied any involvement in providing any weapons , fuel , food , or other logistics to the secessionists in Nagorno @-@ Karabakh . However , Ter @-@ Petrosyan later did admit to supplying them with logistical supplies and paying the salaries of the separatists , but denied sending any of its own men to combat . Armenia faced a debilitating blockade by the now Republic of Azerbaijan , as well as pressure from neighboring Turkey , which decided to side with Azerbaijan and build a closer relationship with it . In early February , the Azeri villages of Malıbəyli , Karadagly and Agdaban were conquered and their population evicted , leading to at least 99 civilian deaths and 140 wounded .
The only land connection Armenia had with Karabakh was through the narrow mountainous Lachin corridor which could only be reached by helicopters . The region 's only airport was in the small town of Khojaly , which was seven km ( 4 @.@ 3 miles ) north of capital Stepanakert with an estimated population of 6 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 people . Additionally , Khojaly had been serving as an artillery base from which GRAD missiles were launched upon the civilian population of capital Stepanakert : On some days as many as 400 GRAD missiles rained down on Armenian multi- storey apartments . By late February , the Armenian forces reportedly warned about the upcoming attack and issued an ultimatum that unless the Azerbaijanis stopped the shelling from Khojaly they would seize the town .
By late February , Khojaly had largely been cut off . On 26 February , Armenian forces , with the aid of some armored vehicles from the 366th , mounted an offensive to capture Khojaly . According to the Azerbaijani side and the affirmation of other sources including Human Rights Watch , the Moscow @-@ based human rights organization Memorial and the biography of a leading Armenian commander , Monte Melkonian , documented and published by his brother , after Armenian forces captured Khojaly , they proceeded to kill several hundred civilians evacuating from the town . Armenian forces had previously stated they would attack the city and leave a land corridor for them to escape through . However , when the attack began , the attacking Armenian force easily outnumbered and overwhelmed the defenders who along with the civilians attempted to retreat north to the Azeri held city of Agdam . The airport 's runway was found to have been intentionally destroyed , rendering it temporarily useless . The attacking forces then went on to pursue those fleeing through the corridor and opened fire upon them , killing scores of civilians . Facing charges of an intentional massacre of civilians by international groups , Armenian government officials denied the occurrence of a massacre and asserted an objective of silencing the artillery coming from Khojaly .
An exact body count was never ascertained but conservative estimates have placed the number to 485 . The official death toll according to Azerbaijani authorities for casualties suffered during the events of 25 – 26 February is 613 civilians , of them 106 women and 83 children . On 3 March 1992 , the Boston Globe reported over 1 @,@ 000 people had been slain over four years of conflict . It quoted the mayor of Khojaly , Elmar Mamedov , as also saying 200 more were missing , 300 were held hostage and 200 injured in the fighting . A report published in 1992 by the human rights organization Helsinki Watch however stated that their inquiry found that the Azerbaijani OMON and " the militia , still in uniform and some still carrying their guns , were interspersed with the masses of civilians " which may have been the reason why Armenian troops fired upon them .
Under pressure from the APF due to the mismanagement of the defense of Khojaly and the safety of its inhabitants , Mutallibov was forced to submit his resignation to the National Assembly of Azerbaijan .
= = = Capture of Shusha = = =
When Armenians launched one of the first offensives , at Stepanakert on 13 February 1988 , many Azerbaijanis fled to the stronghold of Shusha . On 28 March , Azerbaijani troops deployed to attack Stepanakert , attacked enemy positions above the village Kirkidzhan from the village of Dzhangasan . During the afternoon of the next day , Azerbaijani units took up positions in close proximity to the city , but were quickly repulsed by the Armenians .
In the ensuing months after the capture of Khojaly , Azeri commanders holding out in the region 's last bastion of Shusha began a large @-@ scale artillery bombardment with GRAD rocket launchers against Stepanakert . By April , the shelling had forced many of the 50 @,@ 000 people living in Stepanakert to seek refuge in underground bunkers and basements . Facing ground incursions near the city 's outlying areas , military leaders in Nagorno @-@ Karabakh organized an offensive to take the town .
On 8 May a force of several hundred Armenian troops accompanied by tanks and helicopters attacked the Azeri citadel of Shusha . Fierce fighting took place in the town 's streets and several hundred men were killed on both sides . Although the Armenians were outnumbered and outgunned by the Azeri army , they managed to capture the town and force the Azeris to retreat on 9 May .
The capture of Shusha resonated loudly in neighboring Turkey . Its relations with Armenia had grown better after it had declared its independence from the Soviet Union ; however , they gradually worsened as a result of Armenia 's gains in the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh region . Turkey 's prime minister Suleyman Demirel said that he was under intense pressure by his people to have his country intervene and aid Azerbaijan . Demirel , however , was opposed to such an intervention , saying that Turkey 's entrance into the war would trigger an even greater Muslim @-@ Christian conflict ( Turks are overwhelmingly Muslims ) .
Turkey never did send troops to Azerbaijan but did contribute substantial military aid and advisers . In May 1992 , the military commander of the CIS forces , Marshal Yevgeny Shaposhnikov , issued a warning to Western nations , especially the United States , to not interfere with the conflict in the Caucasus , stating it would " place us [ the Commonwealth ] on the verge of a third world war and that cannot be allowed . "
A Chechen contingent , led by Shamil Basayev , was one of the units to participate in the conflict . According to Azeri Colonel Azer Rustamov , in 1992 , " hundreds of Chechen volunteers rendered us invaluable help in these battles led by Shamil Basayev and Salman Raduev . " Basayev was said to be one of the last fighters to leave Shusha . According to Russian news reports Basayev later said during his career , he and his battalion had only lost once and that defeat came in Karabakh in fighting against the " Dashnak battalion . " He later said he pulled his forces out of the conflict because the war seemed to be more for nationalism than for religion . Basayev received direct military training from the Russian GRU during the War in Abkhazia ( 1992 – 1993 ) since the Abkhaz were backed by Russia . Other Chechens also were trained by the GRU in warfare . Many of these Chechens who fought for the Russians in Abkhazia against Georgia had fought for Azerbaijan against Armenia in the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh war .
= = = Sealing Lachin = = =
The loss of Shusha led the Azeri parliament to lay the blame on Yaqub Mammadov , then acting President of Azerbaijan , which removed him from power and cleared Mutalibov of any responsibility after the loss of Khojaly , reinstating him as President on 15 May 1992 . Many Azeris saw this act as a coup in addition to the cancellation of the parliamentary elections slated in June of that year . The Azeri parliament at that time was made up of former leaders from the country 's communist regime and the losses of Khojaly and Shusha only aggrandized their desires for free elections .
To contribute to the turmoil , an offensive was launched by Armenian forces on 18 May to take the city of Lachin in the narrow corridor separating Armenia and Nagorno @-@ Karabakh . The city itself was poorly guarded and , within the next day , Armenian forces took control of the town and cleared any remaining Azeris to open the road that linked the region to Armenia . The taking of the city then allowed an overland route to be connected with Armenia itself with supply convoys beginning to trek up the mountainous region of Lachin to Karabakh .
The loss of Lachin was the final blow to Mutalibov 's regime . Demonstrations were held despite Mutalibov 's ban and an armed coup was staged by Popular Front activists . Fighting between government forces and Popular Front supporters escalated as the political opposition seized the parliament building in Baku as well as the airport and presidential office . On 16 June 1992 Abulfaz Elchibey was elected leader of Azerbaijan with many political leaders from the Azerbaijan Popular Front Party were elected into the parliament . The instigators characterized Mutalibov as an undedicated and weak leader in the war in Karabakh . Elchibey was staunchly against receiving any help from the Russians , instead favoring closer ties to Turkey .
The fighting also spilled into nearby Nakhchivan , which was shelled by Armenian troops in May 1992 .
= = Escalation = =
= = = Operation Goranboy = = =
Operation Goranboy was a large @-@ scale Azerbaijani offensive in the summer of 1992 aimed at taking control over the entire Nagorno @-@ Karabakh and putting a decisive end to the resistance . This offensive is regarded as the only successful breakthrough by the Azeri Army and marks the peak of Azerbaraijani success in the entirety of the six @-@ year @-@ long conflict . It also marks the beginning of a new , more intense , phase of the war . Over 8 @,@ 000 Azeri troops and four additional battalions , at least 90 tanks and 70 Infantry fighting vehicles , as well as Mi @-@ 24 attack @-@ helicopters were used in this operation .
On 12 June 1992 , the Azerbaijani military launched a large @-@ scale diversionary attack in the direction of the Askeran region at the center of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh . Two groups , numbering 4 @,@ 000 men , attacked the positions to the north and south of Askeran . As a result of fierce fighting the Azeris managed to establish control over some settlements in the Askeran region : Nakhichevanik , Arachadzor , Pirdzhamal , Dahraz and Agbulak .
On 13 June 1992 , Azerbaijan launched its main offensive against the region of Goranboy , located north of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh , which was defended by just two small and poorly @-@ equipped Armenian voluntary detachments . This three @-@ day offensive was code @-@ named Operation Goranboy and commanded by Suret Huseynov . After fifteen hours of fierce fighting against Azerbaijani forces , the two Armenian detachments were forced to retreat . Azerbaijan managed to capture several dozen villages in the Goranboy region originally held by the Armenian forces , and the entire Armenian civilian population of this region fled . On 4 July 1992 , the Azeris captured the largest town in the region , Mardakert .
The scale of the Azeri offensive prompted the Armenian government to threaten Azerbaijan that it would directly intervene and assist the separatists fighting in Karabakh . The assault forced Armenian forces to retreat south toward Stepanakert where Karabakh commanders contemplated destroying a vital hydroelectric dam in the Martakert region if the offensive was not halted . An estimated 30 @,@ 000 Armenian refugees were also forced to flee to the capital as the assaulting forces had taken nearly half of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh .
On 18 June 1992 , a state of Emergency was announced throughout the NKR . On 15 August , the Committee for State Defense of the NKR was created , headed by Robert Kocharyan and later by Serzh Sargsyan . Partial mobilization was called for , which covered sergeants and privates in the NKR , NKR men available for military service aged 18 – 40 , officers up to the age of 50 and women with previous military training . The newly conscripted now numbered 15 @,@ 000 men . Military reforms swiftly took place consolidating many of the separate fighting Armenian volunteer detachments into a single NKR Defense Army .
The Azeri thrust ground to a halt when the armor was driven off by helicopter gunships . It was claimed that many of the crew members of the armored units in the Azeri launched assault were Russians from the 104th Guards Airborne Division , based out of Ganja and , ironically enough , so were the units that eventually stopped them . According to an Armenian government official , they were able to persuade Russian military units to bombard and effectively halt the advance within a few days . Russia also supplied arms to the Armenians . This allowed the Armenian government to make up its losses and reorganize a counteroffensive to restore the original lines of the front . Given the reorganization of the NKR Defense Army , the tide of Azeri advances was finally stemmed . By the autumn of 1992 , the Azerbaijani army was exhausted and had suffered heavy losses . Faced with imminent defeat , Suret Huseynov moved what was left of his army out of Aghdara and back to Ganja , where it could recuperate and restock on ammunition and armaments found at the 104th Guards Airborne Division 's base . In February – March of the following year , the NKR Defense Army helped turn the tide into an unprecedented wave of advances .
= = = Subsequent attempts to mediate peace = = =
New efforts at peace talks were initiated by Iranian President Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani in the first half of 1992 , after the events in Khojaly and the resignation of Azeri President Ayaz Mutallibov . Iranian diplomats conducted shuttle diplomacy and were able to bring the new president of Azerbaijan Yaqub Mammadov and President of Armenia Levon Ter @-@ Petrosian to Tehran for bilateral talks on 7 May 1992 . The Tehran Communiqué was signed by Mammadov , Ter @-@ Petrosian , and Rafsanjani following the agreement of the parties to international legal norms , stability of borders and to deal with the refugee crisis . However , the peace efforts were disrupted on the next day when Armenian troops captured the town of Shusha and completely failed following the capture of the town Lachin on 18 May .
In the summer of 1992 , the CSCE ( later to become the Organization for Security and Co @-@ operation in Europe ) , created the Minsk Group in Helsinki which comprised eleven nations and was co @-@ chaired by France , Russia , and the United States with the purpose of mediating a peace deal with Armenia and Azerbaijan . However , in their annual summit in 1992 , the organization failed to address and solve the many new problems that had arisen since the Soviet Union collapsed , much less the Karabakh conflict . The war in Yugoslavia , Moldova 's war with the breakaway republic of Transnistria , the secessionist movement in Chechnya , and Georgia 's renewed disputes with Russia , Abkhazia , and Ossetia were all top agenda issues that involved various ethnic groups fighting each other .
The CSCE proposed the use of NATO and CIS peacekeepers to monitor ceasefires and protect shipments of humanitarian aid being sent to displaced refugees . Several ceasefires were put into effect after the June offensive but the implementation of a European peacekeeping force , endorsed by Armenia , never came to fruition . The idea of sending 100 international observers to Karabakh was once raised but talks broke down completely between Armenian and Azeri leaders in July . Russia was especially opposed to allowing a multinational peacekeeping force from NATO to entering the Caucasus , seeing it as a move that encroached on its " backyard " .
= = = Mardakert and Martuni Offensives = = =
In late June , a new , smaller Azeri offensive was planned , this time against the town of Martuni in the southeastern half of Karabakh . The attack force consisted of several dozen tanks and armored fighting vehicles along with a complement of several infantry companies massing along the Machkalashen and Jardar fronts near Martuni and Krasnyy Bazar . Martuni 's regimental commander , Monte Melkonian , referred now by his men as " Avo " , although lacking heavy armor , managed to stave off repeated attempts by the Azeri forces .
In late August 1992 , Nagorno @-@ Karabakh 's government found itself in a disorderly state and its members resigned on 17 August . Power was subsequently assumed by a council called the State Defense Committee and chaired by Robert Kocharyan , which stated it would temporarily govern the enclave until the conflict ended . At the same time , Azerbaijan also launched attacks by fixed @-@ wing aircraft , often bombing civilian targets . Kocharyan condemned what he believed were intentional attempts to kill civilians by the Azeris and also Russia 's alleged passive and unconcerned attitude toward allowing its army 's weapons stockpiles to be sold or transferred to Azerbaijan .
= = = Winter thaw = = =
As winter approached , both sides largely abstained from launching full @-@ scale offensives so as to preserve resources , such as gas and electricity , for domestic use . Despite the opening of an economic highway to the residents living in Karabakh , both Armenia and the enclave suffered a great deal due to the economic blockades imposed by Azerbaijan . While not completely shut off , material aid sent through Turkey arrived sporadically .
Experiencing both food shortages and power shortages , after the shutting down of the Metsamor nuclear power plant , Armenia 's economic outlook appeared bleak : in Georgia , a new bout of civil wars against separatists in Abkhazia and Ossetia began , and supply convoys were raided and the only oil pipeline leading from Russia to Armenia repeatedly destroyed . Similar to the winter of 1991 – 1992 , the 1992 – 1993 winter was especially cold , as many families throughout Armenia and Karabakh were left without heating and hot water .
Grain had become difficult to procure . The Armenian Diaspora raised money and donated supplies to Armenia . In December , two shipments of 33 @,@ 000 tons of grain and 150 tons of infant formula arrived from the United States via the Black Sea port of Batumi , Georgia . In February 1993 , the European Community sent 4 @.@ 5 million ECUs to Armenia . Armenia 's southern neighbor Iran also helped Armenia economically by providing power and electricity . Elchibey 's acrimonious stance toward Iran and his remarks to unify with Iran 's Azeri minority alienated relations between the two countries .
Azeris displaced as internal and international refugees were forced to live in makeshift camps provided by both the Azerbaijan government and Iran . The International Red Cross also distributed blankets to the Azeris and noted that by December , enough food was being allocated for the refugees . Azerbaijan also struggled to rehabilitate its petroleum industry , the country 's chief export . Its oil refineries were not generating at full capacity and production quotas fell well short of estimates . In 1965 , the oil fields in Baku were producing 21 @.@ 5 million tons of oil annually ; by 1988 , that number had dropped down to almost 3 @.@ 3 million . Outdated Soviet refinery equipment and a reluctance by Western oil companies to invest in a war region where pipelines would routinely be destroyed prevented Azerbaijan from fully exploiting its oil wealth .
= = Summer 1993 = =
= = = Conflicts = = =
Despite the grueling winter , the new year was viewed enthusiastically by both sides . Azerbaijan 's President Elchibey expressed optimism toward bringing an agreeable solution to the conflict with Armenia 's Ter @-@ Petrosyan . Glimmers of such hope , however , quickly began to fade in January 1993 , despite the calls for a new ceasefire by Boris Yeltsin and George H. W. Bush , as hostilities in the region brewed up once more . Armenian forces began a new bout of offensives that overran villages in northern Karabakh that had been held by the Azeris since the previous autumn .
Frustration over these military defeats took a toll on the domestic front in Azerbaijan . Azerbaijan 's military had grown more desperate and defense minister Gaziev and Huseynov 's brigade turned to Russian help , a move which ran against Elchibey 's policies and were construed as insubordination . Political infighting and arguments on where to shift military units between the country 's ministry of the interior İsgandar Hamidov and Gaziev led to the latter 's resignation on 20 February . Armenia was similarly wracked by political turmoil and growing Armenian dissension against President Ter @-@ Petrosyan .
= = = Kelbajar = = =
Situated west of northern Karabakh , outside the official boundaries of the region , was the rayon of Kelbajar , which bordered Armenia . With a population of about 60 @,@ 000 , the several dozen villages were made up of Azeris and Kurds . In March 1993 , the Armenian @-@ held areas near the Sarsang reservoir in Mardakert were reported to have been coming under attack by the Azeris . After successfully defending the Martuni region , Melkonian 's fighters were tasked to move to capture the region of Kelbajar , where the incursions and artillery shelling were said to have been coming from .
Scant military opposition by the Azeris allowed Melkonian 's fighters to gain a foothold in the region and along the way capture several abandoned armored vehicles and tanks . At 2 : 45 pm , on 2 April , Armenian forces from two directions advanced toward Kelbajar in an attack that struck Azerbaijani armor and troops entrenched near the Ganje @-@ Kelbjar intersection . Azerbaijani forces were unable to halt the advances made by Armenian armor and were wiped out completely . The second attack toward Kelbajar also quickly overran the defenders . By 3 April , Armenian forces were in possession of Kelbajar . President Elchibey imposed a state of emergency for a period of two months and introduced universal conscription .
On 30 April , the United Nations Security Council ( UNSC ) passed Resolution 822 , co @-@ sponsored by Turkey and Pakistan , demanding the immediate cessation of all hostilities and the withdrawal of all occupying forces from Kelbajar . Human Rights Watch concluded that during the Kelbajar offensive Armenian forces committed numerous violations of the rules of war , including the forcible exodus of a civilian population , indiscriminate fire , and taking of hostages .
The political repercussions were also felt in Azerbaijan when Huseynov embarked on his " march to Baku . " Frustrated with what he felt was Elchibey 's incompetence and demoted from his rank of colonel , his brigade advanced in early June from its base in Ganje toward Baku with the explicit aim of unseating the president . Elchibey stepped down from office on 18 June and power was assumed by then parliamentary member Heydar Aliyev . On 1 July , Huseynov was appointed prime minister of Azerbaijan . As acting president , Aliyev disbanded 33 voluntary battalions of the Popular Front , which he deemed politically unreliable . Aliyev became the President of Azerbaijan on 10 October 1993 .
= = = Agdam , Fizuli , Jabrail and Zangilan = = =
While the people of Azerbaijan were adjusting to the new political landscape , many Armenians were mourning Melkonian , who was killed earlier on 12 June in a skirmish with Azerbaijani light armor and infantry near the town of Merzuli and given a state funeral in Yerevan . The Armenian side made use of the political crisis in Baku , which had left the Karabakh front almost undefended by the Azerbaijani forces . The following four months of political instability in Azerbaijan led to the loss of control over five districts , as well as the north of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh . Azerbaijani military forces were unable to put up much resistance in the face of Armenian advances and abandoned most of their positions without so much as putting up a fight . In late June , they were driven out from Martakert , losing their final foothold of the enclave . By July , Armenian forces were preparing to attack and capture the region of Agdam , another rayon that fell outside of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh , claiming that they were attempting to widen a barrier that would keep towns and villages and their positions out of the range of Azerbaijani artillery .
On 4 July artillery bombardment commenced against Agdam by Armenian forces , destroying many parts of the town . Soldiers , along with civilians , began to evacuate Agdam . Facing military collapse , Aliev attempted to mediate with the de facto Karabakh government and Minsk Group officials . In mid @-@ August , Armenians massed a force to take the Azerbaijani @-@ held regions of Fizuli and Jebrail , south of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh proper .
In light of the Armenians ' advance into Azerbaijan , Turkey 's prime minister Tansu Çiller , warned the Armenian government not to attack Nakhichevan and demanded that Armenians pull out of Azerbaijan 's territories . Thousands of Turkish troops were sent to the border between Turkey and Armenia in early September . Russian Federation forces in Armenia in turn countered their movements and thus warded off the possible Turkish participation in the conflict .
By early September , Azerbaijani forces were nearly in complete disarray . Many of the heavy weapons they had received and bought from the Russians had been taken out of action or abandoned during the battles . Since the June 1992 offensive , Armenian forces had captured dozens of tanks , light armor , and artillery from Azerbaijan . For example , according to Monte Melkonian in a television interview in March 1993 , his forces in Martuni alone had captured or destroyed a total of 55 T @-@ 72s , 24 BMP @-@ 2s , 15 APCs and 25 pieces of heavy artillery since the June 1992 Goranboy offensive . " Most of our arms , " he stated , " [ were ] captured from Azerbaijan . " Serzh Sargsyan , the then military leader of the Karabakh armed forces , tallied a total of 156 tanks captured through the course of the war . By the summer of 1993 , Armenian forces had captured so much equipment that many of them were praising Elchibey , since he was , in effect , arming both sides .
Further signs of Azerbaijan 's desperation included the recruitment by Aliyev of 1 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 500 Afghan and Arab mujahadeen fighters from Afghanistan . Although the Azerbaijani government denied this claim , correspondence and photographs captured by Armenian forces indicated otherwise . A United States @-@ based petroleum company , MEGA OIL , also hired several American military trainers as a prerequisite for Azerbaijan to grant it drilling rights at its oil fields .
= = Aerial warfare = =
The aerial warfare in Karabakh involved primarily fighter jets and attack helicopters . The primary transport helicopters of the war were the Mi @-@ 8 and its cousin , the Mi @-@ 17 and were used extensively by both sides . Armenia 's active air force consisted of only two Su @-@ 25 ground support bombers , one of which was lost due to friendly fire . There were also several Su @-@ 22s and Su @-@ 17s ; however , these aging craft took a backseat for the duration of the war . In total , throughout the war Armenians brought down 28 Azerbaijani warplanes and 19 military helicopters .
Azerbaijan 's air force was composed of forty @-@ five combat aircraft which were often piloted by experienced Russian and Ukrainian mercenaries from the former Soviet military . They flew mission sorties over Karabakh with such sophisticated jets as the MiG @-@ 25 and Sukhoi Su @-@ 24 and with older @-@ generation Soviet fighter bombers , such as the MiG @-@ 21 . They were reported to have been paid a monthly salary of over 5 @,@ 000 rubles and flew bombing campaigns from air force bases in Azerbaijan often targeting Stepanakert .
These pilots , like the men from the Soviet interior forces in the onset of the conflict , were also poor and took the jobs as a means of supporting their families . Several were shot down over the city by Armenian forces and according to one of the pilots ' commanders , with assistance provided by the Russians . Many of these pilots faced the threat of execution by Armenian forces if they were shot down . The setup of the defense system severely hampered Azerbaijan 's ability to carry out and launch more air strikes . The most widely used helicopter gunship by both the Armenians and Azeris was the Soviet @-@ made Mil Mi @-@ 24 Krokodil .
= = = Armenian and Azerbaijani aircraft equipment = = =
Below is a table listing the number of aircraft that were used by Armenia and Azerbaijan during the war .
= = 1993 – 1994 attack waves = =
In October 1993 , Aliev was formally elected president and promised to bring social order to the country in addition to recapturing the lost regions . In October , Azerbaijan joined the CIS . The winter season was marked with similar conditions as in the previous year , both sides scavenging for wood and harvesting foodstuffs months in advance . Two subsequent UNSC resolutions on the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh conflict were passed , ( 874 and 884 ) , in October and November and , although reemphasizing the same points as the previous two , they acknowledged Nagorno @-@ Karabakh as a party to the conflict .
In early January , Azerbaijani forces and Afghan guerrillas recaptured part of the Fizuli district , including the railway junction of Horadiz on the Iranian border , but failed to recapture the town of Fizuli itself . On 10 January 1994 an offensive was launched by Azerbaijan toward the region of Martakert in an attempt to recapture the northern section of the enclave . The offensive managed to advance and take back several parts of Karabakh in the north and to the south but soon petered out . In response , the Republic of Armenia began sending conscripts and regular Army and Interior Ministry troops to stop the Azerbaijani advance in Karabakh . To bolster the ranks of its army , the Armenian government issued a decree that instituted a three @-@ month call @-@ up for men up to age forty @-@ five and resorted to press @-@ gang raids to enlist recruits . Several active @-@ duty Armenian Army soldiers were captured by the Azerbaijani forces .
Azerbaijan 's offensives grew more desperate as boys as young as 16 , with little to no training , were recruited and sent to take part in ineffective human wave attacks ( a tactic often compared to the one employed by Iran during the Iran – Iraq War ) . The two offensives that took place in the winter cost Azerbaijan as many as 5 @,@ 000 lives ( at the loss of several hundred Armenians ) . The main Azeri offensive was aimed at recapturing the Kelbajar district , which would thus threaten the Lachin corridor . The attack initially met little resistance and was successful in capturing the vital Omar Pass . However , as the Armenian forces reacted , the bloodiest clashes of the war ensued and the Azeri forces were soundly defeated . In a single episode of that time 's clashes , Azerbaijan lost about fifteen hundred of its soldiers after the failed offensive in Kelbajar . Several Azeri brigades were isolated when the Armenians recaptured the Omar Pass , surrounded , then destroyed .
While the political leadership changed hands several times in Azerbaijan , most Armenian soldiers in Karabakh claimed that the Azeri youth , and Azeris themselves , were demoralized and lacked a sense of purpose and commitment to fighting the war . Russian professor Georgiy I. Mirsky lent credence to this view in his 1997 book , On Ruins of Empire , stating that " Karabakh does not matter to Azerbaijanis as much as it does to Armenians . Probably , this is why young volunteers from Armenia proper have been much more eager to fight and die for Karabakh than the Azerbaijanis have . " This view received further validation in a report filed by a journalist from the New York Times visiting the region , who noted that " In Stepanakert , it is impossible to find an able @-@ bodied man – whether volunteer from Armenia or local resident – out of uniform . [ Whereas in ] Azerbaijan , draft @-@ age men hang out in cafes . " Andrei Sakharov famously remarked on this at the outset of the conflict : " For Azerbaijan the issue of Karabakh is a matter of ambition , for the Armenians of Karabakh , it is a matter of life or death . "
= = = 1994 ceasefire = = =
After six years of intense fighting , both sides were ready for a ceasefire . Azerbaijan , with its manpower exhausted and aware that Armenian forces had an unimpeded path to march on to Baku , counted on a new ceasefire proposal from either the CSCE or Russia . As the final battles of the conflict took place near Shahumyan , in a series of brief engagements in Gulustan , Armenian and Azerbaijani diplomats met in the early part of 1994 to hammer out the details of the ceasefire . On May 5 , with Russia acting as a mediator , all parties agreed to cease hostilities and vowed to observe a ceasefire that would go into effect at 12 : 01 AM on May 12 . The agreement was signed by the respective defense ministers of the three principle warring parties ( Armenia , Azerbaijan , and the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Republic ) . In Azerbaijan , many welcomed the end of hostilities . Sporadic fighting continued in some parts of the region but all sides vowed to abide by the terms of the ceasefire .
= = Media coverage = =
Valuable footage of the conflict was provided by a number of journalists from both sides , including Vardan Hovhannisyan , who won the 2007 Tribeca Film Festival 's prize for best new documentary filmmaker for his A Story of People in War and Peace , and Chingiz Mustafayev , who was posthumously awarded the title of National Hero of Azerbaijan . Armenian @-@ Russian journalist Dmitri Pisarenko who spent a year at the front line and filmed many of the battles later wrote that both Armenian and Azerbaijani journalists were preoccupied with echoing the official stands of their respective governments and that " objectiveness was being sacrificed for ideology . " Armenian military commanders were eager to give interviews following Azerbaijani offensives when they were able to criticise the other side for launching heavy artillery attacks that the " small @-@ numbered but proud Armenians " had to fight off . Yet they were reluctant to speak out when Armenian troops seized a village outside Nagorno @-@ Karabakh in order to avoid justifying such acts . Therefore , Armenian journalists felt the need to be creative enough to portray the event as " an Armenian counter @-@ offensive " or as " a necessary military operation . "
Bulgarian journalist Tsvetana Paskaleva is noted for her coverage of Operation Ring . Some foreign journalists previously concerned with emphasizing the Soviet conceding in the Cold War , gradually shifted towards presenting the USSR as a country swamped by a wave of ethnic conflicts , the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh conflict being one of them .
Foreign reporters often referenced religious factors in the conflict , i.e. the fact that Armenians were predominantly Christian , and outside coverage of the conflict is often skewed by allegiances .
= = Post @-@ ceasefire violence and mediation = =
Today , the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh conflict remains one of several frozen conflicts in the former Soviet Union , alongside Georgia 's breakaway regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia and Moldova 's troubles with Transnistria . Karabakh remains under the jurisdiction of the government of the unrecognized but de facto independent Republic of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh , which maintains its own uniformed military , the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Defense Army .
Contrary to media reports that nearly always mentioned the religions of the Armenians and Azeris religious aspects never gained significance as an additional casus belli , and the Karabakh conflict has remained primarily an issue of territory and the human rights of Armenians in Karabakh . Since 1995 , the co @-@ chairs of the OSCE Minsk Group has been mediating with the governments of Armenia and Azerbaijan to settle for a new solution . Numerous proposals have been made which have primarily been based on both sides making several concessions . One such proposal stipulated that as Armenian forces withdrew from the seven regions surrounding Karabakh , Azerbaijan would share some of its economic assets including profits from an oil pipeline that would go from Baku through Armenia to Turkey . Other proposals also included that Azerbaijan would provide the broadest form of autonomy to Karabakh next to granting it full independence . Armenia has also been pressured by being excluded from major economic projects throughout the region , including the Baku @-@ Tbilisi @-@ Ceyhan pipeline and Kars @-@ Tbilisi @-@ Baku railway .
According to Armenia 's former president , Levon Ter @-@ Petrosyan , by giving certain Karabakh territories to Azerbaijan , the Karabakh conflict would have been resolved in 1997 . A peace agreement could have been concluded and a status for Nagorno @-@ Karabakh would have been determined . Ter @-@ Petrosyan noted years later that the Karabakh leadership approach was maximalist and " they thought they could get more . " Most autonomy proposals have been rejected , however , by the Armenians , who consider it as a matter that is not negotiable . Likewise , Azerbaijan has also refused to let the matter subside and regularly threatens to resume hostilities . On 30 March 1998 , Robert Kocharyan was elected president and continued to reject calls for making a deal to resolve the conflict . In 2001 , Kocharyan and Aliyev met in Key West , Florida for peace talks sponsored by the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe . While several Western diplomats expressed optimism , failure to prepare the populations of either country for compromise reportedly thwarted hopes for a peaceful resolution .
Refugees displaced from the fighting amount to nearly one million people . An estimated 400 @,@ 000 Armenians living in Azerbaijan fled to Armenia or Russia and a further 30 @,@ 000 came from Karabakh . Many of those who left Karabakh returned after the war ended . An estimated 800 @,@ 000 Azeris were displaced from the fighting including those from both Armenia and Karabakh . Various other ethnic groups living in Karabakh were also forced to live in refugee camps built by both the Azeri and Iranian governments . Although Azerbaijan has repeatedly claimed that 20 % of its territory has fallen under Armenian control and other sources have given figures as high 40 % , the actual percentage , taking into account the exclave of Nakhichevan , is estimated to be closer to 13 @.@ 62 % or 14 % ( the number comes down to 9 % if Nagorno @-@ Karabakh itself is excluded ) .
The Nagorno @-@ Karabakh war has given rise to strong anti @-@ Armenianism in Azerbaijan and anti @-@ Azerbaijani sentiment in Armenia . The ramifications of the war were said to have played a part in the February 2004 murder of Armenian Lieutenant Gurgen Markaryan who was hacked to death with an axe by his Azerbaijani counterpart , Ramil Safarov at a NATO training seminar in Budapest , Hungary . Upon his extradition in 2012 Safarov was pardoned by president Aliyev and greeted as a hero in Azerbaijan .
Azerbaijani enmity against anything Armenian led to the destruction of thousands of medieval Armenian gravestones , known as khachkars , at a massive cemetery in Julfa , Nakhichevan . This destruction was temporarily halted when first revealed in 1998 , but then continued on to completion in 2005 . Azerbaijan has likened Armenia 's control of the region to the Nazi occupation of the Soviet Union during World War II .
= = Current situation = =
In the years since the end of the war , a number of organizations have passed resolutions regarding the conflict . On 25 January 2005 , for example , PACE adopted a controversial non @-@ binding resolution , Resolution 1416 , which criticized the " large @-@ scale ethnic expulsion and the creation of mono @-@ ethnic areas " and declared that Armenian forces were occupying Azerbaijan lands . On 14 May 2008 thirty @-@ nine countries from the United Nations General Assembly adopted Resolution 62 / 243 which called for " the immediate , complete and unconditional withdrawal of all Armenian forces from all occupied territories of the Republic of Azerbaijan . " Almost one hundred countries , however , abstained from voting while seven countries , including the three co @-@ chairs of the Minsk Group , Russia , the United States , and France , voted against it .
During the summit of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference ( OIC ) and the session of its Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs , member states adopted OIC Resolution № 10 / 11 and OIC Council of Foreign Ministers Resolution № 10 / 37 , on 14 March 2008 and 18 – 20 May 2010 , respectively . Both resolutions condemned alleged aggression of Armenia against Azerbaijan and called for immediate implementation of UN Security Council Resolutions 822 , 853 , 874 and 884 . As a response , Armenian leaders have stated Azerbaijan was " exploiting Islam to muster greater international support . "
In 2008 , the Moscow Defense Brief opined that because of the rapid growth of Azeri defense expenditures – which is driving the strong rearmament of the Azeri armed forces – the military balance appeared to be now shifting in Azerbaijan 's favor : " ... The overall trend is clearly in Azerbaijan 's favor , and it seems that Armenia will not be able to sustain an arms race with Azerbaijan 's oil @-@ fueled economy . And this could lead to the destabilization of the frozen conflict between these two states , " the journal wrote . Other analysts have made more cautious observations , noting that administrative and military deficiencies are obviously found in the Azerbaijani military and that the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Defense Army maintains a " constant state of readiness ... "
= = = Clashes = = =
In early 2008 , tensions between Armenia , the NKR Karabakh and Azerbaijan grew . On the diplomatic front , President Ilham Aliyev repeated statements that Azerbaijan would resort to force , if necessary , to take the territories back ; concurrently , shooting incidents along the line of contact increased . On 5 March 2008 a significant breach of the ceasefire occurred in Mardakert , when up to sixteen soldiers were killed . Both sides accused the other of starting the battle . Moreover , the use of artillery in the skirmishes marked a significant departure from previous clashes , which usually involved only sniper or machine gun fire . Deadly skirmishes took place during the summer of 2010 as well .
Tensions escalated again in July – August 2014 with ceasefire breaches by Azerbaijan taking place and the President of Azerbaijan , Aliyev , threatening Armenia with war .
Rather than receding , the tension in the area increased in April 2016 with the 2016 Armenian @-@ Azerbaijani clashes when the worst clashes since the 1994 ceasefire erupted . The Armenian Defense Ministry alleged that Azerbaijan launched an offensive to seize territory in the region . Azerbaijan reported that 12 of its soldiers were killed in action and that a Mil Mi @-@ 24 helicopter and tank were also destroyed . Armenian President Serzh Sargsyan stated that 18 Armenian soldiers were killed and 35 were wounded .
= = Misconduct = =
Emerging from the collapse of the Soviet Union as nascent states and due to the near @-@ immediate fighting , it was not until mid @-@ 1993 that Armenia and Azerbaijan became signatories of international law agreements , including the Geneva Conventions . Allegations from all three governments ( including Nagorno @-@ Karabakh 's ) regularly accused the other side of committing atrocities which were at times confirmed by third party media sources or human rights organizations . Khojaly Massacre , for example , was confirmed by both Human Rights Watch and Memorial . Maraghar Massacre was testified by British @-@ based organization Christian Solidarity International and by the Vice @-@ Speaker of the British Parliament 's House of Lords Caroline Cox in 1992 . Azerbaijan was condemned by HRW for its use of aerial bombing in densely populated civilian areas and both sides were criticized for indiscriminate fire , hostage @-@ taking and the forcible displacement of civilians .
The lack of international laws for either side to abide by virtually sanctioned activity in the war to what would be considered war crimes . Looting and mutilation ( body parts such as ears , brought back from the front as treasured war souvenirs ) of dead soldiers were commonly reported and even boasted about among soldiers . Another practice that took form , not by soldiers but by regular civilians during the war , was the bartering of prisoners between Armenians and Azerbaijanis . Often , when contact was lost between family members and a soldier or a militiaman serving at the front , they took it upon themselves to organize an exchange by personally capturing a soldier from the battle lines and holding them in the confines of their own homes . New York Times journalist Yo 'av Karny noted this practice was as " old as the people occupying [ the ] land . "
After the war ended , both sides accused their opponents of continuing to hold captives ; Azerbaijan claimed Armenia was continuing to hold nearly 5 @,@ 000 Azerbaijani prisoners while Armenians claimed Azerbaijan was holding 600 prisoners . The non @-@ profit group , Helsinki Initiative 92 , investigated two prisons in Shusha and Stepanakert after the war ended , but concluded there were no prisoners @-@ of @-@ war there . A similar investigation arrived at the same conclusion while searching for Armenians allegedly laboring in Azerbaijan 's quarries .
= = Cultural legacy = =
The conflict has come to be represented in different forms of media in Armenia and Azerbaijan . In June 2006 , the film Chakatagir ( Destiny ) premiered in Yerevan and Stepanakert . The film stars and is written by Gor Vardanyan and is a fictionalized account of the events revolving around Operation Ring . It cost $ 3 @.@ 8 million to make , the most expensive film ever made in the country , and was the first film made about the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh War . In the summer of 2012 , Azerbaijanis in Azerbaijan released a video game entitled İşğal Altında : Şuşa ( Under Occupation : Shusha ) , a free first person shooter that allows the player to assume the role of an Azerbaijani soldier who takes part in the 1992 battle of Shusha . Commentators have noted that the game " is not for the faint of heart : there 's lots of killing and computer @-@ generated gore . To a great extent , it 's a celebration of violence : to advance , players must handle a variety of tasks , including shooting lots of Armenian enemies , rescuing a wounded Azerbaijani soldier , retrieving a document and blowing up a building in the town of Shusha . " Another opus followed , İşğal Altında : Ağdam , which was released in 2013 . This episode is very similar to the previous one , but this time it takes place in Agdam .
= = = Historical overviews = = =
Cheterian , Vicken ( 2011 ) . War and Peace in the Caucasus : Russia 's Troubled Frontier . New York : Columbia University Press . ISBN 9780231700658 .
Cox , Caroline and John Eibner ( 1993 ) . Ethnic Cleansing in Progress : War in Nagorno Karabakh . Zürich ; Washington : Institute for Religious Minorities in the Islamic World .
Croissant , Michael P. ( 1998 ) . The Armenia @-@ Azerbaijan Conflict : Causes and Implications . Westport , Connecticut : Greenwood Publishing Group . ISBN 9780275962418 .
Curtis , Glenn E ( 1995 ) . Armenia , Azerbaijan and Georgia Country Studies . Washington D.C. : Federal Research Division Library of Congress .
de Waal , Thomas ( 2003 ) . Black Garden : Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War . New York : New York University Press . ISBN 9780814719459 .
Freire , Maria Raquel ( 2003 ) . Conflict and Security in the Former Soviet Union : The Role of the OSCE . Burlington , VT : Ashgate .
Griffin , Nicholas ( 2004 ) . Caucasus : A Journey to the Land Between Christianity and Islam . Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
Karny , Yo 'av ( 2000 ) . Highlanders : A Journey to the Caucasus in Quest of Memory . New York : Douglas & McIntyre .
Libaridian , Gerard ( 1988 ) . The Karabagh file : Documents and facts on the region of Mountainous Karabagh , 1918 – 1988 . Cambridge , Mass : Zoryan Institute ; 1st ed .
Human Rights Watch ( 1994 ) . Azerbaijan : Seven Years of Conflict in Nagorno @-@ Karabakh ( PDF ) . New York . ISBN 1 @-@ 56432 @-@ 142 @-@ 8 .
= = = Specific issues and time periods = = =
Charalampidis , Ioannis ( 2013 ) . Sponsored To Kill : Mercenaries and Terrorist Networks in Azerbaijan ( PDF ) . Moscow : " MIA " Publishers . ISBN 978 @-@ 5 @-@ 9986 @-@ 0115 @-@ 6 .
André Widmer ( 2013 ) . The Forgotten Conflict - Two Decades after the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh war . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 033 @-@ 03809 @-@ 7 .
Chrysanthopolous , Leonidas T ( 2002 ) . Caucasus Chronicles : Nation @-@ building and Diplomacy in Armenia , 1993 – 1994 . Princeton : Gomidas Institute .
Goltz , Thomas ( 1998 ) . Azerbaijan Diary : A Rogue Reporter 's Adventures in an Oil @-@ Rich , War @-@ Torn , Post @-@ Soviet Republic . New York : M.E. Sharpe ISBN 0 @-@ 7656 @-@ 0244 @-@ X
Hakobyan , Tatul ( 2008 ) . Կանաչ ու Սև : Արցախյան օրագիր [ Green and Black : An Artsakh Diary ] ( in Armenian ) . Yerevan @-@ Stepanakert .
Kaufman , Stuart ( 2001 . ) . Modern Hatreds : The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War . New York : Cornell Studies in Security Affairs .
Hovannisian , Richard G. " The Armeno @-@ Azerbaijani Conflict Over Mountainous Karabagh . " Armenian Review , XXIV , Summer 1971 .
Hovannisian , Richard G. " Mountainous Karabagh in 1920 : An Unresolved Contest . " Armenian Review , XLVI , 1993 , 1996 .
Malkasian , Mark ( 1996 ) . Gha @-@ Ra @-@ Bagh ! : The Emergence of the National Democratic Movement in Armenia . Wayne State University Press .
Rost , Yuri ( 1990 ) . The Armenian Tragedy : An Eye @-@ Witness Account of Human Conflict and Natural Disaster in Armenia and Azerbaijan . New York : St. Martin 's Press
Shahmuratian , Samvel ( ed . ) ( 1990 ) . The Sumgait Tragedy : Pogroms Against Armenians in Soviet Azerbaijan . New York : Zoryan Institute .
Taarnby , Michael ( 2008 ) . The Mujahedin in Nagorno @-@ Karabakh : A Case Study in the Evolution of Global Jihad . Real Instituto Elcano .
= = = Biographies = = =
Melkonian , Markar ( 2005 ) . My Brother 's Road : An American 's Fateful Journey to Armenia . London : I. B. Tauris . ISBN 1 @-@ 85043 @-@ 635 @-@ 5 .
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= Abu Nidal =
Sabri Khalil al @-@ Banna ( May 1937 – 16 August 2002 ) , known as Abu Nidal , was the founder of Fatah – The Revolutionary Council , a militant Palestinian splinter group more commonly known as the Abu Nidal Organization ( ANO ) . At the height of its power in the 1970s and 1980s , the ANO was widely regarded as the most ruthless of the Palestinian groups .
Abu Nidal ( " father of struggle " ) formed the ANO in October 1974 after a split from Yasser Arafat 's Fatah faction within the Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) . Acting as a freelance contractor , Abu Nidal is believed to have ordered attacks in 20 countries , killing over 300 and injuring over 650 . The group 's operations included the Rome and Vienna airport attacks on 27 December 1985 , when gunmen opened fire on passengers in simultaneous shootings at El Al ticket counters , killing 20 . Patrick Seale , Abu Nidal 's biographer , wrote of the shootings that their " random cruelty marked them as typical Abu Nidal operations . "
Abu Nidal died after a shooting in his Baghdad apartment in August 2002 . Palestinian sources believed he was killed on the orders of Saddam Hussein , while Iraqi officials insisted he had committed suicide during an interrogation . " He was the patriot turned psychopath , " David Hirst wrote in the Guardian on the news of his death . " He served only himself , only the warped personal drives that pushed him into hideous crime . He was the ultimate mercenary . "
= = Early life = =
= = = Family , early education = = =
Abu Nidal was born in May 1937 in Jaffa , on the Mediterranean coast of what was then the British Mandate of Palestine . His father , Hajj Khalil al @-@ Banna , owned 6 @,@ 000 acres ( 24 km2 ) of orange groves situated between Jaffa and Majdal , today Ashkelon in Israel . The family lived in luxury in a three @-@ storey stone house near the beach , later used as an Israeli military court . Muhammad Khalil al @-@ Banna , Abu Nidal 's brother , told Yossi Melman :
My father ... was the richest man in Palestine . He marketed about ten percent of all the citrus crops sent from Palestine to Europe – especially to England and Germany . He owned a summer house in Marseilles , France , and another house in İskenderun , then in Syria and afterwards Turkey , and a number of houses in Palestine itself . Most of the time we lived in Jaffa . Our house had about twenty rooms , and we children would go down to swim in the sea . We also had stables with Arabian horses , and one of our homes in Ashkelon even had a large swimming pool . I think we must have been the only family in Palestine with a private swimming pool .
Khalil al @-@ Banna 's wealth allowed him to take several wives . According to Abu Nidal in an interview with Der Spiegel , his father had 13 wives , 17 sons and eight daughters . Melman writes that Abu Nidal 's mother was the eighth wife ; she had been one of the family 's maids , a 16 @-@ year @-@ old Alawite girl . The family disapproved of the marriage , according to Patrick Seale , and as a result Abu Nidal , Khalil 's 12th child , was apparently looked down on by his older siblings , although in later life the relationships were repaired .
In 1944 or 1945 his father sent him to Collège des Frères , a French mission school in Jaffa , which he attended for one year . The father died in 1945 when Abu Nidal was seven years old , and the family turned his mother out of the house . His brothers took him out of the mission school and enrolled him instead in a prestigious , private Muslim school in Jerusalem , now known as Umariya Elementary School . He attended for about two years .
= = = 1948 Palestine War = = =
On 29 November 1947 , the United Nations resolved to partition Palestine into an Arab and Jewish state . Fighting broke out immediately , and the disruption of the citrus @-@ fruit business hit the family 's income . In Jaffa there were food shortages , truck bombs and an Irgun mortar bombardment . Melman writes that the al @-@ Banna family had had good relations with the Jewish community , but it was war and the relationships did not help them . Abu Nidal 's brother told Melman :
My father was a close friend of Avraham Shapira , one of the founders of Hashomer , the Jewish self @-@ defense organization . He would visit [ Shapira ] in his home in Petah Tikva , or Shapira riding his horse would visit our home in Jaffa . I also remember how we visited Dr. Weizmann [ later first president of Israel ] in his home in Rehovot .
Just before Jaffa was conquered by Israeli troops in April 1948 , the family fled to their house near Majdal , but the Jewish militias arrived there too , and they had to flee again . This time they went to the Bureij refugee camp in the Gaza Strip , then under Egyptian control . Melman writes that the family spent nine months living in tents , dependent on UNRWA for an allowance of oil , rice and potatoes . The experience had a powerful effect on Abu Nidal .
= = = Move to Nablus and Saudi Arabia = = =
The al @-@ Banna family 's commercial experience , and the money they had managed to take with them , meant they could set themselves up in business again , Melman writes . Their orange groves , however , had gone , now part of the new state of Israel , which had declared its independence on 14 May 1948 . The family moved to Nablus in the West Bank , then under Jordanian control . Abu Nidal graduated from high school there in 1955 , and joined the Arab nationalist Ba 'ath party . He began a degree course in engineering at Cairo University , but left without a degree after two years .
In 1960 he made his way to Saudi Arabia , where he set himself up as a painter and electrician , and worked as a casual laborer for Aramco . He remained close to his mother ; his brother told Melman that Abu Nidal would return to Nablus from Saudi Arabia every year to visit her . It was during one of those visits in 1962 that he met his wife , whose family had also fled from Jaffa . The couple had a son and two daughters .
= = = Personality = = =
Abu Nidal was often in poor health , according to Seale , and tended to dress in zip @-@ up jackets and old trousers , drinking whisky every night in his later years . He became , writes Seale , a " master of disguises and subterfuge , trusting no one , lonely and self @-@ protective , [ living ] like a mole , hidden away from public view . " Acquaintances said that he was capable of hard work and had a good financial brain . Salah Khalaf ( Abu Iyad ) , the deputy chief of Fatah who was assassinated by the ANO in 1991 , knew him well in the late 1960s when he took Abu Nidal under his wing . He told Seale :
He had been recommended to me as a man of energy and enthusiasm , but he seemed shy when we met . It was only on further acquaintance that I noticed other traits . He was extremely good company , with a sharp tongue and an inclination to dismiss most of humanity as spies and traitors . I rather liked that ! I discovered he was very ambitious , perhaps more than his abilities warranted , and also very excitable . He sometimes worked himself up into such a state that he lost all powers of reasoning .
Seale suggests that Abu Nidal 's childhood explained his personality , described as chaotic by Abu Iyad and as psychopathic by Issam Sartawi , the late Palestinian heart surgeon . His siblings ' scorn , the loss of his father and his mother 's removal from the family home when he was seven , then the loss of his home and status in the conflict with Israel , created a mental world of plots and counterplots , reflected in his tyrannical leadership of the ANO . Members ' wives ( it was an all @-@ male group ) were not allowed to befriend each another , and Abu Nidal 's wife was expected to live in isolation without friends .
= = Political life = =
= = = Impex , Black September = = =
In Saudi Arabia Abu Nidal helped found a small group of young Palestinians who called themselves the Palestine Secret Organization . The activism cost him his job and home : Aramco fired him , and the Saudi government imprisoned then expelled him .
He returned to Nablus with his wife and family , and joined Yasser Arafat 's Fatah faction of the PLO . Working as an odd @-@ job man , he was committed to Palestinian politics but not particularly active , until Israel won the 1967 Six @-@ Day War , capturing the Golan Heights , the West Bank and the Gaza Strip . Melman writes that " the entrance of the Israel Defense Forces tanks into Nablus was a traumatic experience for him . The conquest aroused him to action . "
He moved to Amman , Jordan , setting up a trading company called Impex . Fatah asked him to choose a nom de guerre , and he chose Abu Nidal ( " father of struggle " ) after his son , Nidal . ( It is customary in the Arab world for men to call themselves " father of " ( Abu ) , followed by their first son 's name . ) He was described by those who knew him at the time as a well @-@ organized leader , not a guerrilla ; during fighting between the Palestinian fedayeen and King Hussein 's troops , he stayed in his office .
Impex acted as a front for Fatah , serving as a meeting place and conduit for funds . This became a hallmark of Abu Nidal 's career . Companies controlled by the ANO made him a rich man by engaging in legitimate business deals , while acting as cover for arms deals and mercenary activities .
Abu Iyad appointed Abu Nidal in 1968 as the Fatah representative in Khartoum , Sudan , then ( at Abu Nidal 's insistence ) to the same position in Baghdad in July 1970 , two months before Black September , when over 10 days of fighting King Hussein 's army drove the Palestinian fedayeen out of Jordan , with the loss of thousands of lives . Seale writes that Abu Nidal 's absence from Jordan during this period , when it was clear that King Hussein was about to act against the Palestinians , raised suspicion within the movement that Abu Nidal was interested only in saving himself .
= = = First operation = = =
Shortly after Black September , Abu Nidal began accusing the PLO of cowardice over his Voice of Palestine radio station in Iraq for having agreed to a ceasefire with Hussein . During Fatah 's Third Congress in Damascus in 1971 , Abu Nidal joined Palestinian activist and writer Naji Allush and Abu Daoud ( leader of the Black September Organization responsible for the 1972 Munich Massacre ) , calling for greater democracy within Fatah and revenge against King Hussein .
In February 1973 Abu Daoud was arrested in Jordan for an attempt on King Hussein 's life . This led to Abu Nidal 's first operation , using the name Al @-@ Iqab ( " the Punishment " ) ; on 5 September 1973 five gunmen entered the Saudi embassy in Paris , took 15 hostages and threatened to blow up the building if Abu Daoud was not released . The gunmen flew two days later to Kuwait on a Syrian Airways flight , still holding five hostages , then to Riyadh , threatening to throw the hostages out of the aircraft . They surrendered and released the hostages on 8 September . Abu Daoud was released from prison two weeks later ; Seale writes that the Kuwaiti government paid King Hussein $ 12 million for his release .
On the day of the attack , 56 heads of state were meeting in Algiers for the 4th conference of the Non @-@ Aligned Movement . According to Seale , the Saudi Embassy operation had been commissioned by Iraq 's president , Ahmed Hasan al @-@ Bakr , as a distraction because he was jealous that Algeria was hosting the conference . Seale writes one of the hostage @-@ takers admitted that he had been told to fly the hostages around until the conference was over .
Abu Nidal had carried out the operation without the permission of Fatah . Abu Iyad ( Arafat 's deputy ) and Mahmoud Abbas ( later President of the Palestinian Authority ) , flew to Iraq to reason with Abu Nidal that hostage @-@ taking harmed the movement . Abu Iyad told Seale that an Iraqi official at the meeting said : " Why are you attacking Abu Nidal ? The operation was ours ! We asked him to mount it for us . " Abbas was furious and left the meeting with the other PLO delegates . From that point on , Seale writes , the PLO regarded Abu Nidal as under the control of the Iraqi government .
= = = Expulsion from Fatah = = =
Two months later , in November 1973 ( just after the Yom Kippur War in October ) , the ANO hijacked KLM Flight 861 , this time using the name Arab Nationalist Youth Organization . Fatah had been discussing convening a peace conference in Geneva ; the hijacking was intended to warn them not to go ahead with it . In response , in March or July 1974 , Arafat expelled Abu Nidal from Fatah .
In October 1974 Abu Nidal formed the ANO , calling it Fatah : The Revolutionary Council . In November that year a Fatah court sentenced him to death in absentia for the attempted assassination of Mahmoud Abbas . Seale writes that it is unlikely that Abu Nidal had intended to kill Abbas , and just as unlikely that Fatah wanted to kill Abu Nidal . He was invited to Beirut to discuss the death sentence , and was allowed to leave again , but it was clear that he had become persona non grata . As a result , the Iraqis gave him Fatah 's assets in Iraq , including a training camp , farm , newspaper , radio station , passports , overseas scholarships and $ 15 million worth of Chinese weapons . He also received Iraq 's regular aid to the PLO : around $ 150 @,@ 000 a month and a lump sum of $ 3 – 5 million .
= = ANO = =
= = = Nature of the organization = = =
In addition to Fatah : The Revolutionary Council , the ANO called itself the Palestinian National Liberation Movement , Black June ( for actions against Syria ) , Black September ( for actions against Jordan ) , the Revolutionary Arab Brigades , the Revolutionary Organization of Socialist Muslims , the Egyptian Revolution , Revolutionary Egypt , Al @-@ Asifa ( " the Storm , " a name also used by Fatah ) , Al @-@ Iqab ( " the Punishment " ) , and the Arab Nationalist Youth Organization .
The group had up to 500 members , chosen from young men in the Palestinian refugee camps and in Lebanon , who were promised good pay and help looking after their families . They would be sent to training camps in whichever country was hosting the ANO at the time ( Syria , Iraq or Libya ) , then organized into small cells . Once in , As`ad AbuKhalil and Michael Fischbach write , they were not allowed to leave again . The group assumed complete control over the membership . One member who spoke to Patrick Seale was told before being sent overseas : " If we say , ' Drink alcohol ' " , do so . If we say , ' Get married , ' find a woman and marry her . If we say , ' Don 't have children , ' you must obey . If we say , ' Go and kill King Hussein , ' you must be ready to sacrifice yourself ! "
Seale writes that recruits were asked to write out their life stories , including names and addresses of family and friends , then sign a paper saying they agreed to execution if discovered to have intelligence connections . If suspected , they would be asked to rewrite the whole story , without discrepancies . The ANO 's newspaper Filastin al @-@ Thawra regularly announced the execution of traitors.Seale himself writes that Abu Nidal was admitted his organization was deeply penetrated by Israeli agents . The theory that he himself was one such agent is deemed to be far @-@ fetched , but Israel may have had an interest in undermining Palestinian groups disposed to the idea of making compromises .
= = = Committee for Revolutionary Justice = = =
There were reports of purges throughout the 1970s and 1980s . Around 600 ANO members were killed in Lebanon and Libya , including 171 in one night in November 1987 , when they were lined up , shot and thrown into a mass grave . Dozens were kidnapped in Syria and killed in the Badawi refugee camp . Most of the decisions to kill , Abu Daoud told Seale , were taken by Abu Nidal " in the middle of the night , after he [ had ] knocked back a whole bottle of whiskey . " The purges led to the defection from the ANO in 1989 of Atif Abu Bakr , head of the ANO 's political directorate , who returned to Fatah .
Members were routinely tortured by the " Committee for Revolutionary Justice " until they confessed to disloyalty . Seale writes that reports of torture included hanging a man naked , whipping him until he was unconscious , reviving him with cold water , then rubbing salt or chili powder into his wounds . A naked prisoner would be forced into a car tyre with his legs and backside in the air , then whipped , wounded , salted and revived with cold water . A member 's testicles might be fried in oil , or melted plastic dripped onto his skin . Between interrogations , prisoners would be tied up in tiny cells . If the cells were full , Seale writes , they might be buried with a pipe in their mouths for air and water ; if Abu Nidal wanted them dead , a bullet would be fired down the pipe instead .
= = = Intelligence Directorate = = =
The Intelligence Directorate was formed in 1985 to oversee special operations . It had four subcommittees : the Committee for Special Missions , the Foreign Intelligence Committee , the Counterespionage Committee and the Lebanon Committee . Led by Abd al @-@ Rahman Isa , the longest @-@ serving member of the ANO – Seale writes that Isa was unshaven and shabby , but charming and persuasive – the directorate maintained 30 – 40 people overseas who looked after the ANO 's arms caches in various countries . It trained staff , arranged passports and visas , and reviewed security at airports and seaports . Members were not allowed to visit each other at home , and no one outside the directorate was supposed to know who was a member .
Isa was demoted in 1987 , because Abu Nidal believed he had become too close to other figures within the ANO . Always keen to punish members by humiliating them , Abu Nidal insisted he remain in the Intelligence Directorate , forcing him to work for his previous subordinates , who according to Seale were told to treat him with contempt .
= = = Committee for Special Missions = = =
The job of the Committee for Special Missions was to choose targets . It had started life as the Military Committee , headed by Naji Abu al @-@ Fawaris , who had led the attack on Heinz Nittel , head of the Israel @-@ Austria Friendship League , who was shot and killed in 1981 . In 1982 the committee changed its name to the Committee for Special Missions , headed by Dr. Ghassan al @-@ Ali , who had been born in the West Bank and educated in England , where he obtained a BA and MA in chemistry and married a British woman ( later divorced ) . A former ANO member told Seale that Ali favoured " the most extreme and reckless operations . "
= = Operations and relationships = =
= = = Shlomo Argov = = =
On 3 June 1982 , ANO operative Hussein Ghassan Said shot Shlomo Argov , the Israeli ambassador to Britain , once in the head as he left the Dorchester Hotel in London . Said was accompanied by Nawaf al @-@ Rosan , an Iraqi intelligence officer , and Marwan al @-@ Banna , Abu Nidal 's cousin . Argov survived , but spent three months in a coma and the rest of his life disabled , until his death in February 2003 . The PLO quickly denied responsibility for the attack .
Ariel Sharon , then Israel 's defence minister , responded three days later by invading Lebanon , where the PLO was based , a reaction that Seale argues Abu Nidal had intended . The Israeli government had been preparing to invade and Abu Nidal provided a pretext . Der Spiegel put it to him in October 1985 that the assassination of Argov , when he knew Israel wanted to attack the PLO in Lebanon , made him appear to be working for the Israelis , in the view of Yasser Arafat . He replied :
What Arafat says about me doesn 't bother me . Not only he , but also a whole list of Arab and world politicians claim that I am an agent of the Zionists or the CIA . Others state that I am a mercenary of the French secret service and of the Soviet KGB . The latest rumor is that I am an agent of Khomeini . During a certain period they said we were spies for the Iraqi regime . Now they say that we are Syrian agents . ... Many psychologists and sociologists in the Soviet bloc tried to investigate this man Abu Nidal . They wanted to find a weak point in his character . The result was zero .
= = = Rome and Vienna = = =
Abu Nidal 's most infamous operation was the 1985 attack on the Rome and Vienna airports . On 27 December , at 08 : 15 GMT , four gunmen opened fire on the El Al ticket counter at the Leonardo Da Vinci International Airport in Rome , killing 16 and wounding 99 . In Vienna International Airport a few minutes later , three men threw hand grenades at passengers waiting to check into a flight to Tel Aviv , killing four and wounding 39 . According to Seale , the gunmen had been told the people in civilian clothes at the check @-@ in counter were Israeli pilots returning from a training mission .
Austria and Italy had both been involved in trying to arrange peace talks . Sources close to Abu Nidal told Seale that Libyan intelligence had supplied the weapons . The damage to the PLO was enormous , according to Abu Iyad , Arafat 's deputy . Most people in the West and even many Arabs could not distinguish between the ANO and Fatah , he said . " When such horrible things take place , ordinary people are left thinking that all Palestinians are criminals . "
= = = United States bombing of Libya = = =
On 15 April 1986 , the US launched bombing raids from British bases against Tripoli and Benghazi , killing around 100 , in retaliation for the bombing of a Berlin nightclub used by US service personnel . The dead were reported to include Hanna Gaddafi , the adoptive daughter of Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi ; two of his other children were injured .
British journalist Alec Collett , who had been kidnapped in Beirut in March , was hanged after the airstrikes , reportedly by ANO operatives ; his remains were found in the Beqaa Valley in November 2009 . The bodies of two British teachers , Leigh Douglas and Philip Padfield , and an American , Peter Kilburn , were found in a village near Beirut on 17 April 1986 ; the Arab Fedayeen Cells , a name linked to Abu Nidal , claimed responsibility . British journalist John McCarthy was kidnapped the same day .
= = = Hindawi affair = = =
On 17 April 1986 – the day the bodies of the teachers were found and McCarthy was kidnapped – Ann Marie Murphy , a pregnant Irish chambermaid , was discovered in Heathrow airport with a Semtex bomb in the false bottom of one of her bags . She had been about to board an El Al flight from New York to Tel Aviv via London . The bag had been packed by her Jordanian fiancé Nizar Hindawi , who had said he would join her in Israel where they were to be married .
According to Melman , Abu Nidal had recommended Hindawi to Syrian intelligence . Seale writes that the bomb had been manufactured by Abu Nidal 's technical committee , who had delivered it to Syrian air force intelligence . It was sent to London in a diplomatic bag and given to Hindawi . According to Seale , it was widely believed that the attack was in response to Israel having forced down a jet , two months earlier , carrying Syrian officials to Damascus , which Israel had supposed was carrying senior Palestinians .
= = = Pan Am Flight 73 = = =
On 5 September 1986 , four ANO gunmen hijacked Pan Am Flight 73 at Karachi Airport on its way from Mumbai to New York , holding 389 passengers and crew for 16 hours in the plane on the tarmac before detonating grenades inside the cabin . Neerja Bhanot , the flight 's senior purser , was able to open an emergency door , and most passengers escaped ; 20 died , including Bhanot , and 120 were wounded . The London Times reported in March 2004 that Libya had been behind the hijacking .
= = = Relationship with Gaddafi = = =
Abu Nidal began to move his organization out of Syria to Libya in the summer of 1986 , arriving there in March 1987 . In June that year the Syrian government expelled him , in part because of the Hindawi affair and Pan Am Flight 73 hijacking .
He repeatedly took credit during this period for operations in which he had no involvement , including the 1984 Brighton hotel bombing , 1985 Bradford City stadium fire , and 1986 assassination of Zafir al @-@ Masri , the mayor of Nablus ( killed by the PFLP , according to Seale ) . He also implied that he had been behind the 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster by publishing a congratulatory note in the ANO magazine , writes Seale .
Abu Nidal and Libya 's leader , Muammar Gaddafi , allegedly became great friends , each holding what Marie Colvin and Sonya Murad called a " dangerous combination of an inferiority complex mixed with the belief that he was a man of great destiny . " The relationship gave Abu Nidal a sponsor and Gaddafi a mercenary . Seale reports that Libya brought out the worst in Abu Nidal . He would not allow even the most senior ANO members to socialize with each other ; all meetings had to be reported to him . All passports had to be handed over . No one was allowed to travel without his permission . Ordinary members were not allowed to have telephones ; senior members were allowed to make local calls only . His members knew nothing about his daily life , including where he lived . If he wanted to entertain , Seale writes , he would take over the home of another member .
According to Abu Bakr , speaking to Al Hayatt in 2002 , Abu Nidal said he was behind the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 , which exploded over Lockerbie , Scotland , on 21 December 1988 ; a former head of security for Libyan Arab Airlines was later convicted . Abu Nidal reportedly said of Lockerbie , according to Seale : " We do have some involvement in this matter , but if anyone so much as mentions it , I will kill him with my own hands ! " Seale writes that the ANO appeared to have no connection to it ; one of Abu Nidal 's associates told him , " If an American soldier tripped in some corner of the globe , Abu Nidal would instantly claim it as his own work . "
= = = Banking with BCCI = = =
In the late 1980s British intelligence learned that the ANO held accounts with the Bank of Credit and Commerce International ( BCCI ) in London . BCCI was closed in July 1991 by banking regulators in six countries after evidence emerged of widespread fraud . Abu Nidal himself was said to have visited London using the name Shakar Farhan ; a BCCI branch manager , who passed information about the ANO accounts to MI5 , reportedly drove him around several stores in London without realizing who he was . Abu Nidal was using a company called SAS International Trading and Investments in Warsaw as cover for arms deals . The company 's transactions included the purchase of riot guns , ostensibly for Syria , then when the British refused an export licence to Syria , for an African state ; in fact half the shipment went to the police in East Germany and half to Abu Nidal .
= = = Assassination of Abu Iyad = = =
On 14 January 1991 in Tunis , the night before U.S. forces moved into Kuwait , the ANO assassinated Abu Iyad , head of PLO intelligence , along with Abu al @-@ Hol , Fatah 's chief of security , and Fakhri al @-@ Umari , another Fatah aide ; all three men were shot in Abu Iyad 's home . The killer , Hamza Abu Zaid , confessed that an ANO operative had hired him . When he shot Abu Iyad , he reportedly shouted , " Let Atif Abu Bakr help you now ! " , a reference to the senior ANO member who had left the group in 1989 , and whom Abu Nidal believed had been planted within the ANO by Abu Iyad as a spy . Abu Iyad had known that Abu Nidal nursed a hatred of him , in part because he had kept Abu Nidal out of the PLO . But the real reason for the hatred , Abu Iyad told Seale , was that he had protected Abu Nidal in his early years within the movement . Given his personality , Abu Nidal could not acknowledge that debt . Seale writes that the murder " must therefore be seen as a final settlement of old scores . "
= = Death = =
After Libyan intelligence operatives were charged with the Lockerbie bombing , Gaddafi tried to distance himself from terrorism . Abu Nidal was expelled from Libya in 1999 , and in 2002 he returned to Iraq ; the Iraqi government later said he had entered the country using a fake Yemeni passport and false name .
On 19 August 2002 , the Palestinian newspaper al @-@ Ayyam reported that Abu Nidal had died three days earlier of multiple gunshot wounds at his home in Baghdad , a house the newspaper said was owned by the Mukhabarat , the Iraqi secret service . Two days later Iraq 's chief of intelligence , Taher Jalil Habbush , handed out photographs of Abu Nidal 's body to journalists , along with a medical report that said he had died after a bullet entered his mouth and exited through his skull . Habbush said Iraqi officials had arrived at Abu Nidal 's home to arrest him on suspicion of conspiring with foreign governments . After saying he needed a change of clothes , he went into his bedroom and shot himself in the mouth , according to Habbush . He died eight hours later in hospital .
Jane 's reported in 2002 that Iraqi intelligence had found classified documents in his home about a U.S. attack on Iraq . When they raided the house , fighting broke out between Abu Nidal 's men and Iraqi intelligence . In the midst of this , Abu Nidal rushed into his bedroom and was killed ; Palestinian sources told Jane 's that he had been shot several times . Jane 's suggested Saddam Hussein had him killed because he feared Abu Nidal would act against him in the event of an American invasion .
In 2008 Robert Fisk obtained a report written in September 2002 , for Saddam Hussein 's " presidency intelligence office , " by Iraq 's " Special Intelligence Unit M4 . " The report said that the Iraqis had been interrogating Abu Nidal in his home as a suspected spy for Kuwait and Egypt , and indirectly for the United States . It said he had been asked by the Kuwaitis to find links between Iraq and Al @-@ Qaeda . Just before being moved to a more secure location , Abu Nidal asked to be allowed to change his clothing , went into his bedroom and shot himself , the report said . He was buried on 29 August 2002 in al @-@ Karakh 's Islamic cemetery in Baghdad , in a grave marked M7 .
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= Manoj Bajpayee =
Manoj Bajpayee ( born 23 April 1969 ) , also credited as Manoj Bajpai , is an Indian film actor who predominantly works in Hindi cinema and has also done some Telugu and Tamil language films . He is the recipient of two National Film Awards and two Filmfare Awards .
Born in Belwa , a small village in Narkatiaganj , Bihar , Bajpayee aspired to become an actor since childhood . He relocated to Delhi at the age of seventeen , and applied for National School of Drama , only to be rejected for three times . He continued to do theatre while studying in the college . Bajpayee made his feature film debut with the one @-@ minute role in Drohkaal ( 1994 ) , and a minor role of a dacoit in Shekhar Kapur 's Bandit Queen ( 1994 ) . After few unnoticed roles , he played gangster Bhiku Mhatre in Ram Gopal Varma 's 1998 crime drama Satya , which proved to be a breakthrough . Bajpayee received the National Film Award for Best Supporting Actor and Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor for the film . He then acted in films like Kaun ( 1999 ) , and Shool ( 1999 ) . For the latter , he won another Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor . Bajpayee further played the role of a prince with two wives in Zubeidaa ( 2001 ) , a serial killer in Aks ( 2001 ) and a hitchhiker @-@ turned @-@ psychopath killer in Road ( 2002 ) .
Bajpayee won the Special Jury National Award for Pinjar ( 2003 ) . This was followed by a series of brief , unnoticed roles in films that failed to propel his career forward . He then played a greedy politician in the political thriller Raajneeti ( 2010 ) , which was well received . In 2012 , Bajpayee essayed the role of Sardar Khan in Gangs of Wasseypur . His next roles were of a naxalite in Chakravyuh ( 2012 ) , and a CBI officer in Special 26 ( 2013 ) . In 2016 , he portrayed professor Ramchandra Siras , in Hansal Mehta 's biographical drama Aligarh .
= = Life = =
Bajpayee was born on 23 April 1969 in a small village called Belwa near the town Narkatiaganj in West Champaran , Bihar . He is the second child among his five other siblings , and was named after actor Manoj Kumar . One of his younger sisters Poonam Dubey , is a fashion designer in the film industry . His father was a farmer and mother was a housewife . As a son of a farmer , Bajpayee would do farming during their vacation . Since childhood , he wanted to become an actor . His father had difficulty collecting money for their education . He studied in a " hut school " till fourth standard , and later did his basic education from a school in Bettiah . He completed his class 12th from Maharani Janaki College in Bettiah . He moved to New Delhi at the age of seventeen and went to Satyawati , then to Ramjas College , Delhi University . Bajpayee had heard about National School of Drama from actors like Om Puri , Naseeruddin Shah , where he applied . He was rejected three times and wanted to commit suicide afterwards . He then did director and acting coach Barry John 's workshop after actor Raghubir Yadav 's suggestion . Impressed by Bajpayee 's acting , John hired him to assist him in his teaching . After that he applied at the National School of Drama for the fourth time , they offered him a teaching position at the school instead .
Bajpayee was married to a girl from Delhi , but got divorced during his struggle period .
He met actress Neha , who is also known as Shabana Raza , right after her debut film Kareeb ( 1998 ) . The couple married in 2006 , and have a daughter .
= = Career = =
= = = Debut and breakthrough ( 1994 – 2001 ) = = =
Following his one @-@ minute role in Govind Nihalani 's Drohkaal ( 1994 ) , Bajpayee acted in the biographical drama Bandit Queen ( 1994 ) . Tigmanshu Dhulia , the casting director of the film suggested his name to its director Shekhar Kapur . Bajpayee was considered for the role of dacoit Vikram Mallah in the film , which eventually went to Nirmal Pandey . Bajpayee got the role of dacoit Mann Singh in the film . During that time , he also did a television serial called Kalakaar , directed by Hansal Mehta and Imtihaan ( Doordarshan ) .
Bajpayee was a struggling actor when Mahesh Bhatt offered him the soap opera , Swabhimaan ( 1995 ) , which aired on Doordarshan . He agreed to do the serial at a low fee . Next , Bajpayee appeared in minor roles in films like Dastak ( 1996 ) and Tamanna ( 1997 ) .
Director Ram Gopal Varma discovered Bajpayee when he was casting for Daud ( 1997 ) , a comedy film , where he had a supporting role . Following the completion of filming , Varma expressed his regret for offering Bajpayee a minor role . He then promised Bajpayee to give him a prominent role in his next film . Satya ( 1998 ) , a crime drama , was their next film together . In the film , Bajpayee essayed the role of gangster Bhiku Mhatre , who accompanies the title character to form their nexus in the Mumbai underworld .
Satya was mostly shot in the real slums of Mumbai . It was screened at the 1998 International Film Festival of India and opened to mostly positive review . Anupama Chopra called Bajpayee and others ' performances " .. so good that you can almost smell the Mumbai grime on their sweaty bodies " . The film was a commercial success , and Bajpayee won the National Film Award for Best Supporting Actor and Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor for his performance . Filmfare later included his performance in the 2010 issue of Bollywood 's " Top 80 Iconic Performances " .
Bajpayee then collaborated with Verma in the year 1999 with Kaun and Shool ; with Verma directing the former and producing the latter . Kaun , was a whodunit with only three characters in a house , where Bajpayee played an annoying talkative stranger . The film was a box @-@ office disappointment . Shool saw him play the role of an honest police officer who finds himself in the politician @-@ criminal nexus of the Motihari district in Bihar . Sify labelled Bajpayee 's performance in the film as " truly amazing [ .. ] especially the emotional scenes with Raveena Tandon . " The film won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Hindi , with Bajpayee winning the Filmfare Critics Award for Best Performance . He also acted in the Telugu romantic film Prema Katha ( 1999 ) .
The year 2000 started for Bajpayee with the comedy Dil Pe Mat Le Yaar ! ! and the crime drama Ghaath , both alongside Tabu . A dialogue from the former sparked controversy in some political parties .
Bajpayee 's first release in 2001 was Rakeysh Omprakash Mehra 's supernatural thriller Aks . His negative portrayal of Raghavan Ghatge , a criminal who dies and reincarnates in the body of Manu Verma ( played by Amitabh Bachchan ) , garnered him the Filmfare Award for Best Performance in a Negative Role nomination . It was followed by Shyam Benegal 's Zubeidaa , co @-@ starring Rekha and Karishma Kapoor . He played Maharaja Vijayendra Singh of Fatehpur , a polo enthusiast prince with two wives . His character was inspired by Hanwant Singh , the Maharaja of Jodhpur .
= = = Career struggle ( 2002 – 09 ) = = =
Bajpayee 's sole release of 2002 was the road thriller , Road . He played the antagonist in the film , a hitchhiker who turns to be a psychopath killer , after taking lift from a couple ( played by Vivek Oberoi and Antara Mali ) . Bajpayee received another Filmfare nomination for Best Performance in a Negative Role , for the film .
Pinjar ( 2003 ) , a period drama , set during the partition of India , was Bajpayee 's first release of the year . Directed by Chandraprakash Dwivedi , the film was based on a Punjabi novel of the same name . He received the National Film Special Jury Award for his performance in the film . He subsequently portrayed Grenadier Yogendra Singh Yadav in J. P. Dutta 's ensemble war film , LOC Kargil . It was based on the Kargil War , and Bajpayee was nominated for the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor for it . Both the films were commercially unsuccessful .
Bajpayee 's next roles were in Jaago ( 2004 ) opposite Raveena Tandon , Makrand Deshpande 's Hanan and the thriller Inteqam . In Jaago , he played the role of a police officer who takes the situation in his own hands , after his 10 @-@ year @-@ old daughter is raped and killed . The same year , he appeared in a supporting role in Yash Chopra 's romantic drama Veer Zaara ( 2004 ) . The film was screened at the 55th Berlin Film Festival , and grossed over ₹ 940 million ( US $ 14 million ) globally , becoming the highest grossing film of the year .
In 2005 , Bajpayee acted in Dharmesh Darshan 's drama Bewafaa , the thriller Fareb , and the English language film Return to Rajapur . He also acted in the Telugu romance Happy ( 2006 ) .
In 2007 , Bajpayee played Major Suraj Singh in 1971 . The film tells the story of six Indian army soldiers , who escape from the Pakistani prison where they were captured during the Indo @-@ Pakistani War of 1971 . Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ IBN , criticised the film but wrote : " [ Bajpayee ] is in great form , he holds back mostly and in the process , constructs a character that says more with his eyes than with words . " He next starred opposite Juhi Chawla , in Ganesh Acharya 's drama film Swami . Bajpayee 's final release of the year was the anthology film Dus Kahaniyaan . He acted in Sanjay Gupta @-@ directed story Zahir alongside Dia Mirza . All of his 2007 releases were financial failures . Next year , he starred in the ensemble comedy Money Hai Toh Honey Hai ( 2008 ) , which was also a box @-@ office disaster .
Bajpayee 's shoulder got injured while filming the Telugu film Vedam , and was absent from the screen for nearly two years . He then returned in a major role with the comedy Jugaad ( 2009 ) , which was based on the 2006 Delhi sealing drive incident . His next release was the mystery thriller Acid Factory ( 2009 ) , which was a remake of the Hollywood film Unknown ( 2006 ) . He played a comic role from one of the people who are kidnapped and locked in a factory with no memory of how they came there . The film did not do well at the box @-@ office . The string of financial failures continued with his next release . Madhur Bhandarkar 's Jail ( 2009 ) , where he played the role of a convict serving life imprisonment . He called his role as a " narrator " and the " mentor " of its protagonist ( played by Neil Nitin Mukesh ) .
= = = Raajneeti and beyond ( 2010 – present ) = = =
In 2010 , Bajpayee starred in Prakash Jha 's big @-@ budget ensemble political thriller Raajneeti . It was inspired by the Indian epic Mahabharata . Bajpai 's role was of Veerendra Pratap Singh ( based on the character of Duryodhana ) , a greedy politician , who considers himself the rightful heir of a political family . Nikhat Kazmi of The Times of India in her review mentioned that Bajpayee " .. grab [ s ] eyeballs in [ his ] scenes " and " .. brings back memories of his mesmeric performances " . Indian trade journalists were apprehensive of Raajneeti recovering its ₹ 600 million ( US $ 8 @.@ 9 million ) investment . The film , however , proved to be a major commercial success with worldwide earnings of over ₹ 1 @.@ 43 billion ( US $ 21 million ) . Bajpayee received a Best Supporting Actor nomination at Filmfare for the film . He then acted in two Telugu films : Vedam ( 2010 ) , and Puli ( 2010 ) ; followed by the comedy Dus Tola ( 2010 ) . He also provided the voice of Rama , in the animated film Ramayana : The Epic , which was based on the Indian epic Ramayana .
Aarakshan ( 2011 ) , a socio @-@ drama based on the issue of caste based reservations in Indian , was Bajpayee 's next film . The film sparked controversy in some groups and was banned in Uttar Pradesh , Punjab and Andhra Pradesh before its theatrical release . Trade journalists had high expectations for the film but it ultimately flopped at the box office . Bajpai 's followup was the thriller Lanka ( 2011 ) .
In 2012 , Bajpayee appeared in Anurag Kashyap 's two @-@ part crime film Gangs of Wasseypur . His character Sardar Khan appeared in the first one . To prepare for his role , Bajpayee shaved his head and lost four kilogram of weight . It premiered at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival , Toronto film festival , and the Sundance Film Festival in 2013 . Gangs of Wasseypur released in India on 22 June to positive response . Anupama Chopra called it his best performance since Bhiku Mhatre in Satya . For his performance in the film , Bajpayee was nominated for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor .
His next film was the historical drama Chittagong ( 2012 ) , based on the Chittagong armoury raid . Bajpai portrayed the Bengali independence fighter Surya Sen in it , for which he charged no money . His final release of the year was Chakravyuh , where he played a Naxalite ; a role which required him to lose 5 Kilogram weight . Writer and lyricist Javed Akhtar called Chakravyuh " the best film of last 20 years " . On the contrary , a review carried by India Today called it an " amateurish attempt " , but praised Bajpayee 's acting .
In 2013 , Bajpayee had five releases : Samar , his Tamil debut film , was the first release . He appeared in a supporting role in the film . He then appeared in Neeraj Pandey 's heist thriller Special 26 . Based on the 1987 Opera House heist , he portrayed a CBI officer in the film . It was followed by the crime film Shootout at Wadala , where he played a character inspired from the gangster Shabir Ibrahim Kaskar .
Bajpayee collaborated with Prakash Jha for the fourth time with Satyagraha . The film was loosely inspired by social activist Anna Hazare 's fight against corruption in 2011 , featuring an ensemble cast the film was highly anticipated by trade journalists due to its release coinciding with the Mumbai and Delhi gang rape public protests . Satyagraha earned ₹ 675 million ( US $ 10 million ) domestically . Bajpayee then provided the voice of Yudhishthira for Mahabharat , a 3D animation film based on the Indian epic of the same name . In 2014 , Bajpayee played the antagonist in the Tamil action film Anjaan .
Bajpayee continued to play negative roles with his next film Tevar ( 2015 ) . A remake of the 2003 Telugu film Okkadu , the film opened to negative reviews and was a box @-@ office failure . The same year , he along with Raveena Tandon , appeared in the patriotic @-@ themed short film Jai Hind . With a run @-@ time of 6 minutes , the film was released on YouTube by OYO Rooms , right before the Indian Independence Day .
Bajpayee acted in another short film titled Taandav in 2016 . Directed by Devashish Makhija , the film showcased the pressure and scenarios faced by an honest police constable , and was released on YouTube . The same year , he portrayed professor Ramchandra Siras , in Hansal Mehta 's biographical drama Aligarh . The story followed the life of a homosexual professor who was expelled from Aligarh Muslim University because of his sexuality . Bajpayee watched a few clippings of Siras to prepare for his role . The film was screened at the 20th Busan International Film Festival , and the 2015 Mumbai Film Festival . Aligarh was released on 26 February 2016 to positive reviews . He next played a traffic constable in Rajesh Pillai 's swan song , Traffic ( 2016 ) . A remake of the Malayalam film of the same name , the film was released on 6 May 2016 .
As of June 2015 , Bajpayee is shooting for three films ; including Saat Uchakke and Missing , which he has also produced .
= = Acting style = =
Bajpayee is often regarded as a method actor and a director 's actor , and is known for doing unconventional roles in films . Actor Nawazuddin Siddiqui has cited Bajpayee 's performance in Aks as the inspiration for his role as the antagonist in Kick ( 2014 ) . Bajpayee has also been vocal about the disparity in the pay he commands , in comparison to the top actors in the film industry . He has cited Amitabh Bachchan , Naseeruddin Shah and Raghubir Yadav as his inspirations .
Director Ram Gopal Varma describing him said " Manoj has been an education for me .. " further adding " .. he 's simply the best actor I 've ever worked with . " Shekhar Kapur , who directed him in Bandit Queen , recalls : " Manoj had the ability to portray a lot just by doing little . He never tried to overplay a scene and seemed totally comfortable with a minimalist statement . " According to director Hansal Mehta , " [ Manoj ] [ .. ] has the ability to transform himself like few others . " Bajpayee 's performance as Bhiku Mhatre in Satya is considered to be one of the most memorable characters of Hindi cinema , along with his dialogue in it : " Mumbai ka king kaun ? Bhiku Mhatre " ( Who is the king of Mumbai ? Bhiku Mhatre ) . Kay Kay Menon credits this character as a turning point for other method actors : " If it were not for Manoj ’ s brilliant performance in Satya , actors like Irrfan and me might still be waiting to be accepted . Manoj opened the doors for us . " Writing about the character in his book Popcorn Essayists , journalist @-@ writer Jai Arjun Singh wrote that the " earthiness " and the " authenticity " [ of the character ] , was the subtle result of a persistence in Bajpai 's performance . "
= = Filmography = =
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= Duke ( album ) =
Duke is the tenth studio album by English rock band Genesis , released in March 1980 on Charisma Records . It was the first album by the group to reach No. 1 in the UK charts and featured the singles " Turn It On Again " , " Duchess " , and " Misunderstanding " .
The album followed a period of inactivity for the band in early 1979 . Phil Collins moved to Vancouver , Canada , in an effort to salvage his failing first marriage , while Tony Banks and Mike Rutherford recorded solo albums . Collins returned to the UK after his marriage ended and wrote a significant amount of material , some of which was used for Duke and some was later reworked for his first solo album , Face Value . Duke contained a mix of individually @-@ written songs and tracks that evolved from jam sessions in mid @-@ 1979 , while recording took place at the end of the year .
The break in activity rejuvenated the band , and they found the album an easy one to work on . The album contained the first use of a drum machine by Genesis on " Duchess " , and as well as the hit singles included more experimental pieces such as the closing ten @-@ minute " Duke 's Travels " / " Duke 's End " suite . The album has since been certified Platinum in both the UK and U.S.
= = Background = =
By 1978 , Genesis were a trio of lead singer and drummer Phil Collins , keyboardist Tony Banks and guitarist / bassist Mike Rutherford . They had survived the loss of original frontman Peter Gabriel and guitarist Steve Hackett and released the album ... And Then There Were Three ... , which included the top ten single " Follow You Follow Me " . The group were still touring successfully , and enjoyed the songwriting collaborations between the three of them . They decided to take a break before writing and recording a new album , which would be largely group @-@ written in a rehearsal room , without many pre @-@ conceived ideas .
The group 's touring schedule had put particular pressure on Collins , whose marriage was at risk of collapse due to him being away from home frequently . His wife , Andrea , had warned him that if he committed himself to the full ... And Then There Were Three ... tour , she would not be there when he returned . Collins , however , was convinced that Genesis were on the verge of an international breakthrough and that his work with the band would pay dividends in the future . By the end of 1978 , Andrea had decided to move to Vancouver , Canada with their children . Realising that his marriage was more important than the band , Collins held a meeting with Banks , Rutherford and manager Tony Smith . He said he was moving to Vancouver and try and re @-@ build the family , and that the group would have to accommodate this . In an interview for Sounds , Collins said , " I went off for two months to try and sort things out ... I was never going to leave the band . It was just that if I was going to be living in Vancouver then we 'd have had to organise ourselves differently . " He also noted that the individual members of his side project Brand X were geographically dispersed .
Banks and Rutherford suggested the band take an extended hiatus , hoping Collins would save his marriage and that the band could work with him in Vancouver . Banks recorded a solo album A Curious Feeling in Polar Studios , Stockholm with Genesis touring drummer Chester Thompson and singer Kim Beacon , while Rutherford also recorded his first solo album , Smallcreep 's Day , at the same studio . In April 1979 , Collins returned to the UK after the attempt to salvage his marriage failed . With time to spare before working on the next Genesis album , he gigged with Brand X , and began work on demo tracks for what became his first solo album Face Value at his home in Shalford , Surrey . As well as playing piano and synthesizers , he had recently picked up a Roland drum machine and become interested in the possibilities of electronic drums .
= = Writing and recording = =
In autumn 1979 , Banks and Rutherford moved in with Collins in Shalford to start rehearsals on Duke . Collins had written a large number of songs , but he felt many of them would not suit Genesis , while Banks and Rutherford were short of material having just recorded their solo albums . The three decided each member should contribute two of their own songs for the band to work on . Banks put forward " Heathaze " and " Cul @-@ de @-@ Sac " , Rutherford used " Man of Our Times " and " Alone Tonight " , and Collins had " Misunderstanding " and " Please Don 't Ask " . The remainder of the songs were written together in rehearsals . Banks later regretted not choosing Collins ' " In the Air Tonight " for the album .
The group found the writing process easier and more enjoyable than ... And Then There Were Three .... Rutherford summarised his time writing songs for Duke as " getting back to the basic stage of ideas being worked on jointly " . Banks reasoned much of the band 's refreshed attitude was " down to not having worked together in a while " which resulted in " good ideas " being put forward , something that he said had not " happened for some time . " Collins felt the band interacted " as a group much better ... there 's definitely a side to us coming out which wasn 't on the last album ; the playing side " . In contrast to earlier Genesis albums , most tracks were short with the exception of the ten @-@ minute " Duke 's Travels " / " Duke 's End " suite that closed the album .
In its original form , " Behind The Lines " , " Duchess " , " Guide Vocal " , " Turn It On Again " , " Duke 's Travels " , and " Duke 's End " were one 30 @-@ minute track that told a story of the fictional character " Albert " . The band decided against sequencing the tracks this way on the album , partly to avoid comparisons to their 23 @-@ minute track " Supper 's Ready " from Foxtrot , but also to have certain segments of the suite , such as " Duchess " and " Turn It On Again " released as singles . A " Duke Suite " was performed live on the album 's supporting tour with Collins introducing it as " The Story of Albert . " " Turn It On Again " was originally a short connecting piece in the middle of this medley , but the band enjoyed playing it so much , they decided to double its length and make it more of a standout track . The group considered placing the band written songs on side one and the individually written tracks on the other , but this was rejected . Rutherford described the final running order as " a very balanced album " .
The group went to Polar Studios to record the album , starting on 12 November 1979 , and recording up to the end of the year . As with several earlier albums , production duties were shared by the band and regular co @-@ producer David Hentschel . Collins used the Roland CR @-@ 78 drum machine for " Duchess " ; the first time he used one on a Genesis song .
The cover art was drawn by French illustrator Lionel Koechlin , featuring the character Albert . Koechlin 's artwork came from the book L 'Alphabet d 'Albert , published in 1979 .
= = Release = =
Duke was released in the UK on 28 March 1980 and in the U.S. on 31 March . It was the band 's greatest commercial success at the time of its release ; it spent two weeks at No. 1 on the UK Albums Chart and peaked at No. 11 on the U.S. Billboard 200 . The album spawned three singles ; " Turn It On Again " reached No. 8 in the UK and No. 58 in the U.S. ; " Duchess " reached No. 46 in the UK ; " Misunderstanding " reached No. 42 in the UK and No. 14 in the U.S. Duke was certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry on 3 July 1980 and by the Recording Industry Association of America on 11 March 1988 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Duke received a mostly positive reception from music critics . In his review for Rolling Stone , David Fricke noted that " Turn It On Again " is " vibrant rock & roll " and thought that " Man of Our Times " , " Duchess " , " Duke 's Travels " , and " Duke 's End " " possess a refreshing urgency " . Fricke points out the band 's losses without Gabriel and Hackett in the line @-@ up , yet summarised Duke as " comforting : a reassurance that Genesis aren 't for an exodus yet . " Sounds ' Hugh Fielder gave the album four stars out of five , enjoying the opening of " Behind the Lines " and considering Collins 's vocals to be " more convincing than ... before " . He felt the first side was better than the second , and criticised some lyrics , but concluded " no Genesis fan could be disappointed " . The Los Angeles Times 's Steve Pond described the album 's music as " identifiably Genesis , but it is toned @-@ down " and a " a more confident and successful album than ... And Then There Were Three ... " . He criticised the album as inconsistent with a lack of " melodic invention " on side one , but thought " Duke 's Travels " and " Duke 's End " were " one of the best and most consistent pieces of music that band has made in some time " .
In a retrospective review , AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine felt Duke was the Genesis album that " leaped into the fray " of pop music but retained " a heavy dose " of progressive rock with the " Duke " suite . Erlewine thought the album comes off " a little bombastic " at times , " Misunderstanding " and " Turn It On Again " were the two tracks that " showcase the new version of Genesis at its absolute best " .
= = = Reissues = = =
A digitally remastered version of Duke was released on CD in 1994 on Virgin in Europe and Atlantic in the U.S. and Canada . The CD included the album 's original booklet , artwork and lyrics . It was reissued again in 2007 as part of the Genesis 1976 – 1982 box set , which included a new stereo and 5 @.@ 1 surround sound mix and a DVD of bonus features including band interviews , music videos , live performances and tour programs .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Genesis
Tony Banks – keyboards , backing vocals , 12 @-@ string guitar , duck
Mike Rutherford - guitars , basses , backing vocals
Phil Collins – drums , vocals , drum machine , percussion , duck
Production
David Hentschel - backing vocals , production , audio engineering
Genesis – production
Dave Bascombe - assistant engineering
Ray Staff - mastering
Lionel Koechlin – cover
Bill Smith – art direction
Recorded at Polar Studios , Sweden
Mixed at Maison Rouge , London
Mastered at Trident Studios , London
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= Pat Burrell =
Patrick Brian " Pat " Burrell ( born October 10 , 1976 ) , nicknamed " Pat the Bat , " is an American former professional baseball outfielder who played in Major League Baseball . Standing 6 feet 4 inches ( 193 cm ) tall and weighing 235 pounds ( 107 kg ; 16 @.@ 8 st ) , he batted and threw right @-@ handed . He played with the Philadelphia Phillies , the Tampa Bay Rays , and the San Francisco Giants .
Burrell attended the University of Miami , where he won the Golden Spikes Award in 1998 . In 1998 , he was the first overall draft pick by the Phillies . After two years in the minors , Burrell was called up by the Phillies in 2000 , and he finished fourth in voting for the National League Rookie of the Year Award . After hitting 27 home runs in 2001 ( the first of eight straight years in which he would hit at least 20 ) , he hit a career @-@ high 37 home runs in 2002 and finished 14th in NL Most Valuable Player Award voting . In 2003 , he signed a six @-@ year contract with the Phillies but batted a career @-@ low .209 with 21 home runs . In 2004 , he batted .257 with 24 home runs but missed several games with a wrist injury . He hit 32 home runs in 2005 and finished seventh in NL MVP Award voting after he set a career high with 117 RBI . In 2006 , he batted .258 with 29 home runs and 95 RBI but was benched for a few games due to a slump after April . He batted .256 with 30 home runs in 2007 as the Phillies reached the playoffs for the first time in his career . Burrell hit a home run in the playoffs as the Phillies were swept in the first round . In 2008 , he hit 33 home runs as the Phillies reached the playoffs again , winning the World Series .
After the 2008 season , Burrell became a free agent . He signed a two @-@ year deal with the Tampa Bay Rays to be their designated hitter , and he batted .221 with 14 home runs in 2009 . After he batted .202 with two home runs in his first 24 games of the 2010 season , he was designated for assignment by the Rays . He became a free agent and signed with the San Francisco Giants several days later . He took over as the Giants ' left fielder and hit 18 home runs in 96 games for the Giants as they made the playoffs . Burrell did not have a hit in the World Series , striking out eleven times in fifteen plate appearances , but he got his second World Series ring as the Giants won it . Following the year , he signed a one @-@ year deal to return to the Giants in 2011 . He lost his left field job in 2011 , and he batted .230 with a career @-@ low 7 home runs in 92 games in addition to suffering a career @-@ ending foot injury . He filed for free agency on October 30 , 2011 and later signed a 1 @-@ day contract in 2012 to finish his career with the Phillies . On May 19 , 2012 against the Red Sox , Burrell threw out the ceremonial first pitch and subsequently retired . He is currently a special assignment scout for the Giants and an assistant to general manager Brian Sabean .
= = High school = =
Burrell attended San Lorenzo Valley High School in Felton , California , as a freshman . After his freshman year , he transferred to Bellarmine College Preparatory in San Jose , where he played baseball and football . In the football program , playing quarterback , Burrell competed against Tom Brady , who played for rival Junipero Serra High School in San Mateo , California . He decided to concentrate on baseball in his senior year , however , and he was named the California Coaches Association Player of the Year after he batted .369 with 11 home runs .
= = College = =
After graduating from high school in 1995 , Burrell was drafted by the Boston Red Sox in the 43rd round of the 1995 Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Draft . Instead of signing , he chose to attend the University of Miami , where he played third base and was a teammate of Aubrey Huff . As a freshman , he was selected as a First @-@ Team All @-@ American by Baseball America and the Collegiate Baseball Newspaper . He was also named the Most Outstanding Player of the 1996 College World Series , joining Dave Winfield and Phil Nevin as the only players to win the award without winning the series . In his sophomore year , he was again named a First @-@ Team All @-@ American by Baseball America and the Collegiate Baseball Newspaper but also by the Sporting News this year . He was named Baseball America 's Summer Player of the year in 1997 . In 1998 , as a junior , he won the Golden Spikes Award as the best player in college baseball . That year , he was drafted by the Philadelphia Phillies with the first overall pick in the 1998 MLB draft . Burrell finished his college career with 61 home runs , 187 runs batted in ( RBI ) , and 170 walks in 162 games . His .442 batting average was seventh all @-@ time by an NCAA player , and his slugging percentage of .888 was second only to Pete Incaviglia . In February 2008 , Burrell was inducted into the University of Miami Sports Hall of Fame .
= = Minor leagues = =
On July 24 , 1998 Burrell and the Phillies agreed to a five @-@ year contract with a $ 3 @.@ 15 million signing bonus . Upon signing , Burrell was assigned to the single @-@ A advanced Clearwater Phillies of the Florida State League , and he was moved to first base because Scott Rolen , Philadelphia 's third baseman in the major leagues , had just won the National League ( NL ) Rookie of the Year Award . With Clearwater in 1998 , Burrell batted .303 with 7 home runs and 30 RBI in 37 games .
Entering the 1999 season , Burrell was named the top prospect in the Phillies ' organization by Baseball America , and they also named him baseball 's 19th best prospect . He spent most of the season with the Double @-@ A Reading Phillies of the Eastern League , batting .333 with 28 home runs and 90 RBI in 117 games . He was named to the Eastern League 's post @-@ season All @-@ Star team and won the Eastern League Rookie of the Year Award . He also played 10 games with the Scranton / Wilkes @-@ Barre Red Barons of the Triple @-@ A International League , batting .152 with 1 home run and 4 RBI . In addition to playing first base , he was used as an outfielder with both teams .
Burrell was named the Phillies ' top prospect and the second @-@ best prospect in baseball by Baseball America in 2000 . He began the season with Scranton / Wilkes @-@ Barre . Playing first base and the outfield , he batted .294 with 4 home runs and 25 RBI in 40 games .
= = Major leagues = =
= = = Philadelphia Phillies = = =
= = = = 2000 = = = =
On May 23 , 2000 , Burrell was called up by the Philadelphia Phillies . On May 24 , he replaced Kevin Jordan ( who had been filling in for injured Opening Day first baseman Rico Brogna ) as the Phillies ' first baseman . Making his major league debut that day , he had two hits ( his first coming against Octavio Dotel ) and two RBI in a 9 – 7 victory over the Houston Astros . The following day , he hit his first career home run in a 10 – 6 loss to Houston . On June 20 , with the Phillies trailing 2 – 1 against the New York Mets , he hit a home run against Mets ' closer Armando Benítez to make the score 2 – 2 in an eventual 3 – 2 victory for Philadelphia . The next day , Burrell had five RBI , two home runs , and his first career grand slam in a 10 – 5 victory for Philadelphia . On July 2 , he had four hits and two RBI in a 9 – 1 victory over the Pittsburgh Pirates . He remained the Phillies ' first baseman when Brogna returned in July . He had five RBI , two home runs , and a grand slam on August 8 in a 10 – 4 victory over the San Diego Padres . On August 9 , newly acquired outfielder Travis Lee was moved to first base , and Burrell was moved to left field for the rest of the year . On September 21 , he had a game @-@ winning walk @-@ off single against Rick White in a 6 – 5 victory against the Mets . He finished the season with 18 home runs , 79 RBI , and a .260 batting average in 111 games , and he had the fourth most votes for the NL Rookie of the Year Award .
= = = = 2001 = = = =
On April 14 , 2001 , Burrell hit a game @-@ winning home run in the sixth inning of a 2 – 1 victory over the Atlanta Braves . He had a game @-@ winning two @-@ RBI double in the ninth inning as the Phillies beat the Chicago Cubs , 6 – 3 , on April 17 . From May 19 to June 2 , he had a career @-@ high 14 @-@ game hitting streak . During the streak , on May 28 , he hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run against Benítez in the tenth inning of a 5 – 3 win over the Mets . He hit a home run and had four RBI the next day as the Phillies beat the Mets , 7 – 3 . He hit a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run on July 4 in a 4 – 1 victory over the Atlanta Braves . On July 20 , he had a home run and five RBI ( including the game @-@ winner ) as the Phillies beat the Mets , 10 – 1 . He hit home runs in three straight games from July 31 to August 2 . On August 10 , as the Phillies beat the Los Angeles Dodgers , 10 – 5 , he hit his third career grand slam . He had a home run and three RBI in the final game of the season in a 4 – 1 victory over the Cincinnati Reds . Burrell finished the season with 27 home runs , 70 RBI , and a .258 batting average in 155 games . His 18 assists led NL outfielders and tied with Raúl Mondesí for most in the major leagues . However , his 162 strikeouts were the third @-@ highest total in Phillies ' history at the time , and they currently are the ninth @-@ highest total .
= = = = 2002 = = = =
Burrell hit a leadoff walk @-@ off home run on April 7 , 2002 , in the 11th inning of a 3 – 2 victory over the Florida Marlins . Three days later , on April 10 , Burrell hit a two @-@ run walk @-@ off home run in the 11th inning to give the Phillies a 7 – 5 victory over the Braves . He was the first player in the major leagues to hit two such home runs in a four @-@ day period since Albert Belle did it in 1995 , and he was the first Phillie to hit two such in a season since Von Hayes hit two in 1989 . In May , he hit eight home runs , the most by a Phillie in May since teammate Mike Lieberthal hit eight in 1999 . From June 2 through June 16 , he had an 11 @-@ game hitting streak , his longest of the season . During the streak , on June 2 , he tied a career @-@ high with five RBI in an 18 – 3 victory over the Montreal Expos . Burrell had 22 home runs by the All @-@ Star break , the most by a Phillie since Mike Schmidt had 31 by the 1979 All @-@ Star break . On July 15 , he hit a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run against Matt Herges in an 11 – 8 victory over Montreal . He had two home runs , five RBI , and a grand slam in a 7 – 6 loss to the Dodgers on August 9 . On August 30 , Burrell had three RBI ( including the game @-@ winner ) in a 7 – 5 victory over the Mets . He had his one hundredth RBI that day , becoming the first Phillie with 100 RBI by August 31 since Greg Luzinski did it in 1977 . Burrell finished the season with career highs in almost every offensive category , including runs ( 96 ) , batting average ( .286 ) , and games ( 157 ) . He was the 12th Phillie with 30 home runs and 100 RBI in a season . His 37 home runs were seventh in the NL , and his 116 RBI were third , behind only Lance Berkman ( 128 ) and Albert Pujols ( 127 ) . He was 14th in NL Most Valuable Player Award voting .
= = = = 2003 = = = =
On February 3 , 2003 , Burrell signed a six @-@ year , $ 50 million contract with the Phillies . He had two home runs and five RBI ( including the game @-@ winner ) on April 9 in a 16 – 2 victory over the Braves . The home runs both came against Greg Maddux , making Burrell the sixth player to hit two home runs in a game against Maddux ( and the first since Rolen did it in 2001 ) . On May 20 , he hit two home runs and had four RBI in an 11 – 7 victory over the Mets . On August 9 , Burrell hit a game @-@ tying solo home run and a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run in the 8th and 10th innings of an 8 – 6 victory over the San Francisco Giants . He hit two home runs ( including his 100th ) on August 22 in a 9 – 4 victory over the St. Louis Cardinals . On September 28 , he had the final hit in Veterans Stadium ( a single against Jason Marquis ) in a 5 – 2 loss to Atlanta . Burrell endured a season @-@ long slump , and he was occasionally benched for a few games ( often in favor of Ricky Ledée ) by Phillies ' manager Larry Bowa . In 146 games , he batted .209 with 21 home runs and 64 RBI . However , his 21 home runs were still the second @-@ highest total on the Phillies ( teammate Jim Thome led the NL with 47 ) .
= = = = 2004 = = = =
Burrell had four hits and three RBI on April 27 , 2004 , in a 7 – 3 victory over the Cardinals . He also made a leaping catch to take a home run away from Rolen , and he threw out Pujols trying to score from third base on a single by Édgar Rentería . On May 2 , Burrell hit his first career pinch @-@ hit home run : a two @-@ run game @-@ tying home run in the ninth inning against Matt Mantei of the Arizona Diamondbacks . The Phillies won the game , 6 – 5 , in extra innings . On May 14 , Burrell had four RBI ( including the game @-@ winner ) in a 6 – 4 victory over the Colorado Rockies . He had four RBI again on May 18 ( including two home runs ) in an 8 – 7 victory over the Dodgers . On July 30 , he hit two home runs in a 10 – 7 loss to the Cubs . On August 3 , Burrell strained his left wrist during batting practice , and he was placed on the disabled list ( DL ) for the first time in his career the next day . He was originally scheduled to have season @-@ ending surgery on August 13 , but after getting a second opinion from Dr. Tom Graham , he decided to postpone the surgery and attempt to come back before the season ended . On September 3 , he was activated from the disabled list . In 127 games , Burrell batted .257 with 24 home runs and 84 RBI .
= = = = 2005 = = = =
On April 9 , 2005 , Burrell had four hits and five RBI in a 10 – 4 victory over the Cardinals . He won the first NL Player of the Week Award of the 2005 season on April 10 after accumulating 15 RBI in the first week of the season . On May 12 , he had four hits in a 7 – 5 loss to Cincinnati . He hit a three @-@ run game @-@ winning home run on May 22 in a 7 – 2 victory over the Baltimore Orioles . He won another Player of the Week Award that day after he batted .500 with two home runs and eight RBI during the week , becoming the first Phillies player to win the award twice in a season since Hayes won it twice in 1986 . On June 5 , his solo home run against Mike Koplove was the game @-@ winner in a 7 – 6 victory over Arizona . Four days later , he hit two home runs and had four RBI in a 10 – 8 victory over the Texas Rangers . On June 11 , he hit a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run in a 7 – 5 victory over the Milwaukee Brewers . He hit two home runs and had five RBI in a 13 – 7 victory over Florida on July 14 . On July 30 , he had four hits and two RBI in an 8 – 7 victory over Colorado . On August 9 , he had four RBI , including a go @-@ ahead three @-@ run home run against Steve Schmoll in an 8 – 4 victory over the Dodgers . His three @-@ run home run against Jake Peavy on August 12 provided all of the Phillies ' runs in a 3 – 2 victory over San Diego . He had four RBI on September 9 in a 12 – 5 victory over the Marlins . Two days later , he had four RBI again ( including a three @-@ run home run against Ismael Valdez ) in an 11 – 1 victory over Florida .
Burrell finished the season batting .281 with 32 home runs in 154 games , and he set career highs in walks ( 99 ) and RBI ( 117 ) . His 32 home runs led the Phillies , and his 117 RBI were second only to Andruw Jones ' 128 ( Pujols also had 117 ) . On defense , however , he tied for the lead among all major league left fielders in errors , with seven , and the lowest fielding percentage among them , at .972 . Burrell finished seventh in voting for the NL MVP award , and he was the co @-@ winner of the Mike Schmidt MVP Award ( along with Chase Utley ) .
= = = = 2006 = = = =
In April 2006 , Burrell batted .300 with seven home runs . From April 14 to 27 , he had 13 RBI in 11 games . However , he batted .249 for the rest of the season , and in June Philles ' manager Charlie Manuel began benching him occasionally ( often in favor of David Dellucci ) . On May 1 , Burrell hit a game @-@ winning solo home run in an 8 – 5 victory over Florida . On May 7 , he had three RBI , including a two @-@ run home run against Matt Morris as the Phillies defeated the Giants , 9 – 5 . On June 9 , he had three RBI , including a two @-@ run home run against Gary Majewski , but the Phillies lost , 9 – 8 , to the Washington Nationals . The next day , he hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run in a 6 – 2 victory over the Nationals . On June 15 , he hit two home runs and had three RBI against Steve Trachsel , but the Phillies lost to the Mets , 5 – 4 . He had four hits and four RBI in a 14 – 6 victory over the Giants on July 15 . On August 22 , his RBI double in the sixth inning was the game @-@ winning RBI in a 6 – 3 victory over the Cubs . His first inning grand slam against Roger Clemens on September 15 provided all of the Phillies ' runs in a 4 – 3 victory over Houston . On September 20 , his fielder 's choice was the game @-@ winning RBI in a 6 – 2 victory over the Cubs . He hit two home runs , had four RBI , and set a career high with four runs scored on September 29 in a 14 – 2 victory over Florida . In 144 games , Burrell finished the season batting .258 with 29 home runs and 95 RBI .
= = = = 2007 = = = =
Burrell became the Phillies ' longest tenured player in 2007 with the departure of Lieberthal via free agency . He hit only one home run in April but had a .292 batting average . On April 6 , he homered and had four RBI ( including the game @-@ winner ) in an 8 – 2 victory over Florida . He began to slump after April , batting .157 over the next two months . Once again , Manuel began benching him , using Greg Dobbs , Jayson Werth , or Michael Bourn in left field . On May 11 , Burrell hit two home runs and had five RBI in a 7 – 2 victory over the Cubs . Werth was injured at the end of June , however , and Burrell reclaimed his starting job by batting .435 in July , with six home runs and 22 RBI . From July 1 through the end of the season , he batted .300 with 22 home runs and 65 RBI , starting the final 75 games of the season for the Phillies in left field . On July 14 , he had four RBI in a 10 – 4 victory over St. Louis . Three days later , Burrell hit his 200th career home run in a 15 – 3 victory over the Dodgers . He had a 14 @-@ game hitting streak from July 22 to August 5 , tying his career high . On August 17 , in an 11 – 8 victory over the Pirates , Burrell got his 1,000th career hit , a two @-@ run home run . At the end of August , the Phillies faced the Mets , whom they trailed in the NL East by six games , for a four @-@ game series . In the first game of the series , on August 27 , Burrell hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run in a 9 – 2 victory . Two days later , in the third game of the series , he hit a solo home run and had a sacrifice fly ( the game @-@ winning RBI ) against Óliver Pérez in a 3 – 2 victory . He hit two home runs in the fourth and final game of the series as the Phillies won 11 – 10 to sweep the Mets . On September 21 , his two @-@ run home run against Shawn Hill provided the game @-@ winning RBI in a 6 – 3 victory over Washington . Burrell finished the 2007 regular season batting .256 with 30 home runs , 97 RBI , and 114 walks ( a career high ) in 155 games . Burrell , Ryan Howard , and Jimmy Rollins became the second trio of Phillies with 30 or more home runs ( and the first since 1929 ) . On defense , he led major league outfielders in errors , with 10 , and his .948 fielding percentage was the lowest among left fielders .
In 2007 , the Phillies won the NL East and reached the playoffs for the first time since 1993 and the first time in Burrell 's career . Burrell hit a home run against Jeff Francis in the first game of the NL Division Series ( NLDS ) but had only one other hit in the series as the Phillies were swept by the Colorado Rockies .
= = = = 2008 = = = =
Burrell batted .326 in April 2008 , with 8 home runs and 24 RBI . He hit two home runs on April 7 ( including the game @-@ winner ) against Bronson Arroyo in a 5 – 3 victory over Cincinnati . On April 24 , his two @-@ run double against David Riske provided the game @-@ winning RBI in the Phillies ' 3 – 1 victory over Milwaukee . With the double , Burrell got his 23rd and 24th RBI of the month , breaking Hayes ' team record for most RBI in April ( 22 ) . After batting .227 in May ( with five home runs ) , Burrell batted .256 with six home runs in June . His walk @-@ off two @-@ run home run with two outs in the tenth inning gave the Phillies a 6 – 5 victory over San Francisco on May 2 . On May 22 , Burrell hit a game @-@ winning pinch @-@ hit home run in a 7 – 5 victory over Houston . On June 3 , he hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run in a 3 – 2 victory over Cincinnati . He followed up his performance in June by hitting .304 in July with seven home runs , but he slumped over the final two months , batting .191 with seven home runs . He hit a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run on July 13 in a 6 – 3 victory over Arizona . On August 15 , his home run helped the Phillies defeat the Padres 1 – 0 . Two days later , he hit a game @-@ winning home run in a 2 – 1 victory over the Padres . He had five RBI ( including a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run against Clayton Kershaw ) in a 9 – 2 victory over the Dodgers on August 23 . Burrell finished the season batting .250 with 33 home runs ( tied for ninth in the NL ) , 86 RBI , and 102 walks ( third in the NL ) in 157 games , and the Phillies won the NL East for the second straight year .
In Game 4 ( the final game ) of the NLDS against the Brewers , Burrell hit two home runs ( a three @-@ run game @-@ winning home run against Jeff Suppan and a solo home run against Guillermo Mota ) in a 6 – 2 victory that gave the Phillies their first playoff series victory since 1993 . Four days later , in the first game of the NL Championship Series , he hit a game @-@ winning solo home run in a 3 – 2 victory over the Dodgers . After going hitless in his first 14 at @-@ bats in the World Series , Burrell doubled against J. P. Howell of the Tampa Bay Rays on October 29 in Game 5 ( the final game of the series ) . Burrell was then replaced by pinch @-@ runner Eric Bruntlett , who scored the game 's winning run in the 4 – 3 victory as the Phillies won their first World Series since 1980 . After the series , Burrell was chosen to lead the Phillies ' World Series parade .
Burrell filed for free agency on November 6 . On December 16 , the Phillies signed left fielder Raúl Ibañez to a three @-@ year contract , ending Burrell 's tenure in Philadelphia . Burrell 's 104 double plays grounded into were the seventh @-@ most in Phillies history , and his 1 @,@ 273 strikeouts were second only to Schmidt . However , Burrell was fifth in walks ( 785 ) , eighth in RBI ( 827 ) , and fourth in home runs ( 251 ) as a Phillie . His eight straight seasons with at least 20 home runs were topped only by Schmidt .
= = = Tampa Bay Rays = = =
On January 5 , 2009 , the Tampa Bay Rays signed Burrell to a two @-@ year , $ 16 million contract . They planned to use him as their designated hitter . Burrell got a standing ovation when he returned to Philadelphia for an exhibition series on April 3 and 4 . On April 9 , Burrell flew to Philadelphia to join the Phillies as they received their World Series rings in a pregame ceremony . After the ceremony , he flew back to Boston for the Rays ' game against the Boston Red Sox . On May 17 , Burrell was placed on the disabled list ( retroactive to May 12 ) with a neck strain . He was activated from the DL on June 11 . On June 24 , he hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run and had three RBI in a 7 – 1 victory over the Phillies . On July 7 , he hit a walk @-@ off two @-@ run home run in the 11th inning of a 3 – 1 victory over the Toronto Blue Jays . On September 2 , he had a game @-@ winning RBI single in an 8 – 5 victory over Boston . He had four RBI against Jason Berken ( including a three @-@ run home run ) on September 15 in a 10 – 5 loss to Baltimore . Burrell slumped throughout the 2009 season , and he finished the year batting .221 in 122 games . He set or tied career @-@ lows in hits ( 91 ) , home runs ( 14 ) , RBI ( 64 ) , and walks ( 57 ) .
Burrell hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run in the 12th inning of a 3 – 1 victory over Boston on April 17 , 2010 . On April 27 , he hit a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run in an 8 – 6 victory over the Oakland Athletics . In his first 24 games of the season , Burrell batted .202 with two home runs and 13 RBI . On May 15 , he was designated for assignment and replaced on the Rays ' roster by Hank Blalock . Four days later , he became a free agent after clearing waivers .
= = = San Francisco Giants = = =
On May 29 , 2010 , the San Francisco Giants signed Burrell to a minor league contract and assigned him to the triple @-@ A Fresno Grizzlies of the Pacific Coast League . After batting .313 with one home run and six RBI in five games , he was called up to the Giants on June 4 to replace John Bowker , who was optioned to Fresno . The next day , he took over from Aubrey Huff ( who moved over to right field ) as the Giants ' left fielder . On July 31 , with the Giants trailing 1 – 0 to the Dodgers in the eighth inning , Burrell hit a two @-@ run home run to give the Giants a 2 – 1 victory . On August 6 , he hit a game @-@ winning sacrifice fly in the 11th inning of a 3 – 2 victory over Atlanta . Three days later , the Giants faced the Chicago Cubs for a four @-@ game series . In the first game of the series , Burrell hit a walk @-@ off sacrifice fly in the 11th inning of a 4 – 3 victory . In the third game , he had three RBI ( including a game @-@ winning home run in the eighth inning against Justin Berg ) in a 5 – 4 victory . In the finale , Burrell hit two home runs ( including a grand slam ) and had five RBI in an 8 – 7 victory . On August 17 , Burrell returned to Philadelphia for his first regular season game there as a member of the opposing team , and he received a standing ovation . He hit a home run in his first at bat of the game , but the Giants lost , 9 – 3 . With the Giants in 2010 , Burrell batted .266 with 289 at @-@ bats , 18 home runs , and 51 RBI in 96 games as the Giants won the NL West and advanced to the playoffs for the first time since 2003 . Burrell 's 2010 totals were 373 at @-@ bats , 94 hits , 20 home runs , and 64 RBI in 120 games .
In Game 2 of the NLDS against Atlanta on October 8 , Burrell hit a three @-@ run home run in a 5 – 4 loss . On October 16 , in Game 1 of the NLCS against the Phillies , he had an RBI double against Roy Halladay . Nate Schierholtz then pinch @-@ ran for him , scoring the winning run in the Giants ' 4 – 3 victory . In the World Series , Burrell struck out eleven times in thirteen at @-@ bats , had no hits , and was benched for Game 4 . However , the Giants won the World Series in five games , and Burrell received his second championship ring .
On November 1 , Burrell filed for free agency . A month later , on December 3 , he signed a one @-@ year , $ 1 million contract to return to the Giants in 2011 . In his first 20 games of 2011 , Burrell batted .270 with five home runs and eight RBI . On April 18 , he hit a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run in an 8 – 1 victory over Colorado . After batting .172 with one RBI over his next 12 games , he was replaced as the Giants ' left fielder by Cody Ross , who was replaced as the Giants ' right fielder by Schierholtz . On May 4 , Burrell had a game @-@ winning RBI single in a 2 – 0 victory over the Mets . In the first game of a doubleheader against the Cubs on June 28 , Burrell had a home run and three RBI in a 13 – 7 victory . He had a game @-@ winning RBI single on July 7 in a 2 – 1 victory over San Diego . On July 15 , Burrell was placed on the disabled list with a potentially career @-@ ending foot injury . He returned from the DL on August 31 , but he was not able to start regularly upon returning . For the final game of the year ( a 6 – 3 loss to Colorado on September 28 ) , Burrell started in left field after asking Giants ' manager Bruce Bochy to put him in the lineup since it was potentially his final game . He finished the year batting .230 with career @-@ lows in games ( 92 ) , at bats ( 183 ) , hits ( 42 ) , home runs ( seven ) , and RBI ( 21 ) . On October 30 , he filed for free agency .
Burrell signed a one @-@ day contract with the Philadelphia Phillies on May 19 , 2012 , so he could officially retire as a Phillie . It was announced on February 28 , 2015 that Burrell will be inducted onto the Phillies Wall of Fame . He was subsequently inducted on Friday , July 31 . He stated , " I always knew that the fans were behind me , even through the tough times . When David ( Montgomery ) called and told me I had been voted in by the fans , it was overwhelming . " He was the 37th inductee to the Wall of Fame .
= = = " Met Killer " = = =
Burrell showed a penchant for hitting home runs against the New York Mets . In 2007 , Burrell hit four home runs in a four @-@ game series sweep against the Mets in late August . In total , he hit 42 home runs against the Mets through the 2011 season , his highest total against any team , which ranked fifth all @-@ time in home runs hit against the franchise at the time of his departure from Philadelphia ( he has since fallen to sixth , having been passed by Chipper Jones . ) Batting .264 at the Phillies ' home parks against a .228 mark at Shea Stadium , Burrell nonetheless enjoyed playing in New York , citing the atmosphere and memorable home runs against Mets pitchers , including two in back @-@ to @-@ back games against then @-@ closer Armando Benítez .
= = Personal life = =
Burrell was previously married but has been divorced since 2009 . As of 2015 , he is a special assignment scout for the Giants , based in Scottsdale , Arizona .
Pat had an English Bulldog named Elvis who was featured in the Phillies 2008 World Series Parade . Elvis died in September , 2014 .
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= PRR 4800 =
PRR 4800 , nicknamed " Old Rivets " , is a GG1 @-@ class electric locomotive located at the Railroad Museum of Pennsylvania , outside of Strasburg , Pennsylvania in the United States . It is the prototype GG1 and was originally numbered 4899 . Built by General Electric in 1934 , the locomotive competed against a prototype , the R1 , built by rival company Westinghouse . 4800 was kept in service by the Pennsylvania Railroad and its successors , Penn Central and Conrail , until 1979 . It was sold the next year to a local chapter of the National Railway Historical Society . 4800 was dedicated in 1982 at the Railroad Museum of Pennsylvania and was designated a Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark in 1983 .
= = Construction and testing = =
In 1933 , the Pennsylvania Railroad decided to replace the P5 , and instructed General Electric and Westinghouse to design an electric locomotive that was more powerful than the P5 , capable of speeds of 100 miles per hour ( 161 km / h ) , have a lighter axle load and to be double @-@ ended with a cab in the center of the carbody . Westinghouse designed the R1 # 4800 , and General Electric submitted the GG1 , then numbered 4899 .
The frames , running gear and riveted body for the prototype GG1 were built by Baldwin Locomotive Works . The partially built locomotive was then shipped to the General Electric factory in Erie , Pennsylvania for the installation of its electrical components . Twelve traction motors , two on each of the GG1 's six powered axles , produced 4 @,@ 620 horsepower ( 3 @,@ 450 kW ) that was transmitted to the 57 @-@ inch ( 1 @,@ 400 mm ) driving wheels by a quill drive . Unlike other GG1s , access steps were installed at each end of the locomotive to ease maintenance of the pantographs ; the pantographs were mechanically linked to a safety plate that blocked access to the steps when the pantographs were raised . The finished locomotive was 79 feet 6 inches ( 24 @.@ 23 m ) long and 16 feet ( 5 m ) tall , with both of its pantographs lowered .
GG1 4899 was extensively tested against the R1 from August to November 1934 ; both locomotives were substituted on regular passenger service between New York City and Philadelphia . Both locomotives were found to be capable of rapid acceleration with short @-@ term power outputs of up to 10 @,@ 000 horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) . The GG1 , however , did not exert as much lateral force on the rails as the R1 , because it was articulated , which allowed for a smaller turning radius than the rigid R1 . The Pennsylvania chose the GG1 over the R1 and immediately ordered another 57 locomotives . As the number scheme used by the Pennsylvania prevented the first locomotive in the class from being 4899 , the R1 and GG1 prototypes , essentially , swapped numbers . The Pennsylvania also enlisted the assistance of Raymond Loewy to refine the aesthetics of the GG1s . Loewy recommended that all subsequent models of the class should have a welded body rather than the riveted body on the prototype . This led to the nickname " Old Rivets " being given to 4800 .
= = Operation and preservation = =
On January 28 , 1935 , 4800 inaugurated electric passenger service between Washington , D.C. and Philadelphia by pulling a charter train for railroad and government officials ; 4800 set a speed record of 102 miles per hour ( 164 km / h ) outside of Landover , Maryland on the return trip . Regular passenger service began on February 10 , 1935 . 4800 remained in regular passenger service with the Pennsylvania , until it joined production GG1s 4801 – 4857 in the pool of 90 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 140 km / h ) geared freight locomotives . It had its steam generator removed in June 1960 , about a year after hauling a National Railway Historical Society @-@ charted excursion to commemorate its 25th birthday .
4800 continued to haul freight for the Pennsylvania and its successors Penn Central and Conrail . In 1976 , Conrail gave 4800 a red , white and blue paint scheme to commemorate the United States Bicentennial . It was also the only GG1 to wear Conrail blue paint ; all the other Conrail GG1s remained in black . 4800 was eventually retired by Conrail in October 1979 after the locomotive 's main transformer failed , which was deemed too expensive to repair .
4800 was sold by Conrail in 1980 to the Lancaster @-@ chapter of the National Railway Historical Society for the scrap @-@ value price of $ 30 @,@ 000 . The locomotive was given a cosmetic restoration back to its 1935 appearance by the nearby Strasburg Rail Road and volunteers . 4800 was dedicated and put on display at the Railroad Museum of Pennsylvania on November 20 , 1982 . It was designated a Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers ( ASME ) on April 23 , 1983 .
In 2012 , PRR 4800 was inducted into the North America Railway Hall of Fame for its contribution to the railway industry .
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= Belgrave Ninnis =
Inspector @-@ General Belgrave Ninnis CVO ( 1 September 1837 – 18 June 1922 ) was a Royal Navy surgeon , surveyor , Arctic explorer , and leading Freemason , from London . He graduated as a Doctor of Medicine from the University of St Andrews in 1861 , and the same year entered the navy as an Assistant Surgeon . From 1864 to 1866 , Ninnis served as part of a surveying expedition to the Northern Territory of South Australia , helping to chart the area to the west of the Adelaide River and returning biological specimens to Adelaide for study . In 1867 Ninnis was appointed to Greenwich Hospital ( later the Royal Naval College , Greenwich ) , and in 1875 he joined the British Arctic Expedition under Captain Sir George Nares , serving as Staff @-@ Surgeon on HMS Discovery . When disease spread among the expedition 's dogs , Ninnis was charged with investigating the cause ; his findings later formed the basis of a published work . At the conclusion of the expedition in 1876 he received the Arctic Medal for his service , and was promoted to Fleet @-@ Surgeon .
In his later career Ninnis served both on ships and in hospitals . He received Sir Gilbert Blane 's Gold Medal in 1879 , was promoted to Deputy Inspector @-@ General in 1883 , was appointed Principal Medical Officer at Melville Naval Hospital in 1892 , and was selected as a Knight of Grace of the Venerable Order of Saint John in 1895 . Upon his retirement in 1897 he was promoted to Inspector @-@ General , and in 1900 and 1902 served as President of the Section of the Navy , Army , and Ambulance of the British Medical Association . He was made a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order ( CVO ) in 1912 . Ninnis was initiated into the Freemasons 1872 , was a founder of several Lodges , and in 1901 became a Past Grand Deacon of England . He was the father of Belgrave Edward Sutton Ninnis , an explorer who was lost down a crevasse during the 1911 – 14 Australasian Antarctic Expedition .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Ninnis graduated from the University of St Andrews as a Doctor of Medicine on 2 January 1861 , and became a Member of the Royal College of Surgeons — MCRS ; a professional qualification — in April of the same year . On 1 August , he entered the Royal Navy Medical Service , as an Assistant Surgeon , and was appointed to HMS Pantaloon . In October 1862 Ninnis was transferred to the navy 's flagship HMS Victory , then moored in Portsmouth . He was posted aboard HMS Curacoa , assigned to the Australian Station , in 1863 .
In 1864 , he was selected to serve as naturalist on a survey expedition to the Northern Territory of South Australia , aboard HMS Beatrice . The expedition , under Boyle Travers Finniss , was charged with surveying the coast in the area of the Adelaide River , with the aim of selecting a site for a future territory capital . Together with W. P. Auld , Ninnis was the first to survey the area to the west of the river , around what is now Darwin . In his role as naturalist , Ninnis collected specimens of reptiles and birds , which he presented to the South Australian Institute ( later the South Australian Museum ) , and timber , which was donated to the Adelaide Botanic Garden . Ninnis later reported to the Adelaide Philosophical Society on geological findings ; " the coast at the Northern Territory , " he said , " was generally composed of red and grey sandstone , with small quantities of quartz . "
Writing in the South Australian Register , George William Francis , director of the Botanic Garden , said that the 32 species of timber Ninnis had collected settled " that important question , is there timber around [ the proposed capital ] or not ? " Noting that the member of the expedition originally intended to return biological specimens to Adelaide had failed to do so , Francis wrote that " we are very much indebted to this gentleman [ Ninnis ] who has thus supplied us at a time when we have failed in obtaining information through the appointed channel . " Upon the conclusion of the expedition in 1866 , Ninnis received the thanks of the Parliament of South Australia for his work . His research on the expedition later formed the basis of a published work , Remarks on the Natural History , Meteorology , and Native Population of Northern Australia .
= = = British Arctic Expedition = = =
Upon his return to Britain , Ninnis qualified in January 1867 for the title of Surgeon in the Royal Navy by passing examinations at the Royal College of Surgeons ; the following month he was appointed to the Royal Hospital in Greenwich , where he remained until 1869 . On 21 December 1874 he was promoted to Staff @-@ Surgeon Second Class . In May 1875 he was appointed to HMS Discovery , one of two ships — the other HMS Alert — which comprised the British Arctic Expedition , led by Captain Sir George Nares . The expedition aimed to be the first to reach the North Pole , pushing north through Smith Sound , between Ellesmere Island and Greenland . The two ships made slow progress up the sound , repeatedly halted by dense pack ice . During August of the first year , the expedition 's Greenland Dogs began to show signs of disease ; the dogs experienced fits and " madness " , owing , it was assumed , " to close confinement , wet decks , and want of natural exercise . " Ninnis and Fleet @-@ Surgeon Thomas Colon of the Alert were charged with investigating the disease . Ninnis ' report to Nares noted the disease 's similarity to rabies , " but there is no instance recorded in Greenland of human beings who have been bitten having suffered from hydrophobia [ a symptom of advanced rabies ] , and the recovery of the animals in some instances is entirely opposed to the recorded experience of true rabies . "
On 26 August the two ships parted ; Alert continued to push north while Discovery waited in reserve . Ninnis ' biological work then extended to horticulture . He collected wheat seeds left in the area by the Polaris expedition four years previously , and planted them — together with mustard , cress and pea seeds — between the decks of the Discovery . In May of the second year they were transplanted to the shore , under glass . According to Robert Johnston , in his 1877 summary of the expedition , " This experiment succeeded very well ; but , evidently , such an attempt at fancy gardening , under difficulties , could not be relied on to supply the wants of an entire ship 's crew . "
The expedition returned to England in October 1876 , having failed to reach the pole . The gains it had made had not been without cost ; three men had died from scurvy alone . One of these deaths had occurred on a sledging party from Alert , the remaining two on Discovery , from which there had been no major sledging . A Committee of Inquiry investigating the expedition determined a lack of fresh lime juice had triggered the outbreak . Even so , fresh meat , of which there was a plentiful supply near Discovery , could have staved off the disease . Publicly , Nares defended his surgeons , Ninnis included :
Much as the attack of scurvy which visited us is to be regretted , it proved how valuable were the services of Fleet @-@ Surgeon Thomas Colan , M.D. , and Staff @-@ Surgeon Belgrave Ninnis , M.D. , who were so ably assisted by Surgeons Edward Lawton Moss , M.D. , and Richard William Coppinger , M.D. These officers are each of great talent and high character ... Any reward that it is in the power of their lordships to bestow on these gentlemen could not be given to more careful or zealous officers .
For his work on the expedition , Ninnis was awarded the Arctic Medal , and promoted to Fleet @-@ Surgeon . He later published a report , Diseases Incidental to the Eskimo Dogs of Smith 's Sound : Diagnosis and Treatment , on his findings during the expedition .
= = = Later career = = =
Ninnis spent the remainder of his career working on ships and in hospitals . His surgical notes from at least part of this time survive ; in November 1880 , for example , while serving aboard HMS Garnet , he recorded a failed attempt to revive a drowning victim , James Farley : " Brandy injected into the rectum and strychnine at the epigastrium [ the area immediately below the heart ] , brandy and ammonia to wet his mouth . " In 1879 he was awarded Sir Gilbert Blane 's Gold Medal , an honour reserved for Royal Navy medical officers . In 1883 he received his final active promotion , to Deputy Inspector @-@ General . He was appointed Principal Medical Officer at Melville Naval Hospital , Chatham in 1892 , and three years later was selected as a Knight of Grace to the Venerable Order of Saint John . He retired on 1 September 1897 , with an honorary promotion to Inspector @-@ General .
He continued to be active after his retirement from the Navy , twice serving — in 1900 and 1902 — as President of the Section of the Navy , Army , and Ambulance of the British Medical Association . In July 1900 , serving in this capacity , he delivered an introductory address at the annual meeting of the association . In the address , while arguing that light and fresh air were important for the treatment of wounded sailors , noted that they could " only be obtained in sufficient quantity above the water @-@ line , and to place the sick quarters above the water @-@ line , amidst the hurly @-@ burly of a sea fight , traversed by projectiles and wrecked by exploding shells , is of course out of the question , even supposing that sufficient space could be spared . " Instead , he argued for dedicated hospital ships , which " during an action ... would keep out of range but sufficiently close to collect the wounded when the fight was over , and sailing under the regulations of the Geneva Convention would be free from molestation or capture . " A related article by Ninnis , " The Treatment of Wounded at Sea " , was published in the Philadelphia Medical Journal in August 1900 , and he expanded on the idea of hospital ships in a 1905 paper to the British Medical Association .
Ninnis presented another paper at the 1908 annual meeting of the association , entitled " The Position of St. John Ambulance Brigade as Regards Mobilization " , in his capacity as Chief Commissioner St. John Ambulance Brigade . On 14 June 1912 , at St James 's Palace , he was made a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order ( CVO ) by King George V.
Ninnis died in Streatham on 18 June 1922 , aged 84 . He was a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society and the Society of Antiquaries , and a member of the Army and Navy Club , the Royal Navy Medical Club , and the Folklore Society . In addition to the works previously mentioned , he was the author of a published work entitled Statistical and Nosological Report , with Remarks on the Sanitary Condition of the Welsh Colony of Chubut , South America .
= = Freemasons = =
Ninnis was initiated into the Freemasons in 1872 . In 1901 he became a Past Grand Deacon of England , having previously been a Grand Standard Bearer of England . He was a Founder of the Quadratic Lodge , Hampton Court ; the Æsculapius Lodge , London ; the Navy Lodge , London ; and the Belgrave Chapter , London . He was a Past Master ( a former Worshipful Master , the senior officer of a Masonic Lodge ) of the Quadratic Lodge ; the Æsculapius Lodge ; the Prince of Wales Lodge ; the Phoenix Lodge , Jamaica ; and the Pentangle Lodge , Kent . He was a member of the Orders of Knights Templar and the Knights of Malta . Ninnis was a Life Governor of the Royal Masonic Benevolent Institution , a Vice President of the Royal Masonic School for Boys , and a Vice Patron of the Royal Masonic School for Girls .
= = Family = =
Belgrave Ninnis was the fourth son of Paul Ninnis , originally of Cornwall . He was married to Ada Jane Sutton , with whom he had three sons and one daughter . One son , Walter Melville Ninnis , died , aged 17 months , of pneumonia , on 12 September 1886 .
Ninnis was the father of Belgrave Edward Sutton Ninnis , a Lieutenant in the Royal Fusiliers and Antarctic explorer . B. E. S. Ninnis accompanied the 1911 – 14 Australasian Antarctic Expedition , under Douglas Mawson , as a dog handler . Along with Mawson and Xavier Mertz , he formed the Far Eastern Party , using sledge dogs to explore the area around the expedition 's base in Adélie Land . On 14 December 1912 , B. E. S. Ninnis died when the sledge he was walking beside broke through the snow lid of a crevasse . When news of his death reached Australia in March 1913 , several Australian newspapers — including The Advertiser , the Western Argus and The Sydney Morning Herald — ran biographies of Belgrave Ninnis , noting his surveying work in the Northern Territory and Arctic exploration . When Mawson returned to Australia a year later , a telegram was sent on behalf of the Australian people to Ninnis senior , condoling him on his " great loss , but congratulating you on your son 's imperishable fame . " Ninnis replied the following day , " Grateful thanks to yourself and people of Australia for sympathetic message . "
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= Millennium ( season 3 ) =
The third season of the serial crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium commenced airing in the United States on October 2 , 1998 , and concluded on May 21 , 1999 after airing twenty @-@ two episodes . It tells the story of retired FBI Agent Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) . Black had previously worked for a private investigative organization , the Millennium Group , but left after the Group unleashed a virus that resulted in the death of Black 's wife . Now working for the Federal Bureau of Investigation with agent Emma Hollis ( Klea Scott ) , Black seeks to discredit and expose the Group for their sinister motives .
The season saw the introduction of a new lead character in Hollis . Scott faced difficulty in securing the role , as Fox executives had desired a white actress for the part instead ; Scott 's agent fought for her to be given an audition , which proved successful . The season also brought in two new executive producers — Michael Duggan and Chip Johannessen , who had previously written episodes in earlier seasons .
Episodes from the third season have seen generally positive reviews from critics , as has the season as a whole . Stars Henriksen and Brittany Tiplady were nominated for several acting awards for their work on the season — a Golden Globe Award nod for Henriksen and two Young Artist Award nominations for Tiplady . In addition , series cinematographer Robert McLachlan was nominated for two American Society of Cinematographers awards during the season . Ultimately none of these nominations proved successful .
= = Production = =
When ending the second season , the producers and crew thought it would be the last ; Fox executives admitted that the decision to renew the series was " down to the wire " . However , to their surprise Millennium was renewed for a third season . Many of the cliffhanger plot threads from the season finale were written off as the hallucinations of Frank Black . When creating the third season , the writers wanted to go back to the standalone storytelling format used in the first season ; to do so they had Frank join the FBI and receive a new " skeptical " partner with whom he could work .
This led to the introduction of Klea Scott as Emma Hollis . Originally , the producers were looking for a white actress to play the part . Scott 's agent campaigned for her and guaranteed the series ' producers that if she was not considered for the role , he would never send another actor to the casting director of the show . Scott won the role , but producer Chip Johannessen recalled that " she wasn 't what the network were looking , they wanted Heather Locklear or something to come . That was kind of how that went down " . Fox backed down , and Scott got the role .
The season saw the introduction of Johannessen and Michael Duggan as executive producers ; both had previously worked as writers on earlier seasons of the series . The pair worked with series creator Chris Carter , who acknowledged that they had taken heed of past criticism of the series when writing new episodes , wanting to avoid the previous " serial @-@ killer @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " moniker the show had earned . To this end , the season ended with a seven @-@ episode story arc intended to reduce the series ' conflicts down to struggle between two men , rather than larger factions or groups — Black representing the viewer 's point of view and Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) representing the ideals of the Millennium Group , with both convinced their beliefs are the correct ones and wanting to bring the other to their side . Ultimately , the season did not attract enough viewers , and the series was cancelled by the network .
= = Cast = =
= = = Starring = = =
Lance Henriksen as Frank Black
Klea Scott as Emma Hollis
= = = Recurring cast = = =
= = = = Also starring = = = =
Brittany Tiplady as Jordan Black
= = = = Guest starring = = = =
Terry O 'Quinn as Peter Watts
Peter Outerbridge as Barry Baldwin
Stephen E. Miller as Andy McClaren
= = Reception = =
= = = Accolades = = =
The third season earned several awards and nominations for those associated with the series . Henriksen was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Television Drama , losing out to Dylan McDermott 's portrayal of Bobby Donnell in The Practice . Tiplady was nominated twice for the Young Artist Award for Best Performance in a TV Comedy / Drama – Supporting Young Actress Age Ten or Under ; she was beaten out by Scarlett Pomers for Star Trek : Voyager in 1999 , and Mae Middleton for Any Day Now in 2000 . Cinematographer Robert McLachlan was twice nominated for the American Society of Cinematographers award for Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography in a Regular Series , in 1999 for " Skull and Bones " , and in 2000 for " Matryoshka " . Both times McLachlan lost the award to Bill Roe , for The X @-@ Files ' " Drive " in 1999 , and " Agua Mala " in 2000 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Writing for Slant magazine , Keith Uhlich gave the season an overall rating of four stars out of five . Uhlich described the season as " a divisive run of episodes that , for many viewers , blasphemously rewrites what came before " , but favourably compared it to the fiction works of Jorge Luis Borges . Uhlich felt that the episodes in the season were " challenging " and celebrated the abilities of the individual to forge a life for themselves . DVD Talk 's Randy Miller also awarded the season an overall four out of five stars , finding that although its concern about the then @-@ coming millennium made it very much a product of its time , it did not seem to have suffered from this and held up well in retrospect . Miller considered Henriksen 's portrayal of Frank Black to have been " masterful " ; however , he felt that the retcon of its second season finale alienated viewers and led to its dwindling popularity .
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated several episodes across the season highly , awarding five stars out of five to " Borrowed Time " , " Collateral Damage " , " Darwin 's Eye " and the series finale " Goodbye to All That " . However , several episodes also fared poorly in their opinion , including " Closure " , " ... Thirteen Years Later " and " Forcing the End " , all of which the pair rated only one star out of five . Writing for The A.V. Club , Zack Handlen described the season as suffering from several problems , specifically mentioning " its lack of a center , its hamfisted morbidity , the ongoing blahtastrophe that is [ Emma Hollis ] " .
= = Episodes = =
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= Cyclone Favio =
Cyclone Favio was the first known tropical cyclone that passed south of Madagascar to strike Africa as an intense tropical cyclone . Early on February 11 , 2007 , a zone of disturbed weather formed east of Madagascar . Four days later , Favio was named as intensified to a moderate tropical storm while moving southwest . On February 18 , the storm was upgraded into a severe tropical storm . Then , it turned west in the general direction of Mozambique . Continuing to intensify , Favio was upgraded to a tropical cyclone early on February 19 . Subsequently , the storm began to undergo rapid deepening ; the small storm reached intense tropical cyclone status the next day before peaking in intensity . However , the cyclone had weakened somewhat prior to making landfall on February 22 in the Inhambane Province in Mozambique . It rapidly weakened over land and dissipated the next day .
While strengthening , Favio brought heavy rains to southern Madagascar . After making landfall , Intense Tropical Cyclone Favio brought widespread damage to Vilanculos in Mozambique , where the cyclone killed four people and injured at least 70 in the town . About 80 % of the town was destroyed . Overall , a total of ten people were killed by the storm and nearly 100 others were injured , and combined with an earlier flood , the storm caused $ 71 million ( 2007 US $ ] ] ) in damage . Around 130 @,@ 000 homes suffered damage and 130 schools were leveled by the tropical cyclone . Across the nation , a total of 33 @,@ 000 people were left homeless during the system . Cyclone Favio destroyed 277 @,@ 000 ha ( 684 @,@ 480 acres ) of crops . In Zimbabwe , 400 electricity poles were downed . During the aftermath of the storm , a number of agencies provided assistance to victims of Cyclone Favio in Mozambique . One agency donated $ 626 @,@ 500 , helping transport 50 @,@ 000 mosquito nets to the devastated area . A total of 5 @,@ 500 bars of soap , 1 @,@ 600 buckets , 50 baths , and over 180 latrines were distributed to the victims of the devastated area . In all , the government was praised for how well they handled the disaster .
= = Meteorological history = =
Cyclone Favio originated from a zone of disturbed weather that was first classified by the Météo @-@ France office on Réunion ( MFR ) at 1200 UTC February 11 , 2007 . Twelve hours later , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued their first advisory on the system . Midday on February 12 , MFR upgraded the system into a tropical disturbance and noted that its rating at that time on the Dvorak technique was 2 @.@ 0 .
According to the JTWC , an area of convection developed 340 mi ( 545 km ) south @-@ southwest of Diego Garcia . Initially , however , the convection was not very concentrated near the center . However , sea surface temperatures in the area were somewhat warm so gradual intensification was predicted and the storm was projected to become a severe tropical storm within 48 hours . Situated in an environment of low wind shear and good outflow , thunderstorm activity soon increased and thus started to consolidate around the storm 's atmospheric circulation . Continuing to encounter more favorable conditions , the JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) on February 14 . Meanwhile , MFR upgraded the system into a tropical depression . Eighteen hours later , the system was named Favio by the Meteorological Services of Mauritius as the system ; according to MFR , had intensified into a moderate tropical storm .
Moving very steadily southwest , the storm gradually intensified . Early on February 15 , the JTWC announced that that system had intensified into a tropical storm . After intensifying slightly ( based on JTWC data ) that evening , the storm briefly weakened overnight , only to re @-@ intensify the next morning . On February 16 , Favio turned southwest in response to a large subtropical ridge . Despite low wind shear , Favio remained a moderate tropical storm for several days ; however , on February 18 , MFR announced that Favio had intensified into a severe tropical storm . Subsequently , the storm turned west as the ridge merged with another one centered over South Africa . Two days later , the agency then upgraded the system into cyclone status . At 0000 UTC that day , on February 19 , the JTWC upgraded the system into a Category 1 hurricane @-@ equivalent on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale ( SSHWS ) though not much additional intensification was predicted .
Upon becoming a hurricane , thunderstorm activity began to develop around an eye . Favio turned west @-@ northwest , traversing the Mozambique Channel while beginning to deepen . At 0000 UTC February 20 , the JTWC declared that Favio had intensified into a Category 2 hurricane @-@ equivalent on the SSHWS . Several hours later , Favio was then upgraded into an intense tropical cyclone by MFR as the system developed a very small eye . Simultaneously , Cyclone Favio was upgraded into a Category 3 hurricane on the SSHWS via the JTWC . During the afternoon hours of February 20 , the JTWC reported that Favio had developed winds equivalent to Category 4 intensity . That evening , MFR noted that Cyclone Favio had peaked in intensity , with winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) , becoming the most intense tropical cyclone south of the 25th parallel over the Mozambique Channel since the satellite era began . Six hours later , the JTWC announced that Favio had peaked in intensity , with 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) winds . This made Favio equal to a mid @-@ level Category 4 hurricane . At the time of its peak , Favio had developed a well @-@ defined eye .
Shortly after its peak , Cyclone Favio began to weaken ; the core of the storm started to become disrupted on the northwestern quadrant . The JTWC expected Favio to continue to weaken , and dissipate within 48 hours over land . The eye disappeared off of satellite imagery , though by early February 22 , this feature had re @-@ developed . That afternoon , the storm was estimated to have made landfall in southern Mozambique . At that time , the JTWC reported winds of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) , a Category 1 system on the SSHWS . On the other hand , MFR estimated winds of 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) ( an intense tropical cyclone ) . Upon making landfall , it did so on the seventh anniversary of the last intense tropical cyclone , Eline , to strike Mozambique . Favio was also the first tropical cyclone to hit the country since Cyclone Japhet did during the 2002 – 03 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season . By early February 23 , winds had dropped below hurricane @-@ force according to the JTWC , while the storm dissipated later that day . Around that time , MFR stopped monitoring the system as well .
= = Preparations = =
Prior to the arrival of Favio , flooding swept over Mozambique weeks earlier , forcing 163 @,@ 000 persons to seek shelter . The floods started in late December 2006 when the Cahora Bassa Dam overflowed its banks . The floods escalated in February 2007 when the Zambezi River broke its banks , flooding the surrounding areas in Mozambique . A total of 80 @,@ 600 people were evacuated from their homes in the Tete , Manica , Sofala and Zambezia provinces on February 14 . Twenty @-@ nine people were confirmed dead due to the pre @-@ Favio flood .
While at peak intensity , the storm threatened Mozambique and forcing authorities to put the country on high alert . The British Foreign Office also issued a travel warning to Britons who were planning visits along the Bazaruto Archipelago . Additionally , the South African disaster management team was on full alert in the eastern portion of Mpumalanga . In addition , thousands of volunteers were placed on stand by .
Some residents of Vilankulo attempted to flee the area carrying belongings and children as the government urged residents to seek shelter on higher ground further inland before the storm hit . They evacuated many of the people who remained , taking them to tent camps . Officials said that Favio could also bring heavy rains to Zambia , Malawi and Zimbabwe . Authorities in the latter issued a flood warning . Because of the topography of the region , meteorologists noted the potential for flooding in Zimabawe .
= = Impact = =
= = = Madagascar = = =
While intensifying , Cyclone Favio brushed the southern tip of Madagascar while bringing heavy rains to the nation . Along the southeastern portion of the nation , road access was reduced . Favio disrupted relief operations to 582 @,@ 000 people , who were struggling to cope with a drought in the southern portion of the nation . Moreover , the cyclone disrupted relief efforts during an aftermath of flood that killed three persons and displaced 33 @,@ 000 people throughout the country . Overall , the cyclone was one of several storms to affect the nation during the season .
= = = Mozambique = = =
About 130 @,@ 000 homes suffered damage and 130 schools were leveled by the intense tropical cyclone in Mozambique . In all , a total of ten people were killed by the storm and nearly 100 others were injured . Combined with an earlier flood , Favio caused $ 71 million ( 2007 USD ) in infrastructural damage . About 64 @,@ 000 people moved to tents during the storm , and 33 @,@ 000 people were displaced during the storm . Cyclone Favio destroyed 277 @,@ 000 ha ( 684 @,@ 480 acres ) of crops , primarily in Vilanculos , Inhassoro , Govuro , and Masinga districts in Inhambane Province . Overall , 160 @,@ 000 people were affected by the storm .
Favio damaged the court in the resort town of Vilanculos in Southern Mozambique . Uprooted trees caused by the cyclone also blocked roads , cutting off access for rescuers to some homes . Power was also cut off to the city . The cyclone killed four people and injured at least 70 in the town , and thousands of homes were destroyed along with the hospital , where a total of 120 patients were evacuated . Additionally , 600 prisoners escaped when the local jail was demolished . About 80 % of the town was destroyed . A total of 73 @,@ 000 people were affected by the cyclone in Vilanculos .
Elsewhere , the storm damaged trees and blew off rooftops in Pontagea , a highly populated suburb in the port city of Beira . Cyclone Favio was responsible for widespread damage in Tofo Beach , where the storm uprooted palm trees and destroyed electric services . Elsewhere , an airplane was crushed in an airport .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
In Zimbabwe , the Bvumba Mountains received heavy winds and rain . Throughout the country , damage was minimal and was mostly due to the uprooting of trees and not nearly as bad as Cyclone Leon – Eline , which devastated the nation seven years prior . However , electricity supplies were severely damaged . In one location , 400 wooden electricity poles were knocked down . Alongside moist air from the Intertropical Convergence Zone , Favio produced significant rains across much of Malawi , peaking at 121 @.@ 7 mm ( 5 in ) in Mimosa . Furthermore , the remnants of the low struck southern Tanzania . Cyclone Favio also destroyed 56 houses in Hai .
= = Aftermath = =
During the aftermath of the storm , South Africa offered helicopters to Mozambique to deliver food to shelters and to help Mozambican officials assess the situation aerially . The disaster management minister of South Africa flew in to Mozambique to survey the damage . Due to the concern for potential disease epidemics including those of malaria and cholera , health officials raised public awareness through theaters and radio . A joint coalition of the United States Agency for International Development and the Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance provided $ 626 @,@ 500 , enabling transportation of 50 @,@ 000 mosquito nets to the devastated area . Oxfam International distributed 18 @,@ 000 L ( 4 @,@ 800 US gal ) of clean water per day for 15 @,@ 000 displaced people in the Caia and Marromeu districts and housed 8 @,@ 000 residents in Chupanga , where they also distributed 5 @,@ 500 bars of soap , more than 3 @,@ 000 mosquito nets , and 1 @,@ 600 buckets . The agency also built 50 baths and over 180 latrines . In Calia , Oxfam also distributed 1 @,@ 400 nets . Marromeu was also supplied 900 mosquito nets via Calia . The agency also agreed to provide drinking water to the victims of Favio for four months .
The nation 's president flew in to the destructed area , lifting survivors ' spirits . Within 48 hours following Intense Tropical Cyclone Favio , roofs were being repaired , and power lines were gradually being restored . Hundreds of local red cross staff and volunteers were utilized ; they worked around the clock to assist survivors . Thirty @-@ one recovery centers opened , hosting 400 first aid volunteers . According to a South African website , the government was praised for how well and quickly they handled the crisis . Key food items ( rice , beans , corn meal , cooking oil , soap , and sugar ) were distributed to the affected areas . On March 5 , a plan was launched to provide victims for a total of $ 71 million worth of aid , of which $ 773 @,@ 000 was expected to be directed towards the health . Meanwhile , water levels began to recede throughout the affected region . Moreover , a total of 28 @,@ 000 lb ( 12 @,@ 700 kg ) of aid were distributed through the central part of the nation , and provided clean water for 6 @,@ 000 people . About 200 tents were provided for victims whose roofs of their homes were blown off . Furthermore , concerns rose about the potential outbreak of diseases like HIV . Within three months after the cyclone , 85 % of homes had used the aid they were given .
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= Scott Laird =
Scott Benjamin Laird ( born 15 May 1988 ) is an English professional footballer who plays for Scunthorpe United as a defender .
Laird began his football career as a trainee at Plymouth Argyle , progressing through the club 's centre of excellence . He spent a total of eight years on the club 's books , but only managed to make one first – team appearance for the club . In 2006 , he was loaned out to Tiverton Town , playing a total of 20 games for the club , scoring four times . He was later loaned to Torquay United in September 2007 , making two appearances for the side . Another loan spell followed , this time to Stevenage in late 2007 . Laird impressed under manager Peter Taylor and signed on a permanent basis at the start of February 2008 for an undisclosed fee .
He has been a first – team regular since his move , and was the club 's Player of the Year for the 2009 – 10 season , a season in which the Hertfordshire side won promotion to the Football League for the first time in their history . His success as a Stevenage player continued the following season , as he played an integral role in the club 's 2010 – 11 campaign , helping Stevenage earn promotion to League One . He left Stevenage when his contract expired in 2012 , and joined Preston North End . Laird has also represented Scotland at youth level , captaining the Scotland U16 team . However , Laird was called up for the England C side in April 2009 , starting in a game against the Belgium U21 team .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Laird began his football career as a trainee at Plymouth Argyle 's centre of excellence . He made the hour journey to Plymouth from his Bridgwater home to train with the club every Tuesday and Thursday . Laird attracted interest from Scottish side Rangers in 2003 , with the SPL club enquiring about the player after his performances for Scotland in the Victory Shield . No move materialised , and he continued to progress through the youth system at Home Park , and was offered a professional contract at the age of 17 by manager Tony Pulis in February 2006 . During his time as an apprentice , Laird lived in a hotel " just for apprentices " with Luke Summerfield , Reuben Reid , and Chris Zebroski , and described the experience as a " great way to grow into football " .
The following season , Laird joined Tiverton Town of the Southern Football League on an initial one @-@ month loan in September 2006 . He made his debut for the club in Tiverton 's 2 – 1 victory against Wealdstone , and played in the following game against Cheshunt . The loan was extended for a further five months , and Laird scored his first goal for the club in a 4 – 1 defeat at Hemel Hempstead Town on 5 April 2007 . Two days later , he scored twice in Tiverton 's 3 – 1 home win against Cirencester Town , netting both of his goals in the space of four minutes to give Tiverton a two @-@ goal lead . A week later , he scored again , netting the opening goal of the game as Tiverton lost 4 – 1 to King 's Lynn . Laird played a total of 21 games for the club , 17 in the league , scoring four times from a central midfield role . Laird returned to Plymouth ahead of the 2007 – 08 season , and was subsequently handed his Plymouth debut in a 2 – 1 victory over Wycombe Wanderers in the League Cup , playing the whole match and assisting Plymouth 's second goal . However , he did not appear in the first – team for Plymouth again and was loaned out to nearby Conference National side Torquay United a month later . Laird made his Torquay debut in a 5 – 2 victory against Kidderminster Harriers at Aggborough , and also featured in a 3 – 2 victory over Weymouth . Although his loan at Torquay was extended in November , he did not make any more first – team appearances for the club , and so played just twice for Torquay United during his two @-@ month loan spell .
= = = Stevenage = = =
A month after returning to his parent club , Laird was loaned out to another Conference National team in the form of Stevenage on 31 December 2007 . He made his Stevenage debut a day later in a 2 – 1 win over Rushden & Diamonds . Laird impressed under manager Peter Taylor and signed on a permanent basis at the start of February , for an undisclosed fee . He featured regularly at left – back during the second half of the 2007 – 08 season , and scored his first goal for Stevenage in a 4 – 1 victory away at Histon – a 35 @-@ yard strike into the top right hand corner of the net . The following season , under the new management of Graham Westley , Laird featured regularly again , playing 51 games in total for the Hertfordshire side , scoring three times in total . Laird scored his first goal of the 2008 – 09 season in Stevenage 's first win of the season ; a 3 – 1 victory away to Barrow in August 2008 . His second goal of the campaign came in an FA Cup tie against Horsham , while his third goal of the season came in Stevenage 's last regular Conference National fixture of the season in a 2 – 1 defeat away to Mansfield Town . Laird was also a key part in the side 's successful FA Trophy campaign , featuring in six matches . However , he missed the final at Wembley Stadium as a result of being sent – off in the defeat to Cambridge United in the Conference National play @-@ off semi @-@ final . In his absence , Stevenage beat York City 2 – 0 in the FA Trophy final .
Laird continue to impress at full @-@ back for Stevenage in the first half of the 2009 – 10 season . He scored his first goal of the season in a 2 – 0 victory over Histon at Bridge Road in August 2009 ; the ground he coincidentally scored his first ever Stevenage goal in 2008 . In September 2009 , Laird scored a highly significant goal when his 85th @-@ minute strike ensured Stevenage beat local rivals Luton Town 1 – 0 at Kenilworth Road in the first ever league meeting between the two clubs . He scored a similar looking goal in a 4 – 0 win over Barrow , before also scoring the winning goal in a victory over Oxford United ; stroking home a second half penalty to score the only goal of the game . Laird 's fifth goal of the season followed shortly after , when he converted another penalty in a 2 – 0 win against Forest Green Rovers . He scored another goal from the penalty spot ten days later in a 1 – 0 win over Gateshead . Laird made 53 appearances during Stevenage 's promotion @-@ winning campaign , more than any other player for the club during the season , scoring a total of six goals . He was also voted as Stevenage 's Player of the Year at the end of the season , as voted for by Supporters Association members and season ticket holders at the club . Laird signed a new two – year contract with the Hertfordshire club in May 2010 . He was voted as the 2009 – 10 Young Player of the Year at the National Game Awards . At the Football Conference 's Annual Presentation Dinner , Laird was also named in the Team of the Year , alongside fellow Stevenage defenders Ronnie Henry and Mark Roberts .
Ahead of the 2010 – 11 season , Laird scored in Stevenage 's pre @-@ season friendly victory over Histon . He started in the club 's first ever Football League fixture , a 2 – 2 home draw with Macclesfield Town . In September 2010 , in games against Cheltenham Town and Torquay United respectively , Laird was used as a left midfielder , as opposed to playing in his usual left @-@ back position . He reverted to the left @-@ back spot in Stevenage 's 1 – 0 win over Lincoln City at Sincil Bank . He scored his first goal of the 2010 – 11 season from the penalty spot , in a 2 – 1 win over Burton Albion in October 2010 . A week later , he missed the chance to double his goal tally for the season , missing a second @-@ half penalty in a 0 – 0 draw against Morecambe . Coincidentally , Laird 's second goal of the season came in the reverse fixture against Morecambe in January 2011 ; he scored from close range following John Mousinho 's cross to give Stevenage the lead . Just three days later , Laird scored his third goal of the season , netting with a curling effort from 25 yards out to give Stevenage their third goal of a 3 – 0 win against Rotherham United . Laird was initially credited with scoring an 87th @-@ minute winner in Stevenage 's 1 – 0 away win at Crewe Alexandra on 19 February 2011 , but the goal was eventually given to team @-@ mate Byron Harrison . At the age of 22 , Laird captained Stevenage for the first time in their 1 – 0 loss to Hereford United on 8 March 2011 . In the club 's following match , against Wycombe Wanderers at Adams Park , Laird was sent @-@ off for two bookable offences , although Stevenage held on to win the match 1 – 0 . Laird 's fourth goal of the campaign came in Stevenage 's 3 – 3 draw against Bury on 7 May 2011 , as he opened the scoring with a strike from 25 yards out . He played a total of 54 games during the 2010 – 11 season , scoring four goals . This included three appearances in the 2010 – 11 League Two play @-@ offs following Stevenage 's sixth @-@ placed finish . Following a 3 – 0 aggregate victory over Accrington Stanley , Stevenage earned promotion to League One after a 1 – 0 win against Torquay United at Old Trafford on 28 May 2011 , with Laird playing the whole game .
Laird played in Stevenage 's first ever League One fixture on 6 August 2011 , playing the whole match in a 0 – 0 home draw against Exeter City . He was a crucial player in the club 's first win of the season , assisting Chris Beardsley in the 91st minute as Stevenage beat Bournemouth 3 – 1 at Dean Court . Laird 's first goal of the campaign came four days later , on 20 August , scoring with a header from Robin Shroot 's corner to ensure Stevenage came from two goals down to draw against Hartlepool United . He also scored against Huddersfield Town on 8 October , scoring with a first time finish to briefly restore parity in an eventual 2 – 1 loss . Laird 's impressive start to the 2011 – 12 season resulted in a " number of Championship clubs " tracking the player . Laird scored the winning goal in a 2 – 1 victory against Sheffield United on 5 November , converting from the penalty spot with eight minutes remaining . A week later , on 12 November , he scored the only goal of the game as Stevenage defeated Hartlepool United 1 – 0 in the FA Cup . Laird 's fifth goal of the campaign came on 26 December , scoring Stevenage 's fourth goal in a 6 – 1 away victory at Colchester United , calmly scoring from close range following a well @-@ worked free @-@ kick . He was on the scoresheet once again in Stevenage 's 4 – 2 home win against Milton Keynes Dons in January 2012 , heading in Luke Freeman 's cross to ensure Stevenage overcame an early deficit to take the lead . The left @-@ back scored his seventh goal of the campaign in manager Gary Smith 's first league game in @-@ charge , a 1 – 0 away victory at Sheffield Wednesday . He scored further goals in draws against Chesterfield and Sheffield United respectively , taking his goal tally to nine for the season . Laird finished as the club 's second highest goalscorer for the campaign , as Stevenage missed out on a third successive promotion following a play @-@ off semi @-@ final defeat . At the end of the season , it was announced that Laird had rejected an improved contract offer and would be leaving the club on a free transfer when his contract expired . Laird made 230 appearances during his four years with the club , scoring 23 goals .
= = = Preston North End = = =
In May 2012 , Laird signed for League One side Preston North End on a free transfer . The move reunited him with manager Graham Westley , who had previously managed Laird at Stevenage . He made his Preston debut in the club 's first game of the 2012 – 13 season , playing the whole match in 2 – 0 home win over Huddersfield Town in the League Cup . Laird scored his first goals for the club in a 5 – 0 win against Hartlepool United at Deepdale in September 2012 , netting twice within the space of three second @-@ half minutes . His third goal of the season came in a 3 – 1 away victory at Doncaster Rovers on 2 October 2012 , heading in Joel Byrom 's cross to restore Preston 's lead in the match . He added to his goal tally a month later , " acrobatically volleying in Chris Robertson 's knockdown " in a 1 – 1 home draw with Brentford . In the club 's next match , a home game against Notts County on 20 November 2012 , Laird suffered a broken leg following a challenge from Jamal Campbell @-@ Ryce . It was later revealed that Laird had broken his left tibia and would miss the remainder of the season . During his recovery , Laird stated that Campbell @-@ Ryce rang him on a weekly basis — " I knew him previously and he 's rung me every week to make sure I 'm alright . I 'm not one to hold grudges anyway and he 's been fine . I accept his apology " . Laird scored four times in 24 games during his first season with the club .
On 17 December 2013 , Laird extended his contract with Preston for a further twelve months , thus keeping him at the club until the summer of 2015 .
= = International career = =
Despite being born in England , Laird represented Scotland at youth level , captaining the Scotland U16 team all the way up to U20 's level . He played in all three of Scotland 's games in the Victory Shield in 2003 , scoring twice , with Scotland finishing as joint winners of the tournament alongside England .
Laird was called up by Paul Fairclough for the England C side in April 2009 , and subsequently started in England 's 1 – 0 defeat to Belgium U21 the following month .
= = Personal life = =
Laird was born in Taunton , Somerset , and grew up in Bridgwater . He supported Rangers as a boy , and states that Brian Laudrup was a player he always aspired to play like . Laird also supports Ipswich Town . He says that Guti is the best player he has ever played against . Laird 's grandmother gives him a one pound coin every time he scores a goal , something that she has done ever since he started playing football .
Laird 's father , Craig , was appointed as manager of Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare in May 2010 , having previously managed Southern League Division One South and West outfit Bridgwater Town .
Laird has three brothers , Craig , Jamie and Callum . Craig Laird is currently playing soccer at the University of Tampa in the United States and has also represented England at schoolboy level . [ 1 ] Jamie Laird was last at Hereford .
= = Honours = =
Stevenage
FA Trophy ( 1 ) : 2008 – 09
Conference National ( 1 ) : 2009 – 10
League Two play @-@ offs ( 1 ) : 2010 – 11
Preston
League One play @-@ offs ( 1 ) : 2014 – 15
Individual
Stevenage Player of the Year ( 1 ) : 2009 – 10
Conference National Team of the Year ( 1 ) : 2009 – 10
= = Career statistics = =
As of 20 November 2012 .
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= Virgil Brennan =
Virgil Paul Brennan , DFC , DFM ( 6 March 1920 – 13 June 1943 ) was an Australian aviator and flying ace of the Second World War . Enlisting in the Royal Australian Air Force in November 1940 , he briefly served in the European Theatre before transferring to Malta . Over the next five months , Brennan was officially credited with the destruction of 10 Axis aircraft from a total of twenty @-@ four operational sorties . Reposted to England , he was assigned as a flying instructor and collaborated in the writing of Spitfires over Malta , a book about his experiences on the island . Returning to Australia during 1943 , Brennan was killed in a flying accident at Garbutt , Queensland , in June that year .
= = Early life = =
Brennan was born in Warwick , Queensland , on 6 March 1920 to Edgar James Brennan , a solicitor , and his wife Katherine ( née O 'Sullivan ) . He was educated at the Christian Brothers ' School in Warwick , before moving on to Downlands College at Toowoomba and later Brisbane State High School . After leaving school , Brennan studied part @-@ time at the University of Queensland , while simultaneously being employed as a law clerk in Brisbane .
= = Second World War = =
On 8 November 1940 , Brennan enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force for service during the Second World War . Accepted for pilot training , he received his initial flight instruction in Australia . He later embarked for Canada , where he completed his flight training before being posted to the United Kingdom in August 1941 , where he was appointed to an Operational Training Unit . On graduating from this course , he was allotted to No. 64 Squadron RAF . During this time , he was advanced to temporary flight sergeant on 4 January 1942 , prior to receiving a posting to the Mediterranean Theatre the following month .
= = = Malta = = =
On arrival in the Mediterranean , Brennan was posted to No. 249 Squadron RAF . On 7 March 1942 , Brennan was one of fifteen pilots sent to the island of Malta . Flying Supermarine Spitfires , the party took off from the aircraft carrier HMS Eagle ; they were to spend the next few months in the defence of the island . As the Axis forces commenced a major aerial assault on Malta later that month , the Allied fighter pilots on the island were forced to " contend with fatigue and inadequate rations while battling the enemy 's superior forces " . On 17 March , Brennan claimed his first aerial victory when he shot down a Messerschmitt 109 .
On 20 April 1942 , Brennan added a further two aircraft to his tally when he destroyed a Messerschmitt 109 , before bringing down a Junkers 88 later that day . Praised as " a most determined and courageous pilot " , Brennan was subsequently recommended for the Distinguished Flying Medal . The announcement and accompanying citation for the award was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 22 May 1942 , reading :
Air Ministry , 22nd May , 1942 .
ROYAL AIR FORCE .
The KING has been graciously pleased to approve the following awards in recognition of gallantry displayed in flying operations against the enemy : —
Distinguished Flying Medal .
Aus . 404692 Sergeant Virgil Paul BRENNAN , Royal Australian Air Force , No. 249 Squadron .
This airman is a most determined and courageous pilot . An exceptional shot , he always presses home his attacks with vigour . In 2 combats , he has destroyed at least 4 enemy aircraft and damaged others .
Brennan scored further aerial victories on 10 May . The following day , German Luftwaffe General Albert Kesselring ordered a contingent of 20 Stukas and 10 Junkers Ju 88s with a small escort of fighter aircraft to bomb Grand Harbour , Malta . A formation of 50 Royal Air Force aircraft — 37 Spitfires and 13 Hawker Hurricanes — were dispatched to intercept the group ; Brennan was piloting one of the Spitfires . Attacking one of the Stukas , Brennan later recorded that the aircraft " disintegrated , with huge chunks flying off in every direction " . During the battle , a total of 14 German aircraft were shot down , for the loss of 2 Spitfires . In an engagement the next day , Brennan was wounded in his left arm . He was commissioned as a pilot officer later that month .
By the conclusion of his combat tour in July 1942 , Brennan had flown a total of twenty @-@ two operational sorties and was credited with destroying 10 Axis aircraft over Malta , with one probably destroyed and a further 6 damaged . For his efforts in the destruction of Axis aircraft during this period , Brennan was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross . The notification of the decoration was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 6 October 1942 .
= = = Later war service and death = = =
Embarking from Malta during July 1942 , Brennan returned to the United Kingdom and was posted to No. 52 Operational Training Unit as an instructor with the rank of acting flight lieutenant . During this period , Brennan and fellow No. 249 Squadron pilot , Pilot Officer Ray Hesselyn , collaborated with journalist Henry Bateson on writing Spitfires over Malta , a novel relating the experiences of Brennan and Hesselyn during their time on Malta . On 17 April 1943 , Brennan was repatriated from the United Kingdom and returned to Australia .
Arriving back in Australia , Brennan was posted to the newly raised No. 79 Squadron , based at Laverton , Victoria , on 1 May 1943 . Later that month , the squadron was ordered to deploy to Goodenough Island , near New Guinea . During this time , Brennan related his previous combat experiences to fellow pilots , however his commanding officer , Squadron Leader Alan Rawlinson , noted that Brennan appeared " strained and tired " . An advance party of the squadron was moved up to Goodenough Island that month , while the pilots followed during June .
On 13 June 1943 , the pilots of No. 79 Squadron continued on their journey north , arriving at Garbutt airfield in Queensland . At approximately 14 : 00 , Brennan landed his Spitfire in the wake turbulence of the aircraft ahead of himself and touched down on the left side of the runway . Brennan was informed that he was cutting in on the path of the Spitfire following him , which was to land on the right side of the runway . Brennan landed his aircraft short , and at the conclusion of his landing run turned across the path of the second Spitfire . In the ensuing collision , Brennan sustained severe injuries and was rushed to hospital ; he died before arrival . Described as one with " an easy @-@ going nature , an engaging sense of humour and ... loyal to his friends " , Brennan was buried in Townsville War Cemetery .
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= M @-@ 130 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 130 was the designation of a former state trunkline highway in the southeastern corner of the US state of Michigan . It ran from a junction with US Highway 23 / M @-@ 50 ( US 23 / M @-@ 50 ) northward across the River Raisin and then turned southeasterly along North Custer Road on the north side of the river to Monroe . The highway designation was commissioned in 1929 and used until 1955 . M @-@ 130 had a spur route that was created in 1938 and lasted until the main highway was removed from the state highway system . Both highways are now under local control .
= = Route description = =
Beginning at a junction with US 23 / M @-@ 50 between Ida and Maybee , M @-@ 130 traveled northeasterly along Ida – Maybee Road across the Raisin River before turning southeast on North Custer Road . M @-@ 130 ran along the northern banks of the river passing through primarily agricultural areas . The rural surroundings dominated much of the route until it began to encroach on the outskirts of Monroe . The highway terminated at US 24 in Monroe .
= = History = =
M @-@ 130 was commissioned in 1929 . At the time , US 23 followed Ida – Maybee Road , and M @-@ 130 followed North Custer Road from there to an intersection with US 24 / US 25 ( Telegraph Road ) in Monroe . Later the next year , M @-@ 130 was extended southward from its western terminus when US 23 was rerouted to follow M @-@ 50 . The highway was returned to local control in late 1955 or early 1956 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway was in Monroe County .
= = Spur route = =
Spur M @-@ 130 was a spur route of M @-@ 130 which ran about 1 @.@ 1 miles ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) along North Custer Road between Ida – Maybee and Muehleisen roads . Like the mainline M @-@ 130 , the spur ran parallel to the River Raisin on the north banks of the river across from M @-@ 50 . It was implemented in the middle of 1938 , and returned to local control at the same time the main highway in late 1955 or early 1956 .
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= Hygrophoropsis =
Hygrophoropsis is a genus of gilled fungi in the family Hygrophoropsidaceae . It was circumscribed in 1888 to contain the type species , H. aurantiaca , a widespread fungus that , based on its appearance , has been affiliated with Cantharellus , Clitocybe , and Paxillus . Modern molecular phylogenetic analysis shows that the genus belongs to the suborder Coniophorineae of the order Boletales .
There are 16 accepted species of Hygrophoropsis , found in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres . Hygrophoropsis is a saprophytic genus that causes brown rot in the wood it colonises . The fruit bodies grow on the ground in woodlands , on moss , peat , and on woodchips . They are convex to infundibuliform ( funnel @-@ shaped ) and have decurrent , forked brightly colored gills . The spores are dextrinoid , meaning that they stain reddish @-@ brown in Melzer 's reagent . Because H. aurantiaca has orange gills , it has been mistaken for a chanterelle , and hence it has been called a false chanterelle .
= = Taxonomy = =
Hygrophoropsis was originally circumscribed in 1888 by German mycologist Joseph Schröter as a subgenus of Cantharellus . It contained a single species , the widespread H. aurantiaca , commonly known as the false chanterelle . German naturalist Bernhard Studer @-@ Steinhäuslin concluded in 1900 that the fungus was more appropriately placed in the genus Clitocybe , based on its white spores , decurrent gills , and lack of a ring on the stipe . This classification was adopted in the early writings of influential mycologist Rolf Singer , who in 1943 proposed that Hygrophoropsis should be a subgenus of Clitocybe .
French naturalist Emile Martin @-@ Sans elevated Hygrophoropsis to the status of genus in his 1929 publication L 'Empoisonnement par les champignons et particulièrement les intoxications dues aux Agaricacées du groupe des Clitocybe et du groupe des Cortinarius , while attributing authorship to his countryman René Maire . According to Martin @-@ Sans , he concurred with Maire 's assessment of Hygrophoropsis , suggesting that it represented a form intermediate between Cantharellus and Clitocybe , and was thus worthy of generic rank . The name Hygrophoropsis refers to a likeness ( Greek : ὄψις , opsis ) to the genus Hygrophorus .
Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca has been confused with the true chanterelles ( genus Cantharellus ) because of overall similarities in appearance . A combination of characters — including forked gills , frequently off @-@ centre stipe placement , and dextrinoid spores — suggested to others a relationship with Paxillus . These characteristics prompted Singer to classify the genus Hygrophoropsis in the Paxillaceae in 1946 , although others placed it in the Tricholomataceae , a family that has been described as a wastebasket taxon . Singer initially included only two species , both with dextrinoid spores — H. aurantiaca and H. tapinia . He justified the placement of Hygrophoropsis in the Paxillaceae largely on fruit body morphology and spore size : " The discovery of a second species , H. tapinia , with smaller spores and an external appearance frankly suggesting Paxillus curtisii but never met with in Clitocybe , makes the affinity between Hygrophoropsis and Paxillus an established fact . " In 1975 , he added H. olida , a species with inamyloid but cyanophilous spores , whose characteristics otherwise aligned with the type species .
Hygrophoropsis is now the type genus of the family Hygrophoropsidaceae , circumscribed by Robert Kühner in 1980 to contain it and the genus Omphalotus . Singer considered this family to be " transient between Tricholomatales and Boletales " . Molecular phylogenetic analysis confirmed its affinity lay in the order Boletales in 1997 , though later research showed that it is not closely related to Paxillus or other gilled boletes . Instead , it is most closely related to the genus Leucogyrophana . Hygrophoropsis and Leucogyrophana are sister to Coniophora , near the base of the cladogram representing the Boletales .
The presence of several pigments in the type species , including variegatic acid , variegatorubin , and several other derivatives of pulvinic acid , suggests a chemotaxic relationship with the Boletaceae , Coniophoraceae , and Paxillaceae — families of Boletales with members that have similar compounds .
= = Description = =
Hygrophoropsis species have fruit bodies with concave caps that often have wavy margins and rolled @-@ in edges . The texture of the cap surface ranges from somewhat tomentose to velvety . Typical fruit body colors are orange , brownish @-@ yellow ( fulvous ) or paler , buff , and cream . The gills have a decurrent attachment to the stipe . They are narrow with blunt edges , often multiply forked , and readily detachable from the stipe . The flesh is soft and generally the same colour as the fruit body surface , or lighter . The taste and odour of the flesh is usually nondescript , or similar to cultivated mushrooms . In contrast , H. rufa can have a distinct ozone @-@ like smell , reportedly reminiscent of the orchid Oncidium ornithorhynchum or a photocopier .
The spore print colour ranges from whitish to cream . Microscopically , Hygrophoropsis lacks cystidia and has spores that are dextrinoid , meaning that they stain reddish @-@ brown in Melzer 's reagent . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae . With respect to overall appearance , Hygrophoropsis species closely resemble those in genus Cantharellula ; the latter genus , however , has amyloid rather than dextrinoid spores .
= = Habitat , distribution , and ecology = =
Collectively , Hygrophoropsis is a widespread genus , found in both Northern and Southern Hemispheres . Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca is the most widely distributed species , found on several continents . The other species are not well @-@ known and have more limited ranges . Fruit bodies grow on the ground in woodlands , on moss , and peat , and on woodchips . Hygrophoropsis is a saprophytic genus , and causes brown rot in the wood it colonises . Some species may be facultatively mycorrhizal .
Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca secretes large amounts of oxalic acid — a reducing agent and relatively strong acid — into the soil around its woody substrate . This chemical stimulates weathering of the humus layer of forest soil , as the organic matter in soil breaks down into smaller molecules . This influences the solubility and turnover of nutrients ( particularly phosphorus and nitrogen ) , which in turn affects their availability for use by forest trees .
= = Species = =
A 2008 estimate in the Dictionary of the Fungi placed five species in the genus . As of November 2015 , Index Fungorum accepts 16 species in Hygrophoropsis :
Hygrophorus pallidus , recorded by Charles Horton Peck in 1902 , is considered by mycologist Thomas Kuyper to be not validly published and " better regarded as a nomen confusum " , a taxonomic opinion corroborated by Geoffrey Kibby . Now considered the type species for the genus Aphroditeola , A. olida was formerly classified in Hygrophoropsis , but it lacks dextrinoid basidiospores , and phylogenetically it is classified in the Agaricales . Other species formerly placed in Hygrophoropsis but since transferred to other genera include : H. stevensonii ( Berk . & Broome ) Corner 1966 ( now Gerronema stevensonii ) ; H. albida ( Fr . ) Maire 1933 ( now Gerronema albidum ) ; H. umbonata ( J.F.Gmel. ) Kühner & Romagn . 1953 ( now Cantharellula umbonata ) ; and H. umbriceps ( Cooke ) McNabb 1969 ( now Cantharellus umbriceps ) .
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= Air Norway =
Air Norway AS is a virtual , regional airline with its head office in the town of Brekstad , the administrative centre of the municipality of Ørland , in Sør @-@ Trøndelag county , Norway . It operates seven round trips a week from its hub at Ørland Airport to Oslo Airport , Gardermoen , and a single , weekly round trip from Oslo to Aalborg Airport , Denmark , using a wet leased Fairchild Metro aircraft from North Flying . The airline was established in 2003 . Following the bankruptcy of Coast Air in January 2008 , the airline stepped in and was serving Fagernes Airport , Leirin with two daily flights to Oslo , and one daily flight to Trondheim , but these were terminated in 2009 .
= = Operations = =
The airline is owned 40 % by Nordic Air , 40 % by the Municipality of Ørland and 20 % by North Flying . All operations are flown by North Flying , who operate a 19 @-@ seat Fairchild Metro 23 in Air Norway livery . The municipality subsidizes the route with NOK 1 million per year . The company has a managing director in a 20 % position , plus one person who coordinates booking on an hourly basis . In 2008 , the airline had a revenue of NOK 16 million and made NOK 800 @,@ 000 in profit . Ørland Airport is the civilian section of the military Ørland Main Air Station . Traditionally , the main customer group for Air Norway has been military personnel .
= = Destinations = =
The airline operates seven weekly round trips from Ørland to Oslo , with weekday flights leaving Ørland at 7 : 40 and returning from Oslo at 18 : 00 . No flights are made on Saturdays , but there are two round trips to Oslo on Friday , and to Ørland on Sunday . A single , weekly round trip is made to Aalborg from Oslo , leaving on Friday evening and returning Sunday afternoon .
= = History = =
Air Norway was founded in 2003 by Gunnar Hagsveen . Scheduled services from Ørland to Oslo commenced on 23 May 2003 . The company had originally planned to also operate aircraft between Ørland and Bodø Airport , to two main air stations of the Norwegian Air Force , but these plans were abandoned . Just after the route commenced , the owner became seriously ill , and marketing and sales efforts were neglected , causing a less @-@ than @-@ predicted cabin load . Hagsveen died on 26 December , and his heirs encouraged local businesses to purchase shares in the company . Air Norway commenced weekly flights from Oslo to Aalborg Airport in Denmark from 31 January 2004 . In February 2004 , the company received a loan for NOK 650 @,@ 000 from the municipality to operate pay off other debt . At the same time , the airline was sold to Sven Rosenvinge .
By 2005 , the airline was still losing money . On 21 February , the Municipality of Ørland bought shares for NOK 1 million , while North Flying bought the remaining half of the company . Mayor Hallgeir Grøntvedt ( Center Party ) stated that while it was a risky investment for a municipality with limited budget , the airline was of great strategic importance for Ørland and Fosen . When the European Union introduced new security rules for airports from 1 January 2005 , Ørland Airport was exempt , because of the small size of the aircraft . By April , the airport had received notice that 100 % security control would still have to be introduced , costing the municipality NOK 465 @,@ 000 per year . At the same time , Air Norway was still losing money , and applied to the municipality to not be charged landing fees at the airport . When this was granted , it saved the company NOK 540 @,@ 000 per year . In July , Air Norway transported its 10,000th passenger and signed a new contract with the Air Force , which was responsible for more than half the ridership . In November , the administration of the airline was moved from Drammen to Ørland and Fosen Næringshage . Snorre Hvitsand was then hired as managing director .
In 2006 , the company experienced a 40 % passenger growth , and from 6 September , Air Norway also introduced services on Wednesday . The same year , the municipality started a NOK 1 @.@ 8 million upgrade to the airport . When it opened on 3 September 2007 , it became an international airport and allowed transit for passengers to Aalborg , plus increased security and a general renovation of the terminal building from 1978 .
Following the bankruptcy of Coast Air in January 2008 , Air Norway and North Flying were awarded an interim contract to operate the route from Fagernes to Oslo , with subsidies from the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications . At the same time , the airline started a route from Fagernes to Trondheim Airport , Værnes . In March , they won the public service obligation ( PSO ) contract , granting them the route until 31 March 2009 . During the first half of 2008 , ridership at Fagernes Airport was reduced by 27 @.@ 3 % , compared with the first half of the previous year . From 1 April 2009 , the Fagernes PSO contract was lost to DOT LT , and Air Norway terminated those routes .
In 2009 , Air Norway lost 1 @,@ 300 passengers after the Norwegian Air Force decided to not permit their employees to travel from Ørland , but instead have to take cheaper flights from Trondheim , located about a two @-@ hour drive away . The reduction in ridership , along with a strengthening of the Danish krone in relation to the Norwegian , caused Air Norway to lose NOK 100 @,@ 000 by August 2009 . The mayor of Ørland stated at that he was working to make the route receive state grants as a PSO . In February 2010 , the municipality granted NOK 62 @,@ 500 for Air Norway to run a television commercial during the semi @-@ final of Melodi Grand Prix .
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= Bath Abbey =
The Abbey Church of Saint Peter and Saint Paul , Bath , commonly known as Bath Abbey , is an Anglican parish church and a former Benedictine monastery in Bath , Somerset , England . Founded in the 7th century , Bath Abbey was reorganised in the 10th century and rebuilt in the 12th and 16th centuries ; major restoration work was carried out by Sir George Gilbert Scott in the 1860s . It is one of the largest examples of Perpendicular Gothic architecture in the West Country .
The church is cruciform in plan , and is able to seat 1200 . An active place of worship , with hundreds of congregation members and hundreds of thousands of visitors each year , it is used for religious services , secular civic ceremonies , concerts and lectures . The choir performs in the abbey and elsewhere . There is a heritage museum in the vaults .
The abbey is a Grade I listed building , particularly noted for its fan vaulting . It contains war memorials for the local population and monuments to several notable people , in the form of wall and floor plaques and commemorative stained glass . The church has two organs and a peal of ten bells . The west front includes sculptures of angels climbing to heaven on two stone ladders .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
In 675 Osric , King of the Hwicce , granted the Abbess Berta 100 hides near Bath for the establishment of a convent . This religious house became a monastery under the patronage of the Bishop of Worcester . King Offa of Mercia successfully wrested " that most famous monastery at Bath " from the bishop in 781 . William of Malmesbury tells that Offa rebuilt the monastic church , which may have occupied the site of an earlier pagan temple , to such a standard that King Eadwig was moved to describe it as being " marvellously built " ; little is known about the architecture of this first building on the site . Monasticism in England had declined by that time , but Eadwig 's brother Edgar ( who was crowned " King of the English " at the abbey in 973 ) began its revival on his accession to the throne in 959 . He encouraged monks to adopt the Rule of Saint Benedict , which was introduced at Bath under Abbot Ælfheah ( St. Alphege ) .
= = = Norman Conquest to the Dissolution = = =
Bath was ravaged in the power struggle between the sons of William the Conqueror following his death in 1087 . The victor , William II Rufus , granted the city to a royal physician , John of Tours , who became Bishop of Wells and Abbot of Bath . Shortly after his consecration John bought Bath Abbey 's grounds from the king , as well as the city of Bath itself . Whether John paid Rufus for the city or whether he was given it as a gift by the king is unclear . The abbey had recently lost its abbot , Ælfsige , and according to Domesday Book was the owner of large estates in and near the city ; it was likely the abbey 's wealth that attracted John to take over the monastery . By acquiring Bath , John also acquired the mint that was in the city . In 1090 he transferred the seat , or administration , of the bishopric to Bath Abbey , probably in an attempt to increase the revenues of his see . Bath was a rich abbey , and Wells had always been a poor diocese . By taking over the abbey , John increased his episcopal revenues . William of Malmesbury portrays the moving of the episcopal seat as motivated by a desire for the lands of the abbey , but it was part of a pattern at the time of moving cathedral seats from small villages to larger towns . When John moved his episcopal seat , he also took over the abbey of Bath as his cathedral chapter , turning his diocese into a bishopric served by monks instead of the canons at Wells who had previously served the diocese . John rebuilt the monastic church at Bath , which had been damaged during one of Robert de Mowbray 's rebellions . Permission was given to move the see of Somerset from Wells – a comparatively small settlement – to the then walled city of Bath .
When this was effected in 1090 , John became the first Bishop of Bath , and St Peter 's was raised to cathedral status . As the roles of bishop and abbot had been combined , the monastery became a priory , run by its prior . With the elevation of the abbey to cathedral status , it was felt that a larger , more up @-@ to @-@ date building was required . John of Tours planned a new cathedral on a grand scale , dedicated to Saint Peter and Saint Paul , but only the ambulatory was complete when he died in December 1122 . He was buried in the cathedral . The most renowned scholar monk based in the abbey was Adelard of Bath ; after his various travels he was back in the monastery by 1106 .
The half @-@ finished cathedral was devastated by fire in 1137 , but work continued under Godfrey , the new bishop , until about 1156 ; the completed building was approximately 330 feet ( 101 m ) long . It was consecrated while Robert of Bath was bishop . The specific date is not known however it was between 1148 and 1161 .
In 1197 , Reginald Fitz Jocelin 's successor , Savaric FitzGeldewin , with the approval of Pope Celestine III , officially moved his seat to Glastonbury Abbey , but the monks there would not accept their new Bishop of Glastonbury and the title of Bishop of Bath and Glastonbury was used until the Glastonbury claim was abandoned in 1219 . Savaric 's successor , Jocelin of Wells , again moved the bishop 's seat to Bath Abbey , with the title Bishop of Bath . Following his death the monks of Bath unsuccessfully attempted to regain authority over Wells . There were 40 monks on the roll in 1206 .
Joint cathedral status was awarded by Pope Innocent IV to Bath and Wells in 1245 . Roger of Salisbury was appointed the first Bishop of Bath and Wells , having been Bishop of Bath for a year previously . Later bishops preferred Wells , the canons of which had successfully petitioned various popes down the years for Wells to regain cathedral status . Bath Cathedral gradually fell into disrepair . In 1485 the priory had 22 monks . When Oliver King , Bishop of Bath and Wells 1495 – 1503 , visited Bath in 1499 he was shocked to find this famous church in ruins . He also described lax discipline , idleness and a group of monks " all too eager to succumb to the temptations of the flesh " .
King took a year to consider what action to take , before writing to the Prior of Bath in October 1500 to explain that a large amount of the priory income would be dedicated to rebuilding the cathedral . There are several stories that , on a visit to Bath , King had a dream in which he " saw the Heavenly Host on high with angels ascending and descending by ladder " which is now represented on the west front of the cathedral . However this interpretation , which first appeared in the writings of John Harington , around 100 years after it was supposed to have happened , has been challenged .
Robert and William Vertue , the king 's masons were commissioned , promising to build the finest vault in England , promising " there shall be none so goodely neither in England nor France " . Their design incorporated the surviving Norman crossing wall and arches . They appointed Thomas Lynne to supervise work on site and work probably began the following spring . Oliver King planned a smaller church , covering the area of the Norman nave only . He did not live to see the result , but the restoration of the cathedral was completed just a few years before the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1539 .
= = = Reformation and subsequent decline = = =
Prior Holloway surrendered Bath Priory to the crown in January 1539 . It was sold to Humphry Colles of Taunton . The church was stripped of lead , iron and glass and left to decay . Colles sold it to Matthew Colthurst of Wardour Castle in 1543 . His son Edmund Colthurst gave the roofless remains of the building to the corporation of Bath in 1572 . The corporation had difficulty finding private funds for its restoration .
In 1574 , Queen Elizabeth I promoted the restoration of the church , to serve as the grand parish church of Bath . She ordered that a national fund should be set up to finance the work , and in 1583 decreed that it should become the parish church of Bath . James Montague , the Bishop of Bath and Wells from 1608 – 1616 , paid £ 1 @,@ 000 for a new nave roof of timber lath construction ; according to the inscription on his tomb , this was prompted after seeking shelter in the roofless nave during a thunderstorm . He is buried in an alabaster tomb in the north aisle .
= = = Modern renaissance = = =
During the 1820s and 1830s buildings , including houses , shops and taverns which were very close to or actually touching the walls of the abbey were demolished and the interior remodelled by George Phillips Manners who was the Bath City Architect . Manners erected flying buttresses to the exterior of the nave and added pinnacles to the turrets .
Major restoration work was carried out by Sir George Gilbert Scott in the 1860s , funded by the rector , Charles Kemble . The work included the installation of fan vaulting in the nave , which was not merely a fanciful aesthetic addition but a completion of the original design . Oliver King had arranged for the vaulting of the choir , to a design by William and Robert Vertue . There are clues in the stonework that King intended the vaulting to continue into the nave , but that this plan was abandoned , probably for reasons of cost . In addition a stone screen between the choir and nave was removed . Scott 's work was completed by his pupil Thomas Graham Jackson in the 1890s including work on the west front .
Work carried out in the 20th and 21st centuries included full cleaning of the stonework and the reconstruction of the pipe organ by Klais Orgelbau of Bonn . The stonework of the west front had been subject to natural erosion therefore a process of lime @-@ based conservation was carried out during the 1990s by Nimbus Conservation under the guidance of Professor Robert Baker who had previously worked on the west front of Wells Cathedral . Some of the damage to sculptures had been made worse by the use of Portland cement by previous work carried out in the Victorian era . A statue of St Phillip was beyond repair and was removed and replaced with a modern statue by Laurence Tindall .
= = Architecture = =
The new church is not a typical example of the Perpendicular form of Gothic architecture ; the low aisles and nave arcades and the very tall clerestory present the opposite balance to that which was usual in perpendicular churches . As this building was to serve as a monastic church , it was built to a cruciform plan , which had become relatively rare in parish churches of the time . The interior contains fine fan vaulting by Robert and William Vertue , who designed similar vaulting for the Henry VII chapel , at Westminster Abbey . The building has 52 windows , occupying about 80 % of the wall space , giving the interior an impression of lightness , and reflecting the different attitudes towards churchmanship shown by the clergy of the time and those of the 12th century .
The cruciform abbey is built of Bath stone , which gives the exterior its yellow colour . It is an atypical example of the Perpendicular form of Gothic architecture , with low aisles and nave arcades and a tall clerestory . The walls and roofs are supported by buttresses and surmounted by battlements , pinnacles and pierced parapets , many of which were added by George Manners during his 1830 's restorations .
The nave , which has five bays , is 211 feet ( 64 m ) long and 35 feet ( 11 m ) wide to the pillars and rises to 75 feet ( 23 m ) , with the whole church being 225 feet ( 69 m ) long and 80 feet ( 24 m ) wide .
The west front , which was originally constructed in 1520 , has a large arched window and detailed carvings . Above the window are carvings of angels and to either side long stone ladders with angels climbing up them . Apart from the story mentioned above connecting it with Oliver King , Bishop of Bath and Wells 1495 – 1503 this is a direct reference to the dream of the prophet Jacob mentioned in the Bible and commonly called Jacobs Ladder .
Below the window a battlemented parapet supports a statue and beneath this , on either side of the door , are statues of St Peter and St Paul . Restoration work in the late 20th century involved cleaning with electronically controlled intermittent water sprays and ammonium carbonate poultices . One of the figures which had lost its head and shoulders was replaced . The sculptures on the West front have been interpreted as representing " spiritual ascent through the virtue of humility and descent through the vice of pride " and Christ as the Man of Sorrow and the Antichrist . During the 1990s a major restoration and cleaning work were carried out on the exterior stonework , returning it to the yellow colour hidden under centuries of dirt .
= = = Windows = = =
The building has 52 windows , occupying about 80 percent of the wall space . The east end has a square @-@ framed window of seven lights . It includes a depiction of the nativity made by Clayton and Bell in 1872 , and was presented to the church by the Bath Literary Club .
The window of the Four Evangelists over the northwest door is a memorial to Charles Empson , who died in 1861 .
In 2010 a stained glass window was uncovered in the abbey vaults . The design around the window is by William Burges .
= = = Tower = = =
The two @-@ stage central tower is not square but oblong in plan . It has two bell openings on each side and four polygonal turret pinnacles . The tower is 161 feet ( 49 m ) high , and is accessed by a staircase of 212 steps .
= = = = Bells = = = =
In 1700 the old ring of six bells was replaced by a new ring of eight . All but the tenor still survive . In 1770 two lighter bells were added to create the first ring of ten bells in the diocese . The tenor was recast in 1870 . The abbey 's tower is now home to a ring of ten bells , which are – unusually – hung so that the order of the bells from highest to lowest runs anti @-@ clockwise around the ringing chamber . The tenor weighs 33 cwt ( 3 @,@ 721 lb or 1 @,@ 688 kg ) . Bath is a noted centre of change ringing in the West Country .
= = = Interior = = =
The interior fan vaulting ceiling , originally installed by Robert and William Vertue , was restored by Sir George Gilbert Scott between 1864 and 1874 . The fan vaulting provides structural stability by distributing the weight of the roof down ribs that transfer the force into the supporting columns via the flying buttresses .
Scott 's work in the 1870s included the installation of large gas chandeliers made by the Coventry metalworker Francis Skidmore . They were converted to electricity in 1979 . Other new features included a new pulpit and seating . A marble altarpiece from General George Wade in the sanctuary was removed and replaced with a decorative reredos .
In the 1920s Thomas Graham Jackson redesigned the Norman Chapel into a War Memorial Chapel , now Gethsemane Chapel , and added a cloister . New quire screens were installed in 2004 , partly to improve the acoustics , topped with 12 carved angels playing musical instruments .
= = = = Monuments = = = =
Within the abbey are 617 wall memorials and 847 floor stones . They include those dedicated to Beau Nash , Admiral Arthur Phillip ( first Governor of the colony of New South Wales , which became part of Australia after federation in 1901 ) , James Montague ( Bishop of Bath and Wells ) , Lady Waller ( wife of William Waller , a Roundhead military leader in the English Civil War ) , Elizabeth Grieve ( wife of James Grieve , physician to Elizabeth , Empress of Russia ) , Sir William Baker , John Sibthorp , Richard Hussey Bickerton , William Hoare , Richard Bickerton and US Senator William Bingham . Many of the monuments in the churchyard were carved between 1770 and 1860 by Reeves of Bath . War memorials include those commemorating the First Anglo @-@ Afghan War ( 1841 – 42 ) , the First World War ( 1914 – 18 ) , and the Second World War ( 1939 – 45 ) . The most recent memorial was installed in 1958 to commemorate Isaac Pitman , the developer of Pitman shorthand , who died in 1897 .
= = = = Main organ = = = =
The first mention of an organ in the abbey dates to 1634 , but nothing is known of that instrument . The first properly recorded organ in Bath Abbey was built by Abraham Jordan in 1708 . It was modified in 1718 and 1739 by Jordan 's son . The specification recorded in 1800 was one of twenty stops spread over three manuals . The compasses of the manuals were extended , one and a half octaves of pedals were added and the instrument renovated in 1802 by John Holland ; further repairs were effected by Flight & Robson in 1826 . This instrument was removed first to the Bishop 's Palace at Wells in 1836 , then to St Mary 's Church , Yatton , where it was subsequently rebuilt and extensively modified .
The abbey 's next organ was built in 1836 by John Smith of Bristol , to a specification of thirty stops over three manuals and pedals . This instrument was rebuilt on a new gallery in the North Transept by William Hill & Son of London in 1868 , to a specification of forty stops spread over four manuals and pedals , although the Solo department , which would have brought the total to well over forty , was not completed . It was mostly removed to the Church of St Peter & St Paul , Cromer in 1896 , the remainder being kept for incorporation in the new abbey organ .
A new organ was supplied to the abbey in 1895 by Norman and Beard of Norwich . It had 52 stops spread over four manuals and pedals , and stood divided on two steel beams in the North and South crossing arches , with the console standing on the floor next to the north @-@ west pier of the crossing . New cases were to be provided to designs by Brian Oliver of Bath , but were never executed . Norman & Beard re @-@ erected it in a new case designed by Sir Thomas Jackson in the North Transept in 1914 , with the addition of two stops to the Pedal . It was again rebuilt by them in 1930 , and then by Hill , Norman and Beard in 1948 , which brought the number of stops to 58 . In 1972 this was increased to a total of 65 speaking stops . The Positive division , with its separate case behind the console , was installed at the same time . Problems caused by the tonal scheme 's lack of coherence – the 1895 pipework contrasting sharply with that of 1972 – and with reliability , caused by the wide variety of different types of key actions , all difficult to access , led to the decision to have the instrument rebuilt yet again .
The organ was totally reconstructed in 1997 by Klais Orgelbau of Bonn , retaining the existing instrument as far as was possible and restoring it largely to its 1895 condition , although the Positive division was kept . The instrument as it now stands has 63 speaking stops over four manuals and pedals , and is built largely on the Werkprinzip principle of organ layout : the case is only one department deep , except for parts of the Pedal sited at the back rather than the sides of the case . New 75 percent tin front pipes were made and the case completed with back , side walls and roof . Pierced panelling executed by Derek Riley of Lyndale Woodcarving in Saxmundham , Suffolk , was provided to allow sound egress from the bottom of the case . The old console has been retained but thoroughly rebuilt with modern accessories and all @-@ new manuals . Twenty @-@ two of the organ 's 83 ranks contain some pipework from the 1868 instrument . Four ranks are made up entirely of 1868 pipework , and 21 contain 1895 pipework . Only two ranks are entirely of 1895 . Forty @-@ eight ranks contain some new pipework , 34 of which are entirely new . Old wind pressures have been used wherever possible . The old wind reservoirs have also been restored rather than replaced . The instrument has tracker key action on the manuals , with electrically assisted tracker action to the pedals . The stop action is electric throughout .
= = = = Continuo organ = = = =
A four @-@ stop continuo organ was built for the abbey in 1999 by Northampton @-@ based organ builder Kenneth Tickell . The instrument , contained in a case of dark oak , is portable , and can be tuned to three pitches : A = 440 Hz ( modern concert pitch ) , A = 415 Hz and A = 465 Hz . Iit is also possible to tune at A = 430 . A lever pedal can reduce the stops sounding to only the 8 ' stop and , when released , returns the organ to the registration in use before it was depressed .
= = Choir = =
The abbey has sections for boys , girls , men and children ( the Melody Makers ) . As well as singing at the abbey , they also tour to cathedrals in the UK and Europe . The choir has broadcast Choral Evensong on BBC Radio 3 , and has made several recordings . It performed at the Three Tenors concert for the opening of the Thermae Bath Spa . The abbey is also used as a venue for visiting choirs and , from its inception in 1947 , the City of Bath Bach Choir .
The choirs of Bath Abbey sung the 2015 Christmas Service live on BBC One .
= = Heritage Vaults Museum = =
The Bath Abbey Heritage Vaults Museum is located in the restored 18th @-@ century cellars , and features artifacts and exhibits about the abbey 's history . Displays include the different buildings on the site and their uses , the abbey 's impact on the community , the construction , architecture and sculptures of the buildings , artifacts and sculptures , and the role of the abbey in present times . The museum opened in 1994 , but is currently closed for redevelopment .
= = Burials = =
William Bingham ( 1752 – 1804 )
Wolfran Cornewall ( 1658 – 1720 )
Thomas Robert Malthus ( 1766 – 1834 )
James Montague ( c.1568 – 1618 )
John Sibthorp ( 1758 – 1796 )
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= Route 54 ( Delaware – Maryland ) =
Delaware Route 54 ( DE 54 ) and Maryland Route 54 ( MD 54 ) are adjoining state highways in the U.S. states of Delaware and Maryland . Route 54 runs 41 @.@ 84 mi ( 67 @.@ 33 km ) from MD 313 in Mardela Springs , Maryland east to DE 1 in Fenwick Island , Delaware . In addition to two segments in which the highway is completely in Delaware and two segments in which the highway is completely in Maryland , Route 54 follows the Delaware / Maryland state line between the twin towns of Delmar , Maryland and Delmar , Delaware and the highway 's intersection with MD 353 and DE 26 . One section of the state line portion of Route 54 is maintained by the Delaware Department of Transportation ( DelDOT ) while three sections of the highway that follow the state line are maintained by the Maryland State Highway Administration ( MDSHA ) .
Route 54 was first numbered in two segments in Wicomico County , Maryland in the late 1930s . MD 467 was assigned to the segment around Mardela Springs while MD 455 was assigned to the state line road near Delmar . The Delaware portions of the highway remained unnumbered until the late 1960s , when DelDOT briefly assigned DE 32 to the highway along the southern edge of Sussex County before designating it DE 54 . The Maryland State Roads Commission ( now MDSHA ) immediately reciprocated by designating its portions MD 54 . Route 54 east of Selbyville has become an important route for seasonal beach traffic headed to and from Fenwick Island and Ocean City , with suburban development lining the road between DE 20 and the eastern terminus . DelDOT has signed DE 54 Alternate ( DE 54 Alt . ) as an alternate route to the beaches . Improvements have been made to the route west of Fenwick Island , including building a causeway to reduce flooding and adding a center left @-@ turn lane .
= = Route description = =
Route 54 begins at an intersection with MD 313 in Mardela Springs in Wicomico County , Maryland . MD 313 heads north from the intersection as Sharptown Road and west as a short continuation of Delmar Road west to MD 313 's terminus with U.S. Route 50 ( US 50 ) ( Ocean Gateway ) . Route 54 heads east as two @-@ lane undivided Delmar Road , paralleling Barren Creek on the north toward the Delaware state line . After passing the stone marker indicating the intersection of the Transpeninsular Line with the southern end of the Mason – Dixon Line , the highway enters the southwest corner of Sussex County , Delaware , where it intersects Columbia Road . Route 54 continues east until Old Racetrack Road , where the highway turns southeast toward the state line . At the intersection with Waller Road , the state highway begins to follow the state line , with Sussex County , Delaware on the north side of the road and Wicomico County , Maryland on the south , and MDSHA maintenance begins . Route 54 immediately enters the twin towns of Delmar , Delaware and Delmar , Maryland and the highway 's name changes to State Street . The highway crosses Norfolk Southern Railway 's Delmarva Secondary track south of Highball Signal and meets MD 675 ( Bi State Boulevard ) , the old alignment of US 13 , in the center of the towns . Route 54 continues east to modern US 13 , which is known as Sussex Highway in Delaware and Ocean Highway in Maryland . At US 13 , the highway leaves Delmar and DelDOT assumes maintenance for the highway .
Route 54 continues east from US 13 as Line Road through farmland and scattered residences along the state line . At Brittingham Road , maintenance jurisdiction returns to MDSHA . Around the intersection with Whitesville Road , Route 54 dips into Maryland for a short distance , then returns to following the state line until the intersection with MD 353 ( Gumboro Road ) and DE 26 ( Millsboro Highway ) . At that intersection , Route 54 turns northeast and joins DE 26 in a concurrency . From this point , the highway remains in Delaware . A short distance north of the state line , DE 30 ( Whitesville Road ) joins the concurrency . In Gumboro , DE 26 and DE 30 continue north while Route 54 turns east onto Cypress Road . Route 54 crosses Bald Cypress Branch and the Pocomoke River , then passes through the Great Cypress Swamp . After crossing the swamp , the highway intersects US 113 on the west edge of Selbyville .
Route 54 continues east into Selbyville as Cemetery Road and crosses the Snow Hill Line of the Maryland and Delaware Railroad . The highway turns south into Main Street to pass through the central business district . After intersecting the southern terminus of DE 17 ( Bethany Road ) , Route 54 turns east onto Lighthouse Road . In the hamlet of Bunting , the highway intersects DE 54 Alt . ( Bunting Road ) , an alternate route from Selbyville to Bethany Beach . Route 54 begins to pass beach @-@ related suburban development as the highway intersects the east end of DE 20 ( Zion Church Road ) . Past this intersection , the route gains a center left @-@ turn lane and continues past more development . As the highway approaches Fenwick Island , it becomes two lanes again and crosses two tidal ponds on an elevated causeway before it crosses The Ditch between Assawoman Bay to the south and Little Assawoman Bay to the north . After passing to the north of the Fenwick Island Light , Route 54 reaches its eastern terminus at DE 1 ( Coastal Highway ) in Fenwick Island , one block west of the Atlantic Ocean and one block north of Ocean City on the other side of the state line .
Route 54 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 14 @,@ 866 vehicles at the Old Stage Road intersection in Delmar to a low of 1 @,@ 464 vehicles at the Parker Road intersection west of Selbyville . None of Route 54 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 , what is now Route 54 in Delaware existed as an unpaved county road . The portion of the current route along Millsboro Highway was proposed as a state highway by 1925 . This segment of state highway was completed by 1931 , along with the portions from south of Columbia to a point along the state line to the east of Delmar and between Selbyville and Williamsville . A portion of the route along the state line east of Delmar was paved as a county road . On July 1 , 1935 , the county @-@ maintained portions of the road in Delaware were taken over by the state . By 1936 , the roadway was paved between Williamsville and Fenwick Island . A portion of road to the west of Selbyville was paved by 1939 . By 1942 , the remainder of the road in Delaware between the Maryland border and south of Columbia and Gumboro and Selbyville were paved .
The first non @-@ concurrent portions of Route 54 to be numbered were in Maryland in 1939 , when MD 467 was marked on the portion around Mardela Springs and MD 455 was marked on the portion around Delmar , which extended from where Waller Road fully enters Maryland east to Brittingham Road . The portion of road between Brittingham Road and MD 353 was county @-@ maintained . MD 455 was extended east from Brittingham Road to DE 26 in 1958 . In 1968 , DE 32 was assigned to the entire highway within Delaware ; the Maryland sections were still marked as MD 467 and MD 455 . The whole highway was marked as Route 54 in 1969 . In addition to the concurrencies with DE 26 and DE 30 , Route 54 has been concurrent with DE 20 . DE 20 was extended east of Dagsboro to terminate in Fenwick Island along with Route 54 by 1994 . DE 20 's eastern terminus was rolled back to its present location in 2005 . In September 2001 , construction began to build an elevated causeway for Route 54 to the west of Fenwick Island in order to prevent flooding from high tides and storms . The project involved building the new causeway to the north of the original alignment , using pre @-@ cast concrete segments . The project , which cost over $ 15 million , was slated to be finished in August 2003 . In 2010 , a $ 10 million project began to add a center left @-@ turn lane along with bike lanes and sidewalks to the portion of Route 54 between DE 20 and Mallard Lakes , a section of road that was targeted for safety improvements due to rapid development ; this project was completed in 2012 .
= = Major intersections = =
DE 54 officially has a length of 38 @.@ 59 mi ( 62 @.@ 10 km ) and MD 54 officially has a length of 19 @.@ 79 mi ( 31 @.@ 85 km ) . Both of these figures include a 16 @.@ 54 mi ( 26 @.@ 62 km ) overlap between the first and last crossings of the state line .
= = Bannered routes = =
Delaware Route 54 Alternate ( DE 54 Alt . ) is an alternate route of DE 54 between Bunting and DE 26 in Bethany Beach . The alternate route heads northeast from DE 54 on two @-@ lane undivided Johnson Road , passing through a mix of farmland and woodland . Upon crossing DE 20 , DE 54 Alt. continues north along Bayard Road through more rural areas , passing through the community of Bayard . The route turns east onto Double Bridges Road and continues northeast through forested areas along with a few residential subdivisions . DE 54 Alt. turns east onto Kent Avenue and crosses the Assawoman Canal , where it curves north and passes residential development before ending at DE 26 at Bethany Beach . DE 54 Alt. was designated by 2006 .
Major intersections
The entire route is in Sussex County .
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= Receptor antagonist =
A receptor antagonist is a type of receptor ligand or drug that blocks or dampens agonist @-@ mediated responses rather than provoking a biological response itself upon binding to a receptor . They are sometimes called blockers ; examples include alpha blockers , beta blockers , and calcium channel blockers . In pharmacology , antagonists have affinity but no efficacy for their cognate receptors , and binding will disrupt the interaction and inhibit the function of an agonist or inverse agonist at receptors . Antagonists mediate their effects by binding to the active orthosteric ( = right place ) site or to allosteric ( = other place ) sites on receptors , or they may interact at unique binding sites not normally involved in the biological regulation of the receptor 's activity . Antagonist activity may be reversible or irreversible depending on the longevity of the antagonist – receptor complex , which , in turn , depends on the nature of antagonist – receptor binding . The majority of drug antagonists achieve their potency by competing with endogenous ligands or substrates at structurally defined binding sites on receptors .
= = Receptors = =
Biochemical receptors are large protein molecules that can be activated by the binding of a ligand ( such as a hormone or drug ) . Receptors can be membrane @-@ bound , occurring on the cell membrane , or intracellular , such as on the nucleus or mitochondrion . Binding occurs as a result of noncovalent interaction between the receptor and its ligand , at locations called the binding site on the receptor . A receptor may contain one or more binding sites for different ligands . Binding to the active site on the receptor regulates receptor activation directly . The activity of receptors can also be regulated by the binding of a ligand to other sites on the receptor , as in allosteric binding sites . Antagonists mediate their effects through receptor interactions by preventing agonist @-@ induced responses . This may be accomplished by binding to the active site or the allosteric site . In addition , antagonists may interact at unique binding sites not normally involved in the biological regulation of the receptor 's activity to exert their effects .
The term antagonist was originally coined to describe different profiles of drug effects . The biochemical definition of a receptor antagonist was introduced by Ariens and Stephenson in the 1950s . The current accepted definition of receptor antagonist is based on the receptor occupancy model . It narrows the definition of antagonism to consider only those compounds with opposing activities at a single receptor . Agonists were thought to turn " on " a single cellular response by binding to the receptor , thus initiating a biochemical mechanism for change within a cell . Antagonists were thought to turn " off " that response by ' blocking ' the receptor from the agonist . This definition also remains in use for physiological antagonists , substances that have opposing physiological actions , but act at different receptors . For example , histamine lowers arterial pressure through vasodilation at the histamine H1 receptor , while adrenaline raises arterial pressure through vasoconstriction mediated by alpha @-@ adrenergic receptor activation .
Our understanding of the mechanism of drug @-@ induced receptor activation and receptor theory and the biochemical definition of a receptor antagonist continues to evolve . The two @-@ state model of receptor activation has given way to multistate models with intermediate conformational states . The discovery of functional selectivity and that ligand @-@ specific receptor conformations occur and can affect interaction of receptors with different second messenger systems may mean that drugs can be designed to activate some of the downstream functions of a receptor but not others . This means efficacy may actually depend on where that receptor is expressed , altering the view that efficacy at a receptor is receptor @-@ independent property of a drug .
= = Pharmacodynamics = =
= = = Efficacy and potency = = =
By definition , antagonists display no efficacy to activate the receptors they bind . Antagonists do not maintain the ability to activate a receptor . Once bound , however , antagonists inhibit the function of agonists , inverse agonists , and partial agonists . In functional antagonist assays , a dose @-@ response curve measures the effect of the ability of a range of concentrations of antagonists to reverse the activity of an agonist . The potency of an antagonist is usually defined by its EC50 value . This can be calculated for a given antagonist by determining the concentration of antagonist needed to elicit half inhibition of the maximum biological response of an agonist . Elucidating an EC50 value is useful for comparing the potency of drugs with similar efficacies , however the dose @-@ response curves produced by both drug antagonists must be similar . The lower the EC50 the greater the potency of the antagonist , and the lower the concentration of drug that is required to inhibit the maximum biological response . Lower concentrations of drugs may be associated with fewer side @-@ effects .
= = = Affinity = = =
The affinity of an antagonist for its binding site ( Ki ) , i.e. its ability to bind to a receptor , will determine the duration of inhibition of agonist activity . The affinity of an antagonist can be determined experimentally using Schild regression or for competitive antagonists in radioligand binding studies using the Cheng @-@ Prusoff equation . Schild regression can be used to determine the nature of antagonism as beginning either competitive or non @-@ competitive and Ki determination is independent of the affinity , efficacy or concentration of the agonist used . However , it is important that equilibrium has been reached . The effects of receptor desensitization on reaching equilibrium must also be taken into account . The affinity constant of antagonists exhibiting two or more effects , such as in competitive neuromuscular @-@ blocking agents that also block ion channels as well as antagonising agonist binding , cannot be analyzed using Schild regression . Schild regression involves comparing the change in the dose ratio , the ratio of the EC50 of an agonist alone compared to the EC50 in the presence of a competitive antagonist as determined on a dose response curve . Altering the amount of antagonist used in the assay can alter the dose ratio . In Schild regression , a plot is made of the log ( dose ratio @-@ 1 ) versus the log concentration of antagonist for a range of antagonist concentrations . The affinity or Ki is where the line cuts the x @-@ axis on the regression plot . Whereas , with Schild regression , antagonist concentration is varied in experiments used to derive Ki values from the Cheng @-@ Prusoff equation , agonist concentrations are varied . Affinity for competitive agonists and antagonists is related by the Cheng @-@ Prusoff factor used to calculate the Ki ( affinity constant for an antagonist ) from the shift in IC50 that occurs during competitive inhibition . The Cheng @-@ Prusoff factor takes into account the effect of altering agonist concentration and agonist affinity for the receptor on inhibition produced by competitive antagonists .
= = Types = =
= = = Competitive = = =
Competitive antagonists ( also known as surmountable antagonists ) reversibly bind to receptors at the same binding site ( active site ) as the endogenous ligand or agonist , but without activating the receptor . Agonists and antagonists " compete " for the same binding site on the receptor . Once bound , an antagonist will block agonist binding . The level of activity of the receptor will be determined by the relative affinity of each molecule for the site and their relative concentrations . High concentrations of a competitive agonist will increase the proportion of receptors that the agonist occupies , higher concentrations of the antagonist will be required to obtain the same degree of binding site occupancy . In functional assays using competitive antagonists , a parallel rightward shifts of agonist dose – response curves with no alteration of the maximal response is observed .
The interleukin @-@ 1 receptor antagonist , IL @-@ 1Ra is an example of a competitive antagonist . The effects of a competitive antagonist may be overcome by increasing the concentration of agonist . Often ( though not always ) these antagonists possess a very similar chemical structure to that of the agonist .
= = = Non @-@ competitive = = =
The term " non @-@ competitive antagonism " ( sometimes called non @-@ surmountable antagonists ) can be used to describe two distinct phenomena : one in which the antagonist binds to the active site of the receptor , and one in which the antagonist binds to an allosteric site of the receptor . While the mechanism of antagonism is different in both of these phenomena , they are both called " non @-@ competitive " because the end @-@ results of each are functionally very similar . Unlike competitive antagonists , which affect the amount of agonist necessary to achieve a maximal response but do not affect the magnitude of that maximal response , non @-@ competitive antagonists reduce the magnitude of the maximum response that can be attained by any amount of agonist . This property earns them the name " non @-@ competitive " because their effects cannot be negated , no matter how much agonist is present . In functional assays of non @-@ competitive antagonists , depression of the maximal response of agonist dose @-@ response curves , and in some cases , rightward shifts , is produced . The rightward shift will occur as a result of a receptor reserve ( also known as spare receptors , see in pharmacodynamics ) and inhibition of the agonist response will only occur when this reserve is depleted .
An antagonist that binds to the active site of a receptor is said to be " non @-@ competitive " if the bond between the active site and the antagonist is irreversible or nearly so . This usage of the term " non @-@ competitive " may not be ideal , however , since the term " irreversible competitive antagonism " may also be used to describe the same phenomenon without the potential for confusion with the second meaning of " non @-@ competitive antagonism " discussed below .
The second form of " non @-@ competitive antagonists " act at an allosteric site . These antagonists bind to a distinctly separate binding site from the agonist , exerting their action to that receptor via the other binding site . They do not compete with agonists for binding at the active site . The bound antagonists may prevent conformational changes in the receptor required for receptor activation after the agonist binds . Cyclothiazide has been shown to act as a reversible non @-@ competitive antagonist of mGluR1 receptor .
= = = Uncompetitive = = =
Uncompetitive antagonists differ from non @-@ competitive antagonists in that they require receptor activation by an agonist before they can bind to a separate allosteric binding site . This type of antagonism produces a kinetic profile in which " the same amount of antagonist blocks higher concentrations of agonist better than lower concentrations of agonist " . Memantine , used in the treatment of Alzheimer 's disease , is an uncompetitive antagonist of the NMDA receptor .
= = = Silent antagonists = = =
Silent antagonists are competitive receptor antagonists that have zero intrinsic activity for activating a receptor . They are true antagonists , so to speak . The term was created to distinguish fully inactive antagonists from weak partial agonists or inverse agonists .
= = = Partial agonists = = =
Partial agonists are defined as drugs that , at a given receptor , might differ in the amplitude of the functional response that they elicit after maximal receptor occupancy . Although they are agonists , partial agonists can act as a competitive antagonist in the presence of a full agonist , as it competes with the full agonist for receptor occupancy , thereby producing a net decrease in the receptor activation as compared to that observed with the full agonist alone . Clinically , their usefulness is derived from their ability to enhance deficient systems while simultaneously blocking excessive activity . Exposing a receptor to a high level of a partial agonist will ensure that it has a constant , weak level of activity , whether its normal agonist is present at high or low levels . In addition , it has been suggested that partial agonism prevents the adaptive regulatory mechanisms that frequently develop after repeated exposure to potent full agonists or antagonists . Buprenorphine , a partial agonist of the μ @-@ opioid receptor , binds with weak morphine @-@ like activity and is used clinically as an analgesic in pain management and as an alternative to methadone in the treatment of opioid dependence .
= = = Inverse agonists = = =
An inverse agonist can have effects similar to those of an antagonist , but causes a distinct set of downstream biological responses . Constitutively active receptors that exhibit intrinsic or basal activity can have inverse agonists , which not only block the effects of binding agonists like a classical antagonist but also inhibit the basal activity of the receptor . Many drugs previously classified as antagonists are now beginning to be reclassified as inverse agonists because of the discovery of constitutive active receptors . Antihistamines , originally classified as antagonists of histamine H1 receptors have been reclassified as inverse agonists .
= = Reversibility = =
Many antagonists are reversible antagonists that , like most agonists , will bind and unbind a receptor at rates determined by receptor @-@ ligand kinetics .
Irreversible antagonists covalently bind to the receptor target and , in general , cannot be removed ; inactivating the receptor for the duration of the antagonist effects is determined by the rate of receptor turnover , the rate of synthesis of new receptors . Phenoxybenzamine is an example of an irreversible alpha blocker — it permanently binds to α adrenergic receptors , preventing adrenaline and noradrenaline from binding . Inactivation of receptors normally results in a depression of the maximal response of agonist dose @-@ response curves and a right shift in the curve occurs where there is a receptor reserve similar to non @-@ competitive antagonists . A washout step in the assay will usually distinguish between non @-@ competitive and irreversible antagonist drugs , as effects of non @-@ competitive antagonists are reversible and activity of agonist will be restored .
Irreversible competitive antagonists also involve competition between the agonist and antagonist of the receptor , but the rate of covalent bonding differs and depends on affinity and reactivity of the antagonist . For some antagonist , there may be a distinct period during which they behave competitively ( regardless of basal efficiacy ) , and freely associate to and dissociate from the receptor , determined by receptor @-@ ligand kinetics . But , once irreversible bonding has taken place , the receptor is deactivated and degraded . As for non @-@ competitive antagonists and irreversible antagonists in functional assays with irreversible competitive antagonist drugs , there may be a shift in the log concentration – effect curve to the right , but , in general , both a decrease in slope and a reduced maximum are obtained .
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= Aayirathil Oruvan ( 2010 film ) =
Aayirathil Oruvan ( English : One Man in a Thousand ) is a 2010 Indian Tamil adventure film wriiten and directed by Selvaraghavan in his fifth feature film . Produced by R. Ravindran , it features music composed by G. V. Prakash Kumar , cinematography by Ramji and editing by Kola Bhaskar . The film stars Karthi , Reemma Sen and Andrea Jeremiah in the lead roles with Parthiepan playing a pivotal role .
The film begins with an episode in 1279 AD , when the successor of the last great Chola Emperor , pending invasion , sends his people to a mystery location , to survive the threat . The story resumes with an archaeologist , a coolie and a member of the army going in search of the archaeologist 's father to the ruined city that was the place the exiled Chola Prince retreated to . An expedition is promptly arranged , and on the course they stumble on the lost Chola civilization and its king and find unexplained links between them and the culture . The shocking events and the problems that arise forms the crux of the story .
Aayirathil Oruvan languished in development hell due to slow progress of the shoot and the extensive pre- and post @-@ production works , evading release dates ranging one year . Shooting began in July 2007 , and took place in various locations with 2 @,@ 000 extras in areas including Chalakudy , Kerala and Jaisalmer , Rajasthan amongst other regions throughout India . Uncut , the film runs for over 220 minutes , but the theatrical release was heavily cut at 183 minutes . The film released coinciding with the festival of Thai Pongal on 14 January 2010 , with a Telugu dubbing version , titled Yuganikki Okkadu , following six weeks later . Upon release , the film received mixed reviews whilst proceeding to become a successful venture commercially .
= = Plot = =
In 1279 A.D. , the downfall of the Chola dynasty seems imminent as the Pandyas drive the Chola people out of their kingdom in southern India . To escape them and save the life of his successor the Chola emperor sends his son along with the Chola people to a secret territory . The refugees take along an idol sacred to the Pandyas , angering them . To capture the escaped Cholas and the stolen idol , the Pandyas extend their invasion to unexplored territories but cannot find them .
Centuries later , in 2009 , Indian archaeologists continue searching for the existence of the lost Chola group based on clues left by the ancient Pandyan warriors . All archaeologists who attempted to search for the secret land have disappeared . Archaeologist Chandramouli is the most recent person to have gone missing .
The Indian government organizes a search expedition led by officer Anitha to find Chandramouli and the Chola empire ; she is assisted by the Indian army led by Ravisekharan . They recruit archaeologist Lavanya , the estranged daughter of Chandramouli , because her insight is essential for the success of the expedition . She hands over crucial documents on the Chola dynasty , prepared by her father , with instructions on the route to reach the destination .
Along with the army , Anitha employs a group of porters headed by Muthu , to transport the baggage during the journey . The crew embark on their voyage leading them to an island , Min @-@ gua , near Vietnam . They face seven traps set by the Cholas : sea creatures , cannibals , warriors , snakes , hunger , quicksand and a village . Many porters and army men are killed by these traps .
Muthu , Anitha and Lavanya get separated from the others . They reach the ruins of a village where they are subjected to black magic and nearly go mad before reaching the secret hideout of the Chola . The three find an ethnic isolated primitive Tamil group , ruled by a Chola king . The king and his people are in hiding , awaiting the arrival of the fabled messenger who will bring glory and prosperity back to their land and lead them back to Thanjavur , their motherland . The king and the priest consult the gods for omens and order Muthu , Anitha and Lavanya to be burnt alive as sacrifices .
Anitha tells the king that she is the messenger sent from the homeland . Muthu and Lavanya are enslaved while Anitha is given a chance to prove herself . She tries to seduce and convince the Chola king to march towards the homeland in two days so he can be crowned properly as a king . He suspects her bona fides since none of her actions match those described by the king 's ancestors . The ancestors wrote that the messenger will be preceded by hail and following his ill @-@ treatment will eventually help the tribe .
Meanwhile , Anitha drugs the priest and poisons the water sources . She catches a glimpse of the Pandyas ' sacred idol and leaves , finally exposing her identity as a descendant of the Pandya Dynasty . For generations , her race has been trying to find the whereabouts of the Chola prince and his people . The central minister , who sponsors the expedition , is also shown to be a Pandyan . The Chola king is shattered for having believed in Anitha . Ravishekaran who has escaped the traps and is the sole survivor gets backup and a larger army after getting an information from a hypnotized follower of Anitha from the Chola kingdom . The king discovers that Muthu is the true messenger who would save the Cholas from the clutches of Anitha and the army . The priest gives all of his magical powers , like invisibility and invulnerability to Muthu and dies .
The Cholas fight bravely , but eventually lose to technology and are taken prisoners . Their women are molested and raped by the army . The king is killed and the men drown in the seas with the kings body . Muthu is able to escape and save the Chola prince . The seed of the Chola dynasty is brought back to their motherland by the messenger as prophesied .
= = Cast = =
Karthi Sivakumar as Muthu , a chief coolie working at Chennai Port , leading a very low class life alongside his fellow workers . Muthu , a die @-@ hard MGR fan , is taken on the journey and is one of the final trio who are taken into the Chola kingdom .
Reemma Sen as Anitha Pandiyan , an intelligence officer who gathers a team to investigate the disappearance of Chandramouli . Anitha is strong @-@ minded , ruthless and determined . However she nurtures a soft feeling for Muthu during the course of the journey . The film became Reemma Sen 's first attempt at parallel cinema following a series of roles in commercial projects , and her portrayal was highly appreciated by film critics .
Andrea Jeremiah as Lavanya Chandramouli , the estanged daughter of Chandramouli , who also embarks on the journey to find her father . An archaeologist by profession , Lavanya becomes the quiet tactical leader of the journey through her knowledge of the culture and the history of the Chola dynasty . Andrea Jeremiah , like Karthi , appears in her second major role for the film , also singing parts of two songs which appear in the soundtrack . During the making of the film news websites linked Andrea with the director , Selvaraghavan , albeit to the pair 's displeasure .
R. Parthiepan as Chola King , successor and last of the Chola dynasty after escaping an attack from the Pandyas . The city that the Cholas lived in perished , resulting in the city becoming haunted with Parthiepan , the head of the people . The images for the Chola King , not dated or named in the film , were kept under wraps prior to the movie 's release . Parthiepan signed for the role after much speculation that Dhanush would be selected , and his performance won plaudits from critics .
Pratap Pothan as Chandramouli , an archaeologist who went missing during a search for the Chola kingdom , prompting a manhunt . Chandramouli earlier walked out on his daughter , Lavanya , and is later found trapped in the Chola kingdom .
Azhagam Perumal as Ravisekharan , who leads the army brigade in the search for Chandramouli . Known for his exploitative and violent ways , Ravisekharan develops a mutual foe in Muthu and his fellow workers .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
After the reception to his 2006 gangster film , Pudhupettai , Selvaraghavan took a sabbatical to plan future projects and set up a production company , White Elephants , whose first project Idhu Maalai Nerathu Mayakkam started in November 2006 . The film was co @-@ produced by new producer R. Ravindran , and the first schedule began with Karthi Sivakumar , whose first film , Paruthiveeran , was awaiting release , and Sandhya . The film was stalled in early 2007 due to cinematographer Arvind Krishna 's decision to leave White Elephants and the project was eventually shelved . In July 2007 , Selvaraghavan announced a new film with a new team of Karthi and Reemma Sen in the cast , with Ramji replacing regular Arvind Krishna as the cinematographer . Erum Ali , wife of actor Abbas , became the team 's head costume designer , whilst , Selvaraghavan 's sister @-@ in @-@ law and Rajinikanth 's daughter , Aishwarya Dhanush , was signed on as an associate director . The film was named after a popular M. G. Ramachandran film , Aayirathil Oruvan . The producer was announced to be R. Ravindran whilst Yuvan Shankar Raja was appointed as music director following five previous successful soundtracks in Selvaraghavan films . Despite early indications that the director 's brother Dhanush was going to play a guest role , it became evident that the role was subsequently given to R. Parthiepan . Andrea Jeremiah was also signed for a role in the film in October 2007 , in her second film after Pachaikili Muthucharam and director @-@ actor Azhagam Perumal followed suit in November 2007 .
Nearly six months after filming began , Yuvan Shankar Raja left the project , because he could not spend as much time on this film as Selvaraghavan wanted . Subsequently , the role of the music director was handed to G. V. Prakash Kumar , for whom Aayirathil Oruvan became his biggest project to date . Rambo Rajkumar , the film 's stunt director , died in April 2009 and was posthumously praised for his action choreography . The film 's music released two months later to much appraisal in a well @-@ held audio release function . Soon after the filming finished , the lead actors moved onto other projects as did Selvaraghavan whilst post @-@ production continued . In August 2009 , Selvaraghavan divorced his wife , Sonia Agarwal with his close proximity to Andrea being a speculated cause . During the period , G. V. Prakash Kumar and Selva also worked on the music in Mumbai whilst re @-@ recording was also held in Austria and London . Towards the end of the year , the film began to announce release date of Christmas which was later further delayed to coincide with the Pongal festival . A date clash occurred with Karthi 's Paiyaa , with an eventual hearing leading to the Karthi 's latter film being delayed . Throughout December 2009 , release work began with a trailer and promotional songs being released on 13 December with Kamal Haasan and Surya Sivakumar attending as special guests . The film was subsequently censored before the end of the year by the Central Board of Film Certification and settled with an adult rating , after Selvaraghavan refused to get rid of gory scenes . On 31 December , it was announced that the film was sold worldwide for 350 million rupees for theatrical , television and other rights .
= = = Filming = = =
After extensive development and pre @-@ production which took four months for scripting , the film started the first schedule in the forests of Chalakudy in Kerala with Karthi , Reemma Sen and Andrea during October 2007 . The project developed a reputation for its gruelling shoots , a novel concept in Tamil films , at an early stage of production . Thirty @-@ five days into the shoot , Selvaraghavan gave a statement that the film was forty percent over and the film should release by May 2008 whilst also mentioning that rains in Kerala led to the budget going over expectations two months into the project . In January 2008 , the unit moved to Jaisalmer in Rajasthan to shoot in the deserts in the region , however they were delayed again by unseasonal rains . Missing its original release date , the film 's progress carried on through 2008 , with shooting occurring towards the end of the year inside sets at Ramoji Film City in Hyderabad . In the studios , choreographer Shivshankar composed a classical dance for Reemma Sen and Parthiepan , and the sequence was shot over twenty days . Shooting carried on in sets for three more months with second half scenes being recorded . Shoots in all regions were tough and demanding for the crew as the film featured more than three thousand junior artistes from a variety of unions across India , with the language barrier becoming a problem . The project , eighteen months into shoot , soon began to face questions about its progress , with the producer , Ravindran , having to complain to the Tamil Film Producers Council that Karthi was trying to change his look for his next film , Paiyaa , following the long period he had spent with Aayirathil Oruvan . In February 2009 , filming was completed after 263 days of shooting ; therefore the producers signaled for a summer release but it was postponed by six months .
When inquired by the media in regard to the long periods of shoot , whilst in production , the lead actor expressed that they were also unaware of how long the film 's shoot was going to carry on . Reemma Sen originally signed for forty days whilst Andrea signed for three months , without knowing that the film would eventually take 263 days of filming . Furthermore , Parthiepan claimed to have been signed for forty days , whilst his segment lasted up to 140 days .
= = Release = =
The satellite rights of the film were secured by Sun TV for ₹ 350 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 2 million ) .
= = = Box office = = =
Released in 600 screens worldwide , Aayirathil Oruvan was declared a " superhit " in Telugu and a " hit " in Tamil . It took the biggest opening by a considerable distance earning ₹ 7 million ( equivalent to ₹ 11 million or US $ 160 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) on its opening weekend in Chennai . In the United Kingdom , the film opened across 7 screens and grossed £ 29 @,@ 517 ( $ 44 @,@ 868 ) in the opening week . The film , distributed by Ayngaran International opened at 22nd place . The film grossed $ 340 @,@ 082 in the second week in Malaysia , after opening in seventh . Similarly , the Telugu version of the film which released on 5 February , Yuganiki Okkadu , took a strong opening . The Telugu version released across 93 screens across Andhra Pradesh and grossed ₹ 17 @.@ 8 million ( equivalent to ₹ 28 million or US $ 420 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) on its opening weekend , and ₹ 100 million ( equivalent to ₹ 160 million or US $ 2 @.@ 3 million in 2016 ) in its lifetime .
= = = Reception = = =
Upon release , the film remarkably gained mixed reviews . Sify , cited that the film represented " something new in the placid world of Tamil cinema " adding that it " broke away from the shackles of the stereotypes " . Selvaraghavan also was praised by the reviewer with claims that " the director transports us to a whole new world and at the end of it all , we are dumb stuck by the visuals , the packaging and the new way of storytelling " . Rediff.com gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 claiming that viewers should " steel your stomach before [ you ] watch it " and " regardless of the minor discrepancies , AO is definitely a movie to watch " . In contrast , Behindwoods.com gave the film 0 @.@ 5 out of 5 describing the film as " wildly crass " , dismissing that " the underdeveloped script lacks everything – starting from strong plot twists to captive locations to graphics to credibility , above all " .
= = = Critical Acclaim = = =
Though the film did bad business in the box office and gained negative reviews from critics , it garnered critical acclaim by viewers years after its release . By the next few years , it had a cult fan base . People started to appreciate the fact that it was the first Tamil movie to show Chola Dynasty 's history in motion picture . Even though the movie had not @-@ so @-@ nice graphics , it was started to be applauded for its epic storyline , screenplay and message . For the late acclaim , it was also compared to the Kamal Hassan classic Anbe Sivam .
= = Soundtrack = =
The film was launched in 2007 with Selvaraghavan 's regular music director , Yuvan Shankar Raja , following five successive successful albums together . However , Yuvan Shankar Raja was ousted from the project in March 2008 due to ' differences of opinion ' . Subsequently , G. V. Prakash Kumar was signed on for his biggest project to date and work for the soundtrack began again from scratch . The number Adada , composed by Yuvan Shankar was removed from the album after his departure , and was replaced by the similarly sounding Un Mela Aasadhan , composed by Prakash Kumar .
The soundtrack to Aayirathil Oruvan was released on 14 June 2009 at a University Auditorium in Chennai , in a critically praised event . Prominent film personalities across the South Indian film industry attended the launch , which became one of the first films to play live music at the audio launch . The launch featured live performances from G. V. Prakash Kumar and Andrea Jeremiah for several songs , as well as songs from Selvaraghavan 's brother , Dhanush , and his wife , Aishwarya Dhanush . Furthermore , the night featured a fashion show from Erum Ali , a Kalari performance , Chenda Melam by women from Kerala , a classical dance performance by actress Poorna and choreographed by Sivashankar .
The album features ten tunes ; six songs , two alternate versions and another two theme songs . The album featured vocals from singers Karthik , Vijay Yesudas , Bombay Jayashri , Nithyasree Mahadevan and P. B. Sreenivas , who made a comeback to playback singing with his song . Moreover , husband @-@ wife personality , Dhanush and Aishwarya Dhanush , sung for the album along with the composer , Prakash Kumar and lead actress , Andrea Jeremiah . Lyrics for the songs were written by Vairamuthu , Veturi Sundararama Murthy , Selvaraghavan and Andrea Jeremiah . For a song set in the thirteenth century , research was carried out to find instruments used during that period . A Yaazh , a melodic instrument used in the Sangam Period , and a horn , a brass instrument made from animal horns from Bhutan , were used . The soundtrack garnered critical acclaim and was considered Prakash Kumar 's finest work to date . Furthermore , shortly after the music release , an album success meet was held .
In the film , only five songs from the album are used in their entirety . Moreover , one song in the film , not included in the soundtrack , is the original version of Adho Andha Paravai Pola from the 1965 film Aayirathil Oruvan , which was bought from the original copyright holders of the song in December 2007 . The film 's picturisation of the three exploring the ruins of the fallen kingdom in the song , were praised .
= = Accolades = =
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= Moustache ( dog ) =
Moustache , sometimes abbreviated to Mous , ( September 1799 – 11 March 1812 ) was a French poodle who is reputed to have played a part in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars . His story is recounted in many publications but may be partly fictionalised . Moustache is said to have been born in Falaise , Normandy , France in 1799 and to have joined a grenadier regiment at Caen . He followed the regiment through the Italian Campaign of the Revolutionary Wars and is said to have alerted the regiment to a surprise night attack by Austrian forces . He is reported to have been present at the Battle of Marengo , during which he lost an ear , and with a cuirassier regiment at the Battle of Austerlitz .
At Austerlitz Moustache was apparently responsible for the discovery of an Austrian spy , and the recovery of the regiment 's standard from the Austrians . As a result of wounds taken at Austerlitz Moustache had a leg amputated and was reportedly rewarded with a medal by Marshal Jean Lannes . He is later said to have followed a unit of dragoons to Spain where he fought in several actions of the Peninsular War . Seeing action in the Sierra Morena and later , with a gunboat unit , at the Battle of Badajoz , where he was killed by a cannonball . Moustache was interred beneath a gravestone on the battlefield but his memorial is said to have been smashed and his bones burned after the war .
= = Historical sources = =
One of the earliest written accounts of Moustache 's life is that written by Arna Cano and published in The Kaleidoscope magazine of Liverpool in January 1826 . This , published twenty years after the dog 's death , may be partially fictionalised . A similar story is recounted in a detailed French @-@ language account written by Alain de Fivas and published in 1864 . Moustache is mentioned in at least eleven English , French and German publications . The story presented here is drawn largely from the Cano and de Fivas accounts and notes any disagreement with the other accounts .
= = Early life = =
Moustache , a black poodle , was born in Falaise in Normandy , France in approximately September 1799 . At the age of six months Cano states that he was sent to Caen to live with a grocer and whilst there encountered a group of grenadiers on parade . He goes on to say that Moustache followed behind the regiment , which had no other dogs , as it left the town and , on the approval of the drum major , was allowed to accompany the unit on campaign . The regiment was headed to Italy as part of the Italian Campaign fought by France against Austria during the French Revolutionary Wars .
Though Moustache was not a trained military dog , he apparently took to military life well , comfortably crossing the Great St Bernard Pass through the Alps with First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte 's army in spring 1800 . It is during this stage that one of Moustache 's most famous actions is reputed to have taken place . Whilst the regiment was encamped near Belbo the Austrians are said to have mounted a surprise night attack on the camp in stormy weather conditions . It is claimed that Moustache noticed the approaching Austrian troops and barked to alert the grenadiers , who stood to , and repulsed the attack .
Other sources place this event as occurring in Alexandria , Egypt during the Egyptian campaign against the Ottoman Empire . This variant may have been inspired by Napoleon 's letter to General Auguste de Marmont just prior to the 1799 Battle of Abukir when Marmont was in Alexandria . It urged Marmont to provide an attack warning system by securing " a large quantity of dogs which can be made use of by posting them in front of your fortifications " . After this event , the Colonel of the grenadier regiment is said to have formally placed Moustache on the roll as a grenadier and gave him a collar bearing the regiment 's name . Additionally , he ordered that Moustache receive the field rations entitled to a grenadier and that he be combed by the unit 's barber once per week .
= = Austrian campaigns = =
= = = Battle of Marengo = = =
Both Cano and de Fivas say that whilst en route to Spinetta Marengo Moustache took part in a small engagement between a company of his regiment and some Austrians . He was standing at the front of the company when he received a bayonet wound to his left shoulder . Moustache spent several days recovering in the hospital of the regimental surgeon . Though he was not fully recovered from the wound , still having a limp , Moustache is said to have taken to the field with the regiment on 14 June 1800 at the Battle of Marengo . During the battle he persistently barked at the Austrian forces and was only dissuaded from attacking them by their fixed bayonets .
Moustache did engage in close combat with one opponent - a pointer owned by an Austrian corporal that approached the French lines . De Fivas says that Moustache quickly pounced on the larger , stronger dog and fought with him for some time before a musket shot killed the pointer . Cano states that Moustache was also wounded by the shot , losing an ear . Moustache deserted the grenadiers shortly after the French victory at Marengo , apparently because one of them attempted to chain him to a sentry box , and instead joined a company of mounted cuirassiers .
= = = Battle of Austerlitz = = =
According to de Fivas , Moustache was responsible for the discovery of an Austrian spy in the French camp just prior to the Battle of Austerlitz . The dog is alleged to have leapt to his feet and barked at the Austrian to alert French soldiers . Some sources state that this event occurred around the time of the earlier battles of Marengo or Abukir .
Moustache 's greatest achievement is said to have taken place at Austerlitz . De Fivas states that Moustache went into battle with the cuirassiers and was present when the regimental standard bearer was surrounded by Austrian soldiers . The standard bearer apparently killed three Austrians before he was himself cut down , wrapping the flag around him as he fell to prevent its capture . It is at this point that de Fivas alleges that Moustache confronted the five or six remaining Austrians and was about to be bayoneted when the group was hit by a blast of artillery grapeshot . Moustache , wounded in the leg , is reputed to have torn the flag off the body of the standard bearer and returned it to the French camp .
In recognition of this action Marshal Jean Lannes is reported to have ordered that Moustache 's old collar be replaced with a copper medal on a piece of red ribbon . De Fivas states that this medal was engraved with the words " II perdit une jambe à la bataille d 'Austerlitz , et sauva le drapeau de son régiment " on the front , and " Moustache , chien français : qu 'il soit partout respecté et chéri comme un brave " on the reverse , which translates to " He lost a leg at the Battle of Austerlitz and saved the regimental flag " and " Moustache , A French dog : Everywhere respected and cherished as a hero " respectively . At least one other source says instead that the medal was silver and had a tricolore collar .
Moustache later had to have his wounded leg amputated . Other rewards he is said to have received for this event include an order being issued that whichever regiment he presented himself at would have to feed him the rations of a serving soldier and that he was placed on the regimental books and was to receive the pay and rations of a soldier . A further legend says that Moustache was presented to Napoleon himself and demonstrated to have performed a trick whereby he would cock his leg whenever France 's enemies were mentioned .
= = = Battle of Essling = = =
At the Battle of Essling , Moustache was supposed to have found a mate . Upon joining the front lines , a fellow Poodle was spotted amongst the enemy . During the course of the battle , the two met and the female Poodle accompanied Moustache back to the French camp . This relationship lasted about a year and together the pair produced puppies which were looked after by the women of the camp .
= = Spanish campaign = =
Moustache is said to have left the cuirassiers after he was struck by a cavalryman with the flat of his sword . De Fivas says that he attached himself to a unit of dragoons which he followed to Spain , taking part in two campaigns with them during which he would walk ahead of their column and bark warnings whenever he heard a noise . During a battle in the Sierra Morena mountain range in southern Spain Moustache is alleged to have led back to camp the horses of dragoons killed on the battlefield . Shortly after this he is said to have been secretly taken by a Colonel who wished to own him . After spending seventeen days in captivity the dog apparently escaped by an open window and joined with a gunboat crew . Afterwards he participated in the Battle of Badajoz where he was struck by a cannonball and killed on 11 March 1812 , at the age of twelve years .
Moustache was reputedly buried on the battlefield alongside his medal and ribbon with a gravestone engraved with the words " Ici repose le brave Moustache " ( " Here lies the brave Moustache " ) . Though he was wounded many times in his life it is said that all of his wounds were to his front . After the allied victory over the French in the Peninsular War , it is alleged that the Spanish destroyed his gravestone and the Inquisition ordered his bones to be dug up and burned .
= = = Specific = = =
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= Russian battleship Navarin =
Navarin ( Russian : Наварин ) was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the late 1880s and early 1890s . The ship was assigned to the Baltic Fleet and spent the early part of her career deployed in the Mediterranean and in the Far East . She participated in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 before returning to the Baltic Fleet in 1901 . Several months after the beginning of the Russo @-@ Japanese War in February 1904 , she was assigned to the 2nd Pacific Squadron to relieve the Russian forces blockaded in Port Arthur . During the Battle of Tsushima in May 1905 , she was sunk by Japanese destroyers which spread twenty @-@ four linked mines across her path during the night . Navarin struck two of these mines and capsized with the loss of most of her crew .
= = Design and description = =
Navarin was a low @-@ freeboard turret ship modeled on the British Trafalgar @-@ class battleships . The original requirement had been for a much smaller ship , but the Navy changed its mind and required a larger ship capable of operating " in all European seas and [ even be ] able by its coal capacity to reach the Far East . " Changes were made to the design after the ship was ordered that included the replacement of the main armament by more powerful guns of the same caliber and the increase in the secondary armament from six guns to eight .
The ship was 347 feet 6 inches ( 105 @.@ 9 m ) long at the waterline and 351 feet ( 107 @.@ 0 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 67 feet ( 20 @.@ 4 m ) and a draught of 27 feet 7 inches ( 8 @.@ 4 m ) . She displaced 10 @,@ 206 long tons ( 10 @,@ 370 t ) , almost 800 long tons ( 810 t ) more than her designed displacement of 9 @,@ 476 long tons ( 9 @,@ 628 t ) . Navarin 's crew consisted of 24 officers and 417 enlisted men .
She had two 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller shaft . They had a total designed output of 9 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 6 @,@ 700 kW ) using steam provided by 12 cylindrical fire @-@ tube boilers at a pressure of 9 @.@ 4 atm ( 952 kPa ; 138 psi ) . The four boiler rooms were arranged in two pairs abreast , each of which had its own funnel . This unusual arrangement gave the ship her odd nickname of Factory ( Zavod ) . Trials of the first batch of boilers in May 1891 showed that they could not maintain the designed steam pressure due to flaws in their construction . The Navy demanded that the Franco @-@ Russian Works replace them with new boilers at its own expense , but tests of the new boilers in August 1893 showed that their production of steam was inadequate . The factory asked for a year 's time to rectify the problems which the Navy granted since the construction of the ship was behind schedule anyway . On her final set of sea trials in November 1895 she reached a top speed of 15 @.@ 85 knots ( 29 @.@ 35 km / h ; 18 @.@ 24 mph ) . Navarin carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 200 long tons ( 1 @,@ 200 t ) of coal at full load that provided a range of 3 @,@ 050 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 650 km ; 3 @,@ 510 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ship 's main armament consisted of two pairs of 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) Obukhov Model 1886 35 @-@ caliber guns mounted in hydraulically powered twin @-@ gun turrets fore and aft . The forward turret had a firing arc of 243 ° while the rear turret could traverse 214 ° . The guns had a rate of fire of two minutes 22 seconds between rounds . They fired a 731 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 331 @.@ 7 kg ) " light " shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 090 ft / s ( 640 m / s ) to a range of 6 @,@ 600 yards ( 6 @,@ 000 m ) at an elevation of 6 ° . 80 rounds per gun were carried . All eight 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Pattern 1877 35 @-@ caliber guns of the secondary armament were mounted in casemates in the superstructure . Their " light " shells weighed 91 @.@ 5 lb ( 41 @.@ 5 kg ) and had a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 329 ft / s ( 710 m / s ) . They had a maximum range of 8 @,@ 170 yards ( 7 @,@ 470 m ) when fired at an elevation of 12 ° . Each gun was provided with 200 rounds of ammunition .
The anti @-@ torpedo boat armament included fourteen 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns were carried in the superstructure . They fired a 3 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 1 @.@ 5 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 476 ft / s ( 450 m / s ) at a rate of 20 rounds per minute to a range of 2 @,@ 020 yards ( 1 @,@ 850 m ) . A total of eight 37 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss guns were mounted in the fighting top , the other four guns may have been used to arm the ship 's boats . They fired a 1 @.@ 1 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 50 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 450 ft / s ( 440 m / s ) at a rate of 20 rounds per minute to a range of 3 @,@ 038 yards ( 2 @,@ 778 m ) .
Navarin carried six above water 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes , one each in the bow and stern and two pairs of broadside tubes . The ship carried a total of 12 torpedoes . The Type L torpedo carried a 141 @-@ pound ( 64 kg ) warhead of TNT . It had two speed settings which gave it a maximum range of 980 yards ( 900 m ) at 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) or 660 yards ( 600 m ) at 29 knots ( 54 km / h ; 33 mph ) .
The ship used compound armor for all armored vertical surfaces except for the gun turrets which were made from nickel steel . The maximum thickness of the waterline armor belt was 16 inches ( 406 mm ) which reduced to 12 – 14 inches ( 305 – 356 mm ) abreast the magazines . It covered 228 feet ( 69 @.@ 5 m ) of the ship 's length and was 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) high , and tapered down to a thickness of 8 inches ( 203 mm ) at the bottom edge . The upper 18 inches ( 457 @.@ 2 mm ) of the belt was intended to be above the waterline , but the ship was significantly overweight and much of the belt was submerged . The belt terminated in 14 – 16 @-@ inch ( 356 – 406 mm ) transverse bulkheads .
The lower casemate was above the belt , 218 feet ( 66 @.@ 4 m ) long and 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) high , and was intended to protect the bases of the turrets . It had 16 @-@ inch sides and was closed off by 16 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads fore and aft . The upper casemate protected the six @-@ inch guns and was 5 inches ( 127 mm ) thick on all sides . The sides of the turrets were 16 inches ( 406 mm ) thick and the conning tower 's sides were 12 inches ( 305 mm ) in thickness . The armor deck was 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thick over the lower casemate , but 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) thick forward and aft of the main armor belt to the bow and stern .
= = Construction and career = =
Navarin , named after the Battle of Navarino , was ordered on 24 April 1889 from the Franco @-@ Russian Works and construction began on 13 July 1889 at their Saint Petersburg shipyard . The ship was laid down on 31 May 1890 and launched on 20 October 1891 . She was transferred to Kronstadt in 1893 for fitting out , but did not enter service until June 1896 at a cost of over nine million rubles . Construction was seriously delayed by problems with the boilers and late deliveries of armor plates , the gun mountings , and other components , compounded by inefficiencies in building . One example of such was that the Russian armor plate company lacked the capacity to make gun port armor for the gun turrets of the required thickness , but the builder somehow lost track of this fact and had to place a rush order with the French company of St. Chamond .
Navarin was assigned to the Baltic fleet and began a cruise to the Mediterranean Sea in August 1896 . She visited the Greek port of Piraeus on 1 October . Together with the battleship Sissoi Veliky , the ship was ordered to the Far East in early 1898 and arrived at Port Arthur on 28 March . She took part in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion two years later . Navarin and Sissoi Veliky , together with a number of cruisers , sailed for the Baltic on 25 December 1901 and arrived at the port of Libau in early May 1902 . She began a refit the following September that was interrupted by the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War in February 1904 . During this refit , Navarin received 4 @.@ 5 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) Barr & Stroud rangefinders , telescopic gun sights and Telefunken radio equipment . Her light armament was increased by four 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns that displaced an equal number of 47 @-@ millimeter guns on top of the superstructure ; one of the displaced guns was mounted on each of the turret roofs .
On 15 October 1904 , she set sail for Port Arthur from Libau along with the other vessels of the Second Pacific Squadron , under the command of Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky . When his ships reached the port of Tangier , Morocco , on 28 October , Rozhestvensky split his forces and ordered his older ships , including Navarin and Sissoi Veliky , to proceed through the Mediterranean and the Suez Canal to rendezvous with him in Madagascar as previously planned . Under the command of Rear Admiral Dmitry von Fölkersam , they departed that night and reached Souda Bay , Crete , a week later and Port Said , Egypt two weeks after that . The two forces reunited at the island of Nosy Be on 9 January 1905 where they remained for two months while Rozhestvensky finalized his coaling arrangements . The squadron sailed for Camranh Bay , French Indochina , on 16 March and reached it almost a month later to await the obsolete ships of the 3rd Pacific Squadron , commanded by Rear Admiral Nikolai Nebogatov . The latter ships reached Camranh Bay on 9 May and the combined force sailed for Vladivostok on 14 May .
Rozhestvensky reorganized his ships into three divisions ; the first consisted of the four new Borodino @-@ class battleships commanded by himself , von Fölkersam commanded the second division of the battleships Oslyabya , Navarin , Sissoi Veliky and the armored cruiser Admiral Nakhimov , and Nebogatov retained his ships as the third division . Von Fölkersam , ill with cancer , died on 26 May and Rozhestvensky decided not to inform the fleet in order to keep morale up . The captain of Oslyabya became the commander of the 2nd Division while Nebogatov had no idea that he was now the squadron 's defacto second @-@ in @-@ command .
Very little is known of Navarin 's actions during the Battle of Tsushima on 27 – 28 May as there were very few survivors from the ship and visibility was poor for most of the battle . The ship was apparently not heavily engaged during the early part of the battle , but was badly damaged later in the day when she was third from last in the Russian line of battle . She was hit four times by large @-@ caliber shells on the waterline that caused major flooding aft . Her quarterdeck was awash up to her rear 12 @-@ inch turret by 2100 and the ship was forced to stop for repairs . Around that time she was attacked by Japanese torpedo boats that may have made one or two torpedo hits . Navarin managed to get underway again and damaged one torpedo boat badly enough that she sank later that night . Around 0200 on 28 May , the ship was attacked again by the Fourth Destroyer Division which dropped six strings of mines ahead of her . These consisted of four mines linked together with cables so that hitting any part of the string would draw the mines onto the ship . Two of these mines struck Navarin , which quickly capsized and sank . Some 70 men were able to abandon ship before she sank , but only three were alive when they were found 16 hours later . One man was rescued by a Japanese torpedo boat while the other two were rescued by a British merchant ship . The rest of her crew of 674 officers and enlisted men were lost . The rescued men had said that when they called out for help , they were fired on by Japanese torpedo boats .
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= Mu Arae =
Mu Arae ( abbreviated μ Arae , μ Ara ) , often designated HD 160691 , also named Cervantes , is a main sequence G @-@ type star approximately 50 light @-@ years away from the Sun in the constellation of Ara . The star has a planetary system with four known extrasolar planets ( designated Mu Arae b , c , d and e ; later named Quijote , Dulcinea , Rocinante and Sancho , respectively ) , three of them with masses comparable to that of Jupiter . The system 's innermost planet was the first ' hot Neptune ' or ' super @-@ Earth ' to be discovered .
= = Nomenclature = =
Mu Arae is the Bayer designation . HD 160691 is the entry in the Henry Draper Catalogue .
The established convention for extrasolar planets is that the planets receive designations consisting of the star 's name followed by lower @-@ case Roman letters starting from " b " , in order of discovery . This system was used by a team led by Krzysztof Goździewski . On the other hand , a team led by Francesco Pepe proposed a modification of the designation system , where the planets are designated in order of characterization . Since the parameters of the outermost planet were poorly constrained before the introduction of the 4 @-@ planet model of the system , this results in a different order of designations for the planets in the Mu Arae system . Both systems agree on the designation of the 640 @-@ day planet as " b " . The old system designates the 9 @-@ day planet as " d " , the 310 @-@ day planet as " e " and the outer planet as " c " . Since the International Astronomical Union has not defined an official system for designations of extrasolar planets , the issue of which convention is ' correct ' remains open , however subsequent scientific publications about this system appear to have adopted the Pepe et al. system , as has the system 's entry in the Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia .
In July 2014 the International Astronomical Union launched a process for giving proper names to certain exoplanets and their host stars . The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names . In December 2015 , the IAU announced the winning names were Cervantes for this star and Quijote , Dulcinea , Rocinante and Sancho , for its planets ( b , c , d , and e , respectively ; the IAU used the Pepe et al system ) .
The winning names were those submitted by the Planetario de Pamplona , Spain . Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra ( 1547 @-@ 1616 ) was a famous Spanish writer and author of El Ingenioso Hidalgo Don Quixote de la Mancha . The planets are named after characters of that novel : Quijote was the lead character ; Dulcinea his love interest ; Rocinante his horse , and Sancho his squire .
= = Stellar characteristics = =
According to measurements made by the Hipparcos astrometric satellite , Mu Arae exhibits a parallax of 64 @.@ 47 milliarcseconds as the Earth moves around the Sun . When combined with the known distance from the Earth to the Sun , this means the star is located at a distance of 50 @.@ 6 light years ( 15 @.@ 51 parsecs ) . Seen from Earth it has an apparent magnitude of + 5 @.@ 12 and is visible to the naked eye .
Asteroseismic analysis of the star reveals it is approximately 10 % more massive than the Sun and significantly older , at around 6 @.@ 34 billion years . The radius of the star is 36 % greater than that of the Sun and it is 90 % more luminous . The star contains twice the abundance of iron relative to hydrogen of our Sun and is therefore described as metal @-@ rich . Mu Arae is also more enriched than the Sun in the element helium .
Mu Arae has a listed spectral type of G3IV – V. The G3 part means the star is similar to our Sun ( a G2V star ) . The star may be entering the subgiant stage of its evolution as it starts to run out of hydrogen in its core . This is reflected in its uncertain luminosity class , between IV ( the subgiants ) and V ( main sequence dwarf star stars like the Sun ) .
= = Planetary system = =
= = = Discovery = = =
In 2001 , an extrasolar planet was announced by the Anglo @-@ Australian Planet Search team , together with the planet orbiting Epsilon Reticuli . The planet , designated Mu Arae b , was thought to be in a highly eccentric orbit of around 743 days . The discovery was made by analysing variations in the star 's radial velocity ( measured by observing the Doppler shift of the star 's spectral lines ) as a result of being pulled around by the planet 's gravity . Further observations revealed the presence of a second object in the system ( now designated as Mu Arae e ) , which was published in 2004 . At the time , the parameters of this planet were poorly constrained and it was thought to be in an orbit of around 8 @.@ 2 years with a high eccentricity . Later in 2004 , a small inner planet designated Mu Arae c was announced with a mass comparable to that of Uranus in a 9 @-@ day orbit . This was the first of the class of planets known as " hot Neptunes " to be discovered . The discovery was made by making high @-@ precision radial velocity measurements with the High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher ( HARPS ) spectrograph .
In 2006 , two teams , one led by Krzysztof Goździewski and the other by Francesco Pepe independently announced four @-@ planet models for the radial velocity measurements of the star , with a new planet ( Mu Arae d ) in a near @-@ circular orbit lasting approximately 311 days . The new model gives revised parameters for the previously known planets , with lower eccentricity orbits than in the previous model and including a more robust characterization of the orbit of Mu Arae e . The discovery of the fourth planet made Mu Arae the second known four @-@ planet extrasolar system , after 55 Cancri .
= = = System architecture and habitability = = =
The Mu Arae system consists of an inner Uranus @-@ mass planet in a tight 9 @-@ day orbit and three massive planets , probably gas giants , on wide , near @-@ circular orbits , which contrasts with the high @-@ eccentricity orbits typically observed for long @-@ period extrasolar planets . The Uranus @-@ mass planet may be a chthonian planet , the core of a gas giant which has had its outer layers stripped away by stellar radiation . Alternatively it may have formed in the inner regions of the Mu Arae system as a rocky " super @-@ Earth " . The inner gas giants " d " and " b " are located close to the 2 : 1 orbital resonance which causes them to undergo strong interactions . The best @-@ fit solution to the system is actually unstable : simulations suggest the system is destroyed after 78 million years , which is significantly shorter than the estimated age of the star system . More stable solutions , including ones in which the two planets are actually in the resonance ( similar to the situation in the Gliese 876 system ) can be found which give only a slightly worse fit to the data . Searches for circumstellar discs show no evidence for a debris disc similar to the Kuiper belt around Mu Arae . If Mu Arae does have a Kuiper belt , it is too faint to be detected with current instruments .
The gas giant planet " b " is located in the liquid water habitable zone of Mu Arae . This would prevent an Earth @-@ like planet from forming in the habitable zone , however large moons of the gas giant could potentially support liquid water . On the other hand , it is unclear whether such massive moons could actually form around a gas giant planet , thanks to an apparent scaling law between the mass of the planet and its satellite system . In addition , measurements of the star 's ultraviolet flux suggest that any potentially habitable planets or moons may not receive enough ultraviolet to trigger the formation of biomolecules . Planet " d " would receive a similar amount of ultraviolet to the Earth and thus lies in the ultraviolet habitable zone , however , it would be too hot for any moons to support surface liquid water .
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= Silkie =
The Silkie ( sometimes spelled Silky ) is a breed of chicken named for its atypically fluffy plumage , which is said to feel like silk , and satin . The breed has several other unusual qualities , such as black skin and bones , blue earlobes , and five toes on each foot , whereas most chickens only have four . They are often exhibited in poultry shows , and appear in various colors . In addition to their distinctive physical characteristics , Silkies are well known for their calm , friendly temperament . It is among the most docile of poultry . Hens are also exceptionally broody , and care for young well . Though they are fair layers themselves , laying only about three eggs a week , they are commonly used to hatch eggs from other breeds and bird species due to their broody nature .
= = History = =
It is unknown exactly where or when fowl with their singular combination of attributes first appeared , but the most well documented point of origin is ancient China ( hence another occasionally encountered name for the bird , Chinese silk chicken ) . Other places in Southeast Asia have been named as possibilities , such as India and Java . The earliest surviving written account of Silkies comes from Marco Polo , who wrote of a " furry chicken " in the 13th century during his travels in Asia . In 1598 , Ulisse Aldrovandi , a writer and naturalist at the University of Bologna , Italy , published a comprehensive treatise on chickens which is still read and admired today . In it , he spoke on " wool @-@ bearing chickens " and ones " clothed with hair like that of a black cat " .
Silkies most likely made their way to the West via the Silk Route and maritime trade . The breed was recognized officially in North America with acceptance into the Standard of Perfection in 1874 . Once Silkies became more common in the West , many myths were perpetuated about them . Early Dutch breeders told buyers they were the offspring of chickens and rabbits , while sideshows promoted them as having actual mammalian fur .
In the 21st century , Silkies are one of the most popular and ubiquitous ornamental breeds of chicken . They are often kept as ornamental fowl or pet chickens by backyard keepers , and are also commonly used to incubate and raise the offspring of other chickens and waterfowl like ducks and geese and game birds such as quail and pheasants .
= = Characteristics = =
Silkies are considered a bantam breed in some countries , but this varies according to region and many breed standards class them officially as large fowl ; the bantam Silkie is actually a separate variety most of the time . Almost all North American strains of the breed are bantam @-@ sized , but in Europe the standard @-@ sized is the original version . However , even standard Silkies are relatively small chickens , with the males weighing only four pounds ( 1 @.@ 8 kg ) , and females weighing three pounds ( 1 @.@ 36 kg ) . The American Standard of Perfection calls for males that are 36 ounces ( 1 kg ) , and females that are 32 ounces ( 910 grams ) .
Silkie plumage was once unique among chicken breeds , however in recent years silkie feathering has been developed in several breeds , mostly notably the Chabo , where it is now standardised in Britain and the Netherlands . It has been compared to silk , and to fur . The overall result is a soft , fluffy appearance . Their feathers lack functioning barbicels , and are thus similar to down on other birds . This characteristic leaves Silkies unable to fly .
Silkies appear in two distinct varieties : bearded and non @-@ bearded . Bearded Silkies have an extra muff of feathers under the beak area that covers the earlobes . They also are separated according to color . Colors of Silkie recognized for competitive showing include black , blue , buff , grey , partridge , and white . Alternative hues , such as cuckoo , lavender , red , and splash also exist . The standards of perfection call for all Silkies to have a small walnut @-@ colored comb , dark wattles , and turquoise @-@ blue earlobes . In addition to these defining characteristics , Silkies have five toes on each foot . Other breeds which exhibit this rare trait include the Dorking , Faverolles , and Sultan .
All Silkies have black skin , bones and grayish @-@ black meat ; their Chinese language name is wu gu ji ( 烏骨雞 ) , meaning ' black @-@ boned chicken ' . Melanism which extends beyond the skin into an animal 's connective tissue is a rare trait , and in chickens it is caused by fibromelanosis , which is a rare mutation believed to have begun in Asia . The Silkie and several other breeds descended from Asian stock possess the mutation . Disregarding color , the breed does not generally produce as much as the more common meat breeds of chicken .
Silkies lay a fair number of eggs , of a cream color , but production is often interrupted due to their extreme tendency to go broody ; a hen will produce 100 eggs in an ideal year . Their capacity for incubation , which has been selectively bred out of most fowl bred especially for egg production , is often exploited by poultry keepers by allowing Silkies to raise the offspring of other birds . In addition to being good mothers , Silkies are universally renowned for their calm , friendly temperament . They do well in confinement , and interact very well with children . This docility can cause Silkies to be bullied by more active or aggressive birds when kept in mixed flocks .
= = = Bantams = = =
In the American Standard of Perfection , the standard male weight for the bantam Silkie is 1 kg ( 36 oz ) and for the female , 907 g ( 32 oz ) . The Australian Poultry Standard and British Poultry Standard call for Silkie bantams much smaller ; in the Australian , the standard weights are 680 g ( 25 oz ) for males and 570 g ( 20 oz ) for females . The British standard weight for bantam Silkies is 600 g ( 22 oz ) for males , and 500 g for females ( 18 oz ) .
= = = Polydactyly = = =
Silkies are also known for their polydactyly , usually manifesting as an additional 1 @-@ 2 digits in the foot . The genetic cause of this extra digit formation has been shown to be a SNP in a regulator of the SHH gene , called the ZPA Regulatory Sequence ( ZRS ) . This causes ectopic SHH expression in the anterior of the developing limb bud , leading to increased tissue growth and digits . Interestingly , while the feet of the Silkie display polydactyly , the wings have the standard tridactyly ( three digit ) arrangement . The Japanese Silkie initially develops additional digits in the wing as an embryo , but these are lost prior to hatching . The genetic cause behind Silkie polydactyly differs from those that cause polydactyly in the Dorking chicken breed , which is due to ectopic FGF4 expression in the AER , with ectopic SHH a secondary effect .
= = In cuisine = =
The black meat of a Silkie is generally considered an unusual attribute in European and American cuisines . In contrast , several Asian cuisines consider Silkie meat a gourmet food . Chinese cuisine especially values the breed , but it is also a common ingredient in some Japanese , Cambodian , Vietnamese and Korean dishes . Areas where Chinese cuisine has been a strong influence , such as Malaysia , may also cook Silkie . As early as the 7th century , traditional Chinese medicine has held that chicken soup made with Silkie meat is a curative food . The usual methods of cooking include using Silkie to make broth , braising , and in curries . Traditional Chinese soup made with Silkie also uses ingredients such as wolfberries , Dioscorea polystachya ( mountain yam ) , orange peel , and fresh ginger . A few fusion restaurants in metropolitan areas of the West have also cooked it as a part of traditional American or French cuisine , such as in confit .
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= Bulk carrier =
A bulk carrier , bulk freighter , or bulker is a merchant ship specially designed to transport unpackaged bulk cargo , such as grains , coal , ore , and cement in its cargo holds . Since the first specialized bulk carrier was built in 1852 , economic forces have fuelled the development of these ships , causing them to grow in size and sophistication . Today 's bulkers are specially designed to maximize capacity , safety , efficiency , and durability .
Today , bulkers make up 15 % - 17 % of the world 's merchant fleets and range in size from single @-@ hold mini @-@ bulkers to mammoth ore ships able to carry 400 @,@ 000 metric tons of deadweight ( DWT ) . A number of specialized designs exist : some can unload their own cargo , some depend on port facilities for unloading , and some even package the cargo as it is loaded . Over half of all bulkers have Greek , Japanese , or Chinese owners and more than a quarter are registered in Panama . South Korea is the largest single builder of bulkers , and 82 % of these ships were built in Asia .
A bulk carrier 's crew participates in the loading and unloading of cargo , navigating the ship , and keeping its machinery and equipment properly maintained . Loading and unloading the cargo is difficult , dangerous , and can take up to 120 hours on larger ships . Crews can range in size from three people on the smallest ships to over 30 on the largest .
Bulk cargo can be very dense , corrosive , or abrasive . This can present safety problems : cargo shifting , spontaneous combustion , and cargo saturation can threaten a ship . The use of ships that are old and have corrosion problems has been linked to a spate of bulker sinkings in the 1990s , as have the bulker 's large hatchways , important for efficient cargo handling . New international regulations have since been introduced to improve ship design and inspection , and to streamline the process of abandoning ship .
= = Definition = =
There are various ways to define the term bulk carrier . As of 1999 , the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea defines a bulk carrier as " a ship constructed with a single deck , top side tanks and hopper side tanks in cargo spaces and intended to primarily carry dry cargo in bulk ; an ore carrier ; or a combination carrier . " However , most classification societies use a broader definition where a bulker is any ship that carries dry unpackaged goods . Multipurpose cargo ships can carry bulk cargo , but can also carry other cargoes and are not specifically designed for bulk carriage . The term " dry bulk carrier " is used to distinguish bulkers from bulk liquid carriers such as oil , chemical , or liquefied petroleum gas carriers . Very small bulkers are almost indistinguishable from general cargo ships , and they are often classified based more on the ship 's use than its design .
A number of abbreviations are used to describe bulkers . " OBO " describes a bulker which carries a combination of ore , bulk , and oil , and " O / O " is used for combination oil and ore carriers . The terms " VLOC , " " VLBC , " " ULOC , " and " ULBC " for very large and ultra large ore and bulk carriers were adapted from the supertanker designations very large crude carrier and ultra large crude carrier .
= = History = =
Before specialized bulk carriers existed , shippers had two methods to move bulk goods by ship . In the first method , longshoremen loaded the cargo into sacks , stacked the sacks onto pallets , and put the pallets into the cargo hold with a crane . The second method required the shipper to charter an entire ship and spend time and money to build plywood bins into the holds . Then , to guide the cargo through the small hatches , wooden feeders and shifting boards had to be constructed . These methods were slow and labor @-@ intensive . As with the container ship , the problem of efficient loading and unloading has driven the evolution of the bulk carrier .
Specialized bulk carriers began to appear as steam @-@ powered ships became more popular . The first steam ship recognized as a bulk carrier was the British coal carrier SS John Bowes in 1852 . She featured a metal hull , a steam engine , and a ballasting system which used seawater instead of sandbags . These features helped her succeed in the competitive British coal market . The first self @-@ unloader was the lake freighter Hennepin in 1902 on the Great Lakes . This greatly decreased the unloading time of bulkers by using conveyor belt to move the cargo . The first bulkers with diesel propulsion began to appear in 1911 .
Before World War II , the international shipping demand for bulk products was low — about 25 million tons for metal ores — and most of this trade was coastal . However , on the Great Lakes , bulkers hauled vast amounts of ore from the northern mines to the steel mills . In 1929 , 73 million tons of iron ore was transported on the Lakes , and an almost equal amount of coal , limestone , and other products were also moved . Two defining characteristics of bulkers were already emerging : the double bottom , which was adopted in 1890 , and the triangular structure of the ballast tanks , which was introduced in 1905 . After World War II , an international bulk trade began to develop among industrialized nations , particularly between the European countries , the United States and Japan . Due to the economics of this trade , ocean bulkers became larger and more specialized . In this period , Great Lakes freighters increased in size , to maximize economies of scale , and self @-@ unloaders became more common to cut turnaround time . The thousand @-@ footers of the Great Lakes fleets , built in the 1970s , were among the longest ships afloat and in 1979 , a record 214 million ton of bulk cargo were moved on the Great Lakes .
= = Categories = =
= = = Size categories = = =
Bulkers are segregated into six major size categories : small , handysize , handymax , panamax , capesize , and very large . Very large bulk and ore carriers fall into the capesize category but are often considered separately .
= = = = Categories as per Regions = = = =
Categories occur in regional trade , such as Kamsarmax , Seawaymax , Setouchmax , Dunkirkmax , and Newcastlemax also appear in regional trade .
" Kamsarmax " : Maximum length overall 229 meters refers to a new type of ships , larger than panamax , that are suitable for berthing at the Port of Kamsar ( Republic of Guinea ) , where the major loading terminal of bauxite is restricted to vessels not more than 229 meters .
" Newcastlemax " : Maximum beam 50 meters , and maximum length overall of 300 meters Refers to the largest vessel able to enter the port of Newcastle , Australia at about 185 @,@ 000 DWT
" Setouchmax " : About 203 @,@ 000 DWT , being the largest vessels able to navigate the Setouch Sea , Japan
" Seawaymax " : LOA 226 m max / 7 @.@ 92 m draft . Refers to the largest vessel that can pass through the canal locks of the St Lawrence Seaway ( Great lakes , Canada )
" Malaccamax " : LOA 330 m / 20 m draft / 300 @,@ 000 DWT , Refers to the largest vessel that can pass through the Straits of Malacca .
" Dunkirkmax " : Maximum allowable beam = 45 m / LOA 289 m. max ( 175 @,@ 000 DWT approx ) for the eastern harbour lock in the Port of Dunkirk ( France )
Mini @-@ bulkers are prevalent in the category of small vessels with a capacity of under 10 @,@ 000 DWT . Mini @-@ bulkers carry from 500 to 2 @,@ 500 tons , have a single hold , and are designed for river transport . They are often built to be able to pass under bridges and have small crews of three to eight people .
Handysize and Handymax ships are general purpose in nature . These two segments represent 71 % of all bulk carriers over 10 @,@ 000 DWT and also have the highest rate of growth . This is partly due to new regulations coming into effect which put greater constraints on the building of larger vessels . Handymax ships are typically 150 – 200 m in length and 52 @,@ 000 – 58 @,@ 000 DWT with five cargo holds and four cranes . These ships are also general purpose in nature .
The size of a Panamax vessel is limited by the Panama canal 's lock chambers , which can accommodate ships with a beam of up to 32 @.@ 31 m , a length overall of up to 294 @.@ 13 m , and a draft of up to 12 @.@ 04 m .
Capesize ships are too large to traverse the Panama canal and must round Cape Horn to travel between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans . Earlier , capesize ships could not traverse the Suez and needed to go around the Cape of Good Hope . Recent deepening of the Suez canal to 66 ft ( 20 m ) permits most capesize ships to pass through it .
Capesize bulkers are specialized : 93 % of their cargo is iron ore and coal . Some ships on the Great Lakes Waterway exceed Panamax dimensions but they are limited to use on the Great Lakes as they cannot pass through the smaller St. Lawrence Seaway to the ocean . Very large ore carriers and very large bulk carriers are a subset of the capesize category reserved for vessels over 200 @,@ 000 DWT . Carriers of this size are almost always designed to carry iron ore .
= = = General types = = =
= = Fleet characteristics = =
The world 's bulk transport has reached immense proportions : in 2005 , 1 @.@ 7 billion metric tons of coal , iron ore , grain , bauxite , and phosphate was transported by ship . Today , the world 's bulker fleet includes 6 @,@ 225 ships of over 10 @,@ 000 DWT , and represent 40 % of all ships in terms of tonnage and 39 @.@ 4 % in terms of vessels . Including smaller ships , bulkers have a total combined capacity of almost 346 million DWT . Combined carriers are a very small portion of the fleet , representing less than 3 % of this capacity . The lake freighters of the Great Lakes , with 98 ships of 3 @.@ 2 million total DWT , despite forming a small fraction of the total fleet by tonnage and only operating 10 months a year , carried a tenth of the world 's bulk cargo because of the short trip distance and fast turnarounds .
As of 2005 , the average bulker was just over 13 years old . About 41 % of all bulkers were less than ten years old , 33 % were over twenty years old , and the remaining 26 % were between ten and twenty years of age . All of the 98 bulkers registered in the Great Lakes trade are over 20 years old and the oldest still sailing in 2009 was 106 years old .
= = = Flag states = = =
As of 2005 , the United States Maritime Administration counted 6 @,@ 225 bulkers of 10 @,@ 000 DWT or greater worldwide . More bulkers are registered in Panama , with 1 @,@ 703 ships , than any four other flag states combined . In terms of the number of bulk carriers registered , the top five flag states also include Hong Kong with 492 ships , Malta ( 435 ) , Cyprus ( 373 ) , and China ( 371 ) . Panama also dominates bulker registration in terms of deadweight tonnage . Positions two through five are held by Hong Kong , Greece , Malta , and Cyprus .
= = = Largest fleets = = =
Greece , Japan , and China are the top three owners of bulk carriers , with 1 @,@ 326 , 1 @,@ 041 , and 979 vessels respectively . These three nations account for over 53 % of the world 's fleet .
Several companies have large private bulker fleets . The multinational company Gearbulk Holding Ltd. has over 70 bulkers . The Fednav Group in Canada operates a fleet of over 80 bulkers , including two designed to work in Arctic ice . Croatia 's Atlantska Plovidba d.d. has a fleet of 14 bulkers . The H. Vogemann Group in Hamburg , Germany operates a fleet of 19 bulkers . Portline in Portugal , owns 10 bulkers . Dampskibsselskabet Torm in Denmark and Elcano in Spain also own notable bulker fleets . Other companies specialize in mini @-@ bulker operations : England 's Stephenson Clarke Shipping Limited owns a fleet of eight mini @-@ bulkers and five small Handysize bulkers , and Cornships Management and Agency Inc. in Turkey owns a fleet of seven mini @-@ bulkers .
= = = Builders = = =
Asian companies dominate the construction of bulk carriers . Of the world 's 6 @,@ 225 bulkers , almost 62 % were built in Japan by shipyards such as Oshima Shipbuilding and Sanoyas Hishino Meisho . South Korea , with notable shipyards Daewoo and Hyundai Heavy Industries , ranked second among builders , with 643 ships . The People 's Republic of China , with large shipyards such as Dalian , Chengxi , and Shanghai Waigaoqiao , ranked third , with 509 ships . Taiwan , with shipyards such as China Shipbuilding Corporation , ranked fourth , accounting for 129 ships . Shipyards in these top four countries built over 82 % of the bulkers afloat .
= = = Freight charges = = =
Several factors affect the cost to move a bulk cargo by ship . The bulk freight market is very volatile , and it fluctuates , along with the type of cargo , the ship 's size , and the route traveled all affect the final price . Moving a capesize load of coal from South America to Europe cost anywhere from $ 15 to $ 25 per ton in 2005 . Hauling a panamax @-@ sized load of aggregate materials from the Gulf of Mexico to Japan that year could cost as little as $ 40 per ton to as much as $ 70 per ton .
Some shippers choose instead to charter a ship , paying a daily rate instead of a set price per ton . In 2005 , the average daily rate for a Handymax ship varied between $ 18 @,@ 000 – $ 30 @,@ 000 . A Panamax ship could be chartered for $ 20 @,@ 000 – $ 50 @,@ 000 per day , and a Capesize for $ 40 @,@ 000 – $ 70 @,@ 000 per day .
= = = Ship breaking = = =
Generally , ships are removed from the fleet go through a process known as ship breaking or scrapping . Ship @-@ owners and buyers negotiate scrap prices based on factors such as the ship 's empty weight ( called light ton displacement or LDT ) and prices in the scrap metal market . In 1998 , almost 700 ships were scrapped in places like Alang , India and Chittagong , Bangladesh . This is often done by ' beaching ' the ship on open sand , then cutting it apart by hand with gas torches , a dangerous operation that results in injuries and fatalities , as well as exposure to toxic materials such as asbestos , lead , and various chemicals . Half a million deadweight tons of worth of bulk carriers were scrapped in 2004 , accounting for 4 @.@ 7 % of the year 's scrapping . That year , bulkers fetched particularly high scrap prices , between $ 340 and $ 350 per LDT .
= = Operation = =
= = = Crew = = =
The crew on a bulker typically consists of 20 to 30 people , though smaller ships can be handled by 8 . The crew includes the captain or master , the deck department , the engineering department , and the steward 's department . The practice of taking passengers aboard cargo ships , once almost universal , is very rare today and almost non @-@ existent on bulkers .
During the 1990s , bulkers were involved in an alarming number of shipwrecks . This led ship @-@ owners to commission a study seeking to explain the effect of various factors on the crew 's effectiveness and competence . The study showed that crew performance aboard bulk carriers was the lowest of all groups studied . Among bulker crews , the best performance was found aboard younger and larger ships . Crews on better @-@ maintained ships performed better , as did crews on ships where fewer languages were spoken .
Fewer deck officers are employed on bulkers than on similarly sized ships of other types . A mini @-@ bulker carries two to three deck officers , while larger Handysize and Capesize bulkers carry four . Liquid natural gas tankers of the same size have an additional deck officer and unlicensed mariner .
= = = Voyages = = =
A bulker 's voyages are determined by market forces ; routes and cargoes often vary . A ship may engage in the grain trade during the harvest season and later move on to carry other cargoes or work on a different route . Aboard a coastal carrier in the tramp trade , the crew will often not know the next port of call until the cargo is fully loaded .
Because bulk cargo is so difficult to discharge , bulkers spend more time in port than other ships . A study of mini @-@ bulkers found that it takes , on average , twice as much time to unload a ship as it does to load it . A mini @-@ bulker spends 55 hours at a time in port , compared to 35 hours for a lumber carrier of similar size . This time in port increases to 74 hours for Handymax and 120 hours for Panamax vessels . Compared with the 12 @-@ hour turnarounds common for container ships , 15 @-@ hour turnarounds for car carriers , and 26 @-@ hour turnarounds for large tankers , bulker crews have more opportunities to spend time ashore .
= = = Loading and unloading = = =
Loading and unloading a bulker is time @-@ consuming and dangerous . The process is planned by the ship 's chief mate under the direct and continued supervision of ship 's captain . International regulations require that the captain and terminal master agree on a detailed plan before operations begin . Deck officers and stevedores oversee the operations . Occasionally loading errors are made that cause a ship to capsize or break in half at the pier .
The loading method used depends on both the cargo and the equipment available on the ship and on the dock . In the least advanced ports , cargo can be loaded with shovels or bags poured from the hatch cover . This system is being replaced with faster , less labor @-@ intensive methods . Double @-@ articulation cranes , which can load at a rate of 1 @,@ 000 tons per hour , represent a widely used method , and the use of shore @-@ based gantry cranes , reaching 2 @,@ 000 tons per hour , is growing . A crane 's discharge rate is limited by the bucket 's capacity ( from 6 to 40 tons ) and by the speed at which the crane can take a load , deposit it at the terminal , and to return to take the next . For modern gantry cranes , the total time of the grab @-@ deposit @-@ return cycle is about 50 seconds .
Conveyor belts offer a very efficient method of loading , with standard loading rates varying between 100 and 700 tons per hour , although the most advanced ports can offer rates of 16 @,@ 000 tons per hour . Start @-@ up and shutdown procedures with conveyor belts , though , are complicated and require time to carry out . Self @-@ discharging ships use conveyor belts with load rates of around 1 @,@ 000 tons per hour .
Once the cargo is discharged , the crew begins to clean the holds . This is particularly important if the next cargo is of a different type . The immense size of cargo holds and the tendency of cargoes to be physically irritating add to the difficulty of cleaning the holds . When the holds are clean , the process of loading begins .
It is crucial to keep the cargo level during loading in order to maintain stability . As the hold is filled , machines such as excavators and bulldozers are often used to keep the cargo in check . Leveling is particularly important when the hold is only partly full , since cargo is more likely to shift . Extra precautions are taken , such as adding longitudinal divisions and securing wood atop the cargo . If a hold is full , a technique called tomming is used , which involves digging out a 6 feet ( 2 m ) hole below the hatch cover and filling it with bagged cargo or weights .
= = Architecture = =
A bulk carrier 's design is largely defined by the cargo it will carry . The cargo 's density , also known as its stowage factor , is the key factor . Densities for common bulk cargoes vary from 0 @.@ 6 tons per cubic meter for light grains to 3 tons per cubic meter for iron ore .
The overall cargo weight is the limiting factor in the design of an ore carrier , since the cargo is so dense . Coal carriers , on the other hand , are limited by overall volume , since most bulkers can be completely filled with coal before reaching their maximum draft .
For a given tonnage , the second factor which governs the ship 's dimensions is the size of the ports and waterways it will travel to . For example , a vessel that will pass the Panama Canal will be limited in its beam and draft . For most designs , the ratio of length @-@ to @-@ width ranges between 5 and 7 , with an average of 6 @.@ 2 . The ratio of length @-@ to @-@ height will be between 11 and 12 .
= = = Machinery = = =
The engine room on a bulker is usually near the stern , under the superstructure . Larger bulkers , from Handymax up , usually have a single two @-@ stroke low @-@ speed crosshead diesel engine directly coupled to a fixed @-@ pitch propeller . Electricity is produced by auxiliary generators and / or an alternator coupled to the propeller shaft . On the smaller bulkers , one or two four @-@ stroke diesels are used to turn either a fixed or controllable @-@ pitch propeller via a reduction gearbox , which may also incorporate an output for an alternator . The average design ship speed for bulkers of Handysize and above is 13 @.@ 5 – 15 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 – 27 @.@ 8 km / h ; 15 @.@ 5 – 17 @.@ 3 mph ) . The propeller speed is relatively low , at about 90 revolutions per minute , although it depends on the size of the propeller .
As a result of the 1973 oil crisis , the 1979 energy crisis , and the resulting rise in oil prices , experimental designs using coal to fuel ships were tested in the late 1970s and early 1980s . The Australian National Lines ( ANL ) constructed two 74 @,@ 700 @-@ ton coal @-@ burner ships called the River Boyne and River Embely. along with two constructed by TNT called TNT Capricornia and TNT Capentaria and renamed Fitzroy River and Endeavor River . These ships were financially effective for the duration of their lives , and their steam engines were able to generate a shaft @-@ power of 19 @,@ 000 horsepower ( 14 @,@ 000 kW ) . This strategy gave an interesting advantage to carriers of bauxite and similar fuel cargoes , but suffered from poor engine yield compared to higher maintenance cost and efficient modern diesels , maintenance problems due to the supply of ungraded coal , and high initial costs .
= = = Hatches = = =
A hatch or hatchway is the opening at the top of a cargo hold . The mechanical devices which allow hatches to be opened and closed are called hatch covers . In general , hatch covers are between 45 % and 60 % of the ship 's breadth , or beam , and 57 % to 67 % of the length of the holds . To efficiently load and unload cargo , hatches must be large , but large hatches present structural problems . Hull stress is concentrated around the edges of the hatches , and these areas must be reinforced . Often , hatch areas are reinforced by locally increasing the scantlings or by adding structural members called stiffeners . Both of these options have the undesired effect of adding weight to the ship .
As recently as the 1950s , hatches had wooden covers that would be broken apart and rebuilt by hand , rather than opened and closed . Newer vessels have hydraulic @-@ operated metal hatch covers that can often be operated by one person . Hatch covers can slide forwards , backwards , or to the side , lift up or fold up . It is essential that the hatch covers be watertight : unsealed hatches lead to accidental cargo hold flooding , which has caused many bulkers to sink .
Regulations regarding hatch covers have evolved since the investigation following the loss of the MV Derbyshire . The Load Line Conference of 1966 imposed a requirement that hatch covers be able to withstand load of 1 @.@ 74 tons / m2 due to sea water , and a minimum scantling of 6 mm for the tops of the hatch covers . The International Association of Classification Societies then increased this strength standard by creating its Unified Requirement S21 in 1998 . This standard requires that the pressure due to sea water be calculated as a function of freeboard and speed , especially for hatch covers located on the forward portion of the ship .
= = = Hull = = =
Bulkers are designed to be easy to build and to store cargo efficiently . To facilitate construction , bulkers are built with a single hull curvature . Also , while a bulbous bow allows a ship to move more efficiently through the water , designers lean towards simple vertical bows on larger ships . Full hulls , with large block coefficients , are almost universal , and as a result , bulkers are inherently slow . This is offset by their efficiency . Comparing a ship 's carrying capacity in terms of deadweight tonnage to its weight when empty is one way to measure its efficiency . A small Handymax ship can carry five times its weight . In larger designs , this efficiency is even more pronounced : Capesize vessels can carry more than eight times their weight .
Bulkers have a cross @-@ section typical of most merchant ships . The upper and lower corners of the hold are used as ballast tanks , as is the double bottom area . The corner tanks are reinforced and serve another purpose besides controlling the ship 's trim . Designers choose the angle of the corner tanks to be less than that of the angle of repose of the anticipated cargoes . This greatly reduces side @-@ to @-@ side movement , or " shifting , " of cargo which can endanger the ship .
The double bottoms are also subject to design constraints . The primary concern is that they be high enough to allow the passage of pipes and cables . These areas must also be roomy enough to allow people safe access to perform surveys and maintenance . On the other hand , concerns of excess weight and wasted volume keep the double bottoms very tight spaces .
Bulker hulls are made of steel , usually mild steel . Some manufacturers have preferred high @-@ tensile steel recently in order to reduce the tare weight . However , the use of high @-@ tensile steel for longitudinal and transverse reinforcements can reduce the hull 's rigidity and resistance to corrosion . Forged steel is used for some ship parts , such as the propeller shaft support . Transverse partitions are made of corrugated iron , reinforced at the bottom and at connections . The construction of bulker hulls using a concrete @-@ steel sandwich has been investigated .
Double hulls have become popular in the past ten years . Designing a vessel with double sides adds primarily to its breadth , since bulkers are already required to have double bottoms . One of the advantages of the double hull is to make room to place all the structural elements in the sides , removing them from the holds . This increases the volume of the holds , and simplifies their structure which helps in loading , unloading , and cleaning . Double sides also improve a ship 's capacity for ballasting , which is useful when carrying light goods : the ship may have to increase its draft for stability or seakeeping reasons , which is done by adding ballast water .
A recent design , called Hy @-@ Con , seeks to combine the strengths of single @-@ hull and double @-@ hull construction . Short for Hybrid Configuration , this design doubles the forward @-@ most and rear @-@ most holds and leaves the others single @-@ hulled . This approach increases the ship 's solidity at key points , while reducing the overall tare weight .
Since the adoption of double hull has been more of an economic than a purely architectural decision , some argue that double @-@ sided ships receive less comprehensive surveys and suffer more from hidden corrosion . In spite of opposition , double hulls became a requirement for Panamax and Capesize vessels in 2005 .
Freighters are in continual danger of " breaking their backs " and thus longitudinal strength is a primary architectural concern . A naval architect uses the correlation between longitudinal strength and a set of hull thicknesses called scantlings to manage problems of longitudinal strength and stresses . A ship 's hull is composed of individual parts called members . The set of dimensions of these members is called the ship 's scantlings . Naval architects calculate the stresses a ship can be expected to be subjected to , add in safety factors , and then can calculate the required scantlings .
These analyses are conducted when traveling empty , loading and unloading , when partially and fully loaded , and under conditions of temporary overloading . Places subject to the largest stresses are studied carefully , such as hold @-@ bottoms , hatch @-@ covers , bulkheads between holds , and the bottoms of ballast tanks . Great Lakes bulkers also must be designed to withstand springing , or developing resonance with the waves , which can cause fatigue fractures .
Since 1 April 2006 , the International Association of Classification Societies has adopted the Common Structural Rules . The rules apply to bulkers more than 90 meters in length and require that scantlings ' calculations take into account items such as the effect of corrosion , the harsh conditions often found in the North Atlantic , and dynamic stresses during loading . The rules also establish margins for corrosion , from 0 @.@ 5 to 0 @.@ 9 mm .
= = Safety = =
The 1980s and 1990s were a very unsafe time for bulk carriers . Many bulkers sank during this time , 99 were lost between 1990 and 1997 alone . Most of these sinkings were sudden and quick , making it impossible for the crew to escape : more than 650 sailors were lost during this same period . Due partly to the sinking of the MV Derbyshire , a series of international safety resolutions regarding bulkers were adopted during the 1990s .
= = = Stability problems = = =
Cargo shifting poses a great danger for bulkers . The problem is even more pronounced with grain cargoes , since grain settles during a voyage and creates extra space between the top of the cargo and the top of the hold . Cargo is then free to move from one side of the ship to the other as the ship rolls . This can cause the ship to list , which , in turn , causes more cargo to shift . This kind of chain reaction can capsize a bulker very quickly .
The 1960 SOLAS Convention sought to control this sort of problem . These regulations required the upper ballast tanks designed in a manner to prevent shifting . They also required cargoes to be leveled , or trimmed , using excavators in the holds . The practice of trimming reduces the amount of the cargo 's surface area in contact with air which has a useful side @-@ effect : reducing the chances of spontaneous combustion in cargoes such as coal , iron , and metal shavings .
Another sort of risk that can affect dry cargoes , is absorption of ambient moisture . When very fine concretes and aggregates mix with water , the mud created at the bottom of the hold shifts easily and can produce a free surface effect . The only way to control these risks is by good ventilation practices and careful monitoring for the presence of water .
= = = Structural problems = = =
In 1990 alone , 20 bulk carriers sank , taking with them 94 crewmen . In 1991 , 24 bulkers sank , killing 154 . This level of loss focused attention on the safety aspects of bulk carriers , and a great deal was learned . The American Bureau of Shipping concluded that the losses were " directly traceable to failure of the cargo hold structure " and Lloyd 's Register of Shipping added that the hull sides could not withstand " the combination of local corrosion , fatigue cracking and operational damage . "
The accident studies showed a clear pattern :
Sea water enters the forward hatch , due to a large wave , a poor seal , corrosion , etc .
The extra water weight in hold number one compromises the partition to hold number two ,
Water enters hold number two and alters the trim so much that more water enters the holds
With two holds rapidly filling with water , the bow submerges and the ship quickly sinks , leaving little time for the crew to react .
Previous practices had required ships to withstand the flooding of a single forward hold , but did not guard against situations where two holds would flood . The case where two after ( rear ) holds are flooded is no better , because the engine room is quickly flooded , leaving the ship without propulsion . If two holds in the middle of the ship are flooded , the stress on the hull can become so great that the ship snaps in two .
Other contributing factors were identified :
Most shipwrecks involved ships over 20 years in age . A glut of ships of this age occurred in the 1980s , caused by an overestimate of the growth of international trade . Rather than replace them prematurely , shipping companies were compelled on cost grounds to keep their aging vessels in service .
Corrosion , due to a lack of maintenance , affected the seals of the hatch covers and the strength of the bulkheads which separate holds . The corrosion is difficult to detect due to the immense size of the surfaces involved .
Advanced methods of loading were not foreseen when the ships were designed . While the new processes are more efficient , loading is more difficult to control ( it can take over an hour just to halt the operation ) , occasionally resulting in overloading the ship . These unexpected shocks , over time , can damage the hull 's structural integrity .
Recent use of high @-@ tensile steel allows building a structure with less material and weight while retaining similar strength . However , because it is thinner than regular steel , HT steel can corrode more easily , plus it can develop metal fatigue in choppy seas .
According to Lloyd 's Register , a principal cause of sinkings was the attitude of ship @-@ owners , who sent ships with known problems to sea .
The new rules adopted in the 1997 annexes to the SOLAS convention focused on problems such as reinforcing bulkheads and the longitudinal frame , more stringent inspections ( with a particular focus on corrosion ) and routine in @-@ port inspections . The 1997 additions also required bulkers with restrictions ( for instance , forbidden from carrying certain types of cargoes ) to mark their hulls with large , easy @-@ to @-@ see triangles .
= = = Crew safety = = =
Since December 2004 , Panamax and Capesize bulkers have been required to carry free @-@ fall lifeboats located on the stern , behind the deckhouse . This arrangement allows the crew to abandon ship quickly in case of a catastrophic emergency . One argument against the use of free @-@ fall lifeboats is that the evacuees require " some degree of physical mobility , even fitness " to enter and launch the boat . Also , injuries have occurred during launches , for example , in the case of incorrectly secured safety belts .
In December 2002 , Chapter XII of the SOLAS convention was amended to require the installation of high @-@ level water alarms and monitoring systems on all bulkers . This safety measure quickly alerts watch standers on the bridge and in the engine room in case of flooding in the holds . In cases of catastrophic flooding , these detectors could speed the process of abandoning ship .
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= Citadel of Damascus =
The Citadel of Damascus ( Arabic : قلعة دمشق : Qala 'at Dimashq ) is a large medieval fortified palace and citadel in Damascus , Syria . It is part of the Ancient City of Damascus , which was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979 .
The location of the current citadel was first fortified in 1076 by the Turkman warlord Atsiz bin Uvak , although it is possible but not proven that a citadel stood on this place in the Hellenistic and Roman periods . After the assassination of Atsiz bin Uvak , the project was finished by the Seljuq ruler Tutush I. The emirs of the subsequent Burid and Zengid dynasties carried out modifications and added new structures to it . During this period , the citadel and the city were besieged several times by Crusader and Muslim armies . In 1174 , the citadel was captured by Saladin , the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt , who made it his residence and had the defences and residential buildings modified .
Saladin 's brother Al @-@ Adil rebuilt the citadel completely between 1203 and 1216 in response to the development of the counterweight trebuchet . After his death , power struggles broke out between the other Ayyubid princes and although Damascus switched hands several times , the citadel was taken by force only once , in 1239 . The citadel remained in Ayyubid hands until the Mongols under their general Kitbuqa captured Damascus in 1260 , thereby ending Ayyubid rule in Syria . After an unsuccessful revolt broke out in the citadel , the Mongols had most of it dismantled . After the defeat of the Mongols in 1260 by the Mamluks , who had succeeded the Ayyubids as rulers of Egypt , Damascus came under Mamluk rule . Except for brief periods in 1300 and 1401 , when the Mongols conquered Damascus , the Mamluks controlled the citadel until 1516 . In that year , Syria fell into the hands of the Ottoman Empire . Damascus surrendered without a fight and from the 17th century onward the citadel functioned as barracks for the Jannisaries — Ottoman infantry units . The citadel started to fall into disrepair in the 19th century and its last military use was in 1925 , when French soldiers shelled the old city from the citadel in response to the Great Syrian Revolt against the French Mandate of Syria . The citadel continued to serve as a barracks and prison until 1986 , when excavations and restorations started . As of 2011 , excavation and restoration efforts are still ongoing .
The citadel is located in the northwest corner of the city walls , between the Bab al @-@ Faradis and the Bab al @-@ Jabiyah . The citadel consists of a more or less rectangular curtain wall enclosing an area of 230 by 150 metres ( 750 by 490 ft ) . The walls were originally protected by 14 massive towers , but today only 12 remain . The citadel has gates on its northern , western and eastern flanks . The current citadel dates primarily to the Ayyubid period while incorporating parts of the older Seljuq fortress . Extensive repairs in response to sieges and earthquakes were carried out in the Mamluk and Ottoman periods .
= = Before the citadel = =
It is uncertain whether a building stood on the site of the citadel before the 11th century AD . The Ghouta , the wider area in which Damascus is located , has been occupied since at least 9000 BC , but there is no evidence for settlement within the area that is today enclosed by the city walls before the 1st millennium BC . The area occupied by the later citadel was most likely outside this first settlement . The presence of a citadel during the Hellenistic period is uncertain . Damascus certainly had a citadel during the Roman period , but whether it was located on the site of the present citadel is uncertain and subject to scholarly debate .
= = Old citadel = =
= = = Construction of the old citadel = = =
In 1076 , Damascus was conquered by the Turkman warlord Atsiz bin Uvak , who established himself as the ruler of the city and began the construction of the citadel . He then tried to invade the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt but was defeated in 1077 . The Fatimids subsequently built on their victory over Atsiz and besieged Damascus in 1077 and again in 1078 , but both attempts to take the city were unsuccessful . The siege of 1078 was eventually lifted by Tutush I , brother of the Seljuq sultan Malik Shah I , to whom Atsiz had appealed for help . After the Fatimid besiegers had left , Tutush I took over the city and , distrusting Atsiz , had him assassinated in 1078 . The construction of the citadel was finished under Tutush I.
= = = From Seljuqs to Zengids = = =
After the death of Tutush I in 1095 , Syria was divided between his sons Abu Nasr Shams al @-@ Muluk Duqaq and Fakhr al @-@ Mulk Radwan . Duqaq took control of Damascus while Radwan established himself as ruler of Aleppo . During Duqaq 's reign ( 1095 – 1104 ) , additional work was carried out on the citadel . In 1096 , Radwan besieged the citadel but failed to capture it .
During the rule of the Burid dynasty ( 1104 – 1154 ) , work was carried out on the citadel in response to multiple attacks on Damascus by Crusader and Muslim armies . In 1126 , a Crusader army approached Damascus , but their advance was stopped 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) from the city . A second attempt by Crusaders in 1129 advanced to within 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) of the city before they had to retreat . Zengi , the atabeg of Aleppo and Mosul , attacked Damascus in 1135 and again in 1140 . Zengi 's second attack was thwarted because Damascus forged a coalition with the Crusader states to the south , arguing that if Damascus were conquered , these states would fall as well . Crusader armies attacked Damascus a third time in 1148 during the Second Crusade . This siege of Damascus ended within a week when an army led by Nur ad @-@ Din Zangi , ruler of Aleppo and the son of Zengi , threatened the besieging Crusaders , forcing them to withdraw . After unsuccessful attacks in 1150 and 1151 , Nur ad @-@ Din finally captured Damascus in 1154 . The citadel was only surrendered to Nur ad @-@ Din after Mujir ad @-@ Din Abaq , the last Burid ruler , had been given safe passage and lordship over the city of Homs .
Nur ad @-@ Din ruled as Zengid emir of Damascus from 1154 until his death in 1174 . He took up residence in the citadel and rebuilt or refurbished its residential structures . After an earthquake hit Damascus in 1170 , Nur ad @-@ Din built a wooden house for sleeping and prayer next to the original stone residence of the citadel . In addition , he built a mosque and a fountain in the citadel . Between 1165 and 1174 , Nur ad @-@ Din re @-@ fortified Damascus with a concentric wall , and it is possible that he also strengthened the defences of the citadel . Nur ad @-@ Din died of an illness in the citadel on 15 May 1174 and was buried there ; his body was later transferred to the Nur ad @-@ Din Madrasah in Damascus .
= = = Saladin to Al @-@ Adil = = =
Immediately following Nur ad @-@ Din 's death in 1174 , Damascus was seized by Saladin , the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt . In that year , Saladin rode from Egypt past the Crusader states to Damascus with only 700 horsemen . The city opened its gates to Saladin without resistance , except for the citadel , which surrendered to him later that year . Saladin added a tower to the citadel and refurbished the residential buildings . Like his predecessor Nur ad @-@ Din , Saladin died of an illness in the citadel on 4 March 1193 . He was initially buried inside the citadel , but later reburied in a mausoleum near the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus .
At Saladin 's death in 1193 , rival Ayyubid factions led by Saladin 's sons established themselves in Egypt , Aleppo , Damascus , and Iraq . Al @-@ Afdal , Saladin 's eldest son and emir of Damascus , was initially recognized by the younger sons as their overlord . However , hostilities broke out in 1194 between Al @-@ Afdal and Al @-@ Aziz Uthman , Saladin 's second @-@ oldest son and Ayyubid sultan of Egypt . In 1196 , Al @-@ Aziz and Saladin 's brother Al @-@ Adil captured Damascus , except for the citadel , where Al @-@ Afdal had taken refuge . After negotiations , Al @-@ Afdal surrendered the citadel and his titles to Al @-@ Aziz and was exiled to Salkhad in the Hauran . Al @-@ Adil recognized the overlordship of Al @-@ Aziz and became ruler of Damascus . At the death of Al @-@ Aziz in 1198 , several members of Saladin 's family , including Al @-@ Afdal and Az @-@ Zahir Ghazi , ruler of Aleppo , allied themselves against Al @-@ Adil and marched on Damascus . Al @-@ Afdal and Az @-@ Zahir besieged Damascus in 1200 and 1201 , but both attempts were unsuccessful . Al @-@ Adil eventually negotiated a peace with Al @-@ Afdal and Az @-@ Zahir , who recognized Al @-@ Adil 's suzerainty as sultan of Egypt and emir of Damascus .
= = New citadel = =
= = = Construction by Al @-@ Adil and dismantling by the Mongols = = =
After his position as sultan of Egypt and emir of Damascus was secured , Al @-@ Adil started an extensive rebuilding programme of the citadel . Between 1203 and 1216 , the old fortifications were razed and a larger castle was built at the same location , incorporating parts of the old Seljuq citadel . The lower Ayyubid princes were each required to finance and build one of the large towers of the citadel . Several of Al @-@ Adil 's Ayyubid successors rebuilt many of the administrative and domestic structures inside the citadel , including residences , palaces , and a pool . As @-@ Salih Ayyub was the only successor who also modified the defences .
Possible motivations for this complete rebuilding by Al @-@ Adil include the damage the old citadel may have sustained from earthquakes in 1200 and 1201 and the threat that other Ayyubid princes continued to pose toward Al @-@ Adil . The most likely motivation is that the defences of the old citadel became obsolete due to the introduction in the 12th century of the counterweight trebuchet , a siege engine easily capable of reducing thick stone walls to rubble . The new citadel introduced a number of important changes to the defensive system , including higher and thicker walls , a wide moat surrounding the citadel , and numerous closely spaced , high , massive towers . Unlike the older towers , these were square rather than round in design . The towers contained platforms on which trebuchets could be placed . Due to their high position , these trebuchets could outrange enemy artillery and thereby prevent them from breaching the walls .
After Al @-@ Adil 's death in 1218 , intense power struggles broke out among his sons and other Ayyubid princes . Between 1229 and 1246 , Damascus switched hands regularly and was attacked five times by different Ayyubid armies . During this period , the citadel was only once taken by force — through mining of one of its walls — in 1239 . This occurred when the citadel 's garrison had been reduced to below the number needed to defend a castle of that size . Following the murder in 1250 of Al @-@ Muazzam Turanshah , the last Ayyubid sultan of Egypt , Damascus was seized by the Ayyubid ruler of Aleppo , An @-@ Nasir Yusuf . He was in control of most of Syria until the arrival of the Mongols .
When the Mongols invaded Syria and threatened Damascus after conquering Aleppo in 1260 , An @-@ Nasir fled from Damascus , leaving the city virtually undefended . The notables of Damascus started negotiations with the Mongol ruler Hulagu Khan ; the city was handed over to his general Kitbuqa in 1260 . When the Mongol army left Damascus to quell rebellions in the countryside , the Ayyubid garrison of the citadel revolted , as they had been instructed to do by An @-@ Nasir . In response , the Mongols besieged the citadel in 1260 . The garrison surrendered after heavy bombardments and without hope of being relieved by An @-@ Nasir . The defences of the citadel were then largely dismantled .
= = = Mamluk period = = =
The new Mamluk sultan of Egypt , Qutuz , defeated the Mongols in the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 . Damascus now came under Mamluk influence . In the same year , Qutuz was assassinated by his commander Baibars , who succeeded Qutuz as sultan of Egypt ( 1260 – 1277 ) . During Baibars ' reign , the citadel was rebuilt and the northern wall was moved 10 metres ( 33 ft ) to the north . More rebuilding was completed during the reigns of the sultan Qalawun ( 1279 – 1290 ) and Al @-@ Ashraf Khalil . The latter had a structure called the Blue Dome built in the citadel . It was the first dome in Syria that was decorated with coloured tiles on the outer surface , a tradition imported from Iran . Following the Mamluk defeat in the Battle of Wadi al @-@ Khazandar , Damascus , except for the citadel , changed hands to the Mongols in 1300 . The Mongols besieged the citadel and set up a trebuchet in the court of the Umayyad Mosque , but they withdrew from Damascus before the citadel could be taken . In the following decades , extensive reconstruction work took place on the citadel . The damage done to the citadel during the siege , primarily on its east side , was repaired . The mosque was reconstructed and enlarged , the towers were repaired , and the Blue Dome was covered with lead plates as the tiles themselves had been destroyed .
During the last two decades of the 14th century , a civil war raged in the Mamluk sultanate between Sultan Barquq , who had established the Burji dynasty in Cairo , on one side and on the other side Saif al @-@ Din Yalbugha , governor of Aleppo , and Mintash , governor of Malatya . The city and the citadel were besieged several times during this period . During these sieges , both sides made use of siege towers , trebuchets , rockets and cannons . After Yalbugha switched sides and teamed up with Barquq , Mintash was killed in 1393 , leaving Damascus and its city under the control of Barquq . Also during this time , the Zahiri Revolt , a conspiracy to overthrow Barquq , was discovered at the Citadel .
= = = Siege by Timur and its aftermath = = =
In 1400 , the Mongol army under Timur , better known as Tamerlane , swept down on Syria and arrived at Damascus after having subdued Aleppo , Homs , and Baalbek . A Mamluk army from Egypt under Sultan Faraj ibn Barquq , the son of Barquq , failed to lift the siege . In 1401 , the city surrendered to Timur , except for the citadel , which Timur besieged . Towers with trebuchets were set up around the citadel and in the Umayyad Mosque . The garrison surrendered after the northwestern tower was brought down through mining . The defenders were slaughtered and a heavy tribute was imposed on the citizens of Damascus . When they failed to deliver , the city was sacked and the Umayyad Mosque was burned .
The damage to the citadel , especially to its northern and western walls , was only repaired in 1407 . In 1414 , governor of Damascus Nawruz al @-@ Hafizi , sought refuge in the citadel against the army of Sultan Al @-@ Mu 'ayyad Shaykh . The citadel was bombarded by trebuchet and cannon . The siege ended when a treaty of surrender was signed . In 1461 , the southwest tower collapsed in a fire when missiles were fired from it to force the rebellious governor of Damascus to leave the city . This tower and four others were rebuilt in the late 15th and early 16th centuries , indicating that the repairs of 1407 had been carried out in haste .
= = = Ottoman period = = =
After the Mamluk defeat by the Ottoman army under Sultan Selim I in the Battle of Marj Dabiq in 1516 , Damascus and the citadel surrendered peacefully to the Ottomans . Damascus was given to Janberdi al @-@ Ghazali , a Mamluk who had submitted to Selim I. When Selim I died in 1520 , al @-@ Ghazali revolted and took the citadel . He marched upon Aleppo to expand his realm , but had to retreat and was eventually defeated and killed in the vicinity of Damascus in 1521 . Damascus again changed hands , to the Ottomans . From 1658 onward , the citadel was controlled by the Janissaries — Ottoman infantry units . In 1738 and in 1746 , they were involved in conflicts with the governors of Damascus ; the Janissaries temporarily lost control of the citadel in 1746 . The north gate of the citadel collapsed in 1752 , and sustained heavy damage due to a severe earthquake in 1759 . According to contemporary accounts , both the western and southern walls collapsed , but the damage was quickly repaired in 1761 .
When Ali Bey of Egypt , who opposed Ottoman overlordship , invaded Syria in 1771 , the city of Damascus surrendered to him without a fight , except for the citadel . Ali Bey withdrew after a short siege . Two further sieges took place in 1787 and 1812 , both successful and both initiated because the citadel 's garrison had revolted against the governor of Damascus . The last siege of the citadel took place in 1831 . In that year , the citizens of Damascus and the local garrison of Janissaries revolted against governor Mehmed Selim Pasha , who took refuge in the citadel . He was promised safe passage after a siege lasting 40 days but was murdered before he could leave the city . In 1860 , Christian refugees from the Druze @-@ Maronite conflict in Lebanon spilled into Damascus , resulting in tensions with the Muslim population . There was a massacre of the Christian population , many of whom sought refuge in the citadel and eventually fled the city with the help of the Algerian – Damascene notable Abd al @-@ Qadir al @-@ Jaza 'iri . Descriptions and photographs of the citadel by nineteenth @-@ century European travellers indicate that the defences remained in relatively good shape until 1895 , but that the structures inside the walls were reduced to complete ruins . In 1895 , substantial damage was done to the citadel because it was quarried for stone to build barracks .
= = = World War I and the French Mandate period = = =
When the British and Arab forces marched on Damascus in the final year of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign in World War I , the Ottoman authorities fled and left Damascus in the control of a committee of citizens . The newly appointed Ottoman military governor released 4 @,@ 000 prisoners from the citadel , who subsequently started pillaging and killing sick and disabled Ottoman soldiers who had been left behind in the city . These riots only stopped with the entrance into the city of the Australian Light Horse troops on 1 October 1918 .
French military forces occupied the citadel during the French Mandate period in Syria ( 1920 – 1946 ) . During the Great Syrian Revolt in 1925 , the French shelled Al @-@ Hariqa , the area immediately south of the citadel — where Syrian rebels were supposed to be present — from positions in the hills to the north of the city , and from the citadel itself . This bombardment resulted in widespread destruction . After the French Mandate period , the citadel continued to serve as a prison and barracks until 1986 .
= = = Restoration and research = = =
The Ancient City of Damascus , including the citadel , was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979 . Since 1986 restoration works have been carried out by various Syrian and foreign missions with the aim of opening the citadel to the public . Until 1999 , the restorations were carried out by the Syrian Directorate @-@ General of Antiquities and Museums ( DGAM ) . In 1999 a joint French @-@ Syrian mission was initiated under the supervision of the DGAM and the Institut français du Proche @-@ Orient ( IFPO ) . Between 2000 and 2006 , this mission carried out extensive archaeological and art @-@ historical research in the citadel , as well as further restoration works . In celebration of these restorations , a ceremony was held on 1 July 2006 which was attended by Syrian President Bashar al @-@ Assad .
In 2004 an agreement was signed between the DGAM and the Italian General Direction for Development Cooperation for a joint mission to renovate and reorganize the citadel and the National Museum of Damascus . This mission started working in the citadel in 2007 . Much attention will be given to the reinforcement of damaged or structurally weak parts in the architecture . It is expected by the Syrian – Italian mission that , once renovations are finished , the citadel will be used for cultural and social events and activities .
= = Citadel today = =
= = = Location and layout = = =
The citadel is located in the northwest corner of the old walled city of Damascus , between the Bab al @-@ Faradis and the Bab al @-@ Jabiyah . Whereas most medieval Arabic castles are located on prominent hilltops , the citadel of Damascus was built on flat ground at the same level as the rest of the city , a feature it shares with the Citadel of Bosra . The location of the citadel ensured that it could control the Barada River , which flows north of the citadel . The location of the river also offered protection against attack from that side of the citadel . The Nahr Aqrabani , a canal branching off the Barada , flowed immediately below the northern wall and provided additional protection . The dry moats on the other sides of the citadel could be filled from these streams . Another branch of the Barada , the Nahr Banyas , entered the city under the citadel . Hydraulic structures below that made control of the flow of water into Damascus possible from within the citadel were probably constructed under Al @-@ Adil . The citadel was fully integrated into the defences of Damascus , with the city walls abutting the citadel on its southwest and northeast corners .
The citadel erected under the Seljuqs occupied an area measuring 210 by 130 metres ( 690 by 430 ft ) . Parts of the Seljuq walls were integrated in the rebuilding undertaken by Al @-@ Adil . In this way , a second inner ring of defence was provided , as Al @-@ Adil 's walls enclosed a slightly larger area . The Ayyubid citadel encloses an uneven rectangular area of 230 by 150 metres ( 750 by 490 ft ) . The outer walls , constructed by Al @-@ Adil , were pierced by three gates and originally protected by 14 towers , although only 12 of these remain . Except for the western part of the curtain wall , the defensive works of the citadel that are still standing are primarily of Ayyubid date , with extensive Mamluk restorations . The walls are partly obscured from sight by the urban fabric of Damascus , which has encroached upon the citadel during the 19th and 20th centuries . The shops along the north side of the Al @-@ Hamidiyah Souq are built against the citadel 's southern façade , while parts of the eastern defences are also obscured by buildings . The buildings that stood against the western and northern walls were cleared in the 1980s .
The walls and towers of the citadel are constructed from carbonate rocks and basalt that were quarried in the vicinity of Damascus .
= = = Towers = = =
Today , the citadel has 12 towers . There is one tower on each corner , three in between along the north and south walls and two facing east . Originally , the citadel had two more towers on the western wall , as reported by European travellers until 1759 . The earthquake that hit Damascus in that year led to the collapse of the western defences of the citadel , with the western towers not being rebuilt afterwards . The central northern tower , which once housed the north gate of the citadel , and the southwest corner tower have also largely disappeared . Of the former , only the west wall remains while of the southwest tower only parts of the basement can still be seen . The other 10 towers have been preserved up to their original height , which ranges between 15 and 25 metres ( 49 and 82 ft ) . The northern corner towers are square while the southern ones are L @-@ shaped . All the other towers are rectangular with their broad sides parallel to the walls of the citadel . All towers are crowned by a double parapet equipped with machicolations and numerous arrowslits . These parapets surrounded and thereby protected the large platforms from which trebuchets were operated .
= = = Curtain walls = = =
The curtain walls of the citadel connect the towers with each other . Given that during the design of the citadel so much emphasis was placed on the massive towers , the curtain walls are relatively short . They range between 10 metres ( 33 ft ) in length for the curtain wall that connects the two central towers of the east wall to 43 metres ( 141 ft ) for the curtain wall connecting the northwest corner tower with the next tower east of it . Where the walls are preserved up to their original height , which is on the south side of the citadel , they measure 11 @.@ 5 metres ( 38 ft ) , while their thickness ranges between 3 @.@ 65 – 4 @.@ 90 metres ( 12 @.@ 0 – 16 @.@ 1 ft ) . Along the inside of the curtain walls ran vaulted galleries that allowed quick access to all parts of the citadel . These galleries had arrowslits from which an approaching enemy could be shot . The walls were crowned by a walkway that was protected by crenellations .
= = = Gates = = =
The citadel 's three gates are located on the north , east and west sides of the citadel . The first two are the work of Al @-@ Adil , although the northern gate has been repaired in the Mamluk period , while the current west gate is of later date . The northern gate was primarily reserved for military matters ; the eastern gate was in civic use . During the Mamluk period , the eastern gate was one of two locations , the other being the Umayyad Mosque , where official decrees were posted , and this is reflected in a number of inscriptions that have been found here .
The northern gate , or Bab al @-@ Hadid ( " Iron Gate " ) , was built with a primary emphasis on military matters . It originally consisted of arched entrances in the east and west walls of a tower in the middle of the northern curtain wall . These entrances led to a central vaulted room and from there through a long vaulted passage before reaching the courtyard . This large gate complex also incorporated the gate structures of the old Seljuq citadel . Based on stylistic evidence and inscriptions found in the citadel , the original construction of the Ayyubid gate can be dated to the period between 1210 and 1212 . Most of the outer gate tower has disappeared and a street now runs through the western arch that still survives , while the vaulted passage that led into the citadel is now used as a mosque . The east and north gate complexes were connected through a 68 metres ( 223 ft ) long vaulted passage that can also be dated to the reign of Al @-@ Adil .
The eastern gate , constructed between 1213 and 1215 , is the only one that opens toward the area enclosed by the city walls of Damascus . It is located in one of the citadel 's square towers and protected by another tower immediately south of the gate tower and a barbacan running between these towers . It is a bent @-@ axis gate running through vaulted passages before reaching the courtyard . Behind it is a square hall in which four columns support a central unusually shaped dome . It incorporates a gate tower from the old Seljuq citadel . The gate lacks defensive structures like murder @-@ holes and is more decorated than the northern gate , which must be related to the fact that the gate faces the city . The gate is decorated with a superb muqarnas canopy that is now hidden because the outer door is blocked .
The western gate was originally protected by two square towers that were probably built during the reign of Baibars . After the 1759 earthquake , which led to the collapse of the western defences of the citadel , these towers were not rebuilt . Unlike the other two gates , this gate has a straight passage .
= = = Southwest building = = =
In the southwest corner of the courtyard , built parallel to the southern wall , is a two @-@ storey building measuring 90 by 10 metres ( 295 by 33 ft ) and reaching a height of 16 metres ( 52 ft ) . The date of this building has long been unclear , but based on the archaeological and architectural analysis carried out between 2002 and 2006 , it has been shown that it predates Al @-@ Adil 's refortification of the citadel and must have been an addition to the defences of the Seljuq citadel . The function of this building after it was incorporated into Al @-@ Adil 's new walls , and thus after losing its defensive function , remains unclear as the archaeological analysis did not reveal any in situ material from which the building 's use could be reconstructed .
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= One Rincon Hill =
One Rincon Hill is an upscale residential complex on the apex of Rincon Hill in San Francisco , California , United States . The complex , designed by Solomon , Cordwell , Buenz and Associates and developed by Urban West Associates , consists of two skyscrapers that share a common townhouse podium .
The taller tower , One Rincon Hill South Tower , was completed in 2008 and stands 60 stories and 641 feet ( 195 m ) tall . The shorter tower , marketed as Tower Two at One Rincon Hill , was completed in 2014 and reaches a height of 541 feet ( 165 m ) with 50 stories . The South Tower contains high @-@ speed elevators with special features for moving residents effectively , and a large water tank designed to help the skyscraper withstand strong winds and earthquakes . Both skyscrapers and the townhomes contain a total of 709 residential units .
The building site , located right next to the western approach of the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge , formerly contained a clock tower . The clock tower was demolished shortly after the city approved the One Rincon Hill project . Construction of the townhomes and the South Tower lasted from 2005 to 2008 , but was stopped for brief periods of time due to seismic concerns and a construction accident . As the South Tower neared completion , it generated controversy concerning view encroachment , high pricing , and architectural style .
= = Description = =
= = = Location = = =
The complex is on a 1 @.@ 3 acres ( 0 @.@ 53 ha ) parcel on the apex of the Rincon Hill neighborhood . The site is bounded by Harrison Street to the west , the Fremont Street exit ramp to the north , the approach to the Bay Bridge ( Interstate 80 ) on the east , and the 1st Street entrance ramp to the south .
= = = Developer and architect = = =
Solomon , Cordwell , Buenz and Associates , a Chicago architectural firm , designed the complex . The developer of this complex is Urban West Associates , headed by Mike Kriozere . The developer 's headquarters are in San Diego , although all its highrise projects over 14 stories are in the San Francisco Bay Area . The Rincon Hill complex is the developer 's second project in San Francisco , with the first being ONE Embarcadero South , a residential complex near One Rincon Hill and across from AT & T Park . According to the developer the total cost of the Rincon Hill project was US $ 290 million , rising to over US $ 310 million in 2009 .
= = = Architecture = = =
The complex consists of two buildings joined together at the base by a row of townhomes . The South Tower and North Tower rise 641 ft ( 195 m ) and 541 ft ( 165 m ) above the corner of Fremont and Harrison streets , respectively . The North Tower has 50 floors , while the South Tower has 60 . Because of the sloped Rincon Hill site , the South Tower 's lobby floor or the 1st Street entrance is on the sixth floor , and the first floor is five levels underground from the 1st Street entrance . It is also one of the tallest all @-@ residential towers west of the Mississippi River . Its location near the apex of Rincon Hill , at an elevation of over 100 feet ( 30 m ) , gives it an apparent height of well over 700 feet ( 210 m ) , making it one of the biggest additions to the San Francisco skyline in over 30 years .
Both the north tower and the south tower of the Rincon Hill complex bear a resemblance to The Heritage at Millennium Park in Chicago , a building of a similar height to the south tower also designed by Solomon , Cordwell , Buenz and Associates . The architectural style for both buildings of the Rincon Hill complex is late @-@ modernist . The three sides of the South Tower facing southeast , northeast , and northwest have a linear glass curtainwall . The North Tower has a similar design , except it is shorter and the curved aluminum and glass side faces northeast . Both skyscrapers of the Rincon Hill project contain an oval @-@ shaped crown housing mechanical equipment .
The crown of the South Tower contains a band of 25 LED floodlights that remain lit all night . Each LED light consumes little energy and has a lifetime of 40 @,@ 000 hours . These lights are used to signal the weather , just like the lights on the John Hancock Tower in Boston . The crown glows red if warmer weather is in the forecast . A blue crown signifies that cold weather is expected soon . Green means that there is at least a 50 percent chance of rain . Amber indicates that the weather will remain unchanged . This is the San Francisco Bay Area 's first weather beacon . The crown began lighting up on December 8 , 2008 .
= = = Earthquake engineering = = =
To support the 60 story condo tower , One Rincon Hill South Tower has a massive 12 foot ( 4 m ) thick pile @-@ raft foundation embedded deep into serpentine rock . Although some engineers view serpentine rock with suspicion , there are massive structures , such as the Golden Gate Bridge , that have foundations on rock that is largely serpentine . Rising out of the foundation are the concrete core and large , tall columns of steel @-@ reinforced concrete called outriggers . The core is attached to the outrigger columns by diagonal , steel buckling @-@ restrained braces which are designed to dissipate energy during an earthquake through controlled hysteretic behavior . This type of advanced seismic system performs in a manner similar to that of shock absorbers . The braces are also encased in concrete and steel to further mitigate risk of buckling and strength loss . Also of note is the controlled @-@ rocking system which features vertical post @-@ tensioning which runs the height of the building through ducts within the reinforced @-@ concrete shear @-@ wall core . Many of these technologies used in the One Rincon Hill South Tower have never before been applied in the United States .
= = = Water tanks = = =
At the top of the building is a large tuned sloshing damper which holds up to 50 @,@ 000 gallons ( 189 @,@ 250 litres ) of water and weighs 416 @,@ 500 pounds ( 185 @,@ 440 kg ) . A similar 50 @,@ 000 gallon ( 189 @,@ 250 liter ) tank is located in the basement for firefighting purposes . There are two liquid damper screens in each tank to control the flow of the water to counter the sway from the powerful Pacific winds , which can reach hurricane @-@ force .
= = = Elevators = = =
The South Tower has one freight and three passenger elevators . The elevators are the second fastest in the city of San Francisco , second only to those in 555 California Street and tied with those in 555 Mission Street . The elevators of the South Tower can travel from the ground floor to the 61st floor ( the mechanical level ) in only 26 seconds to speed passenger traffic flow . This means the elevators can travel about 1 @,@ 200 vertical feet ( 366 m ) in a minute . The elevators have artificial intelligence control systems that figure out passenger traffic patterns and dispatch the three elevators to handle passenger needs accordingly . The bottom of each elevator shaft has a cylinder filled with hydraulic oil to stop a falling elevator without injuring the passengers inside .
= = = Residences = = =
The entire project will provide 695 condos in the highrises and 14 townhomes at the foot of the towers for a total of 709 units . 376 of those condo units are located in the South Tower and the North Tower contains the other 319 units . Because of their height , both towers will offer spectacular vistas of the surrounding landscapes . There are 26 different floor plans for the 695 condos which are financially beyond the reach of many citizens residing in San Francisco . The units vary greatly in price from US $ 500 @,@ 000 to US $ 2 @.@ 5 million depending on view and the size of the unit that range from 600 to 2 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 56 to 186 m2 ) . The project opened up a sales office on June 16 , 2006 and even before the opening , condo @-@ buyers placed deposits for 130 of the South Tower 's 376 condo units in a selling spree . The Sales Center is rumored to have cost US $ 2 million to build . The condo units in One Rincon Hill South Tower sold well for an unfinished building at that time . The first residents began moving into the South Tower in February 2008 .
= = History = =
= = = Prelude = = =
The 183 ft ( 56 m ) triangle @-@ section clock tower , owned by Union 76 and then Bank of America , was built on the site circa 1955 . After the Transbay Plan the city changed the zoning in the Rincon Hill neighborhood and raised height limits . A second version of One Rincon Hill was proposed in response to these zoning changes , in which the height was increased to 60 stories . The second version project was approved by the city on August 4 , 2005 . Before construction of One Rincon Hill , the clock tower was razed to make way for the construction of the towers .
= = = South Tower = = =
Three months after San Francisco approved the project , construction began on the South Tower with a groundbreaking ceremony on November 10 , 2005 . The South Tower was the second @-@ tallest tower under construction in San Francisco .
= = = = July 2006 construction accident = = = =
On July 21 , 2006 , a metal construction deck collapsed sometime around 10 : 45 AM ( UTC − 7 ) . Two carpenters and two ironworkers were injured when they fell about 30 feet ( 2 @.@ 5 stories ) feet ( 6 m ) along with the deck , sending all four men to the hospital . Three of the men were released that afternoon ; one of the ironworkers was kept at the hospital with his leg broken in two places , a broken ankle , and a broken shoulder .
= = = = Progress = = = =
The South Tower was completed in September 2008 , with all residential floors ready for residents . As of , April 2009 , 70 % of the South Tower 's 376 luxury units and 14 townhouses had been sold . Because of the occupancy rate and low profits so far , the developers had initially refused to pay $ 5 @.@ 4 million in development fees that would be spent on rent subsidies , job training programs and community development in the South of Market area . However , the developers finally agreed to pay the city .
= = = North Tower = = =
The remaining north tower was scheduled to begin construction after summer 2008 and be completed in 2009 . Originally , construction was supposed to commence in January 2008 . Later , the developer mentioned construction was going start in March , but the construction firm wasn 't selected at that time . After March , the developer said construction was going to start in May 2008 . However , following the worldwide financial crisis of the late summer and fall of 2008 , the project 's developers announced that construction of the second tower was indefinitely on hold . With improving economic conditions in the city , construction started on this tower on October 2012 ; its first residents moved in August 2014 . The north tower was later renamed The Harrison .
= = Criticism = =
With condo prices set from US $ 500 @,@ 000 to US $ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , many critics have noted that the One Rincon Hill complex is too expensive for most San Franciscans . With the total initial development cost of US $ 290 million , the average development cost per unit with 709 units total is approximately US $ 409 @,@ 000 . However , the developer Urban West Associates has contributed a total of US $ 38 @.@ 5 million to funds like the South of Market Community Stabilization Fund in order to address this concern .
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= Józef Światło =
Józef Światło born Izaak Fleischfarb ( 1 January 1915 – 2 September 1994 ) was a high @-@ ranking official of the Ministry of Public Security of Poland employed as deputy director of the 10th Department run by Anatol Fejgin . Known for supervising the torture of inmates , he was nicknamed the " Butcher " by the MBP prisoners . After the death of Stalin and the arrest of Lavrentiy Beria in 1953 , Światło travelled to East Germany on an official business trip . While on the Berlin subway with Fejgin , passing through the West Berlin sector of the city , he " slipped away " and defected to the West .
After his defection on 5 December in Berlin , he worked for the CIA and the Radio Free Europe ( RFE ) . Światło 's written and broadcast incriminations shook the Polish United Workers ' Party , and ultimately contributed to the reform of the Polish security apparatus at the end of the Stalinist period , as one of the factors leading to the political liberalisation of the socialist Polish October revolution .
= = Biography = =
Józef Światło was born on 1 January 1915 as Izaak Fleischfarb ( also Fleichfarb , Licht , or Lichtstein , sources vary ) , into a Jewish family in Medyn village near Zbarazh ( now Ukraine ) . In the Second Polish Republic he was first a Zionist and later , a communist activist . He was arrested twice for his illegal activities . Conscripted in 1939 , he served in the Polish Army ( Polish 6th Infantry Division ) during the Polish September Campaign that year . Taken prisoner by the Germans , he escaped , only to be taken prisoner by the Red Army , which invaded East Poland where his family lived and deported east along with hundred thousands of others . It was also in that period that , on 26 April 1943 , he married Justyna Światło , taking her more Polish @-@ sounding surname . He eventually joined the Polish Forces in the East ( Polish 1st Tadeusz Kościuszko Infantry Division , Berling 's Army ) , becoming a political officer ; he was also promoted to junior lieutenant ( podporucznik ) and became involved in organising state administration in areas taken from the Germans .
In 1945 he was transferred to the newly formed Ministry of Public Security of Poland ( MBP ) . In his work , Światło , like many other communist secret police agents , used torture and forgery . He was involved in arresting hundreds of members of Polish underground organization , Armia Krajowa , its leadership ( the Trial of the Sixteen ) and falsifying of the 1946 Polish referendum . In time he was promoted to Lieutenant colonel ( pol.Podpułkownik ) and served in various offices and departments , eventually in 1951 ending up in the 10th Department , where he was one of the leading officers . The 10th Department was responsible for handling the Party members themselves . He received orders personally from the First Secretary of the Polish United Workers ' Party Bolesław Bierut , and arrested such notable people as politicians Władysław Gomułka and Marian Spychalski , General Michał Rola @-@ Żymierski and Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński . He had access - sometimes unique - to many secret documents . He interrogated Noel Field on 27 August 1949 in Budapest as well as his brother , Herman Field ( a US citizen who went to Poland to look for his brother ) . Herman would be secretly imprisoned for five years , until the information on him was revealed - by Światło himself .
= = = Defection to the West = = =
In November 1953 , the First Secretary of the Polish United Workers ' Party Bolesław Bierut asked Politburo member Jakub Berman to send MBP Lieutenant Colonel Józef Światło on an important mission to East Berlin . Światło , deputy head of MBP Department X , together with Colonel Anatol Fejgin , were asked to consult with Stasi chief Erich Mielke about eliminating pl : Wanda Brońska . Światło , however , after the death of Stalin in March 1953 and arrest of Lavrentiy Beria in June that year , became afraid for his own life . He suspected that Bierut in Poland might turn on him and other members of the Ministry , attempting to make them into scapegoats .
The two officers traveled to Berlin and spoke with Mielke . On 5 December 1953 , the day after meeting the Stasi chief , Światło defected to the U.S. military mission in West Berlin . He left family - wife and two children - in Poland . The next day , American military authorities transported Światło to Frankfurt and by Christmas Światło had been flown to Washington , D.C. , where he underwent an extensive debriefing . It has been reported that his interrogations were compiled into about fifty long reports . The United States gave him political asylum with the full knowledge that " he would have to be protected for the rest of his life because the number of his victims and relatives of victims sworn to exact retribution was so great . "
= = Aftermath = =
Światło 's defection was revealed in Poland by the Polish Press Agency on 25 October 1954 , with Światło labelled a traitor and provocateur . It was , however , widely publicised in the United States and Europe by the US authorities , as well as in Poland via Radio Free Europe , embarrassing the Communist authorities in Warsaw - the first international press conference with Światło took place on 28 September 1954 . Światło had intimate knowledge of the internal politics of the Polish government , especially the activities of the various secret services . Over the course of the following months , US newspapers and Radio Free Europe ( in the " Behind the scenes of the secret service and the party " cycle ) reported extensively on political repression in Poland based on Światło 's revelations .
Capitalising on them , in what was known as " Operation Spotlight " , RFE broadcast some 140 interviews by Światło , and 30 programs on him . Światło 's RFE broadcasts were not only serialized but even distributed over Poland by special balloons . Światło detailed the torture of prisoners under interrogation and politically motivated executions and struggles inside the Polish United Workers ' Party . None of the Polish Communists intelligence , counterintelligence and public security agencies escaped unscathed and without some of their secrets being revealed .
The highly publicised defection of Colonel Światło , not to mention the general hatred of the Ministry of Public Security among Poles , led to changes in late 1954 , as first the 10th Department and soon afterwards , the entire Ministry , was broken up and reorganised ; many officials were arrested . Światło 's scandal contributed to the events of political liberalisation in Poland , known as the Polish October . For a long time , it was uncertain if Światło was dead or still alive . Information on him was protected by the US witness protection program ; there were rumours that he died in late 1960s , 1975 or 1985 . In 2010 , United States government stated that he had died on 2 September 1994 . Documents relating to him are still classified in the United States and not available to researchers .
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= Barnard Castle School =
Barnard Castle School ( colloquially Barney School or locally the County School ) is a co @-@ educational independent day and boarding school in the market town of Barnard Castle , County Durham , in the North East of England . It is a member of The Headmasters ' and Headmistresses ' Conference ( HMC ) . It was founded in 1883 with funding from a 13th @-@ century endowment of John I de Balliol and the bequest of the local industrialist Benjamin Flounders . The ambition was to create a school of the quality of the ancient public schools at a more reasonable cost , whilst accepting pupils regardless of their faith .
Originally the North Eastern County School , the name was changed in 1924 , but is still generally known locally as the " County School " . The school is set in its own 50 @-@ acre ( 20 ha ) grounds in Teesdale , within the North Pennines , an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty . An on @-@ site prep school caters for pupils aged 4 to 11 , while the senior school caters for pupils aged 11 to 18 . The school was previously funded by direct grant . Founded as an all @-@ boys school , it has been fully co @-@ educational since 1993 . There are around 725 pupils and some 195 members of staff .
Since the 1980s , the school has been one of Britain 's most successful at producing top class rugby union players . During this period it schooled England international players Rob Andrew and Tony and Rory Underwood . The school has also produced Mathew Tait , Lee Dickson and Tim Visser , and appeared in three finals of the inter @-@ school Daily Mail Cup . Former pupils in other fields include Edward Mellanby ( the discoverer of Vitamin D ) ; industrialist Percy Mills , The Lord Mills ; fashion designer Giles Deacon and poet Craig Raine .
= = History = =
The school can trace its origins to an endowment made by John I de Balliol , then Lord of Barnard Castle , in 1229 . The school itself was established in 1883 when it occupied temporary premises in Middleton One Row , County Durham , whilst construction of the school was undertaken in Barnard Castle . Initially there were 25 boarders and 10 @-@ day pupils , but by the end of 1884 , there were 76 boarders . Originally known as the North Eastern County School , the main school building was completed on 2 February 1886 and initially housed 116 boarders and 12 @-@ day pupils . The Bishop of Durham presided over the foundation ceremony . The building was designed by Clark & Moscrop of Darlington in the Jacobean style , and is a Grade II listed building built with local Yorkstone and Lakeland slate . The school was built for the trustees of Benjamin Flounders and the trustees of St. John 's Hospital , Barnard Castle , who managed the Baliol endowment , and was overseen by a University of Durham committee . Flounders was a Quaker industrialist who had helped to fund the Stockton and Darlington Railway . The Flounders trustees financed the entirety of the construction of the school with a donation of £ 31 @,@ 000 . A further £ 20 @,@ 000 was raised by subscription to cover initial running costs , £ 10 @,@ 000 of which came from St John 's Hospital . The gift from St John 's was conditional on the school being situated in Barnard Castle , and this determined its location .
The school 's governance was inspired by the county school movement of Joseph Lloyd Brereton , who was largely inspired in turn by the example of Thomas Arnold , the headmaster of Rugby School . The object of the school was to provide a liberal education , with fees a fraction of those charged by public schools . Tolerance of non @-@ conformist denominations such as Methodism and Roman Catholicism informed the school 's ethos , and the school has always remained independent of the Church of England . Brereton 's son became the first headmaster of the school . In contrast to the largely classical education offered by many of the public schools of the time , the school always maintained a focus on scientific and technological education . A strong sporting programme was believed to build character . Extensions over the next few years included a sanatorium in 1890 ( now the music school ) and a swimming @-@ bath block in 1896 . In 1900 a £ 4 @,@ 000 ( £ 400 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) science block was opened by Lord Barnard with the Bishop of Durham in attendance . The building is now inhabited by Tees and Dale houses .
The school name was changed to Barnard Castle School in 1924 , and it was by this time one of the largest public schools in the North of England . When Harold Birkbeck was appointed headmaster in 1935 there were 193 pupils . In 1942 the school was elected to the Headmaster 's Conference , making it an " official " public school . Following the introduction of the Education Act 1944 , from 1945 the school became a direct grant grammar school and the number of pupils enrolled at the school increased substantially . In April 1961 a £ 65 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @.@ 1 million in 2010 ) appeal was launched for funding to build new science blocks and a library building . By this time there were 470 boys at the school , more than half of whom progressed to universities or higher education . Birkbeck introduced squash to the school , and made it one of the best @-@ known schools for the sport in the country in the 1960s and 1970s . The novelist Will Cohu described the school in 1974 as " a rugged Victorian establishment in a brooding Jacobean @-@ style building overlooking the Tees ... The school was popular with parents who were in the armed forces . It was cheap , did not have any reputation for abuse , and was strong on games " . The direct @-@ grant revenue stream was abolished in 1975 , making the school reliant upon independent funding . An appeal was launched that year to ensure the school 's survival , with £ 109 @,@ 000 ( £ 750 @,@ 000 in 2011 ) raised within nine months . The school 's first computer was installed in January 1978 .
Frank Macnamara became headmaster in 1980 , described as " an affable enthusiast " in The Guardian . Under his tenure the school would develop its reputation for fostering world @-@ class rugby talent . For the duration of its existence ( 1980 – 1997 ) the school took part in the Assisted Places Scheme . Girls were first admitted to the Sixth Form in 1981 , and the school has been fully co @-@ educational since 1993 . By 1992 there were around 610 pupils with an approximately 50 : 50 split between boarding and day pupils . From 1993 , as the result of a HMC initiative , Eastern European children were awarded scholarships to study at the school ; by 1995 , 8 per cent of the school 's intake came from overseas . Michael Featherstone , a former England hockey international , was appointed headmaster in 1997 , and the school enjoyed considerable academic success during his tenure .
= = School site = =
One of the North East 's most famous schools , Barnard Castle is set in its own 50 @-@ acre grounds on the edge of town . It is located in Teesdale , and is within the North Pennines Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty . Giles Deacon has said of the location that " you could just walk out and you were in the middle of the Pennines " . The Bowes Museum is situated next to the school . The school caters for pupils aged 4 to 18 , with pupils younger than 11 being taught in a separate on @-@ site preparatory school ( Prep School ) . The original building is now used mainly for accommodation and administration and is described as " stately " by The Independent . The school spire is known colloquially as " The Pepperpot " . It also contains the dining hall and " Big School " , public school slang for the school hall . All teaching is undertaken in purpose @-@ built classrooms . The school site contains tennis / netball courts , squash courts , a large sports hall and an AstroTurf pitch . A total of £ 3 million has been invested in the school 's infrastructure since 2008 , including a £ 1 @.@ 5 million Physics and ICT block , a new hall for the Prep School and a new sports pavilion containing a gym and a dance studio . The school has been used as a filming location for the television sketch show The Fast Show .
= = = Chapel = = =
The school 's chapel was completed in 1911 . It was designed by W. D. Caroe , and Nikolaus Pevsner described it as " impressive " both internally and externally . Somewhat unusually , it is oriented in a North / South direction . A large proportion of the funding to build the chapel was provided by Lord Barnard , the local nobleman and a leading freemason ( with the remainder made up from public subscription ) , and accordingly the foundation ceremony was performed in full masonic regalia . The Grade II * listed building contains a painting by Ary Scheffer and a Father Willis organ . It has stained glass windows commemorating John Balliol and Benjamin Flounders , the two founders of the school . A roll of honour in the chapel commemorates the 141 former pupils and 4 Masters who died in the First World War , the 55 former pupils who died in the Second World War and one who died in the Falklands War . There is a roll of honour in the main school building for the former pupils who lost their lives in the Second Boer War .
= = = Barnard Castle Preparatory School = = =
The Prep School has access to all of the facilities of the senior school . It is situated in a separate area of the school grounds with its own organisation , staff and buildings . The school is sited around a main building called Westwick Lodge , " a sprawling Victorian villa with the modern dormitories and classroom block hidden at the rear . It [ has ] a long , sloping front lawn , thickly planted with shrubberies ... Round the back [ is ] a playground and a muddy hill with a few trees " . Members of the Prep School are referred to throughout the school as " Preppies " .
The school was founded in 1914 and was originally a girl 's school , and independent from the County School . In 1989 there were just 65 pupils , all of them boys . By 2009 there were over 200 pupils , equally split between girls and boys . School on Saturdays was abolished at the Prep School in 1999 .
= = School life = =
= = = Intake = = =
40 per cent of senior school intake comes from the state sector , and over 50 per cent come from the on site Prep School . 25 per cent of Sixth Form pupil intake is from state schools . Day pupils commute from a geographically large catchment area that is predominantly rural in nature . These settlements are as far afield as Hurworth and Stanhope as well as larger settlements such as Kirkby Stephen , Durham , Bishop Auckland , Richmond and Darlington . Pupils are from a wide range of professional , managerial and farming backgrounds . There are 200 boarding pupils , significant numbers of whom have parents who are members of HM Forces , and many families are linked to Catterick Garrison , Europe 's largest military base , which is situated nearby . 15 per cent of boarders have parents living overseas , particularly Hong Kong . An Open Day is held annually when the school welcomes prospective students and their families to tour the school . It is held on a Saturday morning in early October .
= = = Academic and routine = = =
Every weekday ( except for Wednesday ) begins with a chapel service . School is held on Saturday mornings , with many sporting fixtures taking place on Saturday afternoons . There is an exeat weekend every term when pupils get respite from Saturday school . The Sunday chapel service is compulsory for boarding pupils . Homework , which is always referred to as " prep " , ( short for preparatory work ) is set for every day with the exception of Sunday . During weekdays there is a mid @-@ morning coffee break for all pupils when refreshments are provided , a tradition from when many day pupils would arrive at that time from outlying settlements . The school uniform is traditional , including a black blazer and a tie . Merits are given as rewards for outstanding work . Punishments include weekday afternoon detention and Saturday afternoon detention . Corporal punishment had to be phased out by 1987 in line with state schools , as it received public funding . The headmaster is aided in his running of the school by the monitor ( prefect ) system . As well as the standard subjects , Latin , Classics , Ancient History , Greek , German and Spanish are taught . The school has a strong reputation for sciences . In 2011 the Independent Schools Inspectorate described the school 's ethos as " traditionally unpretentious " .
= = = Pastoral = = =
Pastoral care is provided through the house system . Each pupil is assigned to a house . Each house has its own accommodation in the school and its own set of tutors to look after members of the house . There are eight vertically integrated houses in total , each with its own colour and heraldic @-@ like shield : The two boys ' boarding houses are York ( red ) and Northumberland ( pale blue ) . The three day boys ' houses are Tees ( dark green ) and Dale ( burgundy ) , both formed by splitting Teesdale House , the first day boys ' house , and finally Durham ( gold ) , which was converted from boarding to day when the school expanded in the 1990s . The boarding girls belong to the original Sixth Form girls ' house , Longfield ( dark pink ) , and the new houses formed for day girls when the school became co @-@ educational are Marwood ( purple ) and more recently Bowes ( pale green ) . The school considered abolishing its boarding facilities when , like many boarding schools , it suffered a significant drop in numbers during the 1990s . However , numbers unexpectedly improved around the turn of the millennium , and this turnaround has often been attributed to the positive image that boarding received from the Harry Potter series . The school is interdenominational , whilst maintaining its foundation in Christian principles and values .
= = = Governance = = =
The school is a charitable trust governed by twelve foundation and seven nominated governors , the latter with links to Durham and Newcastle Universities , Durham County Council , Barnard Castle Town Council and the Old Barnardian Association . The school aims to offer the best independent education to children from the North East of England . According to information provided to the Charities Commission , the income of the school was £ 8 @.@ 6 million in the 2011 – 12 @-@ year , with the vast majority of the revenue coming from school fees . It has been a member of The Headmasters ' and Headmistresses ' Conference since 1944 .
= = Extracurricular activities = =
The houses form the basis for much competition within the school . The first competition in the school year is the House Singing Competition in which every member of the school takes part . Thereafter , throughout the school year , the houses compete against each other in a variety of academic , artistic , and sporting events . An extensive range of almost 100 after @-@ school activities are offered throughout the year , such as The Duke of Edinburgh 's Award scheme up to Gold level .
= = = Sport = = =
Rugby for boys and hockey for girls are the major sports during the Autumn term . In the Spring Term the boys play football , hockey and squash whilst the girls play netball and lacrosse . Both boys and girls take part in cross country running and swimming . During the Summer term , cricket is the most important sport for boys . Teams have toured Majorca and the Caribbean in recent years . Members of the 1st XI often gain representative honours for their counties and the North of England . The school was described by The Daily Telegraph as " one of the premier cricketing schools of the north " . Girls focus on rounders in the summer whilst both girls and boys partake in tennis and athletics . Sports Day is a major fixture in the school calendar .
= = = Barnard Run = = =
The Barnard Run is a school competition , consisting of a cross @-@ country trial over a hilly course . It is the most important sporting event in the school year . The course has varied considerably over the years . It dates back to 1892 when Lord Barnard donated and presented the trophy . The race takes place annually at the end of the first half of the Spring Term . The girls ' and younger boys ' race is 2 ¾ miles while the senior boys ' is 4 miles .
Historically the Barnard Run was a seven @-@ mile course which began at Towler Hill Farm , ran to Cotherstone suspension bridge , with an undetermined route back to the school . In 1898 a 4 @-@ mile junior Barnard Run was created for 11- to 14 @-@ year @-@ olds . In 1904 it was decided that it would be easier for training purposes if the run began at the school , and a new course was developed .
= = = CCF = = =
The Junior Officers ' Training Corps was established at the school in 1909 following an invitation from Lord Haldane , then Secretary of State for War . By 1911 it had 103 cadets and 3 staff . In 1948 all OTCs were superseded by the Combined Cadet Force ( CCF ) . As of 2012 it had almost 200 cadets and 10 staff , making it one of the largest contingents in the country . Facilities associated with the CCF include an armoury and an indoor shooting range . In 2012 the contingent won the Colts Canter competition , which saw it named the best force in the North of England .
= = Rugby union = =
The school has produced 37 U19 international rugby players , leading The Times to comment that it has " a happy knack of producing some of England 's finest rugby talents . " The Observer commented on the rugby success in 2008 , " Someone should analyse what they put in the food " . The most prominent are Rob Andrew , brothers Rory Underwood and Tony Underwood , and Mathew Tait who have all played for England at international level . Former headmaster David Ewart explained the school 's rugby ethos : " We believe the game breeds important life skills in those who play it . It 's a civilising game and you need to be a gentlemen on the pitch , as well as off . " During the period 1970 to 1995 no other British school produced as many England international players . In 2012 Tim Visser described his former school 's rugby programme as " brilliant " .
The school is a prominent feeder institution for the Newcastle Falcons , with signings over the last decade including Lee Dickson , Tim Visser , Alex Tait , Ed Williamson and Rory Clegg . Recent signings to other premiership clubs include Calum Clark , Alex Gray and Ross Batty . Many Barnardians represent junior international sides , as well as the North of England , several northern county sides ( such as Durham , Cumbria , Yorkshire and Cheshire ) and the Independent Schools ' Barbarians . The 1st VII have appeared in the final of the North of England Sevens and National Schools Sevens .
The School 's 1st XV team reached the final of the national Daily Mail Cup for U18s three times in five seasons between 2002 / 03 and 2006 / 07 . Nicknamed the Barney Army , the team lost to Oakham School , Colston 's School and Warwick School respectively in the 2002 , 2003 and 2007 finals . In 2007 / 2008 , the 1st XV were beaten in the semi @-@ finals 19 @-@ 16 by St Benedict 's School . The school reached the finals of the National Schools Sevens in 2002 and 2005 .
= = = International rugby honours = = =
England caps
Howard Marshall ( 1891 – 1893 )
James Hutchinson ( 1906 )
Tom Danby ( 1949 )
Rory Underwood ( 1984 – 1996 )
Rob Andrew ( 1985 – 1997 )
Tony Underwood ( 1992 – 1998 )
Mathew Tait ( 2005 – present )
Lee Dickson ( 2012 – present )
Scotland caps
Tim Visser ( 2012 – present )
= = Tradition = =
Cheers : If a school sports team is victorious the entire team will , on return to school , stand on Central Hall Table ( Central Hall being the school 's focal point ) and the captain will lead three cheers for the school . For the 1st XV cheers also take place after home victories . The team gathers in what is known as Back Porch immediately after the match and three cheers are sounded .
Foundation Day : Celebrated every 6 November . Initially the Barnard Run was held on this day . Before 1892 the tradition was to celebrate the day with a paper chase , but this was replaced after Lord Barnard donated the Barnard Cup .
Nailing Up : This occurs at every end of term school chapel service . Originally taking place in Central Hall , the captain of the house team which had won that term 's major sporting event would climb up to his house shield displayed on the first floor balcony and nail the award to the shield . Nowadays the captain of the winning house team comes to the front of chapel and ceremonially taps the shield . " Jerusalem " is always sung at the last service of term .
Speech Day : Occurring on the final day of the Summer Term ( usually a Saturday ) the entire school community including parents , relatives and friends of the school , meet for Speech Day . The Chairman of the Governors , the Headmaster , an invited Speaker and the Head of School make speeches , and academic prizes are awarded to pupils . Past speakers have included Hensley Henson , Kenneth Calman and Kevin Whately .
= = Old Barnardians = =
Rob Andrew , former international rugby union player and current Rugby Operations Director at the Rugby Football Union .
RJ Thompson , singer songwriter who has toured Europe with artists such as Jools Holland , Midge Ure and Gabrielle Aplin .
Barrie Dobson , historian .
Ed Bartlett , technology entrepreneur
Ross Batty , rugby union player with Bath .
Bentley Beetham , ornithologist , photographer and member of the 1924 British Mount Everest expedition .
David J. Bodycombe , puzzle author .
George Nicholson Bradford , Victoria Cross recipient .
Joshua Harold Burn , pharmacologist .
Andrew Cantrill , organist .
Scott Carpenter , water polo player .
Ian Carr , musician and broadcaster .
Mike Carr , jazz musician .
Calum Clark , rugby union player with Northampton Saints .
Rory Clegg , rugby union player with Newcastle Falcons
Andrew Critchlow , business news editor at the Telegraph Media Group .
Tom Danby , international rugby union and rugby league player .
Giles Deacon , fashion designer .
Karl Dickson , rugby union player with Harlequins .
Lee Dickson , international rugby union player for England .
Robert Dinwiddie , professional golfer .
Nigel Farndale , journalist and novelist .
Patrick Grant , fashion designer .
Alex Gray , rugby union player with England Sevens , and former England U20s captain .
Nicholas Hatch , former first class cricketer with Durham .
Glenn Hugill , television producer and presenter .
Ben Jones , former rugby union player with Worcester Warriors .
Lionel Fanthorpe , priest , entertainer , television presenter , author and lecturer .
George Macaulay , test match cricketer .
Howard Marshall , international rugby union player .
Nathan McCree , composer .
Edward Mellanby , discoverer of Vitamin D.
Kenneth Mellanby , ecologist .
Percy Mills , 1st Viscount Mills , Cabinet member and industrialist , Director of EMI and Chairman of its electronics subsidiary .
Jack Ormston , speedway pioneer .
Craig Raine , poet .
Neil Riddell , former captain of Durham County Cricket Club .
Geoffrey Smith , horticulturalist and broadcaster .
Mark Sowerby , Bishop of Horsham .
Alex Tait , rugby union player with Newcastle Falcons .
Mathew Tait , international rugby union player for England .
Andrew Thornton , jump jockey .
Richard Tomlinson , former MI6 officer .
Rory Underwood , former rugby union international .
Tony Underwood , former rugby union international .
Tim Visser , international rugby union player for Scotland .
Kevin Whately , Inspector Morse and Lewis actor .
Catherine White , Olympic silver medalist swimmer .
Guy Wilks , rally driver .
Ed Williamson , former rugby union player with Newcastle Falcons .
= = Headmasters = =
The Rev Francis Lloyd Brereton 1883 – 1887 , 1893 – 1924
Edward Henry Prest 1887 – 1893
Arthur George Coombe 1924 – 1935
Harold Edward Birkbeck 1935 – 1965
Sidney D Woods 1965 – 1980
Frank Macnamara 1980 – 1997
Michael David Featherstone 1997 – 2004
David Ewart 2004 – 2010
Alan Stevens 2010 – present
Current staff include the former first @-@ class cricketer John Lister and former List A cricketer Benjamin Usher . Notable former staff have included the educationalist George Graham Able , Bentley Beetham and cricketer Martin Speight . Past governors include Joseph Langley Burchnall , who served on the board for twenty years , rising to the level of chairman .
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= Sir Lucious Left Foot : The Son of Chico Dusty =
Sir Lucious Left Foot : The Son of Chico Dusty is the debut studio album by American rapper Big Boi , released on July 5 , 2010 , by Purple Ribbon Records and Def Jam Recordings . It is his first solo album as a member of hip hop duo OutKast . Production for the album took place primarily at Stankonia Recording Studio in Atlanta during 2007 to 2010 and was handled by several record producers , including Organized Noize , Scott Storch , Salaam Remi , Mr. DJ , and André 3000 , among others .
The album 's development was impeded by a dispute between Big Boi and his former label , Jive Records , over creative and commercial differences . Rooted in Southern hip hop , Sir Lucious Left Foot has been noted by music writers for its bounce and bass @-@ heavy sound , layered production , and assorted musical elements . Its lyrics deal with boasting , sex , social commentary , and club themes , featuring Big Boi 's clever wordplay and versatile flow .
Following a heavily delayed release , the album debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200 , selling 62 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , and spent 13 weeks on the chart . It also charted internationally and produced two singles , including the UK top @-@ 40 hit " Shutterbugg " . Sir Lucious Left Foot received rave reviews from music critics , who praised its varied sound and Big Boi 's lyricism , and was included in numerous year @-@ end top albums lists . Big Boi promoted the album with an international tour in 2010 . As of September 2010 , it has sold 175 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
= = Background = =
= = = Solo ventures = = =
Released in August 2006 , OutKast 's sixth album Idlewild and the duo 's musical film of the same name were met with a lukewarm reception from critics and audiences . Amid break @-@ up rumors , Big Boi and André 3000 announced their hiatus as a duo and plans for individual career endeavours . Unlike their fifth album Speakerboxxx / The Love Below , which included a solo album by each member , his album and André 3000 ’ s own solo album will be sold separately . They intend to continue work as a duo after each of their solo albums are released . Prior to working on his solo effort , Big Boi had occupied himself with managing his Purple Ribbon imprint label and several acting roles , including a supporting role as a drug dealer in the well @-@ received , coming @-@ of @-@ age film ATL and the lead role as a rap mogul in the critically panned comedy film Who 's Your Caddy ? . In an interview with Vibe , he said that due to the Writers ' Strike at the time his further work in film would be on hold and expressed plans for new music .
After being approached by artistic director John McFall in 2007 , Big Boi collaborated with the Atlanta Ballet company on a production entitled big . As creative director , Big Boi recruited bandmembers , developed a story line , and worked with choreographer Lauri Stallings to put the project together . The production received good buzz and ran for six performances in April 2010 at the Fox Theatre in Atlanta . It featured him in a starring role as himself , a live band of musicians from the Purple Ribbon label , performances by Sleepy Brown and Janelle Monáe , and syncopated dance sequences set to OutKast hits and tracks intended for Big Boi 's solo album . In 2008 , he ended his three @-@ year " beef " with rapper and former Purple Ribbon artist Killer Mike .
The album 's title is derived from Big Boi 's long @-@ time moniker " Sir Lucious Left Foot " . In several interviews , he has explained part of it as a reference to the Southern slang phrase " gettin ’ out on the good foot " , while describing the entire moniker as an indication of maturity , noting it as " my real grown @-@ man persona " and " like my Luke @-@ Skywalker @-@ becoming @-@ a @-@ Jedi persona . Like , I 'm just really serious about my craft , I 've mastered it , and I 'm very skilled at it , and I take pride in making this music " . He incorporated the nickname " Chico Dusty " to the album 's title as a dedication to his late father , Tony Kearse , who gained it while serving as a fighter pilot in the United States Air Force and Marines . The spelling of luscious in the album 's title , Big Boi 's moniker , is intended to reflect on its distinctive pronunciation " loo @-@ shuss " , which according to Big Boi , is not " the girl name ; you call a girl luscious , along the lines of voluptuous " .
= = = Record label = = =
In 2004 , OutKast 's original record label Arista Records was restructured under the Jive label group . During their hiatus , Big Boi and André 3000 were pressured by Jive to produce an OutKast album instead of focusing on their solo work . In July 2009 , Big Boi left Jive Records , following creative differences and the label 's unwillingness to release and promote his solo album . According to Big Boi , Jive gave him an ultimatum to shop the album elsewhere . In an interview for GQ , he discussed his release from Jive and his discontent with the label for proposing he record a cover of rapper Lil Wayne 's " Lollipop " , stating " They told me to go in and make my version of Lil Wayne 's Lollipop ! I love that song ... But how you gonna tell me to go bite another MCs style ? ... That 's the highest form of disrespect ever . So that 's when I wanted to get off Jive . And the only honorable thing they 've done is allow me to do that " . Big Boi expressed that Jive viewed its intended singles as not " radio @-@ friendly " and the album as " a piece of art , and they didn 't know what to do with it " .
In an interview for MTV upon the album 's release , Big Boi explained that most of its material had been finished while at Jive , stating " It 's basically the same album . I could have been done , like , a year ago . But being that we were having creative differences — you know , every time they rejected what I was doing , I would go back in the studio and work on more stuff . The last two songs , ' You Ain 't No DJ ' and ' Be Still , ' were the last two records , but everything else was already on there " . Despite his individual release , OutKast as a group remained signed to Jive . After leaving Jive , Big Boi contacted record executive and Island Def Jam CEO / chairman L.A. Reid , who had originally signed OutKast to LaFace in 1992 . He played Reid a track from the album , " Fo Yo Sorrows " , which persuaded him to actualize a contract for Big Boi . Following two months of negotiations , Big Boi signed a three @-@ album deal with Def Jam Recordings in March 2010 .
= = Recording = =
Sir Lucious Left Foot was recorded over a period of three years , beginning on Martin Luther King , Jr . Day in 2007 . Big Boi has said that he " always start working on albums on Martin Luther King Day . It 's a good luck charm " . The album was primarily recorded at Stankonia Recording Studio in Atlanta , Georgia , the studio used by OutKast for their previous albums . Additional recording took place at The Dungeon Recording Studios , The Slumdrum Dreamhouse , and King of Crunk in Atlanta , Dungeon East Studios in Decatur , Georgia , Instrumental Zoo in Miami , Florida , and Kush Studios in Palm Island , Florida . Big Boi discussed the Stankonia studio 's environment in an interview for The Guardian , calling it " comfortable but gritty enough to get you in a state of mind of being raw and ready to kill stuff " , while noting that the sessions were accompanied by " some candles , a little red light , maybe some crunk juice and a cigar ; every now and then perhaps a little ' purple ' " . While searching for a new record label , he completed recording for the album . The album was mastered on May 27 , 2010 .
In an August interview , Big Boi said that he planned to co @-@ produce each of the album 's tracks , with production also being handled by Organized Noize , Boom Boom Room Productions , Scott Storch , and Lil Jon . Noted for using synthesizers , electric pianos , samplers , and drum machines in his music , musician and frequent OutKast @-@ collaborator Sleepy Brown contributed with production as a member of Organized Noize and with vocals to several tracks . Big Boi has said that he incorporated various musical elements to the album , with " something from every genre , every funk , beat , loop , horn , whistle . We got it all on the record " . He has described Sir Lucious Left Foot as " a funk @-@ filled extravaganza ! You know , layers and layers of funk with raw lyrics and a lotta honesty " .
Big Boi also worked with other guest artists , including Jamie Foxx , T.I. , and B.o.B. André 3000 was to appear on three tracks , and produce a track for Yelawolf . Big Boi was introduced to Yelawolf 's music through his younger brother and invited him to record after seeing him perform . The track " Follow Us " features Vonnegutt , an act from Big Boi 's Purple Ribbon label . He originally proposed a rock @-@ influenced track for Yelawolf , but was persuaded by him to send the instrumental for " You Ain 't No DJ " . According to Yelawolf , he " wrote like 64 bars and turned in the huge verse " , which was edited down to 16 and eight @-@ bar parts of his original verse for the finished song . Big Boi also attempted unsuccessfully to collaborate with singer @-@ songwriter Kate Bush , and managed to work with funk music pioneer George Clinton on " Fo Yo Sorrows " , an experience he related to " Dorothy going to see the Wizard of Oz . He is the grandfather of funk ; when George speaks , you listen . He 's gonna give you that extraterrestrial funk ; you gotta be thankful for the way he beams it down to you " . In an interview for Blues & Soul , he discussed working with the beat for " Shutterbugg " after producer Scott Storch had presented it , stating " [ I ] brought my band in – my guitar players , keyboard players , the talkbox – and we just pissed on it ! You know , we put the P @-@ Funk on it , and just commenced to lyrically destroy the track " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Sir Lucious Left Foot features a layered and voluminous production , which Big Boi has described as " like someone 's pushing you around the room " . Rooted in Southern hip hop , it contains a bounce and bass @-@ heavy sound with dense TR 808 @-@ driven basslines , live instrumentation , and backing vocalists . Music writer Greg Kot calls it " a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art Southern @-@ fried party @-@ funk album " and notes its bass @-@ heavy sound as " full of surface charm , the type of music that is designed to sound big in a club , the soundtrack for a night of excess . But there ’ s very little conventional about these beats " .
The album 's sound also incorporates diverse musical elements from various genres such as funk , soul , rock , dubstep , and electro music . Houston Press writer Shea Serrano describes the album as a " new take on the traditional Southern rap sound . It 's slow and fast , wonky and flimsy , lyrical and hook @-@ driven " . Tom Breihan of Pitchfork Media perceives " 1980s synth @-@ funk " as its predominant musical element , but also finds each track musically varied , stating " New melodic elements flit in and out of tracks just as you start to notice them , and there 's a lot going on at any given moment " . Big Boi has called the music " basically what you been getting from Outkast . Raw lyricism and the funkiest grooves you can lay your ears on . "
Big Boi 's lyrics are playful and irreverent , with clever wordplay and boasts , while incorporating non @-@ sequiturs , pop @-@ culture references , and tongue @-@ twisters . His rhymes are delivered through a fast , versatile flow and dexterous cadence . Rolling Stone 's Christian Hoard describes his flow as " inimitably slick and speedy " . Amos Barshad of New York notes his lyrics as " playful , but his flow is stern and unpredictable " . Sasha Frere @-@ Jones of The New Yorker describes the album 's mood as " decidedly upbeat " and writes of Big Boi 's rapping , " The musical DNA of ' Sir Lucious ' lies in a simple strategy that Big Boi has used for years : he often raps in double time , no matter what the tempo of the song is . This means that even the slower songs [ ... ] don ’ t drag — Big Boi uses the space in the beat to provide another rhythm with his words " . Frere @-@ Jones describes him as " simultaneously forceful and careful " with his lyrics and compares his rapping technique to " the clatter of a machine , like a lawnmower , where secondary rhythms whisper underneath the main beat [ ... ] Big Boi is never laid @-@ back when he raps : he defines wide @-@ awake " .
Thematically , the album 's subject matter mostly concerns self @-@ aggrandisement , sex , social commentary , and " the club " . Music writer Omar Burgess comments that the album finds Big Boi " vacillating between a shit @-@ talking B @-@ boy , social commentary spitting vet and a ladies man with a wandering eye " . Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe notes " lissome rhyming about things frivolous and fraught " by Big Boi . NPR writer Andrew Noz views that his " spiral of internal rhyme schemes and stop @-@ and @-@ go cadences [ ... ] values style over substance but doesn 't neglect writing , whether battling imaginary rap foes or offering advice on fiscal responsibility " .
= = = Songs = = =
" Turns Me On " has a comical beat and multiple vocals , including 1950s @-@ styled vocals during a break in the song . " Follow Us " features fractured , Afrobeat guitar phrases , sleazy synthesizer , and a pop refrain by Vonnegutt . " Shutterbugg " has a robotic stutter , falsetto refrain , female whispers and described by The Guardian 's Hattie Collins as " a futuristic , brain @-@ crunching slice of jittery electro hop " . " Tangerine " features blunt lyrics concerning strip club themes and a lascivious guest rap by T.I. The song incorporates various musical elements , including exotic Afro @-@ polyrhythms , psychedelic instrumental effects , booming bass , tribal beats , synthesizer vamps , and slow , reverbing grunge rock guitar . Tom Breihan notes that the song " somehow simultaneously sounds like strip @-@ club ass @-@ shake material and Funkadelic covering Morricone " , while music journalist Alexis Petridis writes that it " improbably burst [ s ] into something that most closely resembles a P @-@ Funk take on the mid @-@ 60s Batman theme . The lyrics , meanwhile , come in a breathless blur of druggy non @-@ sequiturs and pop @-@ culture references , some of it frankly baffling " . " Fo Yo Sorrows " features funk musician George Clinton performing the hook and has been described as " a seamless blur of old school Atlanta bass , current @-@ day glitch @-@ hop and Funkadelic @-@ style psychedelia " .
Several tracks on Sir Lucious Left Foot contain humorous skits with dialogue from additional vocalists , including Chris Carmouche , Dax " Dirty Dr. " Rudnak , Big Rube , Henry Welch , and Keisha Atwater . Welch and Carmouche are featured in a skit at the beginning of " Be Still " , in which they make a reference to " tea bagging " . Dax Rudnak concludes " General Patton " with a skit about a sex maneuver called " the David Blaine " , which according to the skit is " when you ’ re making love to someone from behind , then have a friend take over and you run to a window and wave at your partner " . In an interview for Time Out Chicago , Big Boi was asked whether he " [ is ] taking credit for this , or is this something people do ? " , to which he responded " Yeah , man ! You know , man , they do it now ! " .
= = Release and promotion = =
= = = Release history = = =
Before his departure from Jive , Big Boi planned to release the album in 2008 . In January 2010 , he announced a March 23 release through his Twitter account . In April , its release was pushed back to July 6 in the United States . However , in June , Jive attempted to block its release , claiming that Def Jam could not issue songs featuring both Big Boi and André 3000 , as OutKast was represented as a duo by the former label . In a June 7 interview for GQ , Big Boi responded to a question concerning the blocking of his recordings with André 3000 for Sir Lucious Left Foot , stating " Au contraire ! They cannot block it . Au contraire . Either they 're going to do it the right way , or they 're going to do it my way ... The fans ' thirst will be quenched . You know , I 'm no stranger to that Internet , baby . So you already know what time it is . The thirst of the fans will be quenched " . On June 10 , his website released the album 's track listing , which excluded tracks featuring André 3000 . Of his songs with André 3000 , he told GQ , " We 're gonna keep one of them for the next OutKast record " .
The album was made available for streaming at Big Boi 's MySpace page . Following leaks of several of its tracks , the album also leaked in its entirety to the Internet on June 29 . Prior to its official release , anti @-@ piracy companies had estimated that his tracks were being downloaded approximately 45 @,@ 000 times a day . On July 1 , Big Boi self @-@ released his mixtape Mixtape for Dummies : Guide to Global Greatness as a free download through his website , featuring tracks compiled by DJ X @-@ Rated and DJ Esco from Big Boi 's solo recordings and work with OutKast . Sir Lucious Left Foot : The Son of Chico Dusty was released by Big Boi 's imprint Purple Ribbons label and Def Jam Recordings on July 5 in the United Kingdom and on July 6 in the US . A deluxe edition of the album was released simultaneously in the US , with the inclusion of two bonus tracks and a second DVD of music videos for several songs . Big Boi 's official website store offered limited edition releases of the album , including the deluxe edition 's two discs , ivory white vinyl LPs , a limited edition T @-@ shirt , and a custom GoodWood chain . In promotion of the album 's release , Converse produced a special limited edition run of Chuck Taylor All @-@ Stars shoes in August 2010 . The shoes were designed by Big Boi himself and feature the album title printed around the outer sides of the shoe 's heel . On the collaboration , Big Boi said in a statement " as long as I can remember music and Converse have gone hand in hand , so partnering up with them was a no @-@ brainer " .
= = = Singles = = =
Amid his disputes with former label Jive , Big Boi leaked two recordings originally intended for Sir Lucious Left Foot as promotional singles to the Internet . The album 's first promo single , " Royal Flush " featuring André 3000 and Raekwon , had appeared on various web magazines and blogs in March 2008 . It received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group and was named the best song of 2008 by About.com. Its second promo single , " Sumthin 's Gotta Give " featuring Mary J. Blige , was leaked to the Internet along with its music video in June 2008 . The Boi @-@ 1da @-@ produced track " Lookin ' 4 Ya " , featuring André 3000 and Sleepy Brown , leaked onto the Internet on June 8 . The track 's " Jedi Remix " version was released to East Village @-@ based radio show Baller 's Eve and subsequently onto the Internet in September 2010 . It features the original instrumental with two different verses from both Big Boi and André 3000 .
Big Boi leaked the album 's first official single , " Shutterbugg " , on April 6 . It was officially released as a single on April 26 . It was also issued on interactive music site MXP4 , which enabled users to play with , mix , remix , and sing along with the track . Its music video was directed by Chris Robinson and premiered on May 26 . The video 's concept incorporates various scenes that accentuate different lines from Big Boi 's lyrics . On its concept , Big Boi said in an interview for MTV , " It goes with the rhymes . Chris Robinson was definitely onboard [ with the concept ] . What he took from the song was a lyrical , visual adventure . There 's a lot of special stuff going on . He 's freaking the visuals like I 'm freaking the rhymes " . " Shutterbugg " spent two weeks on the US R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , peaking at number 60 , and it charted at number 99 on the US Hot 100 Airplay . It also reached number 31 and spent four weeks on the UK Singles Chart , and at number eight on the Deutsche Black Charts in Germany . Rolling Stone named " Shutterbugg " the 14th best single of 2010 . It was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group in 2010 .
" Fo Yo Sorrows " , featuring George Clinton , Too Short , and Sam Chris , was released as a promotional single on June 8 on iTunes . " General Patton " was also released to iTunes on June 15 . Its music video was released on June 13 . On August 26 , Big Boi 's website posted the track 's " chopped and screwed " version as a free download . The song " Tangerine " , featuring T.I. , was released to iTunes on June 29 . " Follow Us " , featuring Vonnegutt , was released as the second official single on July 20 in the US and September 13 in the UK . A music video for the song was directed by Zach Wolfe and released on July 1 . The track was remixed by Vonnegutt and released September 13 through Big Boi 's website . The track " You Ain 't No DJ " received some airplay on Atlanta @-@ based radio . Its music video was directed by Parris in Atlanta , and released virally on September 2 . The video features Big Boi in a red tracksuit and with a lightsaber in one scene , guest rapper Yelawolf lounging on a couch , and several break dancers , while motions in the video 's scenes are rewinded and sped up with film editing to accentuate cutting , mixing , and spinning by a DJ in the song .
= = = Performances = = =
Big Boi made promotional appearances on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on July 7 and Late Night with Jimmy Fallon on July 12 , 2010 , performing the album 's lead single " Shutterbugg " on both shows . He also performed its second single " Follow Us " on Lopez Tonight on July 14 and on Late Show with David Letterman on August 23 . Big Boi joined the line @-@ up for the Pitchfork Music Festival during June 16 – 18 in Union Park , Chicago , performing on the festival 's third and final day . He performed a set at Acer Arena in Olympic Park , Sydney on July 28 as part of the Australian @-@ based Winterbeatz music festival , and both Øyafestivalen in Oslo , Norway and the Flow Festival in Helsinki , Finland on August 14 . On August 18 , he played a free show at Sobe Live in Miami , Florida , which MySpace Music broadcast live via Ustream.tv with the MySpace page of HP .
Initially expected through the end of the year , a supporting 20 @-@ concert tour for Sir Lucious Left Foot was announced by Big Boi on August 25 . His spokespeople confirmed that he would be performing material from previous OutKast albums in addition to songs from Sir Lucious Left Foot . The tour began on August 26 at the Verizon Wireless Amphitheater in Atlanta , Georgia and concluded on November 18 at Fox Studios in Sydney , Australia .
On September 2 , Big Boi headlined with DJ mashup duo Super Mash Bros the Hawkapolooza , an event at the Memorial Union Iowa City , Iowa inaugurating the start of the college athletic season for the Iowa Hawkeyes . He headlined New York University 's annual Mystery Concert at the Skirball Center for Performing Arts in New York City with opening act Dr. Dog on September 7 , and performed at the 9 : 30 Club in Washington , D.C. on September 8 . He was billed for the 2010 Epicenter music festival on September 25 at the Auto Club Speedway in Fontana , California . On October 28 , Big Boi headlined the Yorktown Throwdown , a benefit show in support of the Boys & Girls Clubs of America . The concert featured electronic music duo MSTRKRFT and was held in the USS Yorktown lot at Patriot 's Point in South Carolina .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
The album debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200 chart , with first @-@ week sales of 62 @,@ 000 copies . It also entered at number two on Billboard 's Digital Albums and Tastemaker Albums , and at number three on both its Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums and Top Rap Albums charts . It spent 13 weeks on the Billboard 200 chart , and as of September 26 , has sold 175 @,@ 000 copies in the US , according to Nielsen SoundScan .
In Canada , Sir Lucious Left Foot debuted at number 20 on the Top 100 Albums chart . In the United Kingdom , it entered at number 80 on the Top 100 Albums and at number 14 on the Top 40 RnB Albums chart . In its second week , it fell out of the Top 100 Albums . The album debuted at number 99 in Switzerland and at number 19 in Norway . In Norway , it reached number 16 , its peak position , in its second week on the VG @-@ lista Topp 40 Album chart , on which it ultimately spent eight weeks . In Australia , the album entered at number 33 on the ARIA Top 50 Albums and at number five on the Top 40 Urban Albums chart . In its second week , it dropped out of the Top 50 Albums chart .
= = = Critical response = = =
Sir Lucious Left Foot : The Son of Chico Dusty received rave reviews from contemporary music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 90 , which indicates " universal acclaim " , based on 33 reviews . Allmusic editor Andy Kellman called it " one of the loosest , most varied , and entertaining albums of its time " . Entertainment Weekly 's Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson called the album " a stunningly realized solo debut " . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian praised its " kaleidoscopic range of musical influences " and Big Boi 's lyrics . Rob Harvilla of The Village Voice called it " fantastic , by turns triumphant , defiant , and gleefully crass [ ... ] it feels triumphant and relieved and epic even if you discount the tortured backstory " . Seth Colter Walls of Newsweek stated " Big Boi makes the contemporary trappings of hip @-@ hop sound funkier than just about anyone " . Adam Downer of Sputnikmusic called it " a brilliant record " and commented that " the beats are killer , the verses sick , the pacing perfect , and the skits are actually pretty funny " .
Los Angeles Times writer Ann Powers praised its music 's " depth and complexity " , adding that it " highlights his focused language skills within musical settings that touch upon rock , electro , dubstep and classical fanfare , grounded in a thick bottom that guarantees plenty of booty bounce " . Gregg Lipkin of PopMatters praised the album 's " shifting tones and musical invention " . Sean Fennessey of Spin praised its bass @-@ heavy tracks and called Big Boi " a deceptively elegant rhymer " . Rolling Stone writer Jody Rosen commented on Big Boi 's performance , " He 's got an inimitably slick and speedy flow and a personality bigger and more forceful than anything his producers can throw at him " . Pitchfork Media 's Tom Breihan called the album " inventive , bizarre , joyous , and masterful " and stated " He just does so many things with his voice and cadence , letting his words fall over the snares one moment and fighting upstream against the beat the next [ ... ] blissfully free of both old @-@ man hectoring and drug @-@ rap nihilism " .
In a mixed review , Andy Gill of The Independent felt it was " not as immediately engaging " as Big Boi 's Speakerboxxx album , noting " a laziness about some of the rhyming " . While noting his boastful " lyrical slackening " as a minor flaw , Slant Magazine 's Jesse Cataldo found Big Boi " consistently in fine , tongue @-@ tying form " and described the album as " rigidly focused and almost uniformly strong [ ... ] by @-@ the @-@ books hip @-@ hop with just the right proportion of ingredients " . In MSN Music , Robert Christgau complimented the record 's " pervasive albeit incoherent musicality " and observed " a succession of enjoyable songs with plenty to offer " .
= = = Accolades = = =
The album appeared on numerous critics ' and publications ' year @-@ end top albums lists . Chris Yuscavage of Vibe ranked it number eight on his list of the 10 Best Albums of 2010 . Paste ranked it number 37 on its 50 Best Albums of 2010 list , calling it " a massive , ambitious album shot through with knee @-@ knocking beats and deft lyrical touches from Outkast ’ s swagger champion ... [ B ] oth a trove of pop jams and a profound piece of artistic experimentation " . Nitsuh Abebe of New York named it the second best album of 2010 and called it " as forward @-@ thinking as it was charming " . The A.V. Club ranked it number seven , NME ranked it number 38 , PopMatters ranked it number 10 , The Guardian ranked it number 27 , and Spin ranked it number 13 on its list . Rolling Stone placed it at number 21 on its year @-@ end albums list and called it " a nasty , future @-@ funk odyssey , done the way George Clinton used to do it : stretched @-@ out grooves , cavernous bass boom , gutbucket guitar and thick electro thump , all held together by Big Boi 's whiplash rhymes and pimper @-@ than @-@ thou style " .
Time ranked the album number nine , with the publication 's Claire Suddath writing that " It 's an amalgam of beats , chants and raps mixed together with exacting precision . Big Boi deftly jumps between musical styles [ ... ] and his raps come so fast , he seems to never pause for breath " . Pitchfork Media named it the fourth best album of 2010 and stated " [ T ] he sound of Sir Lucious Left Foot is an exercise in recognizing traditions and pushing them miles ahead . Big Boi crowns it all with a lyrical acumen so detailed and charismatic — acting as benevolent hustler , knuckle @-@ dusting elder statesman , trickster smartass and street @-@ level philosopher " . It was voted the sixth @-@ best album in The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop critics ' poll for 2010 , while 11 songs from the album were included in the poll 's singles list , including " Shutterbugg " ( number seven ) , " Shine Blockas " ( number 95 ) , and " Follow Us " ( number 316 ) . In 2014 , the album was named one of the 100 best albums of the decade " so far " in a list by Pitchfork Media .
= = Track listing = =
• ( co ) Co @-@ producer
Sample credits
" Shutterbugg " contains elements of " Back to Life ( However Do You Want Me ) " , written by Nellee Hooper , Beresford Romeo , Caron M. Wheeler , and Simon A. Law , and contains elements of " You Are in My System " , written by David Frank and Michael Murphy .
" General Patton " contains a sample of " Vieni , o guerriero vindice " performed by Giorgio Tozzi , Coro del Teatro dell 'Opera di Roma , Orchestra del Teatro dell 'Opera di Roma , Sir Georg Solti .
" Shine Blockas " contains a sample from " I Miss You Part I and II " written by Kenneth Gamble and Leon Huff , as performed by Harold Melvin & The Blue Notes .
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Sir Lucious Left Foot : The Son of Chico Dusty adapted from liner notes .
= = = Musicians = = =
= = = Production = = =
= = Charts = =
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= New York State Route 348 =
New York State Route 348 ( NY 348 ) was a state highway located within the town of Chazy in Clinton County , New York , in the United States . It stretched for 6 @.@ 2 miles ( 10 @.@ 0 km ) from NY 22 in the hamlet of West Chazy to U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) in the hamlet of Chazy and passed under the Adirondack Northway ( Interstate 87 or I @-@ 87 ) . NY 348 did not intersect any state routes or pass through any communities other than those at each of its termini .
When NY 348 was originally assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , it began in West Chazy and ended in the village of Champlain . The route was extended northeastward to Rouses Point by 1931 , then truncated to the hamlet of Chazy in the early 1960s . NY 348 ceased to exist entirely in 1980 , at which time its former routing became County Route 24 ( CR 24 ) .
= = Route description = =
NY 348 began at an intersection with NY 22 and West Church Street in the hamlet of West Chazy ( within the town of Chazy ) , located 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of Flat Rock State Forest . NY 348 proceeded east along East Church Street , crossing over tracks once used by the Delaware and Hudson Railroad , reaching a junction with CR 25 ( Stratton Hill Road ) . At this junction , NY 348 turned northeast along Fiske Road , crossing over the Little Chazy River and nearby Bayington Brook . Bending further northeast through the town of Chazy , the route paralleled the Delaware and Hudson until reaching a crossing with the Adirondack Northway ( I @-@ 87 ) .
NY 348 and the Northway did not connect , as NY 348 crossed under the four lane expressway , crossing the alignment of a railroad spur and soon reached the hamlet of Chazy . In Chazy , the route crossed over the Little Chazy River once again then intersected with US 9 . This junction with US 9 marked the northern terminus of NY 348 .
= = History = =
The alignment that would become NY 348 between the hamlet of West Chazy and the town of Chazy was taken over by the state of New York and improved to state highway standards in 1907 – 1908 . The 6 @.@ 34 miles ( 10 @.@ 20 km ) alignment was 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) wide and to be constructed with stones approved by the state with sand and limestone filler . The state engineer estimated that the improvement of the road would cost $ 58 @,@ 250 ( 1907 USD ) , and a contract was let on September 19 , 1907 to Jeremiah T. Finch , who commenced work on the new roadway in October of that year . The work was completed 11 months later ( September 1908 ) at the cost of $ 54 @,@ 111 @.@ 94 .
NY 348 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . At the time , it began at NY 22 in West Chazy and ended at US 11 in the village of Champlain . NY 348 had an overlap with US 9 from Chazy to what is now NY 9B in the town of Champlain . Here , US 9 forked to the east and followed the length of modern NY 9B to Rouses Point . NY 348 was extended east to Rouses Point along US 11 and what is now NY 276 by the following year .
In the mid @-@ 1940s , US 9 was rerouted to follow its modern alignment through Champlain , creating a lengthy overlap between NY 348 and US 9 from Chazy hamlet to Champlain village . The overlaps with both US 9 and US 11 were eliminated in the early 1960s after NY 348 was truncated on its northern end to its junction with US 9 in Chazy .
NY 348 was removed from the state highway system in 1980 . The designation officially ceased to exist on January 7 , 1980 , and ownership and maintenance of the route was transferred from the state of New York to Clinton County on April 1 , 1980 , as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . The former routing of NY 348 was redesignated as CR 24 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Chazy , Clinton County .
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= York Castle =
York Castle in the city of York , England , is a fortified complex comprising , over the last nine centuries , a sequence of castles , prisons , law courts and other buildings on the south side of the River Foss . The now @-@ ruinous keep of the medieval Norman castle is commonly referred to as Clifford 's Tower . Built originally on the orders of William I to dominate the former Viking city of York , the castle suffered a tumultuous early history before developing into a major fortification with extensive water defences . After a major explosion in 1684 rendered the remaining military defences uninhabitable , York Castle continued to be used as a jail and prison until 1929 .
The first motte and bailey castle on the site was built in 1068 following the Norman conquest of York . After the destruction of the castle by rebels and a Viking army in 1069 , York Castle was rebuilt and reinforced with extensive water defences , including a moat and an artificial lake . York Castle formed an important royal fortification in the north of England .
In 1190 , 150 local Jews were killed in a pogrom in the castle keep , most of them committed suicide in order not to fall to the hands of the mob . Henry III rebuilt the castle in stone in the middle of the 13th century , creating a keep with a unique quatrefoil design , supported by an outer bailey wall and a substantial gatehouse . During the Scottish wars between 1298 and 1338 , York Castle was frequently used as the centre of royal administration across England , as well as an important military base of operations .
York Castle fell into disrepair by the 15th and 16th centuries , becoming used increasingly as a jail for both local felons and political prisoners . By the time of Elizabeth I the castle was estimated to have lost all of its military value but was maintained as a centre of royal authority in York . The outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642 saw York Castle being repaired and refortified , playing a part in the Royalist defence of York in 1644 against Parliamentary forces . York Castle continued to be garrisoned until 1684 , when an explosion destroyed the interior of Clifford 's Tower . The castle bailey was redeveloped in a neoclassical style in the 18th century as a centre for county administration in Yorkshire , and was used as a jail and debtors ' prison . Prison reform in the 19th century led to the creation of a new prison built in a Tudor Gothic style on the castle site in 1825 ; used first as a county and then as a military prison , this facility was demolished in 1935 . By the 20th century the ruin of Clifford 's Tower had become a well @-@ known tourist destination and national monument ; today the site is owned by English Heritage and open to the public . The other remaining buildings serve as the York Castle Museum and the Crown Court .
= = History = =
= = = 11th century = = =
York was a Viking capital in the 10th century , and continued as an important northern city in the 11th century . In 1068 , on William the Conqueror 's first northern expedition after the Norman Conquest , he built a number of castles across the north @-@ east of England , including one at York . This first castle at York was a basic wooden motte and bailey castle built between the rivers Ouse and Foss on the site of the present @-@ day York Castle . It was built in haste ; contemporary accounts imply it was constructed in only eight days , although this assertion has been challenged . The motte was originally around 200 feet ( 61 metres ) wide at the base . As it was built in an urban environment , hundreds of houses had to be destroyed to make way for the development . William Malet , the sheriff of Yorkshire , was placed in charge of the castle and successfully defended it against an immediate uprising by the local population .
In response to the worsening security situation , William conducted his second northern campaign in 1069 . He built another castle in York , on what is now Baile Hill on the west bank of the Ouse opposite the first castle , in an effort to improve his control over the city . This second castle was also a motte and bailey design , with the Baile Hill motte probably reached by a horizontal bridge and steps cut up the side of the motte . Later that year , a Danish Viking fleet sailed up to York along the Humber and the Ouse , and attacked both castles with the assistance of Cospatrick of Northumbria and a number of local rebels . The Normans , attempting to drive the rebels back , set fire to some of the city 's houses . The fire grew out of control and also set fire to York Minster and , some argue , the castles as well . The castles were captured and partially dismantled , and Malet was taken hostage by the Danes .
William conducted a widespread sequence of punitive operations across the north of England in the aftermath of the attacks in 1069 and 1070 . This " Harrying of the North " restored sufficient order to allow the rebuilding of the two castles , again in wood . The bailey at York Castle was enlarged slightly in the process ; buildings believed to have been inside the bailey at this time include " halls , kitchens , a chapel , barracks , stores , stables , forges [ and ] workshops " . By the time Domesday Book was written in 1086 , York Castle was also surrounded by a water @-@ filled moat and a large artificial lake called the King 's Pool , fed from the river Foss by a dam built for the purpose . More property , including two watermills , had to be destroyed to make way for the water defences . Over time the Baile Hill site was abandoned in favour of the first castle site , leaving only the motte , which still exists .
= = = 12th century = = =
Henry II visited York Castle four times during his reign . The royal chambers at the time were inside the keep for safety , and Henry paid £ 15 for repairs to the keep . During his 1175 visit , Henry used the castle as the base for receiving the homage of William the Lion of Scotland . Castle mills were built close by to support the garrison , and the military order of the Knights Templar was granted ownership of the mills in the mid @-@ 12th century . The mills proved to be vulnerable to the flooding of the two rivers and had to be repeatedly repaired .
In 1190 , York Castle was the location of one of the worst pogroms in England during the medieval period . The Normans had introduced the first Jewish communities into England , where some occupied a special economic role as moneylenders , an essential but otherwise banned activity . English Jews were subject to considerable religious prejudice and primarily worked from towns and cities in which there was a local royal castle that could provide them with protection in the event of attacks from the majority Christian population . Royal protection was usually granted as the Norman and Angevin kings had determined that Jewish property and debts owed to Jews ultimately belonged to the crown , reverting to the king on a Jew 's death .
Richard I was crowned King in 1189 and announced his intention to join the Crusades ; this inflamed anti @-@ Jewish sentiment . Rumours began to spread that the king had ordered that the English Jews be attacked . In York , tensions broke out into violence the following year . Richard de Malbis , who owed money to the powerful Jewish merchant Aaron of Lincoln , exploited an accidental house fire to incite a local mob to attack the home and family of a recently deceased Jewish employee of Aaron in York . Josce of York , the leader of the Jewish community , led the local Jewish families into the royal castle , where they took refuge in the wooden keep . The mob surrounded the castle , and when the constable left the castle to discuss the situation , the Jews , fearing the entry of the mob or being handed over to the sheriff , refused to allow him back in . The constable appealed to the sheriff , who called out his own men and laid siege to the keep . The siege continued until 16 March when the Jews ' position became untenable . Their religious leader , Rabbi Yomtob , proposed an act of collective suicide to avoid being killed by the mob , and the castle was set on fire to prevent their bodies being mutilated after their deaths . Several Jews perished in the flames but the majority took their own lives rather than give themselves up to the mob . A few Jews did surrender , promising to convert to Christianity , but they were killed by the angry crowd . Around 150 Jews died in total in the massacre . The keep was rebuilt , again in wood , on the motte , which was raised in height by 13 feet ( 4 metres ) at a cost of £ 207 .
= = = 13th and 14th centuries = = =
King John used York Castle extensively during his reign , using the keep as his personal quarters for his own security . The castle was kept in good repair during that time . During this period , the first records of the use of the castle as a jail appeared , with references to prisoners taken during John 's Irish campaigns being held at York Castle . By the 13th century there was a well @-@ established system of castle @-@ guards in place , under which various lands around York were granted in return for the provision of knights and crossbowmen to assist in protecting the castle .
Henry III also made extensive use of the castle , but during his visit at Christmas 1228 a gale destroyed the wooden keep on the motte . The keep was apparently not repaired , and a building for the king 's use was built in the bailey instead . In 1244 , when the Scots threatened to invade England , King Henry III visited the castle and ordered it to be rebuilt in white limestone , at a cost of about £ 2 @,@ 600 . The work was carried out between 1245 and 1270 , and included the construction of a towered curtain wall , a gatehouse of considerable size with two large towers , two smaller gatehouses , a small watergate , a small gateway into the city , a chapel , and a new stone keep , first known as the King 's , later Clifford 's , Tower .
Clifford 's Tower is of an unusual design . The two @-@ storey tower has a quatrefoil plan with four circular lobes . Each lobe measures 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 5 metres ) across , with walls 9 feet 6 inches ( 3 metres ) thick ; at its widest , the tower is 79 feet ( 24 metres ) across . A square gatehouse , 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 5 metres ) wide , protected the entrance on the south side between two of the lobes . There are defensive turrets between the other lobes . Large corbels and a central pier supported the huge weight of stone and the first floor . Loopholes of a design unique to York Castle provided firing points . A chapel was built over the entrance , measuring 15 feet by 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 5 metres by 4 @.@ 2 metres ) , doubling as a portcullis chamber as at Harlech and Chepstow Castles . The tower is believed to be an experiment in improving flanking fire by making more ground visible from the summit of the keep . Although unique to England , the design of the tower closely resembles that at Étampes in France , and may have influenced the design of the future keep of Pontefract Castle . Henry employed master mason Henry de Rayns and chief carpenter Simon of Northampton for the project , and the cost of the tower accounted for the majority of the overall expenditure on the castle during this period of work .
The new castle needed constant investment to maintain its quality as a military fortification . Winter floods in 1315 – 16 damaged the soil at the base of the motte , requiring immediate repairs . Around 1358 – 60 , the heavy stone keep again suffered from subsidence and the south @-@ eastern lobe cracked from top to bottom . Royal officials recommended that the keep be completely rebuilt , but , instead , the lobe was repaired at a cost of £ 200 .
Edward I gave wide @-@ reaching powers to the sheriff of Yorkshire for enforcing law and order in the city of York , and the sheriffs established their headquarters in Clifford 's Tower . During the wars against the Scots under both Edward and his son , York Castle also formed the centre of royal administration in England for almost half the years between 1298 and 1338 . Many Westminster institutions followed the king north to York , basing themselves in the castle compound . The existing castle buildings were insufficient to house all the administrative institutions ; a temporary building inside the castle was built for the Court of Common Pleas at the beginning of the period , and rebuilt on a larger scale during 1319 – 20 . The Exchequer took over Clifford 's Tower . Other buildings around the city had to be commandeered to absorb the overflow from the castle itself . As a result of the extended use of the castle for these purposes , the law courts at York Castle began to compete with those in London , a pattern that lasted into the 1360s . The castle eventually acquired its own mint in 1344 , when Edward III decided to create a permanent mint in York Castle to produce gold and silver coins to serve the needs of the north of England . European coiners were brought to York to establish the facility .
Henry III extended the castle 's role as a jail for holding a wide range of prisoners . The sheriff was responsible for the jail at this time , and his deputy usually took the role of a full @-@ time jailer . Up to three hundred and ten prisoners were held in the castle at any one time . The conditions in which prisoners were held were " appalling " , and led to the widespread loss of life amongst detainees . Prison escapes were relatively common , and many of them , such as the break @-@ out by 28 prisoners in 1298 , were successful . When the Military Order of the Knights Templar was dissolved in England in 1307 , York Castle was used to hold many of the arrested knights . The castle mills , as former Templar property , returned to royal control at the same time . Edward II also used the castle as a jail in his campaign against his rebellious barons in 1322 , and after the battle of Boroughbridge many of the defeated rebel leaders were executed at York Castle .
By the end of the 14th century , the castle bailey was primarily occupied by the local county administration . It was used extensively as a jail , with prisoners being kept in the various towers around the bailey . The old castle @-@ guard system for securing the castle had changed into a system whereby the crown used rents from local royal lands to hire local guards for the castle . Increasingly , royalty preferred to stay at the Franciscan friary , between the Castle and King 's Staith on the Ouse , while their staff resided at St Mary 's Abbey and St Andrew 's Priory in the Fishergate area .
= = = 15th and 16th centuries = = =
In the 15th century , York Castle , along with Nottingham Castle , was considered a key security asset in the north of England , but investment even in these castles diminished . Repairs to York Castle grew infrequent from 1400 onwards , and it fell into increasing disrepair . Richard III recognised the issue and in 1483 had some of the most decrepit structures removed , but he died at the battle of Bosworth before replacement work could commence . By the reign of Henry VIII , the antiquary John Leland reported that the castle was in considerable disrepair ; nonetheless the water defences remained intact , unlike those of many other castles of the period . As a result of the deterioration , Henry had to be advised that the king 's councillors no longer had any official residence in which to stay and work when they were in York . The castle mint was shut down after the death of Edward VI in 1553 , and the castle mills were given to a local charitable hospital in 1464 . The hospital was then closed during the Reformation , and the mills passed into private ownership once again .
The castle continued to be used as a jail , increasingly for local felons , and a location for political executions . By the 16th century it had become traditional to execute traitors by hanging them from the top of Clifford 's Tower , rather than killing them at Micklegate Bar , the usual previous location for capital punishment in York . In 1536 , for example , the political leader Robert Aske was executed at York Castle on the orders of Henry VIII , following the failure of Aske 's Pilgrimage of Grace protest against the Dissolution of the Monasteries . For most of the period the sheriffs of Yorkshire remained in control of the castle , although there were some notable exceptions such as the appointment of the royal favourite Sir Robert Ryther by Edward IV in 1478 . At the end of the 16th century , however , the Clifford family ( Earls of Cumberland ) , became the hereditary constables of the castle , and Clifford 's Tower took its name from the family at around this time .
The deterioration of the castle continued into the reign of Elizabeth I , who was advised that it no longer had any military utility . Robert Redhead , the tower keeper , became infamous at the time for taking parts of the castle to pieces and selling off the stonework for his own profit . Despite numerous attempts by local city and crown officials to halt this , Redhead continued to cause considerable damage before being forced to stop . Proposals were made to pull down Clifford 's Tower altogether in 1596 , but were turned down because of the strength of local feeling .
= = = 17th century = = =
Maintaining the castle was becoming increasingly expensive , and in 1614 King James sold the lease on Clifford 's Tower and the surrounding land to John Babington and Edmund Duffield , a pair of property speculators . In turn , Babington and Duffield sold Clifford 's Tower to a York merchant family . In 1642 , however , the English Civil War broke out between the rival factions of the Royalists and Parliament . Forces loyal to Charles I , under the command of Henry Clifford , garrisoned York Castle and the surrounding city in 1643 . York effectively became the " northern capital " for the Royalist cause . Clifford repaired the castle and strengthened the walls to permit them to support cannon , placing his arms alongside those of the king above the entrance . Clifford 's Tower 's gatehouse was substantially remodelled , losing its original medieval appearance . Baile Hill , on the other side of the river , became a gun emplacement . The castle mint was reopened to supply the king 's forces with coins .
The war turned against the Royalist factions , and on 23 April 1644 Parliamentary forces commenced the siege of York . A Scottish army under Alexander Leslie came from the south , while a Parliamentary force under Ferdinando Fairfax came from the east . Six weeks later , Edward Montagu brought a third contingent to York , bringing the number of forces besieging the city to over 30 @,@ 000 men . William Cavendish commanded the city during the siege , while Colonel Sir Francis Cobb was appointed the governor of the castle . Despite bombardment , attempts to undermine the walls and attacks on the gates , the city held out through May and June . Prince Rupert , sent to relieve York , approached with reinforcements , and through clever manoeuvring was able to force the besiegers to withdraw , lifting the siege on 1 July . The next day , Parliamentary forces defeated Rupert at the Battle of Marston Moor , six miles west of York , making the surrender of York and the castle inevitable . On 14 July the city and castle surrendered to the Parliamentary forces , who permitted the Royalists to march out with full honours .
Parliament then appointed Thomas Dickenson , the local mayor , as the governor of Clifford 's Tower . Control of the castle rested with the post of mayor until the Restoration . Efforts were made to separate the structures of Clifford 's Tower , which Parliament used as a garrison , from the buildings of the bailey , which continued to be used as a prison . Oliver Cromwell visited Clifford 's Tower in 1650 , and received a salute from the guns stationed on top of it . The cost of the garrison was levied on the city of York .
After the Restoration of Charles II , the pre @-@ war owners of the property laid claim to Clifford 's Tower , eventually being granted ownership . A garrison continued to be stationed there , however , which prevented the owners from actually occupying or using the property . Repairs were made to the tower , and it became a magazine for storing gunpowder and shot . Attempts were made to restore the condition of the moat , which had become badly silted . Some political prisoners continued to be held at the castle during the Restoration period , including George Fox , the founder of the Society of Friends .
The county facilities in the bailey were expanded during these years , with improvements to the Grand Jury House and the Common Hall , but by the 1680s the role of the military garrison at York Castle was being called into question . Sir Christopher Musgrave produced a report for the Crown in 1682 ; he argued that it would cost at least £ 30 @,@ 000 to turn the castle into a modern fortification , producing a proposal for the six bastions that such a star fort would require . This work was never carried out . Meanwhile , the garrison and the castle had become extremely unpopular with the people of York , who disliked both the cost and the imposition of external authority .
On St George 's Day in 1684 at around 10 pm , an explosion in the magazine destroyed the interior of Clifford 's Tower entirely . The official explanation was that the celebratory salute from the guns on the roof had set fire to parts of the woodwork , which later ignited the magazine . Most historians , however , believe the explosion was not accidental . At the time , it was common in the city to toast the potential demolition of the " Minced Pie " , as the castle was known to locals ; suspiciously , some members of the garrison had moved their personal belongings to safety just before the explosion , and no @-@ one from the garrison was injured by the event . The heat of the fire turned the limestone of the tower to its current , slightly pink , colour . The now @-@ ruined tower was returned fully to private ownership , eventually forming part of the lands of the neighbouring house and gardens belonging to Samuel Waud .
= = = 18th century = = =
By 1701 , the conditions of the county jail had become scandalous and the decision was taken to redevelop the area occupied by the old bailey . A local tax helped to fund the development , and the king agreed for the ruins of St Mary 's Abbey to be cannibalised for building stone . Three new buildings were erected to the south of Clifford 's Tower . A new county jail , built between 1701 and 1705 by William Wakefield , was placed on the south side , closely resembling the fashionable work of John Vanbrugh . The local architect John Carr then built the Assize Courts on the site of the old Jury House between 1773 and 1777 on the west side , and oversaw the replacement of the Sessions House and Common Hall by the Female Prison between 1780 and 1783 on the east side . The Female Prison and county jail were later combined to become the Debtors ' Prison . Both of Carr 's buildings were designed in a distinctive neoclassical style ; the Assize Court building was particularly praised at the time as being " a superb building of the Ionic order " . The castle courtyard was grassed over to form a circle in 1777 and became known as the " Eye of the Ridings " because it was used for the election of members of parliament for York .
Visits by the prison reformer John Howard as part of the research for his book The State of the Prisons found these prisons flawed , but in relatively good condition compared to others at the time . The Debtors ' Prison as a whole was an " honour to the county " of York , with " airy and healthy " rooms , but the felons ' wing of the prison attracted some criticism . The felons ' wing was " too small " and had " no water " for the inmates ; felons were forced to sleep on piles of straw on the floor . Indeed , conditions were so bad in the felons ' wing that nine prisoners suffocated in one night during 1739 .
Just outside the main walls , the castle mills had become increasingly ineffective from the 16th century onwards because of a reduction in the flow of the rivers driving the water @-@ wheels . As a result , in 1778 they were rebuilt with a new steam engine to drive the machinery ; this steam engine caused considerable discomfort to the prisoners affected by the smoke and noise .
= = = 19th and 20th centuries = = =
Criticism of the castle prison increased at the end of the 18th century . The facilities were felt to be inadequate and the crowds of spectators who gathered outside the prison to see inmates being taken into York for execution unseemly . Attempts were made to improve the way executions were carried out from 1803 onwards : the former castle courtyard , the Eye of the Ridings , was used for this purpose instead , although crowds still gathered outside the bailey to watch the slow deaths of the prisoners . By 1813 the execution process had been sped up by the introduction of the " short drop " method of hanging , allowing the unusually rapid execution of fourteen Luddite agitators at the castle in 1814 . Overcrowding in the jail was now also a problem , with up to 114 prisoners being held at any one time ; occasionally , around forty prisoners awaiting trial had to be kept in the jail yard for lack of space elsewhere .
The suitability of the prison was finally brought to a head at the 1821 assizes in York , when an official complaint was made and an investigation begun . The decision was taken to purchase Clifford 's Tower and the Waud house , with the aim of demolishing them both to make room for a new , more modern prison . Sydney Smith , the famous wit , writer and vicar of Foston @-@ le @-@ Clay , successfully led a campaign to save Clifford 's Tower , emphasising the historic importance of the location for the surrounding city . An alternative proposal , put forward by architect Robert Wallace , would have seen the conversion of Clifford 's Tower back into a habitable building to form the hub of a radial prison design , but this was turned down .
In 1825 , Clifford 's Tower and the Waud house were purchased by the county of Yorkshire at the cost of £ 8 @,@ 800 ( £ 665 @,@ 000 at 2009 prices ) . The new prison buildings , designed by architects P. F. Robinson and G. T. Andrews , were constructed in a Tudor Gothic style , including a gatehouse 35 feet ( 11 metres ) high and a radial prison block , protected by a long , high stone wall . The prison , considered to be the strongest such building in England , was built entirely of stone to be both secure and fireproof . Dark grey gritstone was used in the construction to produce a forbidding appearance , although the prison itself was considered healthy and well ventilated . Clifford 's Tower played no part in the formal design of the prison , although the talus , or sloping edge of the motte , was cut away and replaced by a retaining wall to allow more space for the new prison building . The backyard of the Female Prison , concealed from public view by the new wall , was used for hangings from 1868 onwards . The Prison Act , 1877 , reformed the English prison system , and York Castle gaol was passed into the control of central government the following year . It was used as the county prison until 1900 , when the remaining prisoners were transferred to Wakefield Prison , and from then onwards the facility was used as a military prison instead .
By the early 19th century , dredging and other improvements to the river Foss had made it possible to import flour into York by river , reducing the economic significance of the castle mills . In 1856 , the castle mills were finally demolished as part of a further sequence of improvements to this part of the river . The King 's Pool that formed part of the castle 's water defences was drained . With the construction of several new bridges near the castle , the site became " surrounded by roads instead of moats " .
In 1890 the Prison Commissioners agreed to declare Clifford 's Tower a national monument and to conserve it as a historic location . In 1902 Clifford 's Tower was given to Yorkshire County Council , together with a grant of £ 3 @,@ 000 ( £ 242 @,@ 000 at 2009 prices ) arranged by Lord Wenlock for conservation and repairs . The removal of the talus and the damage to the castle stonework in the 16th century had put excessive pressure on the supporting motte , causing a recurrence of the 14th century subsidence . Sir Basil Mott , a leading Victorian engineer , installed concrete underpinnings to stabilise the structure beneath the gatehouse . By the early 20th century , Clifford 's Tower was regularly open to visitors , and in 1915 it was passed to the Office of Works as a national monument .
= = Today = =
York Prison finally closed in 1929 , and the Tudor Gothic Victorian prison buildings were demolished in 1935 . The Assize Courts building now houses the York Crown Court , while the former Debtors ' Prison and Female Prison , together with a modern entrance area , are now the Castle Museum . The circular grassed area between these buildings that was once known as the " Eyes of the Ridings " is now known as Castle Green , or the " Eye of York " . Clifford 's Tower is the most prominent surviving part of the original medieval fortification , although the stone steps up the side of the motte are modern . Fragments of the bailey wall , parts of the south gatehouse and one of the corner towers also survive .
The castle is classed as a Grade I listed building and a Scheduled monument . The site , managed by English Heritage , is open to the public . Until the 1970s , the pogrom of 1190 was often underplayed by official histories of the castle ; early official guides to the castle made no reference to it . In 1978 , however , the first memorial tablet to the victims was laid at the base of Clifford 's Tower , and in 1990 the 800th anniversary of the killings was commemorated at the tower . Recently , commercial interests have sought to introduce retail development to the area surrounding it . Citizens , visitors , academics , environmentalists , local businesspeople and Jewish groups have opposed the development with some success , winning a lengthy and bitter public inquiry in 2003 .
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= Jarlshof =
Jarlshof ( / ˈjɑːrlzhɒf / YARLZ @-@ hoff ) is the best known prehistoric archaeological site in Shetland , Scotland . It lies near the southern tip of the Shetland Mainland and has been described as " one of the most remarkable archaeological sites ever excavated in the British Isles " . It contains remains dating from 2500 BC up to the 17th century AD .
The Bronze Age settlers left evidence of several small oval houses with thick stone walls and various artefacts including a decorated bone object . The Iron Age ruins include several different types of structure including a broch and a defensive wall around the site . The Pictish period provides various works of art including a painted pebble and a symbol stone . The Viking age ruins make up the largest such site visible anywhere in Britain and include a longhouse ; excavations provided numerous tools and a detailed insight into life in Shetland at this time . The most visible structures on the site are the walls of the Scottish period fortified manor house , which inspired the name " Jarlshof " that first appears in an 1821 novel by Walter Scott .
The site is in the care of Historic Scotland and is open from April to September . In 2010 " The Crucible of Iron Age Shetland " including Mousa , Old Scatness and Jarlshof was added to those seeking to be on the " tentative list " of World Heritage Sites .
= = Location and etymology = =
Jarlshof lies near the southern tip of the Shetland Mainland , close to the settlements of Sumburgh and Grutness and to the south end of Sumburgh Airport . The site overlooks an arm of the sea called the West Voe of Sumburgh and the nearby freshwater springs and building materials available on the beach will have added to the location 's attraction as a settlement . The south Mainland also provides a favourable location for arable cultivation in a Shetland context and there is a high density of prehistoric settlement in the surrounding area . Jarlshof is only one mile from Scatness where the remains of another broch and other ruins of a similar longevity were discovered in 1975 . There is a small visitor centre at Jarlshof with displays and a collection of artefacts .
The name Jarlshof meaning " Earl 's Mansion " is a coinage of Walter Scott , who visited the site in 1814 and based it on the Scottish period name of " the laird 's house " . It was more than a century later before excavations proved that there had actually been Viking Age settlement on the site , although there is no evidence that a Norse jarl ever lived there .
= = History = =
The remains at Jarlshof represent thousands of years of human occupation , and can be seen as a microcosm of Shetland history . Other than the Old House of Sumburgh ( see below ) the site remained largely hidden until a storm in the late 19th century washed away part of the shore , and revealed evidence of these ancient buildings . Formal archaeological excavation started in 1925 and Jarlshof was one of two broch sites which were the first to be excavated using modern scientific techniques between 1949 – 52 . Although the deposits within the broch had been badly disturbed by earlier attempts , this work revealed a complex sequence of construction from different periods . Buildings on the site include the remains of a Bronze Age smithy , an Iron Age broch and roundhouses , a complex of Pictish wheelhouses , a Viking longhouse , and a mediaeval farmhouse . No further excavations have been undertaken since the early 1950s and no radiocarbon dating has been attempted .
= = = Neolithic = = =
The earliest finds are pottery from the Neolithic era , although the main settlement dates from the Bronze Age ( see below ) . A site nearby has been dated to 3200 BC .
= = = Bronze Age = = =
The Bronze Age in Scotland lasted from approximately 2000 BC to 800 BC . The oldest known remains on the Jarlshof site date from this period , although there is evidence of inhabitation as far back as 2500 BC . The remains of several small oval houses with thick stone walls date to the late Bronze Age and the structures show some similarity to Skara Brae on Mainland , Orkney , but are smaller and of a later date . These buildings may have been partly subterranean at the earliest period of inhabitation , a technique that provided both structural stability and insulation .
There is also evidence of a cattle stall with a waste channel leading to a tank in a courtyard and a whale vertebra set into a wall that may have been used as a tethering post . Broken moulds from the smithy indicate that axes , knives , swords and pins were produced there and a bronze dagger was found at the site . The objects indicate the smith was trained in the Irish style of working . Bone pins and awls also survive and an extraordinary bone " plaque " . This latter object is 5 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) long , has three holes bored into the ends and is decorated with various linear patterns . Its function is unknown . The Bronze Age structures are overlain with sterile sand , suggesting a break in occupation prior to the next phase of building .
= = = Iron Age and Pictish period = = =
The inhabitants of the Iron Age built part of their settlement on top of the Bronze Age one . The structures include a complex roundhouse , replaced at a later stage by an " aisled roundhouse " . Neither have been dated although artefacts found at this level include querns that suggest the latter may have been constructed prior to 200 BC .
It is in this period that the broch was built . Part of the structure has been lost to coastal erosion , and modern sea defences have been erected . The tower was probably originally 13 metres ( 40 feet ) or more high and as with many broch sites the position would have commanded fine views of the surrounding seas . During this period archaeological sites in Shetland usually exhibit defensive fortifications of some kind , and Jarlshof is no exception . An outer defensive wall associated with the broch contained a substantial ( although rather poorly constructed ) house and byre at one time . This wall was utilised at a later stage to build a large roundhouse in the lee of the broch .
The earliest part of the wheelhouse complex has been dated to 200 BC , although other parts were built later , post @-@ dating the 1st century BC – 2nd century AD profusion of these structures in the Western Isles by several centuries . Construction used the stones of the broch itself and two of the four main structures are amongst the best examples of their type . Three successive periods of construction were undertaken , and the best preserved retains a significant proportion of the stone part of its roof and displays a series of corbelled bays . One structure was built as a circular building and the radial piers were inserted afterwards . This may have been an earlier , less stable design . In one case the piers are alternately rectangular and V @-@ shaped , in another all are to the latter design , again suggesting a developing style . Unlike many wheelhouses elsewhere in Scotland that are built into the earth , the Jarlshof structures seem to have been built from ground level upwards .
Amongst the artefacts dated to the later Pictish period is a bone pin with a rounded head probably used as a hair or dress pin . It has been dated to AD 500 – 800 . " Painted pebbles " are associated with more than two dozen Pictish sites and one such stone was unearthed at Jarlshof . This rectangular slate fragment had a cross painted onto it and two small " S " shaped scrolls suggesting an association with Christian beliefs . One of only two Pictish symbol stones found in Shetland was found here , exhibiting a double disc shape and a Z @-@ rod . Pottery finds include buff ware from the period after AD 10 , including bowls with flat rims . The quality of the pots appears to decline in the period prior to Viking settlement , becoming thinner @-@ walled and generally more crude in design .
= = = Norse period = = =
Remains from this era used to cover most of the site , and it is believed the Norse inhabited the site continuously from the ninth to the 14th centuries . Excavations in the 1930s by Alex Curle found the first confirmed Norse longhouse in the British Isles and later digs in the 1950s found evidence of fishing and farming activities . Sheep , cattle , pigs and ponies were kept , Atlantic cod , saithe and ling were eaten , and whale and seal bones have also been found along with the remains of a single dog . Chicken bones are rare in the Norse levels .
There are seven Norse @-@ era houses at Jarlshof , although no more than two were in use at one time . There were several outbuildings , including a small square structure with a large hearth that may have been a sauna and which was later replaced by two separate outhouses . The largest house from this period is a 20 metres ( 66 ft ) by 5 metres ( 16 ft ) rectangular chamber with opposing doors , timber benches along the long sides , and a hearth in the centre . Unlike the earlier structures that had conical thatched roofs , those of the Norse buildings had ridged timber frames . At a later period this large structure was also used to shelter domesticated animals ( at which stage it had a paved centre and animal stalls along the sides ) and later still may have become an outbuilding . The door to the byre puzzled archaeologists as it appeared to be too narrow to admit a cow . The mystery was solved when a byre door was excavated at Easting on Unst which had a narrow base similar to Jarlshof 's but which widened out to become cow @-@ shaped . Another outbuilding has been interpreted as a corn @-@ drying room . Later houses were built at 90 degrees to the longhouse and these are of a type and size that is similar to croft houses that were common in Shetland until the mid @-@ 19th century .
One hundred and fifty loom weights were found suggesting wool was an important aspect of Norse @-@ era life . Line weights from the later Norse period and associated evidence from elsewhere in Shetland indicates that deep @-@ water fishing was also a regular undertaking . The Jarlshof site also produced ample evidence of the use of iron tools such as shears , scissors , sickles , and a fish @-@ hook and knife . The ore was locally obtained bog iron . Hazel , birch and willow grew in the area at this time but the pine and oak must have been driftwood or imported timber .
Drawings scratched on slate have been found of dragon @-@ prowed ships , portraits of an old man and of a young , bearded man and of a four @-@ legged animal . The drawings were found in the Viking levels but are Pictish in style and may either pre @-@ date the arrival of the Norse or indicate a continuity of art and culture from one period to the next . Similarly , although the rectangular shape of the Norse @-@ era buildings are quite unlike the earlier rounded Pictish style , the basement courses of the two periods are constructed in the same way . The Viking @-@ style loom weights , spindle whorls and other vessels were found with stone discs and other objects of a Pictish design . A bronze – gilt harness mounting made in Ireland in the 8th or 9th centuries has also been found and many items from this period are in the Shetland Museum . Jarlshof contains the most extensive remains of a Viking site visible anywhere in Britain .
= = = Old House of Sumburgh = = =
The castle , now known as Jarlshof House , was built during the Scottish period . Originally a medieval stone farmhouse , it was converted into a fortified house during the 16th century , by Robert Stewart , 1st Earl of Orkney after Scotland annexed Shetland . The building was named " New Hall " at this time . It was further modernised in the early 17th century by his son Patrick Stewart , 2nd Earl of Orkney who renamed it the " Old House of Sumburgh " but it was abandoned in the late 17th century . The structure was also formerly known as " The laird 's house " and " Stewart Mansion " .
= = Cultural references = =
Walter Scott set part of his 1821 novel The Pirate in the Old House of Sumburgh during the 17th century , which he named Jarlshof .
" Man , however , had in former days considered this as a remote or unlikely event ; for a Norwegian chief of other times , or , as other accounts said , and as the name of Jarlshof seemed to imply an ancient Earl of the Orkneys had elected this neck of land as the place for establishing a mansion @-@ house . It has been long entirely deserted , and the vestiges only can be discerned with difficulty ; for the loose sand , borne on the temptestuous gales of those stormy regions , has overblown , and almost buried , the ruins of the buildings ; but in the end of the seventeenth century , a part of the Earl 's mansion was still entire and habitable . It was a rude building of rough stone , with nothing about it to gratify the eye , or to excite the imagination ; a large old @-@ fashioned narrow house , with a very steep roof , covered with flags composed of grey sandstone , would perhaps convey the best of idea of the place to a modern reader . The windows were few , very small in size , and distributed up and down the building with utter contempt of regularity . Against the main structure had rested , in former times , certain smaller compartments of the mansion @-@ house , containing offices , or subordinate apartments , necessary for the Earl 's retainers and menials . But these had become ruinous ; and the rafters had been taken down for fire @-@ wood , or for other purposes ; the walls had given way in many places ; and , to complete the devastation , the sand had already drifted amongst the ruins , and filled up what had been once the chambers the contained , to the depth of two or three feet .
" Amid this desolation , the inhabitants of Jarlshof had contrived , by constant labour and attention , to keep in order a few roods of land , which had been enclosed as a garden , and which , sheltered by the walls of the house itself , from the relentless sea @-@ blast , produced such vegetables as the climate could bring forth , or rather as the sea @-@ gale would permit to grow ; for these islands experience even less of the rigour of cold than is encountered on the mainland of Scotland ; but , unsheltered by a wall of some sort of other , it is scarce possible to raise even the most ordinary culinary vegetables ; and as for shrubs or trees , they are entirely out of the question , such is the force of the sweeping sea @-@ blast . "
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= Poedjangga Baroe =
Poedjangga Baroe ( pronounced [ puˈdʒaŋɡa baˈru ] ; Perfected spelling : Pujangga Baru , also known by the intermediate spelling Pudjangga Baru ) was an Indonesian avant @-@ garde literary magazine published from July 1933 to February 1942 . It was founded by Armijn Pane , Amir Hamzah , and Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana .
From the turn of the 20th century , the native people of the Dutch East Indies began to hold a greater degree of nationalism , evidenced in part by the establishment of several nationalist publications . Armijn , Hamzah , and Alisjahbana , three writers from Sumatra , laid the foundation for their magazine in September 1932 . They sent letters to forty contributors to the literary section of the newspaper Pandji Poestaka requesting submissions , as well as support from ten sultanates . When a deal with Dutch @-@ owned publishing house Kolff & Co. fell through , the founders agreed to self @-@ publish . The resulting magazine , Poedjangga Baroe , was first published in July 1933 . During its publishing run , the magazine took a wider scope and saw greater involvement from politically inclined persons . After the Japanese occupation of the Indies in 1942 , the magazine ceased publication . Another magazine under the Pudjangga Baru banner was published from 1948 until 1954 .
Ideologically , Poedjangga Baroe supported a modern , united nation with one language , Indonesian . However , the different cultural and political views of its contributors led the publication to have undefined leanings . To maintain a neutral political position , the magazine published writings that covered numerous aspects of the political spectrum . In cultural discourse , the magazine published disagreeing polemics over the proper balance of Westernization and tradition necessary for the country 's development .
During its nine @-@ year initial publication run , Poedjangga Baroe published ninety issues , including over three hundred pieces of poetry , five plays , three poetry anthologies , a novel , numerous essays , and several short stories . The publication , which never had more than 150 paying subscribers , received mixed responses . Young writers praised it for reflecting the period , while Malay traditionalists decried its perceived corruption of the Malay language . Although most of its published works are now forgotten , the shared themes and styles from 1933 to 1942 have led critics to deem the period the " Poedjangga Baroe generation " of Indonesian literature .
= = Title = =
The title Poedjangga Baru literally translates to " New Writer " . However , the term " Poedjangga " ( after the 1972 spelling reform , spelled " pujangga " ) has further connotations . The Old Javanese word " bhujangga " , from which " pujangga " is derived , is rooted in a Sanskrit word associated with religious learning . As such , the title implies noble intentions .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
At the beginning of the twentieth century , the different ethnic groups of the Dutch East Indies – modern day Indonesia – began to feel a sense of national unity , as eventually formulated in the 1928 Youth Pledge . These native groups founded political parties to further their goals and represent their political ideologies , including the Indonesian Communist Party and Indonesian National Party .
This sense of unity was represented in new media . Dutch @-@ language magazines for educated native youth , such as the Jong Java ( 1915 ) and Jong Sumatranen Bond ( 1917 ) , advocated a modern national identity without the traditional feudal system . Nationalist views were advocated through magazines for adults , including Pandji Poestaka ( first published 1930 ) and Timboel ( first published 1932 ) ; these were short @-@ lived publications and only included literature as a supplement . There were also unsuccessful attempts to found Malay @-@ language literary publications , such as Malaya ( announced in 1921 ) .
= = = Founding = = =
Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana , editor of " Memadjoekan Sastera " ( " Advancing Literature " , the literary section of Pandji Poestaka ) since its creation in March 1932 , met Armijn Pane when the latter began submitting poems . A vocal activist for literary renewal , in a September 1932 letter Alisjahbana called for new literary critics ( letterkundigen ) and asked Armijn to invite poet Amir Hamzah to help them form a group . After a long period of exchanging letters , they decided to publish a magazine together . The magazine , later given the name Poedjangga Baroe , was meant to advocate modernity and nationalism through literature , which had never been done in the Indies . The founders , all originating from Sumatra , also noted a lack of interaction between the increasing number of poets and writers . To avoid the creative limitations of the Dutch East Indies ' state @-@ owned publisher Balai Pustaka , they agreed that the magazine should be independent .
To gain support for Poedjangga Baroe , in October 1932 Hamzah was tasked with writing letters to solicit submissions ; a total of fifty letters were sent to noted writers , including forty sent to contributors to " Memadjoekan Sastera " . In January 1933 , Armijn went to meet Alisjahbana and Hamzah in Batavia ( modern day Jakarta ) . The three discussed Armijn 's proposed budget and stated goal of promoting a national language . After the meeting , Armijn sent follow @-@ up letters to the previously contacted writers and reached an agreement with Dutch publishing house Kolff & Co .
In February 1933 , the group issued a prospectus that contained publication data and guaranteed that the magazine would have no fewer than sixty @-@ four pages per issue . Other writers , including Armijn 's elder brother Sanusi Pane and poet Muhammad Yamin , were called to serve on the editorial board . Worried that there would not be enough subscribers to support the magazine and hoping to ensure a good reception from traditional groups , the founders sent letters to leaders of ten sultanates in the archipelago asking that they subscribe to the magazine ; however , only Syarif Muhammad Alkadrie , the sultan of Pontianak , agreed to subscribe .
= = = Publication = = =
In the prospectus , Poedjangga Baroe 's founders stated their intention to publish in May 1933 . However , the initial publication was later delayed until July for two reasons . Firstly , Armijn intended to move to Batavia to help with the magazine and needed time to do so . Secondly , a conflict arose between the founders and Kolff & Co. about printing costs , eventually leading the founders to opt for self @-@ publication . This first edition included a foreword by educators Ki Hadjar Dewantara and Hoessein Djajadiningrat , eleven poems from solicited writers , and two essays , one by Armijn and one by Alisjahbana . The magazine continued to be primarily written in Indonesian ; indeed , the magazine was the first written mainly in Indonesian and with exclusively Indonesian editors .
The nascent magazine , under the editorial control of Armijn and Alisjahbana , was initially poorly received by political parties and actors ; they considered the magazine , which was generally non @-@ political , liable to weaken the nationalist movement by diverting it into less important areas . To guarantee better support , people who were not writers or literary critics were accepted onto the editorial board . The first , Sumadang , was accepted in 1935 . Other politicians involved during the end of the 1930s included Amir Sjarifuddin , Mohamad Sjah , and Sugiarti . During this period the magazine began to have a wider scope .
= = = Closure = = =
Poedjangga Baroe was closed with the fall of the Dutch East Indies government after the Japanese invaded the Indies in February 1942 ; the last issue published covered the period of December 1941 to February 1942 . The editors wrote in that issue that they intended to continue publication as long as feasible ; this did not happen , although later writers used a similar style . Until its closing , the original run of Poedjangga Baroe published about ninety issues .
After the Japanese surrender and towards the end of the Indonesian National Revolution , a second series was published under the same title by Alisjabahna with new contributors , including Chairil Anwar , Achdiat Karta Mihardja , and Asrul Sani . The first edition of this new series , dated March 1948 but released in May , included a heated condemnation of the Indonesian leadership for perceived unwillingness to deal with the suffering which occurred during the occupation . This new publication , which Jassin described as unoriginal , ceased in 1954 . It was later replaced by Konfrontasi , led by Alisjahbana , which published bi @-@ monthly from 1954 until 1962 .
Poedjangga Baroe 's paid subscribers were always fewer than 150 . According to historian Heather Sutherland , this low circulation was rooted in several cultural factors . Firstly , the native populace at the time had limited literacy and education . Secondly , native intellectuals mainly spoke Dutch during formal discourse , while others kept to local languages ; this led to comprehension issues for the Indonesian @-@ language Poedjangga Baroe .
Throughout its publication , Poedjangga Baroe had more than 125 employees or contributors . Most were of Sumatran origin , with a high school or greater education in Westernized schools , and a good command of Dutch . They were modernists , and most were around the age of twenty five when they first contributed . According to Armijn , they were united by a view of life and not a shared literary style .
= = Contents = =
Poedjangga Baroe 's original stated mission , to advocate a new style of literature and language that reflected the Indonesian National Awakening , lasted until April 1934 . The scope was slowly extended to culture , art , and social issues in 1935 . After 1936 , the mission statement was that the magazine was intended to be a " guide to the new , dynamic enthusiasm to form a new culture , Indonesian culture " . According to Sutherland , however , the writers dealt mainly with the needs and opinions of modernist , pro @-@ Westernization intellectuals ; discussions of the socio @-@ political needs of the masses were few .
According to the 1933 press release , from the beginning Poedjangga Baroe was meant to include various types of literary works , including fictional prose , poetry ( in both modern and traditional forms ) , non @-@ fiction literary reviews and critiques , research , and opinion pieces on language and literature . The original run of Poedjangga Baroe published more than 300 poems and , in special editions , several poetry anthologies ; although prose was less prominent , Poedjangga Baroe published five dramas , one novel , and several short stories . Along with individual scholarly articles , the magazine also published special editions dedicated to collections of essays on the Indonesian emancipation figure Kartini and the Bengali literary figure Rabindranath Tagore ; the latter was published on the occasion of Tagore 's death .
= = Views = =
= = = Politics = = =
Writers for Poedjangga Baroe did not share a united political view and the magazine ostensibly stayed politically neutral . This stance was adopted to ensure the magazine did not fall afoul of the colonial government 's censors and to protect contributors employed by the government . However , writings falling under various parts the political spectrum were published , including works by cultural nationalists , a sonnet dedicated to Marxist theorist Rosa Luxemburg , and notes on fascism .
= = = Culture = = =
Although Poedjangga Baroe 's writers were united by nationalism , they had different views on traditional culture . Some , such as Armijn and Alisjahbana , considered an understanding of Western culture and history key to development . Others , such Sanusi , emphasized the need for Eastern values , though they accepted some aspects of Western culture . Writers for Poedjangga Baroe did not share religious views . Main contributors , including the founders , came from religious backgrounds ranging from near @-@ secularism to orthodox Islam . Stemming from these conflicting cultural views , between September 1935 and June 1939 , numerous polemics were published in the magazine , discussing the best course of action for Indonesian cultural development .
= = = Language = = =
As opposed to the Balai Pustaka , which published works in regional languages and Dutch , Poedjangga Baroe was almost exclusively in Indonesian and worked to promote the language 's growth . Indonesian , declared to be the language of unity in the 1928 Youth Pledge , was further extolled by Armijn as having been long in development . This was expanded by Alisjabana , who wrote that the language had seen greater growth and deviation from old Malay since the advent of the Dutch Ethical Policy and foundation of Dutch schools for native Indonesians ( Hollandsch @-@ Inlandsche School ) ; the entirety of the November 1933 issue was dedicated to Alisjahbana 's writings on the language . Poedjangga Baroe held the first seminar on the Indonesian language in Surakarta in June 1938 ; the seminar featured papers by Sjarifuddin , Alisjahbana , Djamaluddin Adinegoro , Sukarjo Wirjopranoto , and Sanusi .
= = Styles and themes = =
Contributors to Poedjangga Baroe were influenced by the Tachtigers , a Dutch literary movement from the 1880s . Sutherland suggests that the romantic theme prevalent in their works was adapted by the authors to escape the changing realities of Indonesian society . As opposed to earlier works published by Balai Pustaka such as Marah Rusli 's Sitti Nurbaya ( 1922 ) , which emphasized regional cultural values , prose published in Poedjangga Baroe focused on national identity , and writers included areas that they had never visited . Old themes , such as forced marriage , were abandoned . According to Sutherland , most contributors to Poedjangga Baroe kept a sense of ambivalence towards the Dutch colonial government as well as traditional culture as a central theme in their works . Although they rejected Dutch control of the archipelago , these nationalist writers embraced Western culture ; Sutherland writes that some of the most staunchly nationalist writers were also the most westernized .
Keith Foulcher , an Australian professor of Indonesian literature and language , writes that the poems published in Poedjangga Baroe were structurally based in reimaginings of traditional forms with an emphasis on aesthetic diction ; thematically , he writes , the poems tended to deal with either lofty goals or a deep sense of loneliness in the midst of natural beauty . According to literary documentarian H.B. Jassin , the poems , though they adapted Western forms and Indonesian diction , retained Malay rhythms .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The release of Poedjangga Baroe was well received by young writers and intellectuals , who saw it as a way to express themselves and their nationalist ideas . Traditionalists , however , complained about Poedjangga Baroe 's modernization of Malay ; Marah Sutan , chairman of the Malay @-@ language Teachers Board , stated that it betrayed the " purity of High Malay and its traditional poetic forms " . Traditionalists also decried the introduction of loanwords to Malay from regional and foreign languages to increase the Indonesian lexicon and the deviation from traditional pantuns and syairs . Other Malay figures against the publication included Agus Salim , S.M. Latif , and Sutan Mohamad Zain .
The Indonesian literature published between 1933 and 1942 is sometimes described as from the " Poedjangga Baroe generation " , a reference to the publication 's dominance . Translator and literary critic Burton Raffel described the magazine as a " midwife to a literary revolution " , noting that the political revolution in the 1940s was likely influenced by the magazine . However , the aesthetic qualities of works published in Poedjangga Baroe have received mixed reception in the years after the magazine stopped publication . Indonesian poet and literary critic Muhammad Balfas argued in 1976 that most poetry published in Poedjangga Baroe suffered from over @-@ sentimentality and flowery rhetoric , which he blamed on the writers being influenced by the Tachtigers . Many of the works have since been forgotten .
Leftist literary critic Bakri Siregar condemned Poedjangga Baroe 's neutral political stance , arguing that its inability to objectively understand the needs of the people made it unfit to truly reflect the struggle for independence .
= = Major works = =
Several major works , including numerous poetry collections , five plays , and one novel , were first published in Poedjangga Baroe . The following is a list of those publications .
= = = Novels = = =
Belenggu ( Shackles ) by Armijn Pane , published in three parts from April and July 1940
= = = Plays = = =
" Ken Arok dan Ken Dedes " ( " Ken Arok and Ken Dedes " ) by Muhammad Yamin , published in January 1934
" Lukisan Masa " ( " Sketch of the Ages " ) by Armijn Pane , published in May 1937
" Kertajaya " by Sanusi Pane , published in three parts from October through December 1938
" Njai Lenggang Kentjana " by Armijn Pane , published in May 1939
" Manusia Baru " ( " New Person " ) by Sanusi Pane , published in November 1940
= = = Poetry anthologies = = =
Tebaran Mega ( Spread of the Clouds ) by Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana , published in May 1936
Nyanyi Sunyi ( Silent Song ) by Amir Hamzah , published in October 1937
Buah Rindu ( Fruit of Longing ) by Amir Hamzah , published in June 1941
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= Greg LeMond =
Gregory James " Greg " LeMond ( born June 26 , 1961 ) is an American former professional road racing cyclist who won the Road Race World Championship twice ( 1983 and 1989 ) and the Tour de France three times ( 1986 , 1989 and 1990 ) . He is also an entrepreneur and anti @-@ doping advocate . LeMond was born in Lakewood , California , and raised in ranch country on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada mountain range , near Reno . He is married and has three children with his wife Kathy , with whom he supports a variety of charitable causes and organizations .
In 1986 , LeMond became the first non @-@ European professional cyclist to win the Tour de France , and he remains the only official winner from the United States . LeMond was accidentally shot with multiple pellets while hunting in 1987 and missed the next two Tours . He returned to the 1989 Tour , completing an improbable comeback by winning in dramatic fashion on the race 's final stage . He successfully defended his title the following year , claiming his third and final Tour victory in 1990 , which made LeMond one of only seven riders who have won three or more Tours . He retired from competition in December 1994 . He was inducted into the United States Bicycling Hall of Fame in 1996 .
LeMond was the first American to win the elite Road World Championship , the first professional cyclist to sign a million @-@ dollar contract , and the first cyclist to appear on the cover of Sports Illustrated when the magazine named him as its Sportsman of the Year in 1989 . During his career , LeMond championed several technological advancements in pro cycling , including the introduction of aerodynamic " triathlon " handlebars and carbon fiber bicycle frames , which he later marketed through his company LeMond Bicycles . His other business interests have included restaurants , real estate , and consumer fitness equipment .
LeMond is a vocal opponent of performance @-@ enhancing drug use , and at times his commercial ventures have suffered for his anti @-@ doping stance — as in 2001 , when he first accused Lance Armstrong of doping and sparked a conflict that led eventually to the dissolution of his Lemond Bikes brand in 2008 , which was licensed by Armstrong 's primary sponsor Trek Bicycles . As the lone American winner of cycling 's most prestigious race , LeMond has not enjoyed the public stature that might be expected of such a figure , but he continues to campaign publicly against doping and ineffective leadership by the UCI , the International Federation for Cycling . In December 2012 , LeMond even articulated a willingness to replace the UCI president on an interim basis if called to do so . In December 2013 , the LeMond brand was revived , manufactured in partnership with TIME Sport International .
= = Early life and amateur career = =
Greg LeMond was born in Lakewood , California , and raised in Washoe Valley which is ranch country on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada mountain range , two miles north of Carson City and 18 miles south of Reno . His parents are Bob LeMond and Bertha ( d . 2006 ) , and he has two sisters , Kathy and Karen . He attended Earl Wooster High School in Reno , NV . Greg frequently rode his bike to high school , sometimes cutting class to get home early . He would then ride a loop west over Mt . Rose , south along Lake Tahoe , then east on Hwy 28 to Carson City . Then Greg would follow Carson Street over the hill to Washoe Valley and his home .
LeMond 's introduction to cycling came in 1975 thanks to freestyle skiing pioneer Wayne Wong , who recommended the bike as an ideal off @-@ season training aid . LeMond started competing in 1976 , and after dominating the Intermediate category ( 13 – 15 ) and winning the first 11 races he entered , he received permission to ride against older , more seasoned competitors in the Junior ( 16 – 19 ) category .
In 1977 , while still only 15 , LeMond finished second in the Tour of Fresno to John Howard , then United States 's top road cyclist and the 1971 Pan American Games champion . LeMond caught the attention of Eddie Borysewicz , the US Cycling Federation 's national team coach , who described LeMond as " a diamond , a clear diamond . " LeMond represented the United States at the 1978 Junior World Championships in Washington , D.C. , where he finished ninth in the road race , and again in the 1979 Junior World Championships in Argentina , where he won gold , silver and bronze medals — the highlight being his victory in the road race . At age 18 , LeMond was selected for the 1980 U.S. Olympic cycling team , the youngest ever to make the U.S. team ; however , the U.S. boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow prevented him from competing there .
Borysewicz , whom LeMond described as his " first real coach , " wanted to retain his protégé through the next Olympic cycle and discouraged him from turning pro , but LeMond was determined . Nevertheless , while he was the reigning Junior World Road Champion in 1980 , LeMond received no professional offers , and so in the spring 1980 , he joined the U.S. National cycling team for a 6 @-@ week European racing campaign . There , he finished third overall in the Circuit des Ardennes before winning the 1980 Circuit de la Sarthe stage race in France , thereby becoming the first American and youngest rider of any nationality " in the history of the sport to win a major pro @-@ am cycling event [ in Europe ] . " That victory , and the subsequent press coverage , raised LeMond 's profile in Europe and he was scouted at his next event ( the Ruban Granitier Breton stage race ) by French cycling coach and Renault @-@ Elf @-@ Gitane directeur sportif Cyrille Guimard . Guimard said he was impressed with LeMond 's spirit , and told him , " You have the fire to be a great champion , " before offering him a professional contract for 1981 with Renault . After he returned to the United States , LeMond won the 1980 Nevada City Classic , considered to be one of the most historic and challenging professional cycling races in United States . Despite eventually receiving several other offers to turn professional besides Guimard 's , LeMond did not consider them seriously , and he signed with Renault in Paris on the day the 1980 Tour de France finished .
= = Professional career = =
LeMond was a standout amateur rider " of superlative quality " and " exceptionally gifted , " who quickly established himself as one of the most talented cyclists on the professional circuit . Respected cycling journalist John Wilcockson , who reported the Tour de France for more than 40 years , described LeMond as a rider who was fuoriclasse .
= = = 1981 – 1983 : Early years = = =
LeMond 's first professional victory came three months into his 1981 debut when he won a stage of the French Tour de l 'Oise . He followed with a win in the Coors Classic in the United States , finishing ahead of Sergei Sukhoruchenkov , the 1980 Olympic road champion . The major step forward in 1981 occurred in the Dauphiné Libéré stage race where LeMond placed third . The achievement is the more remarkable because he rode the race in support of team leader Bernard Hinault . LeMond missed standing on the podium with race winner Hinault , as Pascal Simon had finished ahead of him . Two weeks later Simon was assessed a 10 @-@ minute penalty when it was discovered he had been doping . LeMond considered the race to have been a " major steppingstone " in his career . Said LeMond : " It showed me that I had the kind of climbing ability that you need to win the top European stage races . " LeMond won a total of five races in his rookie season of 1981 .
LeMond broke his collarbone on April 11 , 1982 while racing the cycling classic Liège – Bastogne – Liège . The injury forced LeMond to ride a reduced schedule before entering the World Championships , which were in Goodwood , England that year . In the men 's road race competition LeMond broke for the line but was out @-@ sprinted by Italian Giuseppe Saronni . Following the race LeMond 's American teammate Jacques Boyer accused LeMond of chasing him down in the final 800 meters . Saronni was very strong at the end of the race and flew past Boyer and LeMond , winning by 5 seconds over LeMond , with another 5 seconds back to Kelly . Boyer placed tenth . Bronze medalist Sean Kelly , a favorite to win the race , was with Saronni when he caught LeMond with about 200 meters to go , but he could not hold his wheel . Said Kelly : " I don 't think that Boyer was fading ... He got quite a good gap . Nobody wanted to go after him ... Yes , LeMond chased down Boyer . Boyer was the only man up the road . "
LeMond was supported by his teammate George Mount , who observed , " What 's LeMond going to do ? Throw his bike down in front of everybody because Boyer is such a good buddy of everyone ? ... Hell no — he 's going to start sprinting because it 's less than 200 meters to go and the sprint 's already been going for a couple hundred meters . LeMond made a good move and a good sprint ... Boyer was not going to win that race . The best he could have got was fifth or sixth place . "
LeMond did not apologize . The U.S. team was not set up as the European teams , and did not have an independent race to determine the national champion . Instead the highest finisher at the World 's was considered the national champion . LeMond had argued for the team to compete as the European teams did , but team management and Boyer voted against him . Thus unlike the other teams at the world championship , the US riders were competing against each other . Aged 21 , LeMond was the first American pro to win a medal at the World 's since Frank Kramer took silver in 1912 . Said LeMond : " I 'm racing for Renault and I 'm racing for myself . It 's a business and it 's my living . To me , that second place was almost as good as winning , especially at my age . "
Two weeks later , on September 20 , 1982 , LeMond won the mountainous 12 @-@ day , 837 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 347 km ) Tour de l 'Avenir by a world @-@ record 10 minutes , 18 seconds . The victory , and the time advantage LeMond held at the end , stunned Europe and provided broad confirmation that LeMond was indeed fuoriclasse .
The following year , 1983 , LeMond won the World Championship outright , becoming the first American rider to do so . LeMond 's cycling talent — his overall strength , climbing ability , ability to ride a fast time trial and his capacity to recover quickly — all suggested LeMond would be an excellent prospect for the most demanding Grand Tours .
= = = 1984 – 1986 : Grand Tours = = =
LeMond rode his first Tour de France in 1984 , finishing third in support of team leader Laurent Fignon , and winning the white jersey of the young rider classification . The following year he was brought across to La Vie Claire to ride in support of team captain Bernard Hinault who had regained his form and was attempting to win his fifth Tour . French businessman and team owner Bernard Tapie signed LeMond with a $ 1 million contract over three years . In the race Hinault led through the early mountain stages , but suffered a crash and came into difficulty . At this point it was clear that LeMond was an elite rider capable of winning the Tour in his own right . LeMond possessed a natural talent for riding the Grand Tours , and got stronger over the course of a three @-@ week race . The injured Hinault was vulnerable , and his competitors knew it . Stage 17 included three major climbs in the Pyrenees . On the second , the Col du Tourmalet , LeMond followed Stephen Roche in an attack , but was not given permission to help build on the gap over the field . The managers of his La Vie Claire team ordered the 24 @-@ year @-@ old LeMond not to ride with Roche , but to sit on his wheel , a tactic to use the rider in front as cover for wind resistance so the following rider uses less energy . The pace Roche could put out by himself eventually slowed , and other riders came up to join the two men . Hinault recovered as well , though he did not regain the lead group . At the end of the stage LeMond was frustrated to the point of tears . He later revealed that team management and his own coach Paul Köchli had misled him as to how far back Hinault had dropped during the crucial Stage 17 mountain stage . Hinault won the 1985 Tour , with LeMond finishing second , 1 : 42 behind . LeMond had ridden as the dutiful lieutenant , and his support enabled Hinault to win his fifth Tour . In repayment for his sacrifice Hinault promised to help LeMond win the Tour the following year .
For the 1986 Tour , LeMond was a co @-@ leader of the La Vie Claire team alongside Hinault . Hinault 's support seemed less certain the closer the race approached . An unspoken condition was that his help would be contingent upon LeMond demonstrating that he was clearly the better rider . Hinault was in superb form , and had the chance to win an unprecedented sixth Tour . Hinault chose to let the Stage 9 individual time trial be the decider for which rider would receive the full support of team La Vie Claire . Hinault won the Stage 9 time trial , finishing 44 seconds in front of LeMond . LeMond had bad luck during the stage , having suffered a punctured tire requiring a wheel change , and later in the stage a bicycle change was required when he broke a wheel . He was frustrated with the outcome and the impact it would have on how the team would function for the remainder of the race . In Stage 12 , the first mountain stage of the race in the Pyrenees , Hinault attacked the lead group and built up an overall lead . By the end of Stage 12 , Hinault had a five @-@ minute lead over LeMond and the other top riders . He claimed he was trying to draw out LeMond 's rivals , but none of these attacks were planned with LeMond . He was clearly willing to ride aggressively and take advantage of the opportunities presented . LeMond was never placed in difficulty , except by his own teammate . The following day Hinault broke away again early but was caught and then dropped by LeMond on the final climb of Stage 13 , allowing LeMond to gain back four and a half minutes . The next three stages brought the Tour to the Alps . On Stage 17 LeMond and Urs Zimmermann dropped Hinault from the leading group , and the end of the day saw LeMond pulling on the yellow jersey of race leader , the first time it had ever been worn by a rider from the United States . The following day in the Alps saw Hinault attack again early on the first climb , but he was pulled back . Attempting an escape on the descent , he was unable to separate himself from LeMond . The La Vie Claire team leaders were both excellent descenders . As they ascended up the next col they continued to pull away from the field , and maintained the gap as they reached the base of the final climb , the vaunted Alpe d 'Huez . They pressed on through the crowd , ascending the twenty @-@ one switchbacks of Alpe d 'Huez and reaching the summit together . LeMond put an arm around Hinault and gave him a smile and the stage win in a show of unity , but the infighting was not over . Hinault attacked again on Stage 19 and had to be brought back by teammates Andy Hampsten and Steve Bauer . Commenting on the team situation prior to the final individual time trial at Stage 20 , LeMond offered the following with a wry smile : " He 's attacked me from the beginning of the Tour De France . He 's never helped me once , and I don 't feel confident at all with him . "
LeMond had to keep his eye on his teammate and rival throughout the race . Hinault rode aggressively and repeatedly attacked , and the division created in the La Vie Claire team was unmistakable . LeMond would keep the yellow jersey to the end of the race and win his first Tour , but he felt betrayed by Hinault and the La Vie Claire team leadership . LeMond later stated the 1986 Tour was the most difficult and stressful race of his career .
= = = 1987 – 1988 : Shooting accident and recovery = = =
LeMond had planned to defend his title in the 1987 Tour de France with La Vie Claire , but he was unable to participate . Earlier that year , while riding in the Tirreno – Adriatico spring tune @-@ up race , LeMond fell and fractured his left wrist . He returned to the United States to recover from the injury . The week before returning to Europe , he went turkey hunting on a ranch co @-@ owned by his father in Lincoln , California – in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada . LeMond was with Rodney Barber and Patrick Blades , his uncle and brother @-@ in @-@ law . The trio had become separated when Blades , who heard movement behind him , turned and fired through a bush . The movement had come from LeMond , who was hit in his back and right side with a devastating blast of approximately 60 No. 2 @-@ sized pellets . LeMond 's injuries were life @-@ threatening , but fortunately , a police helicopter was already airborne near the scene and transported LeMond on a 15 @-@ minute air medical flight to the Medical Center at University of California @-@ Davis . LeMond was taken for emergency surgery . He had suffered a pneumothorax to his right lung and extensive bleeding , having lost some 65 percent of his blood volume . A physician informed LeMond later that he had been within 20 minutes of bleeding to death . The operation saved his life , but four months later he developed a small bowel obstruction due to adhesions that had formed following the shooting . He underwent another surgery to relieve the obstruction and take down the adhesions . Concerned that his team would drop him if they knew the shooting accident required a second surgery , LeMond asked the surgeons to remove his appendix at the same time . He then informed his team that he had had his appendix removed , but the rest of the story was left somewhat vague . The events effectively ended his 1987 season , and in October he announced he would return to serious competition the following February , with the Dutch PDM team .
With 35 shotgun pellets still in his body , including three in the lining of his heart and five more embedded in his liver , LeMond attempted to return to racing in 1988 . His comeback was hampered by over @-@ training which resulted in tendonitis in his right shin requiring surgery . He missed the Tour for the second year running . Tensions in the relationship between LeMond and PDM were aggravated when LeMond discovered that doping was going on at the PDM squad . The result was that LeMond moved from PDM , one of the strongest teams in the peloton , to ADR , a team based in Belgium . The team was co @-@ sponsored by Coors Light for American races . The deal was completed on New Year 's Eve , just hours before LeMond would have been legally obligated to ride another season for the Dutch team . Joining the Belgian ADR squad allowed LeMond to continue to compete , but with teammates like Johan Museeuw who were better suited to riding Classics than Grand Tours .
= = = 1989 : Return to elite level = = =
After struggling in the 1989 Paris – Nice early @-@ season race and failing to improve his condition , LeMond informed his wife Kathy that he intended to retire from professional cycling after the 1989 Tour de France . He had some flashes of form in the two @-@ day Critérium International , sharing an escape with Fignon , Indurain , Mottet , Roche and Madiot and finishing 5th overall . He started the 1989 Giro d 'Italia in May as preparation for the Tour to follow , but struggled in the mountains and was not in contention for any of the leaders ' jerseys before the final 53 km ( 33 mi ) individual time trial into Florence . LeMond placed a surpising second there , more than a minute ahead of overall winner Laurent Fignon . Some of his improvement he attributed to an anti @-@ anemia treatment he received twice during the race .
Coming into the 1989 Tour de France LeMond was not considered a contender for the general classification ( GC ) . His own most optimistic hope was to finish his final Tour in the top 20 . Without the weight of expectation and other pressures of being a Tour favorite , LeMond surprised observers with a strong ride in the 7 @.@ 8 km ( 4 @.@ 8 mi ) prologue in Luxembourg , finishing fourth out of 198 riders . Buoyed by the result , LeMond continued to ride well over the opening flat stages , winning the 73 km ( 45 mi ) stage 5 individual time trial , and gaining the yellow jersey of race leader for the first time in three years . LeMond seemed to ride himself into better condition during the first week 's flat stages , and he was coming into peak form by the time the Tour reached the mountains . LeMond remained at the front of the race in the Pyrénées , but lost the lead to his former teammate and rival Laurent Fignon on stage 10 in Superbagnères . Five days later LeMond reclaimed yellow in the Alps , after the 39 km ( 24 mi ) stage 15 mountain time trial from Gap to Orcières @-@ Merlette . The see @-@ saw battle continued , and when Fignon attacked on the upper slopes of Alpe d 'Huez LeMond was unable to go with him , placing the yellow jersey back on the shoulders of Fignon . Fignon held a 50 @-@ second advantage over LeMond going into the 21st and final stage , a rare 24 @.@ 5 km ( 15 @.@ 2 mi ) individual time trial from Versailles to the Champs @-@ Élysées in Paris .
Fignon had won the Tour twice before , in 1983 and 1984 , and was a very capable time trialist . It seemed improbable that LeMond could take 50 seconds off Fignon over the short course . This would require LeMond to gain two seconds per kilometer against one of the fastest chrono @-@ specialists in the world . LeMond had done wind tunnel testing in the off season and perfected his riding position . He rode the time trial with a rear disc wheel , a cut @-@ down Giro aero helmet and the same Scott clip @-@ on aero bars which had helped him to the Stage 5 time trial win . Holding his time trialing position LeMond was able to generate less aerodynamic drag than Fignon , who used a pair of disc wheels but chose to go helmetless and did not use the aero bars that are now commonplace in time trials . Instructing his support car not to give him his split times , LeMond rode flat @-@ out and finished at a record pace to beat Fignon by 8 seconds and claim his second Tour de France victory . As LeMond embraced his wife and rejoiced on the Champs @-@ Élysées , Fignon collapsed onto the tarmac , then sat in shock and wept .
The final margin of victory of eight seconds was the closest in the Tour 's history . LeMond 's 54 @.@ 545 km / h ( 33 @.@ 893 mph ) average speed for the stage 21 time trial was , at that time , the fastest in Tour history . Since then the 1994 and 2015 prologues and David Zabriskie 's 2005 time trial performance have been faster . The press immediately labeled LeMond 's come @-@ from @-@ behind triumph as , " the most astonishing victory in Tour de France history , " and while LeMond admitted that it felt almost " too good to be true , " he personally rated it as " much more satisfying " than his first overall Tour win in 1986 .
LeMond 's return to the pinnacle of cycling was confirmed on August 27 , when he won the 259 km ( 161 mi ) World Championships road race in Chambéry , France , defeating Fignon again and edging Dimitri Konyshev and Sean Kelly on the line . Fignon attacked repeatedly on the wet , treacherous final climb , but LeMond and a select group caught his rival and then LeMond made the perfect sprint to take the title . Fignon finished 6th . LeMond was only the fifth person in history to win both the Tour de France and the World Championship in the same year . In December , Sports Illustrated magazine named LeMond its 1989 " Sportsman of the Year " , the first time a cyclist received the honor .
= = = 1990 : A third tour win = = =
LeMond parlayed the success of his 1989 season into the then @-@ richest contract in the sport 's history , signing a $ 5 @.@ 5 million deal for three years with Z @-@ Tomasso of France . He entered the 1990 Tour de France as defending champion and a pre @-@ race favorite after leaving ADR to join the much stronger Z @-@ Tomasso team . At " Z " his team mates included Robert Millar , Eric Boyer and Ronan Pensec , all of whom already had finishes in the top six of the Tour de France . This unified roster of strong riders appeared capable of supporting LeMond in the mountains and controlling the race on the flats .
The squad 's tactical plan was upset on the first day , when a breakaway that included LeMond 's teammate Ronan Pensec , but no major favorites , arrived ten minutes ahead of the field . LeMond was prevented from challenging for the lead until the yellow jersey left the shoulders of teammate Ronan Pensec . LeMond closed in on race leader Claudio Chiappucci , finally overtaking him in the final individual time trial on stage 20 , where he finished over two minutes ahead of the unheralded Italian . LeMond at last had the yellow jersey , wearing it the following day as the Tour rode into Paris . LeMond had the distinction of winning the 1990 Tour without taking any of the individual stages . He remains the last rider to win the Tour while wearing the world champion jersey . Over the course of the 1990 Tour the perceived strength of the Z team was confirmed , as they led the team classification through most of the race , adding the team title to LeMond 's yellow jersey .
In September , LeMond attempted to defend his title at the 1990 UCI Road World Championships , but finished fourth , eight seconds behind the winner , his former teammate Rudy Dhaenens of Belgium .
= = = 1991 – 1994 : Change in the peloton and retirement = = =
LeMond felt confident before the 1991 Tour de France . He was the defending champion , trained well and had a solid team to support him . LeMond was among the leaders going into the Stage 8 individual time trial , and he finished second to the Spaniard Miguel Indurain . LeMond felt he was riding extremely well , and though his TT @-@ effort had propelled him into the yellow jersey , losing eight seconds to Indurain shook his confidence . He held the yellow jersey for the next four days until Stage 12 , a challenging 192 km ( 119 mi ) mountain stage . LeMond experienced difficulty on the first climb and he cracked on the Col de Tourmalet , losing significant time to Claudio Chiappucci , and eventual winner Indurain . He continued to race , but was unable to seriously challenge for the lead thereafter , finishing the 1991 Tour seventh overall .
In 1992 , LeMond won the Tour DuPont . It would be the last major win of his career . In the 1992 Tour de France he quit the race in the mountains , on the same day that his compatriot and former domestique Andy Hampsten won atop Alpe d 'Huez . While LeMond claimed a serious saddle sore caused him to abandon , he had earlier stated , " My climbing is not like usual . I 've climbed much better in the past Tours . This year I 'm just not feeling my usual self . "
LeMond did extensive endurance training on the road the following winter , but his performances the following spring failed to improve . LeMond had to abandon the 1993 Giro d 'Italia two days before the final stage after difficult racing left him third @-@ from @-@ last on GC . He was too exhausted to enter the 1993 Tour de France . Following the 1993 season LeMond hired renowned Dutch physiologist Adrie van Diemen to advise him on a new technique to monitor training and measure performance . The ( SRM ) power @-@ based training would make use of the watt as a guide to power output . In November 1993 LeMond confided to Sam Abt that power output in watts would become the key metric . The watt has gained wide acceptance as the best measure of a cyclist 's training performance .
The following year LeMond began the 1994 Tour de France but found he was unable to race effectively . He had to abandon after the first week before the race had reached the difficult mountain stages . That December he announced his retirement . At the time the reasons for LeMond 's increasing difficulties were not entirely known . At a loss , he speculated that a condition known as mitochondrial myopathy might be responsible for the difficulty he was having performing against the current riders . In 2007 , however , LeMond speculated that he might not have had the condition after all , and suggested that lead toxicity from the shotgun pellets still embedded in his body might have been responsible , the effects of which were increased by heavy training .
Since 2010 LeMond acknowledged that the increasing prevalence of doping contributed to his lack of competitiveness . Said LeMond : " Something had changed in cycling . The speeds were faster and riders that I had easily out performed were now dropping me . At the time , the team I was on , Team Z , became more and more demanding , more and more concerned ... " He stated he had been told in 1994 that he would need to blood dope in order to win again . LeMond did not focus solely on doping for his difficulties . He frankly admitted to Abt in 1999 : " I figure I had three months that went right for me after the hunting accident , " three months in which he won the two Tours and a world road race championship . " The rest were just pure suffering , struggling , fatigue , always tired . "
In a wide @-@ ranging interview with American novelist Bryan Malessa in 1998 , LeMond was asked if his career had not been interrupted by the hunting accident , how did he feel he would compare to five time Tour winners such as Bernard Hinault and Miguel Indurain . LeMond responded : " Of course you can 't rewrite racing history , but I 'm confident that I would have won five Tours . "
Two years after his retirement LeMond was inducted into the United States Bicycling Hall of Fame in a ceremony at Rodale Park in Trexlertown , Pennsylvania . The event was held on June 8 , 1996 , during the U.S. Olympic Cycling Team Trials .
In July 2014 , ESPN announced the premiere of a new 30 for 30 film titled Slaying the Badger which centers on LeMond and his former teammate Hinault at the 1986 Tour de France . The film is based on the book of the same name by Richard Moore and premiered July 22 , 2014 on ESPN .
= = Business interests = =
Greg LeMond was a pioneer in the use of carbon fiber bicycle frames in European professional road cycling , and his Tour de France win in 1986 ahead of Bernard Hinault was the first for a carbon @-@ framed bicycle . Ironically , given the rivalry that existed at the time between the American and his French teammate , LeMond rode a " Bernard Hinault " Signature Model Look prototype that year . LeMond also won the 1989 Tour de France , the 1989 World Championship , and his final Tour de France in 1990 on carbon fiber frames . These bicycle frames featured " Greg LeMond " branding .
= = = LeMond Cycles = = =
In 1990 , LeMond founded LeMond Bicycles to develop machines for himself that would also be marketed and sold to the public . The following year , searching for an equipment edge for Team Z at the 1991 Tour de France , LeMond concluded an exclusive licensing agreement between his company and Carbonframes , Inc . , to access the latter 's advanced composites technology . While LeMond briefly led the 1991 Tour overall , riding his Carbonframes @-@ produced " Greg LeMond " bicycle , the company eventually faltered , something LeMond blamed on " under @-@ capitalization " and poor management by his father . Carbonframes and LeMond Cycles " parted amiably two years later . " In 1995 , with his company allegedly nearly bankrupt , LeMond reached a licensing @-@ agreement with Trek Bicycle Corporation , according to which the Wisconsin @-@ based company would manufacture and distribute bicycles designed with LeMond that would be sold under the " LeMond Bicycles " brand . LeMond would later claim that going into business with Trek " destroyed " his relationship with his father . The lucrative partnership , which generated revenue for Trek in excess of $ 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 USD , would be renewed several times over the course of 13 years , but it ultimately ended in acrimony after LeMond 's relationship with Trek deteriorated over his staunch anti @-@ doping advocacy .
The two parties first found themselves at odds in July 2001 , after LeMond expressed public concern over the relationship between Italian doping doctor Michele Ferrari and Trek 's star athlete , Lance Armstrong . " When I heard he was working with Michele Ferrari , I was devastated , " LeMond was quoted as saying of Armstrong . " If Lance is clean , it is the greatest comeback in the history of sports . If he isn 't , it would be the greatest fraud . "
Trek 's president John Burke pressured LeMond to apologize , claiming , " Greg 's public comments hurt the LeMond brand and the Trek brand . " Burke allegedly justified his demand for an apology by advising that , " As a contractual partner , he [ LeMond ] could criticize doping only generally – not point his finger at specific athletes , particularly one that happens to be the company 's main cash cow . "
In April 2008 , Trek announced that it was dropping LeMond Bicycles from its product line and would sue to sever the licensing agreement . It quickly emerged that in March 2008 , LeMond had filed a complaint against Trek for breach of contract , claiming that they had not made a " best efforts " attempt to sell his bicycles , as well as describing attempts to ' silence ' him about doping , including incidents in 2001 and 2004 . His complaint included statistics detailing slow sales in some markets , including the fact that between September 2001 and June 2007 , Trek only sold $ 10 @,@ 393 worth of LeMond bikes in France , a country in which LeMond was both famous and popular .
As promised , Trek counter @-@ sued and stopped producing bicycles under the LeMond brand . After nearly two years of litigation , in February 2010 , LeMond reached an out @-@ of @-@ court settlement with Trek in their breach @-@ of @-@ contract dispute , the terms of which were confidential . The settlement permitted the case to be dismissed with prejudice , meaning , " neither side can produce the same claims against one another in a future lawsuit . " And although settlement terms were not disclosed , LeMond reportedly obtained full control over the LeMond Bicycles name , while Trek made a donation of $ 200 @,@ 000 USD to the charity 1in6 , of which LeMond was a founding member of the board of directors .
= = = LeMond Fitness / Revolution = = =
In 2002 , LeMond , Bernie Boglioli and others founded LeMond Fitness , Inc . " to help individuals achieve their fitness and performance goals and train more effectively . " The company 's primary business is the development and manufacture of bicycle trainers and indoor exercise bikes for consumers in the United States and internationally . LeMond himself serves as Chairman of the Board , and , according to company sources , " is integrally involved in the development and design of our products and programs . " In 2012 , Hoist Fitness negotiated to purchase an interest in the company and announced plans to move its headquarters to Hoist 's offices in San Diego , CA . In late 2012 , Greg LeMond purchased the LeMond Revolution from Hoist , relaunching with a new management team in Minneapolis . He also formed LeMond LLC to introduce a suite of brands in late 2013 , early 2014 . Professional cycling 's Garmin @-@ Sharp team recently renewed its sponsorship with LeMond to use its Revolution trainers for another three seasons . The team has won several stages of the Tour de France , plus the general classification of the 2012 Giro d 'Italia .
= = = Partnership with Time = = =
At the Interbike trade show in September 2013 LeMond announced that he was returning to the business of bicycle manufacture and sales by partnering with French company Time . The new line began with a series of commemorative designed bicycles , to be followed with road , cyclocross , and gravel @-@ road models . LeMond purchased Time Sport USA , the US distributor for the company . He will be responsible for US distribution of the company 's line of frames , bikes , and components . Said LeMond : " I 'm really excited to be back in the bike industry . "
= = = Real estate = = =
In 2002 LeMond joined with his parents @-@ in @-@ law David and Sacia Morris , friend Michael Snow and J.P. Morgan & Co. fund manager Jorge Jasson to invest in the exclusive Yellowstone Club , a Big Sky , Montana private ski and golf community founded by timber baron Tim Blixseth and his wife Edra . Each of the five partners paid Blixseth $ 750 @,@ 000 for one percent shares in the exclusive resort . LeMond also purchased several building lots and maintained a property at the resort . Four years later LeMond and partners sued Blixseth in 2006 following reports of a Credit Suisse loan to the resort of $ 375 million from which Blixseth reportedly took $ 209 million in a disputed partial payout for his ownership stake . The Credit Suisse loan was based on a $ 1 @.@ 16 billion Cushman & Wakefield valuation of the resort , for which LeMond and partners each sought $ 11 @.@ 6 million for their one @-@ percent shares . In 2007 , LeMond settled his suit with the Blixseths for $ 39 million ; however , he and his partners remained creditors as the Blixseths defaulted on a $ 20 million payment ( after having already paid the group $ 18 million ) , followed by their divorce and the bankruptcy of the Club in 2009 .
= = = Restaurants = = =
LeMond became a restaurateur in August 1990 , when , in partnership with his wife and her parents , he opened Scott Kee 's Tour de France on France Avenue in the Minneapolis suburb of Edina , Minnesota . LeMond described the restaurant , which was named for its chef ( LeMond 's brother @-@ in @-@ law ) , as " a dream of five years come true . " Explaining the origin of the concept , LeMond said , " Kathy and I have eaten at the finest establishments in France , Italy and Belgium . Our favorites have always been small places , family @-@ owned . " LeMond also partnered in several Bruegger 's bagel bakery @-@ café franchises .
= = Broadcasting = =
In 2014 , LeMond joined Eurosport as a pundit for the channel 's cycling coverage , providing analysis at Paris – Roubaix , the Giro d 'Italia and the Tour de France , and hosting his own monthly programme LeMond of Cycling .
= = Anti @-@ doping stance and controversies = =
LeMond is a longtime vocal opponent of performance @-@ enhancing drug use . He first spoke on @-@ record against doping in cycling after winning the 1989 Tour de France . LeMond received intense criticism in 2001 when he publicly expressed doubts about the legitimacy of Lance Armstrong 's Tour success after learning of his relationship with Dr. Michele Ferrari . His outspokenness placed him in the center of the anti @-@ doping controversy .
LeMond has consistently questioned the relationship between riders and unethical sports doctors like Ferrari , and has pointed out that doping products ultimately victimize the professional cyclists who make use of them . Said LeMond : " When I speak out about doping people could translate it and think it was about the riders . Actually I feel like I am an advocate for the riders . I look at them as being treated like lab rats that are test vehicles for the doctors . The doctors , the management , the officials , they 're the ones that have corrupted riders . The riders are the only ones that pay the price . "
LeMond 's most notable conflicts have been with fellow Tour riders Lance Armstrong and Floyd Landis . He has also been critical of Alberto Contador , the UCI , and its former president , Pat McQuaid . In December 2012 , LeMond claimed that a change needed to be made at the head of leadership for the UCI , and stated if called upon he would be willing to take the position himself if necessary to lead cycling out of the mire of doping . Said LeMond : " It is now or never to act . After the earthquake caused by the Armstrong case another chance will not arise . I am willing to invest to make this institution more democratic , transparent and look for the best candidate in the longer term . "
McQuaid rejected LeMond 's call for new leadership and was dismissive of LeMond . " Ultimately McQuaid was defeated in his bid for a third term by British Cycling president Brian Cookson at the September 2013 UCI Congress in Florence , Italy . Lemond had supported Cookson in the UCI Presidential battle .
= = Personal life = =
LeMond grew up living an active , outdoor life . Hiking , hunting , skiing and flyfishing were boyhood pastimes . The ranch country of the Sierra Nevada mountain range lent itself to such pursuits . A hyperactive youngster , LeMond believes these outdoor activities helped keep him out of trouble . " I was a boy who just could not sit still . I had trouble focusing in school . Parents and educators then did not have the skill set to diagnose and cope with what we know now was a classic case of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder ( ADHD ) . ADHD certainly was not the frequently medicated childhood disease it is today . My triumph over the symptoms was found atop two thin tires over many dusty miles . " Said LeMond : " That 's one of the traits . It 's the inability to sit down [ and listen ] to something you are not really interested in and absorb it . If they are interested in it , people with ADD excel in really good ways . When I got into cycling I would say the sport itself took a fog off my brain . I was able to absorb stuff I read . It changed my life . "
LeMond is married to his wife Kathy ( previously Kathy Morris ) and together they have three children : sons Geoffrey and Scott , and daughter Simone . LeMond and his wife live in Medina , Minnesota . Since his retirement , LeMond has become increasingly involved in philanthropic efforts relating to causes that have affected him personally ( including ADHD and sexual abuse ) , and he and Kathy both sit on the board of the non @-@ profit 1in6 .
LeMond is an avid outdoor enthusiast and fly angler , and in 1991 – while still racing full @-@ time – he made the world @-@ record fly fishing catch of a four @-@ pound smallmouth bass on a reel with a four @-@ pound tippet . The record was certified by the National Freshwater Fishing Hall of Fame in Hayward , Wisconsin . The catch exceeded the then @-@ previous record of three pounds , six ounces made on the same size tippet back in 1986 . LeMond confessed , " I always pack my fly fishing equipment when I travel to bike events . I fish every chance I get . "
After retiring from pro cycling , LeMond competed in Formula Ford 2000 series auto racing . He is also a motivational speaker and was the guest speaker for Sumitomo Drive Technologies ' International Sales Meeting in Cancun , Mexico on May 2 , 2008 . LeMond narrated an award @-@ winning documentary for Adventures for the Cure that same year .
On July 16 , 2007 , LeMond rode the L 'Étape du Tour cyclosportive with his son , and found it to be a defining moment in his post @-@ competition life . " I had the time of my life " , he said , despite getting " 650th place " and being " impressed that I even finished " . LeMond continued , " I decided that day that nobody 's going to keep me from cycling , not Trek , not Armstrong , not Verbruggen , not anybody . " At the time , LeMond was alluding to a series of public and private disputes related to his anti @-@ doping advocacy that hampered his enjoyment of cycling . Especially significant was LeMond 's appearance as a USADA witness in the Floyd Landis doping case . There , on the eve of LeMond 's testimony in May 2007 , Landis ' business manager called and threatened to disclose publicly that LeMond was the victim of childhood sexual abuse , should he appear in court as scheduled the following day . Undeterred , LeMond took the stand and testified , before admitting to the world that he had been molested .
Several weeks later , LeMond and his wife Kathy gave an extensive interview to Paul Kimmage of The Sunday Times . LeMond provided additional details concerning the circumstances of his 2001 apology to Armstrong , stating that Trek , the longtime manufacturer and distributor of LeMond Racing Cycles , had threatened to end the relationship at the behest of Armstrong . He described the two years following the forced apology as the worst in his life , marked by self @-@ destructive behavior that ultimately led him to disclose his sexual abuse to his wife and seek help . LeMond also described how being a victim of molestation had impacted both his racing career and his life since .
In September 2007 , Greg LeMond became a founding board member of the non @-@ profit organization 1in6.org , whose mission is " to help men who have had unwanted or abusive sexual experiences in childhood live healthy , happy lives " .
LeMond was in a car crash on the morning of January 30 , 2013 . He was driving through wintery and icy conditions to his dentist in Wayzata , Minnesota , when he lost control of his car . LeMond suffered a concussion and was left with no memory of the incident . According to Associated Press , a Plymouth police report says LeMond left the road , hit a fence and shrubs , and then hit an embankment before ending up in the backyard of a home . LeMond may have lost consciousness before the accident , according to his wife Kathy , and he suffered a compression fracture in his back and would have to wear a brace for three months . The accident curtailed LeMond 's public appearances in the first half of 2013 , but he made a full recovery .
= = Career achievements = =
= = = Major results = = =
= = = Grand Tour and World Championship overall results timeline = = =
= = = Awards = = =
Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year : 1989
Jesse Owens International Trophy : 1991
Korbel Lifetime Achievement Award : 1992
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= The Purple Piano Project =
" The Purple Piano Project " is the premiere episode of the third season of the American musical television series Glee , and the forty @-@ fifth overall . The episode was written by series co @-@ creator Brad Falchuk , directed by Eric Stoltz , and first aired on September 20 , 2011 on Fox in the United States . It features the start of a new school year at McKinley High , and for its glee club , New Directions . Members of the club have left , and a recruitment drive is launched to bring the numbers back up . Blaine Anderson ( Darren Criss ) , Kurt Hummel 's ( Chris Colfer ) boyfriend , transfers from Dalton Academy to McKinley High , and Mercedes Jones gets a new boyfriend . Sue Sylvester is running for Congress .
The episode received mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reviews , with favorable notice being taken of the renewed focus on the core characters , though there was a lack of overall enthusiasm from several reviewers . The subplot with Kurt and Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) , and its introduction of Harmony ( Lindsay Pearce ) , garnered praise for all three performers . The musical performances were generally well @-@ received , and the " Anything Goes " / " Anything You Can Do " mash @-@ up featuring Pearce was widely acclaimed . Five covers were released as singles , three of which charted on the Billboard Hot 100 and the Canadian Hot 100 . Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by 9 @.@ 21 million American viewers and garnered a 4 @.@ 0 / 11 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 age group . The total viewership and ratings for this episode were down significantly from the previous episode , " New York " .
= = Plot = =
It is a new year at McKinley High . New Directions glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) and guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) are now sharing an apartment and a bed . Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) , coach of the Cheerios cheerleading squad , is running for Congress but doing badly in the polls . Glee club member Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) is now a senior , while fellow members Tina Cohen @-@ Chang ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) and Artie Abrams ( Kevin McHale ) are juniors . Club co @-@ captain Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) , a senior , has no idea what to do about his future . Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) has a new boyfriend ( LaMarcus Tinker ) ; her former boyfriend Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) moved to another state . Three New Directions members have left : Sam , Lauren Zizes ( Ashley Fink ) , who also broke up with Puck ( Mark Salling ) , and Sam 's ex @-@ girlfriend Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) , who has completely reinvented herself with pink hair , a nose ring and a tattoo ; she has taken up smoking , and has made friends with a group of outcast girls called the Skanks . She refuses to rejoin either the Cheerios or New Directions .
To recruit new talent , Will places several purple pianos around the school and encourages the club to sing whenever they see one . When Mike and Tina play on one in a hallway , Sue interrupts them by snapping the piano strings with wire cutters , and is praised for doing so by an arts @-@ hating teacher ( Barbara Tarbuck ) , who promises to vote for her . An inspired Sue goes on television and vows that , if elected , she will cut all funding for school arts programs until all students read at or above grade level . She makes Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) and Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) cheerleading co @-@ captains , to their mutual disgust , and gets their pledge to help her sabotage the glee club . After New Directions performs " We Got the Beat " in the cafeteria , Becky starts a food fight that targets the club . Following lunch , Sugar Motta ( Vanessa Lengies ) auditions , but cannot sing in tune . An agonized Will eventually rejects Sugar , but gains a new recruit when Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) convinces his boyfriend Blaine Anderson ( Darren Criss ) to transfer from Dalton Academy .
Kurt and Rachel see Emma about their plans to attend college in New York City . She suggests they consider a top school for the dramatic arts there , and the two of them attend an Ohio " mixer " for students interested in applying . They have rehearsed " Ding @-@ Dong ! The Witch Is Dead " , and expect to overawe the other attendees with the performance , but are instead intimidated by their performance of an " Anything Goes " and " Anything You Can Do " mash @-@ up led by Harmony ( Lindsay Pearce ) . Although badly shaken , they vow to persevere .
Blaine sings " It 's Not Unusual " to a large crowd in the school courtyard while a growing number of Cheerios , directed by Santana , join in as back @-@ up dancers . As the number is ending , the Cheerios circle the purple piano , and they each sprinkle it with lighter fluid . Quinn flicks her lit cigarette onto the piano , and it bursts into flames . Will tells Santana that because of her sabotage she is banned from New Directions . Rachel breaks up the resulting pity party by singing the opening to " You Can 't Stop the Beat " , and they all perform the song in the auditorium , while Quinn secretly watches from above .
= = Production = =
The first day of filming for the episode was August 9 , 2011 , though some cast members were called the day before to begin recording musical numbers . Murphy realized that The Glee Project runner @-@ up Lindsay Pearce would be ideal for an already @-@ written role in the episode , but the filming needed to take place before the project 's finale was broadcast on August 21 , 2011 , upon which it would be revealed that she had won a two @-@ episode prize . They " kept delaying " the shoot , and " snuck [ her ] into a soundstage to make sure no one recognized her . " In aid of this secrecy , her name was omitted from the Fox press release for the episode . Once Murphy had cast Pearce , he made the musical number she was to appear in bigger . According to Lea Michele , the filming of the first episode ended on August 19 , 2011 .
Returning recurring characters that appear in the episode include ex @-@ glee club member Lauren Zizes ( Ashley Fink ) , Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) , football coach Shannon Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) , cheerleader Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) , school reporter Jacob Ben Israel ( Josh Sussman ) , and television anchors Rod Remington ( Bill A. Jones ) and Andrea Carmichael ( Earlene Davis ) . Three new recurring characters were introduced : football player Shane ( LaMarcus Tinker ) , who is the new boyfriend of Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) , Sugar Motta ( Lengies ) and Pearce as Harmony . Effective with this episode , former recurring guest stars Harry Shum , Jr. as Mike Chang and Darren Criss as Blaine Anderson join the main cast , while Jessalyn Gilsig and Mike O 'Malley , who play Will 's wife Terri Schuester and Kurt 's father Burt Hummel respectively , are no longer given starring credits . Gilsig was in the main cast for the first two seasons , and her change had been previously reported . O 'Malley 's had not , but he is listed in the Fox press release for the second episode as being a guest star , his credit in the first season . Barbara Tarbuck guest starred as Nancy Bletheim , a geometry teacher at McKinley .
At the 2011 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International on July 24 , 2011 , series creator Brad Falchuk said that in the first episode of the third season , " The opening sequence is everybody saying what they want to do when they grow up , so you see everyone 's anxieties . " He also stated , " Come the first episode back , you see who the seniors and juniors are . "
The episode features seven musical cover versions . Two are in the form of a mash @-@ up of " Anything Goes " from the Cole Porter musical Anything Goes and " Anything You Can Do " from Irving Berlin 's Annie Get Your Gun , with the lead sung by Pearce . The other five are " You Can 't Stop the Beat " from the musical Hairspray and " We Got the Beat " by The Go @-@ Gos , both performed by New Directions ; " Ding @-@ Dong ! The Witch Is Dead " from the film The Wizard of Oz ( as performed by Barbra Streisand and Harold Arlen from Streisand 's Duets album ) , sung by Michele and Colfer ; the Tom Jones song " It 's Not Unusual " featuring Criss ; and " Big Spender " from the musical Sweet Charity , performed by Lengies . All songs , except for " Big Spender , " were released as singles , available for digital download .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Purple Piano Project " was first broadcast on September 20 , 2011 in the United States on Fox . It garnered a 4 @.@ 0 / 11 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and received 9 @.@ 21 million American viewers during its initial airing . It was beaten in its timeslot by the NCIS premiere on CBS , which garnered a 4 @.@ 3 / 12 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and also by the premiere of the new show New Girl that followed Glee on Fox , which brought in a 4 @.@ 8 / 12 rating / share and 10 @.@ 27 million viewers . The Glee numbers were down by over 25 % from the season two opener , " Audition " , which was watched by 12 @.@ 45 million American viewers and received a 5 @.@ 6 / 16 rating / share , and down nearly as much from the season two finale , " New York " , which attracted 11 @.@ 80 million viewers and a 4 @.@ 6 / 11 rating / share . However , with DVR numbers , the episode viewership increased to a total of 12 @.@ 21 million viewers and a 5 @.@ 3 18 @-@ 49 rating .
In the UK , " The Purple Piano Project " premiered on digital subscription channel Sky1 with an overnight average of 639 @,@ 000 viewers ( 2 @.@ 8 % ) , down by nearly 50 % compared to the overnight rating of the season two finale , " New York " , which aired on E4 . Final ratings brought Glee up to 1 @.@ 17 million viewers . It was the ninth @-@ most watched show on cable for the week , down 55 % from " New York " and 61 % from " Audition " , both of which were the top @-@ ranked cable shows in their respective weeks of broadcast . The episode 's Australian broadcast attained 760 @,@ 000 viewers , which made Glee the twelfth most @-@ watched program of the day , although viewership was down almost 30 % from the 987 @,@ 000 viewers of " New York " . In Canada , 2 @.@ 10 million viewers watched the episode , where it was the most @-@ viewed show in its timeslot and outperformed its closest competitor by 183 % in the 18 – 49 demographic . It was the tenth most @-@ viewed show of the week , down three slots but up 16 % from the 1 @.@ 77 million who watched " New York " .
= = = Social media = = =
The night the episode debuted , several topics related to the show appeared in the top ten trending topics on Twitter . At one point , Glee cast member Kevin McHale tweeted " 5 TT 's ! Woo woo ! " , indicating that five of the top ten slots were filled by Glee @-@ related topics . The Hollywood Reporter , in their story on the online reaction to the show , said that there were four of ten topics claimed by the debut rather than five : " # gleek " , " Kurt and Rachel " , " Sue Sylvester " and " Warblers " .
Twitter was also used to advertise the show . To highlight the beginning of the third season and its move to a new channel , Sky was the first company to use Twitter 's geographically targeted ad capability in the UK with a " promoted trend " that was displayed on September 22 , 2011 , the day that Glee debuted on Sky1 .
= = = Critical response = = =
" The Purple Piano Project " was given mixed to positive reviews by critics . Jenna Mullins of E ! Online called it " a perfect season @-@ starter of an episode " . The Atlantic 's Kevin Fallon appreciated that it tackled some of the show 's biggest problems , such as the surfeit of central characters and their previously un @-@ addressed ages . He was particularly pleased that the episode focussed on typical high school life , rather than the adult characters or more serious issues . Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle approved of the " clear trajectory " set out for the characters , and noted that he looked forward to seeing their various storylines develop . Though AOLTV 's Crystal Bell worried that clarfiying the teenagers ' ages could result in the younger characters being overlooked in future episodes , she was glad that the premiere saw the show return to its roots : " underdogs , show tunes and Sue Sylvester " . A similar sentiment was expressed by Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times , who was hopeful that renewed focus on the core characters would lead to " a great year " . The Huffington Post 's Amy Lee observed that " Glee has a tendency to oscillate between sappy and nasty , sometimes without any warning " , and then noted that " The Purple Piano Project " was more tonally balanced than the majority of the second season . Anthony Benigno of The Faster Times deemed the episode " admirably straightforward " , unmarred by the sentimentality and inconsistencies which plagued previous episodes . His praised was tempered , however , and he wrote , " I wouldn 't go so far as to call the episode good , it was oddly lifeless and the stakes seemed almost nonexistent at times . It has the feel of a show rediscovering itself , but , all things considered , Ryan Murphy and Co. handled the task relatively well . "
James Poniewozik of Time took a more negative stance . He wrote that " The Purple Piano Project " " was not a particularly good episode of Glee " , one which was hindered by the vast number of central characters , " but it did at least suggest where the third season of the show could find its strong core stories , and also ... the numerous ways in which it could get sidetracked into tangential ridiculousness . " The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff graded the episode " D + " . He summarised it as " a handful of okay performances , one or two pretty good lines , and then a whole bunch of awful " . Rolling Stone 's Erica Futterman praised the episode 's humor and plot development , but commented that it " didn 't hit any of the emotional notes Glee is capable of . " Robert Canning of IGN rated it an " okay " 6 @.@ 5 out of 10 . He too found " there were still quite a few laughs to be had " , but felt the episode suffered from its repetitiveness , as Sue 's hatred of the glee club and New Directions ' recruitment problems have been thoroughly explored before . The Dallas Morning News 's Samantha Urban noted that Murphy failed to deliver on his promise to increase Mercedes and Tina 's roles , and couldn 't accept that Sue would be allowed to promote her congressional campaign on her local news commentary spot , but overall was " pretty impressed " with what she called " a solid episode of Glee that made [ her ] feel cautiously optimistic about the season ahead . " Lisa Respers France of CNN summed up the episode in a single word : " Meh . "
The plot which involved Rachel and Kurt attracted uniformly favorable reviews . Fallon called it " one of the episode 's strongest subplots " , and Salon.com 's Matt Zoller Seitz deemed it the episode 's " most successful and affecting . " Bell named Rachel and Kurt as her favorite Glee pairing , and Futterman wrote that their " friendship has grown from something catty into something genuine and relatable and their interactions are likely the most authentic for any aspiring musical theater performers among Glee 's viewers . " Within his generally negative review of the episode , VanDerWerff noted that the NYADA mixer scene " features some of the best work Chris Colfer and Lea Michele have contributed to the show . " In contrast , the adult storylines were generally poorly received . Zoller Seitz branded Will and Emma 's relationship boring , and Abby West of Entertainment Weekly disliked the fact the season began with them in an established relationship : " I feel like I missed a huge leap for Emma and we need to have it acknowledged . " Fallon disparaged Will as being " insufferable " , and attributed this to " Morrison 's wooden characterization , the stilted writing [ and ] the flat purpose that the character serves on the show " . Sue 's storyline was described as nonsensical by VanDerWerff , who wrote that she " has decided to take her crusade against the glee club to a congressional district @-@ wide audience , because , well , she was the most popular character in season one , and she will be again , via blunt force , if necessary . " Reiter , however , found Sue to be " in perfect form in this episode , neither too mean nor too misty " , and enjoyed her storyline .
The introduction of Harmony and Sugar garnered critical praise . VanDerWerff wrote that the former " may be the best new character ever " , TVLine 's Michael Slezak said she was " brillantly brought to life " by Pearce , and Fallon felt that her arrival boded well for the introductions of the other finalists from The Glee Project . He said that " she brought , which the best new characters do , fresh and exciting aspects in the show 's established leads . Zoller Seitz described Sugar as " an entitled little snot " , but a " great character " nonetheless , and one he hoped to see more of . West praised Lengies ' performance and opined that with Sue otherwise occupied , " it 'll be great to have another person as a thorn in the Glee club 's side . " Not everyone was thrilled with Sugar 's advent , however ; VanDerWerff called the character " awful " .
= = = Music and performances = = =
The episode 's musical numbers were generally well received . Hankinson appreciated that they " felt to proper scale " , with a realism which the previous season 's " over @-@ the @-@ top " performances lacked . Though Benigno criticized the song selection for being too focused on Broadway tracks , which he felt limited its appeal for younger viewers , Urban called the choices " outstanding " and VanDerWerff commented that the wide range represented progress from season two . He noted that there were no performances he disliked , but found some " shockingly poorly motivated for dramatic purposes " . Canning enjoyed the songs both vocally and visually : " Everything was upbeat , familiar and fun . The dancing was entertaining and most of the performances were group numbers , which added plenty of visual flair . "
" We Got the Beat " garnered praise for Brittany and Mike 's dancing from Lee , though she described the vocals as AutoTuned , a comment echoed by Futterman , who was nevertheless glad that Brittany and Rachel " match [ ed ] the rawness of Santana 's voice " . Slezak and Benigno were pleased that Morris and Rivera received lead vocals , but while the former commended the number as a great musical start to the season and awarded it an " A " grade , the latter found it hard to differentiate between the Glee cover and the original , observed that it failed to advance the plot , and graded it " C " . Respers France was entirely unimpressed with the routine . For her , Sugar 's scene following it was one of the episode 's few highlights , although she described Sugar as having " a horrible voice " .
Rachel and Kurt 's duet of " Ding @-@ Dong ! The Witch Is Dead " made Billboard 's Rae Votta long for them to share more material . It encapsulated everything Futterman wanted in a duet between the two ; she observed " it 's effortless , charming , full of power musical theater vocals and Rachel gets to channel Barbra Streisand " . Lee , however , felt the number was an odd choice to demonstrate their talent , and although Slezak graded it a " B " , he contrasted it negatively with their previous duets . West opined that the song was too insubstantial and gave it a " B – " . Its highest grade , an " A – " , came from Benigno . He noted its lack of significance to the plot and wished that the vocal split had not been so strongly in Michele 's favor , but called it " a fun , infectious number . "
Criss 's performance of " It 's Not Unusual " attracted comparisons to comical renditions of the number in The Fresh Prince of Bel Air , but earned an " A " from West regardless . Fallon said the routine was " embarrassingly enjoyable " and lauded Criss 's screen presence , and Benigno called it a " wonderful performance " , but felt it was hampered by the simplicity of the arrangement and gave it a " B + " . Futterman and Slezak both generally like Blaine as a lead vocalist , but felt the song was not his best : Futterman wrote that " some of the belting felt strained and the energy a little forced " , and Slezak awarded the song a " B – " .
The " Anything Goes " / " Anything You Can Do " mash @-@ up was widely acclaimed . Respers France named Pearce 's performance the best moment of the episode , and found that the character positively reminded her of " Glee of old " . The song was also a favorite of Lee 's , who wrote that the intensity of the actress was perfectly matched to the character 's disposition . West , Slezak and Benigno gave the performance an " A " ; the former called it an " outstanding rendition " which " felt like it belonged on a big stage or in a big @-@ screen musical " , and the latter two praised her vocal talent , which Benigno deemed unequalled on Glee . Futterman and Bell found Harmony a credible rival to Rachel vocally , and eagerly anticipated future competition between them . Urban called Pearce 's performance merely " serviceable " . Though she felt her acting was a weak point , she compared her favorably to season two guest star Charice and praised her vocals . Criticism came from New York 's Lindy West , who did not understand Rachel 's humiliation , as New Directions " sing way more elaborate and equally competent arrangements four to five times an episode " . She elaborated , " This is a thing that drives me crazy about Glee . As a viewer , there 's no knowing whether a performance was ' good ' like ' Anything Goes , ' or ' bad ' like ' We 've Got the Beat , ' until Rachel starts crying or some cheerleader starts throwing spaghetti . "
" You Can 't Stop the Beat " was called a " perfect ending to a perfect season premiere " by Mullins . Futterman described it as a " standard Glee episode finale , full of inspiration and importance for the future , and catchy as all hell . " Slezak enjoyed Rachel 's slow opening verse , said the full performance " felt a lot like the shiny , happy Glee of yore " and gave it an " A – " as did Benigno , who also found it a typical final number but was less enthused by the familiarity . Votta 's only disappointment with the rendition was that the televised version did not include the " adorable duet " between Kurt and Artie that is present on the single .
= = = Chart history = = =
Three of the five cover versions released as singles debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 : " It 's Not Unusual " at number sixty @-@ five with 40 @,@ 000 in sales , " You Can 't Stop The Beat " at number sixty @-@ seven , and " We 've Got the Beat " at number eighty @-@ three . On the Canadian Hot 100 , " You Can 't Stop The Beat " charted highest at number sixty @-@ five , with " It 's Not Unusual " at number seventy @-@ five , and " We 've Got the Beat " at number eighty @-@ three . Neither " Ding @-@ Dong ! The Witch Is Dead " nor the " Anything Goes " / " Anything You Can Do " mash @-@ up charted on the Hot 100 in either country , though in the US each track sold 21 @,@ 000 downloads , and were in second and third place respectively on the Hot 100 " Bubbling Under " chart . Total US sales for the five cover versions were 149 @,@ 000 , compared to 409 @,@ 000 in sales for the five singles from the season two opener , " Audition " , in their first week ; for that episode , all five singles made the Hot 100 , and charted between numbers twenty @-@ one and fifty @-@ one .
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= Hamersley , Western Australia =
Hamersley is a residential suburb 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 miles ) north @-@ northwest of the central business district of Perth , the capital of Western Australia , and six kilometres ( 4 mi ) from the Indian Ocean . The suburb adjoins two major arterial roads — Mitchell Freeway to the west and Reid Highway to the south — and is within the City of Stirling local government area . It was built during the late 1960s and 1970s as part of the Government of Western Australia 's response to rapidly increasing land prices across the metropolitan area .
Before development , Hamersley was a remote district covered in jarrah , marri , banksia and other vegetation typical of the Swan Coastal Plain , with small areas cleared for small @-@ scale agriculture such as market gardening and poultry farming . By 1974 , six years after the first subdivision , Hamersley was home to the district 's first community hall , an annual parade and fair which were broadcast on Perth TV and radio , an active progress association , and its own newspaper , the Hamersley Gazette , a forerunner to today 's Stirling Times . Rapid growth further north removed the focus from Hamersley , which was completed in 1981 and has remained relatively stable since then .
Significant reserves of remnant bushland remain in parts of the suburb . The largest of these is an exclusion zone around the 180 metres ( 590 feet ) high ABC radio tower in the suburb 's southeast , which broadcasts AM stations to the Perth metropolitan area . The guyed tower was built in 1939 and is a landmark in the region , although it has become a local political issue over the past decade .
= = Geography = =
Hamersley is in the northern suburbs of Perth , Western Australia , within the City of Stirling , and 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 miles ) from the Indian Ocean . Its borders are the Mitchell Freeway to the west , Reid Highway and the Balcatta industrial area to the south , Wanneroo Road to the east , and Beach Road and the City of Joondalup to the north . The suburb is divided into western and eastern portions by Erindale Road . Hamersley was one of the first Perth suburbs to be guided by the principles of cul @-@ de @-@ sac design , and many of its minor streets are joined by parks and pathways .
Hamersley covers 3 @.@ 267 square kilometres ( 807 acres ) and averages 29 metres ( 95 feet ) above sea level , although portions of the loop formed by Rannoch Circle in the eastern portion are 50 – 55 metres ( 164 – 180 ft ) above sea level . A real estate magazine remarked in 1994 that " homes around the Rannoch circle enjoy some spectacular views to the city and the hills " , and that " a few lucky householders ... could even catch ocean glimpses , despite being more than six kilometres from the water . "
The restricted @-@ access bushland reserve surrounding the ABC radio tower in the suburb 's southeast covers 14 @.@ 4 % ( 0 @.@ 47 km2 or 120 acres ) of its area , while parks and areas of natural bushland are spread throughout . The largest of these are Aintree @-@ Eglinton Reserve , a 3 @.@ 38 hectares ( 8 @.@ 4 acres ) grassed reserve next to the community centre complex , and Rannoch @-@ Tay @-@ Earn Reserve , a 4 @.@ 83 hectares ( 11 @.@ 9 acres ) reserve containing large areas of native bushland interspersed with grassed and paved walkways . A biodiversity site north of the community centre is recognised by the City of Stirling 's Green Plan 2 .
Streets in western Hamersley are generally named after English towns , while eastern Hamersley uses the names of Scottish Highland and Perthshire towns and lochs . There are exceptions – the origins of Vickers Street precinct street names are unknown , while streets in the south @-@ western corner are named after the " Bentley Boys " , a group of British racing drivers from the 1920s and 1930s , and their car designer Walter Owen Bentley .
= = = Natural history = = =
Hamersley 's soil is an infertile yellow @-@ brown sand composed of fine to coarse quartz grains , with Tamala Limestone beneath . Locally known as Karrakatta Sand , it is almost certainly the leached remnants of coastal sand deposited by eolian processes in the late Pleistocene period , between 11 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 years ago . Below the sand are Paleozoic rocks of the Perth Basin . The sand contains an unconfined aquifer with large supplies of low @-@ salinity potable groundwater which is recharged by rainfall .
As with other infertile areas of the Swan Coastal Plain , Hamersley would have supported open forests of Eucalyptus marginata ( Jarrah ) with Corymbia calophylla ( Marri ) or Eucalyptus gomphocephala ( Tuart ) , and an understorey of Banksia attenuata ( Candlestick Banksia ) , B. menziesii ( Firewood Banksia ) , B. grandis ( Bull Banksia ) , Allocasuarina fraseriana ( Western Sheoak ) and Agonis flexuosa ( Swan River Peppermint ) . The main shrub species would have been Jacksonia sternbergiana ( Stinkwood ) , J. furcellata ( Grey Stinkwood ) , Acacia cyclops ( Coastal Wattle ) , Acacia saligna ( Orange Wattle ) , Hibbertia species , Allocasuarina humilis ( Dwarf Sheoak ) , Calothamnus quadrifidus ( One @-@ sided Bottlebrush ) and Grevillea thelemanniana ( Spider Net Grevillea ) . Biodiversity surveys in 2006 have also identified a relatively rare species , Jacksonia sericea ( Waldjumi ) , in two eastern Hamersley reserves .
= = History = =
= = = Name = = =
Hamersley was named after the Hamersley family who arrived in the Swan River Colony in 1837 and established themselves at Guildford . There is no evidence they ever visited modern Hamersley , but in 1869 they built a summer home in what is now North Beach , 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 miles ) to the west , and bought considerable holdings in the area over the following years .
The name first came into use to describe the north @-@ western section of the Perth Road District in 1906 . Hamersley Ward was a large area of land covering what is now Hamersley , Carine , Watermans Bay , North Beach , Gwelup and parts of Balcatta , Karrinyup and Trigg . The Hamersley townsite , consisting of Hamersley Ward , was gazetted in 1945 . As a result , many facilities in North Beach , including a primary school , a golf course , several sporting clubs and residents ' and seniors ' associations , were called Hamersley . After the Hamersley Development Scheme started in 1968 , confusion as to exactly what Hamersley referred to led to conflict between established organisations in North Beach and emerging ones in Hamersley – the Hamersley Gazette noted in 1973 that " North Beach people have the prior claim but ours is more officially accepted " .
The suburb was gazetted as a locality by the City of Stirling on 24 October 1975 , although it had existed as a postal locality since 1971 .
= = = Early history = = =
Before European settlement , Hamersley was part of a larger area of land that was occupied by the Mooro people , an Indigenous Australian people who traversed the lakes and wetlands running parallel to the coast between what is now Perth and Yanchep .
Soon after the establishment of the Swan River Colony , colonial authorities divided up the land into grants which were given to settlers who had brought capital and to the new settlement . Southern Hamersley became part of Location K , a 2 @,@ 585 hectares ( 6 @,@ 390 acres ) strip of land extending 19 kilometres ( 12 miles ) west from Caversham on the Swan River to Big Carine Swamp , which was granted to Robert Ansell Partridge in September 1829 . The western part of this , first surveyed by P.L.S. Chauncy in 1843 , remained fairly inaccessible , and the only development in the area was the construction of the Daviot Park cottage on Old Balcatta Road 500 metres ( 0 @.@ 31 miles ) southwest of Hamersley . By the late 1930s , portions in the far west and south @-@ east of the suburb had been cleared for small @-@ scale agriculture such as market gardening , and in 1939 the Department of the Interior constructed a 180 metres ( 590 feet ) tower and other facilities for ABC AM and shortwave radio broadcasts on Wanneroo Road .
Northern Hamersley , meanwhile , became part of Swan Location 1315 , which extended north to Lake Goollelal and west to the coast and was granted in the 1890s to the Midland Railway Company after being surveyed by Crossland & Co. in 1892 , and by N. Lymburner in 1894 . It appears that no development occurred in northern Hamersley , other than the construction of Beach and Carine Roads in 1900 , and the State Housing Commission resumed the land in November 1950 . In 1962 , a lucerne grower with a property on Duffy Road , Carine applied to use the northern half of the suburb as a sheep run . The Shire President , Herbert R. Robinson , refused to grant permission , saying that " land might soon be needed for housing " . The West Australian reported in 1967 that the area was still " virtually untouched bushland " .
= = = Hamersley Development Scheme = = =
In the late 1960s , concern about the growth of land prices in the Perth metropolitan area , which for several years had exceeded the consumer price index , led to the Premier of Western Australia , David Brand , convening an inter @-@ departmental committee to study the problem . One of the committee 's recommendations to Cabinet was to release 300 hectares of land owned by the State Housing Commission in Hamersley , Warwick and Greenwood which was on a much larger area that had been designated as " deferred urban " land under the Metropolitan Region Scheme in 1963 . On 13 December 1967 , the Metropolitan Region Planning Authority decided to rezone as urban all land bounded by Hepburn Avenue , Marmion Avenue , North Perimeter Highway and Wanneroo Road , on the condition that subdivision would be approved when " Town Planning ( Development ) Scheme ( s ) have been approved with the general object of serving the best possible development at the least cost to the community " .
The Shires of Perth and Wanneroo combined to prepare Town Planning Scheme No.26 ( Hamersley Development Scheme ) , and by early March 1968 , the scheme , which included provisions for water supply , sewerage , drainage , road construction and undergrounding of power mains , was presented to both councils for consideration . A time limit of 3 ½ years for developers to construct homes on released land was built into the scheme in an effort to prevent land speculation , which the inter @-@ departmental committee believed was a key factor in spiralling prices in Perth . By July , however , negotiations between the councils broke down , and the Shire of Perth ( now City of Stirling ) decided to administer its own part of the scheme independently . The scheme was divided into nine sections , with what is now the suburb of Hamersley being the first stage .
In April 1968 the R & I Bank , a government @-@ owned bank , was granted permission to subdivide a small area in northern Ardleigh Crescent in the suburb 's west . The first auction of 80 lots on Saturday , 14 December 1968 was anticipated on the front page of The West Australian , with Premier Brand advising intending buyers to be cautious about their bids . At the auction , 76 lots were sold at an average price of $ 4 @,@ 784 , compared to $ 6 @,@ 700 at a recent R & I Bank sale in the nearby suburb of Karrinyup , with newspapers agreeing that the Premier 's warning had been heeded by bidders .
The western portion of Hamersley grew steadily over the following months and years , with segments being released , auctioned and developed by the R & I Bank , T & S Plunkett Homes and Parkland Housing . The Hamersley Development Scheme , however , was doomed almost before it started . Disagreements over issues such as undergrounding of power and the time limit clauses between the Town Planning Board and the Shire of Perth had caused delays in the scheme 's approval . In July 1970 , the Shire Planner reported that " there is little point in proceeding with the Scheme , especially in view of the large areas already subdivided " , and recommended the council agree " that for all practical purposes , Town Planning Scheme No. 26 @.@ is defunct " . By the February 1971 state election , over 1 @,@ 000 eligible voters lived in the district .
= = = Suburban development = = =
In June 1970 , the Metropolitan Region Planning Authority released land in the southwestern corner of Hamersley , which had previously been held in reserve under the Metropolitan Region Scheme for a large freeway interchange between the future Mitchell Freeway ( then known as Stephenson Freeway ) and Reid Highway ( North Perimeter Freeway ) . The result of these changes was to allow the construction of Walter Way , Dutton Crescent and connecting streets , which were named after racing drivers from the 1920s and 1930s .
Between 1971 and 1973 , reserves , public recreation areas and drainage sites were set aside in western Hamersley , and facilities were erected in quick succession – the 1st Hamersley Scout Group in 1973 , the colonial @-@ style Holy Cross Anglican Church in 1974 , and a community hall at Aintree Street in 1975 . Residents in the region were at this time on the fringe of Perth 's suburban area , relying on partly built main roads , distant shopping centres and overstretched local facilities for several years after the suburb 's construction . A locally produced fortnightly newspaper , the Hamersley Gazette , started in early 1973 by Peter Flanigan , from his home in Manton Court , covering the suburbs of Carine , Hamersley , Warwick and Greenwood , with the open aim of helping to form community associations and campaign for better facilities . A July 1973 article , for example , lamented that " work on Erindale Road appears to have come to a standstill ... great piles of dirt and unmade road surfaces bear testimony to the fact that something is going on , or should be going on , but this one is taking a very long time . "
However , there were also celebrations – the paper reported in detail on the annual Glendale Spring Fair , held between 1973 and 1976 by the Glendale P & C Association on the second Saturday in November . It included activities for children , marching bands provided by The Salvation Army and the Australian 10th Light Horse Regiment , and a parade along Glendale Avenue and Beach Road at 10 : 30 am Intended originally as a fundraiser for the school , the Gazette reported that it was " a sort of glorified féte that rapidly outgrew its origins " , with live coverage of the parade on ABC radio and on television station TVW @-@ 7 and personalities such as Jeff Newman in attendance . The fair , however , became the victim of a dispute over naming rights between the Glendale P & C , community groups and commercial sponsors . Other events included the grand opening of Warwick Grove Shopping Centre on 13 November 1974 , the greening of Aintree @-@ Eglinton Reserve and the activities of the Hamersley Progress Association . The paper was acquired in February 1977 by Bill Marwick of the Wanneroo Times , and evolved into the Stirling Times in 1980 .
Meanwhile , work was only starting in eastern Hamersley . In 1973 Project Homes acquired a poultry farm and agricultural holding , and completed the construction of Vickers Street and adjoining roads , with Don Place becoming a display village . In 1974 the City of Stirling agreed , after complex negotiations , to sell 4 @.@ 2 hectares of land comprising Carine Road and Allen Street to the State Housing Commission and to War Service Homes in order to " facilitate a satisfactory subdivisional design of adjoining land held by the State Housing Commission " in the eastern portion of the suburb . All that remains of these two early roads are paved pathways within the Rannoch @-@ Tay @-@ Earn Reserve , which was gazetted in 1976 . By July 1975 , 200 defence service homes were under construction on land immediately to the east of Erindale Road , to be made available to veterans from March 1976 . The rest of eastern Hamersley was built over the next few years , and by 1981 development was essentially complete . The community hall was redeveloped into a full @-@ fledged community centre , which officially opened in 1990 .
Despite Hamersley 's stability in the years since 1981 and its relatively low crime rate , it has periodically drawn the attention of the Perth media . In July 2000 , a man bludgeoned his former girlfriend , mother @-@ of @-@ two Deborah Boyd , to death in a rented home in Brabant Way . He was subsequently sentenced to strict @-@ security life imprisonment . On 23 January 2006 , a large scrub fire caused the closure of Reid Highway and delays in rail line services during the afternoon rush hour .
= = Demographics = =
At the ABS 2011 census , Hamersley had a population of 4 @,@ 982 people . This was an increase of 17 people from the 2006 census , a decline of 246 people from the 2001 census , and a decline of 605 people from the 1996 census .
Hamersley residents had a median age of 39 , compared to the Perth average of 36 . The median household income in Hamersley was around the average for the region and for Perth — $ 1 @,@ 489 per week compared with $ 1 @,@ 518 and $ 1 @,@ 459 per week respectively . The 2011 Census figures put Hamersley 's unemployment rate at 0 @.@ 9 % below the Perth average . Industry sectors in which Hamersley residents worked ( 2011 ) were comparable with those in Perth generally , with the largest proportions working in construction ( 11 @.@ 9 % ) , health care ( 11 @.@ 4 % ) , education and training ( 9 @.@ 5 % ) , retail trade ( 9 @.@ 2 % ) and professional occupations ( 8 @.@ 9 % ) .
According to the City of Stirling , most of Hamersley 's 2 @,@ 084 dwellings are brick homes with an average lot size of 750 m ² . At the 2011 census , the median monthly housing loan repayments in Hamersley were about $ 1755 — somewhat lower than both the region and Perth generally ( $ 2000 ) . However , 41 @.@ 0 % of Hamersley 's dwellings were fully owned , compared to 29 @.@ 3 % across the whole of Perth . In the year to March 2016 , Hamersley 's median house price was $ 565 @,@ 000 versus $ 540 @,@ 000 for the whole of Perth .
The population of Hamersley is predominantly Australian @-@ born , with some 69 @.@ 8 % of its residents being born in Australia as at the 2011 census . The second most prevalent birthplace was the United Kingdom at 9 @.@ 3 % , followed by New Zealand at 3 @.@ 6 % . 6 @.@ 4 % of Hamersley 's population reported one or both parents of Italian birth , with the strongest concentration in the Vickers Street district ( 13 @.@ 4 % ) . Other significant minorities included those of Chinese ( 2 @.@ 2 % ) , Macedonian ( 1 @.@ 9 % ) , Indian ( 1 @.@ 6 % ) heritage .
The most popular religious affiliations in descending order in the 2011 census were Roman Catholic , no religion , Anglican , Uniting , Orthodox and " Christian nfd " . Holy Cross Hamersley is located on Glendale Ave , and is an Anglican church in the evangelical tradition . All Saints Catholic Church is in neighbouring Warwick and the local Uniting Churches are in Carine and Greenwood .
= = Amenities and facilities = =
Hamersley is a residential suburb , relying on the Warwick Grove shopping centre on its northern boundary for commercial services , and is 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 miles ) by road from Karrinyup Shopping Centre . A light industrial area is to the south in Balcatta which includes a large Bunnings Warehouse on Erindale Road approximately 200 metres ( 660 ft ) south of Hamersley .
Aintree @-@ Eglinton Reserve , a grassed area covering 3 @.@ 38 hectares ( 8 @.@ 4 acres ) , contains a cricket pitch , several practice runs and night lights for Australian rules football , which are utilised by local amateur and junior clubs . Within the reserve is the Hamersley Community Recreation Centre , first built in the 1970s as a community hall and opened in its present form on 22 April 1990 . The centre is a small village area consisting of a central pergola crossed with walking paths , flanked by four buildings : a sports hall with basketball courts and kiosk , an arts and crafts building , a community hall and function building hosting discos and other social events , and a purpose @-@ built children 's centre . Near the centre are the 1st Hamersley Scout Group , a child health centre and the Holy Cross Anglican Church , a colonial @-@ style building built in 1974 and consecrated on 14 December 1980 to serve the newly formed Balcatta @-@ Hamersley Parish .
Numerous small parks are throughout all parts of Hamersley , usually joining the ends of several cul @-@ de @-@ sacs and in some cases containing wooden benches or children 's play equipment . The Rannoch @-@ Tay @-@ Earn reserve in eastern Hamersley also contains two barbecues . The introduction of a barbecue and new playground equipment to the reserve first came in the late 1990s . 2008 – 2009 has seen the introduction of a new barbecue area due west of the playground with more introductions to the reserve to come .
The southeastern corner contains the ABC 50 kW radio tower which transmits ABC AM radio in Perth , including ABC Local Radio ( 6WF ) , Radio National and ABC NewsRadio . Several other towers , including a 20 kW and 10 kW tower , are also at the site . Some residents argue that electromagnetic interference from the towers is adversely affecting their television and telephone reception , with the issue taken up in Federal parliament by local MPs . An inquiry was held by ACMA in November 2010 into the situation , which found that apart from some disturbance to ABC2 signals , TV and radio signals in the area were of acceptable strength and quality .
= = Education = =
Hamersley contains two state primary schools , each of which includes facilities for pre @-@ primary students , and a teaching resource centre . Hamersley is within the catchment area for Warwick Senior High School for students from Years 8 to 12 .
Hamersley 's first school , Glendale Primary School in Glendale Avenue , opened in 1971 in the western portion of the suburb . The school and neighbouring kindergarten quickly became overcrowded as their catchment area initially extended to Hepburn Avenue , taking in Warwick and Greenwood to its north . As schools were built in those suburbs in 1974 – 1976 , congestion eased considerably . The school and kindergarten were also used as a hall and meeting place by residents and groups until the recreation centre opened in April 1975 . In 2016 , the school provided for 248 primary students between Year 1 and Year 6 , and 28 pre @-@ primary students .
From 1976 onward , the eastern portion of the suburb developed , and East Hamersley Primary School , in Doon Way , opened in February 1979 . In 2006 , the school provided for 109 primary , 30 pre @-@ primary and 29 kindergarten students . Computer studies and Indonesian language are required subjects for students from Years 3 to 6 . In the 1990s , the West Coast Resource Centre , a specialist borrowing library for teachers of kindergarten , pre @-@ primary and primary classes , was built on the East Hamersley site by the Department of Education ( now Education and Training ) to serve schools in the northern suburbs .
= = Transport = =
Cars are the preferred mode of transport in the suburb . At the 2011 census , the Australian Bureau of Statistics reported that 68 @.@ 8 % of Hamersley 's residents were drivers or passengers of cars in their commute to work , a figure only slightly lower than the north metropolitan average of 71 @.@ 3 % . Other private modes of transport included motorcycling ( 0 @.@ 7 % ) , cycling ( 1 @.@ 1 % ) and walking ( 1 @.@ 3 % ) . The low number of walking commuters compared to the north metropolitan average of 1 @.@ 5 % and the Perth Statistical Region average of 1 @.@ 81 % is most likely due to the limited number of workplaces within walking distance .
Hamersley is situated at the intersection of several key arterial roads and highways . It is connected to North Beach ( 7 km ) , Scarborough ( 10 km ) and Perth Airport ( 22 km ) via Reid Highway , to the Perth CBD ( 15 km ) and to Joondalup ( 17 km ) via Reid Highway and Mitchell Freeway , and to the Balcatta industrial area and Karrinyup Shopping Centre ( 7 km ) by Erindale Road . Traffic within Hamersley is distributed by a number of backbone streets , of which the main ones are Eglinton Crescent , Belvedere Road , Rannoch Circle , Blissett Way and Vickers Street .
However , the controlled access highways on Hamersley 's southern and western boundaries physically isolate the suburb from its neighbours and limit southbound exits to just two , Erindale Road and Wanneroo Road . This results in considerable rush hour congestion on the stretch of Erindale Road between Eglinton Crescent and Reid Highway . In 2004 , Main Roads Western Australia provided a grant of $ 48 @,@ 000 to the City of Stirling under its Black Spot Programme to improve the traffic flow in this area .
= = = Public transport = = =
Public transport in Hamersley is generally in the form of Transperth buses operated by Swan Transit from the Warwick railway station at its northwestern corner , linking via the Joondalup railway line to the Perth CBD .
At the 2011 census , the Australian Bureau of Statistics reported that 13 @.@ 9 % of Hamersley 's residents used public transport to get to work . This was a sizable jump from 8 @.@ 5 % in the 2006 census , and was higher than the north @-@ western metropolitan average of 13 @.@ 1 % . Public transport usage was highest ( 16 @.@ 8 % ) in the section of Hamersley closest to the train station , and lowest ( 8 @.@ 3 % ) in the Vickers Street section to the southeast , where many residents live more than 10 minutes ' walk from the nearest bus stop .
Currently , the only service in the suburb is the 387 daytime service between Warwick and Perth via Balcatta Road , which travels along Eglinton Crescent . Eastern Hamersley does not have a direct service , other than those along Erindale and Wanneroo Roads . However , service along Wanneroo Road is very limited outside standard weekday hours .
Originally , Hamersley was served by a shuttle service to Wanneroo Road , Nollamara , to connect with other routes to the Perth CBD . In September 1973 , the Metropolitan Transport Trust introduced the 358 and 359 services , which linked Greenwood to Perth via Eglinton Crescent and Glendale Avenue / Aintree Street respectively , travelling along Blissett Way , then becoming limited @-@ stops Wanneroo Road services . An after @-@ hours service , the 369 , was also introduced . In 1987 , following the construction of the Warwick Transfer Station and the Mitchell Freeway , services along Glendale Avenue and through East Hamersley ceased , with two new routes – the 347 and the Freeway @-@ bound 387 – being created to serve Eglinton Crescent .
On 21 March 1993 , the Joondalup railway line came into operation as part of the Northern Suburbs Transit System , resulting in the creation of the 449 and 457 services to replace the 387 service . The 449 operated only during the morning and evening rush @-@ hour , while the 457 operated after @-@ hours and at weekends . These services operated virtually unchanged until 6 November 2011 , when the 347 was replaced with the present @-@ day 387 , and the 457 and weekday evening services were withdrawn . On 31 January 2016 , the 449 was also withdrawn , leaving Hamersley without weekend bus services .
= = Politics = =
Hamersley has consistently favoured the centre @-@ right Liberal Party at both federal and state elections throughout its history . However , in the 2001 and 2005 state elections and at the 1983 federal election , Hamersley booths recorded a majority for the centre @-@ left Australian Labor Party ( ALP ) . Hamersley has also shown a higher preference than the regional average for progressive minor parties such as the Australian Greens and Australian Democrats . Hamersley is both socially and geographically between the safe Liberal suburbs west of the Mitchell Freeway such as Carine , Duncraig and North Beach , and the safe Labor suburbs east of Wanneroo Road such as Balga and Girrawheen .
At federal level , Hamersley is within the Division of Stirling , a marginal seat which historically has alternated between the Liberal Party and the Australian Labor Party . It has been held since 2004 by Michael Keenan of the Liberal Party . At polling place and subdivision level , Hamersley has supported the Liberal Party at every election since its first in 1972 , the only exception being the 1983 election . In the 2001 election , the booth at East Hamersley Primary School was only won by the Liberal Party with a 0 @.@ 3 % two @-@ party @-@ preferred majority . Hamersley was in the Division of Cowan for elections held between 1984 and 1996 .
In the Western Australian Legislative Assembly , Hamersley is split between the electorates of Girrawheen and Balcatta , ordinarily both safe seats for the Australian Labor Party . At polling place level , Hamersley supported the Liberal Party at every election since its first in 1971 until the 1996 election . In both the 2001 and 2005 elections , polling places in Hamersley , as with those in many northern Perth suburbs , switched to the Australian Labor Party at state level . However , at the 2008 and 2013 elections , the suburb returned a majority for the Liberals .
At local level , Hamersley is represented within the City of Stirling by the two councillors of the Hamersley Ward , which covers the suburbs of Carine , Hamersley , Gwelup and northern Balcatta . At present , Samantha Jenkinson , whose term expires in October 2017 , and Andrew Guilfoyle , whose term expires in October 2015 , represent Hamersley Ward .
In the early 1970s , the Hamersley Progress Association was formed to represent the views of Hamersley residents to all levels of government . It was , however , fairly short @-@ lived . In 1999 , the Hamersley Reference Group was formed to advise then @-@ Federal Member for Stirling Jann McFarlane MHR on issues related to the ABC radio transmission towers and their effect on local residents . It was renamed to Radio Interference Group – Hamersley Towers after it moved to complete community management , and lobbies the government and makes submissions to public inquiries on behalf of the community on the issue .
Polling place statistics are presented below combining the votes from the Glendale and East Hamersley polling places in the federal and state elections as indicated .
Federal results
State results
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= Marge on the Lam =
" Marge on the Lam " is the sixth episode of The Simpsons ' fifth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 4 , 1993 . When Marge invites her neighbor Ruth Powers to attend the ballet with her , the two become friends and begin to go out , making Homer jealous as he wants Marge to spend time with him . Ruth and Marge agree to remain friends but not go out together after a large police pursuit with Chief Wiggum . It was written by Bill Canterbury and directed by Mark Kirkland . Phil Hartman , Pamela Reed and George Fenneman guest star .
= = Plot = =
After donating money to public television , Marge receives complimentary ballet tickets . She asks Homer to accompany her , and much to Marge 's surprise he agrees , confusing ballet with a circus . On the day of the ballet , however , he inadvertently gets his arm stuck in a vending machine while trying to steal a can of soda from it and then gets his other arm stuck in a candy machine , and so is unable to attend the ballet as a result . In disbelief about Homer 's story , Marge invites her neighbor , Ruth Powers to attend with her . They both enjoy themselves and arrange to go out again the next night . Marge and Ruth 's friendship annoys Homer , who feels Marge should be spending time with him instead . However , ignoring Homer 's protests , Marge and Ruth visit bars and clubs in Springfield , and Ruth later shows Marge how to use a pistol .
Homer , attempting to prove to himself he can have a good time without Marge , leaves Bart , Lisa and Maggie under the supervision of Lionel Hutz and goes out by himself . Finding Moe 's Tavern more depressing than usual , Homer visits the hilltop where he and Marge used to come to on dates before they got married . Ironically , Marge has also taken Ruth there to finish the night , but they leave just before Homer arrives . Chief Wiggum finds Homer depressed and offers him a ride home , which Homer accepts . As Ruth and Marge are driving home , Chief Wiggum , with Homer as a passenger in his patrol car , spots Ruth 's car and claims that one tail light is slightly smaller than the other . He decides to pull them over . Reluctant to stop , Ruth reveals to Marge that the car she 's driving actually belongs to her ex @-@ husband , and that she had stolen it as revenge for stiffing her on child support ( although Marge points out that Ruth could 've just reported him to child services ) . Ruth leads the police on a high @-@ speed chase rather than turning herself in . Homer realizes it is Marge in the car , and believes she is leaving him after discovering that she can have a better time without him . Ruth successfully evades Wiggum by turning off her headlights , which leads him to believe her car is a ghost car .
After seeing Marge and Ruth again while cooking breakfast on his car engine , Wiggum continues his chase of the two , aided by other Springfield Police vehicles . After noticing a cliff ahead , Homer believes that Marge and Ruth are attempting suicide because of him and , using a megaphone , apologizes to Marge for all the mistakes he has made in their marriage and urges them not to drive into the chasm . Ruth , who had not noticed the chasm , slams on the brakes and stops in time ; however , Homer and Wiggum fail to stop and fly over the edge of the cliff only to crash into a landfill . The episodes ends with a description of the fates of each of the characters involved in the episode .
= = Production = =
Dan Castellaneta actually used a bullhorn to record his part when Homer was talking on one . The sunset shown when Marge and Ruth are at the café was airbrushed in , although the episode was done before computer animation was put into practice .
= = Cultural references = =
Much of the plot , including Ruth 's blue convertible and Homer and Wiggum 's fall over the chasm , is a parody of the Ridley Scott film Thelma & Louise . Crystal Buzz Cola is a reference to the fad drink Crystal Pepsi , and when Homer reaches into the vending machine , a can of Fresca is seen in a skeletal hand . The comedian who performs at the telethon who the Simpson family does not find funny is a parody of Garrison Keillor . Ruth mistakenly inserts Lesley Gore 's song " Sunshine , Lollipops and Rainbows " into her car stereo before beginning her and Marge 's wild night out ; later , Chief Wiggum plays the song on his police cruiser 's stereo as " appropriate " car chase music . After extracting the wrong tape , Ruth pops in " Welcome to the Jungle " by Guns N ' Roses . The scene when Homer is in Moe 's Tavern is emulated from Thelma & Louise . Quimby dancing in a night club is in reference to the Kennedys . When Marge gets hit on in the bar , the guy who does not talk is a caricature of show runner David Mirkin . The old man that comes out when Marge is shooting his cans is a parody of Walter Brennan . The episode 's closing sequence is a reference to Dragnet . George Fenneman recorded the ending in the same fashion as he did on Dragnet .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Marge on the Lam " finished 32nd in ratings for the week of November 1 – 7 , 1993 , with a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 1 , equivalent to approximately 12 @.@ 2 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , beating Beverly Hills , 90210 .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , said " Marge getting to let her hair down is always a treat , and in Ruth Powers she seems to have a real friend . A pity we don 't see more of her " . The A.V. Club named Homer 's line " Stupid TV ! Be more funny ! " as one of the quotes from The Simpsons that can be used in everyday situations . On their 2000 album And Then Nothing Turned Itself Inside Out , indie rock band Yo La Tengo has a song entitled " Let 's Save Tony Orlando 's House " ; the song is named after a telethon in Troy McClure 's fictional CV seen in this episode .
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= Zaireeka =
Zaireeka is the eighth studio album by the alternative rock band The Flaming Lips . Released on October 28 , 1997 , the experimental rock album consists of four Compact Discs . Each of its eight songs consists of four stereo tracks , one from each CD . The album was designed so that when played simultaneously on four separate audio systems , the four CDs would produce a harmonic or juxtaposed sound . The discs can also be played in different combinations , omitting one , two or three discs . The album 's title is a portmanteau of two words : Zaire , chosen as a symbol of anarchy after Wayne Coyne heard a radio news story about the political instability of the African nation , and eureka ( literally : " I have found it " ) , an expression of joyous discovery .
Zaireeka was the first album made by the band since the departure of guitarist Ronald Jones . It acted as a preview of the music and style that would surface on the next album , The Soft Bulletin ( 1999 ) and is the predecessor to the band 's more conventional surround sound releases .
= = Background = =
Adverse circumstances led to the production of Zaireeka . The departure of guitarist Ronald Jones compelled the band to change fundamentally . In addition , the limited success of the previous album , Clouds Taste Metallic , threatened their status at Warner Bros. Records . They eventually found that drummer Steven Drozd could compensate for the loss of Jones by becoming a multi @-@ instrumentalist . However , live shows proved to be more challenging and in order to maintain activity and output , Wayne Coyne conceived an experimental show .
= = = The Parking Lot Experiments = = =
During 1996 and 1997 , The Flaming Lips ran a series of events known as " The Parking Lot Experiments " . The concept was inspired by an incident in Coyne 's youth , where he noticed that car radios in the parking lot at a concert were playing the same songs at the same time , Wayne Coyne created 40 cassette tapes to be played in synchronization . The band invited people to bring their cars to parking lots , where they would be given one of the tapes and then instructed when to start them . The music was " a strange , fluid 20 minute sound composition " .
= = = Production = = =
Production of the album was preceded by two unfortunate events , which were recounted in " The Spiderbite Song " from The Soft Bulletin . Michael Ivins was involved in a car crash , and Steven Drozd 's hand became severely infected . Drozd initially claimed that his hand had been bitten by a spider , although later he admitted the infected abscess was caused by injection of heroin .
The Flaming Lips began work on Zaireeka in April 1997 in the then @-@ new Tarbox Road Studios . Initially , the band was frustrated while making the album . Even after diverting half of the budget for the next album into Zaireeka , there were no tangible results . The band experienced difficulty writing songs for the album . Finally , Coyne exclaimed " Look , we don 't have to be friends ... but we have to make this record ! " While this philosophy aided progress , the band only began to complete songs when they learned to write for the medium as opposed to trying to split normal songs across four CDs .
The group wrote several songs that were unsuccessful in the four @-@ CD format . These songs , including " Race for the Prize " , were reserved for the next album , which would eventually become The Soft Bulletin .
= = = Release = = =
Warner Bros. Records was initially apprehensive about releasing Zaireeka , so manager Scott Booker carefully researched the costs of releasing a box set . Booker discovered that Zaireeka could be released so that once 12 @,@ 000 copies had been sold , the label would break even . ( Advance orders for the album came to 14 @,@ 000 copies . ) Booker pitched the album to Warner Bros. Records president Steven Baker .
Eventually , the two factions reached an agreement in which the album would be released , although Zaireeka would not count towards the seven albums the band was contracted to deliver to Warner Bros. For an advance of $ 200 @,@ 000 , the band would make both Zaireeka and The Soft Bulletin . In addition , Booker mentioned that by allowing the media to proclaim how " weird " the band was with Zaireeka , they would be more prepared to treat The Soft Bulletin as a serious album . Zaireeka was released in October , 1997 . As of 2006 , 28 @,@ 000 copies have been sold .
= = = Logistics of listening = = =
The speakers being used may be physically positioned in many different configurations ( e.g. at different heights or even in entirely different rooms ) . Some listeners may even choose to disable the left or right speaker of one or more systems . Synchronization errors between the audio systems may cause effects such as reverb or echo being heard on one disc before the original sound is produced from another . Further , the type and quality of each audio system affects the relationship between the four CDs .
= = = The Boom Box Experiments = = =
After completion of Zaireeka , The Flaming Lips tried an unconventional method to tour the album . " The Boom Box Experiments " , like " The Parking Lot Experiments " , involved tapes being played at the same time . However , these shows were held in conventional rock venues , and the band supplied their own boom boxes . Coyne and Drozd conducted two " choirs " of people controlling the boom boxes , giving them instructions for actions like turning the volume up or down , while Ivins controlled the mixer .
Songs played in The Boom Box Experiments include :
" The Big Ol ' Bug Is the New Baby Now "
" A Winter 's Day Car Accident Melody "
" Altruism , or That 's the Crotch Calling the Devil Black "
" Heralding in a Better Ego "
" Realizing the Speed of Life "
" Schizophrenic Sunrise , or The Loudest Blade of Grass "
" Should We Keep the Severed Head Awake ? ? " ( used in both the Parking Lot and Boom Box experiments . Part of it was included on " Sleeping on the Roof " on The Soft Bulletin . )
= = = Aftermath and legacy = = =
With Zaireeka , The Flaming Lips had overcome the loss of Ronald Jones and proved they could still work as a band . The situation at Warner Bros. Records was still dire , including a risk of being dropped from the label . However , songs had already been written for the next album , The Soft Bulletin , which would be both a critical hit for the band and their breakthrough into mainstream success . Following the release of Yoshimi Battles the Pink Robots in 2002 , The Flaming Lips would return to the concept of surround sound with a DVD @-@ Audio special @-@ edition of that album in 2003 .
Zaireeka is viewed by the band as nothing more than an experimental release . " It was , and still is , intended to be listened to by other artists , musicians and producers , " Coyne would later state in the liner notes for The Soft Bulletin 5 @.@ 1 , adding that they " never expected the less involved members of our audience to care about it . "
= = Songs = =
Zaireeka opens with " Okay I 'll Admit That I Really Don 't Understand " , a mantra of sorts about the admitted lack of comprehension regarding one 's situation . The second track , " Riding to Work in the Year 2025 ( Your Invisible Now ) " [ sic ] tells a science @-@ fiction story about a man who pretends to be a secret agent in the future and imagines his own psychological demise from the stress " of being the most important secret agent in the world " . " Thirty @-@ Five Thousand Feet of Despair " , the third song , is the tragic story of an airplane pilot who ( somehow ) hangs himself mid @-@ flight . The next song , " A Machine in India " , is about the " dull and depressing , mild insanity " that the speaker 's partner slips into during her menstrual cycle . Next , " The Train Runs over the Camel but Is Derailed by the Gnat " , is a speech by a man who is on the verge of discovery , but ends up " talking himself into circles " . Track six , " How Will We Know ? ( Futuristic Crashendos ) " , is based on an urban legend that being exposed to high and low frequencies can cause a person to experience premonitions , and thus contains its infamously extensive frequencies that caused the band to place a warning on the album cover and inside the booklet . The seventh song , " March of the Rotten Vegetables " , is " music for a cartoon about a group of demented vegetables " . The eighth and final song , " The Big Ol ' Bug Is the New Baby Now " , contains a spoken @-@ word story about Coyne 's dogs ; the track ends the album with loud barking from each disc . On the 10th anniversary of Zaireeka , Wayne Coyne himself made and distributed an additional 5th disc to go along with the set . A limited amount of copies were made , and were handed out at the 10th anniversary listening party for the album . The disc , which looks identical to the other four discs with an exception of the disc being numbered 10 , contains what was originally discs 5 through 10 .
= = Critical reception = =
Critical reaction to Zaireeka was polarized . Josh Kun of Rolling Stone wrote that the album 's " wall @-@ of @-@ surround @-@ sound approach melds droning @-@ rock dissonance with warped , off @-@ kilter pop melodies , producing a totally immersing post @-@ Pet Sounds audio séance . " Jason Alkeny of AllMusic stated that the album would only really be accessible to hardcore Flaming Lips fans , but that " they 're in for the musical experience of a lifetime " .
Critics who disliked the album cited what they viewed as a ridiculous concept . Salon remarked in its review that " Musically [ ... ] their 1995 album Clouds Taste Metallic offers the same psychotic results without all the technological hassle . And conceptually ? The same thing , just all at once : stupid , stupid , stupid , stupid . " Jason Josephes from Pitchfork awarded the album a score of 0 @.@ 0 out of 10 ; in a scathing review , Josephes criticized the album for being inaccessible , asking " Do I want to buy three more CD players with which to enjoy Zaireeka or , say , eat ? " and derided the band 's fans . Further , in October 2009 , editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Pitchfork , Mark Richardson , wrote a book titled Zaireeka for the 33 1 / 3 book series , published by Continuum International Publishing , now owned by Bloomsbury Publishing . In it , Richardson chronicles the creation of the album , praises it from multiple angles , and discusses the impact the album has had on music since its release . The album was included in Pitchfork 's 2010 list of " ten unusual CD @-@ era gimmicks " .
= = Other formats = =
Wayne Coyne confirmed that Zaireeka will eventually be released on DVD format in the vein of the surround @-@ sound special editions of Yoshimi Battles the Pink Robots , The Soft Bulletin , and At War with the Mystics .
In the UK , the " Race for the Prize " and " Waitin ' for a Superman " CD singles were released in 2 @-@ disc sets .
Each disc of the two sets contained a different version of " Riding to Work in the Year 2025 ( Your Invisible Now ) " and " Thirty @-@ Five Thousand Feet of Despair " . This marked the first time material from the album would be released in the four @-@ disc format in Europe . The " Waitin ' for a Superman " Maxi @-@ CD , as released in the US , contains stereo mixes of the two songs .
The album was reissued on vinyl for Record Store Day 2013 .
= = Track listing = =
All four discs have identical track listings .
All songs written and composed by The Flaming Lips .
= = Credits = =
The Flaming Lips
Wayne Coyne – vocals , guitar
Steven Drozd – vocals , drums , guitar , keyboards , orchestration
Michael Ivins – vocals , bass guitar
Technical personnel
Scott Booker – production
Dave Fridmann – engineering , mastering , mixing , production
George Salisbury – layout design
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= Tropical Storm Barry ( 2007 ) =
Tropical Storm Barry was a rapidly forming tropical cyclone that made landfall on Florida , United States , in early June 2007 . The second named storm of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season , Barry developed from a trough of low pressure in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico on June 1 . It tracked rapidly northeastward , reaching peak winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) before weakening and making landfall near Tampa Bay as a tropical depression . Barry quickly lost tropical characteristics after wind shear removed much of the convection , and early on June 3 it completed the transition into an extratropical cyclone . The extratropical remnants tracked up the East Coast of the United States , and were absorbed by a larger extratropical cyclone on June 5 .
The precursor trough produced heavy rainfall across the western Caribbean Sea , which on Cuba unofficially reached over 7 @.@ 8 inches ( 200 mm ) . Outer rainbands in Pinar del Río Province injured three people and damaged 55 houses . In Florida , Barry dropped a moderate amount of precipitation across the drought @-@ ridden state ; rainfall peaked at 6 @.@ 99 inches ( 178 mm ) . The rain caused some flooding and wet roads , which led to two indirect traffic fatalities . Rough seas killed one Florida surfer in Pinellas County . In Florida and Georgia , the precipitation assisted firefighters in combating severe wildfires . Overall damage from the storm was minor .
= = Meteorological history = =
By late on May 29 , a weak trough over the Yucatán Peninsula produced a small area of convection over the Yucatán Channel . Convection increased in association with the trough , and the next day a broad envelop of cyclonic turning developed within the system . By May 30 , the moisture from the trough extended from Nicaragua through the southeastern Gulf of Mexico , with the greatest area of convection near Cuba . A westward moving tropical wave spawned a broad area of low pressure on May 30 , and by May 31 a circulation developed within the system to the southeast of Cozumel , Mexico . The low moved north @-@ northeastward , and gradually became better organized despite high amounts of vertical wind shear . The deep convection became more concentrated near the center , and it is estimated the system developed into a tropical depression at 1200 UTC on June 1 just to the northwest of the western tip of Cuba . Operationally , it was not classified until eleven hours later .
The depression developed a large area of squalls , and organized enough to warrant a Hurricane Hunters flight into the area . The plane reported flight level winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) and a pressure of 1000 mbar near the increasingly well @-@ defined low @-@ level circulation . Initially it maintained characteristics of both a tropical and subtropical cyclone , although deep convection continued to organize near the center ; based on the observations , the National Hurricane Center initiated advisories on Tropical Storm Barry at 2100 UTC on June 1 while the storm was centered about 235 miles ( 375 km ) west of Key West , Florida . Embedded within the southwesterly flow ahead of an approaching mid @-@ level trough , it tracked quickly northward , and early on June 2 attained peak winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) .
Shortly after reaching peak intensity , strong wind shear removed most of the deep convection ; the cloud pattern consisted of an exposed yet well @-@ defined center surrounded by a curved convective band extending from Cuba along the eastern Gulf of Mexico . The center became elongated and weakened as it accelerated northeastward , and at 1400 UTC on June 2 Barry made landfall near Tampa , Florida , as a weakening tropical depression . As it continued inland , it rapidly lost tropical characteristics , and later that day the National Hurricane Center discontinued advisories on Barry while it was located over northeastern Florida . The extratropical remnants strengthened as the system continued northeastward , and on June 3 it moved ashore along South Carolina . Spiral bands developed to the north of the system as it moved up the coast , and a large plume of moisture extended well ahead of the low @-@ level circulation . Late on June 4 , the extratropical remnant entered New England , and late on June 5 the remnants of Barry were absorbed by a larger extratropical cyclone near the border between the U.S. state of Maine and the Canadian province of Quebec .
= = Preparations = =
Coinciding with its classification as a tropical storm , the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm warning for the west coast of Florida from Bonita Beach through Keaton Beach , with a tropical storm watch declared from Keaton Beach northward to Saint Marks . An inland tropical storm warning was also issued for non @-@ coastal and non @-@ tidal areas of Charlotte , Citrus , DeSoto , Hardee , Hernando , Highlands , Lee , Levy , Manatee , Pasco , Pinellas , Polk , Sarasota , and Sumter counties . The passage of the storm resulted in an increased threat for rip currents , with officials recommending that swimmers stay out of the water until the storm leaves the area . A tornado watch was also posted for the southern portion of the state , though was dropped after the storm weakened .
After becoming an extratropical cyclone , local National Weather Service offices issued flood watches for portions of South Carolina , much of eastern North Carolina , southeastern Virginia , and southeastern Maryland . Later , flood and flash flood watches were issued for southeast Pennsylvania , northern Delaware , northern New Jersey , east @-@ central New York , and southern New England . Wind and lake wind advisories were posted in parts of Georgia .
= = Impact = =
= = = Caribbean = = =
In El Salvador , the precursor trough produced about 2 @.@ 76 inches ( 70 mm ) of rainfall in about ten hours .
The precursor system dropped heavy rainfall across western Cuba , peaking at 12 @.@ 0 inches ( 305 mm ) in Sancti Spíritus Province . Several other locations recorded over 4 inches ( 100 mm ) of precipitation , which caused flooding along rivers and low @-@ lying areas . The city of Guane was isolated after flooding cut off communications . In total , more than 2 @,@ 000 people were evacuated due to the threat for flooding . Additionally , the precursor disturbance spawned four tornadoes in Pinar del Río Province ; the tornadoes injured three people and damaged fifty @-@ five houses , of which four collapsed .
= = = United States = = =
= = = = Florida = = = =
Barry dropped moderate to heavy rainfall across Florida , peaking at 6 @.@ 99 inches ( 178 mm ) at Palm Beach International Airport ; several other locations reported over 3 inches ( 75 mm ) . The rainfall alleviated persistent drought conditions and assisted in combating severe wildfires across the state . In Brevard County , the rainfall closed a portion of Eau Gallie Boulevard after a large sinkhole developed . Several other roads across the area were flooded , and on Interstate 95 near Lake Worth , a sinkhole closed two lanes of traffic . Wet roads caused several traffic accidents across the state ; in both Brevard and Volusia counties , a motorist was killed from an accident . On Interstate 4 , a tractor trailer led to disruptions near Orlando after it crashed into a guardrail .
The storm produced heavy surf along the western coastline , as well as a storm tide of 4 @.@ 78 feet ( 1 @.@ 46 m ) at Clearwater Beach . The wave action caused minor beach erosion , with 50 – 60 feet ( 15 – 18 m ) of sand washed away at Bradenton Beach . The increased ocean action caused minor flooding along several roads in the Tampa Bay area , which trapped some automobile travelers . At Indian Shores , a woman died after sustaining injuries from the rough surf .
High winds across the state included a report of 47 mph ( 76 km / h ) near the state 's southeastern coastline . The winds downed some trees and resulted in power outages , and one person in Carrolwood was injured after a tree fell onto a house . The storm spawned several tornadoes in the southern portion of the state , some of which damaged fences and power lines . One possible tornado in Goulds left about 2 @,@ 000 people without power after it knocked down a power line . Another tornado near Miami damaged a few homes and trees .
= = = = Elsewhere = = = =
Rainfall in Georgia peaked at 8 inches ( 203 mm ) in Mount Vernon . The precipitation assisted firefighters in combating wildfires in the southern portion of the state , which gave thousands of workers a brief respite after they had fought the fires daily for over a month . The rainfall caused some minor flooding , and in Savannah a few minor traffic accidents occurred . Gusty winds blew down trees and power lines , and along the coast , rough surf was reported . Heavy rainfall from the storm spread across much of the East Coast of the United States . State totals peaked at 6 @.@ 12 inches ( 155 mm ) near Hardeeville , South Carolina , 3 @.@ 73 inches ( 95 mm ) in Fuquay @-@ Varina , North Carolina , and 3 @.@ 75 inches ( 95 mm ) near Pennington Gap , Virginia . High winds also occurred in South Carolina .
The extratropical remnants of Barry produced gusty winds along the Atlantic coastline which peaked at 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) near Charleston , South Carolina . Around 200 houses in Craven County , North Carolina , were without power after winds downed a power line . In North Carolina , adverse conditions from the storm delayed an elimination baseball game between the East Carolina University and Western Carolina University teams . In southeastern Virginia , the remnants of Barry caused over 60 traffic accidents , which resulted in 10 injuries . Rough seas off of Cape Fear left a sailboat containing three people requiring rescue from the Coast Guard . Rainfall extended into the Mid @-@ Atlantic states through New England , with 4 @.@ 50 inches ( 113 mm ) reported at Absecon , New Jersey , 3 @.@ 91 inches ( 99 mm ) recorded near Central Park , New York , and 3 @.@ 19 inches ( 81 mm ) at Taunton , Massachusetts . The remnants of Tropical Storm Barry contributed to heavy rainfall and flooding in the Finger Lakes region of New York State . Roads and several driveways were washed out . Flash flooding was also reported in southeast New York , and high wind gusts caused sporadic tree damage . In New Jersey , northeast onshore flow associated with the remnants of Barry produced high tides and minor coastal flooding .
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= 1946 Cleveland Browns season =
The 1946 Cleveland Browns season was the team 's first in the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) . The Browns , coached by Paul Brown , ended the year with a record of 12 – 2 , winning the AAFC 's Western Division . Led by quarterback Otto Graham , fullback Marion Motley and ends Dante Lavelli and Mac Speedie , the team won the first AAFC championship game against the New York Yankees .
The Browns were founded by Arthur B. McBride , a Cleveland taxi @-@ cab tycoon , as a charter franchise in the new AAFC . McBride in 1945 hired Brown , a successful coach at the high school and college levels . Brown , who was serving in the U.S. Navy during World War II , began to assemble a roster as the team prepared to begin play in 1946 . After beating the Brooklyn Dodgers in an exhibition game , Cleveland opened the regular season against the Miami Seahawks at Cleveland Stadium on September 6 , winning 44 – 0 . The Browns proceeded to win six more games before losing for the first time in October against the San Francisco 49ers at home by a score of 34 – 20 . Cleveland lost a second game in a row against the Los Angeles Dons the following week , but rebounded to win the final five games of the season , including a 66 – 14 victory over the Dodgers . Cleveland finished with the league 's best record and a spot in the championship game against the Yankees . The Browns won the game 14 – 9 .
Lavelli led the AAFC in receiving with 843 yards and 8 touchdowns , while placekicker Lou Groza led the league in points scored , with 84 . Graham had the league 's best passing average , with 10 @.@ 5 yards per attempt . His quarterback rating of 112 @.@ 1 was the highest in professional football history until Joe Montana surpassed it in 1989 . Cleveland played all of its home games in Cleveland Stadium . The 1946 Browns set a professional football record with 67 defensive takeaways ; the record still stands as of 2016 .
= = Founding of the Browns in the AAFC = =
In 1944 Arch Ward , the influential sports editor of the Chicago Tribune , started a new professional football league called the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) . Ward , who had gained fame for starting all @-@ star games for baseball and college football , lined up deep @-@ pocketed owners including Arthur B. " Mickey " McBride , a Cleveland businessman who grew up in Chicago and knew Ward from his involvement in the newspaper business .
McBride developed a passion for football attending games at Notre Dame , where his son went to college . In the early 1940s he tried to buy the NFL 's Cleveland Rams , owned by millionaire supermarket heir Dan Reeves , but was rebuffed . Having been awarded the Cleveland franchise in the AAFC , McBride asked Cleveland Plain Dealer sportswriter John Dietrich for head coaching suggestions . Dietrich recommended Paul Brown , the 36 @-@ year @-@ old Ohio State Buckeyes coach . After consulting with Ward , McBride followed Dietrich 's advice in early 1945 , naming Brown head coach and giving him an ownership stake in the team and full control over player personnel . Brown , who had built an impressive record as coach of a Massillon , Ohio high school team and brought the Buckeyes their first national championship , at the time was serving in the U.S. Navy and coached the football team at Great Lakes Naval Station near Chicago .
The name of the team was at first left up to Brown , who rejected calls for it to be christened the Browns . McBride then held a contest to name the team in May 1945 ; " Cleveland Panthers " was the most popular choice , but Brown rejected it because it was the name of an earlier failed football team . " That old Panthers team failed , " Brown said . " I want no part of that name . " In August , McBride gave in to popular demand and named the team the Browns , despite Paul Brown 's objections .
= = Building a roster = =
As the war wound down with Germany 's surrender in May 1945 , the team parlayed Brown 's ties to college football and the military to build its roster . The first signing was Otto Graham , a former star quarterback at Northwestern University who was then serving in the Navy . The Browns later signed kicker and offensive tackle Lou Groza and wide receivers Dante Lavelli and Mac Speedie . Fullback Marion Motley and nose tackle Bill Willis , two of the earliest African @-@ Americans to play professional football , also joined the team in 1946 . Cleveland 's first training camp took place at Bowling Green University in northwestern Ohio . Brown 's reputation for winning notwithstanding , joining the team was a risk ; the Browns and the AAFC were nascent entities and faced tough competition from the NFL . " I just went up there to see what would happen , " center Frank Gatski said many years later .
Almost all of the players Brown signed were war veterans . Gatski hitchhiked to Bowling Green from West Virginia in a military uniform . Once at training camp , the players faced intense competition for spots on the final roster . Rookies who had their college careers cut short by the war faced off against veteran players from NFL teams including the Chicago Cardinals and Chicago Bears . " It was a tough , dog @-@ eat @-@ dog situation , and you really had to hustle , " Groza said later . Almost all of the men Brown signed had played for or against his teams at Ohio State and Great Lakes .
Five former Rams players also jumped to the Browns in 1946 : center Mike Scarry , tackle Chet Adams and backs Gaylon Smith , Tommy Colella and Don Greenwood . Their move gave rise to a legal battle with the Rams , who left Cleveland for Los Angeles shortly after winning the 1945 NFL championship rather than compete with the Browns . Reeves , the Rams ' owner , filed an injunction against Adams in federal court after he signed with the Browns , claiming the tackle unlawfully broke his contract to play for the Rams . Adams argued he had no obligation under his contract to play for the Rams because the team had changed to the Los Angeles Rams following the move . At the end of August 1946 , federal judge Emerich Freed denied the Rams ' injunction , allowing Adams to play for the Browns . The judge rejected the Rams ' contention that Adams had signed to play for Reeves , not a specific team . He ruled the Cleveland Rams had ceased to exist , and that Adams therefore was not bound to fulfill a contract with the Los Angeles Rams .
In addition to the players , Brown hired a number of assistant coaches . John Brickels , an Ohio native , was brought in early on to sign players while Brown was still in the Navy . He later served as a backfield coach . Another hire was Blanton Collier , a high school coach for 16 years who had been an assistant to Brown at Great Lakes . Collier succeeded Brown in 1963 as the team 's head coach . Fritz Heisler was brought in as a guard coach and stayed with the Browns until the 1970s .
= = Roster and coaching staff = =
= = Preseason = =
The Browns ' first and only preseason game took place at the Rubber Bowl in Akron , Ohio against the Brooklyn Dodgers . Cleveland won the game 35 – 20 . Brooklyn opened the scoring with a touchdown in the first quarter and another on the first play of the second quarter . Both touchdowns followed interceptions thrown by Otto Graham . Substituting for Graham , Cliff Lewis threw a short touchdown pass to Fred Evans near the end of the second quarter to give the Browns their first points . Cleveland scored again in the second half after John Rokisky picked up a fumble by Brooklyn halfback Glen Dobbs and ran it 55 yards for a touchdown , giving the Browns the lead . Graham threw a short pass to Mac Speedie for another touchdown in the third quarter , and added a 20 @-@ yard pass to George Young in the fourth quarter to widen the lead . In the same quarter , Evans intercepted a Dobbs pass and ran 83 yards for his second touchdown . Brooklyn had a touchdown near the end of the game to make the final score 35 – 20 . Cleveland won the game despite trailing the Dodgers in rushing yards , 93 to 63 . After the win , the Browns prepared to face the Miami Seahawks in their first regular @-@ season game the following Friday .
= = Schedule = =
= = Game summaries = =
= = = Week 1 : vs. Miami Seahawks = = =
The Browns ' first game , against the Miami Seahawks , took place on a warm late @-@ summer evening in September . The crowd was the second @-@ largest ever for a professional football game . The game was well @-@ attended in part because of team owner Arthur B. McBride 's promotion of the new team , but also because the Browns ' two black players helped draw a large African @-@ American crowd . Miami 's team , drawn mainly from the Southern United States , was overmatched by Cleveland . The score was 27 – 0 at halftime and the final was 44 – 0 . Browns end Mac Speedie scored the team 's first points on a 19 @-@ yard touchdown pass from quarterback Cliff Lewis . Otto Graham came in at quarterback in the second quarter and threw a touchdown to Dante Lavelli . Placekicker Lou Groza kicked three field goals , and the Browns had two defensive touchdowns . Miami never advanced past the Browns ' 39 @-@ yard line .
= = = Week 2 : vs. Chicago Rockets = = =
In their second game , the Browns faced the Chicago Rockets at Soldier Field before a crowd of 51 @,@ 962 people , an attendance record for a professional football game in Chicago . It was the first of many games during which Cleveland 's two black players , Marion Motley and Bill Willis , endured racially charged verbal and physical abuse . Some of their white teammates , including Lou Rymkus , retaliated by dealing their own cheap shots . Motley opened the scoring with a 20 @-@ yard run for a touchdown , the first in his career . Lou Groza added two field goals in the third quarter , and halfback Don Greenwood ran for a 41 @-@ yard touchdown to make the final score 20 – 6 . Chicago 's only points came on a touchdown run by Billy Hillenbrand on the first play of the fourth quarter . Motley later said that racism on the field stopped after opponents saw how well he and Willis played : " They found out that while they were calling us niggers and alligator bait , I was running for touchdowns and Willis was knocking the shit out of them . So they stopped calling us names and started trying to catch up with us . "
= = = Week 3 : vs. Buffalo Bisons = = =
The Browns next played the Buffalo Bisons in Buffalo , New York . Just over 30 @,@ 000 people watched the game ; while this was a lower total than the Browns ' previous two games , it set a professional football attendance record in Buffalo . Playing in 80 @-@ degree heat , Browns quarterback Otto Graham threw two touchdowns in the first quarter to John Yonakor and Marion Motley . Cleveland scored for a third time in the first quarter when Cliff Lewis , substituting for Graham , pitched a lateral to Gaylon Smith , who ran it in for a touchdown . After neither team scored in the second and third quarters , the Browns added a fourth touchdown on Chet Adams ' fumble return . Al Dekdebrun , Buffalo 's second @-@ string quarterback , fumbled at the Bisons ' 34 @-@ yard line and Adams picked it up and ran for a touchdown . The Bisons were held scoreless despite having more first downs than the Browns . The team played without its primary rushing threat , Steve Juzwik , who was sidelined with a pulled leg muscle .
= = = Week 4 : vs. New York Yankees = = =
Cleveland got off to a strong start against the New York Yankees , scoring two touchdowns in the first nine minutes . Interceptions by Don Greenwood and center Mike Scarry set up the scores . The Yankees came back with a touchdown of their own later in the first quarter after recovering a Graham fumble at Cleveland 's 14 @-@ yard line . Neither team scored in the second and third quarters , but the Browns added to their lead in the fourth . Lou Groza kicked a field goal and Edgar " Special Delivery " Jones ran up the middle for a 43 @-@ yard touchdown with less than three minutes left in the game . The final score was 24 – 7 ; it was the Yankees ' first loss of the season and left the Browns as the only unbeaten and untied team in the AAFC . After the game , Yankees coach Ray Flaherty criticized his team for losing to a " Podunk team with a high school coach " . The threat of bad weather kept attendance down , but the gross ticket receipts of $ 138 @,@ 673 still marked the third @-@ best take for a professional football game in history .
= = = Week 5 : vs. Brooklyn Dodgers = = =
The Browns won their fifth game in a row against the Brooklyn Dodgers , 26 – 7 . Halfback Don Greenwood scored two touchdowns , one in the first quarter and another in the second . Tommy Colella added a third touchdown in the final quarter on a four @-@ yard rush . Groza added a field goal and made all of his extra points , bringing his season scoring total to 38 and his string of consecutive extra points without a miss to 17 . Edgar " Special Delivery " Jones intercepted a pass thrown by Dodgers quarterback Glenn Dobbs , and Lou Saban intercepted two more . Both of Saban 's interceptions led to Browns scores . The Browns ' defense held the Dodgers to just 37 yards of rushing . Bob Steuber , a Browns halfback , suffered a rib injury in the game and was expected to be out for two weeks .
= = = Week 6 : vs. New York Yankees = = =
The Browns won their second matchup against the Yankees 7 – 0 amid a heavy downpour . The weather kept attendance to 34 @,@ 252 , but raised Cleveland 's season attendance total over 300 @,@ 000 people including its preseason game at the Akron Rubber Bowl . The only score of the game came in the third quarter , when quarterback Otto Graham passed to Dante Lavelli for a 33 @-@ yard touchdown . Cleveland won despite being outplayed by the Yankees statistically . The Yankees had 10 first downs to the Browns ' five , and had 237 yards of total offense to just 67 yards for the Browns . Cleveland was held to just 24 yards of rushing , and Marion Motley , the team 's star fullback , rushed for minus eight yards in six attempts . The Yankees threatened to tie the game at the end of the fourth quarter , driving to the Cleveland 16 @-@ yard line . New York 's pass attempts failed , however , giving the Browns the victory . It was Cleveland 's sixth win in a row .
= = = Week 7 : vs. Los Angeles Dons = = =
The Browns next beat the Los Angeles Dons 31 – 14 in Cleveland to extend their winning streak to seven games . The crowd of 71 @,@ 134 people who attended the game on a sunny October day was a professional football record . Cleveland got off to a slow start , falling behind 7 – 3 at halftime . The Browns ' only score in the first half came on a 49 @-@ yard Lou Groza field goal , then the fourth @-@ longest kick in professional football history . A flurry of scoring at the end of the third quarter and in the fourth quarter , however , won Cleveland the game . Otto Graham passed 36 yards to end Dante Lavelli and then ran in a touchdown with less than three minutes left in the third . It was the first of four touchdowns in 14 minutes of play . Fullback Marion Motley ran in two touchdowns in the fourth quarter , one of them a 68 @-@ yard run that tied an AAFC record for a rush from scrimmage . The Browns won despite a strong ground attack by the Dons , who gained 274 yards of rushing . The Dons had 21 first downs compared to Cleveland 's 10 . Groza made all of his extra point attempts , extending his streak to 22 in a row .
= = = Week 8 : vs. San Francisco 49ers = = =
The Browns suffered their first defeat of the season at the hands of the San Francisco 49ers before a crowd of 70 @,@ 385 in Cleveland . The 49ers led throughout the game , helped by three touchdown passes from left @-@ handed quarterback Frankie Albert . Albert 's main target was Alyn Beals , a former Santa Clara University star who caught two of his passes for touchdowns . Kicker Joe Vetrano added to the 49ers lead with a pair of field goals in the first half . Don Greenwood ran for a Browns touchdown in the second quarter , but the extra point was botched . The snap was high and went into kicker Lou Groza 's arms . He tried to run with the ball but suffered a back injury when he was tackled short of the end zone . Cliff Lewis was also injured in the second quarter , twisting his knee badly . He was taken to a hospital . The Browns ran only 24 offensive plays in the first half , and the 49ers were ahead by 14 points by halftime . Despite losing 34 – 20 , the Browns matched the 49ers statistically , with 338 total yards to San Francisco 's 357 . Marion Motley , who had been the AAFC 's leading rusher before the game , was held to 22 yards .
= = = Week 9 : vs. Los Angeles Dons = = =
Cleveland next lost its second straight game , against the Los Angeles Dons in Los Angeles . The Dons opened the scoring on the first play from scrimmage after the Browns kicked off . Chuck Fenenbock ran the ball 75 yards for a touchdown . Cleveland came back to build a 16 – 7 lead at halftime , but Groza missed his first extra point in 24 tries after Bill Lund ran for a touchdown in the second quarter . The missed extra point proved to be the difference in the game . Los Angeles went back on top in the fourth quarter with a Dale Gentry run for a touchdown and a field goal by Joe Aquirre with just 18 seconds left and won by one point , 17 – 16 . A fumble by Browns halfback Ray Terrell at the Los Angeles 35 @-@ yard line in the fourth quarter gave the Dons the ball and led to Aquirre 's game @-@ winning field goal . Cleveland 's running game stalled for the second game in a row ; the team gained only 43 yards rushing . Bill Willis , the Browns ' defensive star , sat out the entire game with a strep infection . Two other Browns players , Bob Steuber and Alex Kapter , suffered leg injuries and were helped off the field .
= = = Week 10 : vs. San Francisco 49ers = = =
The Browns won their rematch with San Francisco 14 – 7 two weeks after losing to the 49ers at home . Cleveland rebounded from two poor rushing games . Runs by halfback Bill Lund and fullback Marion Motley set up touchdowns in the first half . Lund had a series of successful carries that set up the first touchdown in the first quarter , a short pass to Dante Lavelli from Otto Graham . Motley 's 64 @-@ yard run in the second quarter was followed by a three @-@ yard touchdown run by Gaylon Smith . Lund , however , turned his ankle in the first quarter and did not return to the game . Motley also suffered a pulled leg muscle in the second quarter and played sparingly thereafter . The 49ers came back in the fourth quarter with strong rushing from fullback Norm Standlee and Earle Parsons . Frankie Albert scored the team 's lone touchdown on a one @-@ yard run . San Francisco threatened to tie the game , reaching the Cleveland 19 @-@ yard line with five minutes to play , but the Browns defense stood firm and stopped the advance . The win put the Browns two games ahead of the 49ers in the AAFC 's western conference with four games to play .
= = = Week 11 : vs. Chicago Rockets = = =
Cleveland beat the Rockets 51 – 14 at home before a crowd of 60 @,@ 457 , the fourth time during the season that attendance at Cleveland Stadium surpassed 60 @,@ 000 people . The Browns led from start to finish , and Lavelli and Speedie had two touchdown receptions each . Graham 's four touchdown passes helped the Browns reach an AAFC scoring record . Bud Schwenk made his first appearance in the fourth quarter of the game , substituting for Graham as the game turned into a blowout . He threw for a fifth touchdown , a 20 @-@ yard pass to Bill Lund . Edgar Jones added to Cleveland 's scoring with a touchdown run in the first quarter , and center Frank Gatski scored the team 's final touchdown in the fourth quarter after intercepting a pass and running it back 36 yards . It was the only touchdown of Gatski 's 12 @-@ year career . Groza made a 51 @-@ yard field goal , the longest of the year in either the National Football League or AAFC , and kicked through six of the team 's seven extra points . The seventh extra point was blocked , only the second time he missed a conversion in 33 tries . The Rockets managed two touchdowns , the first by Elroy Hirsch on an 81 @-@ yard drive in the second quarter and the second on a 76 @-@ yard punt return in the third quarter .
= = = Week 12 : vs. Buffalo Bisons = = =
Cleveland clinched first place in the AAFC 's western division and earned a spot in the championship game by beating the Bisons 42 – 17 . The Browns fell behind 10 – 7 in the first quarter , but subsequently scored 35 unanswered points . Edgar Jones scored two touchdowns , while Motley ran 76 yards for another score . Al Akins and Bud Schwenk had their only touchdowns of the season , playing in the fourth quarter after the Browns amassed a large lead . Despite the Browns ' large margin of victory , the game was evenly matched ; Cleveland 's scores came mostly on breakaway plays . The Bisons had 19 first downs , nine more than the Browns , although the Browns out @-@ gained the Bisons with 455 total yards . The game was marred by numerous penalties against both teams for unnecessary roughness , and the Bisons ' kicker Lou Zontini and Browns halfback Ray Terrell were ejected after getting into a fight at midfield in the second quarter . A total of 37 @,@ 054 people attended the game , the lowest figure for a Browns home game at that point in the season .
= = = Week 13 : vs. Miami Seahawks = = =
Despite traveling without key players Marion Motley and Bill Willis because of Florida 's segregation laws , Cleveland beat Miami in a shutout for the second time in the season , winning 34 – 0 . Fueled by the ire the entire team felt because of leaving friends behind , Otto Graham opened the scoring with a 37 @-@ yard interception return for a touchdown and the Browns never looked back . Three other Browns players – Edgar Jones , Gaylon Smith and Gene Fekete – ran for touchdowns . Fekete 's touchdown was the only one of his short professional career . Groza kicked two field goals , giving him 12 on the season and tying the all @-@ time professional record set in 1926 by Paddy Driscoll . Cleveland led Miami in all phases of the game , amassing 159 yards rushing to Miami 's eight and 233 yards of total offense . Miami gained a total of 46 yards rushing and passing . As the Browns prepared to face the Dodgers in the last game of the regular season , they looked ahead to a matchup in the AAFC championship in Cleveland on December 22 with the New York Yankees , the winners the eastern division .
= = = Week 14 : vs. Brooklyn Dodgers = = =
The last game of the Browns ' regular season was a 66 – 14 win over the Dodgers . Nine different Cleveland players scored touchdowns in the game . The Browns ' point total set an AAFC scoring record . Groza kicked a field goal to reach 13 for the season , exceeding Driscoll 's all @-@ time record . He also kicked four extra points , bringing his total for the season to 45 and beating the previous professional record of 42 . Groza , however , injured his left ankle in the third quarter while making a tackle and had to be carried off the field . Substituting for Groza , Chet Adams kicked through five more extra points . Otto Graham played less than half of the game as Cleveland built a large lead , and Cliff Lewis and Bud Schwenk substituted for him in the second half . The Browns ended the game with several injured players at key positions . In addition to Groza , halfbacks Ray Terrell , Don Greenwood and Al Akins had to sit out because of injuries . The win gave Cleveland a 12 – 2 record as they prepared to face the Yankees in the championship game .
= = Final standings = =
= = AAFC championship = =
A week before the championship game , three Browns players were arrested after a confrontation with Cleveland police . Team captain Jim Daniell , end Mac Speedie , tackle Lou Rymkus and halfback Edgar Jones were drinking and waiting for Speedie 's wife to arrive on a flight from Utah . They dropped Jones off and came up behind a police car that was blocking their way . Daniell , who was driving the car , honked the horn , and an argument ensued that ended with the arrest of all three men . Daniell was booked on public intoxication , and Speedie and Rymkus were charged with creating a disturbance . Paul Brown fired Daniell after the incident , saying he had " a special obligation to be exemplary in his behavior " because he was the team captain .
The first @-@ ever AAFC championship took place on December 22 , 1946 at Cleveland Stadium before a crowd of 41 @,@ 181 . Temperatures were in the 30s , which contributed to the low attendance numbers compared to other Browns home games , but the championship game drew more people than all but three NFL championship games up to that point . The Yankees were in close competition with the Browns as the AAFC 's leading team , and finished the season by winning seven of their last eight games . The Browns and Yankees had different styles of play : while the Browns used a T formation offense , the Yankees had a single @-@ wing formation . New York 's roster included Spec Sanders , who led the AAFC with 709 yards of rushing and 12 touchdowns .
The championship game was largely a defensive battle with little scoring from either team . New York scored the game 's first points in the first quarter on a 21 @-@ yard field goal by Harvey Johnson , but the Browns went into the lead in the second quarter when Marion Motley ran for a touchdown after a 70 @-@ yard drive . The Yankees retook the lead in the third quarter , marching 80 yards down the field for a Sanders touchdown . Cleveland reached the New York 18 @-@ yard line at the end of the third , but the drive stalled and Lou Groza missed a short field goal , his third failed attempt of the game . Groza had suffered a sprained left ankle , and Chet Adams substituted for him . Adams , however , missed another field goal in the fourth quarter . The Browns took the lead again in the fourth quarter when Graham passed to Lavelli for a 16 @-@ yard touchdown . Groza came back in and kicked the extra point , giving Cleveland a 14 – 9 advantage with 4 : 31 to play in the game . Sanders returned the ensuing kickoff 35 yards , and the Yankees started the drive at the Browns ' 45 @-@ yard line . The Yankees appeared poised for a comeback , but Graham intercepted a pass on a third down and Cleveland was almost able to run out the clock . Time expired after a Tommy Colella punt and one short Yankees completion .
Graham had 213 yards of passing in the championship game . Lavelli registered 87 receiving yards , and Speedie had 71 . Motley was the team 's leading rusher , with 98 yards on 13 carries . Cleveland 's defense was able to hold Sanders and New York quarterback Ace Parker in check . Parker had only 81 yards of passing , and Sanders ran for just 55 yards .
= = Season leaders = =
Graham had an average of 10 @.@ 5 yards per passing attempt , the second @-@ most in history at the time . He had a passer rating of 112 @.@ 1 , setting a single @-@ season record not exceeded until Joe Montana eclipsed it in 1989 . Motley finished the season with 601 yards rushing , the fourth most in the AAFC . Edgar Jones was the league 's fifth @-@ most @-@ prolific rusher , gaining 539 yards . Greenwood had six rushing touchdowns , tying for the league lead . Lavelli tied for first place in receptions , with 40 , and led the league in receiving yards , with 843 . His eight receiving touchdowns gave him second place in the league . Speedie , meanwhile , led all receivers in yards per reception , with 23 @.@ 5 . On defense , Colella led the AAFC with 10 interceptions ; as a team , the Browns were the league 's interception leaders by a large margin , with 41 . The Browns had 67 total defensive takeaways , a professional football record that still stands . Groza scored the most field goals and extra points and set a professional football record for a kicker by scoring 84 points . He was the first @-@ ever kicker to make two field goals from beyond 50 yards in a season . A number of Browns players were named to sportswriters ' All @-@ Pro teams , including Motley , Speedie , Lavelli , Willis and Mike Scarry .
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= Where We Land =
Where We Land is the first studio album by Australian Idol 2006 winner Damien Leith . It was released by Sony BMG in Australia on 18 August 2007 , and in Ireland on 28 September 2007 . Leith produced the album for seven months and created the album entirely with acoustic songs . He wrote or co @-@ wrote nine of the twelve songs , collaborating with Alex Lloyd and his music director Paul Gray ( Wa Wa Nee ) in a few songs . All of his original songs were inspired by his friends and family . Leith included two cover songs in the album , Fleetwood Mac 's " Songbird " from the album Rumours and the traditional Irish song " Danny Boy " . Where We Land received mostly average reviews from critics . It debuted in the Australian Albums Chart at number @-@ one and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association . The album spawned the singles " 22 Steps " , " All I Want Is You " and " Not Just For The Weekend " . Leith embarked on a national tour across Australia to promote the album in November 2007 .
= = Background = =
Damien Leith stated how his debut studio album wanted to pan out : " I didn 't really want to do anybody else 's songs ... I just wanted this album to be mine " . Immediately after Australian Idol concluded , he convinced the producers of the show to break from protocol by giving him longer time to record the album . The protocol was that the Australian Idol winners had only one week after the competition ended to record their first album . He decided to work on his first studio album for the next few months . Leith was aware of the little success of the previous two Idol winners , Casey Donovan and Kate DeAraugo , so he decided to turn something more palpable than the previous winners by producing an album of original songs . He comments , " I suppose the main thing for me was trying to establish myself as a songwriter out of it because that 's something that hasn 't really been promoted in the past . " He was determined to create as much original material as possible for the album , and create songs that truly represent who he was . He also wanted the themes in the lyrics to not only be personal , but broad enough so that listeners can relate to them .
= = Production and recording = =
Leith remarked that recording the album was an exciting but nerve @-@ racking experience . He recorded his music at Sony BMG 's recording studio in East Sydney . His producers already had in mind what kind of album they want to produce for Leith . He , however wanted his album to be totally acoustic . Knowing that he was well known by the Australian public as the new Australian Idol , he knew that it was risky to produce an acoustic based album because it was very different from the records produced by the previous Idol contestants , as many of their records predominantly featured up @-@ beat pop songs . He noted that the music he was making could make the album harder to sell commercially .
As a result , he and his producers spent the time to work on the songs which would appeal to a broader audience . Leith did this by holding onto several elements in his music that people had enjoyed on Australian Idol . However , he still wanted to show new elements to the album , so he held on some elements of acoustic music . Leith comments ,
" We didn 't want to be too acoustic , or too rocky . I 've been conscious of the people who bought The Winner 's Journey , but also conscious about grabbing a new audience as well ... I think this album 's got all those kind of Winner 's Journey elements – the falsetto and the emotional thing . But it 's got a lot of me in it too . "
Damien Leith was also conscious of the lyrics we wrote . He added a few emotional ballads which contained strong lyrics , but had left out the songs he thought were too depressing .
Leith spent seven months of recording and writing and worked with Bryon Jones , James Roche and Ross Fraser . Initially , he wanted the album to be released in March , but it was pushed back to August , partly due to the prolonged success of The Winner 's Journey and partly because of the large amount of songs they had to cull .
= = Writing and inspiration = =
The songs he wrote were inspired by his family and friends . A few of the songs explored the themes of love and fulfilment . " Not Just for the Weekend " was a song he wrote after the birth of his second son , Jagger . The song " Beautiful " is a love song written to his wife Eileen . Other songs in the album explored much darker themes . " Blew It All Away " is a heartfelt song about the suicide of a friend , which happened shortly after another friend died from cancer . Another song , " Alone " was inspired from a friend who was struggling after his father 's death . " Shine Like the Sun " is about a friend in Ireland who was experiencing a rough relationship .
Leith wrote or co @-@ wrote a total of nine tracks out of the twelve in the album . Incidentally , the first single and the opening track " 22 Steps " was a song he did not write ; it was written by Canadian singer @-@ songwriter Andy Stochansky . Another non @-@ original track Leith recorded was a cover of Fleetwood Mac 's " Songbird " from their album Rumours . This song holds special meaning for Leith , as his sister sang this song during his and Eileen 's wedding . Leith collaborated with Australian writers in a few songs , including Alex Lloyd who co @-@ wrote with Leith the songs " Beautiful " and " Blew It All Away " . They also wrote four other songs which they did not include in the album because they were too alternative . His musical director Paul Gray of Wa Wa Nee co @-@ wrote the track " Alone " . He left out his debut single " Night of My Life " , originally written for his win on Idol , because he could not relate to the lyrics in his everyday life , only within the context of the show . Sony BMG added a raw bonus track , the traditional Irish song " Danny Boy " which Leith did a one @-@ take recording of for a fan . Initially , Leith was hesitant to include it in the album because it was so raw .
Damien Leith chose to name the album Where We Land as it described all the things that happened to him in the past year individually and professionally , and also illustrated his journey to Australia in various ways .
= = Album and single releases = =
Where We Land was officially released on 18 August 2007 in Australia . Beforehand , the first single of the album , " 22 Steps " was released to Australian radio on 22 June 2007 , with a physical release on 21 July . Another track also included in Where We Land was " I Still Miss Us " , which was a bonus track with the release of " 22 Steps " only available in the Australian iTunes Store . The music video for " 22 Steps " premiered on rage on 22 June . The second single , " All I Want Is You " , was released as a non @-@ commercial single ; its music video debuted on rage on 19 October .
Where We Land was later released in Ireland on 28 September 2007 . On 17 November 2007 , a limited special Christmas edition of Where We Land was released in Australia which included a second disc with five bonus tracks , including an original track " This Christmas " .
= = Chart performance = =
In the week beginning on 27 August 2007 , Where We Land debuted on the ARIA Albums Chart at number one . The album was certified gold status in its first week of release and sold 12 @,@ 760 copies , 4 @,@ 939 more than the second highest selling album of the week , which was The Dutchess by Fergie . This feat follows his previous live album The Winner 's Journey which was at number @-@ one earlier in the year in January . He is also the first Australian Idol winner to achieve two consecutive number @-@ one albums . The album dropped to number @-@ two in its second week on the charts , replaced by Paul Potts ' One Chance . In its third week , Where We Land it was certified platinum status and moved down to number @-@ four . It dropped outside the top ten in the following week on the Australian charts .
Where We Land debuted on the Irish Albums Chart at number 43 on the week after its release in Ireland , remaining in the Top 75 for a second week , before falling off the chart the week after .
= = Charts and certification = =
= = Critical reception = =
Responses from critics have given mostly average reviews of the album . Polly Coufos from The Sunday Times considers Damien Leith as " the most complete artist Australian Idol has yet uncovered " . Coufos rated the album 3 @.@ 5 stars , and comments that " Leith uses that heavenly falsetto as often as possible without making himself appear a one @-@ trick pony " . Coufos , however says that the two cover songs , " Songbird " and " Danny Boy " are an " unnecessary hedging of bets " . Andrew Murfett from The Age notices the album 's different arrangement from the previous Idol debuts and considers it to be better than those , but says that the album still contains too many ballad songs . Murfett remarks " Songbird " as a good choice for a cover song . Lauren Katulka from ' Oz Music Scene ' compliments Leith 's songwriting and composing , and says that Where We Land " is a great indication of the potential of Australia 's revamped Idol franchise " . Lucy Tyler from the Sydney Anglican Network says that though the album is well @-@ produced ; it is unbalanced and bland , and " its lack of variety means that it gives listeners little to think about " . Tyler notes that Where We Land focuses on the melancholic aspects of life and remarks that " Leith appears to have forgotten that life can sometimes be happy , too " .
= = Promotion = =
Damien Leith made several appearances in the week after Where We Land was released . On 19 August 2007 , Leith performed songs from the album at the Warringah Mall Center Stage in Brookvale , and on 23 August , he performed songs at the Robina Town Centre in Robina , Queensland . He made a guest appearance on 26 August on Rove and performed live on 30 August on Australian Idol . He again made a special guest appearance on Australian Idol on 7 October , singing " All I Want Is You " .
Leith is currently embarking on a national Where We Land tour across Australia from 1 to 24 November 2007 , touring in various venues located specifically in Sydney , Canberra , Brisbane , Melbourne , the Central Coast , Newcastle , Wollongong and Hobart . He is performing the tracks from the album as well as several of his classic performances from Australian Idol . It was announced on 28 September that the tour was extended to include the other major cities of Australia ; Adelaide and Perth .
= = Track listing = =
" 22 Steps " ( Andy Stochansky , Ian LeFeuvre ) – 3 : 35
" All I Want Is You " ( Damien Leith ) – 3 : 16
" Beautiful " ( Leith , Alex Wasiliev ) ; 3 : 43
" Shine Like the Sun " ( Leith ) – 4 : 10
" I Still Miss Us " ( Leith , Bryon Jones ) – 4 : 17
" The Long Way Back " ( Leith ) – 3 : 30
" Not Just for the Weekend " ( Leith ) – 3 : 48
" Songbird " ( cover version ) ( Christine McVie ) – 4 : 17
" Blew It All Away " ( Leith , Wasiliev ) – 3 : 21
" Alone " ( Leith , Paul Gray ) – 3 : 51
" Cold Cold Heart " ( Leith ) – 3 : 52
" Danny Boy " ( Bonus Track ) ( cover version ) ( Frederick Weatherly ) – 3 : 31
Christmas edition bonus tracks
" I 'll Be Home for Christmas " ( Buck Ram , Kim Gannon , Walter Kent ) – 3 : 13
" The Christmas Song " ( Mel Tormé , Robert Wells ) – 3 : 21
" This Christmas " ( Damien Leith , Eileen Stapleton ) – 3 : 35
" O Holy Night " ( Adolphe Adam ) – 2 : 44
" Silent Night " ( Josef Mohr ) – 2 : 09
B @-@ Sides from singles
" Who You Are " " 22 Steps " single "
" Song For Jarvis " " 22 Steps " single
" Come To Me " " Night of My Life "
" Sky " The Winner 's Journey
= = Personnel = =
Damien Leith – vocals , guitar , arranger
Matt Cornell – bass
Dave Leslie – guitar
James Roche – bass , piano , strings , keyboards , programmer , producer , mixer
Irwin Thomas – guitar
David Champion – manager
Daniel Clinch – engineer
James Cooper – art director , designer , photographer , illustrator
Ross Fraser – A & R
Amy Kelly – design producer & illustrator
Christopher Morris – photographer
Martin Pullan – mastering engineer
|
= Tony Parker =
William Anthony " Tony " Parker Jr . ( born 17 May 1982 ) is a French professional basketball player for the San Antonio Spurs of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . The son of a professional basketball player , Parker played for two years in the French basketball league before entering the 2001 NBA draft . He was selected by the San Antonio Spurs with the 28th overall pick in the draft and quickly became their starting point guard . Parker has helped the Spurs win four NBA championships in 2003 , 2005 , 2007 and 2014 .
Employing his pace and high field goal percentage to great effect , Parker has been named to six NBA All @-@ Star games , three All @-@ NBA Second Teams , and an All @-@ NBA Third Team . He was also the 2007 NBA Finals MVP .
Playing for the France national basketball team , Parker was named as the EuroBasket 2013 MVP following his team 's victory over Lithuania ( 80 – 66 ) in the gold medal game . The point guard finished as the tournament 's top scorer with 19 points per game . In 2015 he became the all @-@ time leading scorer in the EuroBasket competition .
Parker is also a music artist with his own music album , TP . He married actress Eva Longoria on 7 July 2007 . In November 2010 , both parties filed for divorce .
= = Early life = =
Parker was born in Bruges , Belgium , but raised in France . His father , Tony Parker Sr. , an African American , played basketball at Loyola University Chicago as well as professionally overseas . His mother , Pamela Firestone , is a Dutch model . Parker enjoyed close relationships with his brothers and they would often attend their father 's basketball games together . At first , Parker was more interested in soccer , but after watching the evolution of Michael Jordan into a global basketball superstar during summer trips to his father 's native city of Chicago , he changed his mind . Moreover , Parker 's two younger brothers were also heavily involved in basketball ; T.J. and Pierre would go on to play basketball at college and professional levels . As Parker built his skill , his lack of size ( notwithstanding a growth spurt at 15 ) decided his position on @-@ court . He played the point guard position , recognizing that his speed and agility made this position ideal for him . He was eventually talent @-@ spotted and asked to attend the INSEP in Paris . After playing in the French amateur leagues for two seasons , Parker turned professional and signed with Paris Basket Racing in 1999 .
In the summer of 2000 , Parker was invited to the Nike Hoop Summit in Indianapolis . There , in front of professional scouts and college coaches , he competed against the likes of future NBA players Darius Miles , Zach Randolph and Omar Cook . In a contest between the American and European All @-@ Stars , Parker recorded 20 points , seven assists , four rebounds and two steals . The Frenchman 's performance prompted a recruiting war among several colleges , including UCLA and Georgia Tech , who were on the verge of persuading Parker to join them . However , Parker decided to forgo the NCAA and to remain in France ; he spent the next year with Paris Basket Racing in the French League before entering the 2001 NBA draft .
= = Professional career = =
= = = San Antonio Spurs = = =
= = = = First championship = = = =
Before the 2001 NBA draft , Parker was invited to the San Antonio Spurs ' summer camp . Parker 's first experiences were daunting ; coach Gregg Popovich had him play against Spurs scout and ex @-@ NBA player Lance Blanks . Parker was so overwhelmed by Blank 's tough and physical defense that Popovich was ready to send him away after just 10 minutes . But after seeing a " best of " mix tape of Parker 's best plays , Popovich decided to invite Parker a second time . This time , Parker made a better impression against Blanks ; the Frenchman later described Blanks as a " one @-@ man wrecking crew " . But while Popovich decided that Parker was worth the gamble , the Spurs still had to hope that other teams would not pick Parker during the draft . As it happened , Parker 's name was barely mentioned in the pre @-@ draft predictions and the point guard was drafted 28th overall by the Spurs on draft day .
After initially playing backup to Antonio Daniels , Parker became a starter and made 77 regular @-@ season appearances in his rookie season , averaging 9 @.@ 2 points , 4 @.@ 3 assists and 2 @.@ 6 rebounds in 29 @.@ 4 minutes per game . When he played against the Los Angeles Clippers on 30 November 2001 , he became the third French player to play in an NBA game , after Tariq Abdul @-@ Wahad and Jerome Moiso . Parker increased the Spurs ' game tempo , getting his teammates better looks at the basket whenever he was involved in transition offense . He could also hit open jump shots , and this created greater space for the big men on the team , Tim Duncan and David Robinson . By the end of the season , the rookie led San Antonio in assists and steals , and was named to the All @-@ Rookie First Team for 2001 – 02 , becoming the first foreign @-@ born guard to earn the honor . Although the Spurs were eliminated during the playoffs , Parker 's performances did not go unnoticed .
In 2002 – 03 , Parker played in all 82 regular @-@ season games as San Antonio 's starting point guard on a team that was largely revamped from previous years . He improved his regular season statistics significantly , averaging 15 @.@ 5 points per game ( ppg ) , 5 @.@ 3 assists per game ( apg ) and 2 @.@ 6 rebounds per game ( rpg ) . Parker 's role as the team 's playmaker was reflected in his leading the team in assists on 49 occasions . During the 2003 NBA All @-@ Star Weekend , Parker represented the Sophomores in the Got Milk ? Rookie Challenge , and also participated in the inaugural 989 Sports Skills Challenge . In the post season , the Spurs , led by Tim Duncan , defeated the New Jersey Nets 4 – 2 in the finals , and Parker earned his first NBA championship ring . Despite the victory , Parker struggled with inconsistent play throughout the playoffs , and was often substituted for the more experienced guards Steve Kerr and Speedy Claxton late in the games . Throughout the season , Parker also felt that he was often criticized too harshly by coach Popovich ; in retrospect , coach Popovich admitted he was critical of his young playmaker , stating he wanted Parker to build a thick skin and mature sooner than his peers .
= = = = Second championship = = = =
Despite winning a championship with the Spurs , doubts lingered over Parker 's future . The Spurs had attempted and failed to acquire New Jersey Nets ' Jason Kidd , but Parker told coach Popovich that he wanted to be San Antonio 's starting point guard and he was ready to work hard to become a great player . Parker played well during the regular season , recording 14 @.@ 7 ppg , 5 @.@ 5 apg and 3 @.@ 2 rpg . However , the Spurs were defeated by perennial rivals Los Angeles Lakers in the Western Conference semi @-@ finals in the 2004 NBA Playoffs , and the favorites were denied back @-@ to @-@ back titles .
During the 2004 – 05 season , Parker recorded improved regular season statistics , tallying 16 @.@ 6 ppg , 6 @.@ 1 apg and a career @-@ high 3 @.@ 7 rpg . He was also ranked 13th in the league in total assists , and was third among point guards in field goal percentage . The Spurs were strong in the playoffs , and Parker was instrumental in the victories over the Denver Nuggets , Seattle SuperSonics and Phoenix Suns . However , Parker struggled in the Finals series against the Detroit Pistons . Spurs colleagues Manu Ginóbili and Brent Barry often took over playmaking duties as Parker was unable to perform as well as he did in the regular season . Pitted against ex @-@ Finals MVP and All @-@ Defensive Team member Chauncey Billups , Parker 's jump shot became inconsistent , and his trademark drives to the hoop were often smothered by the defensively strong Pistons frontcourt anchored by four @-@ time NBA Defensive Player of the Year Ben Wallace . Nevertheless , with the combination of Tim Duncan 's consistent performances , the emergence of Argentine star Ginóbili , clutch shooting by Robert Horry and Parker operating as playmaker , the Spurs won their third ever NBA championship by defeating the defending champions 4 – 3 in the 2005 NBA Finals .
= = = = Third championship = = = =
Parker was selected for the first time in his career an NBA All @-@ Star for the 2005 – 06 season as he managed 18 @.@ 9 ppg and an impressive .548 in field goal percentage . Parker 's scoring average was even higher than Duncan 's , and his form propelled the Spurs to a 63 – 19 win – loss record and qualification for the 2006 NBA Playoffs . However , the top @-@ seeded Spurs were again unable to win back @-@ to @-@ back titles as they were eliminated in the second round by the Dallas Mavericks .
On 14 February 2007 , after delivering consistent numbers in the first half of the 2006 – 07 season , Parker was selected to play in the 2007 NBA All @-@ Star Game as a reserve guard . With Parker operating as the starting point guard in the 2006 – 07 season , the Spurs qualified for the 2007 NBA Playoffs and finished second in the Southwest Division . In the Western Conference Semifinals , the Spurs met the Phoenix Suns led by two @-@ time and reigning NBA MVP Steve Nash . In the match @-@ up versus the best point guard of his generation , Parker used his speed to score an easy layup , or hit with his improved mid @-@ range jump shot . Suns coach Mike D 'Antoni even used All @-@ Defensive Team forward Shawn Marion to cover Parker , but the Frenchman used the pick and roll to beat his much bigger counterpart . After eliminating the Suns , the Spurs defeated the Utah Jazz 4 – 1 to win the Western Conference Finals . Parker and the Spurs went on to face the Cleveland Cavaliers and swept them 4 – 0 to win the 2007 NBA Finals . In this series , Parker consistently outplayed his Cavaliers counterparts Daniel Gibson and All @-@ Defensive Team member Larry Hughes and scored a series @-@ high 24 @.@ 5 points , accompanied by a high field goal percentage of 56 @.@ 8 % and of 57 @.@ 1 % from three @-@ point range . For his performances , he was named the 2007 NBA Finals MVP , becoming the first European @-@ born player to receive the award .
= = = = Falling short = = = =
In the 2007 – 08 regular season , Parker recorded similar averages as the previous two seasons for points and rebounds , and slightly increased his assists per game average . The Spurs finished third in the Western Conference and faced the Phoenix Suns in the first round of the 2008 NBA Playoffs . For the third time in four years , San Antonio prevailed over Phoenix ; Parker had an outstanding first round series , averaging nearly 30 points and 7 assists a game . In the next round against Chris Paul 's New Orleans Hornets , the Spurs dropped the first two road games before responding with a strong win in the third game . In that game , Parker recorded a double @-@ double with 31 points and 11 assists . The experienced Spurs took seven games to defeat the Hornets , but were unable to get past arch @-@ rivals Los Angeles Lakers in the Conference Finals , and the Spurs once again failed to capture back @-@ to @-@ back NBA championships .
San Antonio got off to a rocky start in their 2008 – 09 NBA season , losing the first three contests . In their fourth game against the Minnesota Timberwolves , however , Parker scored a career @-@ high 55 points to lead the Spurs to their first victory of the campaign . The Spurs recovered soon enough , and approached the All @-@ Star break ranked second in the Conference . With Parker averaging a career @-@ high in points per game , he was named as a reserve for the 2009 All @-@ Star game . The Spurs were without influential shooting guard Ginóbili for much for the season , and greater responsibility fell on Parker 's shoulders . He helped lead the team to a 54 – 28 record and the third seed for the playoffs , In Game 4 of the first round against Dallas , Parker matched George Gervin 's franchise playoff record for points in a half with 31 . However , the Spurs were put on the back pedal from the start and eventually lost 4 – 1 , bowing out of the playoffs in the first round for the first time since 2000 . Parker 's 28 @.@ 6 points and 4 @.@ 2 rebounds per game broke his previous playoffs career @-@ best averages of 22 @.@ 4 points and 3 @.@ 7 rebounds . On 13 May 2009 , he was named to the All @-@ NBA Third Team .
During the 2011 – 12 NBA season , Parker helped the Spurs reach the best record in the West for the second straight season ; the team tied the Chicago Bulls for the best overall record in the league . On 4 February 2012 , Parker became the all @-@ time assist leader of the franchise with 4 @,@ 477 , surpassing Avery Johnson , while adding 42 points in a victory against Oklahoma City Thunder . The Spurs secured their 13th straight 50 win season despite the lockout ( a new NBA record ) , and Parker received his fourth All @-@ Star nod . He finished fifth in MVP award voting , receiving four first @-@ place votes . Late in the season , the Spurs signed Parker 's longtime friend Boris Diaw , who was claimed off waivers from the Charlotte Bobcats , to add energy to the Spurs . In the 2012 NBA Playoffs , Parker averaged 20 @.@ 1 points and 6 @.@ 8 assists as the Spurs swept through the first two rounds , defeating the Utah Jazz and the Los Angeles Clippers . In the Western Conference Finals the Spurs faced the young Oklahoma City Thunder . After winning Game 1 and Game 2 , 101 – 98 and 120 – 111 respectively , and taking a 2 – 0 series lead , the Spurs lost four consecutive games , thus losing the series 4 – 2 .
In their second game of the 2012 – 13 season , the Spurs faced the Thunder in a rematch of the previous Western Conference Finals , and Parker hit a game @-@ winner to secure a win for the Spurs . On 10 December 2012 , Parker got his first career triple @-@ double after 825 regular season games against the Houston Rockets in overtime with 27 points , 12 rebounds , and 12 assists . He was the 4th player in NBA history to have gone 800 games or more into their career before their first triple @-@ double , joining Karl Malone ( 860 ) , Patrick Ewing ( 834 ) , and Cedric Maxwell ( 824 ) . Parker was named Western Conference Player of the Month for the month of January 2013 for leading the Spurs to a 12 – 3 record , and the best record in the NBA . He averaged 21 @.@ 9 points per game and 7 @.@ 9 assists per game that month while shooting 56 @.@ 3 % from the field . He became the first Spurs player to receive the honor since Tim Duncan in April 2002 . On May 21 , 2013 , Parker recorded a career high 18 assists to go with 15 points in the Spurs ' Western Conference finals game 2 victory over the Memphis Grizzlies .
In game 1 of the 2013 NBA Finals against the defending champion Miami Heat , Parker hit a clutch jump shot off the glass with 5 @.@ 2 seconds remaining in the game , securing a 92 – 88 victory for San Antonio . In Game 6 , Parker hit a clutch game @-@ tying 3 pointer with 1 : 27 remaining in regulation , but the Spurs lost the game in overtime . The Spurs eventually lost the series in seven games .
= = = = Fourth championship = = = =
On May 2014 , thanks to a win in the first game of the Western Conference Finals against Oklahoma City Thunder , Tony Parker alongside Manu Ginobili and Tim Duncan tied the record for most wins in Playoffs History by a trio of players playing together ; record held by LA Lakers trio of Magic Johnson , Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar and Michael Cooper at 110 wins . The Spurs went on to beat the Thunder in six games and advance to the NBA Finals for the second straight year . San Antonio would once again face the Miami Heat and would win the 2014 NBA Finals in five games . This victory gave Parker his fourth championship and the fifth championship to the Spurs .
= = = = Chasing the fifth championship = = = =
On August 1 , 2014 , Parker signed a three @-@ year , $ 43 @.@ 3 million contract extension with the Spurs . The Spurs finished the 2014 @-@ 15 NBA season 55 – 27 , but lost in the first round of the playoffs to the Los Angeles Clippers in seven games . Parker struggled in the playoffs due to injury and averaged 10 @.@ 9 points a game on 36 % shooting .
Before the 2015 – 16 NBA season , San Antonio acquired All @-@ Star power forward LaMarcus Aldridge . With the emergence of Kawhi Leonard and stellar play from Aldridge , the Spurs won a franchise record 67 games . Parker averaged 11 @.@ 9 points for the season . That was the lowest point average since his rookie season .
= = = ASVEL = = =
During the 2011 NBA lockout , Parker signed with ASVEL , the team in which he owns a stake . However , unlike other players who signed lucrative contract overseas during the lockout , Parker opted to play in his home country for minimum wage . Parker , who in the summer had received a four @-@ year contract extension from the Spurs worth over $ 50 million , received only $ 2 @,@ 000 per month from ASVEL . He also paid his own insurance , which reportedly cost $ 250 @,@ 000 for three months .
= = International career = =
Parker played for France 's Junior National Teams at the 1997 FIBA Europe Under @-@ 16 Championship , both the 1998 and 2000 FIBA Europe Under @-@ 18 Championships , and the 2002 FIBA Europe Under @-@ 20 Championship . He was elected the Most Valuable Player of the 2000 FIBA Europe Under @-@ 18 Championship , when France captured the gold medal , as he averaged 14 @.@ 4 points and 2 @.@ 5 assists per game . Parker averaged 25 @.@ 8 points , 6 @.@ 8 assists , and 6 @.@ 8 steals per game at the 2002 FIBA Europe Under @-@ 20 Championship . With the French senior national team , Parker has played in the 2001 , 2003 , 2005 , 2007 , 2009 , 2011 and 2013 FIBA EuroBaskets .
France won the bronze medal in the 2005 FIBA EuroBasket , by defeating the Spanish national team 98 – 68 in the bronze medal game . As the captain of the French national team since 2003 , Parker was slated to lead France at the 2006 FIBA World Championship , but he was unable to play after breaking a finger when he caught his hand in the jersey of a Brazilian national team player in France 's final warm up for the tournament . During the EuroBasket 2007 , Parker averaged 20 @.@ 1 points per game and 2 @.@ 8 assists per game in nine tournament games , but France was defeated in the quarter @-@ finals by the Russian national team . He passed the 2010 FIBA World Championship to recover fully from some injuries he had during the 2009 – 10 NBA season . Parker returned to the team in 2011 , and France reached the finals of the 2011 EuroBasket , losing to Spain . Parker also joined the team for the 2012 Summer Olympics in London . In 2013 , Parker and the French national team won the 2013 FIBA EuroBasket tournament .
Playing for France in EuroBasket 2015 , in a group game against Poland , Parker scored his 1032nd point , in doing so overtaking Nikos Galis as the all @-@ time highest scorer in the history of the Eurobasket competition .
During the Olympic Qualifying Tournament in Manila , Philippines , in July 2016 , Parker announced his intention to retire from international competition after the 2016 Summer Olympics .
= = = International stats = = =
= = Player profile = =
Standing at 6 feet 2 inches tall ( 1 @.@ 88 m ) and weighing 185 pounds ( 84 kg ) , Parker plays the point guard position and has established himself as a potent offensive player . Voted by his peers in a 2007 poll as one of the quickest players in the NBA , he often slashes to the basket for a layup or teardrop shot . Despite his relatively small size for a basketball player , he led the league in " points in the paint " for a large portion of the 2005 – 06 season .
In the initial part of his NBA career , Parker was still considered an erratic shooter of the ball and during the 2005 off @-@ season , coach Popovich decided to work on this aspect of his play . Seeing his mediocre shooting percentages ( at that point , Parker only hit 65 % of his free throws , and only 27 @.@ 6 % of his three @-@ point shots ) , he let him train extra sessions with Spurs shooting coach Chip Engelland . Engelland forbade Parker to shoot any three @-@ point shots , and among others , corrected his shooting motion and his thumb position . As a result , by the 2006 – 07 season , Parker had reduced his three @-@ point shots by 117 while shooting 147 more normal field goal attempts compared to 2005 , and his accuracy rose by 4 % ( field goals and three @-@ point shots ) and he was able to connect on 78 % of his free throws that season . Parker 's field goal percentage is also high for a point guard , and his speed also makes him a fast break player . However , his style of play has had adverse effects on his knees ( tendinitis ) .
= = Honors = =
= = NBA career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = Off the court = =
= = = ASVEL = = =
In 2009 , Parker bought a 20 percent stake in the French ASVEL club in Lyon ; he currently holds the ceremonial title of Vice President of Basketball Operations . Parker has the option to purchase an additional 20 percent and assume the club 's presidency , presumably when he retires from the NBA . During the 2011 NBA lockout , Parker signed to play for ASVEL for minimum wage until the lockout ended .
= = = Family life = = =
Parker 's parents continue to remain influential in his life even after their divorce . His mother , a health @-@ food coach , gives him tips on healthy eating , while he discusses his performance after each game with his father over the phone .
Parker met actress Eva Longoria , seven years his senior , in November 2004 . In August 2005 , Longoria confirmed she and Parker were dating , and on 30 November 2006 , the couple became engaged . Longoria , a Texas native from nearby Corpus Christi , was a courtside regular at Spurs home games . Parker was quoted during the 2007 NBA All @-@ Star Game saying that , " Eva is doing everything , I 'm just going to show up and say yes . " They were officially married in a civil service on 6 July 2007 , at a Paris city hall . It was followed by a full Roman Catholic wedding ceremony at the Saint @-@ Germain l 'Auxerrois Church in Paris , France , on 7 July 2007 . Fellow Frenchman NBA player ( and future teammate ) Boris Diaw was Parker 's best man for the wedding .
In December 2007 , tabloid websites and magazines reported that Parker had been having an extramarital affair with supposed model Alexandra Paressant . Both Parker and Longoria vehemently denied these allegations through their spokespeople , saying " All high profile couples fall victim to these sorts of things in the course of their relationships . It appears that this is not the first time this woman has used an athlete to gain public notoriety . " Parker initiated a $ 20 million lawsuit against the website that first reported the story , which later issued a full retraction and an apology , stating " X17online.com and X7 [ sic ] , Inc. regret having been misled by Ms. Paressant and her representatives and apologize to Mr. Parker for any damage or inconvenience this may have caused him or his wife . "
On 17 November 2010 , Longoria filed for divorce in Los Angeles , citing " irreconcilable differences " , and seeking spousal support from Parker . The couple had a prenuptial agreement that was signed in June 2007 , the month before their wedding , and amended two years later in June 2009 . Longoria believed that Parker had been cheating on her with another woman ; . Extra identified the other woman as Erin Barry , the wife of Brent Barry , Parker 's former teammate , and revealed that the Barrys were also in the midst of a divorce . On 19 November 2010 , Parker filed for divorce from Longoria in Bexar County , Texas on the grounds of " discord or conflict of personalities " , thus establishing a legal battle over where the divorce case would be heard . Unlike Longoria 's divorce petition , Parker 's did not mention a prenuptial agreement and claimed that the parties " will enter into an agreement for the division of their estate " . The divorce was finalized in Texas on 28 January 2011 , the same day Longoria 's lawyer filed papers to dismiss her Los Angeles petition .
Parker began dating French journalist Axelle Francine in 2011 . In June 2013 , it was reported that they are engaged . Parker and Axelle Francine married on August 2 , 2014 . They have one son , Josh Parker , born in April 2014 .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
In the field of philanthropy , Parker donates a block of 20 tickets for each home game to underprivileged youth . Parker is also the first ambassador for Make @-@ A @-@ Wish France . The Foundation is a non @-@ profit organization that grants wishes to children with life @-@ threatening medical conditions . On his personal website , Parker states : " I already knew Make @-@ A @-@ Wish as it is very famous around the world and I have previously taken part in the granting of wishes by meeting children and their families . I decided to commit to working with Make @-@ A @-@ Wish France when I understood the true dedication there and I realized that I could help to grant as many wishes as possible . "
= = = Music = = =
Parker is an avid fan of hip @-@ hop music and rap . He has released a French hip @-@ hop album titled TP with producer Polygrafic ( Sound Scientists ) . The album features collaborations with various artists including Booba , Don Choa , Eloquence , Eddie B , Jamie Foxx , K @-@ Reen , Rickwel and Soprano . The singles taken from the album include :
" Bienvenue dans le Texas " , featuring French rapper Booba and released on March 17 , 2007 and made available via iTunes . This initial release did not chart in France .
" Balance @-@ toi " , which features Longoria . It reached the number one position in the SNEP official French chart , staying there for one week . It also charted in the Belgian French ( Wallonia ) Ultratip charts , reaching number 4 .
" Premier Love " ( with Parker doing the French part and singer Rickwel the English part ) . The single made it to # 11 in SNEP , the official French Singles Chart .
Other singles releases include :
" Top of the Game " , featuring American rapper Fabolous and French rapper Booba , was released in March 2007 . The accompanying video features Spurs teammate Tim Duncan , as well as former teammates Robert Horry , Brent Barry , and Nazr Mohammed .
Albums
Singles
= = = Other interests = = =
Parker was also involved in the Paris bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics . His reaction to London 's successful bid was : " I don 't know what else we could have done . If we don 't have it now , I guess we will never get it . The IOC seems to be very pro @-@ Anglo @-@ Saxon . I feel extremely gutted . "
Parker has a well @-@ known friendship with compatriot footballer Thierry Henry . The two were often seen together at some of Parker 's NBA games . Parker was seen with his wife at Euro 2008 during one of France 's matches .
In 2012 , Parker and his brothers opened a nightclub , Nueve Lounge , in San Antonio . However , the business closed down within a year .
= = = Nightclub injury = = =
Parker was injured while present at the W.I.P nightclub in the SoHo district of New York City when a brawl broke out between Chris Brown and Drake . Parker filed a $ 20 million suit against the night club . Parker risked missing the 2012 Summer Olympics after a piece of glass thrown in the fight deeply penetrated his eye , requiring surgery to remove . However , on 6 July 2012 , he was cleared to participate .
= = = Movies and television = = =
In 2008 , Tony Parker co @-@ directed with Jean @-@ Marie Antonini a 1 @-@ hour film , 9 - Un chiffre , un homme ( meaning 9 , a number , a man ) . The biographical documentary film narrated by Benoît Allemane was produced by Parker . Celebrities featured included basketball players Kobe Bryant , Tim Duncan , Sean Elliott , Magic Johnson , Michael Jordan , Steve Nash , and David Robinson , as well as footballers Thierry Henry and Zinédine Zidane , judo player David Douillet , and musician and DJ Cut Killer , as well as Parker and Eva Longoria .
Parker also appeared in the 2008 French film Asterix at the Olympic Games as Tonus Parker , and he has been given token roles in various TV series like En aparté ( 2005 ) , in addition to the French series On n 'est pas couché ( 2011 ) . He also played himself in the short film The Angels ( 2011 ) , directed by Stéphane Marelli .
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= The X @-@ Files ( season 5 ) =
The fifth season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files commenced airing on the Fox network in the United States on November 2 , 1997 , concluding on the same channel on May 17 , 1998 , and contained 20 episodes . The season was the last in Vancouver , Canada ; subsequent episodes would be shot in Los Angeles , California . In addition , this was the first season of the show where the course of the story was planned , due to the 1998 The X @-@ Files feature film being filmed before it , but scheduled to be released after it aired .
The fifth season of the series focused heavily on FBI federal agents Fox Mulder 's ( David Duchovny ) loss of faith in the existence of extraterrestrials and his partner , Dana Scully 's ( Gillian Anderson ) , resurgence of health following her bout with cancer . New characters were also introduced , including agents Jeffrey Spender ( Chris Owens ) and Diana Fowley ( Mimi Rogers ) and the psychic Gibson Praise ( Jeff Gulka ) . The finale , " The End " , led up to both the 1998 film and the sixth season premiere " The Beginning " .
Debuting with high viewing figures and ranking as the eleventh most watched television series during the 1997 – 98 television year in the United States , the season was a success , with figures averaging around 20 million viewers an episode . This made it the year 's highest @-@ rated Fox program as well as the highest rated season of The X @-@ Files to air . Critical reception from television critics was generally positive .
= = Plot overview = =
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . At the end of fourth season , Scully is dying of cancer . Mulder is convinced that her condition is a result of her earlier abduction , and is prepared to make a deal with the Syndicate to find a cure . While being pursued by an assassin responsible for a hoax alien corpse discovered on a mountaintop , Mulder fakes his own suicide , mutilating the assassin 's face to provide a decoy body . In the fifth season opener " Redux " , he uses the distraction to infiltrate The Pentagon to find a cure for Scully 's cancer , while Scully is able to uncover and reveal a Syndicate connection within the FBI . Due to the information he learns from Michael Kritschgau ( John Finn ) , Mulder loses his belief in extraterrestrials .
Later , as a rebel alien race secretly attacks several groups of former alien abductees , the agents meet Cassandra Spender ( Veronica Cartwright ) , a woman who claims to be a multiple abductee and wants to deliver a positive message about aliens . Eventually , Mulder has Scully put under hypnosis to learn the truth about her abduction after Cassandra goes missing and her son , Jeffrey Spender ( Chris Owens ) , angrily attempts to push his way up in the FBI . The Syndicate , meanwhile , quicken their tests for the black oil vaccine , sacrificing their own to do so . Later , the assassination of a chess grandmaster leads Mulder and Scully into an investigation that they soon discover strikes at the heart of the X @-@ Files ; they learn that the real target was a telepathic boy named Gibson Praise ( Jeff Gulka ) .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Due to the pending release of The X @-@ Files feature film , this was the first season where the course of the season was planned in advance , as it had to set up for the film . Originally , the season was supposed to be the show 's last . In this manner , the finale was originally supposed to have segued the television series into a movie franchise . David Duchovny explained , " we were saying , ' Okay , we 're going to do five . We 'll get out of here at five . ' And then five came around , and no one was going anywhere . " The series proved to be so lucrative for Fox that two additional seasons were ordered . Thus , the season was created in a way to segue into the 1998 film , as well as the sixth season premiere , " The Beginning " .
= = = Filming = = =
Due to the necessity of filming reshoots for the upcoming movie , both Gillian Anderson and David Duchovny are absent in places throughout the season . For instance , the episodes " Unusual Suspects " and " Travelers " — both of which being flashback episodes — do not feature Anderson 's character Dana Scully at all . In fact , the former was written entirely as a stop @-@ gap episode when the show 's producers were forced to start production of the fifth season in the last week of August in Vancouver , but still needed series stars Duchovny and Anderson for the filming of The X @-@ Files movie in Los Angeles . The producers decided to create an episode dedicated to The Lone Gunmen , and writing duties were assigned to Vince Gilligan . Other episodes such as " Chinga " and " Christmas Carol " feature minimal appearances by Duchovny 's character Fox Mulder .
The season 's fifth episode , " The Post @-@ Modern Prometheus " , written and directed by Carter , was filmed entirely in black @-@ and @-@ white — in homage to James Whale 's 1931 film version of Frankenstein . The director of photography , Joel Ransom , had to spend longer than usual lighting each scene because of the grayscale . The stormy skies in the episode , added to emulate the atmosphere of old Frankenstein movies , were a visual effect . Carter also used a wide @-@ angle camera lens throughout the episode , which forced the actors to act directly to the camera , rather than to each other . According to Carter , it also enabled him to give scenes in the episode a more surreal staging than was usual for the show .
This season finale , " The End " , was the last episode of the series to be filmed in Vancouver , Canada prior to production moving to Los Angeles , although the second film in the franchise , The X @-@ Files : I Want to Believe , released in 2008 , was once more filmed in Vancouver . The move was influenced in part by Duchovny , who after five years of filming wanted to be closer to his wife . The audience at the chess match was made up of local fans as a " thank you " to the city for hosting the production during its first five years . The chess match was filmed at Rogers Arena — then known as GM Place — the home of the Vancouver Canucks as well as the Vancouver Grizzlies at the time . While the producers expected five thousand people to show up , twelve thousand appeared . Instructions were given to the crowd by director R. W. Goodwin using giant video screens attached to the scoreboard . During breaks between shooting concession stands , music and videos were made available to the attendees . Actors Duchovny and Anderson also answered questions for the audience and over $ 20 @,@ 000 worth of equipment was raffled off . Series creator Chris Carter directed the second unit filming for the episode in order to be with the show 's Canadian crew members .
= = = Crew = = =
Carter served as executive producer and showrunner and wrote seven episodes . Frank Spotnitz and John Shiban were both promoted to co @-@ executive producer and wrote seven and five episodes , respectively . Vince Gilligan was promoted to supervising producer and contributed six scripts . Tim Minear joined the series for his only season on the series as an executive story editor and wrote two episodes . Writing team Billy Brown and Dan Angel joined the series as story editors for this season only and provided the story for one episode . Writing team Jessica Scott and Mike Wollaeger wrote one freelance episode . Special guest writers for this season included author Stephen King , who co @-@ wrote one episode with creator Chris Carter , and cyberpunk novelists William Gibson and Tom Maddox , who wrote their first of two episodes for the series . Other producers included producer Joseph Patrick Finn , producer Paul Rabwin , and co @-@ producer Lori Jo Nemhauser who previously served as post @-@ production supervisor .
Producing @-@ director Kim Manners directed the most episodes of the season , directing seven . Producer Rob Bowman , executive producer R. W. Goodwin , and series creator Chris Carter , each directed two episodes . The rest of the episodes were directed by Brett Dowler , Peter Markle , Daniel Sackheim , Ralph Hemecker , Cliff Bole , William A. Graham and Allen Coulter , who each directed one episode .
= = Cast = =
= = = Main cast = = =
David Duchovny as Special Agent Fox Mulder ( 20 episodes )
Gillian Anderson as Special Agent Dana Scully ( 18 episodes ) a
a ^ She does not appear in " Unusual Suspects " or " Travelers " .
= = = Recurring cast = = =
= = = = Also starring = = = =
Mitch Pileggi as Deputy Director Walter Skinner ( 8 episodes )
William B. Davis as Cigarette Smoking Man ( 4 episodes )
Nicholas Lea as Alex Krycek ( 3 episodes )
= = = = Guest starring = = = =
= = Episodes = =
Episodes marked with a double dagger ( ) are episodes in the series ' Alien Mythology arc .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The fifth season of The X @-@ Files debuted with " Redux I " on November 2 , 1997 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 16 @.@ 1 , with a 22 share , meaning that roughly 16 @.@ 1 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 22 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . The episode was viewed by 27 @.@ 34 million people , a marked increase from the fourth season 's finale , " Gethsemane " , which was viewed by 19 @.@ 85 million viewers . " Redux I " also marked a drastic increase from the fourth season debut , " Herrenvolk " , which garnered 21 @.@ 11 million viewers . As the season continued , however , ratings began to drop slightly , stabilizing around approximately 20 million viewers @-@ per @-@ episode . The season hit a low with the seventeenth episode , " All Souls " , which was viewed by 13 @.@ 44 million viewers . The season finale , " The End " , earned a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 9 , with an 18 share , and was viewed by 18 @.@ 76 viewers , marking a 31 @.@ 4 percent drop in viewers when compared to the season premiere , and a 5 @.@ 5 percent drop in viewers when compared to the previous season finale . The season ranked as the eleventh most watched television series during the 1997 – 98 year , with an average of 19 @.@ 8 million viewers . This made it the highest @-@ rated season of The X @-@ Files to air as well as the highest rated Fox program for the 1997 – 98 season .
= = = Reviews = = =
Michael Sauter of Entertainment Weekly gave the season an " A – " , writing that it " proves the show was — even then — still at its creative peak ( if only for another year or so ) and full of surprises " . He praised the new additions to the series ' mythology and concluded that " many stand @-@ alone episodes now look like classics " . Francis Dass , writing for the New Straits Times , noted that the season was " very interesting " and possessed " some [ ... ] truly inspiring and hilarious " episodes . " Not all seasonal reviews were glowing . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique called the season " a mixed bag of episodes " .
The episodes themselves received varied responses from critics . Several were culled out as highlights of the series . " The Post @-@ Modern Prometheus " was heralded as a classic by several reviewers and was called the finest stand @-@ alone episode produced by the series by another . The episode " Bad Blood " was praised by critics for its mix of horror and comedy . Dass called the episode " an absolute gem " and " the most hilarious X @-@ Files episode I have ever seen . " The episode has also appeared on various " Best @-@ Of " lists of The X @-@ Files . Other episodes fared worse . " Schizogeny " was derided by critics : The A.V. Club reviewer Todd VanDerWerff noted that the episode " might be the very worst episode of The X @-@ Files " " Chinga " , written by Stephen King , was criticized for having a poor story . Vitaris called the entry " a major disappointment " and wrote that it " isn 't scary in the least " .
= = = Accolades = = =
The fifth season earned the series a record of sixteen Primetime Emmy Award nominations , the most a single season of The X @-@ Files received . It won two of the awards it was nominated for – Outstanding Art Direction for a Series for " The Post @-@ Modern Prometheus " and Outstanding Single Camera Picture Editing for a Series for " Kill Switch " . The series received its fourth consecutive nomination for Outstanding Drama Series . David Duchovny received his second consecutive nomination for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series , while Gillian Anderson received her third nomination for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series , which she won the previous year . Lili Taylor and Veronica Cartwright both received nominations for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series . The episode " The Post @-@ Modern Prometheus " received multiple nominations , with the exception of its single win , it was also nominated for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series ( Chris Carter ) , Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series ( Chris Carter ) , Outstanding Cinematography for a Series ( Joel Ransom ) , Outstanding Music Composition for a Series ( Mark Snow ) , Outstanding Single Camera Picture Editing for a Series ( Lynne Willingham ) , and Outstanding Makeup for a Series . Other nominations were for Outstanding Single Camera Picture Editing for a Series for " Mind 's Eye " , and Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series and Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Drama Series for " The Red and the Black " . The series also won its third and final Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Drama , while Gillian Anderson and David Duchovny received nominations in the television series drama acting categories .
= = DVD release = =
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= Hurricane Emily ( 1993 ) =
Hurricane Emily in 1993 caused record flooding in the Outer Banks of North Carolina while remaining just offshore . The fifth named storm and first hurricane of the year 's hurricane season , Emily developed from a tropical wave northeast of the Lesser Antilles on August 22 . It moved northwestward and strengthened into a tropical storm on August 25 , after becoming nearly stationary southeast of Bermuda . Emily then curved to the southwest but quickly resumed its northwest trajectory while strengthening into a hurricane . Late on August 31 , the hurricane reached peak winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) on its approach to North Carolina . Although part of the eye passed over Hatteras Island in the Outer Banks , its absolute center remained 23 mi ( 37 km / h ) offshore . Gradually weakening , the hurricane swerved away from the coast toward the northeast and later east . Emily stalled again , this time northeast of Bermuda , and dissipated on September 6 to the southeast of Newfoundland .
The threat of Emily prompted hurricane warnings for much of the North Carolina coast and northward through Delaware . A mandatory evacuation for Ocracoke and Hatteras islands displaced 160 @,@ 000 people during the busy Labor Day weekend ; the loss in tourism revenue amounted to $ 10 million ( 1993 USD ) . About 1 @,@ 600 residents on these islands rode out the storm in their homes , and emergency officials stayed behind . Most of the evacuees went to hotels or stayed with friends or relatives , causing an increase in business across southeastern Virginia , where effects were minimal . Due to uncertainty in forecasting Emily 's path , there were also evacuations from the coasts of Virginia , Maryland , Delaware , and Fire Island in New York .
While bypassing the Outer Banks , Emily produced strong winds that coincided with high tides during a full moon , causing severe flooding along the Pamlico Sound . In Buxton , the floods left behind water marks as high as 10 @.@ 54 ft ( 3 @.@ 21 m ) , and the entire villages of Avon and Hatteras were inundated . The storm downed thousands of trees and wrecked 553 homes — 168 of which completely destroyed — leaving a quarter of the Cape Hatteras population homeless . Structural damage in North Carolina was estimated at $ 35 million . Along the coasts of North Carolina and Virginia , three swimmers drowned as a result of Emily .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Emily originated from an African tropical wave that passed through the Cape Verde Islands on August 17 , 1993 . The wave traversed the tropical Atlantic and developed a closed cyclonic circulation five days later about 800 miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) east @-@ northeast of Puerto Rico , when the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) classified it as a tropical depression . Moving northwestward , the depression remained poorly organized for several days , with an ill @-@ defined circulation center and sporadic thunderstorms , in part due to unfavorable wind shear from an upper @-@ level low to its north . On August 25 , the depression became nearly stationary in response to weakening steering currents . As the upper environment turned less hostile to development , a reconnaissance aircraft found unusually high sustained winds — an indication that the cyclone had quickly strengthened into a strong tropical storm . The NHC named the storm Emily and upgraded it to a hurricane the following day , based on reports of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) winds from a second reconnaissance mission .
Upon becoming a hurricane , Emily was centered roughly 1 @,@ 000 mi ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) east of the Florida peninsula , passing well south of Bermuda . A ridge of high pressure began to mature to its north , forcing the hurricane westward on August 27 . Emily 's winds vacillated between tropical storm and hurricane force over the course of the day , although the cyclone resumed its strengthening by August 28 upon developing favorable upper @-@ level outflow . Traversing warm sea surface temperatures , the hurricane continued to improve in appearance on satellite images , and the barometric pressure within its eye steadily decreased . Emily retraced toward the northwest on August 29 , when a shortwave trough eroded the southern periphery of the contiguous ridge . The NHC expressed uncertainty in forecasting Emily 's track , stating that South Carolina , North Carolina , and Mid @-@ Atlantic states were at risk of a direct hit from the hurricane . As high pressure re @-@ established itself off the North Carolina coast , Emily briefly turned west @-@ northwestward on August 30 before initiating a prolonged curve toward the north . By that time , the NHC forecast Emily to remain offshore , though one tropical cyclone forecast model projected that the hurricane would move inland .
Early on August 31 , a reconnaissance flight indicated that Emily had become a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson scale , and further intensification was expected because of warm waters . Later that day , reconnaissance reported that Emily had achieved a peak intensity of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , a Category 3 major hurricane ; the aircraft also observed flight @-@ level winds of 152 mph ( 245 km / h ) . At its peak , the center of the hurricane was located 23 mi ( 37 km ) east of Hatteras Island while turning northward . Its eye measured 45 mi ( 75 km ) in diameter , and a portion moved over Hatteras and the Pamlico Sound , constituting a direct hit but not a landfall . After affecting the Outer Banks , Emily continued around the large high @-@ pressure area , turning northeastward into an area with cooler ocean temperatures . The eye nonetheless remained distinct , and Emily maintained much of its intensity through September 2 . Later that day , the hurricane turned sharply eastward in response to a trough nearby . Wind shear over the region increased , weakening Emily as its eye feature quickly dissipated . Emily turned to the southeast and diminished to a tropical storm on September 3 , about 500 mi ( 800 km ) northeast of Bermuda , with a significant deterioration of the convection . Once again becoming nearly stationary , Emily further weakened to a tropical depression late on September 4 , after only a small area of thunderstorms remained near the center . It accelerated toward the northeast and became extratropical on September 6 , dissipating shortly thereafter .
= = Preparations = =
The NHC forecasts for Emily were generally accurate . On August 29 , two days before the storm 's closest approach , the NHC issued a hurricane watch from Cape Romain , South Carolina , to Fenwick Island , Delaware , including the Albemarle and Pamlico sounds of North Carolina as well as the Chesapeake Bay south of the Patuxent River . The next day , the watch was discontinued south of Little River , South Carolina . A hurricane warning was issued from Bogue Inlet to the border of North Carolina and Virginia on August 30 , and was extended a day later to Cape Henlopen , Delaware . The watches and warnings were canceled as Emily turned out to sea .
During the week when Emily approached shore , the North Carolina government was scheduled to have a two @-@ day emergency management exercise involving a hurricane strike ; the storm caused the exercise to be postponed . On August 29 , a voluntary evacuation was issued for the Outer Banks , and within 36 hours of the storm 's approach , a mandatory evacuation was issued for Ocracoke and Hatteras Island . A total of 160 @,@ 000 people ( mostly tourists ) evacuated from the Outer Banks , representing about 90 % of the population there . The evacuation was completed within 12 hours , expedited by highway patrol and making U.S. Route 158 and the Wright Memorial Bridge only one direction , away from the coast . About 1 @,@ 000 residents on Hatteras Island and another 600 on Ocracoke rode out the storm in their homes . The United States Coast Guard evacuated personnel to the mainland , leaving behind a skeleton crew to maintain their facilities . The National Park Service closed the campground on Ocracoke two days before the storm . Several towns in southeastern North Carolina were also evacuated , and schools closed across the region .
Because of the uncertainty in forecasting when and if Emily would make its northeast turn , Virginia Governor Douglas Wilder declared a state of emergency and put the National Guard on alert . In Virginia Beach , residents of seaside homes and low @-@ lying areas were recommended to evacuate , while a mandatory evacuation was ordered for Tangier Island in the Chesapeake Bay . Residents in mobile homes and on campgrounds were also advised to seek shelter . At least 750 people left their homes , 711 of whom resided in storm shelters . The Norfolk International Airport was closed for 13 hours , and rail service was suspended . To the north , officials in Ocean City , Maryland , declared a phase @-@ one emergency ahead of the storm ; beaches were closed , and tourists were recommended to leave . About 100 @,@ 000 people evacuated from the coast of Maryland ; 3 @,@ 600 stayed in storm shelters . In Delaware , 892 people used storm shelters after voluntarily evacuating . Beaches in New Jersey closed due to threatening waves . About 20 @,@ 000 people also evacuated from Fire Island , New York . Across the Atlantic coast , 33 emergency shelters were opened in response to Emily , though most evacuees instead relied on hotels or the homes of friends and relatives to ride out the storm .
The Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) assisted in coordinating preparations for Emily . The United States Department of Defense sent power equipment , previously used during the Great Flood of 1993 , to Fort Bragg , while the United States Department of Agriculture stockpiled food in risk zones . Power companies deliberately shut off the power in the Outer Banks to reduce damage to the system and mitigate the risk of electrocutions . At Naval Station Norfolk , 28 ships sailed out to sea to ride out the storm ; aircraft were evacuated , and nonessential personnel were sent home . The North Carolina government announced ahead of the storm that it would not create a State Disaster Fund , instead relying on private relief organizations such as the American Red Cross and the Salvation Army . The state 's park service pre @-@ positioned 60 members with chainsaws to help clear downed trees . Because Emily hit during the busy Labor Day weekend , the tourism industry suffered about $ 10 million in business losses . Many of the evacuees relocated to southeastern Virginia , which saw greatly increased business during the weekend .
= = Impact = =
= = = North Carolina = = =
As Emily approached the Outer Banks of North Carolina , Diamond Shoal Light off Cape Hatteras recorded 2 @-@ minute sustained winds of 99 mph ( 159 km / h ) , along with gusts of 147 mph ( 237 km / h ) . Closer to shore , surface winds reached 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) in the Pamlico Sound . The National Weather Service in Buxton reported sustained winds of 60 mph ( 96 km / h ) , with gusts to 98 mph ( 158 km / h ) , before the wind recording instrument failed due to water intrusion . A reliable but unofficial wind station at a commercial building reported a gust of 107 mph ( 172 km / h ) . These high winds lasted for several hours due to the storm 's slow movement . There were two possible tornadoes in the Outer Banks region . On the south side of Hatteras Island , the storm coincided with high tides , producing a peak storm surge of 10 @.@ 2 ft ( 3 @.@ 1 m ) in Buxton . Large waves caused moderate beach erosion , comparable to that of a winter storm . The heaviest rainfall related to Emily occurred over the Outer Banks , where a peak total of 7 @.@ 51 in ( 191 mm ) was recorded in Buxton . Minimal rain fell farther inland , with only 1 @.@ 00 in ( 25 mm ) reported at Gum Neck in mainland Tyrrell County .
Overall damage from the storm was lighter than expected , largely confined to the barrier islands of Dare and Hyde counties . Severe flooding from the storm affected a 17 mi ( 27 km ) stretch of the Hatteras Island . Coinciding with high tides during a full moon , the hurricane 's winds pushed water from the Pamlico Sound to the south , lowering levels along the mainland and inundating the barrier islands ; surge flooding was minor on the ocean side . At Frisco and Hatteras , water levels along the Pamlico Sound reached 8 @.@ 5 ft ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) above normal — their highest in the 20th century , surpassing those in Hurricane Gloria eight years prior . These water levels may have been the highest in the region since the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane . In Buxton , the waters rose 3 to 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 9 to 1 m ) per hour at one point , leaving behind flood marks as high as 10 @.@ 54 ft ( 3 @.@ 21 m ) . The entire villages of Avon and Hatteras were inundated . Only the highest dunes along the Cape Hatteras National Seashore remained dry , and a section of dunes just north of Buxton was nearly breached . The waters — 1 to 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 3 to 0 @.@ 6 m ) higher than the predicted 100 @-@ year flood — broke through windows and entered houses ; some residents who did not exit their homes had to ride out the storm in their attics to escape the flooding . Officials at the Dare County Emergency Operations Center evacuated due to intrusion of floodwaters . The Cape Hatteras National Weather Service office was flooded for the first time since its inception in 1957 , and sustained damage to its rain chart and an antenna . Many boats in marinas were wrecked , and hundreds of cars floated away from parking lots or streets ; flooded police cars had their emergency lights activated after the wires were damaged . Farther south , impact from the storm was limited on Ocracoke Island .
Emily 's winds destroyed several roofs and knocked down thousands of trees and power lines , with many signs and sheds damaged . All towns south of the Bonner Bridge were without power , affecting at least 1 @,@ 500 people , and Buxton lost water supply after the main water line was damaged . The combination of strong winds and floods left 553 homes uninhabitable in the Outer Banks , with 168 houses completely destroyed , including three that were washed away . Six of the destroyed homes were owned by the Coast Guard . The heaviest damage was largely in older homes or structures not up to code . About 25 % of the Hatteras population was left homeless . The Cape Hatteras School sustained about $ 3 @.@ 1 million in damage , after flooding 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) deep destroyed computers and textbooks . Tidal floods , sand , and debris forced authorities to close Highway 12 . Traffic lights along the route were damaged , and downed trees blocked the road in two areas . Sinkholes , some the size of three cars , developed along the route . Throughout North Carolina , damage from the storm was estimated at $ 35 million , mostly on Hatteras Island and chiefly to the south of Avon . Rough surf killed two people in Nags Head , despite the beach being closed to swimming , and one person suffered injuries while escaping a flooded home .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Outside of North Carolina , Emily produced gusts of 37 mph ( 59 km ) at the Chesapeake Bay Bridge – Tunnel . To the north of the storm , Ocean City , Maryland , measured 2 @.@ 80 in ( 71 mm ) of precipitation . Above @-@ normal tides were reported as far south as Charleston , South Carolina ; high tides also spread farther north , with a storm surge of 1 @.@ 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 37 m ) at the Chesapeake Bay Bridge – Tunnel and 0 @.@ 6 ft ( 0 @.@ 18 m ) in Lewes , Delaware .
High waves caused beach erosion northward through Virginia . At Virginia Beach , the waves led to minor flooding along the Sandbridge section ; rough surf and a strong undertow drowned one swimmer there . The storm triggered statewide power outages that affected about 5 @,@ 000 residents , as well as the Hampton Roads Bridge – Tunnel . In Newport News , lightning set a roof on fire in the Lee Hall section of the city . Emily 's light rains in the area were not enough to break a prolonged drought that plagued Virginia . Rough seas and high tides later caused coastal flooding along Fire Island in New York .
= = Aftermath = =
As Emily 's winds eased over land , various assessment teams left Fort Bragg , North Carolina , to determine the extent of damage . FEMA informed the North Carolina congressional delegation about the storm 's threat to their constituents . The agency later received compliments for their timely preparations for storm @-@ related operations . All airports on the Outer Banks were reopened by September 1 . In response to the extensive scale of the power outages , power companies flew a helicopter over the region to assess the damage . The power was expected to be out for two weeks . Six emergency vehicles were sent to Dare County to provide drinking water .
On September 3 , Governor Jim Hunt declared a state of disaster for North Carolina , while President Bill Clinton declared Dare County a disaster area a week later . This allowed residents there to apply for federal assistance , as well as local governments to request aid to rebuild public buildings . Operating out of Avon , FEMA distributed about $ 1 million in housing assistance to 444 people and provided $ 400 @,@ 000 in individual grants to 153 applicants . The Small Business Administration received 812 applications for small business loans .
Shelters closed by September 1 and residents returned to their homes , although Hatteras Island remained off @-@ limits to everyone but emergency workers for several days . Unemployment across Hatteras rose in the wake of the damage to local businesses , and many restaurants lost product when their refrigerators failed during the power outages . Residents piled debris from their damaged homes on roads , primarily Highway 12 , and workers responded by clearing the debris . The highway was speedily reopened and repaired at a cost of around $ 1 million . Within two weeks of the storm , businesses resumed as cleaning work was under way , and the island was reopened to tourists . Clean @-@ up operations in the region lasted weeks to months . In the three months after the storm , saltwater intrusion into the Cape Hatteras water supply boosted chlorine levels from 40 milligrams ( 0 @.@ 0014 ounces ) to 280 milligrams ( 0 @.@ 01 ounces ) per liter ; it took another three months for the chlorine to decrease to normal concentrations . Around 50 homeowners affected by Emily raised their houses to prevent a recurrence , partially funded by flood insurance payments .
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= Romanus ( bishop of Rochester ) =
Romanus ( died before 627 ) was the second bishop of Rochester and presumably was a member of the Gregorian mission sent to Kent to Christianize the Anglo @-@ Saxons from their native Anglo @-@ Saxon paganism . Romanus was consecrated bishop around 624 and died before 627 by drowning . Little is known of his life beyond these facts .
= = Career = =
Presumably Romanus came to England with Augustine of Canterbury 's mission to Kent , He would have arrived either in 597 with the first group of missionaries , or in 601 with the second group . He was consecrated as bishop by his predecessor Justus in 624 , after Justus became Archbishop of Canterbury . He was the second bishop at Rochester .
Romanus died before 627 , probably about 625 . He drowned in the Mediterranean Sea off Italy while on a mission to Rome for Justus . Presumably this happened before Justus ' death in 627 . He was certainly dead by 633 , when Paulinus of York became bishop at Rochester after fleeing Northumbria .
Nothing else is known of Romanus ' life beyond these facts . The medieval writer Bede is the main source of information , as Romanus is mentioned twice in the Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum ; the first time in connection with his consecration , where Bede says that Justus " consecrated Romanus as Bishop of Rochester in his place " . The second mention concerns Romanus ' death after Paulinus had left Northumbria . Bede says that " [ a ] t this time , the church of Rochester was in great need of a pastor , since Romanus its bishop who had been sent by Archbishop Justus to Pope Honorius I as his representative , had been drowned at sea off Italy . " Romanus is further mentioned in both the Winchester Manuscript ( Version A ) and the Peterborough Manuscript ( Version E ) of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , but the reference is not likely to be contemporary and probably draws on Bede for its information .
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= William III of England =
William III ( Dutch : Willem III ; 4 November 1650 – 8 March 1702 ) was sovereign Prince of Orange from birth , Stadtholder of Holland , Zeeland , Utrecht , Gelderland , and Overijssel in the Dutch Republic from 1672 , and King of England , Ireland , and Scotland from 1689 until his death . It is a coincidence that his regnal number ( III ) was the same for both Orange and England . As King of Scotland , he is known as William II . He is informally known by sections of the population in Northern Ireland and Scotland as " King Billy " .
William inherited the principality of Orange from his father , William II , who died a week before William 's birth . His mother Mary , Princess Royal , was the daughter of King Charles I of England . In 1677 , he married his fifteen @-@ year @-@ old first cousin , Mary , the daughter of his maternal uncle James , Duke of York .
A Protestant , William participated in several wars against the powerful Catholic king of France , Louis XIV , in coalition with Protestant and Catholic powers in Europe . Many Protestants heralded him as a champion of their faith . In 1685 , his Catholic father @-@ in @-@ law , James , became king of England , Ireland and Scotland . James 's reign was unpopular with the Protestant majority in Britain . William , supported by a group of influential British political and religious leaders , invaded England in what became known as the " Glorious Revolution " . On 5 November 1688 , he landed at the southern English port of Brixham . James was deposed and William and Mary became joint sovereigns in his place . They reigned together until her death on 28 December 1694 , after which William ruled as sole monarch .
William 's reputation as a strong Protestant enabled him to take the British crowns when many were fearful of a revival of Catholicism under James . William 's victory at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690 is still commemorated by the Orange Order . His reign in Britain marked the beginning of the transition from the personal rule of the Stuarts to the more Parliament @-@ centred rule of the House of Hanover .
= = Early life = =
= = = Birth and family = = =
William III was born in The Hague in the Dutch Republic on 4 November 1650 . Baptised William Henry , he was the only child of stadtholder William II , Prince of Orange , and Mary , Princess Royal . Mary was the eldest daughter of King Charles I of England , Scotland and Ireland , and sister of King Charles II and King James II .
Eight days before William was born , his father died of smallpox ; thus William was the Sovereign Prince of Orange from the moment of his birth . Immediately , a conflict ensued between his mother the Princess Royal and William II 's mother , Amalia of Solms @-@ Braunfels , over the name to be given to the infant . Mary wanted to name him Charles after her brother , but her mother @-@ in @-@ law insisted on giving him the name William or Willem to bolster his prospects of becoming stadtholder . William II had appointed his wife as his son 's guardian in his will ; however , the document remained unsigned at William II 's death and was void . On 13 August 1651 , the Hoge Raad van Holland en Zeeland ( Supreme Court ) ruled that guardianship would be shared between his mother , his paternal grandmother and Frederick William , the Elector of Brandenburg , whose wife , Louise Henriette , was William II 's eldest sister .
= = = Childhood and education = = =
William 's mother showed little personal interest in her son , sometimes being absent for years , and had always deliberately kept herself apart from Dutch society . William 's education was first laid in the hands of several Dutch governesses , some of English descent , including Walburg Howard and the Scottish noblewoman , Lady Anna Mackenzie . From April 1656 , the prince received daily instruction in the Reformed religion from the Calvinist preacher Cornelis Trigland , a follower of the Contra @-@ Remonstrant theologian Gisbertus Voetius . The ideal education for William was described in Discours sur la nourriture de S. H. Monseigneur le Prince d 'Orange , a short treatise , perhaps by one of William 's tutors , Constantijn Huygens . In these lessons , the prince was taught that he was predestined to become an instrument of Divine Providence , fulfilling the historical destiny of the House of Orange .
From early 1659 , William spent seven years at the University of Leiden for a formal education , under the guidance of ethics professor Hendrik Bornius ( though never officially enrolling as a student ) . While residing in the Prinsenhof at Delft , William had a small personal retinue including Hans Willem Bentinck , and a new governor , Frederick Nassau de Zuylenstein , who ( as an illegitimate son of stadtholder Frederick Henry of Orange ) was his paternal uncle .
Grand Pensionary Johan de Witt and his uncle Cornelis de Graeff pushed the States of Holland to take charge of William 's education and ensure that he would acquire the skills to serve in a future — though undetermined — state function ; the States acted on 25 September 1660 . This first involvement of the authorities did not last long . On 23 December 1660 , when William was 10 years old , his mother died of smallpox at Whitehall Palace , London , while visiting her brother King Charles II . In her will , Mary requested that Charles look after William 's interests , and Charles now demanded the States of Holland end their interference . To appease Charles , they complied on 30 September 1661 . That year , Zuylenstein began to work for Charles and induced William to write letters to his uncle asking him to help William become stadtholder someday . After his mother 's death , William 's education and guardianship became a point of contention between his dynasty 's supporters and the advocates of a more republican Netherlands .
The Dutch authorities did their best at first to ignore these intrigues , but in the Second Anglo @-@ Dutch War one of Charles 's peace conditions was the improvement of the position of his nephew . As a countermeasure in 1666 , when William was 16 , the States officially made him a ward of the government , or a " Child of State " . All pro @-@ English courtiers , including Zuylenstein , were removed from William 's company . William begged de Witt to allow Zuylenstein to stay , but he refused . De Witt , the leading politician of the Republic , took William 's education into his own hands , instructing him weekly in state matters — and joining him in a regular game of real tennis .
= = Early offices = =
= = = Exclusion from stadtholdership = = =
After the death of William 's father , most provinces had left the office of stadtholder vacant . At the demand of Oliver Cromwell , the Treaty of Westminster , which ended the First Anglo @-@ Dutch War , had a secret annexe that required the Act of Seclusion , which forbade the province of Holland from appointing a member of the House of Orange as stadtholder . After the English Restoration , the Act of Seclusion , which had not remained a secret for very long , was declared void as the English Commonwealth ( with which the treaty had been concluded ) no longer existed . In 1660 , Mary and Amalia tried to persuade several provincial States to designate William as their future stadtholder , but they all initially refused .
In 1667 , as William III approached the age of 18 , the Orangist party again attempted to bring him to power by securing for him the offices of stadtholder and Captain @-@ General . To prevent the restoration of the influence of the House of Orange , de Witt , the leader of the States Party , allowed the pensionary of Haarlem , Gaspar Fagel , to induce the States of Holland to issue the Perpetual Edict . The Edict declared that the Captain @-@ General or Admiral @-@ General of the Netherlands could not serve as stadtholder in any province . Even so , William 's supporters sought ways to enhance his prestige and , on 19 September 1668 , the States of Zeeland appointed him as First Noble . To receive this honour , William had to escape the attention of his state tutors and travel secretly to Middelburg . A month later , Amalia allowed William to manage his own household and declared him to be of majority age .
The province of Holland , the center of anti @-@ Orangism , abolished the office of stadtholder and four other provinces followed suit in March 1670 , establishing the so @-@ called " Harmony " . De Witt demanded an oath from each Holland regent ( city council member ) to uphold the Edict ; all but one complied . William saw all this as a defeat , but the arrangement was a compromise : de Witt would have preferred to ignore the prince completely , but now his eventual rise to the office of supreme army commander was implicit . De Witt further conceded that William would be admitted as a member of the Raad van State , the Council of State , then the generality organ administering the defence budget . William was introduced to the council on 31 May 1670 with full voting rights , despite de Witt 's attempts to limit his role to that of an advisor .
= = = Conflict with republicans = = =
In November 1670 , William obtained permission to travel to England to urge Charles to pay back at least a part of the 2 @,@ 797 @,@ 859 guilder debt the House of Stuart owed the House of Orange . Charles was unable to pay , but William agreed to reduce the amount owed to 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 guilders . Charles found his nephew to be a dedicated Calvinist and patriotic Dutchman , and reconsidered his desire to show him the Secret Treaty of Dover with France , directed at destroying the Dutch Republic and installing William as " sovereign " of a Dutch rump state . In addition to differing political outlooks , William found that his lifestyle differed from his uncles , Charles and James , who were more concerned with drinking , gambling , and cavorting with mistresses .
The following year , the Republic 's security deteriorated quickly as an Anglo @-@ French attack became imminent . In view of the threat , the States of Gelderland wanted William to be appointed Captain @-@ General of the Dutch States Army as soon as possible , despite his youth and inexperience . On 15 December 1671 , the States of Utrecht made this their official policy . On 19 January 1672 , the States of Holland made a counterproposal : to appoint William for just a single campaign . The prince refused this and on 25 February a compromise was reached : an appointment by the States General for one summer , followed by a permanent appointment on his 22nd birthday .
Meanwhile , William had written a secret letter to Charles in January 1672 asking his uncle to exploit the situation by exerting pressure on the States to appoint William stadtholder . In return , William would ally the Republic with England and serve Charles 's interests as much as his " honour and the loyalty due to this state " allowed . Charles took no action on the proposal , and continued his war plans with his French ally .
= = Becoming stadtholder = =
= = = " Disaster year " : 1672 = = =
For the Dutch Republic , 1672 proved calamitous . It became known as the Rampjaar ( " disaster year " ) , because in the Franco @-@ Dutch War and the Third Anglo @-@ Dutch War the Netherlands was invaded by France and its allies : England , Münster , and Cologne . Although the Anglo @-@ French fleet was disabled by the Battle of Solebay , in June the French army quickly overran the provinces of Gelderland and Utrecht . On 14 June , William withdrew with the remnants of his field army into Holland , where the States had ordered the flooding of the Dutch Water Line on 8 June . Louis XIV of France , believing the war was over , began negotiations to extract as large a sum of money from the Dutch as possible . The presence of a large French army in the heart of the Republic caused a general panic , and the people turned against de Witt and his allies .
On 4 July , the States of Holland appointed William stadtholder , and he took the oath five days later . The next day , a special envoy from Charles II , Lord Arlington , met with William in Nieuwerbrug and presented a proposal from Charles . In return for William 's capitulation to England and France , Charles would make William Sovereign Prince of Holland , instead of stadtholder ( a mere civil servant ) . When William refused , Arlington threatened that William would witness the end of the Republic 's existence . William answered famously : " There is one way to avoid this : to die defending it in the last ditch . " On 7 July , the inundations were complete and the further advance of the French army was effectively blocked . On 16 July , Zeeland offered the stadtholderate to William .
Johan de Witt had been unable to function as Grand Pensionary after being wounded by an attempt on his life on 21 June . On 15 August , William published a letter from Charles , in which the English king stated that he had made war because of the aggression of the de Witt faction . The people thus incited , de Witt and his brother , Cornelis , were murdered by an Orangist civil militia in The Hague on 20 August . Subsequently , William replaced many of the Dutch regents with his followers .
Though William 's complicity in the lynching has never been proved ( and some 19th @-@ century Dutch historians have made an effort to disprove that he was an accessory ) he thwarted attempts to prosecute the ringleaders , and even rewarded some , like Hendrik Verhoeff , with money , and others , like Johan van Banchem and Johan Kievit , with high offices . This damaged his reputation in the same fashion as his later actions at Glencoe .
William continued to fight against the invaders from England and France , allying himself with Spain and Brandenburg . In November 1672 , he took his army to Maastricht to threaten the French supply lines . By 1673 , the Dutch situation further improved . Although Louis took Maastricht and William 's attack against Charleroi failed , Lieutenant @-@ Admiral Michiel de Ruyter defeated the Anglo @-@ French fleet three times , forcing Charles to end England 's involvement by the Treaty of Westminster ; after 1673 , France slowly withdrew from Dutch territory ( with the exception of Maastricht ) , while making gains elsewhere .
Fagel now proposed to treat the liberated provinces of Utrecht , Gelderland and Overijssel as conquered territory ( Generality Lands ) , as punishment for their quick surrender to the enemy . William refused but obtained a special mandate from the States General to newly appoint all delegates in the States of these provinces . William 's followers in the States of Utrecht on 26 April 1674 appointed him hereditary stadtholder . On 30 January 1675 , the States of Gelderland offered him the titles of Duke of Guelders and Count of Zutphen . The negative reactions to this from Zeeland and the city of Amsterdam made William ultimately decide to decline these honours ; he was instead appointed stadtholder of Gelderland and Overijssel .
= = = Marriage = = =
During the war with France , William tried to improve his position by marrying , in 1677 , his first cousin Mary , elder surviving daughter of James , Duke of York , later James II of England ( James VII of Scotland ) . Mary was eleven years his junior and he anticipated resistance to a Stuart match from the Amsterdam merchants who had disliked his mother ( another Mary Stuart ) , but William believed that marrying Mary would increase his chances of succeeding to Charles 's kingdoms , and would draw England 's monarch away from his pro @-@ French policies . James was not inclined to consent , but Charles II pressured his brother to agree . Charles wanted to use the possibility of marriage to gain leverage in negotiations relating to the war , but William insisted that the two issues be decided separately . Charles relented , and Bishop Henry Compton married the couple on 4 November 1677 . Mary became pregnant soon after the marriage , but miscarried . After a further illness later in 1678 , she never conceived again .
Throughout William and Mary 's marriage , William had only one reputed mistress , Elizabeth Villiers , in contrast to the many mistresses his uncles openly kept .
= = = Peace with France , intrigue with England = = =
By 1678 , Louis sought peace with the Dutch Republic . Even so , tensions remained : William remained very suspicious of Louis , thinking that the French king desired " Universal Kingship " over Europe ; Louis described William as " my mortal enemy " and saw him as an obnoxious warmonger . France 's annexations in the Southern Netherlands and Germany ( the Réunion policy ) and the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 , caused a surge of Huguenot refugees to the Republic . This led William III to join various anti @-@ French alliances , such as the Association League , and ultimately the League of Augsburg ( an anti @-@ French coalition that also included the Holy Roman Empire , Sweden , Spain and several German states ) in 1686 .
After his marriage in November 1677 , William became a strong candidate for the English throne should his father @-@ in @-@ law ( and uncle ) James be excluded because of his Catholicism . During the crisis concerning the Exclusion Bill in 1680 , Charles at first invited William to come to England to bolster the king 's position against the exclusionists , then withdrew his invitation — after which Lord Sunderland also tried unsuccessfully to bring William over , but now to put pressure on Charles . Nevertheless , William secretly induced the States General to send Charles the " Insinuation " , a plea beseeching the king to prevent any Catholics from succeeding him , without explicitly naming James . After receiving indignant reactions from Charles and James , William denied any involvement .
In 1685 , when James II succeeded Charles , William at first attempted a conciliatory approach , at the same time trying not to offend the Protestants in England . William , ever looking for ways to diminish the power of France , hoped that James would join the League of Augsburg , but by 1687 it became clear that James would not join the anti @-@ French alliance . Relations worsened between William and James thereafter . In November , James 's second wife Mary of Modena was announced to be pregnant . That month , to gain the favour of English Protestants , William wrote an open letter to the English people in which he disapproved of James 's pro @-@ Roman Catholic policy of religious toleration . Seeing him as a friend , and often having maintained secret contacts with him for years , many English politicians began to urge an armed invasion of England .
= = Glorious Revolution = =
= = = Invasion of England = = =
William at first opposed the prospect of invasion , but most historians now agree that he began to assemble an expeditionary force in April 1688 , as it became increasingly clear that France would remain occupied by campaigns in Germany and Italy , and thus unable to mount an attack while William 's troops would be occupied in Britain . Believing that the English people would not react well to a foreign invader , he demanded in a letter to Rear @-@ Admiral Arthur Herbert that the most eminent English Protestants first invite him to invade . In June , James 's second wife , Mary of Modena , after a string of miscarriages , bore a son ( James Francis Edward Stuart ) , who displaced William 's Protestant wife , Mary , to become first in the line of succession and raised the prospect of an ongoing Catholic monarchy . Public anger also increased because of the trial of seven bishops who had publicly opposed James 's Declaration of Indulgence granting religious liberty to his subjects , a policy which appeared to threaten the establishment of the Anglican Church .
On 30 June 1688 — the same day the bishops were acquitted — a group of political figures , known afterward as the " Immortal Seven " , sent William a formal invitation . William 's intentions to invade were public knowledge by September 1688 . With a Dutch army , William landed at Brixham in southwest England on 5 November 1688 . He came ashore from the ship Brill , proclaiming " the liberties of England and the Protestant religion I will maintain " . William had come ashore with approximately 11 @,@ 000 @-@ foot and 4 @,@ 000 horse soldiers . James 's support began to dissolve almost immediately upon William 's arrival ; Protestant officers defected from the English army ( the most notable of whom was Lord Churchill of Eyemouth , James 's most able commander ) , and influential noblemen across the country declared their support for the invader .
James at first attempted to resist William , but saw that his efforts would prove futile . He sent representatives to negotiate with William , but secretly attempted to flee on 11 December , throwing the Great Seal into the Thames on his way . He was discovered and brought back to London by a group of fishermen . He was allowed to escape to France in a second attempt on 23 December . William permitted James to leave the country , not wanting to make him a martyr for the Roman Catholic cause ; it was in his interests for James to be perceived as having left the country of his own accord , rather than having been forced or frightened into fleeing . William is the last person to successfully invade England by force of arms .
= = = Proclaimed king = = =
William summoned a Convention Parliament in England , which met on 22 January 1689 , to discuss the appropriate course of action following James 's flight . William felt insecure about his position ; though his wife preceded him in the line of succession to the throne , he wished to reign as king in his own right , rather than as a mere consort . The only precedent for a joint monarchy in England dated from the 16th century , when Queen Mary I married Philip of Spain . Philip remained king only during his wife 's lifetime , and restrictions were placed on his power . William , on the other hand , demanded that he remain as king even after his wife 's death . When the majority of Tory Lords proposed to acclaim her as sole ruler , William threatened to leave the country immediately . Furthermore , Mary , remaining loyal to her husband , refused .
The House of Commons , with a Whig majority , quickly resolved that the throne was vacant , and that it was safer if the ruler was Protestant . There were more Tories in the House of Lords , which would not initially agree , but after William refused to be a regent or to agree to remain king only in his wife 's lifetime , there were negotiations between the two houses and the Lords agreed by a narrow majority that the throne was vacant . The Commons made William accept a Bill of Rights , and , on 13 February 1689 , Parliament passed the Declaration of Right , in which it deemed that James , by attempting to flee , had abdicated the government of the realm , thereby leaving the throne vacant .
The Crown was not offered to James 's infant son , who would have been the heir apparent under normal circumstances , but to William and Mary as joint sovereigns . It was , however , provided that " the sole and full exercise of the regal power be only in and executed by the said Prince of Orange in the names of the said Prince and Princess during their joint lives " .
William and Mary were crowned together at Westminster Abbey on 11 April 1689 by the Bishop of London , Henry Compton . Normally , the coronation is performed by the Archbishop of Canterbury , but the Archbishop at the time , William Sancroft , refused to recognise James 's removal .
William also summoned a Convention of the Estates of Scotland , which met on 14 March 1689 and sent a conciliatory letter , while James sent haughty uncompromising orders , swaying a majority in favour of William . On 11 April , the day of the English coronation , the Convention finally declared that James was no longer King of Scotland . William and Mary were offered the Scottish Crown ; they accepted on 11 May .
= = = Revolution settlement = = =
William encouraged the passage of the Toleration Act 1688 , which guaranteed religious toleration to certain Protestant nonconformists . It did not , however , extend toleration as far as he wished , still restricting the religious liberty of Roman Catholics , non @-@ trinitarians , and those of non @-@ Christian faiths . In December 1689 , one of the most important constitutional documents in English history , the Bill of Rights , was passed . The Act , which restated and confirmed many provisions of the earlier Declaration of Right , established restrictions on the royal prerogative . It provided , amongst other things , that the Sovereign could not suspend laws passed by Parliament , levy taxes without parliamentary consent , infringe the right to petition , raise a standing army during peacetime without parliamentary consent , deny the right to bear arms to Protestant subjects , unduly interfere with parliamentary elections , punish members of either House of Parliament for anything said during debates , require excessive bail or inflict cruel and unusual punishments . William was opposed to the imposition of such constraints , but he chose not to engage in a conflict with Parliament and agreed to abide by the statute .
The Bill of Rights also settled the question of succession to the Crown . After the death of either William or Mary , the other would continue to reign . Next in the line of succession was Mary II 's sister , Princess Anne , and her issue , followed by any children William might have had by a subsequent marriage . Roman Catholics , as well as those who married Catholics , were excluded .
= = Rule with Mary II = =
= = = Resistance to validity of rule = = =
Although most in Britain accepted William and Mary as sovereigns , a significant minority refused to acknowledge their claim to the throne , instead believing in the divine right of kings , which held that the monarch 's authority derived directly from God rather than being delegated to the monarch by Parliament . Over the next 57 years Jacobites pressed for restoration of James and his heirs . Nonjurors in England and Scotland , including over 400 clergy and several bishops of the Church of England and Scottish Episcopal Church as well as numerous laymen , refused to take oaths of allegiance to William .
Ireland was controlled by Roman Catholics loyal to James , and Franco @-@ Irish Jacobites arrived from France with French forces in March 1689 to join the war in Ireland and contest Protestant resistance at the Siege of Derry . William sent his navy to the city in July , and his army landed in August . After progress stalled , William personally intervened to lead his armies to victory over James at the Battle of the Boyne on 1 July 1690 , after which James fled back to France .
Upon William 's return to England , his close friend Dutch General Godert de Ginkell , who had accompanied William to Ireland and had commanded a body of Dutch cavalry at the Battle of the Boyne , was named Commander in Chief of William 's forces in Ireland and entrusted with further conduct of the war there . Ginkell took command in Ireland in the spring of 1691 , and following several ensuing battles , succeeded in capturing both Galway and Limerick , thereby effectively suppressing the Jacobite forces in Ireland within a few more months . After difficult negotiations a capitulation was signed on 3 October 1691 — the Treaty of Limerick . Thus concluded the Williamite pacification of Ireland , and for his services the Dutch general received the formal thanks of the House of Commons , and was awarded the title of Earl of Athlone by the king .
A series of Jacobite risings also took place in Scotland , where Viscount Dundee raised Highland forces and won a victory on 27 July 1689 at the Battle of Killiecrankie , but he died in the fight and a month later Scottish Cameronian forces subdued the rising at the Battle of Dunkeld . William offered Scottish clans that had taken part in the rising a pardon provided that they signed allegiance by a deadline , and his government in Scotland punished a delay with the Massacre of Glencoe of 1692 , which became infamous in Jacobite propaganda as William had countersigned the orders . Bowing to public opinion , William dismissed those responsible for the massacre , though they still remained in his favour ; in the words of the historian John Dalberg @-@ Acton , " one became a colonel , another a knight , a third a peer , and a fourth an earl . "
William 's reputation in Scotland suffered further damage when he refused English assistance to the Darien scheme , a Scottish colony ( 1698 – 1700 ) that failed disastrously .
= = = Parliament and faction = = =
Although the Whigs were William 's strongest supporters , he initially favoured a policy of balance between the Whigs and Tories . The Marquess of Halifax , a man known for his ability to chart a moderate political course , gained William 's confidence early in his reign . The Whigs , a majority in Parliament , had expected to dominate the government , and were disappointed that William denied them this chance . This " balanced " approach to governance did not last beyond 1690 , as the conflicting factions made it impossible for the government to pursue effective policy , and William called for new elections early that year .
After the Parliamentary elections of 1690 , William began to favour the Tories , led by Danby and Nottingham . While the Tories favoured preserving the king 's prerogatives , William found them unaccommodating when he asked Parliament to support his continuing war with France . As a result , William began to prefer the Whig faction known as the Junto . The Whig government was responsible for the creation of the Bank of England following the example of the Bank of Amsterdam . William 's decision to grant the Royal Charter in 1694 to the Bank of England , a private institution owned by bankers , is his most relevant economic legacy . It laid the financial foundation of the English take @-@ over of the central role of the Dutch Republic and Bank of Amsterdam in global commerce in the 18th century .
William dissolved Parliament in 1695 , and the new Parliament that assembled that year was led by the Whigs . There was a considerable surge in support for William following the exposure of a Jacobite plan to assassinate him in 1696 . Parliament passed a bill of attainder against the ringleader , John Fenwick , and he was beheaded in 1697 .
= = = War in Europe = = =
William continued to be absent from the realm for extended periods during his Nine Years ' War with France , leaving each spring and returning to England each autumn . England joined the League of Augsburg , which then became known as the Grand Alliance . Whilst William was away fighting , his wife , Mary II , governed the realm , but acted on his advice . Each time he returned to England , Mary gave up her power to him without reservation , an arrangement that lasted for the rest of Mary 's life .
After the Anglo @-@ Dutch fleet defeated a French fleet at La Hogue in 1692 , the allies for a short period controlled the seas , and Ireland was pacified thereafter by the Treaty of Limerick . At the same time , the Grand Alliance fared poorly in Europe , as William lost Namur in the Spanish Netherlands in 1692 , and was badly beaten at the Battle of Landen in 1693 .
= = Later years = =
Mary II died of smallpox on 28 December 1694 , leaving William III to rule alone . William deeply mourned his wife 's death . Despite his conversion to Anglicanism , William 's popularity plummeted during his reign as a sole monarch .
= = = Allegations of homosexuality = = =
During the 1690s , rumours grew of William 's alleged homosexual inclinations and led to the publication of many satirical pamphlets by his Jacobite detractors . He did have several close male associates , including two Dutch courtiers to whom he granted English titles : Hans Willem Bentinck became Earl of Portland , and Arnold Joost van Keppel was created Earl of Albemarle . These relationships with male friends , and his apparent lack of mistresses , led William 's enemies to suggest that he might prefer homosexual relationships . William 's modern biographers , however , still disagree on the veracity of these allegations . Some have suggested that there may have been some truth to the rumours , while more affirm that they were no more than figments of his enemies ' imaginations , and that there was nothing unusual in someone childless like William adopting or evincing paternal affections for a younger man .
Bentinck 's closeness to William did arouse jealousies in the Royal Court at the time , but most modern historians doubt that there was a homosexual element in their relationship . William 's young protegé , Keppel , aroused more gossip and suspicion , being 20 years William 's junior and strikingly handsome , and having risen from being a royal page to an earldom with some ease . Portland wrote to William in 1697 that " the kindness which your Majesty has for a young man , and the way in which you seem to authorise his liberties ... make the world say things I am ashamed to hear . " This , he said , was " tarnishing a reputation which has never before been subject to such accusations " . William tersely dismissed these suggestions , however , saying , " It seems to me very extraordinary that it should be impossible to have esteem and regard for a young man without it being criminal . "
= = = Peace with France = = =
In 1696 , the Dutch territory of Drenthe made William its Stadtholder . In the same year , Jacobites plotted to assassinate William III in an attempt to restore James to the English throne , but failed . In accordance with the Treaty of Rijswijk ( 20 September 1697 ) , which ended the Nine Years ' War , Louis recognised William III as King of England , and undertook to give no further assistance to James II . Thus deprived of French dynastic backing after 1697 , Jacobites posed no further serious threats during William 's reign .
As his life drew towards its conclusion , William , like many other European rulers , felt concern over the question of succession to the throne of Spain , which brought with it vast territories in Italy , the Low Countries and the New World . The King of Spain , Charles II , was an invalid with no prospect of having children ; amongst his closest relatives were Louis XIV ( the King of France ) and Leopold I , Holy Roman Emperor . William sought to prevent the Spanish inheritance from going to either monarch , for he feared that such a calamity would upset the balance of power . William and Louis XIV agreed to the First Partition Treaty , which provided for the division of the Spanish Empire : Duke Joseph Ferdinand of Bavaria would obtain Spain , while France and the Holy Roman Emperor would divide the remaining territories between them . Charles II accepted the nomination of Joseph Ferdinand as his heir , and war appeared to be averted .
When , however , Joseph Ferdinand died of smallpox , the issue re @-@ opened . In 1700 , the two rulers agreed to the Second Partition Treaty ( also called the Treaty of London ) , under which the territories in Italy would pass to a son of the King of France , and the other Spanish territories would be inherited by a son of the Holy Roman Emperor . This arrangement infuriated both the Spanish , who still sought to prevent the dissolution of their empire , and the Holy Roman Emperor , to whom the Italian territories were much more useful than the other lands . Unexpectedly , the invalid King of Spain , Charles II , interfered as he lay dying in late 1700 . Unilaterally , he willed all Spanish territories to Philip , a grandson of Louis XIV . The French conveniently ignored the Second Partition Treaty and claimed the entire Spanish inheritance . Furthermore , Louis XIV alienated William III by recognising James Francis Edward Stuart , the son of the former King James II who had died in 1701 , as de jure King of England . The subsequent conflict , known as the War of the Spanish Succession , continued until 1713 .
= = = English succession = = =
The Spanish inheritance was not the only one that concerned William . His marriage with Mary had not yielded any children , and he did not seem likely to remarry . Mary 's sister , Anne , had borne numerous children , all of whom died during childhood . The death of her last surviving child , Prince William , Duke of Gloucester , in 1700 left her as the only individual in the line of succession established by the Bill of Rights . As the complete exhaustion of the line of succession would have encouraged a restoration of James II 's line , Parliament passed the Act of Settlement 1701 , which provided that if Anne died without surviving issue and William failed to have surviving issue by any subsequent marriage , the Crown would be inherited by a distant relative , Sophia , Electress of Hanover , a granddaughter of James I , and her Protestant heirs . The Act debarred Roman Catholics from the throne , thereby excluding the candidacy of several dozen people more closely related to Mary and Anne than Sophia . The Act extended to England and Ireland , but not to Scotland , whose Estates had not been consulted before the selection of Sophia .
= = Death = =
In 1702 , William died of pneumonia , a complication from a broken collarbone following a fall from his horse , Sorrel . Because his horse had stumbled into a mole 's burrow , many Jacobites toasted " the little gentleman in the black velvet waistcoat . " Years later , Sir Winston Churchill , in his A History of the English @-@ Speaking Peoples , stated that the fall " opened the door to a troop of lurking foes " . William was buried in Westminster Abbey alongside his wife . His sister @-@ in @-@ law , Anne , became queen regnant of England , Scotland and Ireland .
William 's death brought an end to the Dutch House of Orange , members of which had served as stadtholder of Holland and the majority of the other provinces of the Dutch Republic since the time of William the Silent ( William I ) . The five provinces of which William III was stadtholder — Holland , Zeeland , Utrecht , Gelderland , and Overijssel — all suspended the office after his death . Thus , he was the last patrilineal descendant of William I to be named stadtholder for the majority of the provinces . Under William III 's will , John William Friso stood to inherit the Principality of Orange as well as several lordships in the Netherlands . He was William 's closest agnatic relative , as well as son of William 's aunt Albertine Agnes . However , King Frederick I of Prussia also claimed the Principality as the senior cognatic heir , his mother Louise Henriette being Albertine Agnes 's older sister . Under the Treaty of Utrecht ( 1713 ) , Frederick I 's successor , Frederick William I of Prussia , ceded his territorial claim to King Louis XIV of France , keeping only a claim to the title . Friso 's posthumous son , William IV , succeeded to the title at his birth in 1711 ; in the Treaty of Partition ( 1732 ) he agreed to share the title " Prince of Orange " with Frederick William .
= = Legacy = =
William 's primary achievement was to contain France when it was in a position to impose its will across much of Europe . His life 's aim was largely to oppose Louis XIV of France . This effort continued after his death during the War of the Spanish Succession . Another important consequence of William 's reign in England involved the ending of a bitter conflict between Crown and Parliament that had lasted since the accession of the first English monarch of the House of Stuart , James I , in 1603 . The conflict over royal and parliamentary power had led to the English Civil War during the 1640s and the Glorious Revolution of 1688 . During William 's reign , however , the conflict was settled in Parliament 's favour by the Bill of Rights 1689 , the Triennial Act 1694 and the Act of Settlement 1701 .
William endowed the College of William and Mary ( in present @-@ day Williamsburg , Virginia ) in 1693 . Nassau , the capital of The Bahamas , is named after Fort Nassau , which was renamed in 1695 in his honour . Similarly Nassau County , New York , a county on Long Island , is a namesake . Long Island itself was also known as Nassau during early Dutch rule . Though many alumni of Princeton University think that the town of Princeton , New Jersey ( and hence the university ) were named in his honour , this is probably untrue . Nassau Hall , at the university campus , is so named , however .
New York City was briefly renamed New Orange for him in 1673 after the Dutch recaptured the city , which had been renamed New York by the British in 1665 . His name was applied to the fort and administrative center for the city on two separate occasions reflecting his different sovereign status — first as Fort Willem Hendrick in 1673 , and then as Fort William in 1691 when the English evicted Colonists who had seized the fort and city . Nassau Street ( Manhattan ) was also named some time before 1696 in his honor . Orange County , just north of New York City , is his namesake , as was Fort Orange ( now Albany ) .
= = = Ireland = = =
The modern day Orange Order is named after William III , and makes a point of celebrating his victory at the Battle of the Boyne with annual parades in Northern Ireland , Liverpool and parts of Scotland and Canada on 12 July .
= = Titles , styles , and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
4 November 1650 – 9 July 1672 : His Highness The Prince of Orange , Count of Nassau
9 – 16 July 1672 : His Highness The Prince of Orange , Stadtholder of Holland
16 July 1672 – 26 April 1674 : His Highness The Prince of Orange , Stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland
26 April 1674 – 8 March 1702 : His Highness The Prince of Orange , Stadtholder of Holland , Zeeland , Utrecht , Gelderland and Overijssel
( England ) 13 February 1689 – 8 March 1702 : His Majesty The King
( Scotland ) 11 April 1689 – 8 March 1702 : His Majesty The King
By 1674 , William was fully styled as " Willem III , by God 's grace Prince of Orange , Count of Nassau etc . , Stadtholder of Holland , Zeeland , Utrecht etc . , Captain- and Admiral @-@ General of the United Netherlands " . After their accession in Great Britain in 1689 , William and Mary used the titles " King and Queen of England , Scotland , France and Ireland , Defenders of the Faith , etc . "
= = = Arms = = =
As Prince of Orange , William 's coat of arms was : Quarterly , I Azure billetty a lion rampant Or ( for Nassau ) ; II Or a lion rampant guardant Gules crowned Azure ( Katzenelnbogen ) ; III Gules a fess Argent ( Vianden ) , IV Gules two lions passant guardant Or ( Dietz ) ; between the I and II quarters an inescutcheon , Or a fess Sable ( Moers ) ; at the fess point an inescutcheon , quarterly I and IV Gules , a bend Or ( Châlons ) ; II and III Or a bugle horn Azure , stringed Gules ( Orange ) with an inescutcheon , Nine pieces Or and Azure ( Geneva ) ; between the III and IV quarters , an inescutcheon , Gules a fess counter embattled Argent ( Buren ) .
The coat of arms used by the king and queen was : Quarterly , I and IV Grand quarterly , Azure three fleurs @-@ de @-@ lis Or ( for France ) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or ( for England ) ; II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory @-@ counter @-@ flory Gules ( for Scotland ) ; III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent ( for Ireland ) ; overall an escutcheon Azure billetty a lion rampant Or . In his later coat of arms , William used the motto : Je Maintiendrai ( medieval French for " I will maintain " ) . The motto represents the House of Orange @-@ Nassau , since it came into the family with the Principality of Orange .
= = Ancestry = =
= = = Family tree = = =
= = In popular culture = =
William has been played on screen by Bernard Lee in the 1937 film The Black Tulip , based on the novel by Alexandre Dumas , père , Henry Daniell in the 1945 film Captain Kidd , Olaf Hytten in the 1952 film Against All Flags , Alan Rowe in the 1969 BBC drama series The First Churchills , Laurence Olivier in the 1986 NBC TV mini @-@ series Peter the Great , Thom Hoffman in the 1992 film Orlando , based on the novel by Virginia Woolf , Corin Redgrave in the 1995 film England , My England , the story of the composer Henry Purcell , Jochum ten Haaf in the 2003 BBC miniseries Charles II : The Power & the Passion , Bernard Hill in the 2005 film The League of Gentlemen 's Apocalypse , and Russell Pate in the 2008 BBC film King Billy Above All . His role in Dutch politics and his alleged homosexual nature was shown in the 2015 film Michiel de Ruyter .
= = = Ballads = = =
Copies of extant seventeenth @-@ century broadside ballads about William and Mary , such as " England 's Triumph " , " England 's Happiness in the Crowning of William and Mary " , " A new loyal song , upon King William 's Progress into Ireland " and " Royal Courage , King William 's Happy Success in Ireland " , are housed in Magdalene College 's Pepys Library , the National Library of Scotland , and the British Library . Facsimiles , as well as audio recordings , are available online .
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= Bedford Castle =
Bedford Castle was a large medieval castle in Bedford , England . Built after 1100 by Henry I , the castle played a prominent part in both the civil war of the Anarchy and the First Barons ' War . The castle was significantly extended in stone , although the final plan of the castle remains uncertain . Henry III of England besieged the castle in 1224 following a disagreement with Falkes de Breauté ; the siege lasted eight weeks and involved an army of as many as 2 @,@ 700 soldiers with equipment drawn from across England . After the surrender of the castle , the king ordered its destruction . Although partially refortified in the 17th century during the English Civil War , the castle remained a ruin until the urban expansion in Bedford during the 19th century , when houses were built across much of the property . Today only part of the motte still stands , forming part of an archaeological park built on the site between 2007 and 2009 .
= = History = =
= = = Early history ( 1100 – 1153 ) = = =
Bedford Castle was probably built after 1100 by Henry I in the town of Bedford , overlooking the River Great Ouse . The castle was constructed inside the town itself , and many of the older Anglo @-@ Saxon streets had to be destroyed and diverted to make room for it , leaving a permanent mark in the formal grid system . The castle was built in a motte and bailey design and was probably much smaller than the later castle , just consisting of the motte and the inner bailey .
By the early 12th century the castle was controlled by the royal castellan , Simon de Beauchamp , the son of Hugh de Beauchamp who had helped conquer England in 1066 . Contemporaries described the castle around this time as " completely ramparted around with an immense earthen bank and ditch , girt about with a wall strong and high , strengthened with a strong and unshakeable keep " . Simon died in 1137 , and King Stephen agreed that Simon 's daughter should marry Hugh the Pauper and that the castle would be given to Hugh , in exchange for Stephen giving Miles compensatory honours and gifts . Miles and Payn de Beauchamp , the children of Simon 's brother , Robert de Beauchamp , declared that the castle was rightfully Miles ' and refused to hand it over to Hugh .
Meanwhile , civil war had broke out in England between King Stephen and the Empress Matilda , resulting in a period of chaos known as the Anarchy . Matilda 's uncle , David I of Scotland , invaded England during 1137 in support of her claim . Although Miles de Beauchamp declared himself in support of Stephen , the king decided to retake Bedford Castle before marching north . Stephen formed an army to besiege Bedford Castle but Miles gained advance warning of the attack and took in considerable supplies , preparing for a long siege . Stephen was unable to storm the castle and left a force under the command of Hugh to starve it into submission whilst he marched north to tackle the Scots invasion .
Henry of Blois , the Bishop of Winchester , intervened in an attempt to produce a negotiated solution . Henry reached an agreement whereby after five weeks , the castle finally surrendered ; the garrison were allowed to leave peacefully but the castle was handed over to the king . The deal struck by Miles and Henry appears to have left the surrounding estates in the hands of the Beauchamps , however , and in 1141 Miles returned and retook the castle itself , although no details are available as to how he achieved this .
Miles subsequently supported the Empress , and in 1146 , Ranulf , the Earl of Chester and temporarily on the side of the king , attacked and took the town of Bedford , but was unable to take the castle , which continued to be controlled by Miles until his death several years later . Towards the end of the war , Bedford Castle may have been attacked again ; Henry II , during the final year of the conflict in 1153 , marched through Bedford and documentary evidence shows damage to the town at this time . Historians are divided as to whether the castle was besieged at the same time .
= = = Mid @-@ medieval period ( 1153 – 1224 ) = = =
Early in 1215 tensions grew between King John and a rebel faction of his barons , which would lead to the First Barons ' War . The rebel barons attempted to besiege Northampton Castle ; unsuccessful , they turned to Bedford Castle but the castle withstood the attack and they moved south to London . Bedford was held at the time by William de Beauchamp but his loyalty came into question and he rebelled against John . Falkes de Breauté , a key Anglo @-@ Norman leader loyal to John , resisted and seized Bedford Castle back for John in 1216 . In return John gave Falkes the Honour of Bedford , and in practical terms the castle as well , although it is unclear whether he gave Falkes the role of castellan or ownership of the castle itself . As the war continued , Falkes took control of Plympton , Christchurch and Carisbrooke castles , whilst continuing to hold onto Bedford . After the death of King John in 1216 the war turned against the rebel barons and the royalist faction , including Falkes , was able to restore his son , the young Henry III to power in England .
After the war , Falkes made Bedford Castle his headquarters and he expanded it considerably , resulting in what David Baker has described as a " major refortification " . Falkes destroyed the neighbouring churches of St Paul 's and St Cuthbert 's to make space for a new bailey , reusing the stone for the castle . The exact form of the castle after this expansion remains uncertain . The castle appears to have been quadrangular , with the western edge running along the rear of the modern High Street and the northern edge running along the modern roads of Ram Yard and Castle Lane . The castle had a new barbican ; an outer and an inner bailey , with the inner bailey in the south @-@ east corner , protected by an internal ditch and a stone @-@ lined palisade ; further stone lined ditches lay around the castle ; and a new keep was built on the motte . Brown suspects that the new keep was probably a shell keep with a tower , similar to those built at Launceston or Bungay . The stone @-@ lined palisades and ditches built at Bedford were very unusual in England - their closest equivalent are those found at Skenfrith Castle . The castle had a postern watergate facing towards the river , and a great hall within the inner bailey in the middle , at least 13 m ( 43 feet ) wide and 40 m ( 131 feet ) long . There was possibly a large stone gatehouse positioned on the outer bailey wall . A mound in the north @-@ east corner of the castle probably supported a large tower .
= = = = Siege of 1224 = = = =
Henry III decided that Bedford Castle should be returned to its original owner , William de Beauchamp , and became increasingly frustrated with Falkes ' refusal to do so ; matters came to a head when Falkes ' castellans imprisoned Henry of Braybrooke , a royal judge who was hearing law cases against Falkes . When Falkes refused to release the judge , Henry mobilised an army , supported by the Church in the form of Stephen Langton , the Archbishop of Canterbury , and advanced to Bedford . Falkes had left the castle , along with around eighty men , in charge of his brother , William de Breauté , who refused to surrender it to the king . Falkes was probably hoping that if the castle held on long enough , his efforts to convince Pope Honorius III to intervene against Henry would succeed . The Archbishop excommunicated William and the siege began .
The siege of Bedford Castle required huge resources . Siege engines were brought from Lincoln , Northampton and Oxfordshire , while carpenters built others on site using timber from Northamptonshire ; ropes from London , Cambridge and Southampton ; hides from Northampton and tallow from London . Labourers from across Bedfordshire and Northamptonshire were gathered by the relevant sheriffs , and miners from Hereford and the Forest of Dean . Crossbow bolts were ordered from a depot at Corfe Castle and from the provinces ; 43 @,@ 300 crossbow bolts are known to have been ordered by the king . Local trees were cut down , and stone quarrying begun to provide ammunition for siege engines . Tents and pavilions for the king were sent from London , along with supplies of luxury foods and wine for the king . In total , Henry 's wage bill for the siege came to £ 1 @,@ 311 ; it is uncertain exactly how large Henry 's army was , but potentially there were between 1 @,@ 600 and 2 @,@ 700 men present at any one time . To support the siege , Langton instructed his bishops to mobilise one man from every 24 hectares ( 60 acres ) of land they owned and levied a special tax on the churches ' estates .
With these resources , Henry erected a number of siege engines around the castle ; one probable trebuchet and two mangonels were set up to the east of the castle ; two mangonels were placed on the west side , to attack the keep , and one mangonel on both the north and south sides . Two siege @-@ castles were established to observe the occupants of the castle . William was confident , however , that either his brother would return and relieve the siege , or that the pope would intervene , and held on despite the artillery attacks . The losses in the royal army began to mount ; chronicler Ralph of Coggeshall suggests that seven knights , and over 200 soldiers and labourers were killed as the siege dragged on .
Bedford Castle finally fell through a sequence of four attacks . Royal forces first captured the barbican and then stormed the outer bailey , seizing most of the castle 's supplies but taking considerable losses . Miners , operating under the protection of a " cat " , then gained access to the inner bailey by collapsing part of the wall . Finally , on 14 August , the miners attacked the keep itself , lighting a fire under the walls , cracking the stone and filling the building with smoke . The female members of the household , including Falkes ' wife , and Henry de Braybrooke were released , the royal standard was raised over the tower , and the next day William and the garrison surrendered .
A discussion ensued about the fate of the garrison ; near contemporary accounts suggest that the prisoners asked the Archbishop for assistance , but that this was declined . Henry then had all the male members of the garrison hanged , except for three knights who agreed to join the military order of the Knights Templar . Three days after the fall of Bedford Castle , the Pope wrote a letter demanding that Henry cease his campaign against Falkes , but this intervention had occurred far too late to be of use . Alexander de Stavenby , the Bishop of Coventry , convinced Falkes to surrender after the fall of the castle ; he handed over his remaining castles at Plympton and Storgursey and was absolved by Langton , going into exile shortly afterwards . Historian R. Brown has noted that the 1224 siege of Bedford Castle was remarkable in that the castle 's garrison was able to hold out against " the concentrated military resources of the whole kingdom " for an impressive eight weeks . David Carpenter argues that the fall of Bedford castle " concluded the triumph of central government " over the previously uncontrollable forces of the local barons .
= = = Later history ( 13 – 19th centuries ) = = =
After the siege Henry III ordered the castle to be dismantled and labourers filled in the ditches and halved the height of the stone walls . William de Beauchamp was forbidden to rebuild the castle , and instead built an unfortified house in the inner bailey . St Paul 's and St Cuthbert 's churches were rebuilt in 1224 using stone from the castle . The sudden availability of cheap stone led to the repaving of many of the town streets in Bedford in 1224 . Local tradition suggests that the first stone bridge at Bedford , the Great Bridge , was built using stone from the castle . By 1361 the castle site was described as " a void plot of old enclosed by walls " and seems to have been derelict for most of the medieval period . The antiquarian John Leland visited the site in the 16th century , and noted that the castle was " now clean down " . The early 17th century mapmaker John Speed produced a map of Bedford in 1611 , showing the motte and a fragment of bailey wall still standing on an otherwise vacant site .
At the outbreak of the English Civil War , Bedford sided with Parliament ; the town was temporarily captured by Prince Rupert of the Rhine in 1643 and the castle was refortified for the duration of the war . A probable wooden fort and prison were built on the remains of the motte and defended by a hundred @-@ man garrison . After the war the motte became used as a bowling green until the 19th century . In 1804 the north @-@ east tower of the castle was turned into a hexagonal building for the local militia unit . Bedford began to spread eastwards in the late 19th century and the castle baileys became desirable property for housing ; in 1851 the last parts of the barbican were destroyed to make way for the construction of cottages .
= = = Modern period ( 20 – 21st centuries ) = = =
Today only the base of the motte survives at Bedford Castle , 7 @.@ 5 m ( 25 feet ) high and 49 m ( 161 feet ) wide at the top , and is a scheduled monument . Archaeological work has been conducted to develop a better understanding of the history of the castle , although excavations are difficult because of the urban nature of the site . Excavations between 1969 and 1972 established the broad form of the castle ; this was supplemented by further work in 1995 – 6 and another phase of excavations in 2007 . Following the 2007 investigations , an archaeological park was built on part of the castle site between 2007 and 2009 , forming the centre of a mixed @-@ use development of restaurants and apartments . The park incorporated one of the castle 's lime kilns , first rediscovered in 1973 , and the foundations of a hall discovered at the castle .
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= Neil Goldschmidt =
Neil Edward Goldschmidt ( born June 16 , 1940 ) is an American businessman and Democratic politician from the state of Oregon who held local , state and federal offices over three decades . After serving as the governor of Oregon , Goldschmidt is widely considered the most influential figure in the state 's politics , both as an elected public official and as a lobbyist and policy consultant . His legacy and career were severely damaged by revelations that he had a sexual relationship with a young teenage girl during his first term as mayor of Portland .
Goldschmidt was elected to the Portland City Council in 1970 and then as mayor of Portland in 1972 , becoming the youngest mayor of any major American city . He promoted the revitalization of Downtown Portland and was influential on Portland @-@ area transportation policy , particularly with the abandonment of the Mount Hood Freeway and the establishment of the MAX Light Rail . He was appointed U.S. Secretary of Transportation by President Jimmy Carter in 1979 ; in that capacity he worked to revive the ailing automobile industry and to deregulate several industries . He served until the end of Carter 's presidency in 1981 and then served as a senior executive with Nike for several years .
He was elected the 33rd governor of Oregon in 1986 , serving a single term . He faced significant challenges , particularly a rising anti @-@ tax movement ( leading to 1990 's Measure 5 ) and a doubling of the state 's prison population . He worked across party lines to reduce regulation and to repair the state 's infrastructure . During his term , Oregon emerged from nearly eight years of recession . His reforms to the State Accident Insurance Fund ( SAIF ) , a state @-@ chartered worker 's compensation insurance company were heralded at the time , but drew strong criticism in later years .
Despite his popularity , Goldschmidt left office after only one term , becoming an influential and controversial lobbyist . Over the next dozen years or so , he was criticized by editorial boards and Oregonians for several of the causes he supported , including backing the forestry corporation , Weyerhaeuser in its hostile takeover of Oregon 's Willamette Industries and his advocacy for a private investment firm in its attempt to take over Portland General Electric , a local utility company . In 2003 , Governor Ted Kulongoski appointed him to the Oregon Board of Higher Education , a position he resigned after admitting he had a sexual relationship with a minor girl 30 years earlier .
= = Early life = =
Goldschmidt was born in Eugene , in Oregon 's Willamette Valley , on June 16 , 1940 , to Lester H. Goldschmidt and Annette Levin . He graduated from South Eugene High School . He later attended the University of Oregon , also in Eugene . He served as student body president at the school before graduating in 1963 with a Bachelor 's degree in political science .
He served as an intern for U.S. Senator Maurine Neuberger in 1964 in Washington , D.C. While there , he was recruited by New York Congressman Allard K. Lowenstein to do voter registration in Mississippi 's 1964 Freedom Summer civil rights campaign . Goldschmidt married Margaret Wood in 1965 . They had two children , Joshua and Rebecca , and divorced in 1990 . Goldschmidt earned a law degree from the University of California , Berkeley in 1967 . From 1967 to 1970 he worked as a legal aid lawyer in Portland , Oregon .
= = Political career = =
In 1970 , Neil Goldschmidt entered politics in Oregon . This began three decades of being in the public eye in the state , serving as mayor of Oregon 's most populous city and as the state 's governor . In between he served in the Cabinet of President Jimmy Carter .
= = = Portland City Commissioner and Mayor = = =
Goldschmidt won a seat on the Portland City Council in 1970 . As City Commissioner ( 1971 – 1973 ) and later as Mayor of Portland ( 1973 – 1979 ) , Goldschmidt participated in the revitalization of the downtown section of that city . He led a freeway revolt against the unpopular Mount Hood Freeway , building consensus among labor unions and other powerful entities to divert Federal funds initially earmarked for the freeway to other projects , ultimately expanding the federal funds brought to the region to include the MAX Light Rail line and the Portland Transit Mall . He is widely credited with opening up the city 's government to neighborhood activists and minorities , appointing women and African @-@ Americans in a City Hall that had been dominated by an " old @-@ boy network . " During his mayoral campaign , he questioned the benefit of expanding the city 's police force , preferring to direct resources to crime prevention . According to Nigel Jaquiss , a reporter for Willamette Week , for thirty years he was " Oregon 's most successful and charismatic leader . "
In 1973 , Governor Tom McCall appointed Goldschmidt to what would be known as the Governor 's Task Force , which was tasked with exploring regional transportation solutions . Goldschmidt served alongside notable leaders : Glenn Jackson , chair of the board of Portland Power and Light and chair of the Oregon Transportation Commission , was considered the state 's leading power broker on transportation issues ; and Gerard Drummond , a prominent lawyer and lobbyist , was president of Tri @-@ Met 's board of directors . The task force considered an unpopular deal that would have funded the construction of the Mount Hood Freeway , which would have bisected southeast Portland . The deal , which would have been 90 % funded by the Federal Highway Administration , was rescinded , with first the Multnomah County Commission and , later , Portland City Council reversing their positions and advising against it . Goldschmidt was initially opposed to diverting funds to light rail , instead favoring busways and more suitable local road projects ; as the 1981 deadline to reallocate the funds approached , however , light rail became a more attractive prospect . By a process not clearly documented , light rail was included in the final plan . All federal money initially intended for the Mount Hood Freeway ultimately went to other road projects , but the total amount was doubled and the first leg of MAX light rail was approved and ultimately completed in 1986 .
= = = U.S. Secretary of Transportation = = =
Goldschmidt became the sixth U.S. Secretary of Transportation in 1979 . His recess appointment by President Jimmy Carter came on July 27 of that year , as part of a midterm restructuring of the Carter administration 's cabinet positions . The United States Senate confirmed his appointment on September 21 , and he was sworn in on September 24 . In this position , Goldschmidt was known for his work to revive the auto industry , and efforts to deregulate the airline , trucking and railroad industries .
A newcomer to the Carter administration and to national politics , Goldschmidt traded not only on his experience in transportation planning , but on his political acumen as well ; following Carter 's unsuccessful bid for re @-@ election , Goldschmidt expressed doubts about the Democratic Party 's future if it couldn 't learn to cultivate political allies more effectively . Goldschmidt 's time in Washington , DC , informed his own understanding of politics , as well . He remained in office through the remainder of the Carter administration . In late 1979 , Republican presidential hopeful John B. Anderson called for Goldschmidt 's resignation , and members of the United States Senate Banking Committee later chastised him , for having suggested that he would withhold transportation funds from municipalities , such as Chicago and Philadelphia , whose mayors supported Ted Kennedy in his primary election bid against Carter . Goldschmidt resigned at the conclusion of Carter 's term on January 20 , 1981 .
Between positions in public office , Goldschmidt was a Nike executive during the 1980s , serving as international Vice President and then as president of Nike Canada . He was considered as a potential chair of the Democratic National Committee in 1984 .
= = = Governor of Oregon = = =
In June 1985 Goldschmidt announced his candidacy for Oregon Governor . His name familiarity and access to large donations through his business and political ties made him the Democratic front runner . He easily defeated Oregon State Senator Edward N. Fadeley in the May 1986 Democratic primary . Goldschmidt defeated Republican Secretary of State Norma Paulus in the 1986 general election 52 % to 48 % , succeeding two @-@ term Republican Governor Vic Atiyeh , becoming the state 's 33rd governor .
Goldschmidt 's policy for economic development brought together Democratic liberals and Republican business leaders . His personal focus was on children 's rights , poverty and crime , but the challenge of meeting increasing needs with a decreasing budget overshadowed his tenure . An anti @-@ tax movement took hold during his term , passing the landmark Measure 5 in 1990 , which restricted the generation of revenue by property tax . He was credited with leading " The Oregon Comeback , " bringing the state out of nearly eight years of recession , through regulatory reform and repair of the state 's infrastructure .
Goldschmidt oversaw a major expansion of the state 's prison system . In May 1987 , he hired Michael Francke to modernize the state 's prisons , which an investigator had described as overcrowded and operated as " independent fiefdoms . " Francke was charged with supervising a plan to add over 1000 new beds to the prison system . Francke was murdered in the Department of Corrections parking lot in 1989 .
In 1990 , Goldschmidt brokered agreements between business , labor and insurance interests that changed the state 's workers ' compensation regulations . Workers ' compensation has been a contentious issue in Oregon for some time , as the state @-@ run State Accident Insurance Fund ( SAIF ) insures approximately 35 % of the workforce . The legislature passed a law as a result . The changes were considered to benefit the insurance industry and business interests , at the expense of claimants , who were required to establish more extensively that their employers were responsible for injuries . The issue was contentious for some time , involving lawsuits and various efforts to modify the law . In 2000 , Governor John Kitzhaber attempted to reform the system again . This led to a new law in the 2001 Legislature , which was complicated by an Oregon Supreme Court ruling that occurred during deliberations .
Goldschmidt 's Children 's Agenda was important in Oregon with its community initiatives . In 1991 , he helped create the Oregon Children 's Foundation , as well as the Start Making A Reader Today ( SMART ) literacy program , which puts 10 @,@ 000 volunteers into Oregon schools to read to children .
Goldschmidt declined to run for re @-@ election in 1990 , despite the widely held perception that he could have been easily re @-@ elected ; at the time , he cited marital difficulties . Bernie Giusto , who was Goldschmidt 's driver at the start of his term and later became Multnomah County Sheriff , was widely rumored to be romantically involved with Goldschmidt 's wife Margie ( and would later date her openly after they divorced ) .
Goldschmidt had hoped at one time to serve two terms , noting that most of predecessor Tom McCall 's accomplishments came during his second term . In his farewell address to the City Club of Portland , he stated : " After only four years , everything is left undone . Nothing is finished . "
= = = After leaving elected office = = =
Goldschmidt founded a law and consulting firm , Neil Goldschmidt , Inc . , in Portland in 1991 , four days after leaving office as governor . His clients have included Schnitzer Investment , Nike , PacifiCorp , Paul Allen , Bechtel Enterprises ( a subsidiary of Bechtel Corporation ) , and SAIF .
Even out of elected office , he was widely considered the most powerful political figure in the state for many years . His influence extended all over the state and the nation . As a member of the Oregon Health & Science University board , Goldschmidt was an early advocate of the controversial Portland Aerial Tram , which connected the research hospital to real estate projects by his longtime associates Homer Williams and Irving Levin near land whose owners Goldschmidt later represented . He stayed active in Portland as well , advocating an expansion of the Park Blocks ( a strip of open park space cutting through downtown Portland . ) Goldschmidt assisted in the deal that led to the construction of TriMet 's MAX Red Line to Portland International Airport that opened in 2001 . He also started the Start Making a Reader Today ( SMART ) volunteer program in Oregon schools .
Goldschmidt drew criticism in recent years for some of his business activities . In 2002 , he lobbied business and political leaders to support Weyerhaeuser in its hostile takeover of Willamette Industries , Inc . , then the only Fortune 500 company headquartered in Portland . In early 2004 , he backed a purchase of Portland General Electric ( PGE ) by Texas Pacific Group which , though never consummated , put on hold city and county studies to acquire PGE by condemnation . Criticism of Goldschmidt 's business activities peaked when , on November 13 , 2003 , Governor Ted Kulongoski nominated him to the Oregon State Board of Higher Education .
Goldschmidt 's appointment was initially expected to meet with little opposition . Several state senators , however , voiced concerns about Goldschmidt 's involvement with SAIF and possible improprieties in the dealings he and his wife had with Texas Pacific . Senator Vicki Walker , in particular , emerged as an outspoken critic of Goldschmidt . The increased scrutiny on Goldschmidt 's career , including reporters ' difficulties accessing records from his time as governor , ultimately led to the revelation of an illegal sexual relationship with a minor girl , which had occurred decades before , during his time as Mayor of Portland . These revelations ended Goldschmidt 's extensive career at the center of Oregon politics and policymaking .
= = Revelation of sexual abuse = =
In May 2004 , a rapid series of events resulted in Goldschmidt 's confession to a sexual relationship with a young teenage girl in the 1970s ; the quick demise of his political career , including resignations from several prominent organizations ; and the transfer of his many documents from the privately run Oregon Historical Society to the state @-@ run Oregon State Archives .
On May 6 , under pressure from Willamette Week , Goldschmidt publicly announced that he had engaged in a sexual relationship with a 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl ( the victim later indicated she was 13 ) for an extended period during his first term as Mayor of Portland . Sex with a person under 16 years of age constitutes third degree rape under Oregon law , a felony punishable by up to five years in prison . By the time the relationship had become public , however , the statute of limitations had expired , making Goldschmidt immune from any prosecution over the matter .
Under Oregon law , Goldschmidt would have been required to register as a sex offender , had he been convicted of the crime of third degree rape . The fact that the registration law didn 't pass until 1997 , after the illicit sexual relationship ended , would not have exempted him from registration . Oregon case law has determined that the registration of offenders whose acts were committed prior to the passage of the law does not violate either Oregon ’ s Constitution or the United States Constitution ’ s prohibition on ex post facto laws .
Goldschmidt 's confessional letter was published on the front page of The Oregonian . It differed from the Willamette Week 's account , most notably in the length of the relationship ( " nearly a year " according to Goldschmidt , but three years according to Willamette Week ) and in Goldschmidt 's use of the term " affair " to characterize it . The Oregonian was criticized for its coverage and use of the term " affair . " Writers and editors at The Oregonian acknowledged mistakes in their handling of the story , but denied that a desire to protect Goldschmidt motivated the mistakes . The Willamette Week article , written by Nigel Jaquiss , was awarded the 2005 Pulitzer Prize for investigative reporting .
In his initial negotiations with Willamette Week , Goldschmidt agreed to resign his positions with the Texas Pacific Group and the Board of Higher Education , which he did . His decision in 1990 not to run for a second term as governor , long the subject of speculation , was finally explained . Further developments revealed that Goldschmidt was assisted by businessman Robert K. Burtchaell in keeping his molestation of the girl a secret . In return , Goldschmidt gave his support to Burtchaell 's ( unsuccessful ) bid to extend a lease for a houseboat moorage on the Willamette River .
Goldschmidt 's rabbi made an appeal in The Oregonian for forgiveness . Although Goldschmidt could no longer be prosecuted for the offense , the Oregon State Bar began an investigation into the matter . Goldschmidt submitted a Form B resignation , which was received by the bar on May 13 , where he says that he is aware that he would not be eligible for readmission .
Following complaints from local media over limited access to Goldschmidt 's public papers stored at the Oregon Historical Society ( OHS ) , the state archivist announced May 29 that Goldschmidt would seize the 256 boxes of documents to guarantee public access as defined in a state law passed in 1973 . That law required that public access to such records be maintained , but did not specify where the records be kept . Following Goldschmidt 's decision to put the documents in the care of the OHS , the state legislature passed a law requiring future governors to leave their documents in the state archives . Many records were published on the state archives ' Web site in early 2005 .
The scandal has affected numerous people and organizations associated with Goldschmidt . Many people have been accused of knowing of the crime , but failing to act accordingly . Debby Kennedy , who worked for Goldschmidt while he was governor , recalled , " I just can 't tell you how many rumors there were about him then . " Multnomah County Sheriff Bernie Giusto , who admitted knowing about the abuse , announced his early retirement in February 2008 .
On March 7 , 2011 , the Oregon Senate President and Speaker of the House released a statement that Goldschmidt 's Governor 's portrait had been removed from the walls of the State Capital building in Salem and put into storage , out of respect for his victim .
= = Articles by Goldschmidt = =
Goldschmidt , Neil . " The U.S. Automobile Industry , 1980 . Report to the president from the secretary of transportation " , United States Department of Transportation , January 1981 .
Goldschmidt , Neil ( January 21 , 1981 ) . " The Last Hurrah " . The Washington Post .
Goldschmidt , Neil ( March 25 , 1990 ) . " As Highways Crumble , Bush Stumbles " . The New York Times .
Goldschmidt , Neil ( May 7 , 2004 ) . " Statement by Neil Goldschmidt " . The Oregonian . Retrieved 2007 @-@ 07 @-@ 03 .
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= Sam Oldham =
Sam Joshua Oldham ( born 17 February 1993 ) is an English artistic gymnast who represents Great Britain . He was part of the British men 's team at the 2012 Summer Olympics that won bronze in the team competition . He is also a three @-@ time junior European champion and won individual horizontal bar gold at the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics in Singapore .
= = Personal life = =
Sam Oldham was born on 17 February 1993 to Bob and Dawn Oldham . Oldham currently lives in Keyworth , Nottinghamshire , England with his parents and three siblings .
Sam 's first school was Crossdale Drive Primary School in Keyworth . Oldham then attended Rushcliffe School in West Bridgford before leaving the institution at 14 to be home @-@ taught so he could focus on training .
Oldham first started in gymnastics at the age of seven on the recommendation of his teacher , but was also a talented footballer . Oldham played in the Notts County F.C. Centre of Excellence as a forward until the club closed it down . Despite receiving offers from Nottingham Forest F.C. and Derby County F.C. , Oldham chose to focus on gymnastics . Oldham 's father and grandfather were both footballers , and his younger brother currently plays in the Nottingham Forest youth setup .
Oldham is a Manchester United F.C. fan and considers Vitaly Scherbo to be the gymnast he would most like to compete against , for the latter 's performance winning six golds at the 1992 Summer Olympics .
= = Career = =
= = = Junior career = = =
Oldham left Rushcliffe School and moved to Huntingdon at the age of 14 to train with the 2008 Summer Olympics @-@ bound gymnasts , where he lodged with the family of fellow gymnast Cameron MacKenzie . His other training partners included eventual pommel horse bronze medallist Louis Smith . Smith later thanked Oldham for being his training partner leading up to Beijing .
At the European Gymnastics Championships in Lausanne , Switzerland in 2008 , where he was the youngest member of the British team , Oldham broke his wrist during his floor routine . However , he managed to complete his routine one @-@ handed and helped the British team to gold in the junior team event . Late in 2008 , a Castle Donington @-@ based company agreed to sponsor Oldham up to the 2012 Summer Olympics .
Oldham was named to the British team for the 2009 Australian Youth Olympic Festival , where he won team gold . Later that year , he was selected to be in the British delegation to the European Youth Olympic Festival in Tampere , Finland , where he won two golds in the pommel horse and parallel bars events . Oldham was named BBC East Midlands ' Junior Sports Personality of the Year in 2009 for his performances in Tampere and for sweeping all seven golds available at the English national championships .
At the 2010 European Gymnastics Championships in Birmingham , England , Oldham won three gold medals , becoming European junior champion in the team all @-@ around , the horizontal bar , and the individual all @-@ around . By winning the individual all @-@ around , Oldham secured qualification to represent Great Britain at the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics in Singapore .
In Singapore , Oldham qualified second overall for the all @-@ around competition and made the finals in four other events – the floor , pommel horse , parallel bars , and horizontal bar .
Oldham was in the silver medal position in the all @-@ around final when he suffered a fall from the horizontal bar , his final apparatus , thus finishing fifth . However , he recovered from the setback to win silver in the pommel horse event , missing out on gold by 0 @.@ 25 points . Oldham subsequently followed that by winning gold in the horizontal bar event , on the same apparatus in which he had suffered his fall during the all @-@ around competition . Despite going first out of the eight finalists , Oldham 's score of 14 @.@ 375 points held out throughout and was enough for gold .
After the Games , Oldham 's coach Paul Hall described Oldham as having a chance of making the British team for the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , while Smith called Oldham is an " amazing talent " and British head gymnastics coach Andre Popov predicted Oldham will " absolutely " become Olympic champion .
Oldham considered trying for the 2010 Commonwealth Games team . However , according to Oldham , this plan was shelved when he was selected to the British senior team for the 2010 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships .
For his performances in 2010 , Oldham was shortlisted for the BBC Young Sports Personality of the Year Award , and for Junior Sportsperson of the Year Award at the Nottinghamshire Sports Awards , the latter of which he won .
= = = Senior career = = =
Oldham was named as Great Britain 's reserve gymnast to participate at the 2010 senior world championships in Rotterdam . He was the youngest member of the British men 's team . The British team qualified for the final and finished seventh in the team all @-@ around , although Oldham did not ultimately take part in the competition . In 2011 , Oldham was included along with Samuel Hunter , Daniel Purvis , Theo Seager , Louis Smith and Kristian Thomas in the British squad travelling to Berlin , Germany for the 2011 European Men 's Artistic Gymnastics Championships from 6 to 10 April , again as the youngest member of the delegation representing Great Britain . Oldham qualified as the second reserve for the parallel bars final and in fourth place for the final on the horizontal bar . He came fourth in the horizontal bar final , which was his first major senior final .
Oldham was to have been part of the British squad at the London Prepares series gymnastics Olympic qualifier in January 2012 , but missed out after breaking his collarbone before the 2011 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships in October 2011 , and further injuring himself during that competition . Without Oldham , the British team secured qualification to the gymnastics events at the 2012 Summer Olympics .
Despite his injury setback , Oldham ended the first year of his senior career by winning all @-@ around silver at the British national championships , which doubled as the final selection trial for the Olympic Games . Oldham attributed his performance , which he said was " better than I could ever have hoped for " and was good enough to see him named to the British squad for the Olympics over Daniel Keatings , to the trials being the final chance to impress the Olympic selectors after his injury layoff .
At 19 , Oldham was the youngest member to be named to the British team for gymnastics at the 2012 Summer Olympics , which won a bronze medal in the men 's team all @-@ around final at the North Greenwich Arena on 30 July .
On 19 – 25 May 2014 , at the 2014 European Championships in Sofia . Oldham along with his teammates ( Daniel Keatings , Daniel Purvis , Max Whitlock , Kristian Thomas ) won Team Great Britain the silver medal behind Russia with a total score of 262 @.@ 087 points . In event finals , Oldham won the silver medal in high bar ( 14 @.@ 866 ) behind 2012 Olympic champion Epke Zonderland .
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= Battle of North Walsham =
The Battle of North Walsham was a mediaeval battle fought on 25 or 26 June 1381 , near the town of North Walsham in the English county of Norfolk , in which a large group of rebellious local peasants was confronted by the heavily armed forces of Henry le Despenser , Bishop of Norwich . The battle is significant for being the last occurrence of any major resistance during the English Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 .
Despenser succeeded in suppressing the rebellion that broke out throughout East Anglia that summer . His force at first consisted of his own retinue , but men flocked to him . He moved across East Anglia towards Norwich and then onwards to North Walsham to deal with the rebels , led by Geoffrey Litster , the so @-@ called ' King of the Commons ' . At North Walsham the rebels were decisively defeated by Despenser 's men . Mediaeval chroniclers differ in their accounts of exactly what happened at North Walsham . After the battle , Litster was captured and executed by Despenser , but the fate of most of his rebel army is not known for certain .
= = Background = =
The Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 was a major rebellion that spread throughout mediaeval England during the summer of that year . Its causes are complex . The drop in population caused by the Black Death , which arrived in England in 1348 , resulted in an acute labour shortage and consequently , higher wages . The Statute of Labourers ( 1351 ) was a law enacted during the first parliament of Edward III , to make labour laws and their intended enforcement more precise and detailed , and also to allow the government to control wages . It had the effect of making life more difficult for peasants , but more profitable for the wealthy landowners . Further discontent erupted from the behaviour of those nobles who ruled on behalf of the boy @-@ king Richard II , and also from the position of the church ; as many priests were ill @-@ educated , and the bishops and abbots themselves were landowners , it was generally hated by the common people . Feelings were stirred up by rebellious priests such as John Ball , who criticised the church wherever the common people flocked to him to listen to his words .
The Revolt began in Essex , following the introduction of a succession of highly unpopular poll taxes levied against the English population . In 1377 the expense of the Hundred Years ' War had caused the government to introduce a poll tax of four pence . By 1380 this had tripled , but as many refused to pay , revenues dropped . The imposition of a third poll tax in 1381 prompted unrest in Essex and Kent , which then spread all over England . According to the Anonimalle Chronicle , the ' evil actions ' of the commons in both Essex and Kent were ' because of the exceptionally severe tenths and fifteenths and other subsidies lightly conceded in parliaments and extortionately levied from the poor people ' . Most serious of all were events that occurred in London on 13 – 15 June . During the summer , rebels from Kent and Essex marched to London and , once admitted to the city , managed to capture the Tower of London . King Richard , who had promised to agree to all the demands of the peasants , met the rebels outside the city , where the peasants ' leader , Wat Tyler , was killed and the rebellion was ended . Once they were defeated it became clear to the rebels that they had failed to gain Richard 's support . Whilst the king was at Waltham , in Essex , a proclamation was issued condemning the rebels and denying that he had ever approved of their actions . At Waltham , Richard refused to ratify the promises he made , as he believed they had been extorted by force , adding , " Villeins ye are still , and villeins ye shall remain " , and threatening vengeance upon those who had rebelled .
The rebellions in Essex , Kent and London spread to many other English counties . In Norfolk , the rebellion started on 14 June , when a group of rebels from Suffolk reached the county , and spread westwards towards the Fens and north @-@ eastwards towards Norwich and Yarmouth . As in other parts of the country there was widespread unrest , during which property and official documents were destroyed and several individuals were summarily executed .
= = The leaders = =
Henry le Despenser ( c . 1341 – 1406 ) was an English nobleman who in his early life had been a soldier in Italy , and who in 1370 became Bishop of Norwich . He obtained a reputation as the ' Fighting Bishop ' after playing his part in suppressing the Norfolk rebels during the Peasants ' Revolt , and later embarking on an ill @-@ fated enterprise for Pope Urban VI , who in 1382 employed him to lead a crusade in Flanders against the supporters of the anti @-@ pope Clement VII . For his defeat at the siege of Ypres ( 1383 ) , Despenser was impeached in Parliament , attainted and deprived of his lands . He later regained his lands and favour with king Richard II of England . In 1399 Henry Bolingbroke landed at Ravenspur in Yorkshire and the military campaign that followed resulted in Richard 's abdication . Despenser remained true to Richard : he was subsequently imprisoned , but was afterwards reconciled with the new king . Henry le Despenser died in his diocese at North Elmham in 1406 .
Little is known of Geoffrey Litster ( also named by mediaeval chroniclers as Iohanne Lyttestere and Jekke Litster ) , a moderately wealthy dyer from the village of Felmingham in Norfolk . He is first recorded in the returns made by the collectors of the 1379 poll tax in Norfolk . As peasants , he and his men would have been both untrained and unequipped to fight Despenser 's fully armed and trained force . Geoffrey Litster was captured after the battle and executed soon afterwards at North Walsham .
= = Events in Norfolk before the battle = =
During the summer of 1381 , insurrection spread from the south @-@ east of the country to other parts of England , including the diocese of Norwich , where the rebellion lasted less than a fortnight . On 14 June a group of rebels reached Thetford , and from there the revolt spread over south @-@ western Norfolk towards the Fens . At the same time the rebels , led by Geoffrey Litster , moved across the north @-@ eastern part of the county and tried to raise support throughout the local area . Over the next few days , the rebels converged on Norwich , Lynn and Swaffham . Norwich , then one of the largest and most important cities in the realm , was taken and occupied by Litster and his followers , who caused considerable damage to the property and possessions of anyone they perceived as an enemy ( such as poll tax collectors and important officials ) once they managed to enter the city . The Norwich rebels then travelled to Yarmouth , destroying legal records and landowners ' possessions , while other insurgents moving across north @-@ east Norfolk destroyed court rolls and taxation documents . There were numerous incidents of pillage and extortion across the whole county .
The Anonimalle Chronicle gives a clear account of the unrest in East Anglia . On hearing of the rebellion , Henry le Despenser acted swiftly , moving through Cambridgeshire , Suffolk and Norfolk from his home in Burley , Rutland . His armed force initially consisted of his personal retinue , but ultimately became a much larger force consisting of many knights and other men who had previously not dared to confront the rebels . According to the historian Edgar Powell , Henry Dispenser undertook the task of dealing with the revolt in his diocese and punishing the rebels . He was involved in crushing rebellions at Peterborough and elsewhere , before moving on to suppress the revolts in Cambridge . The authorities were alerted to the call in Norfolk for men to join the revolt in the name of Litster . On 17 June the rebels from the north and east of the county assembled on Mousehold Heath , outside Norwich : shortly afterwards , Sir Robert Salle , who had come out of the city to speak with the commons , was killed . According to Thomas Walsingham , the knight died soon after he was ' knocked on the head by a rustic who was one of his own serfs ' . The rebels then entered Norwich and wreaked havoc , destroying property and killing several prominent citizens . Other houses and church properties within the county ( such as at Yarmouth ) were attacked by the rebels at this time .
Geoffrey Litster was at Thorpe Market on 21 June and by the next day Despenser had reached nearby Felmingham . Hearing that the rebels were close , Despenser travelled the short distance from Felmingham to North Walsham Heath , where he encountered Litster and his men .
= = The battle and its aftermath = =
There are no eye witness accounts of the battle that was fought at North Walsham on 25 or 26 June 1381 . The chronicler Thomas Walsingham related that there was a fierce engagement at North Walsham Heath , south of the town , in which " the warlike Bishop " led a successful attack on the rebels ' entrenched position . The Escheators ' Inquisitions for the period that name Litster also included the names of rebels from North Walsham who were killed , giving strong evidence that the rebels suffered a severe defeat . According to Thomas Walsingham , the rebels were routed as they fled through woodland and cut down as they were found . Writing in the 19th century , Walter Rye quoted a local man , " They dew say a 'mazin ' lot of men are buried in that pightle . " The local belief that the parish church at North Walsham was the scene of a bloodbath after the battle cannot be substantiated using historical documents .
According to The Book of Illustrious Henries , written by the 15th @-@ century historian John Capgrave , very little fighting took place . The chronicler related that , " But by the good management of the bishop , and of other men who had assembled there , the whole people surrendered , rejoicing that they might withdraw in peace . Jack Litster himself , leaping over a wall , hid himself in a corn @-@ field " .
Inevitably the rebels ' ' king ' was found . Walsingham and Capgrave agree that after Geoffrey Litster 's capture , he was taken to North Walsham and was there drawn , hung and quartered . According to Capgrave 's chronicle , " The traitor was sought and found ; he was captured and beheaded ; and , divided into four parts , he was sent through the country to Norwich , Yarmouth , and Lynn , and to the site of his mansion ; that rebels and insurgents against the peace might learn by what end they will finish their career " . Walsingham wrote an account of the mercy shown by the bishop to Litster during his execution : " After hearing his confession and absolving him by virtue of his office , he followed him to the gallows , showing , although he had overcome him , a deed of kindness and piety , for he supported his head lest it should be bruised by the ground when he was being drawn to the hanging " .
Litster 's widow Agnes was later pursued by the authorities and was made to settle his outstanding debts ( for the sum of 33 shillings and nine pence ) .
= = Commemoration of the battle = =
The site of the battle is one of only five battlefields in Norfolk that are recognised by Norfolk County Council . The battle was commemorated by three mediaeval stone crosses : one is on private land ; another ( now a stump ) was relocated by North Walsham Urban District Council in 1932 and can be found near the roadside by the town 's water towers ; the third cross was moved and used as a parish boundary marker . It is situated on Toff ’ s Loke , off Norwich Road .
A sculpture in the Memorial Park , North Walsham , carved in 1999 by Mark Goldsworthy from the trunk of a 120 @-@ year @-@ old oak tree , commemorates the 1381 battle .
North Walsham 's town sign contains a mosaic depicting the Peasants ' Revolt .
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= Get Away From My Mom =
" Get Away From My Mom " is the pilot episode of the American animated sitcom Home Movies . It originally aired on United Paramount Network on April 26 , 1999 . In the episode , eight @-@ year @-@ old Brendon Small discovers that his mother , Paula , is set to have a date with Brendon 's soccer coach , the lazy , profane alcoholic John McGuirk . Brendon resents McGuirk for this and expresses his outrage throughout the episode . The date goes terribly and McGuirk and Paula decide to not pursue a relationship . Meanwhile , Brendon and his friends Melissa and Jason film a new movie about a rogue police officer .
The episode used retroscripting , a process by which the actors completely improvised all their dialogue lines , the first time this technique was used for an animated television production . Certain script material , however , was provided by series co @-@ founder Loren Bouchard , who also directed the episode . The pilot also utilized the " Squigglevision " style of animation which was used to produce the show for the entirety of its first season . In its original broadcast , " Get Away From My Mom " received a 1 @.@ 4 / 2 Nielsen Rating , the lowest UPN had ever received in that time slot . The episode received mixed reviews from television critics , particularly pertaining to its employment of improvisation .
= = Plot = =
After soccer practice , eight @-@ year @-@ old aspiring filmmaker Brendon Small shows his mother Paula a self @-@ made trailer for his upcoming film , The Dark Side of the Law , a crime film about a rogue police detective . Paula expresses indifference to the production . At breakfast the next morning , Paula informs Brendon she plans to go on a date that night with Brendon 's soccer coach , John McGuirk , much to Brendon 's chagrin . Brendon seeks advice from his friend Melissa and her father Erik , but they are unable to advise him as they are late for a violin recital .
When McGuirk shows up at Brendon 's house for the date that night , Brendon tries to scare him off by acting as if he is his son , but it proves unsuccessful . During the date , Paula becomes agitated at McGuirk 's inappropriate , boring subject matter , and she becomes drunk in order to entertain herself . Meanwhile , Brendon , Melissa , and their friend Jason film a scene from The Dark Side of the Law in Brendon 's basement , where Brendon 's character is in a French prison , confronted by his mother , played by Melissa . They stop filming when Jason 's nose starts running , and he demonstrates how he can move the mucus up and down to their disgust .
At soccer practice the next day , Brendon — still upset with his mother 's decision to date his coach — is uncooperative and chastises McGuirk for dating his mother , accusing him of desires to engage in a relationship with all the soccer players ' mothers . While being driven home by Erik , Brendon asks Erik to fight McGuirk as revenge , but Erik denies his request and suggests he take his mind off the topic by playing a car game . Eventually , Brendon decides to apologize to McGuirk for his behavior , and the two reconcile . Later , McGuirk and Paula decide over the phone to end their relationship , a decision Brendon overhears using three @-@ way calling .
At the next soccer game , Brendon 's team plays poorly , and an opposing player injures Brendon , which causes McGuirk to yell at the referee . While sitting out , Brendon spots Erik and Paula engaging in meaningless and casual flirtation in the bleachers , which Brendon interprets as another possible relationship .
= = Production = =
" Get Away From My Mom " was the first episode of Home Movies , which was created by Brendon Small and Loren Bouchard . The episode , as with the four subsequent episodes , demonstrated a writing style known as " retroscripting , " in which the cast completely improvised their lines . Main cast members Small , H. Jon Benjamin , Paula Poundstone and Melissa Bardin Galsky wrote the episodes , while Bouchard also contributed to certain dialogue material . The episode marked the first animated television production without a script .
Bouchard directed this first episode and the entire series . Along with the rest of the first season , the episode was animated using " squigglevision , " a technique pioneered by the show 's executive producer , Tom Snyder . The animation style consists of eight frames of looped " zigzagged " lines that stimulate the character 's mouth movement . This style was used to produce the series on its incredibly low budget and allow for the actors to improvise . The style was eventually changed during the second season to Flash animation , which was believed to be a more conventional style .
To make the young characters sound like children , instead of adults , recordings of the actors ' performances were electronically altered . Galsky was cast to play Melissa despite having no prior experience in voice acting . Galsky considers Bouchard the biggest benefactor to her career based on that decision . After recording sessions for " Get Away From My Mom " concluded , Small ( who voices Brendon ) and Benjamin ( who plays McGuirk ) went out to drink beers before going to see a concert . According to Small , the experience contributed to their understanding of the unique dynamic between the characters .
" Get Away From My Mom " is available on the DVD " Home Movies : The Complete First Season , " which was released on November 16 , 2004 . A bonus feature on the DVD enables an audio commentary track , recorded by Small , Bouchard , and Benjamin , to play over the episode . Though generally intended to be humorous and entertaining , the track also details actual information on the episode 's production .
= = Reception = =
" Get Away From My Mom " was originally broadcast on April 26 , 1999 on UPN at 8 p.m. The episode received a 1 @.@ 4 / 2 Nielsen rating , positioning it at 133 in total viewership for 1999 's May sweeps . This marked the lowest rated telecast the network had ever aired in its timeslot at the time .
The episode received generally mixed reviews from television critics . Writing for The Cincinnati Enquirer , John Kiesewetter criticized the show 's use of improvised dialogue : " The uneven plot and sophomoric bodily function jokes sound like these people were making it up as they went along . And they were . " Rob Owen , television critic for the Post @-@ Gazette , paralleled Kiesewetter and said that the episode was a " pitfall " of the improvisation process : " The half @-@ hour seems like a collection of scenes rather than a cohesive episode . " Owen called it " so lackadaisical , it 's hard to imagine UPN 's most recently announced target audience - young males - having any patience for the program . The entertainment value is low " , but did note that McGuirk 's scenes in the episode were " the closest to ha @-@ ha funny the show gets . "
Conversely , John Levesque called the show a " keeper " in his review for the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer and applauded the series subtle , improvised style . Chicago Sun @-@ Times journalist Phil Rosenthal commended the episode . In his review , he wrote , " Rather than big laughs , it 's more likely to elicit the grin of bemused recognition . It 's not about sight gags or clever puns . It 's not about parodying the sitcom form . This sweet ass series [ ... ] is not always subtle - unless a child showing another how to have fun with a runny nose is intellectual - but it nicely plays off the inherent absurdities and weirdness of everyday modern life . " Dennis Landmann of DVD Freak wrote that the episode " sets up the tone quite well , for it develops the aspirations of Brendon becoming a filmmaker , " and praised the confrontational scenes that occur between McGuirk and Brendon .
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= Epsilon Aurigae =
Epsilon Aurigae ( ε Aur , ε Aurigae ) is the Bayer designation for a star in the northern constellation of Auriga . It is traditionally known as Almaaz , Haldus , or Al Anz . Epsilon Aurigae is an unusual eclipsing binary system comprising an F0 supergiant and a companion which is generally accepted to be a huge dark disk orbiting an unknown object , possibly a binary system of two small B @-@ type stars . About every 27 years , Epsilon Aurigae 's brightness drops from an apparent visual magnitude of + 2 @.@ 92 to + 3 @.@ 83 . This dimming lasts 640 – 730 days . In addition to this eclipse , the system also has a low amplitude pulsation with a non @-@ consistent period of around 66 days . The distance to the system is still a subject of debate , but modern estimates place it approximately 2 @,@ 000 light years from Earth .
Epsilon Aurigae was first suspected to be a variable star when German astronomer Johann Heinrich Fritsch observed it in 1821 . Later observations by Eduard Heis and Friedrich Wilhelm Argelander reinforced Fritsch 's initial suspicions and attracted attention to the star . Hans Ludendorff , however , was the first to study it in great detail . His work revealed that the system was an eclipsing binary variable , a star that dims when its partner obscures its light .
Epsilon Aurigae 's eclipsing companion has been subject to much debate since the object does not emit as much light as is expected for an object its size . As of 2008 , the most popularly accepted model for this companion object is a binary star system surrounded by a massive , opaque disk of dust ; theories speculating that the object is a large , semitransparent star or a black hole have since been discarded .
= = Observational history = =
Although the star is easily visible to the naked eye , Johann Fritsch 's 1821 observations suggest he was the first to notice that the system was a variable . Eventually , from 1842 to 1848 , German mathematician Eduard Heis and Prussian astronomer Friedrich Wilhelm Argelander began observing it once every few years . Both Heis ' and Argelander 's data revealed that the star had become significantly dimmer by 1847 , attracting the full attention of both men at that point . Epsilon Aurigae had brightened significantly , and had returned to " normal " by the following September . As it attracted more attention , more and more data was compiled . The observational data revealed that Epsilon Aurigae did not just vary over a long period , but also experienced short @-@ term variations in brightness as well . Later eclipses took place between 1874 and 1875 and , nearly thirty years later , between 1901 and 1902 .
Hans Ludendorff , who had also been observing Epsilon Aurigae , was the first to conduct a detailed study of the star . In 1904 , he published in Astronomische Nachrichten an article titled Untersuchungen über den Lichtwechsel von ε Aurigae ( Investigations of the Light Changes of Epsilon Aurigae ) , where he suggested the star was an Algol variable and an eclipsing binary .
Epsilon Aurigae was targeted for observation by International Year of Astronomy observers from 2009 to 2011 , the three years that overlapped its most recent eclipse .
= = = Spitzer observations , 2009 = = =
At the January 2010 meeting of the American Astronomical Society , Donald Hoard of NASA 's Spitzer Science Center at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena reported that observations from NASA 's Spitzer Space Telescope along with earlier observations point to the primary being a post @-@ asymptotic giant branch star with about 2 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 3 times the mass of the Sun periodically eclipsed by just a single B class star inside a disk . This was accomplished by pointing Spitzer at the star using the corner of four of Spitzer 's pixels , instead of directly at one , to effectively reduce the telescope 's sensitivity and preventing the star from overloading it , then using exposures of one @-@ hundredth of a second , the shortest duration images that can be obtained by Spitzer . The data supports the presence of the companion star 's disk , and establish the particle sizes as being like gravel rather than like fine dust .
= = Nature of the system = =
The nature of the Epsilon Aurigae system has always been unclear . It has long been known to consist of at least two components which undergo periodic eclipses with an unusual flat @-@ bottomed dimming every 27 years . Early explanations with exceptionally large diffuse stars , black holes , and odd doughnut @-@ shaped discs are no longer accepted . There are now two main explanations that can account for the known observed characteristics : a high mass model where the primary is a yellow supergiant of around 15 M ☉ ; and a low mass model where the primary is about 2 M ☉ and a less luminous evolved star .
Variations on the high mass model have always been popular , since the primary star is to all appearances a large supergiant star . Spectroscopically it is early F or late A with luminosity class Ia or Iab . Distance estimates consistently lead to luminosities expected for a bright supergiant . One exception is the Hipparcos parallax measurement , but the margin of error is as large as the value itself and so the derived distance is likely to be anything from 355 @-@ 4167pc . The main problem with this model is the nature of the secondary , which is required to have a mass about the same as the primary , at odds with observations where it appears as a B @-@ type main sequence star . The secondary may be a close binary involving two lower @-@ mass main sequence stars , or a more complex system .
The low mass model , recently popularised by the Citizen Sky project , proposes that the primary is an evolved asymptotic giant branch star of 2 – 4 M ☉ . This relies on distance and luminosity estimates lower than most observations . The star would be an unusually large and bright giant star for the given mass , possibly as the result of very high mass loss . To match the observed eclipse and orbital data , the secondary is a fairly normal B main sequence star of about 6 M ☉ embedded in a thick disc seen nearly edge on .
The orbit itself is now fairly well determined , inclined at over 87 degrees to us . The primary and the disk are nearly thirty AU apart , ( in the high mass model ) which is approximately the distance of the planet Neptune from the Sun .
= = = Visible component = = =
The visible component , Epsilon Aurigae A , is a semiregular pulsating post @-@ asymptotic giant branch star belonging to the spectral class F0 . This F @-@ type star has around 135 to 190 times the diameter of the Sun , and is 70 @,@ 000 to 80 @,@ 000 times as luminous . ( Reliable sources vary considerably in their estimates of both quantities . ) If the star were in the position of the Sun , it would envelop Mercury and possibly Venus . F @-@ type stars like Epsilon Aurigae tend to glow white and display strong ionized calcium absorption lines and weak hydrogen absorption lines ; being a class above the Sun ( which is a G @-@ type star ) , F @-@ type stars are typically hotter than sunlike stars . Other F @-@ type stars include Procyon 's primary star , the brightest star in the Canis Minor constellation ; and Canopus , the second brightest star in the night sky and the brightest star in the Carina constellation .
= = = Eclipsing component = = =
The eclipsing component emits a negligible amount of light , and is not visible to the naked eye . A heated region , however , has been discovered in the center of the object . The exact form of Epsilon Aurigae 's eclipsing component is not known . Hypotheses concerning the nature of this second object have been proposed , three of which have garnered attention from the scientific community .
The first hypothesis , set forth in 1937 by astronomers Gerard Kuiper , Otto Struve , and Bengt Strömgren , suggested that Epsilon Aurigae was a binary star system containing an F2 supergiant and an extremely cool " semitransparent " star that would completely eclipse its companion . However , the eclipsing star would scatter light emitted by its eclipsed companion resulting in the observed decrease in magnitude . The scattered light would be detected on Earth as a star visible to the naked eye , although this light would be significantly dimmed . However , astronomer Su @-@ Shu Huang published a paper in 1965 that outlined the defects of the Kuiper @-@ Struve @-@ Strömgren model , and proposed that the companion is a large disk system , edge @-@ on from the perspective of Earth . Robert Wilson , in 1971 , proposed that a " central opening " lay in the disk , a possible reason for the system 's sudden brightening mid @-@ way through the eclipse . In 2005 , the system was observed in the ultraviolet by the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer ( FUSE ) ; as the star system was not emitting energy at rates characteristic of objects such as the neutron star binary system Circinus X @-@ 1 or black hole binary system Cygnus X @-@ 1 , the object occupying the center of the disk is not expected to be anything of the sort ; in contrast , a new hypothesis has suggested that the central object is actually a B5 @-@ type star .
= = Observation = =
The star is easily found because of its brightness and apparent proximity to the star Capella . It is the apex of the isosceles triangle forming the ' nose ' of the constellation Auriga . The star is bright enough to be seen from most urban locations with moderate amounts of light pollution . Visual variable star observers make an estimate of its brightness by comparing its brightness with nearby stars with a known brightness value .
= = Citizen Sky = =
The National Science Foundation has awarded the AAVSO a three @-@ year grant to fund a citizen science project built around the 2009 @-@ 2011 eclipse . The project , called Citizen Sky , is organizing and training participants to observe the eclipse and report their data to a central database . In addition , participants will help validate and analyze the data while testing their own theories and publishing original research articles in a peer @-@ reviewed astronomical journal .
= = Etymology = =
" Epsilon Aurigae " is the system 's Bayer designation ( invented by German astronomer Johann Bayer in his 1603 atlas , Uranometria ) . The star is also known colloquially as Almaaz , Haldus or Al Anz . Both Almaaz and Al Anz derive from the Arabic اَلْمَاعَزْ al @-@ mācz ( ( billy ) goat ) , corresponding to the name of the star Capella ( Latin for " nanny goat " ) .
In Chinese , 柱 ( Zhù ) , meaning Pillars , refers to an asterism consisting of ε Aurigae , ζ Aurigae , η Aurigae , υ Aurigae , ν Aurigae , τ Aurigae , χ Aurigae and 26 Aurigae . Consequently , ε Aurigae itself is known as 柱一 ( Zhù yī , " First Star of Pillars " ) .
= = Gallery = =
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= Tomb Raider : The Angel of Darkness =
Tomb Raider : The Angel of Darkness is the sixth video game in the Tomb Raider series , acting as a direct sequel to Tomb Raider Chronicles and The Last Revelation . It was developed by Core Design and published by Eidos Interactive . The game was originally released in 2003 for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 2 and Mac OS X and was the first Tomb Raider title to be released for the PlayStation 2 console . The storyline follows Lara Croft as she attempts to clear herself of murdering her former mentor Werner Von Croy while investigating the activities of a black magic cult .
The game 's development began three years before release . The intention was to create a different game from previous entries in the franchise which could compete better with newer action games , and to fully exploit the potential of the next generation of gaming platforms . The production was fraught with difficulties , and the game ended up being delayed twice . When released , the game sold 2 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide , but was widely criticised for its poor controls and multiple bugs . In the aftermath of the game 's release , a potential trilogy was scrapped and development of the franchise was transferred to Crystal Dynamics for the next entry in the series , Tomb Raider : Legend .
= = Gameplay = =
Tomb Raider : The Angel of Darkness , like previous Tomb Raider games , is a third @-@ person action @-@ adventure puzzle game . Players control the main series protagonist Lara Croft through the majority of the game . The majority of Lara 's basic moves are carried over from the previous instalment , such as walking , jumping , climbing , swinging on ropes and standard gunplay . Her new moves include a small hop , army @-@ crawling , hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat and a " super @-@ jump " that can be performed while running . Lara can also sneak up on enemies and perform stealth attacks , flatten herself against walls and peer round corners . Lara 's ability to sprint , present in the three previous entries in the series , is only available when the player opens a cabinet containing gas masks in the ' Galleries Under Siege ' level . Her weapons arsenal is also modified from previous games , featuring new weapons such as a K2 Impactor stun gun and upgraded versions of weapons like the shotgun .
Unlike previous games in the series , Lara has a stamina meter which depletes while she is performing bouts of climbing : if the bar empties before reaching her destination , she falls . The rate at which the meter decrease slows if the player performs special actions that increase Lara 's strength . These actions are also necessary to progress in many of the levels . The game incorporates elements similar to a role @-@ playing game , whereby Lara can talk with various NPCs found throughout the environments and chose what kinds of answers to give : early in the game , these answers will directly affect her progress through the story . The game also features a second playable character , Kurtis Trent . Initially appearing to be an antagonist , the player assumes control of him late in the game . He features mainly identical moves to Lara , and his sections of the game are more based around combat .
= = Plot = =
Angel of Darkness follows on from events in Tomb Raider : The Last Revelation and Tomb Raider Chronicles , where Lara Croft was presumed dead . An unspecified time later , Lara arrives in Paris at the request of her former mentor , Werner Von Croy . The city , and Von Croy , are gripped with fear over a serial killer the press have dubbed the " Monstrum " . The Monstrum steals body parts and leaves distinctive signs made with the victim ’ s blood in its wake . During a confrontation with Von Croy at his apartment , a flurry of activity occurs and Lara is knocked unconscious . When she wakes , Von Croy has been murdered by the Monstrum , and Lara is the prime suspect . Fleeing the crime scene with police in pursuit , Lara tracks down Von Croy 's friend Margot Carvier , who agrees to give Lara Von Croy 's old notebook , which he had left with her for safekeeping . From Carvier , Lara discovers that Von Croy had been contracted by a client named Eckhardt to track down medieval icons called the Obscura Paintings . The next day , it is revealed Carvier has also been murdered by the Monstrum .
Shortly before his death , Von Croy had been in contact with a French businessman and underworld figure , Louis Bouchard . Lara must track down Bouchard through the almost @-@ deserted backstreets of Paris , discovering that Bouchard is now in hiding after several of his associates were killed by the Monstrum . When she does locate him , Bouchard reveals Von Croy had contacted him for assistance in breaking into an archaeological dig beneath the Musée du Louvre . Lara gains access to the Louvre through its storm drains , and is able to uncover more information connecting the archaeological dig to the Obscura Paintings . The paintings concern the Nephilim , a hybrid creature descended from angels and humans , which once lived in Turkey . A single dormant Nephilim now remains , the Cubiculum Nephili or " Sleeper " . The five Obscura Paintings , when connected , form a talisman called the Sanglyph that can be used to revive the Sleeper . To prevent this , an ancient society called the Lux Veritatis stole one of the paintings and hid it in a guarded vault beneath the Louvre . Lara must descend into the Lux Veritatis stronghold beneath the Louvre to retrieve it . While attempting to escape with the painting , Lara is disarmed by Kurtis Trent , the last of the Lux Veritatis , who wields a magical Chirugai blade . Kurtis steals the painting , but both he and Lara are knocked unconscious before they can flee .
Upon regaining consciousness , Lara is met by Bouchard , who informs her there has been a Monstrum killing in Prague . Bouchard then betrays Lara , attempting to have her killed , but Lara survives and makes her way to the Czech Republic . Outside the Monstrum crime scene , Lara meets a Czech journalist named Luddick , who fills her in on Eckhardt , an immortal black alchemist who leads a mysterious local organisation called the Cabal , and whom Luddick believes is the Monstrum . Lara also encounters a captive Bouchard near the crime scene , who reveals Eckhardt 's full plan for reviving the Nephilim . Soon after , Lara rediscovers Bouchard dead . With Luddick 's assistance , Lara infiltrates the Cabal 's headquarters , the Strahov , and in the process accidentally frees the Proto @-@ Nephilim , the Cabal 's unsuccessful attempt to breed a new Nephilim species . Meanwhile , Lara witnesses Eckhardt murder Luddick . She again encounters Kurtis , who locks her in a compartment while he kills the Proto @-@ Nephilim using his two Periapt Shards , daggers capable of killing immortal beings . Lara and Kurtis team up to stop Eckhardt assembling the Sanglyph , with Lara retrieving the final Obscura Painting buried deep beneath the Strahov . However , Lara must surrender this painting to save Kurtis , after he is captured by Eckhardt . Kurtis gives Lara his Periapt shards , but she will need a third lost shard to defeat Eckhardt , which Eckhardt has hidden in his laboratory . While Lara flees to track this shard down , Kurtis attempts to hold off an attack from Boaz , the horribly mutated remains of a fallen Cabal member . Kurtis succeeds in killing her , but is severely wounded in the process .
After retrieving the final Periapt shard , Lara discovers Eckardt in the midst of attempting to revive the Sleeper , using the Sanglyph and body parts stolen from the Monstrum 's victims . She is able to stab him with two shards , but before she can deliver the final blow , she is interrupted by Eckhardt 's right @-@ hand man , Karel . Karel kills Eckhardt with the final shard , revealing that he is a Nephilim himself , and had used Eckhardt to ensure the survival of his species . He had also manipulated Lara , in the guise of Bouchard , Luddick and Kurtis , to retrieve the Obscura Paintings . He offers Lara immortality if she will help him complete the task , but Lara experiences a flashback to Von Croy ’ s murder , and sees that Karel , in Eckhardt 's form , was the Monstrum . She refuses , retrieves the Sanglyph from Eckhardt 's body , and plants it on the Sleeper , overloading it with energy and causing it to explode , taking Karel with it . In the aftermath , Lara discovers Kurtis ' Chirugai blade , which directs her towards Boaz 's chamber . Smiling , she heads inside .
= = Development = =
The Angel of Darkness started development three years prior to its release under the working title Tomb Raider next generation . As part of the preparation for the game , the company conducted market research , and decided to create a new setting and story for the main character . One of the main drives behind the game was fully utilising the new platform 's potential and reinventing the character of Lara Croft , including rebuilding her character model and allowing her to perform melee combat . It was the first game in the series to be made for the PlayStation 2 platform : the previous entry in the series , Tomb Raider : Chronicles , had pushed the PlayStation to its technical limits , contributing to lower review scores and sales than previous titles in the series . Core Design separated into two teams , with a new team working on Angel of Darkness and series regulars on Tomb Raider : Chronicles . After the completion of Tomb Raider : Chronicles , lead programmer Richard Morton came over and found that the new team had gone off the rails , scrapping the entire project once already and completing only the game 's basic story . The developers later admitted to being overambitious . Jonell Elliott returned as the voice of Lara Croft . This would be the last time she provided the voice , with Keeley Hawes taking over for Tomb Raider : Legend .
Among the goals of the team for Angel of Darkness were to create more complicated puzzles and make the character of Lara Croft , together with the tone of the game , darker and more hard @-@ edged . They also wished to compete with some of the newer action @-@ adventure games on the market , which were providing heavy competition , and include gameplay ideas from Shenmue and the Metal Gear series . Many character movements were drawn from and based directly on movements made by real people , similar to later motion capture techniques , and the world design drew from various artists and elements of films from the likes of Luc Besson and David Fincher . Murti Schofield , who had previously worked with Core Design , was brought in to write the story and script . As part of writing the background for the organisations involved in the story , he researched historical secret societies and artefacts , and accurate translations of Latin text incorporated into the game . Schofield created the character Kurtis Trent upon a request for someone who could become the focus of a spin @-@ off franchise . Core spent two years trying to reshape the franchise as well as writing a back story in the form of a book separated into multiple chapters , with Angel of Darkness being the first of those chapters .
The Angel of Darkness was unveiled under its official name in March 2002 , with a fuller demonstration appearing at E3 that year . Problems with the game were sensed at an early stage , as Heath @-@ Smith forgot himself and began swearing at the game while trying to demonstrate the opening level at a buyer 's conference . A release date was announced for November 2002 , but the game got delayed into spring 2003 . Eidos believed The Angel of Darkness would benefit from additional marketing support from Lara Croft Tomb Raider : The Cradle of Life , the sequel to the original 2001 movie . Despite the delays , the company pushed Core Design to release the game in time for the marketing support . In order to meet the deadline , areas of the game containing key narrative elements had to be cut ; one of the losses was the explanation of how the character survived the events of The Last Revelation . Among other concepts that needed to be cut were two further locations , character animations , sound bites , and unique gameplay elements involving Kurtis . Some completed environmental assets also ended up being cut by mistake . Some of those elements were also deliberately left out by the team , who wished to bring them into future games . The team at Core Design later said that they felt Eidos forced them to get the game out before it was ready . The game was also reportedly submitted eight times to Sony before its release . The game went gold on 18 June 2003 , two days before its original release date , although there was some confusion as the game had reportedly gone gold on 2 June . The game was finally released in the summer of 2003 , alongside The Cradle of Life .
= = Music = =
The music for Tomb Raider : Angel of Darkness was composed by Peter Connelly and Martin Iveson . The soundtrack , compared to earlier entries in the franchise , was far more orchestral . It was also one of the few areas of the game 's development that did not suffer setbacks or similar problems . The score was recorded live by the London Symphony Orchestra at Abbey Road Studios , London , in 2002 . It was orchestrated by Peter Wraight and conducted by David Snell . The Europe @-@ exclusive ' Collector 's Edition ' of the game included eight tracks from the game 's soundtrack on the bonus documentary DVD . These tracks were later release as a stand @-@ alone Audio CD .
= = Reception = =
Tomb Raider : The Angel of Darkness received strong initial sales , mostly driven by an aggressive advertising campaign . The game reached 6th place in the UK Top 20 sales charts , but dropped to 13th by the following week . It eventually went on to sell 2 @.@ 5 million copies . The game received mixed to negative reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 , the game received an average score of 52 and 49 for the PlayStation 2 and Windows version , respectively . Reviewers praised the game 's storyline , graphics , sound , and environments , while they criticised its large number of bugs and system requirements and its poor controls , combat system , and camera movement . Gaming magazines Game Informer and PlayStation Official Magazine gave it 5 @.@ 5 / 10 and 8 / 10 respectively .
The game 's story received positive reviews . IGN 's Douglas C. Perry praised its " compelling storyline " and " set of intriguing bit characters " , while Gamespot 's Greg Kasavin praised the story as " interesting " , expressing surprise that it did not earn a higher ESRB rating . Eurogamer 's Kristan Reed called it " a cut above most gaming fodder , and an area Core has paid an enormous amount of attention to . " Game Revolution 's A. A. White was less positive , stating that while the game 's darker story was an improvement compared to its predecessors , it never " [ managed ] to build to a captivating crescendo " , while the reviewer for GamesRadar called it " bountiful but confusing and ultimately of GCSE @-@ standard creative writing . " The music and sound were also highly praised . Perry called it " beautifully scored game , plush with dramatic mood and feeling " , with minimal sound effects adding " a sense of variety and even peculiarity " , Reed called it " excellently atmospheric throughout , and easily the best yet in the series . " while Kavasin praised the game for " excellent ambient effects , a perfectly suited musical score , and first @-@ rate voice acting . "
The reaction to the graphics were mixed to positive . Perry cited multiple examples of good level design , smooth character models , surface textures and lightning , while feeling more mixed about Lara 's unrealistic figure and hardened appearance . White cited the graphics as an improvement , but was unimpressed by Lara 's character model and noted multiple frame @-@ rate dips that seemed " almost like playing the game in slow motion . " The GamesRadar review called the graphics " a measured improvement on [ Tomb Raider : Chronicles ] , but not a clean break from the [ previous ] Croft titles . " Karavin called the detailing in textures and models " impressive " , but cited several points where the game suffered from severe framerate dips . Reed praised the game 's graphical polish , with " almost every multi @-@ tiered location crammed with detail and careful incidentals " , but critiqued the frequent loading screens and stylised or low detail for environments and characters .
The gameplay was heavily criticised . Perry said that those aspects of the game " pale in comparison to 90 % of the PlayStation 2 's adventure or action @-@ adventure games , and they actually hurt the rest of the game 's best qualities " , but that the new moves worked smoothly apart from the stealth actions . White criticised the new layout 's negative effect on gameplay and the poor enemy AI , and Kasavin called the experience " frustrating , difficult , and tedious " , though stating that such moments stood out because many areas of the game were " thrilling " . Reed found the controls dated and the stealth mechanics and strength upgrade system unnecessary , while the GamesRadar reviewer cited both the gameplay and control layout as dated , citing the difficulty of effectively controlling Lara at multiple points in the game because of these issues . The camera was also criticised , with White , Perry , Reed , Kasavin and the GamesRadar reviewer all citing it as awkward to control and sometimes wayward or confusing during its scripted movements . In 2010 , GameTrailers placed the game 5th in their " Top 10 Worst Sequels " list .
The Angel of Darkness caused multiple problems for the Tomb Raider franchise . Paramount Pictures faulted The Cradle of Life 's relatively inadequate box office performance on the poor critical reception , and backlash the video game received from its fans . The head of Core Design , Jeremy Heath @-@ Smith , resigned after the release of the game , and plans for a sequel called The Lost Dominion , part of a proposed trilogy created using the game 's engine , were scrapped . Following the poor performance of both the game and the second movie , Eidos Interactive took the production of Tomb Raider games away from Core Design and assigned them to Crystal Dynamics , noted as the developers of the Legacy of Kain series . In later years , Angel of Darkness has become noted for utilising or experimenting with multiple gameplay features that later became commonplace , such as the RPG elements , stamina metre and mixing atmospheric features from different video game genres .
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= Hellyeah =
Hellyeah is an American heavy metal supergroup , consisting of Mudvayne vocalist Chad Gray , former Nothingface guitarist Tom Maxwell , bass player Kyle Sanders , guitarist Christian Brady and former Pantera and Damageplan drummer Vinnie Paul . The idea to form a supergroup originated in 2000 on the Tattoo the Earth tour , although plans were constantly put on hold due to scheduling conflicts . The summer of 2006 allowed the band to take the project seriously and record its first album . Recorded at Chasin ' Jason studio in Dimebag Darrell 's backyard , a self @-@ titled album was completed in roughly one month . Released on April 10 , 2007 , the album entered the Billboard 200 at number 9 , selling 45 @,@ 000 copies . AllMusic reviewer William Ruhlmann stated the album is " a competent example of its genre " awarding the album three and a half stars .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early days = = =
Hellyeah 's beginnings can be traced back to 2000 on the Tattoo the Earth tour featuring Mudvayne , Nothingface , Slayer , Slipknot and Sevendust . Nothingface guitarist Tom Maxwell became friends with Mudvayne vocalist Chad Gray , and they talked about the possibility of forming a supergroup . The following year , Nothingface toured with Mudvayne and talks to form the supergroup continued , although were constantly put on hold due to scheduling conflicts . At this time , Gray and Maxwell had brainstormed five band names .
Mudvayne guitarist Greg Tribbett approached Maxwell " out of the blue " and wanted to join the band . Nothingface drummer Tommy Sickles originally helmed the drum kit for the band 's demo , however , things did not work out and the search for a new drummer began . The band knew former Pantera and Damageplan drummer Vinnie Paul , and tried to persuade him to join the band as their drummer . Originally , Paul was not sure if he would return to music after the death of his brother , Dimebag Darrell and an 18 @-@ month hiatus : " It was one of those things that I didn 't think I 'd be apart of this ever again without him , and after about a year and a half had gone by , these guys called me up , Chad [ Gray ] and Tom [ Maxwell ] , they were like , ' We 're thinking about putting this band together , would you be into it ? ' First couple of times , I told them , ' No , I don 't think I 'm ready to do this yet . ' And they just were real persistent , they kept calling me . And one night , I had been drinking some red wine and listening to some KISS on 12 " vinyl record and I said , ' You know what , lets take a shot at this , lets see what happens . ' "
The band 's persistence paid off and Paul joined the project . Paul commented about joining the project : " Everybody had their head in the right place and that let 's @-@ tear @-@ the @-@ world @-@ a @-@ new @-@ ass attitude " .
In their previous bands , there had only been one guitarist , so having two was a new experience for all members . Paul felt two guitarists brought back the " old school Iron Maiden thing where they play two parts and give you a grinding rhythm part with a badass melody on top " . In 2006 , Mudvayne did not have any plans to tour and were taking most of the summer and fall off , while Nothingface was preparing to record their next album . The time over the summer allowed the band to pursue the project which had been talked about for years .
Gray flew into Baltimore to Nothingface 's home studio to discuss the project further . The song " Waging War " was written in two days , followed by Maxwell tracking it the next day , and Gray completing vocals . During the summer of 2006 , schedules were clear , which allowed members to take the time to record a studio album . The album was recorded at Paul 's backyard studio , Chasin ' Jason in Arlington , Texas . Filled with photos of his late brother Dimebag , Paul found it tough entering the studio where the last albums by Damageplan and Pantera , and the collaboration Rebel Meets Rebel were recorded , but felt " the dark cloud that was there went away " , due to everyone 's positive energy . Maxwell and Tribbett were the primary writers of the album , and Paul was there to " steer them in the right direction " , with Gray adding his opinion on musical arrangements .
Paul built the members a cabana style house on his pool deck with air conditioning , a TV , and beds so the members felt comfortable while recording . Paul produced the record and Gray felt Paul " facilitated the whole thing " . The album was completed in roughly a month , with three recording sessions . The band worked on the record for eight days and returned home for a break . A 14 @-@ day session , followed the break and then another 10 days in the studio . Gray asserts the breaks in between recording sessions were to " re charge the batteries " , and " get a fresh head " . As the line @-@ up was complete , the band started to brainstorm names . When a member thought of a name they would write it on a piece of paper and put it in an amp box outside the studio . Someone wrote " Hellyeah " , and the band thought it was a perfect choice . Paul says it 's " very affirmative and full of attitude . When your buddy asks if you want to get a beer tonight , you don 't just say ' yes , ' you say , " Hell yeah ! " . Gray attributes the name to " late teens , keggers and chicks and AC / DC and Metallica " .
= = = Hellyeah ( 2007 – 2008 ) = = =
Revolver Magazine was one of the first print publications to feature the band in March 2007 . The self @-@ titled track , " Hellyeah " , started gaining satellite radio airplay in February 2007 , and the first single " You Wouldn 't Know " hit American radio airwaves the same month . " You Wouldn 't Know " peaked at number 5 on the Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks , and 35 on the Hot Modern Rock Tracks . The album 's second single , " Alcohaulin ' Ass " peaked at number 7 on the Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks . The band 's self @-@ titled album , Hellyeah was released on April 10 , 2007 via Epic Records . The album debuted at No. 9 on the Billboard 200 album charts , with sales of just under 45 @,@ 000 . The album peaked on the Top Hard Rock albums at number 15 , and number 3 on the Top Rock Albums . As of October 18 , 2007 , the album has sold 204 @,@ 000 copies .
Hellyeah received generally positive reviews . William Ruhlmann of Allmusic awarded the album three and a half stars out of five , commenting ; " Their album is a competent example of its genre , in which Tribbett and Maxwell combine to create crushing riffs over the pummeling rhythm section of Paul , while Gray howls typically enraged , expletive @-@ littered lyrics to songs " . However , Ruhlmann believes Hellyeah is not a notable variation from members ' previous bands . Blabbermouth.net reviewer Don Kaye awarded the album 7 out of 10 , praising the track " Matter of Time " for its slashing main riff , and " One Thing " as it " marches to the finish line with a rumbling , crunching wall of guitars worthy of Dimebag himself " . Kaye thought that Hellyeah 's first studio effort was not equal to any of its members ' main output . KNAC contributor Andrew Depedro stated " it 's a set of good songs recorded by 5 accomplished musicians from diverse backgrounds not letting their pasts define them and those songs in one form or another speak to you in different ways " .
Bassist Montano was asked to leave Hellyeah after the album 's release party , where he assaulted guitarist Tom Maxwell and made numerous gun threats while heavily intoxicated . The band 's publicist stated his departure was due to " personal reasons on both sides " The band considered Damageplan bassist Bob Zilla as Paul thought ; " It was kind hard to go ahead and commit to this band without Bob being part of it " . Zilla was invited to audition and got the gig immediately .
Hellyeah embarked on their first tour on May 2007 titled Fire it Up , made an appearance at the Download Festival , and underwent Australian tour in July 2007 . The Family Values Tour with Korn and Evanescence , saw the band start touring in late July , which also consisted playing with Alter Bridge in San Antonio before passing through thirty cities before ending in Washington , D.C. A DVD titled Below the Belt was released on November 13 , 2007 , and featured a documentary , music videos , performance footage from the making of the album , first studio sessions , coverage of the band 's world tour , and personal interviews . It was produced by members of the band and Ryan Ziemba .
= = = Stampede ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = =
Hellyeah headlined a tour in the spring of 2010 with : Seether , Five Finger Death Punch , Drowning Pool , and Lacuna Coil . The first date was May 11 , 2010 in Madison , WI . They were also confirmed to play the main stage at Download Festival 2010 . In 2009 , the band revealed that they were in the studio recording a new album , later revealed to be titled Stampede .
For Stampede , the members went to drummer Vinnie Paul 's Texas home studio , for a recording process draped in a relaxed , pressure @-@ free atmosphere , surrounded by the obligatory cocktails , good eats and familial brotherhood . “ We were doing it at my house solely . We ate , drank and BBQed together , which made the brotherhood that happened , come through in the music , " Paul said . The band members lived in bungalows on the grounds and turned Paul 's house into a studio . Drums were recorded downstairs and guitars were recorded upstairs , with video screens in each room so the members could see one another while tracking . The methods may have been unorthodox , but the result was nothing short of magical . " It ’ s a broad , diverse album that covers rock , heavy metal and Southern rock ground . That is the main thing that I like about it : it ’ s not so focused on one thing , " Paul said . The high ceilings at the Paul home allowed for the creation of a big , booming sound . They also were able to work at their own natural pace . " We slept there , so if one of us just came up with an idea , we could jump on it , " guitarist Tom Maxwell said .
" Cowboy Way " , a song from the new album , was released for a free download via the band 's website on April 21 , 2010 . The music video for " Cowboy Way " premiered on May 20 , 2010 . The first single , " Hell of a Time " , was released on June 1 , 2010 . The music video for " Hell of a Time " premiered on June 16 , 2010 . [ 1 ] The song , " The Debt That All Men Pay " premiered on ultimateguitar.com on June 22 , 2010 . Stampede was released on July 13 , 2010 via Epic Records and sold 28 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release , debuting at No. 8 on the Billboard 200 , making it the band 's highest charting album to date .
The group was recently confirmed to be playing the Rock Star Energy Drink Uproar Festival along with other headliners Disturbed , Avenged Sevenfold , Stone Sour and Halestorm .
= = = Band of Brothers ( 2011 – 2012 ) = = =
Hellyeah finished recording a new album , titled Band of Brothers , and were extremely satisfied with the production of the record ; which was produced by Jeremy Parker , who has produced albums for Godsmack and Evanescence , and was recorded in the home of drummer Vinnie Paul 's studio in Arlington , Texas ; VP 's Upstairs Studio . The direction of the album was heavier and more metal @-@ oriented than its predecessors , fusing the different influences of the band members ( Pantera , Mudvayne , Damageplan , Nothingface ) together for a more metal approach . Band of Brothers was released everywhere on July 17 , 2012 via Eleven Seven Music , the band 's new record label home after leaving Epic Records . The digital single " War In Me " was released on iTunes on April 3 , 2012 . Debut single " Band of Brothers " was released in early May with a music video and will be released on iTunes . On May 8 , 2012 , the band 's second single off their 3rd album of the same name , " Band of Brothers " was released .
They played the Download Festival on Sunday 16 June 2013 and played at Graspop Metal Meeting on Sunday 30 June 2013 .
In July 2013 , they were on tour on the Gigantour 2013 .
= = = Lineup changes and Blood for Blood ( 2013 – 2015 ) = = =
In late 2013 , the band posted updates to their Facebook page , detailing that they were in the process of writing and recording their next album . A few short clips were posted by the band showing some of the guitar work underway .
On February 13 , 2014 , the band announced the tracklist and title of their album to be Blood for Blood , released on June 10 . It was also announced that guitarist Greg Tribbett and bassist Bob Kakaha have departed the band , and were shortly replaced by Christian Brady ( Magna @-@ Fi / Überschall ) on guitar and ( Skrew / Bloodsimple / MonstrO ) bassist Kyle Sanders . Hellyeah and Adrenaline Mob have announced a few tour dates together . On June 3 , the full album was available for streaming via YouTube .
On April 13 , 2015 , Hellyeah released the official video for the album 's third single , " Hush " . The song was also used to promote the " No More " campaign against domestic violence . The song supported the from ' Blood for Blood ' album .
Slayer was chosen to headline the 2015 Rockstar Energy Mayhem Festival . The bands HELLYEAH , King Diamond , The Devil Wears Prada , Thy Art Is Murder , Whitechapel , Jungle Rot , Sister Sin , Sworn In , Shattered Sun , Feed Her To The Sharks , Code Orange & Kissing Candice will also be participating in the Rockstar Tour . The festival is slated for 26 stops to run from June 26th through August 2nd .
= = = Unden ! able ( 2016 – present ) = = =
On February 23 , 2016 , the band released a new song called " Human " from their fifth studio album .
On April 8 , 2016 , the band announced their fifth studio album to be titled Unden ! able , released June 3 , 2016 . Tom Maxwell has stated that included on the album will be " a lot of stuff they never tried before " , calling it " moody , dark and crushing " .
= = Style = =
Paul described the band 's sound as " a familiar groove , with a new sound " . Blabbermouth.net reviewer Done Kaye commented " with little of the complexity of Mudvayne or angularity of Nothingface and much more of the full @-@ on , pedal @-@ to @-@ the @-@ metal style of Vinnie Paul 's previous work " . However , Kaye said the songs " Star " and " Thank You " border on musical cliché . Andrew Depedro of KNAC.com stated " ' Alcohaulin ' Ass ' showcases Gray 's hidden talent as an outlaw country and western @-@ type crooner in the intro " , although he thought the band 's lyrics were repetitive . Hellyeah has been categorized as groove metal .
= = Members = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
Hellyeah ( 2007 )
Stampede ( 2010 )
Band of Brothers ( 2012 )
Blood for Blood ( 2014 )
Unden ! able ( 2016 )
= = Awards = =
Loudwire Music Awards
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= Weapons of Class Destruction =
" Weapons of Class Destruction " is the eighteenth episode of the first season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars . Written by Jed Seidel and directed by John Kretchmer , the episode premiered on UPN on April 12 , 2005 .
The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a high school student while moonlighting as a private detective . In this episode , Veronica investigates the persistent bomb threats at her school . Meanwhile , Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) begins dating Alicia Fennel ( Erica Gimpel ) , and Veronica 's relationship with Logan ( Jason Dohring ) progresses .
" Weapons of Class Destruction " introduces the romantic relationship between Veronica and Logan , a romance that would continue on @-@ and @-@ off throughout the series and its subsequent film adaptation . Series creator Rob Thomas did not originally envision this relationship , but he changed his mind when he saw the chemistry between the two actors and characters . The episode received positive reviews , with discussion focusing on Veronica and Logan 's first kiss . The episode has been frequently cited as one of the best in the series .
= = Synopsis = =
Veronica is kissing Leo D 'Amato ( Max Greenfield ) outside her house . After Veronica goes back into her house , Keith announces that he has begun dating Wallace 's ( Percy Daggs III ) mother , Alicia , making things awkward between Veronica and Wallace . Veronica notices a sign outside which says " Killthemall.com " . In class , there is a fire drill , and Duncan ( Teddy Dunn ) says that it is the third one this week . Veronica talks to Principal Clemmons about the fire drill issue , but he doesn 't give anything up to her . Later , she notices police officers with service dogs going through the building . Veronica , posing as the superintendent , calls Principal Clemmons , who reveals that the school has experienced several bomb threats . She prints the story in the school newspaper , causing chaos at school the next day . Principal Clemmons calls her in again and tells her to stop printing stories . Veronica and Wallace talk to each other while Keith and Alicia watch a movie . Alicia tries to convince Wallace to accept their relationship to no avail . After talking to Mac ( Tina Majorino ) , another student , Pete ( Michael McMillian ) approaches Veronica to say that he saw two students , Ben ( Jonathan Taylor Thomas ) and Norris ( Theo Rossi ) with exploding tennis balls . Wallace places the two students under more suspicion when he tells Veronica about them , and Veronica sees a mysterious timer .
Duncan and Meg ( Alona Tal ) approach Veronica , and she tells Meg the general overview of a case where someone has been evading capture and all the tactics they used to do so before Duncan suddenly leaves . Wallace gives Veronica the student file on one of the two students , but his high school records are clean after bullying in junior high . The other student doesn 't have a file . Veronica talks to Duncan , who says he knows about her investigation . Duncan scoffs at her findings before he realizes that she suspects him in the murder , reacting with extreme rage before dashing out of the room . Ben and Norris talk about guns and bombs , leading Veronica to track Ben , eventually seeing him buying fertilizer and taking out a rifle . Ben gets into the car and orders her to drive to the Camelot motel . There , Logan appears and beats him up before it is revealed that the " suspect " is actually an ATF agent . Ben says that he is investigating Norris , but needs her help : Norris has a crush on Veronica , and Ben asks her to get close to him . As she leaves the motel , Veronica and Logan kiss unexpectedly .
Veronica gets an invitation to Norris 's house , but she doesn 't find any weapons . Veronica calls Mac to help her break into the WiFi before she sees Pete in front of the house . The ATF searches Norris 's vehicle and finds fertilizer and a rifle , despite Veronica 's convictions that he is not the perpetrator . However , Veronica recognizes them as being the same ones Ben was loading into his car earlier . Veronica calls Pete , and she tells him that she knows he falsely implicated Norris ( with the help of the ATF agent ) because of terrible bullying in junior high . Meg tells Veronica that Duncan has disappeared after removing $ 10 @,@ 000 from the bank . The story involving Norris is published in the newspaper , and , although it leads to all charges against Norris being dropped , it also results in the new journalism teacher 's ( Joey Lauren Adams ) termination .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Jed Seidel and directed by John Kretchmer . This episode mark 's Seidel 's fifth and final writing credit for the series , after " Meet John Smith " , " The Girl Next Door " , " Silence of the Lamb " , and " Mars vs. Mars " . In addition , this episode is the second directing credit for Kretchmer , after " Silence of the Lamb . "
The episode also explains the departure of journalism teacher Mallory Dent ( Sydney Tamiia Poitier ) , who made her last appearance in " The Girl Next Door " , also introducing Dent 's replacement , Geena Stafford , who is subsequently fired in the same episode . The episode introduces a romantic relationship between Veronica and Logan through their first kiss . Originally , Veronica and Logan were not intended to be a couple . At PaleyFest 2014 , series creator Rob Thomas stated that " The truth is , we never had any intention at all for Logan to end up with Veronica . [ Dohring ] was hired to be the obligatory psychotic jackass . In the writers ' room , sitting around watching dailies , we would all gather around , and it was like , ' We want to watch that . We want to watch those two onscreen together . ' " However , Dohring and Bell found out the plan for the two characters around the filming of " Return of the Kane " or " The Girl Next Door " .
On the reveal , Dohring said in an interview : " I ’ m actually glad , Rob told us about episode six or seven that we would get together . We were like , ‘ No way ! ’ But there was something going on there . We could feel it as actors . It was damn cool – these characters had some kind of connection . So we had to start to soften it up a little bit and break the ice somewhat [ between the characters ] . I ’ m glad he gave us that heads up . " Lead actress Kristen Bell expressed surprise over the initial decision by saying , " I love working with Jason and he 's such a great actor to work opposite , but sometimes , I feel it 's really just weird luck . Somehow people get magic dust sprinkled on them and you don 't know why . You look like you have boatloads of chemistry with someone else . " On the kiss itself , Dohring noted , " It was so funny , as an actor , to kiss this girl . I was all nervous beforehand . But you have to just let it go for the scene . It was so fun to watch [ later when it aired ] , " adding that " a lot of that emotion was real for me . " The song " Momentary Thing " by band Something Happens plays during Veronica and Logan 's first kiss .
Series creator Rob Thomas , was not content with the kiss scene , writing that it was not how he envisioned it . " I wasn 't actually pleased with the first Veronica / Logan kiss . Now , I may have been wrong on this front , but it wasn 't what I imagined , or really what I think was described in the script . The line of description called for Logan to " devour " Veronica . I wanted it to be — I don 't know if sexual is the right word , but — hungry , or a release , or mixed with some self @-@ loathing and confusion . Instead , it came off as singularly romantic . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast , the episode received 2 @.@ 30 million viewers , ranking 114th of 120 in the weekly rankings .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received primarily positive reviews , with critical attention mostly going to Veronica and Logan 's relationship . Price Peterson of TV.com gave the episode a positive review , noting that " [ o ] bviously the most notable aspect of this episode was the Logan @-@ Veronica hookup . Again , it seemed really sudden , but in the sense that they are both mercurial teenagers it seemed right , particularly when they didn 't know how to handle themselves afterward . " Television Without Pity gave the episode a " B + " , writing that " [ Veronica ] kisses Logan ! You heard me ! How could you not , with all the exclamation points ! "
Rowan Kaiser , writing for The A.V. Club , gave a mixed review . While calling the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " predictable " , the reviewer also called Keith and Alicia 's new relationship " perhaps the most fun " part of the episode . In addition , Kaiser commented on Veronica and Logan 's relationship . " I 'm not entirely sold on the relationship , either from a character point of view or a quality point of view . Obviously it 's just a kiss in the heat of the moment … but it doesn 't seem to have much motivation beyond [ that ] . " IGN placed the episode 2nd in its list of the top ten Veronica Mars episodes , second to only " Leave It to Beaver " . The publication praised the new Logan @-@ Veronica dynamic and said " The few episodes just before this one showed the softer , vulnerable side of Logan and just when you wonder if he 's really so bad , he saves the day and an innocent peck turned into a passionate embrace . "
E ! reacted to the scene by writing , " We seemed to experience the same whirlwind of emotions they did : The hesitance , the shock , the elation , the weirdness of how right it felt , and then , of course , the inevitable ' Oh crap , what did we just do and what does this mean ? ' awkwardness of it all . They , and the show , would never be the same . In the best way possible . " Buzzfeed ranked the episode as the 4th best Veronica Mars episode , behind " A Trip to the Dentist " , " Leave It to Beaver " , and " Not Pictured . " TV Line ranked the episode 6th on a similar list . Give Me My Remote ranked " Weapons of Class Destruction " as the fifth best episode of Veronica Mars , particularly noting the kiss scene between Logan and Veronica . " Veronica kisses Logan in a scene that was full of so much chemistry that it gave me chills . The episode ends with Veronica figuring out that Ben was setting Norris up , but , honestly , who was really paying attention at that point ? Veronica and Logan had finally realized that their chemistry was undeniable ! "
Kimberly Roots , writing for TV Line , responded to the kiss scene by stating , " What got me – and still gets me – about this kiss is how much fire it has . This isn ’ t a drunken , convenient hook @-@ up . This isn ’ t a let ’ s @-@ see @-@ how @-@ this @-@ goes peck . This is two people acting on years of something unacknowledged between them . We get a long moment of LoVe in action before they break apart and realize what just happened . " Entertainment Weekly called " Weapons of Class Destruction " one of the " 10 essential episodes of Veronica Mars " .
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= Ímar =
Ímar ( Old Norse : Ívarr ; died c . 873 ) was a Viking leader in Ireland and Scotland in the mid @-@ late ninth century who founded the Uí Ímair dynasty , and whose descendants would go on to dominate the Irish Sea region for several centuries . He was the son of the king of Lochlann , identified in the non @-@ contemporary Fragmentary Annals of Ireland as Gofraid . The Fragmentary Annals name Auisle and Amlaíb Conung as his brothers . Another Viking leader , Halfdan Ragnarsson , is considered by some scholars to be another brother . The Irish Annals title Amlaíb , Ímar and Auisle " kings of the foreigners " . Modern scholars use the title " kings of Dublin " after the Viking settlement which formed the base of their power . Some scholars consider Ímar to be identical to Ivar the Boneless , a Viking commander of the Great Heathen Army named in contemporary English sources who also appears in the Icelandic sagas as a son of the legendary Viking Ragnar Lodbrok .
During the late 850s and early 860s Ímar was involved in a protracted conflict with Máel Sechnaill , overking of the Southern Uí Néill and the most powerful ruler in Ireland . The cause of the conflict is uncertain , but it may have been sparked by competition for control of Munster and its resources . Ímar allied successively with Cerball , King of Ossory and Áed Findliath , overking of the Northern Uí Néill against Máel Sechnaill . Máel Sechnaill died in 862 and his lands were split , effectively ending the conflict . Following this Ímar and his kin warred with several Irish leaders in an attempt to expand their kingdom 's influence . Ímar disappears from the historical record in Ireland between the years 864 and 870 ; this is consistent with Ímar being identical to Ivar the Boneless - Ivar was active in England between these two dates and he is not mentioned by English sources after 870 . In 870 the annals record that Dumbarton Rock , the chief fortress of the Kingdom of Strathclyde , was successfully captured by Ímar and Amlaíb following a four month long siege .
Ímar died in 873 and is given the title " King of the Norsemen of all Ireland and Britain " in contemporary annals . The Fragmentary Annals record that Ímar 's father also died that year , and it is believed that at that time their combined territory encompassed Dublin , the Isle of Man , the Western Isles , Orkney , and large parts of the northern and western Scottish coast including Argyll , Caithness and Sutherland .
= = Background = =
Norse contact with Scotland predates the first written records in the 8th century , although the nature and frequency of these contacts is unknown . Excavations on the island of Unst in Shetland indicate that Scandinavian settlers had reached there perhaps as early as the mid @-@ 7th century and from 793 onwards repeated raids by Vikings on the British Isles are recorded . " All the islands of Britain " were devastated in 794 with Iona being sacked in 802 and 806 . The Frankish Annales Bertiniani may record the conquest of the Inner Hebrides by Vikings in 847 . Scholarly interpretations of the period " have led to widely divergent reconstructions of Viking Age Scotland " , especially in the early period , and Barrett has identified several competing theories , none of which he regards as proven . Ó Corráin notes : " when and how the Vikings conquered and occupied the Isles is unknown , perhaps unknowable " .
The earliest recorded Viking raids in Ireland occurred in 795 . Over time , these raids increased in intensity , and they overwintered in Ireland for the first time in 840 – 841 . In 841 a longphort was constructed at Áth Cliath ( Irish for hurdled ford ) , a site which would later develop into the city of Dublin . Longphorts were also established at other sites around Ireland , some of which developed into larger Viking settlements over time . The Viking population in Ireland was boosted in 851 with the arrival of a large group known as " dark foreigners " – a contentious term used to refer to the newly arrived Vikings , as opposed to the " fair foreigners " , i.e. the Viking population which was resident in arrival prior to this influx . A kingdom in Viking Scotland was established by the mid ninth @-@ century , and it exerted control over some of the Vikings in Ireland . By 853 a separate kingdom of Dublin had been set up which claimed control over all the Vikings in Ireland .
The main historical sources for this period are the Norse sagas and the Irish annals . Some of the annals , such as the Annals of Ulster are believed to be contemporary accounts , whereas the sagas were written down at dates much later than the events they describe and are considered far less reliable . A few of the annals such as the Fragmentary Annals of Ireland and the Annals of the Four Masters were also complied at later dates , in part from more contemporary material and in part from fragments of sagas . According to Downham : " apart from these additions [ of saga fragments ] , Irish chronicles are considered by scholars to be largely accurate records , albeit partisan in their presentation of events " .
= = Biography = =
= = = Arrival in Ireland = = =
Ímar is first mentioned in contemporary Irish annals in 857 , four years after his brother Amlaíb Conung is recorded as arriving in Ireland . The later Fragmentary Annals of Ireland suggest Ímar may have come to Ireland shortly after his brother :
Ímar and Amlaíb were joined in Ireland by another brother , Auisle , sometime before 863 . From this date onwards the three brothers are described as " kings of the foreigners " by the annals , but in modern texts they are usually labelled as kings of Dublin , after the Viking settlement which was the base of their power . Lochlann , originally Laithlinn or Lothlend , the land where Ímar 's father was king , is often identified with Norway , but it is not universally accepted that it had such a meaning in early times . Several historians have proposed instead that in early times , and certainly as late as the Battle of Clontarf in 1014 , Lochlann refers to the Norse and Norse @-@ Gael lands in the Hebrides , the Isle of Man , the Northern Isles and parts of mainland Scotland . Whatever the original sense , by the twelfth century , when Magnus Barefoot undertook his expedition to the West , it had come to mean Norway .
= = = War with Máel Sechnaill = = =
The first mention of Ímar in Irish annals in 857 concerns a war fought between Ímar and Amlaíb Conung against Máel Sechnaill , overking of the Southern Uí Néill , and a group of Vikings sometimes known as the Norse @-@ Irish . Máel Sechnaill was the most powerful king in Ireland at the time and his lands lay close to the Viking settlement of Dublin . The fighting began in the previous year : " Great warfare between the heathens and Mael Sechnaill , supported by Norse @-@ Irish " is reported by the Annals of Ulster .
The fighting was focused on Munster ; Máel Sechnaill sought to increase his influence over the kings there . He took hostages from the province in 854 , 856 and 858 , and the power of the over @-@ kings had been weakened in 856 by a Viking raid on the royal centre at Lough Cend , when Gormán son of Lonán , a relative of Munster 's over @-@ king , was killed alongside a great many others . This weakness likely drew the gaze of both Máel Sechnaill and the Vikings , and their competition for Munster 's resources may have been the cause of the war . Early battles seem to have gone the way of the Vikings : Ímar and Amlaíb " inflicted a rout on Caitill the Fair and his Norse @-@ Irish in the lands of Munster " . Although there is no certain evidence to suggest that this Caitill is the same person as the Ketill Flatnose of later sagas , Anderson and Crawford have suggested that they are the same person .
In 858 Ímar , allied with Cerball , King of Ossory , routed a force of Norse @-@ Irish at Araid Tíre ( east of Lough Derg and the Shannon in modern @-@ day County Tipperary ) . Ossory was a small kingdom wedged between the larger realms of Munster and Leinster . At the beginning of his reign in the 840s , Cerball 's allegiance was pledged to the over @-@ king of Munster , but as that kingdom grew weaker Ossory 's strategic location allowed opportunities for his advancement . Cerball had previously fought against the Vikings , but he allied with them to challenge the supremacy of Máel Sechnaill and his Norse @-@ Irish allies . The following year Amlaíb , Ímar and Cerball conducted a raid on Máel Sechnaill 's heartlands in Meath , and in consequence a royal conference was held at Rathugh ( modern @-@ day County Westmeath ) . Following this meeting Cerball shed his allegiance to the Vikings and formally submitted to Máel Sechnaill in order to " make peace and amity between the men of Ireland " .
With their ally turned against them , Ímar and Amlaíb sought a new alliance with Áed Findliath , overking of the Northern Uí Néill , and rival of Máel Sechnaill . In 860 Máel Sechnaill and Cerball led a large army of men from Munster , Leinster , Connacht and the Southern Uí Néill into the lands of Áed Findliath near Armagh . While the southern forces were encamped there , Áed launched a night attack , killing some of the southern men , but his forces took many casualties and were forced to retreat . In retaliation for this invasion Amlaíb and Áed led raids into Meath in 861 and 862 , but they were driven off both times . According to the Fragmentary Annals this alliance had been cemented by a political marriage :
In later years , alliance between the Northern Uí Néill and the Vikings of Dublin became a regular occurrence : the Northern and Southern Uí Néill were frequent competitors for supremacy in Ireland , and the uneasy neighbourhood between Dublin and the Southern Uí Néill made the Vikings natural allies for the Northerners .
= = = Later life = = =
Máel Sechnaill died in 862 , and his territory in Meath was split between two rulers , Lorcán mac Cathail and Conchobar mac Donnchada . Ímar and Amlaíb , now joined in Ireland by their younger brother Auisle , sought to make use of this change to extend their influence in the lands of the Southern Uí Néill . In 863 the three brothers raided Brega in alliance with Lorcán , and the following year Amlaíb drowned Conchobar at Clonard Abbey . Muirecán mac Diarmata , overking of the Uí Dúnchada , was killed by Vikings in 863 , probably by Ímar and his kin trying to expand into Leinster .
Beginning around 864 the three brothers halted their campaigns of conquest in Ireland , and instead campaigned in Britain . Ímar disappears from the Irish Annals in 864 , and does not reappear until 870 . Downham concludes he is identical to Ivar the Boneless , a Viking leader who was active in England during this period as a commander of the Great Heathen Army . According to O Croinin " Ímar has been identified with Ívarr Beinlausi ( the boneless ) , son of Ragnar Lodbrok , but the matter is controversial " .
The reappearance of Ímar in Irish annals in 870 is marked by a raid undertaken by him and Amlaíb . They laid siege to Dumbarton Rock , the chief fortress of the Kingdom of Strathclyde , and captured it following a four @-@ month siege . The pair returned to Dublin in 871 with 200 ships and they " brought with them in captivity a great prey of Angles , Britons and Picts " . According to the Fragmentary Annals Amlaíb returned to Lochlann that year to aid their father in a war , leaving Ímar to rule alone ( Auisle had died in 867 ) . The Pictish Chronicle claims Amlaíb died around 874 during a protracted campaign against Constantine I in Scotland . The Fragmentary Annals record the death of Ímar 's father , Gofraid , in 873 . The final mention of Ímar in contemporary annals is also in 873 when his death is reported . In these reports he is titled " king of the Norsemen of all Ireland and Britain " . According to Ó Corrain the evidence suggests that by his death Ímar 's kingdom ( including the territory formerly ruled by his father ) included Man , the Western Isles , Argyll , Caithness , Sutherland , Orkney , and parts of the coastline of Ross and Cromarty and Inverness .
= = Origins = =
= = = Ivar the Boneless = = =
In 865 the Great Heathen Army landed in England and one of its leaders is identified by the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle as " Ingvar " . Later Norse tradition records Ingvar under the name of Ivar the Boneless , and calls him a son of the legendary Ragnar Lodbrok . It is generally accepted that Ivar the Boneless and Ingvar are one and the same , though the epithet " the Boneless " is not recorded until the twelfth century and its origins are obscure . Moreover , some suppose Ivar the Boneless to be identical to Ímar , though there is no scholarly consensus one way or another . Woolf supports the connection between these two " Ivars " and writes of the Great Heathen Army that invaded East Anglia in 865 that " it is now generally agreed that they arrived in Britain directly from Ireland where Ívarr , the senior partner by 865 , had been active for at least a decade " . Ó Corrain argues that the " evidence in favour of the identification of Ímar and Inguar consists of three points : the identity of the names , the absence of any mention of Ímar in the Irish annals between 864 and the Irish account of the siege of Dumbarton in 870 , and the subsequent close connections between the dynasties of Dublin and York " . Forte , Oram , and Pedersen note that Ivar is not mentioned in any English source after 870 , when Ímar reappears in the Irish annals .
Ó Corrain also offers argument against the identification of Ímar and Ingvar / Ivar : " To take but one example , if Ivarr of Dublin is identical with Inguar , how are we to give any credence to Smyth 's reconstruction of Brompton ( p . 229 ) which shows Ivarr in East Anglia in 871 when we know from contemporary Irish sources that Ivarr of Dublin was besieging Dumbarton for four months in 870 and returned to Ireland in early 871 with the takings ? ... Taken all together , the genuine material on Inguar in contemporary English sources is slight " . He also states " there is nothing new in the suggestion that Ímar of Dublin and Igwar / Ingwar / Iuuar of English history are identical . It has frequently been put forward .... and has equally frequently been rejected or treated as a mere possibility " . Downham concludes " while medieval writers seem to have been as interested as modern historians about Ívarr ’ s origins , it is perhaps wiser to accept that we do not know what these really were " .
= = = Dark and fair foreigners = = =
In the Irish annals the terms Dubgaill ( dark foreigners ) , and Finngaill ( fair foreigners ) , are used to refer to rival groups of Vikings . The exact meaning of these terms is subject to debate , but historically the most popular interpretation has been that Dubgaill refers to Danes and Finngaill refers to Norwegians . From 917 onwards the descendants of Ímar are described as leaders of the Dubgaill . Ímar himself is not identified explicitly by the annals with the Dubgaill , but Albann , a figure considered by some to be Ímar 's brother , is called " lord of the ' Dark Foreigners ' " .
However , the interpretation of " dark " Danes and " fair " Norwegians has recently been challenged . Dumville has suggested that Dubgaill and Finngaill do not refer to any cultural difference but instead distinguish between " old " and " new " Vikings , with the group arriving with Ímar being the " new " or " dark " Vikings , and the preexisting group being the " old " or " fair " Vikings . Downham agrees and goes a step further , suggesting that Dubgaill was applied " to followers the king of Laithlind ( who had become a recurrent phenomenon for the chroniclers ) as a convenient way of distinguishing them from the vikings who were already in Ireland " .
= = = Ynglings = = =
An alternative reconstruction , proposed by Alex Woolf , identifies Ímar 's grandson Ragnall with Rognvald Eysteinsson , Earl of Møre , a figure closely associated with Harald Fairhair , the first King of Norway . Woolf provides two pieces of evidence in support of this theory . Firstly , both Ragnall and Rognvald are the grandsons of ' Ivars ' - this would equate Ímar with Ívarr Upplendingajarl , a son of the legendary king Halfdan the Old . Secondly , Rognvald 's son Ivar was killed while in Scotland , as was Ragnall 's kinsman Ímar ua Ímair . Other attempts have also been made in the modern era to link the Kings of Lochlann with historical figures in Norway - Smyth has suggested that Amlaíb can be identified with Olaf Geirstad @-@ Alf , King of Vestfold , ( who was the son of Gudrød the Hunter and half @-@ brother of Halfdan the Black ) , though speculation of this nature has not received much support . Ó Corrain states that there is " no good historical or linguistic evidence to link Lothlend / Laithlind with Norway , and none to link the dynasty of Dublin to the shadowy history of the Ynglings of Vestfold " .
= = Family = =
Ímar 's father is identified as Gofraid by the Fragmentary Annals ; an entry dated c . 871 – 872 gives a partial genealogy for Ímar , naming him " Ímar son of Gofraid son of Ragnall son of Gofraid Conung son of Gofraid " . Ó Corrain states that this reference to Ímar 's genealogical ascent is a " construct without historical value " . Nonetheless , he accepts the existence of Ímar 's father Gofraid ( also Goffridh or Gothfraid ) , stating " it is likely that the father of ... Ímar ( Ívarr ) is Gofraid ( Guðrøðr ) and that he is a historical person and dynastic ancestor " .
Amlaíb Conung came to Ireland first in 853 , with Ímar following in or before 857 , and Auisle following in or before 863 . The three are identified as " kings of the foreigners " by the Annals of Ulster in 863 , and as brothers by the Fragmentary Annals :
The Annals of Ulster say that Auisle was killed in 867 by " kinsmen in parricide " . The Fragmentary Annals state explicitly that Amlaíb and Ímar planned their brother 's death , though no motive is given . Although the three are not identified as brothers in any contemporary annals , the recurrence of their names among their descendants strongly suggests a familial connection .
Some scholars identify Halfdan Ragnarsson as another brother . This identification is contingent upon Ímar being identical to Ivar the Boneless : Halfdan and Ivar are named as brothers in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle . According to the Annals of Ulster Amlaíb 's son Oistin was slain in battle by " Albann " in 875 . This figure is generally agreed to be Halfdan . If that is correct , then it may explain the reason for the conflict : it was a dynastic squabble for control of the kingdom . One potential problem is that according to Norse tradition Ivar and Halfdan were the sons of Ragnar Lodbrok , whereas Ímar and Amlaíb are named as sons of Gofraid in the Fragmentary Annals . However , the historicity of Ragnar is uncertain and the identification of Ragnar as the father of Ivar and Halfdan is not to be relied upon .
Three figures later named by the annals are identifiable as sons of Ímar . These are Bárid ( d . 881 ) , Sichfrith ( d . 888 ) , and Sitriuc ( d . 896 ) , all three of whom reigned as King of Dublin . Five individuals are titled " ua Ímair " in the annals , a term usually understood to mean " grandson of Ímar " . These are Sitric Cáech , Ímar , Ragnall , Amlaíb , and Gofraid . All except for Amlaíb ruled as either King of Dublin or King of Viking Northumbria at one time or another . These five are never given a patronymic in the annals , so it is not possible to identify which of the three known sons of Ímar - if any - was their father . One possible reason for the lack of a patronym might be that they were children of a son of Ímar who never ruled Dublin , or who spent most of his time outside Ireland , thus making their legitimacy to rule dependent the identity of their grandfather , not their father . Another possibility is that they were grandsons of Ímar through a daughter , again with their right to rule dependent on their grandfather . Another grandson , Uathmarán , is directly identifiable as the son of Bárid .
Ímar and his descendants are collectively titled the Uí Ímair - translated as " descendants of Ímar " . Later members of this dynasty include multiple kings of Dublin , Northumbria and the Isles . Downham states " [ Ímar 's ] descendants dominated the major seaports of Ireland and challenged the power of kings in Britain during the later ninth and tenth centuries " . Viking power in Ireland was severely weakened by the Battle of Clontarf in 1014 , and although Ímar 's descendants maintained influence in and around the Irish sea region they did not have the strength they had had previously . The Crovan dynasty , rulers of Mann and the Isles , likely descended from Ímar through his great @-@ grandson Amlaíb Cuarán . Woolf , among others , has suggested that Somerled , King of the Isles , and progenitor of Clan Donald and Clan MacDougall , descended from Ímar and the Crovan dynasty , though perhaps only through the female line .
= = = Family tree = = =
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= Honora Sneyd =
Honora Sneyd ( Honora Edgeworth , née Sneyd ) ( 1751 – 1 May 1780 ) was an eighteenth @-@ century English writer , mainly known for her associations with literary figures of the day particularly Anna Seward and the Lunar Society , and for her work on children 's education .
Honora Sneyd was born in Bath in 1751 , and following the death of her mother in 1756 was raised by Canon Thomas Seward and his wife Elizabeth in Lichfield , Staffordshire until she returned to her father 's house in 1771 . There , she formed a close friendship with their daughter , Anna Seward . Having had a romantic engagement to John André and having declined the hand of Thomas Day , she married Richard Edgeworth as his second wife in 1773 , living on the family estate in Ireland till 1776 . There she helped raise his children from his first marriage , including Maria Edgeworth , and two children of her own . Returning to England she fell ill with tuberculosis , which was incurable , dying at Weston in Staffordshire in 1780 . She is the subject of a number of Anna Seward 's poems , and with her husband developed concepts of childhood education , resulting in a series of books , such as Practical Education , based on her observations of the Edgeworth children . She is known for her stand on women 's rights through her vigorous rejection of the proposal by Day , in which she outlined her views on equality in marriage .
= = Life = =
= = = Early life 1751 – 1773 = = =
Honora Sneyd was born the third daughter to Edward Sneyd , of Bishton Staffordshire and Susanna Cook of Sible Hedingham , Essex , in Bath in 1751 . Her father was a Major in the Royal Horse Guards , with an appointment at Court as a Gentleman Usher. her parents married in 1742 and she was one of eight children and the second surviving daughter of six , and only six years old when her mother died in 1757 . Her father found himself unable to take care of all of his children and various friends and relations then offered to take them in .
= = = = Adoption by the Seward family 1756 – 1771 = = = =
Honora Sneyd , who was seven years younger than the thirteen @-@ year @-@ old Anna Seward , moved into the home of family friends , Canon Thomas Seward and his wife Elizabeth and their family at Lichfield , Staffordshire , where they lived in the Bishop 's Palace in the Cathedral Close . The Sewards had lost five children after their first two daughters , and such fostering was not uncommon at the time . There she was brought up by the Sewards as one of their own , being variously described as an adopted or foster sister . Anna Seward describes how she and her younger sister Sarah first met Honora , on returning from a walk , in her poem The Anniversary ( 1769 ) . Initially Honora was more attached to Sarah , to whom she was closer in age , but Sarah died of typhus at the age of nineteen ( 1764 ) , when Honora Sneyd was thirteen . Following Sarah 's death Honora became the responsibility of Anna , the older sister . Anna consoled herself with her affection for Honora Sneyd , as she describes in Visions , written a few days after her sister 's death . In the poem she expresses the hope that Honora ( ' this transplanted flower ' ) will replace her sister ( whom she refers to as ' Alinda ' ) in her and her parents ' affections . Throughout her life Honora Sneyd 's health was fragile , experiencing the first bout of the tuberculosis that would later claim her life in 1766 , at the age of fifteen . However Anna Seward believed she detected the first signs in 1764 , at thirteen , writing presciently
This dear child will not live ; I am perpetually fearing it , notwithstanding the clear health which crimsons her cheek and glitters in her eyes . Such early expansion of intelligence and sensibility partakes too much of the angelic , too little of the mortal nature , to tarry long in these low abodes of frailty and of pain , where the harshness of authority , and the impenetrability of selfishness , with the worse mischiefs of pride and envy , so frequently agitate by their storms , and chill by their damps , the more ingenious and purer spirits , scattered , not profusely , over the earth .
= = = = Education = = = =
At Lichfield Honora Sneyd came under the influence of Canon Seward , who raised her , and his progressive views on female education , which he expressed in his poem The Female Right to Literature ( 1748 ) . She was described as clever and interested in science , From Anna she developed a great love of literature .
Honora Sneyd was an accomplished scholar , attending day school in Lichfield where she became fluent in French , translating Rousseau 's Julie for her older foster sister . Though Canon Seward 's ( but not his wife 's ) attitudes towards the education of girls was progressive relative to the times , they were " by no means excessively liberal " . Amongst the subjects he taught them were theology and numeracy , and how to read , appreciate , write and recite poetry . By omitting what were considered Although this deviated from what were considered " conventional drawing room accomplishments " , he encouraged them away from traditional female roles . However , the omissions were also notable , including languages and science , although they were left free to pursue their own inclinations in this regard . To that end they were exposed to the circle of learned men who frequented the Bishop 's Palace at Lichfield where they lived , and which became the centre of a literary circle including , David Garrick , Erasmus Darwin , Samuel Johnson and James Boswell . The children were encouraged to participate in the conversations , as Anna later relates .
= = = = Relationships = = = =
Honora Sneyd and Anna Seward lived under the same roof for thirteen years and formed a close friendship which has given rise to much speculation as to its exact nature , located as it was within the tradition of " female friendship " , and forming the basis of a body of Anna Seward 's poetical works . Various authors differ in their interpretation of the relationship between the two women , with Lillian Faderman who first suggested that it was lesbian , supported by Barrett although the term relates more to twentieth- rather than eighteenth @-@ century concepts of identity . On the other hand , Teresa Barnard argues against this based more on examination of the correspondence rather than poetry , which is generally based within the lesbian poetic canon , the relationship between these two women being frequently cited .
Sneyd had a reputation for both intelligence and beauty , as commented on by many , including Anna Seward and Richard Edgeworth ( see below ) . In 1764 Seward described Sneyd as " fresh and beautiful as the young day @-@ star , when he bathes his fair beams in the dews of spring " . At seventeen Honora Sneyd was briefly engaged to a Swiss born Derbyshire merchant , John André , a relationship that Seward had fostered , and wrote about in her Monody on Major André ( 1781 ) when André became a British officer in 1771 and was hanged as a spy by the Americans . The respective parents did not support this attachment for reasons of his financial status .
Around Christmas 1770 , Thomas Day and Richard Edgeworth , who like Thomas Seward were members of the Lunar Society that met in Lichfield amongst other places , were spending increasing amounts of time at the Seward household and both had fallen for Sneyd , although Edgeworth was already married . In 1771 she declined an offer of marriage from Thomas Day . Edgeworth gives an account of her letter of rejection stating that it " contained an excellent answer to his [ Day 's ] arguments in favour of the rights of men , and a clear dispassionate view of the rights of women " . Edgeworth continues that Sneyd had very determined views on the role of women and their rights within marriage .
Miss Honora Sneyd would not admit the unqualified control of a husband over all her actions ; she did not feel , that seclusion from society was indispensably necessary to preserve female virtue , or to secure domestic happiness . Upon terms of reasonable equality , she supposed , that mutual confidence might best subsist ; she said , that , as Mr Day had decidedly declared his determination to live in perfect seclusion from what is usually called the world , it was fit she should decidedly declare , that she would not change her present mode of life , with which she had no reason to be dissatisfied , for any dark and untried system , that could be proposed to her .
However Honora Sneyd 's father moved to Lichfield from London in 1771 , and reassembled his family of five daughters there . By now Honora was nineteen and Anna viewed her friend 's departure with considerable dismay . Although Day was much distressed by his rejection by Honora Sneyd , he transferred his affections to the fifth daughter , Elizabeth Sneyd , who had been in the care of Mr Henry Powys and his wife , Susannah Sneyd , of the Abbey , Shrewsbury , Mrs. Powys being Mr Sneyd 's niece . However Elizabeth Sneyd was not inclined to accept Day .
Richard Edgeworth comments on how Honora Sneyd had affected him ;
During this intercourse I perceived the superiority of Miss Honora Sneyd 's capacity ... her sentiments were on all subjects so just and were delivered with such blushing modesty though not without an air of conscious worth as to command attention from every one capable of appreciating female excellence . Her person was graceful her features beautiful and their expression such as to heighten the eloquence of every thing she said . I was six and twenty and now for the first time in my life I saw a woman that equalled the picture of perfection which existed in my imagination .
He continued , describing the unhappiness of his marriage , and how that made him vulnerable to her attributes , which were share by all the learned gentlemen of his circle . He also believed that Anna Seward had noticed the effect her friend was having on him , and would regularly place her actions in the best light for his benefit . The elimination of Day as a suitor for Honora Sneyd 's hand placed Edgeworth in a difficult situation and he resolved to end it by moving to Lyons France , to work , in the autumn of 1771 .
= = = Marriage to Richard Edgeworth 1773 – 1780 = = =
= = = = Marriage and move to Ireland 1773 – 1776 = = = =
On 17 March 1773 , Edgeworth 's first wife Anna Maria Elers gave birth to their fifth child , Anna Maria Edgeworth , at the age of 29 . Ten days later she died from puerperal fever . Edgeworth was still in Lyon to avoid temptation leaving his expectant wife in the care of Day . On learning of the death of his wife , Edgeworth travelled to London , where he consulted Day as to Honora Sneyd 's situation . On learning that she remained in good health and unattached , he promptly headed to Lichfield to see Honora at the Sneyds , with the intention of proposing . His offer was accepted immediately , and there was no mention of the conventional waiting period before remarrying after widowhood . Although Mr. Sneyd was opposed to his daughter 's marriage , the couple were married at Lichfield Cathedral on 17 July 1773 , officiated by Canon Thomas Seward , Anna Seward being a bridesmaid . After marrying , problems with the Edgeworth family estates in Ireland required the couple to immediately move to Edgeworthstown , County Longford in Ireland .
Through this marriage Sneyd became step @-@ mother to Edgeworth 's four surviving children by his first wife , Anna Maria , ranging from seven months to nine years in age ; Richard , Maria , who became a writer in her own right , Emmeline and Anna Maria . On encountering her new family she observed that Maria , then aged five , was exhibiting behavioural problems , and expressed her views that speedy and consistent punishment were the keys to ensuring good behaviour in children , a view she proceeded to practice . However she believed that such discipline needed to be imposed " before the age of 5 or 6 " , and was therefore rather late in the case of the older children , however she imposed a strict discipline . Following a period of ill health on Sneyd 's part , Maria Edgeworth was sent away to boarding school in Derby ( 1775 – 1781 ) , and later London upon the death of Honora Sneyd ( 1781 – 1782 ) . Similarly , her older brother Richard was sent to Charterhouse ( 1776 – 1778 ) and then went to sea , and she never saw him again . Later Richard Edgeworth would comment on how difficult the first two years were for Sneyd in her new role as stepmother to undisciplined children , a role her relatives had advised her against .
Honora Sneyd was soon pregnant , giving birth to her daughter Honora on 30 May 1774 , who died at the age of sixteen . Her second child , Lovell , who inherited the property , was born the following year on 30 June 1775 . The Edgeworth children were raised according to the system of Rousseau , as refined and modified by the Edgeworths . Richard Edgeworth considered his early educational efforts a failure , the older children from his first marriage growing up unruly and then being sent away to school , and readily concurred with his new wife 's stricter rules . However he had seen very little of them in their early years .
= = = = Return to England 1776 – 1780 = = = =
After three years in Ireland , in 1776 they moved to England again , taking up residence in Northchurch , Hertfordshire Despite Anna Seward 's despair at the loss of her friend , she and Honora had maintained regular correspondence and visits . However , these suddenly ceased , an event that Anna blamed Honora Sneyd 's father for . During a temporary absence of Edgeworth on business in Ireland in the spring of 1779 , Honora Sneyd fell ill with a fever , just as he was summoning her to let the house and join him there . On his return they consulted Dr. Erasmus Darwin at Lichfield , who was of the opinion the illness was more severe than at first thought , being a recurrence of consumption ( T.B. ) from which she had had a brief bout at the age of fifteen . He advised against returning to Ireland but rather , moving closer to Lichfield . For a while they stayed at the Sneyd house that was temporarily vacant while consulting a wide range of physicians including Dr. William Heberden ( Samuel Johnson 's physician ) , and even staying with Day near London to be close to medical care. but only received news of incurability . Eventually they rented Bighterton , near Shifnal , Shropshire , closer to the Sneyds , Darwin and others of their circle , where Honora Sneyd drew up her will in April .
= = = = Death = = = =
Four years after returning to England Honora Sneyd died of consumption at six in the morning on 1 May 1780 at Bighterton , surrounded by her husband , her youngest sister , Charlotte and a servant . Honora Sneyd was buried in the nearby Weston church where a plaque on the wall ( see box ) bears witness to her life . Honora Sneyd died within eight years of her marriage to Richard Edgeworth , at almost the same age as her predecessor . The same disease , which had taken her the life of her mother and five maternal aunts , would soon claim the life of her young daughter Honora Edgeworth ( 1790 ) as well as her younger sister , Elizabeth seven years later ( 1797 ) as well as at least two of Elizabeth 's children , Charlotte ( 1807 ) and Henry ( 1813 ) . Honora 's brother , Lovell was also affected by the consumption . At the time it was thought this was a hereditary weakness carried by the family .
On Honora Sneyd 's death , Edgeworth married her younger sister , Elizabeth Sneyd , stating that this had been the dying wish of Honora . Uglow speculates that this was a marriage of convenience , for the sake of the children . Although it was technically legal to marry one 's wife 's sister , the marriage was considered scandalous , and was opposed by the Sneyds , Sewards and Edgeworths as well as the Bishop . The couple fled to London where they were married on Christmas Day with Thomas Day as witness , before proceeding to live at Northchurch . The scandal may have given rise to less charitable interpretations of Edgeworth 's actions , although there is no direct evidence to support or refute these . Honora Sneyd 's will , drawn up during the last month of her life refers only to " that Woman whom he shall think worthy to call his , for her to wear , so long as they both shall LOVE " , referring to a cameo she owned of Richard Edgeworth .
= = Work = =
= = = Practical Education = = =
The Edgeworths jointly developed the concept of " Practical Education " , a principle that would become a new paradigm by the 1820s . Having determined that after eight years , Richard Edgeworth 's attempt to raise his eldest son Richard according to the principles of Rousseau was a failure , he and Honora were determined to find better methods . After the birth of Honora 's first child ( 1774 ) , the Edgeworths embarked on a plan , partly inspired by Anna Barbauld , to write a series of books for children . After trying many other methods , Barbauld 's Lessons for Children from two to three years old was published in 1778 , and the Edgeworths used it on Anna ( 5 ) and Honora ( 4 ) , and were delighted to find that the girls learned to read in six weeks . Now back in England , at Northchurch the Edgeworths were in closer contact with the intellectuals of the Lunar society . Richard Edgeworth and Honora were determined to design a plan for the education of their children . They started by reviewing the existing literature on childhood education ( including Locke , Hartley , Priestley in addition to Rousseau ) , and then proceeded to document their observations of the behaviour of children and then developed their own " practical " system . To this end Erasmus Darwin suggested they start by reading the work of Dugald Stewart . Honora Sneyd then started recording extensive notes on her observations of the Edgeworth children . These then became the dialogues in the final book .
Richard and Maria Edgeworth state that " She [ Honora ] was of opinion that the art of education should be considered as an experimental science " , and that the failures of the past were due to " following theory rather than practice " . Richard Edgeworth and Honora then set about applying the emerging principles of educational psychology to the actual practice of education . From their reading of theory they determined that the reason Barbauld was successful was that the child 's reading was rewarded ( thus departing radically from Rousseau ) , because it was associated with pleasure . Honora Sneyd conceived of the title of their work therefore as Practical Education . With her husband , Honora wrote the first version of Practical Education as a children 's book Practical education : or , the history of Harry and Lucy for Honora her daughter , which was begun in 1778 and privately published in February 1780 in Lichfield as Practical Education , vol 2 . The book tells a simple story of two parents and their two model children , Harry and Lucy , who carry out domestic chores and ask their parents many questions , the answers to which may be deemed educational . The children explain their discoveries and how they learn , the whole presented as nine forms of learning . As originally conceived it was intended to be the second part of a series of three books , but the remaining parts remained unwritten . The original plan had been for a collaborative work , contributed to by various members of the Lunar Society. it was an ambitious project designed to fill what they perceived of as major deficiencies in the field of both technical and scientific education and to introduce early ideas on morality , science and other academic disciplines into the developing mind of the young child . After Honora Sneyd 's premature death , her sister Elizabeth continued the work , in her role as the third wife of Richard Edgeworth . The final version of the book was authored by Richard and Maria Edgeworth and published after both Honora and her sister Elizabeth 's deaths , in 1798 , and further revised under Maria 's name as Early lessons ( 1801 – 1825 ) . In reality this was a family project contributed to by a number of their members that would extend over 50 years , beyond Richard Edgeworth 's death in 1817 ( c . 1774 – 1825 ) .
Richard Edgeworth observed on his wife 's death that being familiar with the experimental method in science , she was surprised to find that educational theory was based on very little empirical evidence , and set out to apply experimental science to child education and devised , executed and recorded experiments with children . She conceived and executed a register ( 2 volumes 1778 – 1779 ) of the reaction of children to new knowledge and experience , given her interest in applying experimental science to the field of child education . She observed the questions that children asked , what they did , and how they solved problems . An extensive example of her recorded dialogue is given by Richard and Maria Edgeworth in " Practical Education " . This formed the basis of Richard Edgeworth 's Essays on professional education ( 1809 ) . In the Bodleian Library there is a short story in manuscript dated 1787 and other fragments attributed to Honora Sneyd . Her parents ' principles of childhood education were to be a profound influence on Maria Edgeworth 's own career as a writer for children .
= = = Other = = =
Honora Sneyd , through her early contact with members of the Lunar Society , had always taken a keen interest in science , an attribute that drew the intention of Richard Edgeworth who considered himself an inventor . Following their marriage , she worked on his projects with him and in his words , " became an excellent theoretic mechanick " herself .
= = Legacy = =
Since little of Honora Sneyd 's own words have survived , our image of her is largely through the eyes of others , in particular Anna Seward and Richard Edgeworth . Honora Sneyd is often listed amongst the members or associates of the Bluestockings , educated upper class literary women who disdained traditional female accomplishments and often formed close female friendships . The depiction of the effect of consumption on her has been used as a symbol of the pervasiveness of the disease in eighteenth century culture . The work she started on educational psychology would prove to be immensely influential throughout the nineteenth century . Her name is also inextricably entwined with that of Anna Seward in the literature of lesbian relationships and female friendship .
From growing up in the Seward household with Canon Seward and the members of the Lunar Society , Honora Sneyd and her childhood friend Anna Seward developed relatively progressive views for the times on the status of women and equality in marriage , a key to which was female education . Sneyd entered into marriage with Richard Edgeworth on the understanding that they were equal partners in his work . Anna and later Honora 's stepdaughter , Maria Edgeworth , were to take those values and promote them in late eighteenth and early nineteenth century Britain , the ancestors of modern feminists . Today Honora 's position on women 's rights is best remembered for her rebuke of Thomas Day and his theory of the " perfect wife " .
Anna Seward 's will mentions two likenesses of Honora Sneyd in her possession that she wished to bequeath . The first of these was a mezzotinto engraving after George Romney , which she had modeled for as " Serena " ( see Figure , above ) to Honora 's brother Edward . The other was a drawn miniature portrait by John André ( 1776 ) which she left to her cousin and confidante Mary Powys . A jasper medallion , after an image by John Flaxman , was issued by the Wedgwood factory in 1780 ( right ) . Honora Sneyd was the subject of many of Seward 's poems , When Sneyd married Edgeworth , she became the subject of Seward 's anger , yet the latter continued to write about Sneyd and her affection for her long after her death . In addition to being immortalised in Anna Seward 's poetry , Sneyd appears semi @-@ fictionalised as a character in a play about Major André and herself , André ; a Tragedy in Five Acts by William Dunlap , first produced in New York in 1798 .
The plaque in St. Andrew 's Church , Weston , where she is buried , on the north wall of the tower , reads ;
= = Appendix : Persons mentioned = =
Parents
Edward Sneyd ( 1711 – 1795 ) m . 1742 Susanna Cook d . 1757 , by whom ;
Elizabeth Sneyd ( 1753 – 1797 )
Charlotte Sneyd d . 1822
Foster family
Thomas Seward ( 1708 – 1790 ) m . 1741 Elizabeth Hunter d . 1780 , by whom ;
Anna Seward ( 1742 – 1809 )
Sarah Seward ( 1744 – 1764 )
Extended family
Henry Powys d . 1774 m . Susannah Sneyd ( 1729 – 1791 ) , by whom
Mary Powys d . 1829
Literary acquaintances
David Garrick ( 1717 – 1779 )
Erasmus Darwin ( 1731 – 1802 )
Samuel Johnson ( 1709 – 1784 )
James Boswell ( 1740 – 1795 )
Suitors
John André ( 1750 – 1780 )
Thomas Day ( 1748 – 1789 )
Husband and children
Richard Lovell Edgeworth ( 1744 – 1817 )
m . 1763 ( 1 ) Anna Maria Elers ( 1743 – 1773 ) , by whom ;
Richard Edgeworth ( 1765 – 1796 )
Lovell Edgeworth ( 1766 – 1766 )
Maria Edgeworth ( 1768 – 1849 )
Emmeline Edgeworth ( 1770 – 1817 )
Anna Maria Edgeworth ( 1773 – 1824 )
m . 1773 ( 2 ) Honora Sneyd ( 1751 – 1780 ) , by whom
Honora Edgeworth ( 1774 – 1790 )
Lovell Edgeworth ( 1775 – 1842 )
Influences
Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau ( 1712 – 1778 )
Anna Barbauld ( 1743 – 1825 )
John Locke ( 1632 – 1704 )
David Hartley ( 1705 – 1757 )
Joseph Priestley ( 1733 – 1804 )
Dugald Stewart ( 1753 – 1828 )
Artists
John Flaxman ( 1755 – 1826 )
James Hopwood ( c . 1740 – 1819 )
George Romney ( 1734 – 1802 )
Other
William Dunlap ( 1766 – 1839 )
William Heberden ( 1710 – 1801 )
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= Ring @-@ tailed lemur =
The ring @-@ tailed lemur ( Lemur catta ) is a large strepsirrhine primate and the most recognized lemur due to its long , black and white ringed tail . It belongs to Lemuridae , one of five lemur families , and is the only member of the Lemur genus . Like all lemurs it is endemic to the island of Madagascar . Known locally in Malagasy as maky ( [ makʲ ] , spelled maki in French ) or hira , it inhabits gallery forests to spiny scrub in the southern regions of the island . It is omnivorous and the most terrestrial of extant lemurs . The animal is diurnal , being active exclusively in daylight hours .
The ring @-@ tailed lemur is highly social , living in groups of up to 30 individuals . It is also female dominant , a trait common among lemurs . To keep warm and reaffirm social bonds , groups will huddle together . The ring @-@ tailed lemur will also sunbathe , sitting upright facing its underside , with its thinner white fur towards the sun . Like other lemurs , this species relies strongly on its sense of smell and marks its territory with scent glands . The males perform a unique scent marking behavior called spur marking and will participate in stink fights by impregnating their tail with their scent and wafting it at opponents .
As one of the most vocal primates , the ring @-@ tailed lemur uses numerous vocalizations including group cohesion and alarm calls . Experiments have shown that the ring @-@ tailed lemur , despite the lack of a large brain ( relative to simiiform primates ) , can organize sequences , understand basic arithmetic operations and preferentially select tools based on functional qualities .
Despite reproducing readily in captivity and being the most populous lemur in zoos worldwide , numbering more than 2 @,@ 000 individuals , the ring @-@ tailed lemur is listed as endangered by the IUCN Red List due to habitat destruction and hunting for bush meat and the exotic pet trade .
= = Etymology = =
Although the term " lemur " was first intended for slender lorises , it was soon limited to the endemic Malagasy primates , which have been known as " lemurs " ever since . The name derives from the Latin term lemures , which refers to specters or ghosts that were exorcised during the Lemuria festival of ancient Rome . According to Carl Linnaeus ' own explanation , the name was selected because of the nocturnal activity and slow movements of the slender loris . Being familiar with the works of Virgil and Ovid and seeing an analogy that fit with his naming scheme , Linnaeus adapted the term " lemur " for these nocturnal primates . However , it has been commonly and falsely assumed that Linnaeus was referring to the ghost @-@ like appearance , reflective eyes , and ghostly cries of lemurs . It has also been speculated that Linnaeus may also have known that the some Malagasy people have held legends that lemurs are the souls of their ancestors , but this is unlikely given that the name was selected for slender lorises from India . The species name , catta , refers to the ring @-@ tailed lemur 's cat @-@ like appearance . Its purring vocalization is similar to that of the domestic cat .
Following Linnaeus ' species description , the common name " ringtailed maucauco " was first penned in 1771 by Welsh naturalist Thomas Pennant , who made note of its characteristic long , striped tail . ( The term " maucauco " was a common term for lemurs at this time . ) The now universal English name " ring @-@ tailed lemur " was first used by George Shaw in his illustrated scientific publication covering the Leverian collection published between 1792 and 1796 .
= = Evolutionary history = =
All mammalian fossils from Madagascar come from recent times . Thus , little is known about the evolution of the ring @-@ tailed lemur , let alone the rest of the lemur clade , which comprises the entire endemic primate population of the island . However , chromosomal and molecular evidence suggest that lemurs are more closely related to each other than to other Strepsirrhine primates . For this to have happened , it is thought that a very small ancestral population came to Madagascar via a single rafting event between 50 and 80 million years ago . Subsequent evolutionary radiation and speciation has created the diversity of Malagasy lemurs seen today .
According to analysis of amino acid sequences , the branching of the family Lemuridae has been dated to 26 @.@ 1 ± 3 @.@ 3 mya while rRNA sequences of mtDNA place the split at 24 @.@ 9 ± 3 @.@ 6 mya . The ruffed lemurs are the first genus to split away ( most basal ) in the family , a view that is further supported by analysis of DNA sequences and karyotypes . Additionally , Molecular data suggests a deep genetic divergence and sister group relationship between the true lemurs ( Eulemur ) and the remaining three genera : Lemur , Hapalemur , and Prolemur .
The ring @-@ tailed lemur is thought to share closer affinities to the bamboo lemurs of the genera Hapalemur and Prolemur than to the other two genera in its family . This has been supported by comparisons in communication , chromosomes , genetics , and several morphological traits , such as scent gland similarities . However , other data concerning immunology and other morphological traits fail to support this close relationship . For example , Hapalemur and Prolemur have short snouts , while the ring @-@ tailed lemur and the rest of Lemuridae have long snouts . However , differences in the relationship between the orbit ( eye socket ) and the muzzle suggest that the ring @-@ tailed lemur and the true lemurs evolved their elongated faces independently .
The relationship between the ring @-@ tailed lemur and bamboo lemurs ( both Hapalemur and Prolemur ) is the least understood . Molecular analysis suggests that either the bamboo lemurs diverged from the ring @-@ tailed lemur , making the group monophyletic and supporting the current 3 @-@ genera taxonomy , or that the ring @-@ tailed lemur is nested in with the bamboo lemurs .
The karyotype of the ring @-@ tailed lemur has 56 chromosomes , of which four are metacentric ( arms of nearly equal length ) , four are submetacentric ( arms of unequal length ) , and 46 are acrocentric ( the short arm is hardly observable ) . The X chromosome is metacentric and the Y chromosome is acrocentric .
= = = Taxonomic classification = = =
Linnaeus first used the genus name Lemur to describe " Lemur tardigradus " ( the red slender loris , now known as Loris tardigradus ) in his 1754 catalog of the Museum of King Adolf Frederick . In 1758 , his 10th edition of Systema Naturae listed the genus Lemur with three included species , only one of which is still considered to be a lemur while another is no longer considered to be a primate . These species include : Lemur tardigradus , Lemur catta ( the ring @-@ tailed lemur ) , and Lemur volans ( the Philippine colugo , now known as Cynocephalus volans ) . In 1911 , Oldfield Thomas made Lemur catta the type species for the genus , despite the term initially being used to describe lorises . On January 10 , 1929 , the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature ( ICZN ) formalized this decision in its publication of Opinion 122 .
The ring @-@ tailed lemur shares many similarities with ruffed lemurs ( genus Varecia ) and true lemurs ( genus Eulemur ) , and its skeleton is nearly indistinguishable from that of the true lemurs . Consequently , the three genera were once grouped together in the genus Lemur and more recently are sometimes referred to as subfamily Lemurinae ( within family Lemuridae ) . However , ruffed lemurs were reassigned to the genus Varecia in 1962 , and due to similarities between the ring @-@ tailed lemur and the bamboo lemurs , particularly in regards to molecular evidence and scent glands similarities , the true lemurs were moved to the genus Eulemur by Yves Rumpler and Elwyn L. Simons ( 1988 ) as well as Colin Groves and Robert H. Eaglen ( 1988 ) . In 1991 , Ian Tattersall and Jeffrey H. Schwartz reviewed the evidence and came to a different conclusion , instead favoring to return the members of Eulemur and Varecia to the genus Lemur . However , this view was not widely accepted and the genus Lemur remained monotypic , containing only the ring @-@ tailed lemur . Because the differences in molecular data are so minute between the ring @-@ tailed lemur and both genera of bamboo lemurs , it has been suggested that all three genera be merged .
Because of the difficulty in discerning the relationships within family Lemuridae , not all authorities agree on the taxonomy , although the majority of the primatological community favors the current classification .
In 1996 , researchers Steven Goodman and Olivier Langrand suggested that the ring @-@ tailed lemur may demonstrate regional variations , particularly a high mountain population at Andringitra Massif that has a thicker coat , lighter coloration , and variations in its tail rings . In 2001 , primatologist Colin Groves concluded that this does not represent a locally occurring subspecies . This decision was later supported by further fieldwork that showed that the differences fell within the normal range of variation for the species . The thicker coat was considered a local adaptation to extreme low temperatures in the region , and the fading of the fur was attributed to increased exposure to solar radiation . Additional genetic studies in 2000 further supported the conclusion that population did not vary significantly from the other ring @-@ tailed lemur populations on the island .
= = Anatomy and physiology = =
The ring @-@ tailed lemur is a relatively large lemur . Its average weight is 2 @.@ 2 kilograms ( 4 @.@ 9 lb ) . Its head – body length ranges between 39 and 46 cm ( 15 and 18 in ) , its tail length is 56 and 63 cm ( 22 and 25 in ) , and its total length is 95 and 110 cm ( 37 and 43 in ) . Other measurements include a hind foot length of 102 and 113 mm ( 4 @.@ 0 and 4 @.@ 4 in ) , ear length of 40 and 48 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 and 1 @.@ 9 in ) , and cranium length of 78 and 88 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 and 3 @.@ 5 in ) .
The species has a slender frame and narrow face , fox @-@ like muzzle . The ring @-@ tailed lemur 's trademark — a long , bushy tail — is ringed in alternating black and white transverse stripes , numbering 12 or 13 white rings and 13 or 14 black rings , and always ending in a black tip . The total number of rings nearly matches the approximate number of caudal vertebrae ( ~ 25 ) . Its tail is longer than its body and is not prehensile . Instead , it is only used for balance , communication , and group cohesion .
The pelage ( fur ) is so dense that it can clog electric clippers . The ventral ( chest ) coat and throat are white or cream . The dorsal ( back ) coat varies from gray to rosy @-@ brown , sometimes with a brown pygal patch around the tail region , where the fur grades to pale gray or grayish brown . The dorsal coloration is slightly darker around the neck and crown . The hair on the throat , cheeks , and ears is white or off @-@ white and also less dense , allowing the dark skin underneath to show through . The muzzle is dark grayish and the nose is black , and the eyes are encompassed by black triangular patches . Facial vibrissae ( whiskers ) are developed and found above the lips ( mystacal ) , on the cheeks ( genal ) , and on the eyebrow ( superciliary ) . Vibrissae are also found slightly above the wrist on the underside of the forearm . The ears are relatively large compared to other lemurs and are covered in hair , which has only small tufts if any . Although slight pattern variations in the facial region may be seen between individuals , there are no obvious differences between the sexes .
Unlike most diurnal primates , but like all strepsirhine primates , the ring @-@ tailed lemur has a tapetum lucidum , or reflective layer behind the retina of the eye , that enhances night vision . The tapetum is highly visible in this species because the pigmentation of the ocular fundus ( back surface of the eye ) , which is present in — but varies between — all lemurs , is very spotty . The ring @-@ tailed lemur also has a rudimentary foveal depression on the retina . Another shared characteristic with the other strepsirrhine primates is the rhinarium , a moist , naked , glandular nose supported by the upper jaw and protruding beyond the chin . The rhinarium continues down where it divides the upper lip . The upper lip is attached to the premaxilla , preventing the lip from protruding and thus requiring the lemur to lap water rather than using suction .
The skin of the ring @-@ tailed lemur is dark gray or black in color , even in places where the fur is white . It is exposed on the nose , palms , soles , eyelids , lips , and genitalia . The skin is smooth , but the leathery texture of the hands and feet facilitate terrestrial movement . The anus , located at the joint of the tail , is covered when the tail is lowered . The area around the anus ( circumanal area ) and the perineum are covered in fur . In males , the scrotum lacks fur , is covered in small , horny spines , and the two sacs of the scrotum are divided . The penis is nearly cylindrical in shape and is covered in small spines , as well as having two pairs of larger spines on both sides . Males have a relatively small baculum ( penis bone ) compared to their size . The scrotum , penis , and prepuce are usually coated with a foul @-@ smelling secretion . Females have a thick , elongated clitoris that protrudes from the labia of the vulva . The opening of the urethra is closer to the clitoris than the vagina , forming a " drip tip . "
Females have two pairs of mammary glands ( four nipples ) , but only one pair is functional . The anterior pair ( closest to the head ) are very close to the axillae ( armpit ) . Furless scent glands are present on both males and females . Both genders have small , dark antebrachial ( forearm ) glands measuring 1 cm long and located on the inner surface of the forearm nearly 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) above the wrist joint . ( This trait is shared between the Lemur and Hapalemur genera . ) The gland is soft and compressible , bears fine dermal ridges ( like fingerprints ) , and is connected to the palm by a fine , 2 mm – high , hairless strip . However , only the male has a horny spur that overlays this scent gland . The spur develops with age through the accumulation of secretions from an underlying gland that may connect through the skin through as many as a thousand minuscule ducts . The males also have brachial ( arm ) glands on the axillary surface of their shoulders ( near the armpit ) . The brachial gland is larger than the antebrachial gland , covered in short hair around the periphery , and has a naked crescent @-@ shaped orifice near the center . The gland secretes a foul @-@ smelling , brown , sticky substance . The brachial gland is barely developed if present at all in females . Both genders also have apocrine and sebaceous glands in their genital or perianal regions , which are covered in fur .
Its fingers are slender , padded , mostly lacking webbing , and semi @-@ dexterous with flat , human @-@ like nails . The thumb is both short and widely separated from the other fingers . Despite being set at a right angle to the palm , the thumb is not opposable since the ball of the joint is fixed in place . As with all strepsirrhines , the hand is ectaxonic ( the axis passes through the fourth digit ) rather than mesaxonic ( the axis passing through the third digit ) as seen in monkeys and apes . The fourth digit is the longest , and only slightly longer than the second digit . Likewise , the fifth digit is only slightly longer than the second . The palms are long and leathery , and like other primates , they have dermal ridges to improve grip . The feet are semi @-@ digitigrade and more specialized than the hands . The big toe is opposable and is smaller than the big toe of other lemurs , which are more arboreal . The second toe is short , has a small terminal pad , and has a toilet @-@ claw ( sometimes referred to as a grooming claw ) specialized for personal grooming , specifically to rake through fur that is unreachable by the mouth . The toilet @-@ claw is a trait shared among nearly all living strepsirrhine primates . Unlike other lemurs , the ring @-@ tailed lemur 's heel is not covered by fur .
= = = Dentition = = =
The ring @-@ tailed lemur has a dentition of 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 32 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 3 × 2 |
= 36 , meaning that on each side of the jaw it has two incisors , one canine tooth , three premolars , and three molar teeth . Its deciduous dentition is 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 32 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 × 2 =
24 . The permanent teeth erupt in the following order : m 1 / 1 ( first molars ) , i 2 / 2 ( first incisors ) , i 3 / 3 ( second incisors ) , C1 ( upper canines ) , m 2 / 2 ( second molars ) , c1 ( lower canines ) , m 3 / 3 ( third molars ) , p 4 / 4 ( third premolars ) , p 3 / 3 ( second premolars ) , p 2 / 2 ( first premolars ) .
Its lower incisors ( i1 and i2 ) are long , narrow , and finely spaced while pointing almost straight forward in the mouth ( procumbent ) . Together with the incisor @-@ shaped ( incisiform ) lower canines ( c1 ) , which are slightly larger and also procumbent , form a structure called a toothcomb , a trait unique to nearly all strepsirrhine primates . The toothcomb is used during oral grooming , which involves licking and tooth @-@ scraping . It may also be used for grasping small fruits , removing leaves from the stem when eating , and possibly scraping sap and gum from tree bark . The toothcomb is kept clean using a sublingual organ — a thin , flat , fibrous plate that covers a large part of the base of the tongue . The first lower premolar ( p2 ) following the toothcomb is shaped like a canine ( caniniform ) and occludes the upper canine , essentially filling the role of the incisiform lower canine . There is also a diastema ( gap ) between the second and third premolars ( p2 and p3 ) .
The upper incisors are small , with the first incisors ( I1 ) space widely from each other , yet closely to the second incisors ( I2 ) . Both are compressed buccolingually ( between the cheek and the tongue ) . The upper canines ( C1 ) are long , have a broad base , and curve down and back ( recurved ) . The upper canines exhibit slight sexual dimorphism , with males exhibiting slightly larger canines than females . Both sexes use them in combat by slashing with them . There is a small diastema between the upper canine and the first premolar ( P2 ) , which is smaller and more caniniform than the other premolars . Unlike other lemurs , the first two upper molars ( M1 and M2 ) have prominent lingual cingulae , yet do not have a protostyle .
= = Ecology = =
The ring @-@ tailed lemur is diurnal and semi @-@ terrestrial . It is the most terrestrial of lemur species , spending as much as 33 % of its time on the ground . However it is still considerably arboreal , spending 23 % of its time in the mid @-@ level canopy , 25 % in the upper @-@ level canopy , 6 % in the emergent layer and 13 % in small bushes . Troop travel is 70 % terrestrial .
Troop size , home range , and population density vary by region and food availability . Troops typically range in size from 6 to 25 , although troops with over 30 individuals have been recorded . The average troop contains 13 to 15 individuals . Home range size varies between 6 and 35 hectares ( 15 and 86 acres ) . Troops of the ring @-@ tailed lemur will maintain a territory , but overlap is often high . When encounters occur , they are agonistic , or hostile in nature . A troop will usually occupy the same part of its range for three or four days before moving . When it does move , the average traveling distance is 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) . Population density ranges from 100 individuals per 1 km2 ( 0 @.@ 39 sq mi ) in dry forests to 250 – 600 individuals per km2 in gallery and secondary forests .
The ring @-@ tailed lemur has both native and introduced predators . Native predators include the fossa ( Cryptoprocta ferox ) , the Madagascar harrier @-@ hawk ( Polyboroides radiatus ) , the Madagascar buzzard ( Buteo brachypterus ) and the Madagascar ground boa ( Boa madagascariensis ) . Introduced predators include the small Indian civet ( Viverricula indica ) , the domestic cat and the domestic dog .
= = = Geographic range and habitat = = =
Endemic to southern and southwestern Madagascar , the ring @-@ tailed lemur ranges further into highland areas than other lemurs . It inhabits deciduous forests , dry scrub , montane humid forests , and gallery forests ( forests along riverbanks ) . It strongly favors gallery forests , but such forests have now been cleared from much of Madagascar in order to create pasture for livestock . Depending on location , temperatures within its geographic range can vary from − 12 ° C ( 10 ° F ) at Andringitra Massif to 48 ° C ( 118 ° F ) in the spiny forests of Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve .
This species is found as far east as Tôlanaro , inland towards the mountains of Andringitra on the southeastern plateau , among the spiny forests of the southern part of the island , and north along the west coast to the town of Belo sur Mer . Historically , the northern limits of its range in the west extended to the Morondava River near Morondava . It can still be found in Kirindy Mitea National Park , just south of Morondava , though at very low densities . It does not occur in Kirindy Forest Reserve , north of Morondava . Its distribution throughout the rest of its range is very spotty , with population densities varying widely .
The ring @-@ tailed lemur can be easily seen in five national parks in Madagascar : Andohahela National Park , Andringitra National Park , Isalo National Park , Tsimanampetsotse National Park , and Zombitse @-@ Vohibasia National Park . It can also be found in Beza @-@ Mahafaly Special Reserve , Kalambatritra Special Reserve , Pic d 'Ivohibe Special Reserve , Amboasary Sud , Berenty Private Reserve , Anja Community Reserve , and marginally at Kirindy Mitea National Park . Unprotected forests that the species has been reported in include Ankoba , Ankodida , Anjatsikolo , Anbatotsilongolongo , Mahazoarivo , Masiabiby , and Mikea .
Within the protected regions it is known to inhabit , the ring @-@ tailed lemur is sympatric ( shares its range ) with as many as 24 species of lemur , covering every living genus except Allocebus , Indri , and Varecia . Historically , the species used to be sympatric with the critically endangered southern black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur ( Varecia variegata editorum ) , which was once found at Andringitra National Park ; however , no sightings of the ruffed lemur have been reported in recent years .
In western Madagascar , sympatric ring @-@ tailed lemurs and red @-@ fronted lemurs ( Eulemur rufifrons ) have been studied together . Little interaction takes place between the two species . While the diets of the two species overlap , they eat in different proportions since the ring @-@ tailed lemur has a more varied diet and spends more time on the ground .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Diet = = =
The ring @-@ tailed lemur is an opportunistic omnivore primarily eating fruits and leaves , particularly those of the tamarind tree ( Tamarindus indica ) , known natively as kily . When available , tamarind makes up as much as 50 % of the diet , especially during the dry , winter season . The ring @-@ tailed lemur eats from as many as three dozen different plant species , and its diet includes flowers , herbs , bark and sap . It has been observed eating decayed wood , earth , spider webs , insect cocoons , arthropods ( spiders , caterpillars , cicadas and grasshoppers ) and small vertebrates ( birds and chameleons ) . During the dry season it becomes increasingly opportunistic .
= = = Social systems = = =
Troops are classified as multi @-@ male groups , with a matriline as the core group . As with most lemurs , females socially dominate males in all circumstances , including feeding priority . Dominance is enforced by lunging , chasing , cuffing , grabbing and biting . Young females do not always inherit their mother 's rank and young males leave the troop between three and five years of age . Both sexes have separate dominance hierarchies ; females have a distinct hierarchy while male rank is correlated with age . Each troop has one to three central , high @-@ ranking adult males who interact with females more than other group males and lead the troop procession with high @-@ ranking females . Recently transferred males , old males or young adult males that have not yet left their natal group are often lower ranking . Staying at the periphery of the group they tend to be marginalized from group activity .
For males , social structure changes can be seasonal . During the six @-@ month period between December and May a few males immigrate between groups . Established males transfer on average every 3 @.@ 5 years , although young males may transfer approximately every 1 @.@ 4 years . Group fission occurs when groups get too large and resources become scarce .
In the mornings the ring @-@ tailed lemur sunbathes to warm itself . It faces the sun sitting in what is frequently described as a " sun @-@ worshipping " posture or lotus position . However , it sits with its legs extended outward , not cross @-@ legged , and will often support itself on nearby branches . Sunning is often a group activity , particularly during the cold mornings . At night , troops will split into sleeping parties huddling closely together to keep warm .
Despite being quadrupedal the ring @-@ tailed lemur can rear up and balance on its hind legs , usually for aggressive displays . When threatened the ring @-@ tailed lemur may jump in the air and strike out with its short nails and sharp upper canine teeth in a behaviour termed jump fighting . This is extremely rare outside of the breeding season when tensions are high and competition for mates is intense . Other aggressive behaviours include a threat @-@ stare , used to intimidate or start a fight , and a submissive gesture known as pulled @-@ back lips .
Border disputes with rival troops occur occasionally and it is the dominant female 's responsibility to defend the troop 's home range . Agonistic encounters include staring , lunging approaches and occasional physical aggression , and conclude with troop members retreating toward the center of the home range .
= = = = Olfactory communication = = = =
Olfactory communication is critically important for strepsirrhines like the ring @-@ tailed lemur . Males and females scent mark both vertical and horizontal surfaces at the overlaps in their home ranges using their anogenital scent glands . The ring @-@ tailed lemur will perform a handstand to mark vertical surfaces , grasping the highest point with its feet while it applies its scent . Use of scent marking varies by age , sex and social status . Male lemurs use their antebrachial and brachial glands to demarcate territories and maintain intragroup dominance hierarchies . The thorny spur that overlays the antebrachial gland on each wrist is scraped against tree trunks to create grooves anointed with their scent . This is known as spur @-@ marking .
In displays of aggression , males engage in a social display behaviour called stink fighting , which involves impregnating their tails with secretions from the antebrachial and brachial glands and waving the scented tail at male rivals .
Ring @-@ tailed lemurs have also been shown to mark using urine . Behaviorally , there is a difference between regular urination , where the tail is slightly raised and a stream of urine is produced , and the urine marking behavior , where the tail is held up in display and only a few drops of urine are used . The urine @-@ marking behavior is typically used by females to mark territory , and has been observed primarily at the edges of the troop 's territory and in areas where other troops may frequent . The urine marking behavior also is most frequent during the mating season , and may play a role in reproductive communication between groups .
= = = = Auditory communication = = = =
The ring @-@ tailed lemur is one of the most vocal primates and has a complex array of distinct vocalizations used to maintain group cohesion during foraging and alert group members to the presence of a predator . Calls range from simple to complex . An example of a simple call is the purr ( listen ) , which expresses contentment . A complex call is the sequence of clicks , close @-@ mouth click series ( CMCS ) , open @-@ mouth click series ( OMCS ) and yaps ( listen ) used during predator mobbing . Some calls have variants and undergo transitions between variants , such as an infant " whit " ( distress call ) transitioning from one variant to another ( listen ) .
The most commonly heard vocalizations are the moan ( listen ) ( low @-@ to @-@ moderate arousal , group cohesion ) , early @-@ high wail ( listen ) ( moderate @-@ to @-@ high arousal , group cohesion ) , and clicks ( listen ) ( " location marker " to draw attention ) .
= = = Breeding and reproduction = = =
The ring @-@ tailed lemur is polygynandrous , although the dominant male in the troop typically breeds with more females than other males . Fighting is most common during the breeding season . A receptive female may initiate mating by presenting her backside , lifting her tail and looking at the desired male over her shoulder . Males may inspect the female 's genitals to determine receptiveness . Females typically mate within their troop , but may seek outside males .
The breeding season runs from mid @-@ April to mid @-@ May . Estrus lasts 4 to 6 hours , and females mate with multiple males during this period . Within a troop , females stagger their receptivity so that each female comes into season on a different day during the breeding season , reducing competition for male attention . Gestation lasts for about 135 days , and parturition occurs in September or occasionally October . In the wild , one offspring is the norm , although twins may occur . Ring @-@ tailed lemur infants have a birth weight of 70 g ( 2 @.@ 5 oz ) and are carried ventrally ( on the chest ) for the first 1 to 2 weeks , then dorsally ( on the back ) .
The young lemurs begin to eat solid food after two months and are fully weaned after five months . Sexual maturity is reached between 2 @.@ 5 and 3 years . Male involvement in infant rearing is limited , although the entire troop , regardless of age or sex , can be seen caring for the young . Alloparenting between troop females has been reported . Kidnapping by females and infanticide by males also occur occasionally . Due to harsh environmental conditions , predation and accidents such as falls , infant mortality can be as high as 50 % within the first year and as few as 30 % may reach adulthood . The longest @-@ lived ring @-@ tailed lemur in the wild was a female at the Berenty Reserve who lived for 20 years . In the wild , females rarely live past the age of 16 , whereas the life expectancy of males is not known due to their social structure . The longest @-@ lived male was reported to be 15 years old . The maximum lifespan reported in captivity was 27 years .
= = = Cognitive abilities and tool use = = =
Historically , the studies of learning and cognition in non @-@ human primates have focused on simians ( monkeys and apes ) , while strepsirrhine primates , such as the ring @-@ tailed lemur and its allies , have been overlooked and popularly dismissed as unintelligent . A couple of factors stemming from early experiments have played a role in the development of this assumption . First , the experimental design of older tests may have favored the natural behavior and ecology of simians over that of strepsirrhines , making the experimental tasks inappropriate for lemurs . For example , simians are known for their manipulative play with non @-@ food objects , whereas lemurs are only known to manipulate non @-@ food objects in captivity . This behaviour is usually connected with food association . Also , lemurs are known to displace objects with their nose or mouth more so than with their hands . Therefore , an experiment requiring a lemur to manipulate an object without prior training would favor simians over strepsirrhines . Second , individual ring @-@ tailed lemurs accustomed to living in a troop may not respond well to isolation for laboratory testing . Past studies have reported hysterical behaviour in such scenarios .
The notion that lemurs are unintelligent has been perpetuated by the view that the neocortex ratio ( as a measure of brain size ) indicates intelligence . In fact , primatologist Alison Jolly noted early in her academic career that some lemur species , such as the ring @-@ tailed lemur , have evolved a social complexity similar to that of cercopithecine monkeys , but not the corresponding intelligence . After years of observations of wild ring @-@ tailed lemur populations at the Berenty Reserve in Madagascar and as well as baboons in Africa , she more recently concluded that this highly social lemur species does not demonstrate the equivalent social complexity of cercopithecine monkeys , despite general appearances .
Regardless , research has continued to illuminate the complexity of the lemur mind , with emphasis on the cognitive abilities of the ring @-@ tailed lemur . As early as the mid @-@ 1970s , studies had demonstrated that they could be trained through operant conditioning using standard schedules of reinforcement . The species has been shown to be capable of learning pattern , brightness and object discrimination , skills common among vertebrates . The ring @-@ tailed lemur has also been shown to learn a variety of complex tasks often equaling , if not exceeding , the performance of simians .
More recently , research at the Duke Lemur Center has shown that the ring @-@ tailed lemur can organize sequences in memory and retrieve ordered sequences without language . The experimental design demonstrated that the lemurs were using internal representation of the sequence to guide their responses and not simply following a trained sequence , where one item in the sequence cues the selection of the next . But this is not the limit of the ring @-@ tailed lemur 's reasoning skills . Another study , performed at the Myakka City Lemur Reserve , suggests that this species along with several other closely related lemur species understand simple arithmetic operations .
Since tool use is considered to be a key feature of primate intelligence , the apparent lack of this behavior in wild lemurs , as well as the lack of non @-@ food object play , has helped reinforce the perception that lemurs are less intelligent than their simian cousins . However , another study at the Myakka City Lemur Reserve examined the representation of tool functionality in both the ring @-@ tailed lemur and the common brown lemur and discovered that , like monkeys , they used tools with functional properties ( e.g. , tool orientation or ease of use ) instead of tools with nonfunctional features ( e.g. , color or texture ) . Although the ring @-@ tailed lemur may not use tools in the wild , it can not only be trained to use a tool , but will preferentially select tools based on their functional qualities . Therefore , the conceptual competence to use a tool may have been present in the common primate ancestor , even though the use of tools may not have appeared until much later .
= = Conservation status = =
In addition to being listed as endangered in 2014 by the IUCN , the ring @-@ tailed lemur has been listed since 1977 by CITES under Appendix I , which makes trade of wild @-@ caught specimens illegal . Although there are more endangered species of lemur , the ring @-@ tailed lemur is considered a flagship species due to its recognizability .
Three factors threaten ring @-@ tailed lemurs . First and foremost is habitat destruction . Starting nearly 2 @,@ 000 years ago with the introduction of humans to the island , forests have been cleared to produce pasture and agricultural land . Extraction of hardwoods for fuel and lumber , as well mining and overgrazing , have also taken their toll . Today , it is estimated that 90 % of Madagascar 's original forest cover has been lost . Rising populations have created even greater demand in the southwest portion of the island for fuel wood , charcoal , and lumber . Fires from the clearing of grasslands , as well as slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture destroy forests . Another threat to the species is harvesting either for food ( bush meat ) or pets . Finally , periodic drought common to southern Madagascar can impact populations already in decline . In 1991 and 1992 , for example , a severe drought caused an abnormally high mortality rate among infants and females at the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve . Two years later , the population had declined by 31 % and took nearly four years to start to recover .
The ring @-@ tailed lemur resides in several protected areas within its range , each offering varying levels of protection . At the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve , a holistic approach to in @-@ situ conservation has been taken . Not only does field research and resource management involve international students and local people ( including school children ) , livestock management is used at the peripheral zones of the reserve and ecotourism benefits the local people .
Outside of its diminishing habitat and other threats , the ring @-@ tailed lemur reproduces readily and has fared well in captivity . For this reason , along with its popularity , it has become the most populous lemur in zoos worldwide , with more than 2500 in captivity as of 2009 . It is also the most common of all captive primates . Ex situ facilities actively involved in the conservation of the ring @-@ tailed lemur include the Duke Lemur Center in Durham , NC , the Lemur Conservation Foundation in Myakka City , FL and the Madagascar Fauna Group headquartered at the Saint Louis Zoo . Due to the high success of captive breeding , reintroduction is a possibility if wild populations were to crash . Although experimental releases have met success on St. Catherines Island in Georgia , demonstrating that captive lemurs can readily adapt to their environment and exhibit a full range of natural behaviors , captive release is not currently being considered .
Ring @-@ tailed lemur populations can also benefit from drought intervention , due to the availability of watering troughs and introduced fruit trees , as seen at the Berenty Private Reserve in southern Madagascar . However , these interventions are not always seen favorably , since natural population fluctuations are not permitted . The species is thought to have evolved its high fecundity due to its harsh environment .
= = Cultural references = =
The ring @-@ tailed lemur is known locally in Malagasy as maky ( pronounced [ ˈmakʲi ̥ ] , and spelled maki in French ) or hira ( pronounced [ ˈhirə ] or colloquially [ ˈir ] ) . Being the most widely recognized endemic primate on the island , it has been selected as the symbol for Madagascar National Parks ( formerly known as ANGAP ) . The Maki brand , which started by selling T @-@ shirts in Madagascar and now sells clothing across the Indian Ocean islands , is named after this lemur due to its popularity , despite the fact that the company 's logo portrays the face of a sifaka and its name uses the French spelling .
The first mention of the ring @-@ tailed lemur in Western literature came in 1625 when English traveler and writer Samuel Purchas described them as being comparable in size to a monkey and having a fox @-@ like long tail with black and white rings .
It has been popularized in Western culture by the Animal Planet television series Lemur Street , as well as by the character King Julien in the animated Madagascar film and TV franchise . The ring @-@ tailed lemur was also the focus of the 1996 Nature documentary A Lemur 's Tale , which was filmed at the Berenty Reserve and followed a troop of lemurs . The troop included a special infant named Sapphire , who was nearly albino , with white fur , bright blue eyes , and the characteristic ringed tail .
This species also played a role in the 1997 comedy film Fierce Creatures , starring John Cleese , who has a passion for lemurs . Cleese later hosted the 1998 BBC documentary In the Wild : Operation Lemur with John Cleese , which tracked the progress of a reintroduction of black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemurs back into the Betampona Reserve in Madagascar . The project had been partly funded by Cleese 's donation of the proceeds from the London premier of Fierce Creatures .
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= Stereotype threat =
Stereotype threat is a situational predicament in which people are or feel themselves to be at risk of conforming to stereotypes about their social group . Since its introduction into the academic literature , stereotype threat has become one of the most widely studied topics in the field of social psychology . Stereotype threat has been shown to reduce the performance of individuals who belong to negatively stereotyped groups . If negative stereotypes are present regarding a specific group , group members are likely to become anxious about their performance , which may hinder their ability to perform at their maximum level . For example , stereotype threat can lower the intellectual performance of African Americans taking the SAT test used for college entrance in the United States , due to the stereotype that African Americans are less intelligent than other groups . Importantly , the individual does not need to subscribe to the stereotype for it to be activated . The specific mechanism through which anxiety ( induced by the activation of the stereotype ) decreases performance is by depleting working memory ( especially the phonological aspects of the working memory system ) .
Stereotype threat is a potential contributing factor to long @-@ standing racial and gender gaps in academic performance . It may occur whenever an individual 's performance might confirm a negative stereotype because stereotype threat is thought to arise from a particular situation , rather than from an individual 's personality traits or characteristics . Since most people have at least one social identity which is negatively stereotyped , most people are vulnerable to stereotype threat if they encounter a situation in which the stereotype is relevant . Situational factors that increase stereotype threat can include the difficulty of the task , the belief that the task measures their abilities , and the relevance of the stereotype to the task . Individuals show higher degrees of stereotype threat on tasks they wish to perform well on and when they identify strongly with the stereotyped group . These effects are also increased when they expect discrimination due to their identification with a negatively stereotyped group . Repeated experiences of stereotype threat can lead to a vicious circle of diminished confidence , poor performance , and loss of interest in the relevant area of achievement .
Proponents of stereotype threat have been criticized for exaggerating its importance as an explanation of real @-@ world performance gaps and misrepresenting evidence as more conclusive than it is . One review has voiced concerns that the effect has been over @-@ estimated and that the field suffers from publication bias .
The opposite of stereotype threat is stereotype boost , which is when people perform better than they otherwise would have , because of exposure to positive stereotypes about their social group . A variant of stereotype boost is stereotype lift , which is people achieving better performance because of exposure to negative stereotypes about other social groups .
= = Original study = =
In 1995 , Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson performed the first experiments demonstrating that stereotype threat can undermine intellectual performance . They had African @-@ American and European @-@ American college students take a difficult verbal portion of the Graduate Record Examination test . As would be expected based on national averages , the African @-@ American students did not perform as well on the test . Steele and Aronson split students into three groups : stereotype @-@ threat ( in which the test was described as being " diagnostic of intellectual ability " ) , non @-@ stereotype threat ( in which the test was described as " a laboratory problem @-@ solving task that was nondiagnostic of ability " ) , and a third condition ( in which the test was again described as nondiagnostic of ability , but participants were asked to view the difficult test as a challenge ) . All three groups received the same test .
Adjusted for previous SAT scores , subjects in the non @-@ diagnostic @-@ challenge condition performed significantly better than those in the non @-@ diagnostic @-@ only condition and those in the diagnostic condition . In the first experiment , the race @-@ by @-@ condition interaction was marginally significant . However , the second study reported in the same paper found a significant interaction effect of race and condition . This suggested that placement in the diagnostic condition significantly impacted African Americans compared with European Americans .
Steele and Aronson concluded that changing the instructions on the test could reduce African @-@ American students ' concern about confirming a negative stereotype about their group . Supporting this conclusion , they found that African @-@ American students who regarded the test as a measure of intelligence had more thoughts related to negative stereotypes of their group . Steele and Aronson measured this through a word completion task . They found that African Americans who thought the test measured intelligence were more likely to complete word fragments using words associated with relevant negative stereotypes ( e.g. , completing " _ _ mb " as " dumb " rather than as " numb " ) .
= = Further empirical studies = =
More than 300 published papers show the effects of stereotype threat on performance in a variety of domains . The strength of the stereotype threat that occurs depends on how the task is framed . If a task is framed to be neutral , stereotype threat is not likely to occur ; however , if tasks are framed in terms of active stereotypes , participants are likely to perform worse on the task . For example , a study on chess players revealed that female players performed more poorly than expected when they were told they would be playing against a male opponent . In contrast , women who were told that their opponent was female performed as would be predicted by past ratings of performance . Female participants who were made aware of the stereotype of females performing worse at chess than males performed worse in their chess games .
Researchers Vishal Gupta , Daniel Turban , and Nachiket Bhawe extended stereotype threat research to entrepreneurship , a traditionally male @-@ stereotyped profession . Their study revealed that stereotype threat can depress women 's entrepreneurial intentions while boosting men 's intentions . However , when entrepreneurship is presented as a gender @-@ neutral profession , men and women express a similar level of interest in becoming entrepreneurs . Another experiment involved a golf game which was described as a test of " natural athletic ability " or of " sports intelligence . " When it was described as a test of athletic ability , European @-@ American students performed worse , but when the description mentioned intelligence , African @-@ American students performed worse .
Other studies have demonstrated how stereotype threat can negatively affect the performance of European Americans in athletic situations as well as the performance of men who are being tested on their social sensitivity . Although the framing of a task can produce stereotype threat in most individuals , certain individuals appear to be more likely to experience stereotype threat than others . Individuals who highly identify with a particular group appear to be more vulnerable to experiencing stereotype threat than individuals who do not identify strongly with the stereotyped group .
The mere presence of other people can evoke stereotype threat . In one experiment , women who took a mathematics exam along with two other women got 70 % of the answers right , whereas women who took the same exam in the presence of two men got an average score of 55 % .
The goal of a study conducted by Desert , Preaux , and Jund in 2009 was to see if children from lower socioeconomic groups are affected by stereotype threat . The study compared children that were 6 – 7 years old with children that were 8 – 9 years old from multiple elementary schools . These children were presented with the Raven 's Matrices test , which is an intellectual ability test . Separate groups of children were given directions in an evaluative way and other groups were given directions in a non @-@ evaluative way . The " evaluative " group received instructions that are usually given with the Raven Matrices test , while the " non @-@ evaluative " group was given directions which made it seem as if the children were simply playing a game . The results showed that third graders performed better on the test than the first graders did , which was expected . However , the lower socioeconomic status children did worse on the test when they received directions in an evaluative way than the higher socioeconomic status children did when they received directions in an evaluative way . These results suggested that the framing of the directions given to the children may have a greater effect on performance than socioeconomic status . This was shown by the differences in performance based on which type of instructions they received . This information can be useful in classroom settings to help improve the performance of students of lower socioeconomic status .
There have been studies on the effects of stereotype threat based on age . A study was done on 99 senior citizens ranging in age from 60 – 75 years . These seniors were given multiple tests on certain factors and categories such as memory and physical abilities , and were also asked to evaluate how physically fit they believe themselves to be . Additionally , they were asked to read articles that contained both positive and negative outlooks about seniors , and they watched someone reading the same articles . The goal of this study was to see if priming the participants before the tests would affect performance . The results showed that the control group performed better than those that were primed with either negative or positive words prior to the tests . The control group seemed to feel more confident in their abilities than the other two groups .
= = Stereotype lift and stereotype boost = =
Stereotype threat concerns how stereotype cues can harm performance . However , in certain situations , stereotype activation can also lead to performance enhancement through stereotype lift or stereotype boost . Stereotype lift increases performance when people are exposed to negative stereotypes about another group . This enhanced performance has been attributed to increases in self @-@ efficacy and decreases in self @-@ doubt as a result of negative outgroup stereotypes . Stereotype boost suggests that positive stereotypes may enhance performance . Stereotype boost occurs when a positive aspect of an individual 's social identity is made salient in an identity @-@ relevant domain . Although stereotype boost is similar to stereotype lift in enhancing performance , stereotype lift is the result of a negative outgroup stereotype , whereas stereotype boost occurs due to activation of a positive ingroup stereotype .
Consistent with the positive racial stereotype concerning their superior quantitative skills , Asian American women performed better on a math test when their Asian identity was primed compared to a control condition where no social identity was primed . Conversely , these participants did worse on the math test when instead their gender identity — which is associated with stereotypes of inferior quantitative skills — was made salient , which is consistent with stereotype threat .
= = Mechanisms = =
Although numerous studies demonstrate the effects of stereotype threat on performance , questions remain as to the specific cognitive factors that underlie these effects . Steele and Aronson originally speculated that attempts to suppress stereotype @-@ related thoughts lead to anxiety and the narrowing of attention . This could contribute to the observed deficits in performance . In 2008 , Toni Schmader , Michael Johns , and Chad Forbes published an integrated model of stereotype threat that focused on three interrelated factors :
stress arousal ;
performance monitoring , which narrows attention ; and ,
efforts to suppress negative thoughts and emotions .
Schmader et al. suggest that these three factors summarize the pattern of evidence that has been accumulated by past experiments on stereotype threat . For example , stereotype threat has been shown to disrupt working memory and executive function , increase arousal , increase self @-@ consciousness about one 's performance , and cause individuals to try to suppress negative thoughts as well as negative emotions such as anxiety . People have a limited amount of cognitive resources available . When a large portion of these resources are spent focusing on anxiety and performance pressure , the individual is likely to perform worse on the task at hand .
A number of studies looking at physiological and neurological responses support Schmader and colleagues ' integrated model of the processes that produce stereotype threat . Supporting an explanation in terms of stress arousal , one study found that African Americans under stereotype threat exhibit larger increases in arterial blood pressure . One study found increased cardiovascular activation amongst women who watched a video in which men outnumbered women at a math and science conference . Other studies have similarly found that individuals under stereotype threat display increased heart rates . Stereotype threat may also activate a neuroendocrine stress response , as measured by increased levels of cortisol while under threat . The physiological reactions that are induced by stereotype threat can often be subconscious , and can distract and interrupt cognitive focus from the task .
With regard to performance monitoring and vigilance , studies of brain activity have supported the idea that stereotype threat increases both of these processes . Forbes and colleagues recorded electroencephalogram ( EEG ) signals that measure electrical activity along the scalp , and found that individuals experiencing stereotype threat were more vigilant for performance @-@ related stimuli .
Another study used functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) to investigate brain activity associated with stereotype threat . The researchers found that women experiencing stereotype threat while taking a math test showed heightened activation in the ventral stream of the anterior cingulate cortex ( ACC ) , a neural region thought to be associated with social and emotional processing . Wraga and colleagues found that women under stereotype threat showed increased activation in the ventral ACC and that the amount of this activation predicted performance decrements on the task . When individuals were made aware of performance @-@ related stimuli , they were more likely to experience stereotype threat .
A study conducted by Boucher , Rydell , Loo , and Rydell has shown that stereotype threat not only affects performance , but can also affect the ability to learn new information . In the study , undergraduate men and women had a session of learning followed by an assessment of what they learned . Some participants were given information intended to induce stereotype threat , and some of these participants were later given " gender fair " information , which it was predicted would reduce or remove stereotype threat . As a result , participants were split into four separate conditions : control group , stereotype threat only , stereotype threat removed before learning , and stereotype threat removed after learning . The results of the study showed that the women who were presented with the " gender fair " information performed better on the math related test than the women who were not presented with this information . This study also showed that it was more beneficial to women for the " gender fair " information to be presented prior to learning rather than after learning . These results suggest that eliminating stereotype threat prior to taking mathematical tests can help women perform better , and that eliminating stereotype threat prior to mathematical learning can help women learn better .
= = Factors that affect threat perception = =
= = = Prototypicality = = =
Prototypicality is the degree to which an individual fits the prototype of a group they could be categorized within . Prototypicality relates to threat perception in that the more prototypical an individual looks , specifically focusing on blacks , the more others who associate blacks with they stereotype of dangerousness will perceive them as threatening . Prototypic black targets display physical traits stereotypically associated with Blacks ( broad nose , large lips , coarse hair , darker skin tone ) . Prototypicality affected prejudice ; it was shown to impact judgments about an individual 's characteristics . For example , a study by Ma & Corell ( 2011 ) showed that individuals are more biased and prejudiced against more prototypic black targets than less prototypic targets .
In daily life , individuals are more likely to encounter white people as the default race within the United States as opposed to Black individuals . When encountering atypical whites ( white people with features associated with Blackness ) , individuals ultimately settle on a White response ( the general response to typical white targets is to decide not to shoot quicker and more frequently than in trials with black targets ) , in contrast to encountering Blacks with atypical features where Black cues appear to be more dominant and elicit a Black ( to decide to shoot quicker and more frequently than trials with white targets ) due to a misplaced threat perception . Lay people are more racially biased , on average , than trained individuals such as police officers . Prototypicality is shown to moderate racial bias which has been shown to be linked to a perceived threat as black people specifically are predisposed to being viewed as more threatening . Police officers show a reduced racial bias in comparison to members of the community ; however , police officers were no better than community members in their sensitivity to prototypic targets providing evidence that prototypicality is directly linked to stereotypes and threat perception which ultimately perpetuates stereotype threat . Members of the same category ( race ) become harder to distinguish from other members of the same category the more they look like a prototypical representation of their category . ( Young , Hugenberg , Bernstein , Sacco 2009 ) .
= = = = Racial ambiguity defies prototypicality = = = =
Racial ambiguity is linked to prototypicality in that racially ambiguous individuals walk a line of not always looking prototypical of either group they represent , but being a blend of the various groups . This can leave blurred lines in terms of threat perception in having difficulty categorizing a racially ambiguous individual and determining what perception is more accurate : a more threatening perception in line with black stereotypes or a less threatening perception akin to white stereotypes . ( Young , Hugenberg , Bernstein , & Sacco 2009 ) . Racially ambiguous faces get more racial bias than white faces and less racial bias than black faces , acting as an intermediate , on average . There is evidence for the implicit associations of slight differences in facial features . The degree to which racially ambiguous faces appeared most in line with the prototypical representation of a race , either black or white , directly activated and impacted the evaluations of participants associated with the respective group . This then bolstered stereotypes and the predisposition of individuals to be judges and evaluated based on stereotypes . This also has potential to breed stereotype threat into a marginalized population . In a white @-@ only context , racially ambiguous individuals are viewed as more prototypically Black , and thus more threatening , whereas in a Black @-@ only context , racially ambiguous individuals are viewed as less prototypically black . Facial features matter when associating a racially ambiguous individual with an evaluative association of a respective group .
Perceptions of threat based on stereotypes associated with one ’ s physicality can certainly promote stereotype threat , as a person ’ s physicality that often associates them with a race @-@ based stereotype is not easily changed . Hypodescent is a phenomenon that is present in a racially @-@ ambiguous individuals being categorized into the racial group associated with their more “ socially @-@ subordinate heritage . ” This concept is a demonstration of a way in which the categorization of racially ambiguous individuals can influence the longevity of a stereotype by supporting a subordinate heritage of any individual based on race . However more difficult to categorize individuals who tend to look more similar to the prototypical representation of their dominant race ( for example : 90 @-@ 10 Black : White ) than it is to distinguish a more racially ambiguous individual ( 60 @-@ 40 Black : White ) which is very ironic in that one might think the more prototypical you look , the easier it would be to assign you to a racial category to assess your perceived threat . Perceptions of racially ambiguous faces can be impacted by racial labeling and the context in which the faces are presented ( white @-@ only vs. black @-@ only environment ) . ( Ito , Willadsen @-@ Jensen , Kaye , & Park 2011 ) .
= = = = Categorization = = = =
Categorization of individuals as a tool for evaluating them reduces an individual to being associated with the streotypical representation of that group . Once stereotypical associations are made , this gives rise to individuals assessing the level of threat an individual exhibits if a threatening connotation is associated with the stereotype of that group . Research suggests that things are identified by comparing its traits to an association of similar items / processes stored in their memory . When categorizing and making connections of an individual to a stereotype equating their perception of threat to the degree to which that categorized individual aligns with the stereotype can lead to stereotype threat falling on the categorized person . Lasting effects of race category activation on judgment , evaluation , and behavior that can have serious outcomes , such as biases in criminal sentences . Individuals vary in the extent to which stereotypes are associated with social categories . Strength of stereotype association impacts stereotype effect . Categorization was thought to be inevitable , a result of the perception of others ... however it is avoidable and its avoidance can hopefully reduce prejudice , reduce unjust threat perceptions , and counteract stereotype threat .
= = = Stereotypes = = =
A stereotype can be defined as the association of a group with a trait ( ex : Blacks being linked to dangerousness or criminality ) . In the United States individuals are more likely to encounter white people as the default race as opposed to Black individuals . In a White majority , perceptual systems may be more sensitive to , and also more biased toward Black features which can automatically activate stereotypes that link to threat perception . Event Related Potentials ( ERPs ) demonstrate attention is preferentially directed toward Black targets showing that there is a tendency to attend to potential threats , which black individuals have been stereotypically associated with . Descriptions of stereotypical Black behavior are more likely to be attributed to photographs of individuals who appear to be more Afrocentric .
The Quadruple Process Model involves a stimulus ( ex : Black male ) activating an association ( ex : threat ) in which the strength of the association ( stereotype ) prompts a behavior ( ex : shoot response ) . To survive , evolutionarily , humans must be to reliably identify threats . The stimulus , association , stereotype , behavior system prompts the identification of a threat and initiates a response to the stimulus . Threat relevant associates are emotionally saturate and essential for survival . Not only can threat perception be influenced by emotionally salient factors , cultural stereotypes , and their strength combine to disadvantage blacks to be perceived as more threatening . Recent stereotypes suggest that Blacks , even when unarmed , may be perceived as threatening . Shooter bias is a tendency to shoot armed Blacks quicker and more frequently than armed Whites , but deciding not to shoot unarmed Whites quicker and more frequently than unarmed Blacks . Individuals with greater knowledge of this cultural stereotype or a predisposition to link Blacks to violence displayed more extreme shooter bias and especially biased threat perceptions that led to especially biased behavior .
There are two race effects that lead to Blacks being incorrectly shot at more than Whites :
Perceptual sensitivity : guns are less distinguishable when held by Blacks
Response bias : objects held by Blacks are more likely to be treated as guns .
After being tasked to shoot individuals who held guns , and not to shoot if they were carrying any other object , race should technically be irrelevant to the decision to shoot or not shoot because the correct response solely depends on the object being held . Even as a nondiagnostic component to the evaluation of one ’ s perceived threat value race was still factored in to the overall judgment of threat perception . The only information the participants were obligated to attend to was the identification of a weapon or non @-@ weapon . Racial cues promote biased behavior as well as false threat perception . Any cue that implies danger , not just race , may create a predisposition to shoot , however race and the stereotype associated with it lead to a higher evaluation of threat perception , which impacted biased responses .
Stereotypes have the potential to create associations with positive or negative aspects of the group it is generalizing . Research shows there is general negativity / prejudice toward Blacks leading highly prejudice individuals to link Blacks to negativity that is or is not relevant to the Black stereotype ( ex : linking Blacks to words like poison or cancer ) . Black danger association and stereotypes predict that Black faces capture and hold attention faster and longer than white faces because threatening stimuli captures and holds attention faster and for longer intervals than neutral stimuli ( in this case black faces ) . The perception of the level of threat posed by a black face significantly biases attention allocation due to an unjust stereotype leading to inaccurate threat perceptions . This also suggests that as fear conditioned stimuli , individuals are taught to have a pre @-@ established instinct to associate the threat perception of a black individual as more dangerous . Attention has been shown to be biased as a result of societal stereotypes of Blacks in association with danger stereotypes of Blacks in association with danger that leads Black faces to b seen as fear conditioned stimuli . Stereotypes can be gate keepers , they can be self @-@ perpetuating by directing attention towards expected information or as an efficient information processing device that directs attention towards new information that may potentially undermine the stereotype and is dependent upon the individuals use of the stereotype . The individual use of the stereotype is also what unfairly moderates the perceived threat of blacks by way of conditioning longstanding stereotypes .
= = = Neuronal activity = = =
With the increasing strength of a stereotype , cognitively the associations we have attached to that stereotype , such as a higher rated threat perception of blacks , will be analyzed with more ease . Because people are motivated to use as little cognitive resources as possible stereotypes and the connotations attached to them , such as threat perceptions of blacks , last as the most readily available and most easily comprehensible explanation . In a White majority , the perceptual system may be more sensitive to Black faces , and more biased as well . ERPs demonstrate that attention is preferentially directed toward black targets . Participants were more biased / prejudice against prototypic Black targets that less prototypic black targets shown through fMRI and being presented with more or less prototypic individuals . Non @-@ prototypic individuals ( ex : dark skinned white males ) caused greater amygdala activation ( akin to fear response ) than did light skinned white males . The amygdala is associated with fear , threat and emotion processing .
Stereotypes and other expectations act as filters that increase the ease with which expectancy @-@ consistent information can be processed . People are motivated to use as little cognitive resources as possible giving the most attention to the easiest comprehensible material ( expectancy @-@ consistent information ) . As stereotype strength increases , so should the ease of processing stereotype @-@ consistent information . Attention will shift from stereotype @-@ consistent information to stereotype @-@ inconsistent information . Unexpected information is processed more extensively because it is more difficult to comprehend while consistent information can be coded as generic examples of the expectancy but inconsistent information must be uniquely coded as new information that is not aligned with expectancy .
= = = Environment / context = = =
The environment or context through which information is received impacts the threat associated with it . For example , if a man is wearing a hoodie and walking rather fast towards you in the morning , in a rich neighborhood , on a crowded street , while it is raining , threat perception is lower than encountering that same individual after dark , in a poverty stricken neighborhood with no rain on an empty street . Although this could have no threatening intentions at all , the context in which you encounter that person will dictate the level of threat associated with them . Ecological contamination hypothesis states : environment taints perceptions . Those who are in dangerous neighborhood seem more dangerous ( ex : police use more force in poverty stricken neighborhoods that have high crime rates and greater proportions of minorities ) . When the background appeared to be safe , racial bias was present ( armed Blacks were shot quicker and more frequently than armed whites ) , vs. when the background was threatening , racial bias was reduced ( demonstrated by a tendency to increase the rate at which White targets were shot increasing ) . Blacks were still treated hostile in dangerous and non dangerous contexts . Dangerous contexts proved to reduce racial bias in the decision to shoot in that Whites were treated in a similar , hostile fashion to Blacks , not that Blacks were treated with similar regard or restraint as Whites . There is an increasing racial bias from white people , racially ambiguous individuals , and Black faces . Racially ambiguous faces get more racial bias than white faces and less racial bias than black faces , acting as an intermediate , on average . In a white @-@ only context , racially ambiguous individuals are viewed as more prototypically Black , whereas in a Black @-@ only context , racially ambiguous individuals are viewed as less prototypically black . Perceptions of racially ambiguous faces can be impacted by direct @-@ racial labeling and the context in which the faces are presented ( White only vs Black only environments ) . Mixed contexts lead to a more mild bias than segregated situation .
Signal detection theory ( SDT ) involves a bias and reduces ability to distinguish tools from weapons after a Black prime even in situations when race was incidental ( nondiagnostic ) . The only cue the participants were obligated to attend to was the presence of a weapon or non @-@ weapon . However , unable to sever blacks from their stereotype and its related factors , unjust heightened threat perception persists .
= = = Strategies for change = = =
The bias toward threat perception evaluation of black people , caused by stereotypes , can be lessened with access to diagnostic cues ( ex : presence or absence of a weapon ) and motivation . Lay people are more racially biased , on average , than trained police officers . Target prototypicality is shown to moderate racial bias . Police officers show a reduced racial bias in comparison to members of the community , however police officers were no better than community members in their sensitivity to prototypic targets . Exposing people to stimuli where race is unrelated to the stereotype may eliminate racial bias . Initial responses were racially biased but research shows that extensive practice with race being unrelated to the task at hand worked to eliminate racial bias . As counter @-@ stereotypical information is aggregated form multiple sources , it may force a change in the stereotype decreasing its strength or negating it entirely . Exposure to counter stereotypic stimuli can reduce racial bias , making race non @-@ diagnostic and unhelpful for the decision process ; the characteristic ( violence ) is unrelated to the group ( race ) . Critical characteristics ( weapon possession ) is statistically unrelated to race therefore paying attention to race may hinder your judgment because it is non @-@ diagnostic ( unessential ) to the task at hand . It may be beneficial to expose individuals to counter stereotypic information and stereotypic stimuli to change the nature of category based responses . Racial bias appeared to be significantly reduced ( for the parameters of the study ) with training indicating that change can be made . A stereotype can be a gatekeeper , perpetuating itself by directing attention toward expected information , or as an efficient information @-@ processing device that facilitates the extraction of novel information with the potential to undermine itself .
= = Long @-@ term and other consequences = =
Decreased performance is the most recognized consequence of stereotype threat . However , research has also shown that stereotype threat can cause individuals to blame themselves for perceived failures , self @-@ handicap , discount the value and validity of performance tasks , distance themselves from negatively stereotyped groups , and disengage from situations that are perceived as threatening .
In the long run , the chronic experience of stereotype threat may lead individuals to disidentify with the stereotyped group . For example , a woman may stop seeing herself as " a math person " after experiencing a series of situations in which she experienced stereotype threat . This disidentification is thought to be a psychological coping strategy to maintain self @-@ esteem in the face of failure . Repeated exposure to anxiety and nervousness can lead individuals to choose to distance themselves from the stereotyped group .
Although much of the research on stereotype threat has examined the effects of coping with negative stereotype on academic performance , recently there has been an emphasis on how coping with stereotype threat could " spillover " to dampen self @-@ control and thereby affect a much broader category of behaviors , even in non @-@ stereotyped domains . Research by Michael Inzlicht and colleagues suggest that , when women cope with negative stereotype about their math ability , they perform worse on math tests , and that , after completing the math test , women may continue to show deficits even in unrelated domains . For example , women might overeat , be more aggressive , make more risky decisions , and show less endurance during physical exercise .
The perceived discrimination associated with stereotype threat can also have negative long @-@ term consequences on individuals ' mental health . Perceived discrimination has been extensively investigated in terms of its effects on mental health , with a particular emphasis on depression . Cross @-@ sectional studies involving diverse minority groups have found that individuals who experience more perceived discrimination are more likely to exhibit depressive symptoms . Additionally , perceived discrimination has also been found to predict depressive symptoms in children and adolescents . Other negative mental health outcomes associated with perceived discrimination include a reduced general well @-@ being , post @-@ traumatic stress disorder , anxiety , and rebellious behavior . A meta @-@ analysis conducted by Pascoe and Smart Richman has shown that the strong link between perceived discrimination and negative mental health persists even after controlling for factors such as education , socioeconomic status , and employment .
= = Mitigation = =
Additional research seeks ways to boost the test scores and academic achievement of students in negatively stereotyped groups . In one study , teaching college women about stereotype threat and its effects on performance was sufficient to eliminate the predicted gender gap on a difficult math test . Making people aware of the fact that they will not necessarily perform worse despite the existence of a stereotype can boost their performance .
However , other research has found the opposite effect . In one study , women were given a text " summarizing an experiment in which stereotypes , and not biological differences , were shown to be the cause of women 's underperformance in math " , and then they performed a math exercise . It was found that " women who properly understood the meaning of the information provided , and thus became knowledgeable about stereotype threat , performed significantly worse at a calculus task " .
Another approach involves persuading participants that intelligence is malleable and can be increased through effort . If people believe that they can improve their performance based on effort , they are more likely to believe that they can overcome negative stereotypes and perform well .
A third type of intervention involves having participants engage in self @-@ affirmation , which is a process in which participants write about a value that is important to them . In 2006 , researchers Geoffrey L. Cohen , Julio Garcia , Nancy Apfel , and Allison Master found that a self @-@ affirmation exercise ( in the form of a brief in @-@ class writing assignment ) significantly improved the grades of African @-@ American middle @-@ school students , and reduced the racial achievement gap by 40 % . Cohen et al. have suggested that the racial achievement gap could be at least partially ameliorated by brief and targeted social @-@ psychological interventions . One such intervention was attempted with UK medical students , who were given a written assignment and a clinical assessment . For the written assignment group , white students performed worse than minority students . For the clinical assessment , both groups improved their performance maintaining the racial difference . Allowing participants to think about a positive value or attribute about themselves prior to completing the task seemed to make them less susceptible to stereotype threat .
A fourth intervention for stereotype threat involves increasing participants ' feelings of social belonging within the academic world . Greg Walton and Geoffrey Cohen were able to boost the grades of African @-@ American college students , as well as eliminate the racial achievement gap over the first year of college , by telling participants that concerns about social belonging tend to lessen over time . Allowing individuals to feel as though they are welcomed into a desirable group makes them more likely to ignore stereotypes . If minority college students are welcomed into the world of academia , they are less likely to be influenced by the negative stereotypes of poor minority performance on academic tasks .
= = Criticism = =
The stereotype threat explanation of achievement gaps has attracted criticism . According to Paul R. Sackett , Chaitra M. Hardison , and Michael J. Cullen , both the media and scholarly literature have wrongly concluded that eliminating stereotype threat could completely eliminate differences in test performance between European Americans and African Americans . Sackett et al. have pointed out that , in Steele and Aronson 's ( 1995 ) experiments where stereotype threat was removed , an achievement gap of approximately one standard deviation remained between the groups , which is very close in size to that routinely reported between African American and European Americans ' average scores on large @-@ scale standardized tests such as the SAT . In subsequent correspondence between Sackett et al. and Steele and Aronson , Sackett et al. wrote that " They [ Steele and Aronson ] agree that it is a misinterpretation of the Steele and Aronson ( 1995 ) results to conclude that eliminating stereotype threat eliminates the African American @-@ White test @-@ score gap . "
Arthur R. Jensen criticised stereotype threat theory on the basis that it invokes an additional mechanism to explain effects which could be , according to him , explained by other , well @-@ known , and well @-@ established theories , such as test anxiety and especially the Yerkes – Dodson law . In Jensen 's view , the effects which are attributed to stereotype threat may simply reflect " the interaction of ability level with test anxiety as a function of test complexity " .
In 2009 , Wei examined real @-@ world testing over a broad population ( rather than lab assessments with questionable external validity ) , and found the opposite of stereotype threat : randomly assigned gendered questions actually raised female students ' scores by 0 @.@ 05 standard deviations . The lack of stereotype threat replicates an earlier large experiment with Advanced Placement exams which found no stereotype threat .
Gijsbert Stoet and David C. Geary reviewed the evidence for the stereotype threat explanation of the achievement gap in mathematics between men and women . They concluded that the relevant stereotype threat research has many methodological problems , such as not having a control group , and that the stereotype threat literature on this topic misrepresents itself as " well established " . They concluded that the evidence is in fact very weak .
= = = Failures to replicate and publication bias = = =
Whether the effect occurs at all has also been questioned , with researchers failing to replicate the finding . Flore and Wicherts concluded the reported effect is small , but also that the field is inflated by publication bias . They argue that , correcting for this , the most likely true effect size is near zero ( see meta @-@ analytic plot , highlighting both the restriction of large effect to low @-@ powered studies , and the plot asymmetry which occurs when publication bias is active ) .
Earlier meta @-@ analyses reached similar conclusions . For instance , Ganley et al . ( 2013 ) examined stereotype threat on mathematics test performance . They report a series of 3 studies , with a total sample of 931 students . These included both childhood and adolescent subjects and three activation methods , ranging from implicit to explicit . While they found some evidence of gender differences in math , these occurred regardless of stereotype threat . Importantly , they found " no evidence that the mathematics performance of school @-@ age girls was impacted by stereotype threat " . In addition , they report that evidence for stereotype threat in children appears to be subject to publication bias . The literature may reflect selective publication of false @-@ positive effects in underpowered studies , where large , well @-@ controlled studies find smaller or non @-@ significant effects :
nonsignificant findings were almost always reported in an article along with some significant stereotype threat effects found either at another age ( Ambady et al . , 2001 ; Muzzatti & Agnoli , 2007 ) , only with certain students ( Keller , 2007 ) , on certain items ( Keller , 2007 ; Neuville & Croizet , 2007 ) , or in certain contexts ( Huguet & Regner , 2007 , Study 2 ; Picho & Stephens , 2012 ; Tomasetto et al . , 2011 ) . Importantly , none of the three unpublished dissertations showed a stereotype threat effect . This observation suggests the possibility that publication bias is occurring . Publication bias refers to the fact that studies with null results are often not written up for publication or accepted for publication ( Begg , 1994 ) . This bias is a serious concern , especially if these results are being used to make recommendations for interventions .
In a study designed to see whether incentives could overcome stereotype threat in mathematics tests , Fryer Levitt and List ( 2008 ) could not replicate the stereotype threat , finding instead a modest facilitation effect of threat for males and females .
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= Hansel & Gretel : Witch Hunters =
Hansel & Gretel : Witch Hunters is a 2013 American @-@ German comedy action film written and directed by Tommy Wirkola . It is a continuation to the German folklore fairy tale " Hansel and Gretel " , in which the titular siblings are now grown up and working as a duo of witch exterminators for hire . The film stars Jeremy Renner , Gemma Arterton , Famke Janssen , Peter Stormare , Thomas Mann , and Derek Mears .
Originally scheduled for release in March 2012 , Hansel & Gretel was delayed for ten months to accommodate Renner 's appearances in The Avengers and The Bourne Legacy and to give Wirkola time to shoot a post @-@ credits scene . It premiered in North America on January 25 , 2013 , in 2D , 3D , and IMAX 3D , as well in D @-@ Box motion theaters and select international 4DX theaters , and was rated R in the United States . The film had its home media release on June 11 , including a longer , unrated version on Blu @-@ ray .
The film was panned by mainstream critics , particularly for what they saw as its weak script and gratuitous violence . However , many horror genre critics were more positive , viewing the film as unpretentiously entertaining . The film topped the domestic box office on its opening weekend and was a major hit in Brazil , Russia , Germany , and Mexico . Its worldwide theatrical run gross exceeded $ 226 million for the production cost of $ 50 million . Due to the commercial success of the film , which was planned as the first part of a series , its sequel is currently in development , and has been set for a 2016 release date .
= = Plot = =
Abandoned by their father deep in a forest , young Hansel and Gretel enter a gingerbread house and are captured by a cannibalistic witch . The witch forces Hansel to continuously eat candy to fatten him up , and enslaves Gretel , ordering her to prepare the oven , but the siblings outsmart her and incinerate her in the fire of the oven . In the fifteen years that follow , Hansel and Gretel become famed witch hunters , slaying hundreds of witches . The pair find that they are somehow immune to spells and curses , but the incident in the gingerbread house has left Hansel diabetic . He needs a shot of insulin every few hours or he will get sick and die .
Hansel and Gretel arrive in the town of Augsburg and immediately prevent Sheriff Berringer from executing a young woman named Mina for witchcraft . Mayor Englemann tells the crowd that he has hired the siblings to rescue several children presumed abducted by witches . Berringer hires trackers for the same mission in the hopes of disgracing the mayor and cementing his power . All but one of the sheriff 's party are killed that night by the powerful grand witch Muriel , who sends one man back to the town tavern as a warning to the locals . Hansel and Gretel , along with the Mayor 's deputy Jackson , capture one of Muriel 's witches and interrogate her . They discover that the witches are preparing for the coming Blood Moon , where they plan to sacrifice twelve children in order to gain an immunity to fire . Muriel , accompanied by her witches and a troll named Edward , attack the town and abduct the final child . Muriel kills Jackson and launches Gretel out a window , rendering her unconscious . Gretel is rescued by Ben , a local teenager who is a fan of theirs and plans to be a witch hunter himself . Hansel grabs onto a fleeing witch by her broomstick , but falls and is lost in the forest .
The next morning , Hansel is found hanging from a tree by Mina . She takes him to a nearby spring where she heals his wounds and makes love to him . Gretel searches for Hansel in the forest but is attacked by Sheriff Berringer and his posse . The men capture and beat Gretel before being stopped by Edward , who kills the sheriff and his men . Edward tends Gretel 's wounds and tells her that he helped her because trolls serve witches . Hansel and Gretel reunite at an abandoned cabin , which they discover is both a witch 's lair and their childhood home . Muriel appears in front of them , telling them the truth of their past . She reveals that Hansel and Gretel 's mother was a grand white witch named Adrianna who married a farmer . On the night of the last Blood Moon , Muriel planned to use the heart of the white witch to complete her potion . She found Adrianna too powerful and decided to use Gretel 's heart instead . To get rid of Adrianna , Muriel revealed to the townspeople that Adrianna was a witch . The townspeople burned her alive and hung Hansel and Gretel 's father . Following this revelation , the siblings battle Muriel before she stabs Hansel and abducts Gretel for the ceremony .
Hansel wakes up with Mina , who reveals herself to be a white witch . She heals his wounds again and uses a grimoire to bless Hansel 's arsenal of weapons . Hansel , Mina , and Ben head out to disrupt the Blood Moon Sabbath . Mina begins slaughtering dark witches with a Gatling gun , while Hansel squares off against Muriel 's witches and frees the children . Edward defies Muriel 's orders and releases Gretel before Muriel throws him off the cliff . Muriel flees on a broomstick , but Ben manages to shoot her and forces her to crash . Hansel goes after Muriel while Gretel stops to revive Edward . Hansel , Ben , and Mina follow Muriel 's trail to the original gingerbread house . Muriel wounds Ben and kills Mina before Hansel shoots her several times , knocking her into the house . Gretel arrives and the pair engage Muriel in a brutal fight that ends with Muriel being beheaded with a shovel . They burn Muriel 's body on a pyre and collect their reward for rescuing the children . They head out on their next witch hunt accompanied by Ben and Edward .
= = = Extended cut = = =
Aside from additional profanity , gore , and sexual content , and a few extra lines , the extended version features a few extra scenes . In one scene , Berringer blames the Mayor for the witches ' attack and murders him in public . The scene where Berringer and his goons assault Gretel is also extended ; it occurs in between the scene where Mina heals Hansel and has sex with him , and shows that the men plan to rape Gretel right before Edward kills them .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
Wirkola got the idea to create a film based on the adult lives of Hansel and Gretel in 2007 while at film school in Australia . After being discovered by Gary Sanchez Productions , Wirkola pitched the idea at a meeting with Paramount Pictures and won a contract . Production began in March 2011 at the Babelsberg Studios in Germany and included extensive use of traditional special effects . In addition , Renner and Arterton had a month of training beforehand to prepare for the physical demands of their roles . In terms of the weapons and wardrobe , Wirkola wanted an old @-@ world look with a modern touch , and he was adamant about filming outdoors in European nature rather than in a studio . The project was filmed in Germany and featured an international cast and crew .
= = = Development = = =
Hansel & Gretel : Witch Hunters is the first English language film and the first big studio production of Norwegian writer and director Wirkola , up to this point best known for his 2009 Nazi zombie @-@ themed , independent horror comedy film Dead Snow . Wirkola said he was contacted by producer Kevin Messick from Gary Sanchez Productions after the screening of Dead Snow at the Sundance Film Festival : " So my first meeting , my first day in LA was with those guys and I pitched Hansel and Gretel and they loved it . And they took me to Paramount two days after and we sold it . " In 2013 , Wirkola commented , " I ’ m still surprised that they went for it , because it ’ s a crazy , rock n ’ roll script . It ’ s full throttle , there ’ s lots of blood and gore and bad language , I often wonder how I got this movie made . It ’ s all across the world now . But people really seem to respond to it , which is what we hoped , that people would enjoy this ride . "
An announcement of Hansel & Gretel : Witch Hunters sparked a production of several other " Hansel and Gretel " -based films made by different studios , including The Asylum 's mockbuster Hansel & Gretel , Syfy 's Witchslayer Gretl , and Lionsgate Home Entertainment 's Hansel & Gretel : Warriors of Witchcraft . The film was also a part of an overall Hollywood trend of witch @-@ themed films , among them Beautiful Creatures ( which also stars Thomas Mann ) and Oz the Great and Powerful , set to be released that same season . The project was given a budget of $ 50 million , co @-@ financed by Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer .
= = = Concept and design = = =
Wirkola said , " I have a strong memory from my childhood of just how dark and gruesome their tale was and I wondered what would have happened to the two of them when they grew up ? They had this dark past and this intense hatred of witches . So as I thought about it , it made sense to me that of course they would be fated to become great witch hunters . We wanted it to feel like this could be happening 300 years ago but at the same time , there is a modern spin on all the action , characters and weaponry . It was a fun way to make a classical world feel fresh . " Wirkola said that he originally came with that idea in 2007 while studying film and television at Bond University in Australia , when he wanted to make it as just a short film , and that the film school director Simon Hunter advised him : " Tom , don 't ever speak of the idea again until you are in front of a Hollywood producer and I guarantee you will sell it . "
Gary Sanchez Productions ' Adam McKay said in 2010 , " The idea is , they 've grown up and they hunt witches . It ’ s a hybrid sort of old @-@ timey feeling , yet there ’ s pump @-@ action shotguns . Modern technology but in an old style . We heard it and we were just like , ‘ That ’ s a freakin ' franchise ! You could make three of those ! ' " Dante Harper was hired to rewrite the script , aimed for " having a gory @-@ but @-@ funny Shaun of the Dead vibe . " McKay said inspirations included Sam Raimi 's early horror comedy films like Army of Darkness but also " John Carpenter 's movies , which we all love [ and ] we 're all hugely influenced by the first Matrix — obviously a really big one — also the Bourne Supremacy movies and the way Oliver Wood shot those . You kind of throw in all those , mix ' em up in a pot and that 's what you get . " Wirkola also credited Quentin Tarantino for influencing him " in many ways " and singled out Peter Jackson 's Braindead for having been " a game @-@ changer " for him .
Messick said they designed " a fairy tale , mythological fantasy world " that feels like it happened long time ago but is not set in any particular time period . Marlene Stewart created the film 's costumes , using traditional leather and linen but without an antique look . Its steampunk @-@ like , retro @-@ futuristic weapons were created by the weapon designer Simon Boucherie and Wirkola , who said they wanted Hansel and Gretel 's weapons to look as if the characters hand @-@ made them . Wirkola stated he " just wanted this crazy , mashed @-@ up world where you can ’ t pinpoint where it is , or when it is " and the modern elements are there to " add to the fun and tone of the film . " He said , " We wanted the movie to feel timeless and for the movie to feel like a fairy tale , but still grounded . It was a lot of fun coming up with the different weapon designs and ways of killing witches . We mixed old and new elements . But no matter how modern some of the weapons are , they all have an old @-@ fashioned feel and look like they could fit into this world . "
The Stone Circle witches ' looks were designed by Twilight Creations ( Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows ) . According to McKay , " the witches are awesome in it . Nasty , mean witches , and we 'll get some great actresses for them as well . " Wirkola said he wanted to reinvent witches as villains : " I do love Witches of Eastwick . We wanted to try to avoid the classical witch with the long nose stirring the pot . I really wanted them to be ... dangerous , fast – they ’ re stronger than Hansel and Gretel ... It ’ s a good basis for a villain . " He recalled that " the most fun was finding their look and sound . For the main witches , we found one animal to represent all of them , like Muriel is a wolf . It just helped us find the witches . In some ways , it feels like they 're the spawn of the dark places of nature . It should feel animalistic . " Asked if he was worried about " this perception that it might be interpreted as sexist " , Wirkola said , " For me , that ’ s a classical villain from hundreds and hundreds of years ago . Yeah , I never worried about that , to be honest . " He added , " People forget how truly dark and twisted those stories are . [ The original " Hansel & Gretel " ] talks about a witch burning alive in an oven , screaming and scratching . " Ulrich Zeidler 's concept art for some of the witches was released on the Internet .
= = = Casting and characters = = =
Jeremy Renner , who played the film 's adult Hansel , has stated that his initial attraction came from a one sheet he was given even before seeing the script , showing Hansel and Gretel walking away and a witch burning at a stake in the background , which he found " incredibly interesting " ( this scene was included in the finished film ) . He added , " When I read the script , my first thought was , ' I can ’ t believe this hasn ’ t been done yet . ' It ’ s such a great idea with so much potential . That dynamic was definitely a big thing , I loved that what Tommy [ Wirkola ] wrote left so much room for character . " Wirkola said he wanted Renner in the role after seeing him in The Hurt Locker . Wirkola , who described Hansel as the " loose cannon " of the duo , gave him an additional character flaw of diabetes , in addition to the psychological scars that Hansel shares with his sister ( in the original idea for the short film , Gretel was also suffering from eating disorder ) . Renner said it was a great escape for him " as this was a fairytale with no stress like the other action movies I 'd done recently . I was having so much fun hanging on a wire like Peter Pan , hanging onto a broom and doing other crazy stuff . " He stated , " That was one of the most fun jobs I ’ ve ever had because there ’ s something magical about that old world , fantasy thing . "
The role of adult Gretel , whom Wirkola wanted to be " a really , really strong and fun female character , " was originally planned for Noomi Rapace , who dropped out of consideration for the part prior to early January 2011 . Diane Kruger and Eva Green were reported to also be in talks for the role . English actress Gemma Arterton was ultimately cast in the role . She impressed Wirkola with her performance in The Disappearance of Alice Creed , and , after they have met , with her " really filthy sense of humour " as " the humour is essential to this film . " Arterton said she was attracted to Wirkola 's " strong vision " for the film , calling it " very , very dark , and bloodthirsty and there ’ s a lot of cursing . It ’ s kind of got a Tarantino feel , really . " Arterton described her character as " much more in tune with her spiritual side . Hansel is a typical action hero , cheeky , funny , a womanizer . She ’ s much more of a thinker , intense , internal and bit more open @-@ minded than he is . " She said that Gretel is " a sexual character but she 's not having sex with anybody , which is a change for me because usually in my films I 'm sleeping with somebody ! " She further explained the characters : " Hansel & Gretel have this unstoppable bond but they ’ re also so different from each other . She ’ s the brains of the operation . He ’ s the brawn . He ’ s the joker and the show @-@ off . She ’ s more the watcher , the researcher , the one who tries to really understand witchcraft . " Arterton added , " Jeremy [ Renner ] and I found within the script moments where we showed the vulnerable side of them . Often in action movies , people are scared to put that in . I think it was important . " She said that she " loved every minute " of the production and did not want it to end , also crediting it for helping her overcome her fear of getting hurt .
The role of the chief witch Muriel , described by Arterton as " the queen bee of witches " , was given to Dutch actress Famke Janssen . Janssen too described the film as " Tarantino @-@ esque " , with " a lot of blood , gore and exploding witches . " Wirkola said he had a crush on Janssen since he saw her in GoldenEye as Xenia Onatopp , " an amazing villain , " and that in his opinion her being not only a good actress but also a beautiful woman who is " huge " and " menacing somehow " made her " a perfect combination " of " sexy and dangerous " . Janssen said that at first the initial appeal was just money , but she quickly took a liking of the script and of Wirkola personally . She also thought the idea of playing an " evil to the core " witch " was appealing and different " , saying , " I hadn 't done anything like it … A character like a witch feels like you would have so much freedom , because there are no restrictions as to what you can do . " Later , however , she was constantly being distracted by the special effects work and felt that she " really understood the character " only in one part of the film . She found the time @-@ consuming process of applying such makeup ( taking three hours to apply and one hour to remove ) " very strange " and also felt restricted and afraid of acting over @-@ the @-@ top in her witch role . In the end , she still had " a lot of fun " playing someone who is completely evil , and felt that it was " so empowering " to have " an inner witch to get in touch with once in a while . " Janssen said the film might appeal to women and girls , too : " There 's a brother and a sister story . And there 's a romance in it too - but obviously not with the witch . Nobody falls in love with the witch . "
Edward , a morally conflicted troll enslaved by Muriel , was voiced by Robin Atkin Downes and played by Derek Mears ( Jason Voorhees in 2009 's Friday the 13th ) . Mears was using an elaborate animatronic suit that he compared to " kind of like NASCAR where I ’ m piloting it but I 'm not doing it by myself ... I think there ’ s like five guys controlling the individual parts of the character . There ’ s one person who does the eye brows , one person does the feet . " Janssen , who could not " say enough things about Tommy [ Wirkola ] " , said she was especially impressed at how he stuck to his specific vision and " fought " hard to hire a number of unknown European actors that would otherwise be unlikely to appear in a big studio American film , in effect making it a much more international production .
Several Scandinavian actors were cast in major roles , including Pihla Viitala , Peter Stormare ( who Arterton said had actually inspired her to start acting ) , Bjørn Sundquist , and Ingrid Bolsø Berdal . In addition , actors from Germany and Poland ( including Thomas Mann , Rainer Bock , and Joanna Kulig ) and other parts of the world were also cast . Viitala , a self @-@ described " big fan " of Renner , said she was nervous at first , but found him " extremely " easy to approach , made a good connection , and enjoyed working with him . Wirkola said Berdal was chosen for her " piercing " eyes , adding : " There are a lot of Norwegians in the film . Minor parts , but I knew I could get great actors in small parts and Ingrid has a great physicality . " Stormare said he was only surprised at " how smart Tom [ Wirkola ] is , and how broad this fantasy is and the span of his imagination , " his favourite aspect being how " some of the witches are so sexy and cool . " He compared the film 's production to being in Disneyland , saying it felt like a dream to him .
= = = Filming = = =
Wirkola said , " From day one , I was very clear that I wanted to shoot this thing in Europe . I really wanted that European feel of cold mountains , big forests , that sort of spirit was important to me . Luckily we did get to shoot it in Germany which is the homeland of the fairy tale . Shooting in natural outdoor sets is very important to me , compared to working on a sound stage . " It took place in Germany , at the Babelsberg Studio in Potsdam @-@ Babelsberg , in a filming location at an old forest near Berlin ( production designer Stephen Scott said that he searched for and found what he believed looked like a " medieval forest " free of human interference ) and in the city of Braunschweig in Lower Saxony . After the film was delayed to 2013 , the crew did a " couple " of re @-@ shoots , including " a little bit " in the deserts of California ( filming the post @-@ ending scene , an extended version of which was also released in a promotional clip " The Desert Witch " ) .
Principal photography began in March 2011 , using digital cinematography . Wirkola said , " Hopefully – you can see what I ’ m inspired by : Raimi and Jackson . Actually I ’ m a big fan of [ Steven ] Spielberg and the way he shoots action scenes . I think in a lot of modern action movies , it ’ s hard to see what ’ s going on . Shaky cam … Hopefully what we strived for was to go a little retro in how you shoot action scenes . " The film was shot in 3 @-@ D and its real 3D shots were done by lead stereographer Florian Maier and his team from Stereotec . Wirkola said : " We shot half of it in real 3D and the other half was post converted . Actually the 3D thing wasn ’ t there in the beginning . It was something the studio suggested later on . We embraced it and I think it actually really helps in getting people into this fairy tale world . " The filming process took three months . A 12 @-@ minute B @-@ roll footage was later released on the Internet .
Stunt coordinator and second unit director David Leitch compared it to a " Jackie Chan hybrid of comedy and action . " Prior to the filming , Leitch organized a month @-@ long boot camp in order to prepare Renner and Arterton ( who said she was also glad that at least she could use her prior training that she received while studying at RADA ) with extensive weapons , fight and stunt training . Janssen said she enjoyed " flying " , something that she always wanted to do , adding that despite her reputation as an action star it was the first film where she really had to do something physical ( including suffering a minor accident on the set ) , because she could not use a double in the close @-@ up scenes where she had the makeup on . During one of the scenes , where Gretel is thrown through a wall and falls down several meters , a stunt double for Arterton was dangerously injured when a nail got lodged in her skull close to the brain ; Arterton said she initially wanted to do this stunt herself but Wirkola would not let her . Arterton herself suffered an injury when she sprained her ankle while running through the forest . Stunts for the more aggressive witches were done by New Zealander stuntwoman and actress Zoë Bell . Renner did practically all of his stunt scenes himself .
= = = Visual effects and post @-@ production = = =
The film 's visual effects were created using mostly practical effects , supplemented by computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) created by Hammerhead VFX for about 15 % of the film 's special effects , such as the transformations . Wirkola said : " I ’ m a big believer in just using CGI to polish what you get on camera . For me that ’ s the ideal use of CGI . We have a troll in the film that is animatronic . I loved him . It took some convincing to get the studio along with the animatronic creature . There have been bad experiences with animatronics throughout various productions but I saw this company Spectral Motion . They did the Hellboy movies and I just loved it . " Wirkola added : " I come from Norway where we can ’ t afford CGI . But this is a fantastical world of witches and trolls and I wanted to ground the movie where I could . The blood should look real . " Janssen , however , despite Wirkola 's warnings , " was not entirely prepared for how involved and long that was going to be " and " actually wanted to burn the prosthetic make @-@ up by the end of the movie . " She recalled being " so overwhelmed by what this prosthetic business was all about " , saying : " Acting has been so specific for me and what I 've learned - eyes , facial expressions , all of that stuff - and with something like this , you 're robbed of all of this . Or I could no [ longer ] rely on things I 've done in the past . It was different and frustrating at times because I had this circus of people around me in case something became unglued . " Muriel and the other principal witches were prepared by Mike Elizalde 's Spectral Motion , who also created and handled the animatronic troll . Jon Farhat was the visual effects supervisor and aerial second unit director .
Conceptual design and production studio Picture Mill collaborated with Wirkola and Messick to create the title and opening credits sequence telling some of the early adventures of Hansel and Gretel as they grew up to become famous witch hunters . It was created with Stereo3D Toolbox through a combination of hand @-@ drawn illustrations , practical fire effects and CGI animation . The digital color correction was supervised by Stefan Sonnenfeld .
Janssen said the film is " definitely played with a bit of a wink and doesn 't take itself too seriously . " Wirkola himself described it as " a little more grounded " and action @-@ centered than Dead Snow . He recalled that he has tried to downplay comedy elements : " If you go too far , it can turn into a spoof almost ... We shot a lot more than what is in the movie of course and it ’ s just balancing it when you ’ re cutting . " Speaking of graphic violence , he said that " the first version we tested was for sure the most extreme . Some stuff stayed in , some stuff got cut out . " By August 2012 , Paramount was reportedly test screening two versions of the film , rated R and PG @-@ 13 , and the R @-@ rated cut received the positive feedback . Wirkola said , " I was afraid . I actually made sure they could never cut it to PG @-@ 13 ... We always knew it was going to be R. " McKay said that Paramount 's Adam Goodman " was perceptive enough to see the same thing and got behind it as well . " Wirkola said , " The pre @-@ production and shooting went very smooth , but the post @-@ production was very new to me and how they do things here with testing and the studio . " He said about the test screenings in particular : " I can see why they do it – there ’ s a lot of money involved and they want it to hit as broad as possible . But I think it ’ s a flawed process , I really do . " McKay said that Paramount executives might nevertheless regret the film 's R rating .
= = Music = =
Hans Zimmer worked on Witch Hunters as an executive music producer . Icelandic composer Atli Örvarsson ( co @-@ author of Zimmer 's score for Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End ) created the film score . Örvarsson had previously scored Season of the Witch so initially he was " a bit apprehensive " to work on another witchcraft film but was " too fond of the story to say no and found Tommy Wirkola 's take on the subject matter to be very refreshing . " Örvarsson found it easier to collaborate with Wirkola due to their shared Nordic heritage and said that their discussions about the music for the film " might have had some of the most cold and dark humor of any Hollywood music meetings . "
The film 's soundtrack , Hansel & Gretel Witch Hunters - Music from the Motion Picture , was released in MP3 format by Paramount Music on January 22 , 2013 . A physical soundtrack album was released on January 29 , 2013 from La @-@ La Land Records . The song " Bundy " by Norwegian rock band Animal Alpha is used during the film 's end credits , but is not included on the film 's soundtrack .
= = Distribution = =
= = = Theatrical release = = =
Initially slated for a March 2 , 2012 release , the film was pushed by Paramount Pictures to a ten @-@ month delay for January 11 , 2013 . Co @-@ producer Kevin Messick later said : " We ’ d finished it but we were still discussing adding a coda scene , which we were able to shoot . And there was always the consideration that Jeremy [ Renner ] had Avengers and Bourne coming out . So the studio made a wise strategic move in finding a good release date for us . " Wirkola said that " the main reason is because they wanted to wait on Jeremy . He was cast before Mission : Impossible , Bourne and The Avengers . They wanted to wait until after those . I was , of course , disappointed then , but actually it helped because we came in under budget " and so the delay enabled him to re @-@ add and shoot an additional scene that is set in the desert and which was cut from his original screenplay . The first trailer for the film was released on September 5 , 2012 .
The film was again delayed by two weeks to January 25 , 2013 in the United States and Canada . A statement from Paramount suggested that the film was delayed to enable it to be released in IMAX 3D format . In early January 2013 , illegal copies of the film were discovered in a major anti @-@ piracy bust . Prior to its North American premiere , Hansel and Gretel : Witch Hunters was first released in Russia on January 17 , followed by the releases in Indonesia and the Philippines on January 23 , and in several nations across Latin America and South @-@ East Asia on January 24 . On the same day ( January 25 ) it was also released in more countries of Latin America , with the other parts of the world following between January 31 and mid @-@ March 2013 . The film was also released in the motion effects theaters using 4DX and D @-@ Box motion enhancement technologies . In Mexico , it was the first feature film to be shown in Cinemex 's new X4D Motion EFX theater format , provided by MediaMation .
= = = Home media = = =
The " extreme version " home release was announced by Wirkola to feature more comedy and " more guts and blood and gore , stuff that didn 't make the [ theatrical ] cut . " Hansel & Gretel : Witch Hunters was released by Paramount Home Media Distribution on June 11 in its original theatrical cut and a longer , unrated cut " with never @-@ before @-@ seen footage that was too intense for theaters " . It is available in the versions : either a double Blu @-@ ray edition ( the 1080p AVC video and the 6 @-@ channel Dolby TrueHD audio ) or a triple Blu @-@ ray 3D / Blu @-@ ray / DVD limited edition , both coming with an UltraViolet digital copy and three behind @-@ the @-@ scenes special features : " Reinventing Hansel & Gretel " ( 15 : 41m ) , " The Witching Hours " ( 9 : 01m ) and " Meet Edward the Troll " ( 5 : 25m ) . In addition , just the theatrical cut of the film will be made available on a single DVD . The unrated version is 10 minutes longer ( 98 minutes long ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Los Angeles Times predicted the film would become a " box @-@ office bull 's @-@ eye , with pre @-@ release audience surveys indicating an expected $ 30 million for the opening weekend in the United States . One week prior to the U.S. release , the film opened to a " huge " $ 8 @.@ 6 million in Russia ( the all @-@ time 50th best opening in Russia / CIS ) , which made its international prospects look good , according to Yahoo ! News . Entertainment Weekly predicted the film would " likely top the chart in its debut weekend " with $ 17 million ; similarly , MovieWeb predicted $ 17 @.@ 5 million . Paramount said they counted on $ 20 million . Speaking on January 31 , Wirkola claimed the film had so far " opened in 19 territories and went to number one in 18 of them . " The U.S. initial midnight screening at selected theaters made an estimated $ 500 @,@ 000 , a " so @-@ so result " . The film took the top position on its first day 's screening at 3 @,@ 373 locations across the country , earning an estimated $ 6 million and suggesting a three @-@ day total of $ 15 – 17 million , according to various estimates .
The film topped the weekend 's North American box office with $ 19 million , the first day 's under performance blamed on bad weather on the U.S. East Coast . In addition , it earned $ 25 million in several other territories where it had already been released ( representing about 40 % of the international market ) . However , it held well during its box office run , dropping only 52 % in its second weekend and 39 % in its third and fourth . American audiences gave it a " B " CinemaScore grade . On March 19 , Reuters reported that while the film " was no blockbuster in the United States " , it was much better received in other countries for a $ 205 @.@ 9 million total haul to date , including $ 24 @.@ 1 million in Brazil , $ 19 million in Russia , $ 14 million in Mexico and $ 12 @.@ 8 million in Germany . The film 's theatrical run ended on April 25 , with a total gross of $ 225 @.@ 7 million including $ 55 @.@ 7 million domestically .
Overall , Hansel and Gretel : Witch Hunters was Paramount 's fourth highest @-@ grossing film of 2013 , following new graphic novel and franchise entries : World War Z , Star Trek Into Darkness , and G.I. Joe : Retaliation , respectively . It is estimated that , following published production costs , marketing and advertising fees , and the percentage of overseas revenue that was lost by the domestic studio , similar fantasy reboots such as Snow White and the Huntsman , Mirror , Mirror , Jack the Giant Slayer , Abraham Lincoln : Vampire Hunter , and I , Frankenstein fail to match the total studio winnings for Hansel and Gretel : Witch Hunters , which makes it one of the most financially successful films of the fantasy @-@ reboot genre , despite having the smallest estimated budget and lowest Metascore of the recent entries .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Hansel & Gretel : Witch Hunters was initially met with largely negative critical reviews , with a 15 % approval rating and an average rating of 4 / 10 from the 126 reviews on Rotten Tomatoes . The website 's critical consensus states : " Alternately bloody and silly , Hansel & Gretel : Witch Hunters fails as both a fantasy adventure and as a parody of same . " Metacritic rates the film at 21 out of 100 , based on 24 reviews . According to CBS , " critics have not been too kind to these witch @-@ hunting siblings . Several reviewers have blasted the film for its thin story , deliberate anachronisms , and lack of funny dialogue . " Messick commented : " We expected that . It ’ s an easy target ! It ’ s a genre film . " Renner said : " We knew this was never going to be a movie for the critics . I 'm just hoping that people go along and can have some fun with it . It 's pure escapism . " McKay said he " sort took the critical reviews as almost kind of lazy , when they said it wasn 't any good . It 's just from a distance you could tell certain critics were just going to write it off immediately . " The film was one of the top seven contenders for the 2014 Academy Award in the category Best Make @-@ Up and Hairstyling , but failed to receive a nomination .
Claudia Puig of USA Today wrote " this convoluted hybrid of fairy tale and fantasy / action / comedy / horror aims for campy fun , but comes off tedious and blood @-@ spattered . " Andrew Barker of Variety called the film " inconsistently acted , and somehow both underwritten and overplotted , " and while the action is " frequent and competently staged , " it might feel too repetitive " as yet another witch is ripped apart limb from limb , sending yet another wave of viscera sluicing toward the camera . " Similarly , Stephanie Merry of The Washington Post wrote that " after a while it ’ s easy to become numb to the repulsive sights and bored by action that once seemed intense and exciting " in this " rarely funny spoof that ’ s heavy on bone @-@ crushing and blood @-@ gushing , " giving it one @-@ and @-@ half star out of four . Steven Farber of The Hollywood Reporter also wrote a scathing review , saying that while " Wirkola makes the most of the 3D technology " , " the film is too fanciful to be truly revolting " for its gore effects and " despite its few wry jokes , the script is awfully thin . " Roger Moore of The Charlotte Observer gave the film one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars , writing that Wirkola " focuses on the fights and flings all manner of viscera at the 3 @-@ D camera as limbs are whacked off and heads and torsos explode . Less attention was paid to the story , and the dialogue is a tad over @-@ reliant on the random f @-@ word to land a laugh . " Lou Lumenick of the New York Post gave the film zero out of four stars , writing that " nothing makes a whole lot of sense in this incoherent movie , whose director ’ s philosophy seems to be : When in doubt , cut somebody ’ s head off . " Kat Murphy of MSN gave it one star out of four , comparing this " big @-@ budget faux fairy tale about skanky witches " to a " downscale video game for dull @-@ eyed teens happy to lap up lame wisecracks and lots of gore . " According to Vulture 's Bilge Ebiri , " if the similarly situated Abraham Lincoln : Vampire Hunter took itself too seriously , the problem with Hansel & Gretel is that it doesn ’ t quite take itself seriously enough . " Keith Staskiewicz of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a C- , calling it " an intermittently fun , but overexcited and predictable mish @-@ mash . " Alicia Malone of IGN rated it a 4 @.@ 5 / 10 , stating " there are a few funny moments , but overall Hansel and Gretel : Witch Hunters is too similar to many films we ’ ve seen before . " Calum Marsh of Slant Magazine lambasted the film 's " sub @-@ Tim Burton aesthetic " and wrote that " the result suggests A Knight 's Tale as penned by Seth MacFarlane , " giving it zero out of four stars . Scott A. Gray of Exclaim ! praised some elements of the film , such as " lush and colourful art design that recalls a Guillermo Del Toro production , sound creature makeup and special effects , decently choreographed action scenes and a pair of leads who do their damnedest to sell the limp script " , giving it a score of 4 / 10 . Chris Knight of The Vancouver Sun called it a " mess of a fairy tale " , expecting " a wiccan outcry at the film ’ s depiction — nay , endorsement — of the torture of witch @-@ folk . " Liam Lacey of The Globe and Mail gave it one star out of four , concerned how it " has an alarming number of females being strung up , burned , shot , decapitated and eviscerated . "
Some reception of the film , however , was much more positive , in particular by reviewers for horror outlets . Michael Gingold of Fangoria gave it two @-@ and @-@ half out of four skulls , while Jonathan Barkan of Bloody Disgusting gave it four out of five skulls , stating it " isn ’ t a movie meant to scare or make you think but it is one of the most entertaining and enjoyable movies of its kind that I ’ ve seen in years . " Scott Weinberg of FEARnet wrote that " aside from some very clunky editorial missteps in the film 's second half , there 's a good deal of wit , enthusiasm , energy , and amusing attitude to be found in the dumb @-@ yet @-@ self @-@ aware Hansel & Gretel : Witch Hunters , " all while noting that he is " not the type to act snobbish around a ridiculous film that obviously knows it 's ridiculous . " According to Ryan Larson of Shock Till You Drop , the film " is a mixed bag " but " fortunately , the lows don ’ t appear as often as you would think , " and , " if taken at face value , Hansel & Gretel is well worth the view . " William Bibbiani of CraveOnline , who criticized the film 's inadequately " limp " marketing campaign , found the movie itself " inherently stupid " but in a good way , " played with humor , ultraviolence and anachronistic fetish . " Cinema Blend 's Sean O 'Connell stated that the film is " often mean and nasty , but that 's really its saving grace . " Peter Paras of E ! recommended this " super violent , pretty funny flick " for how it " revels in the mayhem " . Tom Russo of The Boston Globe , giving the film three out of five stars , called it a " splattery fanboy fun . Preposterous , clearly , but fun . " Jonathon Natsis of Filmink wrote : " Hansel and Gretel is not a ' film ' . It 's a ' movie ' , in all its unabashed , excitable glory ... big on blood @-@ soaked entertainment and low on pretension . " Rick Florino of Artistdirect gave it four out of five stars , stating : " This has all the elements of a classic action flick , and it 's destined for cult status . Welcome to the most fun movie of 2013 . " DVD Talk 's Jamie S. Rich summed up : " Is Hansel and Gretel : Witch Hunters a good movie ? Probably not . At least not in any way that is defensible by regular critical standards . Is it a hell of a good time ? Absolutely so . Unabashedly so . That 's all it wants to be . "
Neil Geinzlinger of The New York Times wrote that " it may not stay in the public eye long because this movie is probably not going to put up Twilight @-@ like numbers , " adding that " the script doesn 't give them enough of the witty lines that can elevate these types of movies to must @-@ see status , which is odd , since the producers include Will Ferrell . " Vince Horiuchi of The Salt Lake Tribune suggested that this film should have been made 30 years ago by Sam Raimi and starring Bruce Campbell , while instead " the Hansel and Gretel we ’ re left with runs out of its magic potion far too early to let us enjoy its wicked possibilities . " A more positive comparison to Raimi and Campbell 's Army of Darkness was made by Pete Vonder Haar of the Houston Press , who gave it three out of five " witch hazels " and wrote : " I 'm not sure if witches are the next vampires / zombies , or if the hinted @-@ at franchise potential has any legs , but this was a perfectly vulgar way to spend 90 minutes . " Tim Grierson of Screen International wrote that Hansel and Gretel " works best as an unapologetic B @-@ movie action flick " and " feels like a first film in a franchise that ’ s meant to set up the main characters and conflicts , which can then be fleshed out in sequels " but " the problem is that there isn 't enough here to warrant a return trip to this semi @-@ magical land . " Richard Corliss of TIME agreed with this sentiment , stating that " one might be enough — too much , for some tastes . "
= = = Cult status = = =
At the conclusion of 2013 , Hansel and Gretel : Witch Hunters made multiple annual movie lists dedicated to underappreciated or underrated films . Movies.com opined it " is , hands down , the most underappreciated film of the year … ' Proper ' filmmaking or not , if you 've got me cheering at the screening , grinning big and then walking out with a little extra adrenaline , you ’ ve done something right . " Ryan Doom from JoBlo.com wrote that " while usually that ’ s the thing I mock , [ Hansel & Gretel ] somehow ended up pretty damn enjoyable … Why not ? It never takes itself serious and it knows exactly what it is : a silly film that isn 't afraid to do what the hell it wants . " Hansel and Gretel : Witch Hunters has hence been labeled as a cult film by a number of horror @-@ fantasy film fans , as well as by some critics who initially saw no merit in movie . This significant financial and fan following have led some to question the initial perception of the film in relation to its debut in January , considered to be " a refuge for films that don 't have a shot of generating good word of mouth or having a leggy run . " While Renner 's box office draw and the film 's " well @-@ articulated premise " have been listed as major factors behind its theatrical success , its ability to maintain a lasting fan following has also been attributed to its original concept , excellent gore and action sequences , Renner 's and Arterton 's tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek performances , and the film 's ability to not take itself too seriously . The film was nominated for the 40th People 's Choice Awards in the category Favorite Horror Movie , but lost to Carrie .
= = Sequel = =
On March 19 , 2013 , Paramount announced that a sequel to the film is in the works due to overseas box office numbers . Hansel & Gretel producers Ferrell , McKay , Messick , and Flynn were reported to return . In June 2013 , McKay officially confirmed his involvement and said that " everyone feels like as good as the first one is , we can really jack it up a level with the second one . So , fingers crossed everyone will come back " ( including Renner and Arterton ) . McKay suggested that Paramount might insist harder to make the film rated PG @-@ 13 this time . Talking about Wirkola 's " pretty insane " ideas for the second film , McKay said this could be one of those instances where the sequel does go further than the first one . " Regarding the storyline , he offered one hint : " Think of different kinds of witchcraft . " It was revealed that the sequel will have a 2016 release date .
In September 2014 , Wirkola announced that he would not be returning to direct the sequel : “ I have been lately attached to a few more things , it ’ s just a matter of time and priorities . I did Dead Snow , then Hansel & Gretel , and then Dead Snow 2 . I want to do something a little bit different now and not just do sequels . I did write the script and I hope to be involved in it . But yeah , I won ’ t be directing it . ” He said " the first film was a learning curve for me working in the studio system and the script I wrote for the original was so different [ than the final movie ] . We ended up taking a lot out and altering stuff that first time . I tried taking what I learned and still delivered a sequel script that ’ s an R @-@ rated action film . " Cinema Blend reported Renner said that despite his busy schedule he agreed to reprise the role of Hansel because the first film " was a lot of fun doing the movie , " but without Wirkola directing again he might be less likely to return for the sequel .
On August 7 , 2015 , it was reported that Bruno Aveillan will make his feature film debut helming the sequel , with Wirkola as a writer .
= = Television adaptation = =
Deadline reports that Paramount is planning a Hansel & Gretel : Witch Hunters TV series . It is possible that this series may ultimately be produced in place of the proposed sequel .
= = Accolades = =
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= Political integration of India =
At the time of Indian independence in 1947 , India was divided into two sets of territories , one under the control of the British Empire , and the other over which the Crown had suzerainty , but which were under the control of their hereditary rulers . In addition , there were several colonial enclaves controlled by France and Portugal . The political integration of these territories into India was a declared objective of the Indian National Congress , and the Government of India pursued this over the next decade . Through a combination of factors , Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and V. P. Menon convinced the rulers of the various princely states to accede to India . Having secured their accession , they then proceeded to , in a step @-@ by @-@ step process , secure and extend the central government 's authority over these states and transform their administrations until , by 1956 , there was little difference between the territories that had been part of British India and those that had been part of princely states . Simultaneously , the Government of India , through a combination of diplomatic and military means , acquired de facto and de jure control over the remaining colonial enclaves , which too were integrated into India .
Although this process successfully integrated the vast majority of princely states into India , it was not as successful for a few , notably the former princely states of Jammu and Kashmir , Tripura and Manipur , where active secessionist movements exist .
= = Princely states in India = =
The early history of British expansion in India was characterised by the co @-@ existence of two approaches towards the existing princely states . The first was a policy of annexation , where the British sought to forcibly absorb the Indian princely states into the provinces which constituted their Empire in India . The second was a policy of indirect rule , where the British assumed suzerainty and paramountcy over princely states , but conceded to them sovereignty and varying degrees of internal self @-@ government . During the early part of the 19th century , the policy of the British tended towards annexation , but the Indian Rebellion of 1857 forced a change in this approach , by demonstrating both the difficulty of absorbing and subduing annexed states , and the usefulness of princely states as a source of support . In 1858 , the policy of annexation was formally renounced , and British relations with the remaining princely states thereafter were based on subsidiary alliances , whereby the British exercised paramountcy over all princely states , with the British crown as ultimate suzerain , but at the same time respected and protected them as allies , taking control of their external relations . The exact relations between the British and each princely state were regulated by individual treaties and varied widely , with some states having complete internal self @-@ government , others being subject to significant control in their internal affairs , and some rulers being in effect little more than the owners of landed estates , with little autonomy .
During the 20th century , the British made several attempts to integrate the princely states more closely with British India , in 1921 creating the Chamber of Princes as a consultative and advisory body , and in 1936 transferring the responsibility for the supervision of smaller states from the provinces to the centre and creating direct relations between the Government of India and the larger princely states , superseding political agents . A more ambitious aim was a scheme of federation contained in the Government of India Act 1935 , which envisaged the princely states and British India being united under a federal government . This scheme came close to success , but was abandoned in 1939 as a result of the outbreak of the Second World War . As a result , in the 1940s the relationship between the princely states and the crown remained regulated by the principle of paramountcy and by the various treaties between the British crown and the states .
Neither paramountcy nor the subsidiary alliances could continue after Indian independence . The British took the view that because they had been established directly between the British crown and the princely states , they could not be transferred to the newly independent dominions of India and Pakistan . At the same time , the alliances imposed obligations on Britain that it was not prepared to continue to carry out , such as the obligation to maintain troops in India for the defence of the princely states . The British government therefore decided that paramountcy , together with all treaties between them and the princely states , would come to an end upon the British departure from India .
= = Reasons for integration = =
The termination of paramountcy would have in principle meant that all rights that flowed from the states ' relationship with the British crown would return to them , leaving them free to negotiate relationships with the new states of India and Pakistan " on a basis of complete freedom " . Early British plans for the transfer of power , such as the offer produced by the Cripps Mission , recognised the possibility that some princely states might choose to stand out of independent India . This was unacceptable to the Indian National Congress , which regarded the independence of princely states as a denial of the course of Indian history , and consequently regarded this scheme as a " Balkanisation " of India . The Congress had traditionally been less active in the princely states because of their limited resources which restricted their ability to organise there and their focus on the goal of independence from the British , and because Congress leaders , in particular Mohandas Gandhi , were sympathetic to the more progressive princes as examples of the capacity of Indians to rule themselves . This changed in the 1930s as a result of the federation scheme contained in the Government of India Act 1935 and the rise of socialist Congress leaders such as Jayaprakash Narayan , and the Congress began to actively engage with popular political and labour activity in the princely states . By 1939 , the Congress ' official stance was that the states must enter independent India , on the same terms and with the same autonomy as the provinces of British India , and with their people granted responsible government . As a result , it insisted on the incorporation of the princely states into India in its negotiations with British , but the British took the view that this was not in their power to grant .
A few British leaders , particularly Lord Mountbatten , the last British viceroy of India , were also uncomfortable with breaking links between independent India and the princely states . The development of trade , commerce and communications during the 19th and 20th centuries had bound the princely states to the British India through a complex network of interests . Agreements relating to railways , customs , irrigation , use of ports , and other similar agreements would get terminated , posing a serious threat to the economic life of the subcontinent . Mountbatten was also persuaded by the argument of Indian officials such as V. P. Menon that the integration of the princely states into independent India would , to some extent , assuage the wounds of partition . The result was that Mountbatten personally favoured and worked towards the accession of princely states to India following the transfer of power , as proposed by the Congress .
= = Accepting integration = =
= = = The princes ' position = = =
The rulers of the princely states were not uniformly enthusiastic about integrating their domains into independent India . Some , such as the kings of Bikaner and Jawhar , were motivated to join India out of ideological and patriotic considerations , but others insisted that they had the right to join either India or Pakistan , to remain independent , or form a union of their own . Bhopal , Travancore and Hyderabad announced that they did not intend to join either dominion . Hyderabad went as far as to appoint trade representatives in European countries and commencing negotiations with the Portuguese to lease or buy Goa to give it access to the sea , and Travancore pointed to the strategic importance to western countries of its thorium reserves while asking for recognition . Some states proposed a subcontinent @-@ wide confederation of princely states , as a third entity in addition to India and Pakistan . Bhopal attempted to build an alliance between the princely states and the Muslim League to counter the pressure being put on rulers by the Congress .
A number of factors contributed to the collapse of this initial resistance and to nearly all non @-@ Muslim majority princely states agreeing to accede to India . An important factor was the lack of unity among the princes . The smaller states did not trust the larger states to protect their interests , and many Hindu rulers did not trust Muslim princes , in particular Hamidullah Khan , the Nawab of Bhopal and a leading proponent of independence , whom they viewed as an agent for Pakistan . Others , believing integration to be inevitable , sought to build bridges with the Congress , hoping thereby to gain a say in shaping the final settlement . The resultant inability to present a united front or agree on a common position significantly reduced their bargaining power in negotiations with the Congress . The decision by the Muslim League to stay out of the Constituent Assembly was also fatal to the princes ' plan to build an alliance with it to counter the Congress , and attempts to boycott the Constituent Assembly altogether failed on 28 April 1947 , when the states of Baroda , Bikaner , Cochin , Gwalior , Jaipur , Jodhpur , Patiala and Rewa took their seats in the Assembly .
Many princes were also pressured by popular sentiment favouring integration with India , which meant their plans for independence had little support from their subjects . The Maharaja of Travancore , for example , definitively abandoned his plans for independence after the attempted assassination of his dewan , Sir C. P. Ramaswami Iyer . In a few states , the chief ministers or dewans played a significant role in convincing the princes to accede to India . The key factors that led the states to accept integration into India were , however , the efforts of Lord Mountbatten , Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and V. P. Menon . The latter two were respectively the political and administrative heads of the States Department , which was in charge of relations with the princely states .
= = = Mountbatten 's role = = =
Mountbatten believed that securing the states ' accession to India was crucial to reaching a negotiated settlement with the Congress for the transfer of power . As a relative of the British King , he was trusted by most of the princes and was a personal friend of many , especially the Nawab of Bhopal , Hamidullah Khan . The princes also believed that he would be in a position to ensure the independent India adhered to any terms that might be agreed upon , because Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Patel had asked him to become the first Governor General of the Dominion of India .
Mountbatten used his influence with the princes to push them towards accession . He declared that the British Government would not grant dominion status to any of the princely states , nor would it accept them into the British Commonwealth , which meant that the states would sever all connections with the British crown unless they joined either India or Pakistan . He pointed out that the Indian subcontinent was one economic entity , and that the states would suffer most if the link were broken . He also pointed to the difficulties that princes would face maintaining order in the face of threats such as the rise of communal violence and communist movements .
Mountbatten stressed that he would act as the trustee of the princes ' commitment , as he would be serving as India 's head of state well into 1948 . He engaged in a personal dialogue with reluctant princes , such as the Nawab of Bhopal , who he asked through a confidential letter to sign the Instrument of Accession making Bhopal part of India , which Mountbatten would keep locked up in his safe . It would be handed to the States Department on 15 August only if the Nawab did not change his mind before then , which he was free to do . The Nawab agreed , and did not renege over the deal .
At the time , several princes complained that they were being betrayed by Britain , who they regarded as an ally , and Sir Conrad Corfield resigned his position as head of the Political Department in protest at Mountbatten 's policies . Mountbatten 's policies were also criticised by the opposition Conservative Party . Winston Churchill compared the language used by the Indian government with that used by Adolf Hitler before the invasion of Austria . Modern historians such as Lumby and Moore , however , take the view that Mountbatten played a crucial role in ensuring that the princely states agreed to accede to India .
= = = Pressure and diplomacy = = =
By far the most significant factor that led to the princes ' decision to accede to India was the policy of the Congress and , in particular , of Patel and Menon . The Congress ' stated position was that the princely states were not sovereign entities , and as such could not opt to be independent notwithstanding the end of paramountcy . The princely states must therefore accede to either India or Pakistan . In July 1946 , Nehru pointedly observed that no princely state could prevail militarily against the army of independent India . In January 1947 , he said that independent India would not accept the divine right of kings , and in May 1947 , he declared that any princely state which refused to join the Constituent Assembly would be treated as an enemy state . Other Congress leaders , such as C. Rajagopalachari , argued that as paramountcy " came into being as a fact and not by agreement " , it would necessarily pass to the government of independent India , as the successor of the British .
Patel and Menon , who were charged with the actual job of negotiating with the princes , took a more conciliatory approach than Nehru . The official policy statement of the Government of India made by Patel on 5 July 1947 made no threats . Instead , it emphasised the unity of India and the common interests of the princes and independent India , reassured them about the Congress ' intentions , and invited them to join independent India " to make laws sitting together as friends than to make treaties as aliens " . He reiterated that the States Department would not attempt to establish a relationship of domination over the princely states . Unlike the Political Department of the British Government , it would not be an instrument of paramountcy , but a medium whereby business could be conducted between the states and India as equals .
= = = Instruments of accession = = =
Patel and Menon backed up their diplomatic efforts by producing treaties that were designed to be attractive to rulers of princely states . Two key documents were produced . The first was the Standstill Agreement , which confirmed the continuance of the pre @-@ existing agreements and administrative practices . The second was the Instrument of Accession , by which the ruler of the princely state in question agreed to the accession of his kingdom to independent India , granting the latter control over specified subject matters . The nature of the subject matters varied depending on the acceding state . The states which had internal autonomy under the British signed an Instrument of Accession which only ceded three subjects to the government of India — defence , external affairs , and communications , each defined in accordance with List 1 to Schedule VII of the Government of India Act 1935 . Rulers of states which were in effect estates or talukas , where substantial administrative powers were exercised by the Crown , signed a different Instrument of Accession , which vested all residuary powers and jurisdiction in the Government of India . Rulers of states which had an intermediate status signed a third type of Instrument , which preserved the degree of power they had under the British .
The Instruments of Accession implemented a number of other safeguards . Clause 7 provided that the princes would not be bound to the Indian constitution as and when it was drafted . Clause 8 guaranteed their autonomy in all areas that were not ceded to the Government of India . This was supplemented by a number of promises . Rulers who agreed to accede would receive guarantees that their extra @-@ territorial rights , such as immunity from prosecution in Indian courts and exemption from customs duty , would be protected , that they would be allowed to democratise slowly , that none of the eighteen major states would be forced to merge , and that they would remain eligible for British honours and decorations . In discussions , Lord Mountbatten reinforced the statements of Patel and Menon by emphasising that the documents gave the princes all the " practical independence " they needed . Mountbatten , Patel and Menon also sought to give princes the impression that if they did not accept the terms put to them then , they might subsequently need to accede on substantially less favourable terms . The Standstill Agreement was also used as a negotiating tool , as the States Department categorically ruled out signing a Standstill Agreement with princely states that did not sign an Instrument of Accession .
= = The accession process = =
The limited scope of the Instruments of Accession and the promise of a wide @-@ ranging autonomy and the other guarantees they offered , gave sufficient comfort to many rulers , who saw this as the best deal they could strike given the lack of support from the British , and popular internal pressures . Between May 1947 and the transfer of power on 15 August 1947 , the vast majority of states signed Instruments of Accession . A few , however , held out . Some simply delayed signing the Instrument of Accession . Piploda , a small state in central India , did not accede until March 1948 . The biggest problems , however , arose with a few border states , such as Jodhpur , which tried to negotiate better deals with Pakistan , with Junagadh , which actually did accede to Pakistan , and with Hyderabad and Kashmir , which declared that they intended to remain independent .
= = = Border states = = =
The ruler of Jodhpur , Hanwant Singh , was antipathetic to the Congress , and did not see much future in India for him or the lifestyle he wished to lead . Along with the ruler of Jaisalmer , he entered into negotiations with Muhammad Ali Jinnah , who was the designated head of state for Pakistan . Jinnah was keen to attract some of the larger border states , hoping thereby to attract other Rajput states to Pakistan and compensate for the loss of half of Bengal and Punjab . He offered to permit Jodhpur and Jaisalmer to accede to Pakistan on any terms they chose , giving their rulers blank sheets of paper and asking them to write down their terms , which he would sign . Jaisalmer refused , arguing that it would be difficult for him to side with Muslims against Hindus in the event of communal problems . Hanwant Singh came close to signing . However , the atmosphere in Jodhpur was in general hostile to accession to Pakistan . Mountbatten also pointed out that the accession of a predominantly Hindu state to Pakistan would violate the principle of the two @-@ nation theory on which Partition was based , and was likely to cause communal violence in the State . Hanwant Singh was persuaded by these arguments , and somewhat reluctantly agreed to accede to India .
= = = Junagadh = = =
Although the states were in theory free to choose whether they wished to accede to India or Pakistan , Mountbatten had pointed out that " geographic compulsions " meant that most of them must choose India . In effect , he took the position that only the states that shared a border with Pakistan could choose to accede to it .
The Nawab of Junagadh , a princely state located on the south @-@ western end of Gujarat and having no common border with Pakistan , chose to accede to Pakistan ignoring Mountbatten 's views , arguing that it could be reached from Pakistan by sea . The rulers of two states that were subject to the suzerainty of Junagadh — Mangrol and Babariawad — reacted to this by declaring their independence from Junagadh and acceding to India . In response , the Nawab of Junagadh militarily occupied the states . The rulers of neighbouring states reacted angrily , sending their troops to the Junagadh frontier and appealed to the Government of India for assistance . A group of Junagadhi people , led by Samaldas Gandhi , formed a government @-@ in @-@ exile , the Aarzi Hukumat ( " temporary government " ) .
India believed that if Junagadh was permitted to go to Pakistan , the communal tension already simmering in Gujarat would worsen , and refused to accept the accession . The government pointed out that the state was 80 % Hindu , and called for a plebiscite to decide the question of accession . Simultaneously , they cut off supplies of fuel and coal to Junagadh , severed air and postal links , sent troops to the frontier , and reoccupied the principalities of Mangrol and Babariawad that had acceded to India . Pakistan agreed to discuss a plebiscite , subject to the withdrawal of Indian troops , a condition India rejected . On 26 October , the Nawab and his family fled to Pakistan following clashes with Indian troops . On 7 November , Junagadh 's court , facing collapse , invited the Government of India to take over the State 's administration . The Government of India agreed . A plebiscite was conducted in February 1948 , which went almost unanimously in favour of accession to India .
= = = Jammu and Kashmir = = =
At the time of the transfer of power , the state of Jammu and Kashmir ( widely called " Kashmir " ) was ruled by Maharaja Hari Singh , a Hindu , although the state itself had a Muslim majority . Hari Singh was equally hesitant about acceding to either India or Pakistan , as either would have provoked adverse reactions in parts of his kingdom . He signed a Standstill Agreement with Pakistan and proposed one with India as well , but announced that Kashmir intended to remain independent . However , his rule was opposed by Sheikh Abdullah , the popular leader of Kashmir 's largest political party , the National Conference , who demanded his abdication .
Pakistan , attempting to force the issue of Kashmir 's accession , cut off supplies and transport links . The chaos in Punjab resulting from Partition had also severed transport links with India , meaning that Kashmir 's only links with the two dominions was by air . Rumours about atrocities against the Muslim population of Poonch by the Maharajah 's forces caused the outbreak of civil unrest . Shortly thereafter , Pathan tribesmen from the North @-@ West Frontier Province of Pakistan crossed the border and entered Kashmir . The invaders made rapid progress towards Srinagar . The Maharaja of Kashmir wrote to India , asking for military assistance . India required the signing of an Instrument of Accession and setting up an interim government headed by Sheikh Abdullah in return . The Maharaja complied , but Nehru declared that it would have to be confirmed by a plebiscite , although there was no legal requirement to seek such confirmation .
Indian troops secured Jammu , Srinagar and the valley itself during the First Kashmir War , but the intense fighting flagged with the onset of winter , which made much of the state impassable . Prime Minister Nehru , recognising the degree of international attention brought to bear on the dispute , declared a ceasefire and sought UN arbitration , arguing that India would otherwise have to invade Pakistan itself , in view of its failure to stop the tribal incursions . The plebiscite was never held , and on 26 January 1950 , the Constitution of India came into force in Kashmir , but with special provisions made for the state . India did not , however , secure administrative control over all of Kashmir . The northern and western portions of Kashmir came under Pakistan 's control in 1947 , and are today Pakistan @-@ administered Kashmir . In the 1962 Sino @-@ Indian War , China occupied Aksai Chin , the north @-@ eastern region bordering Ladakh , which it continues to control and administer .
= = = Hyderabad = = =
Hyderabad was a landlocked state that stretched over 82 @,@ 000 square miles ( over 212 @,@ 000 square kilometres ) in southeastern India . While 87 % of its 17 million people were Hindu , its ruler Nizam Osman Ali Khan was a Muslim , and its politics were dominated by a Muslim elite . The Muslim nobility and the Ittehad @-@ ul @-@ Muslimeen , a powerful pro @-@ Nizam Muslim party , insisted Hyderabad remain independent and stand on an equal footing to India and Pakistan . Accordingly , the Nizam in June 1947 issued a firman announcing that on the transfer of power , his state would be resuming independence . The Government of India rejected the firman , terming it a " legalistic claim of doubtful validity " . It argued that the strategic location of Hyderabad , which lay astride the main lines of communication between northern and southern India , meant it could easily be used by " foreign interests " to threaten India , and that in consequence , the issue involved national @-@ security concerns . It also pointed out that the state 's people , history and location made it unquestionably Indian , and that its own " common interests " therefore mandated its integration into India .
The Nizam was prepared to enter into a limited treaty with India , which gave Hyderabad safeguards not provided for in the standard Instrument of Accession , such as a provision guaranteeing Hyderabad 's neutrality in the event of a conflict between India and Pakistan . India rejected this proposal , arguing that other states would demand similar concessions . A temporary Standstill Agreement was signed as a stopgap measure , even though Hyderabad had not yet agreed to accede to India . By December 1947 , however , India was accusing Hyderabad of repeatedly violating the Agreement , while the Nizam alleged that India was blockading his state , a charge India denied .
The Nizam was also beset by the Telangana Rebellion , led by communists , which started in 1946 as a peasant revolt against feudal elements ; and one which the Nizam was not able to subjugate . The situation deteriorated further in 1948 . The Razakars ( " volunteers " ) , a militia affiliated to the Ittehad @-@ ul @-@ Muslimeen and set up under the influence of Muslim radical Qasim Razvi , assumed the role of supporting the Muslim ruling class against upsurges by the Hindu populace , and began intensifying its activities and was accused of attempting to intimidate villages . The Hyderabad State Congress Party , affiliated to the Indian National Congress , launched a political agitation . Matters were made worse by communist groups , which had originally supported the Congress but now switched sides and began attacking Congress groups . Attempts by Mountbatten to find a negotiated solution failed and , in August , the Nizam , claiming that he feared an imminent invasion , attempted to approach the UN Security Council and the International Court of Justice . Patel now insisted that if Hyderabad was allowed to continue its independence , the prestige of the Government would be tarnished and then neither Hindus nor Muslims would feel secure in its realm .
On 13 September , the Indian Army was sent into Hyderabad under Operation Polo on the grounds that the law and order situation there threatened the peace of South India . The troops met little resistance by the Razakars and between 13 and 18 September took complete control of the state . The operation led to massive communal violence with estimates ranging from the official one of 27 @,@ 000 @-@ 40 @,@ 000 to scholarly ones of 200 @,@ 000 or more . The Nizam was retained as the head of state in the same manner as the other princes who acceded to India . He thereupon disavowed the complaints that had been made to the UN and , despite vehement protests from Pakistan and strong criticism from other countries , the Security Council did not deal further with the question , and Hyderabad was absorbed into India .
= = Completing integration = =
The Instruments of Accession were limited , transferring control of only three matters to India , and would by themselves have produced a rather loose federation , with significant differences in administration and governance across the various states . Full political integration , in contrast , would require a process whereby the political actors in the various states were " persuaded to shift their loyalties , expectations , and political activities towards a new center " , namely , the Republic of India . This was not an easy task . While some princely states such as Mysore had legislative systems of governance that were based on a broad franchise and not significantly different from those of British India , in others , political decision @-@ making took place in small , limited aristocratic circles and governance was , as a result , at best paternalistic and at worst the result of courtly intrigue . Having secured the accession of the princely states , the Government of India between 1948 and 1950 turned to the task of welding the states and the former British provinces into one polity under a single republican constitution .
= = = Fast @-@ track integration = = =
The first step in this process , carried out between 1947 and 1949 , was to merge the smaller states that were not seen by the Government of India to be viable administrative units either into neighbouring provinces , or with other princely states to create a " princely union " . This policy was contentious , since it involved the dissolution of the very states whose existence India had only recently guaranteed in the Instruments of Accession . Patel and Menon emphasised that without integration , the economies of states would collapse , and anarchy would arise if the princes were unable to provide democracy and govern properly . They pointed out that many of the smaller states were very small and lacked resources to sustain their economies and support their growing populations . Many also imposed tax rules and other restrictions that impeded free trade , and which had to be dismantled in a united India .
Given that merger involved the breach of guarantees personally given by Mountbatten , initially Patel and Nehru intended to wait until after his term as Governor @-@ General ended . An adivasi uprising in Orissa in late 1947 , however , forced their hand . In December 1947 , princes from the Eastern India Agency and Chhattisgarh Agency were summoned to an all @-@ night meeting with Menon , where they were persuaded to sign Merger Agreements integrating their states into Orissa , the Central Provinces and Bihar with effect from 1 January 1948 . Later that year , 66 states in Gujarat and the Deccan were merged into Bombay , including the large states of Kolhapur and Baroda . Other small states were merged into Madras , East Punjab , West Bengal , the United Provinces and Assam . Not all states that signed Merger Agreements were integrated into provinces , however . Thirty states of the former Punjab Hill States Agency which lay near the international border and had signed Merger Agreements were integrated into Himachal Pradesh , a distinct entity which was administered directly by the centre as a Chief Commissioner 's Province , for reasons of security .
The Merger Agreements required rulers to cede " full and exclusive jurisdiction and powers for and in relation to governance " of their state to the Dominion of India . In return for their agreement to entirely cede their states , it gave princes a large number of guarantees . Princes would receive an annual payment from the Indian government in the form of a privy purse as compensation for the surrender of their powers and the dissolution of their states . While state property would be taken over , their private property would be protected , as would all personal privileges , dignities and titles . Succession was also guaranteed according to custom . In addition , the provincial administration was obliged to take on the staff of the princely states with guarantees of equal pay and treatment .
Although the Merger Agreements were principally intended for smaller , non @-@ viable states , they were also applied to a few larger states . Kutch in western India , and Tripura and Manipur in Northeast India , all of which lay along international borders , were also asked to sign Merger Agreements , despite being larger states , following which they became Chief Commissioners ' Provinces . Bhopal , whose ruler was proud of the efficiency of his administration and feared that it would lose its identity if merged with the Maratha states that were its neighbours , also became a directly administered Chief Commissioner 's Province , as did Bilaspur , much of which was likely to be flooded on completion of the Bhakra dam .
= = = Four @-@ step integration = = =
= = = = Merger = = = =
The bulk of the larger states , and some groups of small states , were integrated through a different , four @-@ step process . The first step in this process was to convince groups of large states to combine to form a " princely union " through the execution by their rulers of Covenants of Merger . Under the Covenants of Merger , all rulers lost their ruling powers , save one who became the Rajpramukh of the new union . The other rulers were associated with two bodies — the council of rulers , whose members were the rulers of salute states , and a presidium , one or more of whose members were elected by the rulers of non @-@ salute states , with the rest elected by the council . The Rajpramukh and his deputy Uprajpramukh were chosen by the council from among the members of the presidium . The Covenants made provision for the creation of a constituent assembly for the new union which would be charged with framing its constitution . In return for agreeing to the extinction of their states as discrete entities , the rulers were given a privy purse and guarantees similar to those provided under the Merger Agreements .
Through this process , Patel obtained the unification of 222 states in the Kathiawar peninsula of his native Gujarat into the princely union of Saurashtra in January 1948 , with six more states joining the union the following year . Madhya Bharat emerged on 28 May 1948 from a union of Gwalior , Indore and eighteen smaller states . In Punjab , the Patiala and East Punjab States Union was formed on 15 July 1948 from Patiala , Kapurthala , Jind , Nabha , Faridkot , Malerkotla , Nalargarh , and Kalsia . The United State of Rajasthan was formed as the result of a series of mergers , the last of which was completed on 15 May 1949 . Travancore and Cochin were merged in the middle of 1949 to form the princely union of Travancore @-@ Cochin . The only princely states which signed neither Covenants of Merger nor Merger Agreements were Kashmir , Mysore and Hyderabad .
= = = = Democratisation = = = =
Merging the administrative machineries of each state and integrating them into one political and administrative entity was not easy , particularly as many of the merged states had a history of rivalry . In the former Central India Agency , whose princely states had initially been merged into a princely union called Vindhya Pradesh , the rivalry between two groups of states became so bad that the Government of India persuaded the rulers to sign a Merger Agreement abrogating the old Covenants of Merger , and took direct control of the state as a Chief Commissioner 's State . As such , the mergers did not meet the expectations of the Government of India or the States Department . In December 1947 , Menon suggested requiring the rulers of states to take " practical steps towards the establishment of popular government " . The States Department accepted his suggestion , and implemented it through a special covenant signed by the rajpramukhs of the merged princely unions , binding them to act as constitutional monarchs . This meant that their powers were de facto no different from those of the Governors of the former British provinces , thus giving the people of their territories the same measure of responsible government as the people of the rest of India .
The result of this process has been described as being , in effect , an assertion of paramountcy by the Government of India over the states in a more pervasive form . While this contradicted the British statement that paramountcy would lapse on the transfer of power , the Congress position had always been that independent India would inherit the position of being the paramount power .
= = = = Centralisation and constitutionalisation = = = =
Democratisation still left open one important distinction between the former princely states and the former British provinces , namely , that since the princely states had signed limited Instruments of Accession covering only three subjects , they were insulated from government policies in other areas . The Congress viewed this as hampering its ability to frame policies that brought about social justice and national development . Consequently , they sought to secure to the central government the same degree of powers over the former princely states as it had over the former British provinces . In May 1948 , at the initiative of V. P. Menon , a meeting was held in Delhi between the Rajpramukhs of the princely unions and the States Department , at the end of which the Rajpramukhs signed new Instruments of Accession which gave the Government of India the power to pass laws in respect of all matters that fell within the seventh schedule of the Government of India Act 1935 . Subsequently , each of the princely unions , as well as Mysore and Hyderabad , agreed to adopt the Constitution of India as the constitution of that state , thus ensuring that they were placed in exactly the same legal position vis @-@ à @-@ vis the central government as the former British provinces . The only exception was Kashmir , whose relationship with India continued to be governed by the original Instrument of Accession , and the constitution produced by the state 's Constituent Assembly .
The Constitution of India classified the constituent units of India into three classes — Part A , B , and C states . The former British provinces , together with the princely states that had been merged into them , were the Part A states . The princely unions , plus Mysore and Hyderabad , were the Part B states . The former Chief Commissioners ' Provinces and other centrally administered areas , except the Andaman and Nicobar Islands , were the Part C states . The only practical difference between the Part A states and the Part B states was that the constitutional heads of the Part B states were the Rajpramukhs appointed under the terms of the Covenants of Merger , rather than Governors appointed by the central government . In addition , Constitution gave the central government a significant range of powers over the former princely states , providing amongst other things that " their governance shall be under the general control of , and comply with such particular directions , if any , as may from time to time be given by , the President " . Apart from that , the form of government in both was identical .
= = = = Reorganisation = = = =
The distinction between Part A and Part B states was only intended to last for a brief , transitional period . In 1956 , the States Reorganisation Act reorganised the former British provinces and princely states on the basis of language . Simultaneously , the Seventh Amendment to the Constitution removed the distinction between Part A and Part B states , both of which were now treated only as " states " , with Part C states being renamed " union territories " . The Rajpramukhs lost their authority , and were replaced as the constitutional heads of state by Governors , who were appointed by the central government . These changes finally brought the princely order to an end . In both legal and practical terms , the territories that had been part of the princely states were now fully integrated into India and did not differ in any way from those that had been part of British India . The personal privileges of the princes — the privy purse , the exemption from customs duty , and customary dignities — survived , only to be abolished in 1971 .
= = Post @-@ integration issues = =
= = = The princes = = =
Although the progressive integration of the princely states into India was largely peaceful , not all princes were happy with the outcome . Many had expected the Instruments of Accession to be permanent , and were unhappy about losing the autonomy and the guaranteed continued existence of their states they had expected to gain . Some felt uneasy about the disappearance of states that generations of their family had controlled , while others were unhappy about the disappearance of administrative structures they had worked hard to build up and which they believed to be efficient . The majority , however , despite the " strain and tension " of adapting to life as private citizens , were content to retire on the generous pension provided by the privy purse . Several took advantage of their eligibility to hold public offices under the central government . The Maharaja of Bhavnagar , Col. Krishna Kumarasingh Bhavasingh Gohil , for example , became the Governor of Madras State , and several others were appointed to diplomatic posts overseas .
= = = Colonial enclaves = = =
The integration of the princely states raised the question of the future of the remaining colonial enclaves in India . At independence , the regions of Pondicherry , Karikal , Yanam , Mahe and Chandernagore were still colonies of France , and Daman and Diu , Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Goa remained colonies of Portugal . An agreement between France and India in 1948 provided for an election in France 's remaining Indian possessions to choose their political future . A plebiscite held in Chandernagore on 19 June 1949 resulted in a vote of 7 @,@ 463 to 114 in favour of being integrated with India . It was ceded to India on a de facto basis on 14 August 1949 and de jure on 2 May 1950 . In the other enclaves , however , the pro @-@ French camp , led by Edouard Goubert , used the administrative machinery to suppress the pro @-@ merger groups . Popular discontent rose , and in 1954 demonstrations in Yanam and Mahe resulted in pro @-@ merger groups assuming power . A referendum in Pondicherry and Karaikal in October 1954 resulted in a vote in favour of merger , and on 1 November 1954 , de facto control over all four enclaves was transferred to the Republic of India . A treaty of cession was signed in May 1956 , and following ratification by the French National Assembly in May 1962 , de jure control of the enclaves was also transferred .
Portugal , in contrast , resisted diplomatic solutions . It viewed its continued possession of its Indian enclaves as a matter of national pride and , in 1951 , it amended its constitution to convert its possessions in India into Portuguese provinces . In July 1954 , an uprising in Dadra and Nagar Haveli threw off Portuguese rule . The Portuguese attempted to send forces from Daman to reoccupy the enclaves , but were prevented from doing so by Indian troops . Portugal initiated proceedings before the International Court of Justice to compel India to allow its troops access to the enclave , but the Court rejected its complaint in 1960 , holding that India was within its rights in denying Portugal military access . In 1961 , the Constitution of India was amended to incorporate Dadra and Nagar Haveli into India as a Union Territory .
Goa , Daman and Diu remained an outstanding issue . On 15 August 1955 , five thousand non @-@ violent demonstrators marched against the Portuguese at the border , and were met with gunfire , killing 22 . In December 1960 , the United Nations General Assembly rejected Portugal 's contention that its overseas possessions were provinces , and formally listed them as " non @-@ self @-@ governing territories " . Although Nehru continued to favour a negotiated solution , the Portuguese suppression of a revolt in Angola in 1961 radicalised Indian public opinion , and increased the pressure on the Government of India to take military action . African leaders , too , put pressure on Nehru to take action in Goa , which they argued would save Africa from further horrors . On 18 December 1961 , following the collapse of an American attempt to find a negotiated solution , the Indian Army entered Portuguese India and defeated the Portuguese garrisons there . The Portuguese took the matter to the Security Council but a resolution calling on India to withdraw its troops immediately was defeated by the USSR 's veto . Portugal surrendered on 19 December . This take @-@ over ended the last of the European colonies in India . Goa was incorporated into India as a centrally administered union territory and , in 1987 , became a state .
= = = Sikkim = = =
Three princely states bordering India — Nepal , Bhutan and Sikkim — were not integrated into the Republic of India in the period between 1947 and 1950 . Nepal had been recognised by the British and the Government of India as being de jure independent . Bhutan had in the British period been considered a protectorate outside the international frontier of India . The Government of India entered into a treaty with Bhutan in 1949 continuing this arrangement , and providing that Bhutan would abide by the advice of the Government of India in the conduct of its external affairs .
Historically , Sikkim was a British dependency , with a status similar to that of the other princely states , and was therefore considered to be within the frontiers of India in the colonial period . On independence , however , the Chogyal of Sikkim resisted full integration into India . Given the region 's strategic importance to India , the Government of India signed first a Standstill Agreement and then in 1950 a full treaty with the Chogyal of Sikkim which in effect made it a protectorate which was no longer part of India . India had responsibility for defence , external affairs and communications , and ultimate responsibility for law and order , but Sikkim was otherwise given full internal autonomy . In the late 1960s and early 1970s , the Chogyal Palden Thondup Namgyal , supported by the minority Bhutia and Lepcha upper classes , attempted to negotiate greater powers , particularly over external affairs , to give Sikkim more of an international personality . These policies were opposed by Kazi Lhendup Dorji and the Sikkim State Congress , who represented the ethnic Nepali middle classes and took a more pro @-@ Indian view .
In April 1973 , anti @-@ Chogyal agitation broke out and protestors demanded popular elections . The Sikkim police were unable to control the demonstrations , and Dorji asked India to exercise its responsibility for law and order and intervene . India facilitated negotiations between the Chogyal and Dorji , and produced an agreement , which envisaged the reduction of the Chogyal to the role of a constitutional monarch and the holding of elections based on a new ethnic power @-@ sharing formula . The Chogyal 's opponents won an overwhelming victory , and a new Constitution was drafted providing for Sikkim to be associated with the Republic of India . On 10 April 1975 , the Sikkim Assembly passed a resolution calling for the state to be fully integrated into India . This resolution was endorsed by 97 % of the vote in a referendum held on 14 April 1975 , following which the Indian Government amended the constitution to admit Sikkim into India as its 22nd state .
= = = Secessionism and sub @-@ nationalism = = =
While the majority of princely states absorbed into India have been fully integrated , a few outstanding issues remain . The most prominent of these is in relation to Kashmir , where a violent secessionist insurgency has been raging since the late 1980s .
Some academics suggest that the insurgency in Kashmir is at least partly a result of the manner in which it was integrated into India . Kashmir , uniquely amongst princely states , was not required to sign either a Merger Agreement or a revised Instrument of Accession giving India control over a larger number of issues than the three originally provided for . Instead , the power to make laws relating to Kashmir was granted to the Government of India by Article 5 of the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir and was , under Article 370 of the Constitution of India , somewhat more restricted than in relation to other states . Widmalm argues that during the 1980s , a number of Kashmiri youth began to feel that the Indian government was increasingly interfering in the politics of Jammu and Kashmir . The elections of 1987 caused them to lose faith in the political process and begin the violent insurgency which is still ongoing . Similarly , Ganguly suggests that the policies of the Indian government towards Kashmir meant that the state , unlike other parts of India , never developed the solid political institutions associated with a modern multi @-@ ethnic democracy . As a result , the growing dissatisfaction with the status quo felt by an increasingly politically aware youth was expressed through non @-@ political channels which Pakistan , seeking to weaken India 's hold over Kashmir , transformed into an active insurgency .
Separatist movements also exist in two other former princely states located in Northeast India — Tripura and Manipur . These separatist movements are generally treated by scholars as being part of the broader problem of insurgencies in North @-@ east India , rather being a result of specific problems in integrating the princely states into India , as the Kashmir problem is and , in particular , to reflect the failure of the Government of India to adequately address the aspirations of tribal groups in the Northeast , or to tackle the tensions arising from the immigration of people from other parts of India to the north @-@ eastern areas .
The integration of former princely states with other provinces to form new states has also given rise to some issues . The Telangana region , comprising the Telugu @-@ speaking districts of the former Hyderabad State , were in many ways different from the Telugu @-@ speaking areas of British India with which they were merged . In recognition of these differences , the States Reorganisation Commission originally recommended that Telangana be created as a separate state , rather than as part of a broader Telugu @-@ speaking entity . This recommendation was rejected by the Government of India , and Telangana was merged into Andhra Pradesh . The result was the emergence in the 1960s of a movement demanding a separate Telangana state . The demand has been accepted by the Union Government , leading to formation of Telangana as the 29th state of India in June 2014 . A similar movement , although less strong , exists in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra , which consists of the former Nagpur state and the Berar region of the former Hyderabad state .
= = Critical perspectives on the process of integration = =
The integration process repeatedly brought Indian and Pakistani leaders into conflict . During negotiations , Jinnah , representing the Muslim League , strongly supported the right of the princely states to remain independent , joining neither India nor Pakistan , an attitude which was diametrically opposed to the stance taken by Nehru and the Congress and which was reflected in Pakistan 's support of Hyderabad 's bid to stay independent . Post @-@ partition , the Government of Pakistan accused India of hypocrisy on the ground that there was little difference between the accession of the ruler of Junagadh to Pakistan — which India refused to recognise — and the accession of the Maharajah of Kashmir to India , and for several years refused to recognise the legality of India 's incorporation of Junagadh , treating it as de jure Pakistani territory .
Different theories have been proposed to explain the designs of Indian and Pakistani leaders in this period . Rajmohan Gandhi postulates that an ideal deal working in the mind of Patel was that if Muhammad Ali Jinnah let India have Junagadh and Hyderabad , Patel would not object to Kashmir acceding to Pakistan . In his book Patel : A Life , Gandhi asserts that Jinnah sought to engage the questions of Junagadh and Hyderabad in the same battle . It is suggested that he wanted India to ask for a plebiscite in Junagadh and Hyderabad , knowing thus that the principle then would have to be applied to Kashmir , where the Muslim @-@ majority would , he believed , vote for Pakistan . A speech by Patel at the Bahauddin College in Junagadh following the latter 's take @-@ over , where he said that " we would agree to Kashmir if they agreed to Hyderabad " , suggests that he may have been amenable to this idea . Although Patel 's opinions were not India 's policy , nor were they shared by Nehru , both leaders were angered at Jinnah 's courting the princes of Jodhpur , Bhopal and Indore , leading them to take a harder stance on a possible deal with Pakistan .
Modern historians have also re @-@ examined the role of the States Department and Lord Mountbatten during the accession process . Ian Copland argues that the Congress leaders did not intend the settlement contained in the Instruments of Accession to be permanent even when they were signed , and at all times privately contemplated a complete integration of the sort that ensued between 1948 and 1950 . He points out that the mergers and cession of powers to the Government of India between 1948 and 1950 contravened the terms of the Instruments of Accession , and were incompatible with the express assurances of internal autonomy and preservation of the princely states which Mountbatten had given the princes . Menon in his memoirs stated that the changes to the initial terms of accession were in every instance freely consented to by the princes with no element of coercion . Copland disagrees , on the basis that foreign diplomats at the time believed that the princes had been given no choice but to sign , and that a few princes expressed their unhappiness with the arrangements . He also criticises Mountbatten 's role , saying that while he stayed within the letter of the law , he was at least under a moral obligation to do something for the princes when it became apparent that the Government of India was going to alter the terms on which accession took place , and that he should never have lent his support to the bargain given that it could not be guaranteed after independence . Both Copland and Ramusack argue that , in the ultimate analysis , one of the reasons why the princes consented to the demise of their states was that they felt abandoned by the British , and saw themselves as having little other option . Older historians such as Lumby , in contrast , take the view that the princely states could not have survived as independent entities after the transfer of power , and that their demise was inevitable . They therefore view successful integration of all princely states into India as a triumph for the Government of India and Lord Mountbatten , and as a tribute to the sagacity of the majority of princes , who jointly achieved in a few months what the Empire had attempted , unsuccessfully , to do for over a century — unite all of India under one rule .
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= John Brooke @-@ Little =
John Philip Brook Brooke @-@ Little , CVO KStJ FSA FHS ( 6 April 1927 – 13 February 2006 ) was an influential and popular English writer on heraldic subjects , and a long @-@ serving herald at the College of Arms in London . In 1947 , while still a student , Brooke @-@ Little founded the Society of Heraldic Antiquaries , now known as the Heraldry Society and recognised as one of the leading learned societies in its field . He served as the society 's chairman for 50 years and then as its President from 1997 until his death in 2006 . In addition to the foundation of this group , Brooke @-@ Little was involved in other heraldic groups and societies and worked for many years as an officer of arms ; beginning as Bluemantle Pursuivant , Brooke @-@ Little rose to the second highest heraldic office in England : Clarenceux King of Arms .
= = Early and private life = =
John Brooke @-@ Little was born in Blackheath , Kent . His mother , Constance Egan , was the author of many children 's stories including the Epaminondas books and the adventures of Jummy the Baby Elephant . In the 1920s , Egan was the editor of Home Chat . This helped to prepare her for future editorial duties with the Heraldry Society 's journal , the Coat of Arms in the 1950s . She was the second wife of Raymond Brooke @-@ Little , who worked as an electrical engineer . His paternal ancestors , the Littles , came from Wiltshire and may be traced in the parish registers of Biddestone back to the late seventeenth century . A pedigree of his family appears in the 1972 edition of Burke 's Landed Gentry under the heading " Brooke @-@ Little of Heyford House " . Brooke @-@ Little was educated at Clayesmore School , a progressive co @-@ educational public school in Dorset . The school remained an important part of Brooke @-@ Little 's life , and he later sent his own children there . He oversaw the process of granting arms to the school while serving as chairman of its board of governors from 1971 to 1983 .
As a boy , Brooke @-@ Little 's first contact with the College of Arms came when he went to see Sir Algar Howard , then Garter Principal King of Arms . Howard was the head of the corporation of heralds at the College of Arms , and encouraged Brooke @-@ Little 's budding interest in the subject of heraldry . While still a student , he founded a heraldry society with his friends . Brooke @-@ Little went to New College , Oxford in 1949 and read history . His college friends included Colin Cole , later Garter King of Arms , with whom he refounded the dormant Oxford University Heraldry Society . The two men refounded it a second time in 1958 . The Society was refounded in 2005 and currently holds one lecture per term .
Brooke @-@ Little married Mary Pierce , daughter of John Raymond Pierce , in 1960 . The couple had three sons , Philip , Leo , and Merlin , and one daughter , Clare . In 2004 , after having retired from the College of Arms , Brooke @-@ Little lived at his Heyford House in Oxfordshire with the families of both Leo and Merlin .
Brooke @-@ Little had a major stroke in 1994 . This incident left his mobility and speech partly impaired , though his mind was still quite sharp . He continued in his heraldic duties until his retirement three years later . He also continued to guide the Heraldry Society after this . He suffered a succession of minor strokes over his last years as a herald and during his retirement . He was still able to make appearances at functions of the Heraldry Society , though his role was severely limited by debilitating arthritis . It was a short series of several of these small strokes in quick succession which led to Brooke @-@ Little 's death on 13 February 2006 in Banbury , Oxfordshire , at the age of 78 . He was one of the last surviving officers of arms to serve at the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II . The funeral took place on 23 February 2006 , and the eulogy was delivered by Sir Henry Paston @-@ Bedingfeld , York Herald .
= = Heraldic career = =
In 1952 – 3 , Brooke @-@ Little served on the staff assembled by the Earl Marshal to plan the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II . He was appointed a Gold Staff Officer for the Coronation and held a key co @-@ ordination role during planning as well as on the day . It was his abiding interest in heraldry that led to this appointment , and this work with the Earl Marshal and the officers of arms led to his first heraldic appointment . He joined the College of Arms as Bluemantle Pursuivant in 1956 . The rank of pursuivant is the junior of the three levels an officer of arms can attain , and Brooke @-@ Little related the story of his appointment in an editorial . In 1956 , Sir George Bellew , the Garter King of Arms , had recommended Brooke @-@ Little and Colin Cole for the open position of Bluemantle . The two were asked to meet with the Earl Marshal in London . The Earl Marshal was not usually faced with two candidates for an opening ; he offered the position to Cole , who turned it down as his wife was expecting a child . Brooke @-@ Little was made Bluemantle . Several months later when Sir Gerald Wollaston died , in the ensuing shuffle Cole was finally given his appointment as Portcullis Pursuivant .
In 1967 , Brooke @-@ Little was advanced to the position of Richmond Herald . On 7 July 1980 , after almost thirty years of service to the Earl Marshal and the College of Arms , Brooke @-@ Little was appointed to replace Sir Walter Verco as Norroy and Ulster King of Arms , with heraldic authority in the part of England north of the Trent , as well as in Northern Ireland . While serving in that office , he enjoyed telling people that the commonly held view that the Order of Saint Patrick was extinct was quite false . Brooke @-@ Little believed that as the Ulster King of Arms – the capacity in which he handled Northern Irish heraldry – he remained ex officio an Officer of the Order . As the holder of that office , he and his successors would remain the Order 's King of Arms , Registrar and Knight Attendant , until such time as the Sovereign should choose formally to abolish the office of Ulster King of Arms or to declare that these positions are not vested in the office . The fact that the last knight had died in 1974 was of little consequence to such a staunch traditionalist .
Brooke @-@ Little maintained an interest in Irish heraldry even after he was promoted from Norroy and Ulster to Clarenceux . After the Director of the National Library of Ireland was made the Chief Herald of Ireland , Brooke @-@ Little wrote to the Daily Telegraph of the importance of maintaining a strong tradition of heraldic and genealogical expertise in the Irish Office of Arms .
When Sir Colin Cole retired from the office of Garter king of Arms in 1992 , Brooke @-@ Little was a leading candidate to replace him . This is the highest heraldic office in England ; Garter is chairman of the Chapter of the College of Arms , as well as the King of Arms of the Order of the Garter . Due to his convivial life style , though , Brooke @-@ Little was not well suited to the managerial responsibilities of the office of Garter . Instead , the honour went to Sir Conrad Swan . On 19 June 1995 , Brooke @-@ Little was appointed to the office of Clarenceux King of Arms following the death of Sir Anthony Wagner . This is the senior of the two provincial Kings of Arms and the holder of the office has jurisdiction over England and Wales south of the Trent . The heralds had traditionally been appointed " for life on good behaviour " , but Brooke @-@ Little became Clarenceux shortly after compulsory retirement at age 70 was introduced , and he had to leave after only two years in this post . He ended his heraldic career without ever having attained the office of Garter King of Arms , or being honoured with a knighthood .
In addition to his duties as a professional herald , Brooke @-@ Little held three administrative positions at the College of Arms . From 1974 until 1982 , he served as Registrar , with responsibility to enter all new grants and confirmations of arms into the College records . Brooke @-@ Little 's signature can be found on the reverse of the letters patent for every grant made during this period . In addition , he served as the College 's librarian from 1974 until 1994 and the treasurer of the College of Arms from 1978 until 1995 . He was also the director of the Heralds ' Museum at the Tower of London from 1991 to 1997 ; this museum is no longer operating . Although Brooke @-@ Little enjoyed prominence as a professional officer of arms and as an author on heraldic subjects , his role in founding the Heraldry Society , and in guiding the society and editing its journal for many years , was perhaps his greatest contribution to the science of heraldry .
= = Other heraldic work = =
= = = Arms = = =
In 1952 , as John Brooke @-@ Little was entering the world of heraldry as a Gold Staff Officer , he began exploring the origins of his own arms . His family had been using the arms Azure , six lioncels rampant gules , but some research proved that the Brooke @-@ Littles had no right to these arms . John worked to apply for a grant on behalf of his father . When asked for input , his father noted that the lions previously used were improper and that he thought unicorns would be a good replacement . Red gouttes ( droplets ) alluded to the family 's former holding of the Manor of Slaughterford . The arms were granted to Raymond Brooke @-@ Little on 5 March 1952 . John quartered these arms with those of his mother , Constance Egan . The whole shield of arms is blazoned Quarterly : I and IV , argent , goutté de sang three unicorns ' heads erased sable armed and crined or langued azure ( Brooke @-@ Little ) ; II and III , azure , two dolphins haurient and addorsed or , the eyes gules , between four shamrocks slipped or . The crest is blazoned a demi @-@ unicorn rampant erased sable , armed , crined and unguled or , langued azure and collared gobony or and gules , with a chain or reflexed over the back and attached with a ring or . At the same time , the motto of Recte Aut Nil ( meaning ' correctly or not at all ' ) was granted , as well as John Brooke @-@ Little 's well @-@ used badge , blazoned a triquetra or interlaced by an annulet argent .
= = = The Heraldry Society = = =
In 1947 , a twenty @-@ year @-@ old Brooke @-@ Little founded the Society of Heraldic Antiquaries , which was renamed the Heraldry Society in 1950 . It was incorporated in 1956 and is now a registered charity . The principal object of the society is to extend interest in and knowledge of heraldry , genealogy , precedence , and related disciplines . Brooke @-@ Little served its chairman for fifty years . In 1997 , as he was ending his career as an officer of arms , he changed roles in the Society to become its president . He served in this role until his death . Brooke @-@ Little also served as the Honorary Editor of the society 's scholarly journal , the Coat of Arms . From the first publication of the journal until the middle of 1965 , his mother , Constance Egan , served as the managing editor of the Coat of Arms , though Brooke @-@ Little always had a guiding influence on the publication . It was not until 2005 that Brooke @-@ Little finally handed complete control of the journal to two young heralds : Peter O 'Donaghue , Bluemantle Pursuivant , and Clive Cheesman , Rouge Dragon Pursuivant .
= = = The White Lion Society = = =
Brooke @-@ Little was integral to the foundation of the White Lion Society . In 1984 , at a meeting of the Heraldry Society , it was suggested to Brooke @-@ Little , then Norroy and Ulster King of Arms , that it would be appropriate to found a " Society of Friends " of the College of Arms . Brooke @-@ Little explained that the late Wilfrid Scott @-@ Giles , Fitzalan Pursuivant , had previously suggested the same idea , proposing the name of the ' White Lion Society ' after the heraldic supporters of the College of Arms , which are two white lions ( alluding to the supporters of the Mowbray arms which the Earl Marshal inherited from his ancestors ) . Brooke @-@ Little put the idea before the Chapter of the College shortly after and with its approval , the Society came into being in 1986 .
= = Honours and appointments = =
Brooke @-@ Little garnered many honours and awards during his time of service to the Crown . He was appointed a 4th Class Member of the Royal Victorian Order ( an honour now known as Lieutenant of the Royal Victorian Order ) in 1969 for his services at the Investiture of the Prince of Wales . This was followed by a promotion to Commander of the Royal Victorian Order at the 1984 New Year Honours Though most Kings of Arms up to that time were knighted , that honour was never given to him . The closest that he came was in 1975 when he was made a Knight of Justice of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem , the British revival of the ancient Knights Hospitaller of Saint John .
Brooke @-@ Little was an Honorary Fellow of the Institute of Heraldic and Genealogical Studies and a Chevalier of the Order of the Fleur de Lys . He was Master of the Scriveners ' Company from 1985 until 1986 , Chairman of the Harleian Society , and President of the English Language Literary Trust for eleven years from 1985 until 1996 . His heraldic involvement carried over as a trustee of the Royal Air Force Heraldry Trust and an advisor on heraldry to the National Trust from 1983 until his death .
In addition to his honours in Britain , Brooke @-@ Little also served as Chancellor of the British Association of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta from 1973 to 1977 . He was first admitted to the Order as a Knight of Magistral Grace , and would eventually hold the rank of Knight Grand Cross of Grace and Devotion . He was also honoured with the Order of Merito Melitense in 1964 and was made a Knight Grand Cross of Grace of the Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George . In addition to these honours , he held the Cruz Distinguida ( 1st class ) de San Raimundo de Penafort .
= = Published works = =
Brooke @-@ Little was the author or editor of at least ten books including :
Boutell 's Heraldry ( editor of the editions from 1963 to 1983 , ISBN 0 @-@ 7232 @-@ 3093 @-@ 5 ) .
Royal Arms
Royal London ( Pitkin , 1953 , ASIN B0000CIJW3 )
The University City of Oxford ( Pitkin , 1955 , ASIN B0000CJ3SY )
Knights of the Middle Ages ( Evelyn , 1966 , ASIN B0000CN6TZ )
An Heraldic Alphabet ( Macdonald , 1973 , ISBN 0 @-@ 356 @-@ 08112 @-@ 5 ; Robson , 1998 , ISBN 1 @-@ 86105 @-@ 077 @-@ 1 , ISBN 0 @-@ 86051 @-@ 320 @-@ 3 )
Beasts in Heraldry ( 1974 )
The British Monarchy in Colour ( Blandford , 1976 , ISBN 0 @-@ 7137 @-@ 0774 @-@ 7 )
Royal Heraldry : Beasts and Badges of Britain ( Pilgrim Press , 1977 , ISBN 0 @-@ 900594 @-@ 37 @-@ 3 )
Royal Ceremonies of State ( Country Life , 1980 , ISBN 0 @-@ 600 @-@ 37628 @-@ 1 )
Fox Davies ' Complete Guide to Heraldry ( revised edition , ISBN 0 @-@ 7232 @-@ 2096 @-@ 4 )
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= Prospect Mountain Veterans Memorial Highway =
The Prospect Mountain Veterans Memorial Highway is a parkway located in the town of Lake George , New York . The road is 5 @.@ 88 miles ( 9 @.@ 46 km ) long , starting at the U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) and New York State Route 9N ( NY 9N ) concurrency and ending at the peak of Prospect Mountain . Although the road is designated as New York State Route 917A , an unsigned reference route , by the New York State Department of Transportation , all maintenance on the roadway is performed by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation .
= = Route description = =
The parkway begins at an intersection with Routes 9 and 9N ( Canada Street ) in the town of Lake George . The parkway passes through a gate , heading up the base of Prospect Mountain . The route is very scenic , with trees on both sides of the road . Route 917A parallels Birch Ave . , a street in Lake George . Soon after , the parkway passes over Interstate 87 ( I @-@ 87 , named the Adirondack Northway ) . The road expands to several lanes after the Northway , coming to a tollbooth . After the toll booth , the parkway begins to head up the mountain . With large heavy , stabilized rocks on both sides of the road , used as a guard rail to prevent danger ( such as running off of the road ) , the parkway curves around the mountain , intersecting with several specialized scenic overlooks . The road curves around the several peaks of Prospect Mountain , coming to an end at the main peak at 5 @.@ 88 miles ( 9 @.@ 46 km ) , where a 100 @-@ mile ( 161 km ) view can be seen . The furthest that can be seen are the Green Mountains in Vermont and the White Mountains in New Hampshire .
= = History = =
Prospect Mountain originally had to use an incline railway car to access the house at the top where people could dance and eat . Construction on the railway began in January 1895 and cost $ 120 @,@ 000 total . Construction was finished six months later , with the railway opening on June 15 , 1895 . After failing financially , the railway system ceased operation in 1903 . The area was bought and soon donated to the State of New York . The nearby hiking trail that heads up towards the mountaintop is part of the old railway .
In 1932 , the building at the top of the mountain burned down and was replaced by a steel fire tower . For 30 years , people studied what to do with the land , which was owned by the state , and in 1954 , New York Governor Tom Dewey signed legislation to build a highway up the mountain . Twelve years later , in 1966 , then @-@ Governor Nelson Rockefeller made funds available for the highway . The Prospect Mountain Veterans Memorial Highway was opened in 1969 , dedicated to war veterans and providing access to the 2 @,@ 021 @-@ foot ( 616 m ) summit with a 100 @-@ mile ( 161 km ) view at its peak .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Lake George , Warren County .
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= Gamma @-@ ray burst =
Gamma @-@ ray bursts ( GRBs ) are extremely energetic explosions that have been observed in distant galaxies . They are the brightest electromagnetic events known to occur in the universe . Bursts can last from ten milliseconds to several hours . After an initial flash of gamma rays , a longer @-@ lived " afterglow " is usually emitted at longer wavelengths ( X @-@ ray , ultraviolet , optical , infrared , microwave and radio ) .
The intense radiation of most observed GRBs is believed to be released during a supernova or hypernova as a rapidly rotating , high @-@ mass star collapses to form a neutron star , quark star , or black hole . A subclass of GRBs ( the " short " bursts ) appear to originate from a different process : the merger of binary neutron stars . The cause of the precursor burst observed in some of these short events may be due to the development of a resonance between the crust and core of such stars as a result of the massive tidal forces experienced in the seconds leading up to their collision , causing the entire crust of the star to shatter .
The sources of most GRBs are billions of light years away from Earth , implying that the explosions are both extremely energetic ( a typical burst releases as much energy in a few seconds as the Sun will in its entire 10 @-@ billion @-@ year lifetime ) and extremely rare ( a few per galaxy per million years ) . All observed GRBs have originated from outside the Milky Way galaxy , although a related class of phenomena , soft gamma repeater flares , are associated with magnetars within the Milky Way . It has been hypothesized that a gamma @-@ ray burst in the Milky Way , pointing directly towards the Earth , could cause a mass extinction event .
GRBs were first detected in 1967 by the Vela satellites , a series of satellites designed to detect covert nuclear weapons tests . Hundreds of theoretical models were proposed to explain these bursts in the years following their discovery , such as collisions between comets and neutron stars . Little information was available to verify these models until the 1997 detection of the first X @-@ ray and optical afterglows and direct measurement of their redshifts using optical spectroscopy , and thus their distances and energy outputs . These discoveries , and subsequent studies of the galaxies and supernovae associated with the bursts , clarified the distance and luminosity of GRBs . These facts definitively placed them in distant galaxies and also connected long GRBs with the explosion of massive stars , the only possible source for the energy outputs observed .
= = History = =
Gamma @-@ ray bursts were first observed in the late 1960s by the U.S. Vela satellites , which were built to detect gamma radiation pulses emitted by nuclear weapons tested in space . The United States suspected that the USSR might attempt to conduct secret nuclear tests after signing the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963 . On July 2 , 1967 , at 14 : 19 UTC , the Vela 4 and Vela 3 satellites detected a flash of gamma radiation unlike any known nuclear weapons signature . Uncertain what had happened but not considering the matter particularly urgent , the team at the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory , led by Ray Klebesadel , filed the data away for investigation . As additional Vela satellites were launched with better instruments , the Los Alamos team continued to find inexplicable gamma @-@ ray bursts in their data . By analyzing the different arrival times of the bursts as detected by different satellites , the team was able to determine rough estimates for the sky positions of sixteen bursts and definitively rule out a terrestrial or solar origin . The discovery was declassified and published in 1973 as an Astrophysical Journal article entitled " Observations of Gamma @-@ Ray Bursts of Cosmic Origin " .
Many theories were advanced to explain these bursts , most of which posited nearby sources within the Milky Way Galaxy . Little progress was made until the 1991 launch of the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory and its Burst and Transient Source Explorer ( BATSE ) instrument , an extremely sensitive gamma @-@ ray detector . This instrument provided crucial data that showed the distribution of GRBs is isotropic — not biased towards any particular direction in space , such as toward the galactic plane or the galactic center . Because of the flattened shape of the Milky Way Galaxy , if the sources were from within our own galaxy they would be strongly concentrated in or near the galactic plane . The absence of any such pattern in the case of GRBs provided strong evidence that gamma @-@ ray bursts must come from beyond the Milky Way . However , some Milky Way models are still consistent with an isotropic distribution .
= = = Counterpart objects as candidate sources = = =
For decades after the discovery of GRBs , astronomers searched for a counterpart at other wavelengths : i.e. , any astronomical object in positional coincidence with a recently observed burst . Astronomers considered many distinct classes of objects , including white dwarfs , pulsars , supernovae , globular clusters , quasars , Seyfert galaxies , and BL Lac objects . All such searches were unsuccessful , and in a few cases particularly well @-@ localized bursts ( those whose positions were determined with what was then a high degree of accuracy ) could be clearly shown to have no bright objects of any nature consistent with the position derived from the detecting satellites . This suggested an origin of either very faint stars or extremely distant galaxies . Even the most accurate positions contained numerous faint stars and galaxies , and it was widely agreed that final resolution of the origins of cosmic gamma @-@ ray bursts would require both new satellites and faster communication .
= = = Afterglow = = =
Several models for the origin of gamma @-@ ray bursts postulated that the initial burst of gamma rays should be followed by slowly fading emission at longer wavelengths created by collisions between the burst ejecta and interstellar gas . This fading emission would be called the " afterglow . " Early searches for this afterglow were unsuccessful , largely due to the difficulties in observing a burst 's position at longer wavelengths immediately after the initial burst . The breakthrough came in February 1997 when the satellite BeppoSAX detected a gamma @-@ ray burst ( GRB 970228 ) and when the X @-@ ray camera was pointed towards the direction from which the burst had originated , it detected fading X @-@ ray emission . The William Herschel Telescope identified a fading optical counterpart 20 hours after the burst . Once the GRB faded , deep imaging was able to identify a faint , distant host galaxy at the location of the GRB as pinpointed by the optical afterglow .
Because of the very faint luminosity of this galaxy , its exact distance was not measured for several years . Well before then , another major breakthrough occurred with the next event registered by BeppoSAX , GRB 970508 . This event was localized within four hours of its discovery , allowing research teams to begin making observations much sooner than any previous burst . The spectrum of the object revealed a redshift of z = 0 @.@ 835 , placing the burst at a distance of roughly 6 billion light years from Earth . This was the first accurate determination of the distance to a GRB , and together with the discovery of the host galaxy of 970228 proved that GRBs occur in extremely distant galaxies . Within a few months , the controversy about the distance scale ended : GRBs were extragalactic events originating within faint galaxies at enormous distances . The following year , GRB 980425 was followed within a day by a coincident bright supernova ( SN 1998bw ) , indicating a clear connection between GRBs and the deaths of very massive stars . This burst provided the first strong clue about the nature of the systems that produce GRBs .
BeppoSAX functioned until 2002 and CGRO ( with BATSE ) was deorbited in 2000 . However , the revolution in the study of gamma @-@ ray bursts motivated the development of a number of additional instruments designed specifically to explore the nature of GRBs , especially in the earliest moments following the explosion . The first such mission , HETE @-@ 2 , launched in 2000 and functioned until 2006 , providing most of the major discoveries during this period . One of the most successful space missions to date , Swift , was launched in 2004 and as of 2016 is still operational . Swift is equipped with a very sensitive gamma ray detector as well as on @-@ board X @-@ ray and optical telescopes , which can be rapidly and automatically slewed to observe afterglow emission following a burst . More recently , the Fermi mission was launched carrying the Gamma @-@ Ray Burst Monitor , which detects bursts at a rate of several hundred per year , some of which are bright enough to be observed at extremely high energies with Fermi 's Large Area Telescope . Meanwhile , on the ground , numerous optical telescopes have been built or modified to incorporate robotic control software that responds immediately to signals sent through the Gamma @-@ ray Burst Coordinates Network . This allows the telescopes to rapidly repoint towards a GRB , often within seconds of receiving the signal and while the gamma @-@ ray emission itself is still ongoing .
New developments over the past few years include the recognition of short gamma @-@ ray bursts as a separate class ( likely due to merging neutron stars and not associated with supernovae ) , the discovery of extended , erratic flaring activity at X @-@ ray wavelengths lasting for many minutes after most GRBs , and the discovery of the most luminous ( GRB 080319B ) and the former most distant ( GRB 090423 ) objects in the universe . The most distant known GRB , GRB 090429B , is now the most distant known object in the universe .
= = Classification = =
The light curves of gamma @-@ ray bursts are extremely diverse and complex . No two gamma @-@ ray burst light curves are identical , with large variation observed in almost every property : the duration of observable emission can vary from milliseconds to tens of minutes , there can be a single peak or several individual subpulses , and individual peaks can be symmetric or with fast brightening and very slow fading . Some bursts are preceded by a " precursor " event , a weak burst that is then followed ( after seconds to minutes of no emission at all ) by the much more intense " true " bursting episode . The light curves of some events have extremely chaotic and complicated profiles with almost no discernible patterns .
Although some light curves can be roughly reproduced using certain simplified models , little progress has been made in understanding the full diversity observed . Many classification schemes have been proposed , but these are often based solely on differences in the appearance of light curves and may not always reflect a true physical difference in the progenitors of the explosions . However , plots of the distribution of the observed duration for a large number of gamma @-@ ray bursts show a clear bimodality , suggesting the existence of two separate populations : a " short " population with an average duration of about 0 @.@ 3 seconds and a " long " population with an average duration of about 30 seconds . Both distributions are very broad with a significant overlap region in which the identity of a given event is not clear from duration alone . Additional classes beyond this two @-@ tiered system have been proposed on both observational and theoretical grounds .
= = = Short gamma @-@ ray bursts = = =
Events with a duration of less than about two seconds are classified as short gamma @-@ ray bursts . These account for about 30 % of gamma @-@ ray bursts , but until 2005 , no afterglow had been successfully detected from any short event and little was known about their origins . Since then , several dozen short gamma @-@ ray burst afterglows have been detected and localized , several of which are associated with regions of little or no star formation , such as large elliptical galaxies and the central regions of large galaxy clusters . This rules out a link to massive stars , confirming that short events are physically distinct from long events . In addition , there has been no association with supernovae .
The true nature of these objects ( or even whether the current classification scheme is accurate ) remains unknown , although the leading hypothesis is that they originate from the mergers of binary neutron stars or a neutron star with a black hole . Such mergers might also be expected to produce kilonovae , and evidence for a kilonova associated with GRB 130603B has been seen . The mean duration of these events of 0 @.@ 2 seconds suggests a source of very small physical diameter in stellar terms ; less than 0 @.@ 2 light @-@ seconds ( about 37 @,@ 000 miles — four times the Earth 's diameter ) . This further suggests a very compact object as the source . The observation of minutes to hours of X @-@ ray flashes after a short gamma @-@ ray burst is consistent with small particles of a primary object like a neutron star initially swallowed by a black hole in less than two seconds , followed by some hours of lesser energy events , as remaining fragments of tidally disrupted neutron star material ( no longer neutronium ) remain in orbit to spiral into the black hole , over a longer period of time . A small fraction of short gamma @-@ ray bursts are probably produced by giant flares from soft gamma repeaters in nearby galaxies .
= = = Long gamma @-@ ray bursts = = =
Most observed events ( 70 % ) have a duration of greater than two seconds and are classified as long gamma @-@ ray bursts . Because these events constitute the majority of the population and because they tend to have the brightest afterglows , they have been studied in much greater detail than their short counterparts . Almost every well @-@ studied long gamma @-@ ray burst has been linked to a galaxy with rapid star formation , and in many cases to a core @-@ collapse supernova as well , unambiguously associating long GRBs with the deaths of massive stars . Long GRB afterglow observations , at high redshift , are also consistent with the GRB having originated in star @-@ forming regions .
= = = Ultra @-@ long gamma @-@ ray bursts = = =
These events are at the tail end of the long GRB duration distribution , lasting more than 10 @,@ 000 seconds . They have been proposed to form a separate class , possibly the result of the collapse of a blue supergiant star . Only a small number have been identified to date , their primary characteristic being their gamma ray emission duration . So far , the known and well established ultra long GRBs are GRB 091024A , GRB 101225A , and GRB 111209A . A recent study , on the other hand , shows that the existing evidence for a separate ultra @-@ long GRB population with a new type of progenitor is inconclusive , and further multi @-@ wavelength observations are needed to draw a firmer conclusion .
= = Energetics and beaming = =
Gamma @-@ ray bursts are very bright as observed from Earth despite their typically immense distances . An average long GRB has a bolometric flux comparable to a bright star of our galaxy despite a distance of billions of light years ( compared to a few tens of light years for most visible stars ) . Most of this energy is released in gamma rays , although some GRBs have extremely luminous optical counterparts as well . GRB 080319B , for example , was accompanied by an optical counterpart that peaked at a visible magnitude of 5 @.@ 8 , comparable to that of the dimmest naked @-@ eye stars despite the burst 's distance of 7 @.@ 5 billion light years . This combination of brightness and distance implies an extremely energetic source . Assuming the gamma @-@ ray explosion to be spherical , the energy output of GRB 080319B would be within a factor of two of the rest @-@ mass energy of the Sun ( the energy which would be released were the Sun to be converted entirely into radiation ) .
No known process in the universe can produce this much energy in such a short time . Rather , gamma @-@ ray bursts are thought to be highly focused explosions , with most of the explosion energy collimated into a narrow jet traveling at speeds exceeding 99 @.@ 995 % of the speed of light . The approximate angular width of the jet ( that is , the degree of spread of the beam ) can be estimated directly by observing the achromatic " jet breaks " in afterglow light curves : a time after which the slowly decaying afterglow begins to fade rapidly as the jet slows and can no longer beam its radiation as effectively . Observations suggest significant variation in the jet angle from between 2 and 20 degrees .
Because their energy is strongly focused , the gamma rays emitted by most bursts are expected to miss the Earth and never be detected . When a gamma @-@ ray burst is pointed towards Earth , the focusing of its energy along a relatively narrow beam causes the burst to appear much brighter than it would have been were its energy emitted spherically . When this effect is taken into account , typical gamma @-@ ray bursts are observed to have a true energy release of about 1044 J , or about 1 / 2000 of a Solar mass ( M ☉ ) energy equivalent — which is still many times the mass @-@ energy equivalent of the Earth ( about 5 @.@ 5 × 1041 J ) . This is comparable to the energy released in a bright type Ib / c supernova and within the range of theoretical models . Very bright supernovae have been observed to accompany several of the nearest GRBs . Additional support for focusing of the output of GRBs has come from observations of strong asymmetries in the spectra of nearby type Ic supernova and from radio observations taken long after bursts when their jets are no longer relativistic .
Short ( time duration ) GRBs appear to come from a lower @-@ redshift ( i.e. less distant ) population and are less luminous than long GRBs . The degree of beaming in short bursts has not been accurately measured , but as a population they are likely less collimated than long GRBs or possibly not collimated at all in some cases .
= = Progenitors = =
Because of the immense distances of most gamma @-@ ray burst sources from Earth , identification of the progenitors , the systems that produce these explosions , is particularly challenging . The association of some long GRBs with supernovae and the fact that their host galaxies are rapidly star @-@ forming offer very strong evidence that long gamma @-@ ray bursts are associated with massive stars . The most widely accepted mechanism for the origin of long @-@ duration GRBs is the collapsar model , in which the core of an extremely massive , low @-@ metallicity , rapidly rotating star collapses into a black hole in the final stages of its evolution . Matter near the star 's core rains down towards the center and swirls into a high @-@ density accretion disk . The infall of this material into a black hole drives a pair of relativistic jets out along the rotational axis , which pummel through the stellar envelope and eventually break through the stellar surface and radiate as gamma rays . Some alternative models replace the black hole with a newly formed magnetar , although most other aspects of the model ( the collapse of the core of a massive star and the formation of relativistic jets ) are the same .
The closest analogs within the Milky Way galaxy of the stars producing long gamma @-@ ray bursts are likely the Wolf – Rayet stars , extremely hot and massive stars which have shed most or all of their hydrogen due to radiation pressure . Eta Carinae and WR 104 have been cited as possible future gamma @-@ ray burst progenitors . It is unclear if any star in the Milky Way has the appropriate characteristics to produce a gamma @-@ ray burst .
The massive @-@ star model probably does not explain all types of gamma @-@ ray burst . There is strong evidence that some short @-@ duration gamma @-@ ray bursts occur in systems with no star formation and where no massive stars are present , such as elliptical galaxies and galaxy halos . The favored theory for the origin of most short gamma @-@ ray bursts is the merger of a binary system consisting of two neutron stars . According to this model , the two stars in a binary slowly spiral towards each other due to the release of energy via gravitational radiation until the neutron stars suddenly rip each other apart due to tidal forces and collapse into a single black hole . The infall of matter into the new black hole produces an accretion disk and releases a burst of energy , analogous to the collapsar model . Numerous other models have also been proposed to explain short gamma @-@ ray bursts , including the merger of a neutron star and a black hole , the accretion @-@ induced collapse of a neutron star , or the evaporation of primordial black holes .
An alternative explanation proposed by Friedwardt Winterberg is that in the course of a gravitational collapse and in reaching the event horizon of a black hole , all matter disintegrates into a burst of gamma radiation .
= = = Tidal disruption events = = =
This new class of GRB @-@ like events was first discovered through the detection of GRB 110328A by the Swift Gamma @-@ Ray Burst Mission on 28 March 2011 . This event had a gamma @-@ ray duration of about 2 days , much longer than even ultra @-@ long GRBs , and was detected in X @-@ rays for many months . It occurred at the center of a small elliptical galaxy at redshift z = 0 @.@ 3534 . There is an ongoing debate as to whether the explosion was the result of stellar collapse or a tidal disruption event accompanied by a relativistic jet , although the latter explanation has become widely favoured .
A tidal disruption event of this sort is when a star interacts with a supermassive black hole shredding the star , and in some cases creating a relativistic jet which produces bright emission of gamma ray radiation . The event GRB 110328A ( also denoted Swift J1644 + 57 ) was initially argued to be produced by the disruption of main sequence star by a black hole of several million times the mass of the Sun , although it has subsequently been argued that the disruption of a white dwarf by a black hole of mass about 10 thousand times the Sun may be more likely .
= = Emission mechanisms = =
The means by which gamma @-@ ray bursts convert energy into radiation remains poorly understood , and as of 2010 there was still no generally accepted model for how this process occurs . Any successful model of GRB emission must explain the physical process for generating gamma @-@ ray emission that matches the observed diversity of light curves , spectra , and other characteristics . Particularly challenging is the need to explain the very high efficiencies that are inferred from some explosions : some gamma @-@ ray bursts may convert as much as half ( or more ) of the explosion energy into gamma @-@ rays . Early observations of the bright optical counterparts to GRB 990123 and to GRB 080319B , whose optical light curves were extrapolations of the gamma @-@ ray light spectra , have suggested that inverse Compton may be the dominant process in some events . In this model , pre @-@ existing low @-@ energy photons are scattered by relativistic electrons within the explosion , augmenting their energy by a large factor and transforming them into gamma @-@ rays .
The nature of the longer @-@ wavelength afterglow emission ( ranging from X @-@ ray through radio ) that follows gamma @-@ ray bursts is better understood . Any energy released by the explosion not radiated away in the burst itself takes the form of matter or energy moving outward at nearly the speed of light . As this matter collides with the surrounding interstellar gas , it creates a relativistic shock wave that then propagates forward into interstellar space . A second shock wave , the reverse shock , may propagate back into the ejected matter . Extremely energetic electrons within the shock wave are accelerated by strong local magnetic fields and radiate as synchrotron emission across most of the electromagnetic spectrum . This model has generally been successful in modeling the behavior of many observed afterglows at late times ( generally , hours to days after the explosion ) , although there are difficulties explaining all features of the afterglow very shortly after the gamma @-@ ray burst has occurred .
= = Rate of occurrence and potential effects on life = =
Gamma ray bursts can have harmful or destructive effects on life . Considering the universe as a whole , the safest environments for life similar to that on Earth are the lowest density regions in the outskirts of large galaxies . Our knowledge of galaxy types and their distribution suggests that life as we know it can only exist in about 10 % of all galaxies . Furthermore , galaxies with a redshift of z higher than 0 @.@ 5 are unsuitable for life as we know it , due to their higher rate of GRBs and their stellar compactness .
All GRBs observed to date have occurred well outside the Milky Way galaxy and have been harmless to Earth . However , if a GRB were to occur within the Milky Way and its emission were beamed straight towards Earth , the effects could be harmful and potentially devastating for the ecosystems . Currently , orbiting satellites detect on average approximately one GRB per day . The closest observed GRB as of March 2014 was GRB 980425 , located 40 megaparsecs ( 130 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ly ) away ( z = 0 @.@ 0085 ) in a SBc @-@ type dwarf galaxy . GRB 980425 was far less energetic than the average GRB and was associated with the Type Ib supernova SN 1998bw .
Estimating the exact rate at which GRBs occur is difficult , but for a galaxy of approximately the same size as the Milky Way the expected rate ( for long @-@ duration GRBs ) is about one burst every 100 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 years . Only a small percentage of these would be beamed towards Earth . Estimates of rate of occurrence of short @-@ duration GRBs are even more uncertain because of the unknown degree of collimation , but are probably comparable .
Since GRBs are thought to involve beamed emission along two jets in opposing directions , only planets in the path of these jets would be subjected to the high energy gamma radiation .
Although nearby GRBs hitting Earth with a destructive shower of gamma rays are only hypothetical events , high energy processes in the nearby universe are well @-@ known to affect the Earth 's atmosphere .
= = = Effects on Earth = = =
Earth 's atmosphere is very effective at absorbing high energy electromagnetic radiation such as x @-@ rays and gamma rays , so these types of radiation would not reach any dangerous levels at the surface during the burst event itself . The immediate effect on life on Earth from a GRB within a few parsecs would only be a short increase in ultraviolet radiation at ground level , lasting from less than a second to tens of seconds . This ultraviolet radiation could potentially reach dangerous levels depending on the exact nature and distance of the burst , but it seems unlikely to be able to cause a global catastrophe for life on Earth .
The long term effects from a nearby burst are more dangerous . Gamma rays cause chemical reactions in the atmosphere involving oxygen and nitrogen molecules , creating first nitrogen oxide then nitrogen dioxide gas . The nitrogen oxides cause dangerous effects on three levels . First , they deplete ozone , with models showing a possible global reduction of 25 @-@ 35 % , with as much as 75 % in certain locations , an effect that would last for years . This reduction is enough to cause a dangerously elevated UV index at the surface . Secondly , the nitrogen oxides cause photochemical smog , which darkens the sky and blocks out parts of the sunlight spectrum . This would affect photosynthesis , but models show only about a 1 % reduction of the total sunlight spectrum , lasting a few years . However , the smog could potentially cause a cooling effect on Earth 's climate , producing a " cosmic winter " ( similar to an impact winter , but without an impact ) , but only if it occurs simultaneously with a global climate instability . Thirdly , the elevated nitrogen levels in the atmosphere would wash out and produce nitric acid rain . This substance is toxic to a variety of organisms , including amphibian life , but models show that it cannot reach levels that would cause a serious global effect . The nitrates might in fact be of benefit to some plants .
All in all , a GRB within a few parsecs , with its energy directed towards Earth , will mostly damage life by raising the UV levels . Models shows that the destructive effects of this increase can cause up to 16 times the normal levels of DNA damage . It has proved difficult to assess a reliable evaluation of the consequences of this on the terrestrial ecosystem , because of the uncertainty in biological field and laboratory data .
Ordinary supernova explosions can have the same effects as GRBs on Earth 's atmosphere because they are more frequent events with a possibility of occurring closer to Earth . The rate and distribution of supernovas are used to define what is known as the Galactic Habitable Zone in the field of astrobiology .
= = = = Hypothetical effects on Earth in the past = = = =
GRBs close enough to affect life in some way might occur once every five million years or so – around a thousand times since life on Earth began .
The major Ordovician – Silurian extinction events 450 million years ago may have been caused by a GRB . The late Ordovician species of trilobite that spent some of its life in the plankton layer near the ocean surface was much harder hit than deep @-@ water dwellers , which tended to remain within quite restricted areas . Usually it is the more widely spread species that fare better in extinction , hence this unusual pattern could be explained by a GRB . This would probably devastate creatures living on land and near the ocean surface , but leave deep @-@ sea creatures relatively unharmed .
A case has been made that the 774 – 775 carbon @-@ 14 spike was the result of a short GRB , though a very strong solar flare is another possibility .
= = = WR 104 : A nearby GRB candidate = = =
A Wolf – Rayet star in WR 104 , about 8 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ( 2 @,@ 500 pc ) away , is considered a nearby GRB candidate that could have destructive effects on terrestrial life . It is expected to explode in a core @-@ collapse @-@ supernova at some point within the next 500 @,@ 000 years and there is a chance that this explosion will create a GRB . If that happens , there is a small chance that Earth will be in the path of its gamma ray jet .
= = Books = =
Vedrenne , G ; Atteia , J.-L. ( 2009 ) . Gamma @-@ Ray Bursts : The brightest explosions in the Universe . Springer . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 540 @-@ 39085 @-@ 5 .
Chryssa Kouveliotou ; Stanford E. Woosley ; Ralph A. M. J. , eds . ( 2012 ) . Gamma @-@ ray bursts . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 66209 @-@ 5 .
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= American Dream ( Casting Crowns song ) =
" American Dream " is a song recorded by Christian rock band Casting Crowns . Written by Mark Hall and produced by Mark A. Miller and Steven Curtis Chapman , the song was included on the band 's 2003 self @-@ titled debut album . A rock song , " American Dream " features loud electric guitars similar to those on Chapman 's 2001 album Declaration . Lyrically , the song discusses how fathers caught up in advancing their career can neglect their family responsibilities . It received mostly positive reviews from critics , many of whom praised its lyrics ; several critics felt the song 's instrumentation was average or mediocre , however .
" American Dream " ' s accompanying music video , the band 's first , depicts the deterioration of a relationship due to a man 's neglect of his family . The song received nominations for Rock / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year and Short Form Music Video of the Year at the 36th GMA Dove Awards , but lost in both categories . Although it was not officially released as a single , it was sent out to Christian rock radio between the release of the album 's second and third singles ; although it received airplay on that format , it failed to chart . " American Dream " was later included on the band 's 2004 live album Live from Atlanta , and was re @-@ recorded and released in an acoustic form on the band 's 2013 album The Acoustic Sessions : Volume One .
= = Background and recording = =
Casting Crowns ' lead vocalist Mark Hall said that " [ American Dream ] song was written from every student I ’ ve ever ministered to , to their dads . It ’ s everything they could never say . It ’ s the story of a dad who provided financially , but was never there physically or emotionally " . While Hall noted that he had a great father as a child , he felt the message needed to be conveyed to dads . Hall and the band wrote the song in about two days , in order to get it done prior to an annual NASCAR event held by their church . The band felt that the event , attended by around two to three thousand families , would be an opportunity to convey that message .
= = Composition = =
" American Dream " is a song with a length of four minutes and eleven seconds . I t is in set common time in the key of D major and has a tempo of 84 beats per minute . Mark Hall 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of B3 to the high note of F ♯ 5 . A rock song , " American Dream " has also been stated as being arena rock . The song has been described as demonstrative of the production style of Miller and Chapman , with loud guitars resembling those on Chapman 's 2001 album Declaration , creating an " explosive " wall of sound in the chorus . One of the most up @-@ tempo songs on the Casting Crowns , it was also noted as being " hook @-@ laden " and demonstrating the " in @-@ your @-@ face " lyrical tone of Hall . Lyrically , " American Dream " discusses " the way fathers caught up in the career rat race can neglect their kids " . The song urges fathers to spend more time with their family and more time as spiritual leaders and " exhorts listeners not to neglect their families in pursuit of wealth and careers " .
= = Reception = =
" American Dream " received mostly positive reviews from music critics . Russ Breimeier of Christianity Today praised the song as " simply yet powerfully worded " , also praising the chorus ' wall @-@ of @-@ sound as improving the chorus of an otherwise " average pop " song . Belinda S. Ayers of CBN.com regarded the song as " one of the album 's most energetic songs " and praised it as an example of Hall 's " bold " lyrics . Jessica Vander Loop of Jesus Freak Hideout criticized the song as not being " musically inclined " , but praised the song 's lyrics as " strong and personable " . Roger Gelwicks of Jesus Freak Hideout , despite regarding the message as " admirable , sharply criticized the song 's vocal delivery as " almost disdainful " and criticized what he described as a " condescending " lyrical tone . At the 36th GMA Dove Awards , the song was nominated for Rock / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year , losing to Switchfoot 's " Dare You to Move " . " American Dream " was released to Christian rock radio on June 26 , 2004 , after the February release of " Who Am I " , the album 's second single , and before the September release on " Voice of Truth " , the album 's third single . Reunion Records , the band 's record label , does not consider " American Dream " to have been an official single , considering " If We Are the Body " , " Who Am I " , and " Voice of Truth " as the three singles from the album . " American Dream " did receive airplay at Christian rock radio , but not enough to appear on the Radio & Records Christian Rock chart .
= = Promotion = =
On October 5 , 2003 at the band 's church in Atlanta , Georgia , the band performed " American Dream " ; this version was later included on their 2004 live album Live from Atlanta . At an April 1 , 2005 concert at the Giant Center in Hershey , Pennsylvania , Casting Crowns performed it as the third song on their set list . At an July 10 , 2005 concert at Seaholm High School in Ypsilanti , Michigan , Casting Crowns performed it as their third song in their set list . " American Dream " was included on the 2004 compilation album Dove Hits 2004 and the 2005 compilation album Pure Hits . An acoustic version of the song was included on the band 's 2013 album The Acoustic Sessions : Volume One .
" American Dream " was recorded as the band 's first music video . The video depicts a man 's crumbling relationship as he neglects his family in pursuit of his career ; the video interspaces the story with the band performing at a baseball field , Hall walking through the streets of a city , and the man unsuccessfully trying to maintain a sandcastle as the tide comes in to shore . The music video was included on their live album Live from Atlanta. as well as the ' Gift Edition ' and DualDisc version of Casting Crowns and the DVD version of WOW Hits 2005 . Tony Cummings of Cross Rhythms described the video as " rather effective " , praising the video 's imagery of " a businessman futilely trying to make a sandcastle as the tide rushes in " . The music video for " American Dream " was nominated for Short Form Music Video of the Year at the 36th GMA Dove Awards ; it ultimately lost to the music video for Switchfoot 's " Dare You to Move " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits taken from Allmusic .
= = Release and radio history = =
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= George Washington ( inventor ) =
George Constant Louis Washington ( May 20 , 1871 – March 29 , 1946 ) was an American inventor and businessman of Anglo @-@ Belgian origin . He is best remembered for his invention of an early instant coffee process and for the company he founded to mass @-@ produce it , the G. Washington Coffee Company .
An emigrant from his native Belgium , he arrived in the New York area in 1897 and dabbled in several technical fields before hitting upon instant coffee manufacture during a sojourn in Central America in 1906 or 1907 . He began selling his coffee in 1909 and founded a company to manufacture it in 1910 . Based in New York and New Jersey , his company prospered and became an important military supplier during World War I. The company 's products were also advertised in New York newspapers and on the radio . The success of his company made Washington wealthy , and he lived in a mansion in Brooklyn and then moved to a country estate in New Jersey in 1927 . In that same year , he lost a dispute with the tax authorities . Washington was married and had three children .
Washington 's company was sold to American Home Products in 1943 , shortly before his death . Though the coffee brand was discontinued by 1961 , Washington 's name is still used today in the product G. Washington 's Seasoning & Broth .
= = Early life = =
George Washington was born in Kortrijk , Belgium to Jean Guillaume Washington ( John William Washington ) of England and Marie Louise Tant of Belgium , on May 20 , 1871 . Following then @-@ current nationality law , which considered fatherhood primary , Washington was a British subject until he was naturalized as an American in May 1918 . At least six siblings in the family also settled in different parts of the United States and Central America . A number of accounts claim a relation to U.S. President George Washington , but this is not clearly explained .
Washington came to reside in Brussels and also attained a degree in chemistry at the University of Bonn in Germany . In December 1895 , Washington married Angeline Céline Virginie ( later , just " Lina " ) Van Nieuwenhuyse ( born 1876 ) , also from Belgium . The US Census of 1900 records that Lina , like her husband , had English and Belgian ancestry ( a Belgian father and an English mother ) . The Washingtons ' arrival in the United States on a ship from Antwerp , Belgium , on October 6 , 1896 , was recorded at Ellis Island , though the 1900 US Census states that they emigrated to the United States in 1897 . The Washingtons settled in the New York area , where they had three children : Louisa Washington ( born May 1897 ) , Irene Washington ( born May 1898 ) , and George Washington Jr . ( born August 1899 ) .
After arriving in the New York area , Washington founded a company producing kerosene gas mantles . At this time , they lived in New Brighton on Staten Island , but his company , George Washington Lighting Company , was based in nearby Jersey City . This business was abandoned with the maturation of incandescent light bulb technology . Washington also had a camera company for a time . By the time of the 1900 US Census , Washington , recorded in the census as an inventor , was 29 years old and living in a rented house in Brooklyn with his 23 @-@ year @-@ old wife , their three young children , his younger sister ( age 25 ) , three servants , and a child of two of the servants .
Washington tried his hand at cattle ranching in Guatemala in 1906 or 1907 while , in the meantime , developed his instant coffee process . Washington returned to New York City after only a period of about a year in Guatemala , and then began pursuing the main part of his career in coffee manufacture . His father remained in Guatemala and died there in 1912 .
= = Personal life = =
After his coffee business was established in 1910 , Washington resided at a Park Slope mansion , occupying half of a city block , at 47 Prospect Park West in Brooklyn , and also at an 18 @-@ bedroom country home , later known as " Washington Lodge " , on a 40 @-@ acre waterfront estate at 287 South Country Road at Bellport in Suffolk County , which included the largest concrete swimming pool in New York at the time . Washington sold these homes in 1926 – 1927 ( for a price reportedly exceeding $ 1 million ) to a group of wealthy Brooklyn men intent on founding a " Park and Shore Club " for their membership at both properties . This was short @-@ lived , however , as the Park Slope mansion , following a neighborhood trend , was replaced by a six @-@ story apartment building at 44 Prospect Park West , and the Bellport estate was for most of its history used by local Catholic Marist Brothers as a summer retreat , before recent conservation projects on modern divisions of the former property by local nonprofits and Bellport resident Isabella Rossellini ; the " Washington Lodge " building there still stands , though its future use is uncertain .
With his company 's relocation to New Jersey , following the purchase of land there in 1927 , he moved to the former estate of Governor Franklin Murphy at " Franklin Farms " in Mendham . Washington was a lover of exotic animals , as well as gardening . He maintained extensive menageries on his country properties , first at Bellport , and later at Mendham . On Long Island , it is reported that he was often seen with a bird or monkey on his shoulder . At both his menageries , Washington specialized in rare birds , but such animals as deer , sheep , goats , and antelope are also recorded at Bellport , and deer , llamas , and zebras are recorded among the hundreds of animals in the larger space at Mendham . Socially , he was an active member of the Lotos Club , a literary gentlemen 's club in New York City .
Washington 's name was briefly put forward for the 1920 presidential election in South Dakota 's preference primary for the " American Party " , although papers were filed too late to be valid . There is no indication , however , that the nomination was serious . George Washington would not have been eligible for that office , in any case , as he was foreign @-@ born . There have been several " American Party " s in history — it is unclear if the nomination was a particular satire on any so @-@ named movement at the time .
That 's the fellow . He has put one over on us . He has a barrel of money — enough to run a slambang campaign . Why , don 't you remember , he just bought that $ 100 @,@ 000 mansion from Albert Feltman on Prospect Park West . He 's learned a lot about politics by being a neighbor of Senator Calder and George Hamlin Childs . And when you come to think of it , that American Party stuff is good campaign dope this year , what with all the Bolsheviki and the Government after the Reds and the row about the League of Nations , and all that . We 've been overlooking something for sure .
= = Invention and business = =
George Washington held over two dozen patents , in the fields of hydrocarbon lamps , cameras , and food processing . He was not the first to invent an instant coffee process , David Strang in New Zealand had the first patent in 1890 ( Number 3518 ) for instant or soluble coffee and was sold under the name Strangs Coffee , another was chemist Satori Kato 's work was a precursor , among others , but Washington 's invention was the first effort that led to large scale commercial manufacture . There is some suggestion that he was inspired by seeing dried powder on the edge of a silver coffee pot while in Guatemala . Federico Lehnhoff Wyld , a German @-@ Guatemalan doctor , along with Eduardo T. Cabarrus , also developed an instant coffee process about this time , which he later marketed in Europe ; as Wyld was Washington 's personal physician , there is some suggestion that their discoveries were not independent .
Washington 's product was first marketed as Red E Coffee ( a pun on " ready " ) in 1909 , and the G. Washington Coffee Refining Company was founded in 1910 . Washington 's first production plant was at 147 41st Street in Brooklyn 's Bush Terminal industrial complex . The company later moved operations to New Jersey , acquiring the land for the new plant at 45 East Hanover Avenue in Morris Plains in 1927 .
Advertising for the company 's product often emphasized its supposed convenience , modernity , and purity . It was claimed to be better for digestion , and even that the " pure " coffee did not have the wakefulness effect of coffee from ground beans ( a direct effect of caffeine content , present in both forms ) . After World War I ended , the American military 's use of the coffee became another selling point . A different avenue for promotion came when the company sponsored The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes radio series on NBC and its Blue Network from 1930 to 1935 , which started with Dr. Watson welcoming listeners to his recollections told by " a blazing fire and a cup of G Washington brewing " . Other radio sponsorships were for O 'Henry Stories ( 1932 , NBC Blue ) , Professor Quiz ( 1936 , CBS ) , Uncle Jim 's Question Bee ( 1936 – 39 , NBC Blue ) , and Surprise Party ( 1946 – 47 , CBS ) .
But the early instant coffee was also often considered of poor quality , of disagreeable taste , and little more than a novelty product .
Washington experienced some tax trouble with federal authorities , concerning the financial relationship between himself and his company . In November 1918 , he contracted with the company for the use of his trade secrets in the manufacture of the coffee , and a month later gave a four @-@ fifths stake in this to his immediate family . The Washingtons insisted that taxes needn 't be paid on the family members ' income , and the case went first to the Board of Tax Appeals , and then to the Court of Appeals , which in 1927 ruled against the Washingtons by a two @-@ to @-@ one decision . A petition to the Supreme Court was not accepted .
Washington 's son , George Washington , Jr . , served for a time as treasurer of his father 's company , and , like his father , dabbled in invention , patenting a widely used photoengraving process for newspapers that was introduced by Fairchild Camera and Instrument in 1948 .
= = Military contracts = =
Washington 's at @-@ that @-@ time unique product saw major use as combat rations in World War I. Coffee consumption on the battlefield was seen as valuable since it gave soldiers a caffeine boost . E.F. Holbrook , the head of the coffee section of the U.S. War Department at the time , also considered it an important aid in recovery from mustard gas . It was employed by the Canadian Expeditionary Force from 1914 until the American Expeditionary Force entered the war in 1917 , and all production was shifted toward American military use . New , smaller producers also sprung up to meet the incredible level of demand from the Army , which in the final period of the war was six times the national supply .
The instant coffee achieved some popularity with the soldiers , who nicknamed it a " cup of George " . As the prime attraction was the caffeine boost , rather than the flavor , it was sometimes drunk cold .
American emergency rations in World War I consisted of a quarter ounce ( 7 grams ) packet of double @-@ strength instant coffee , packed one per man in containers with multiple types of foods meant for twenty @-@ four men . Instant coffee was also used in reserve rations and trench rations . During World War II , the U.S. military again relied on Washington , but this time on an equal footing with the other major instant coffee brands that had emerged in the interwar period , most notably Nescafé , as well as the new companies formed to meet a renewed military demand .
= = Final years = =
G. Washington Coffee Refining Company was purchased by American Home Products in 1943 , and George Washington retired . The purchase of the company , which was mostly held by the family , was in exchange for 29 @,@ 860 shares ( approx . $ 1 @.@ 7 million ) of American Home Products stock , at a time when American Home Products was in a period of intense buying , purchasing 34 companies in eight years . Clarence Mark , general manager of G. Washington , succeeded Washington in running the merged unit .
In Washington 's final years , he sold the " Franklin Farms " property , and lived in a home on New Vernon Road in Mendham .
He died three years after his company was sold , on March 29 , 1946 in Mendham , New Jersey , after an illness , at the age of 74 . His funeral was held three days later .
= = Legacy = =
G. Washington coffee was discontinued as a brand by 1961 , when Washington 's New Jersey plant was sold to Tenco , by then a division of The Coca @-@ Cola Company . The last remnant of the brand survives in G. Washington 's Seasoning & Broth , a sideline developed in 1938 . This brand was sold by American Home Products in 2000 , and , after passing through a couple of intermediaries , has been run by Homestat Farm , Ltd. since 2001 .
= = Patents = =
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= Every Man for Himself ( Lost ) =
" Every Man for Himself " is the fourth episode of the third season of Lost , making it the 53rd episode of the series . It aired on October 25 , 2006 , on ABC , and was written by Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz and directed by Stephen Williams . The character of Sawyer ( Josh Holloway ) is featured in the episode 's flashbacks ; on the island , his rebellious attitude causes Ben Linus ( Michael Emerson ) and the Others to conjure a plan to keep him in check .
The episode was intended to show how Ben was a character that could manipulate even the best confidence man on the island , and if Sawyer could care for another person , as Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) is making her attempts to escape captivity . When the episode first aired , it was watched by 17 @.@ 087 million American viewers . Reviews were positive , praising the writing and the cliffhanger ending .
= = Plot = =
= = = Flashbacks = = =
Sawyer is in prison , trying to befriend Munson ( Ian Gomez ) , a man who has hidden ten million dollars . He warns Munson that the warden ( Bill Duke ) is trying to con him out of his money . Eventually , Munson , worried that his wife will find where he has hidden the money , enlists Sawyer 's help in moving the stash . Sawyer then reveals this information to the warden , in exchange for a reduced sentence and a part of the money , which he puts in a bank account for Clementine Phillips , a baby that previous con victim Cassidy Phillips ( Kim Dickens ) has told him is his daughter . The warden sarcastically congratulates Sawyer on lying and cheating his way out of prison .
= = = At Hydra Island = = =
As Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) and Sawyer watch , the Others carry a critically injured Colleen ( Paula Malcomson ) , who was shot by Sun @-@ Hwa Kwon ( Yunjin Kim ) the night before . Sawyer realizes that the injury was inflicted by someone back at camp , and then devises a plan to break out from the cage ; he intends to electrocute an off @-@ guard Danny Pickett ( Michael Bowen ) using a puddle he created outside his cage . However , Ben Linus ( Michael Emerson ) overhears him via surveillance and switches off the electricity prior to visiting him . When Sawyer attempts to carry out his plan , Ben knocks him unconscious and has him carried into the Hydra station .
Sawyer wakes up to find himself strapped to a table , where Ben , Tom ( M. C. Gainey ) and two other Others watch over him . Sawyer is gagged before inserting a large hypodermic needle into his chest . When Sawyer awakens , Ben enters , carrying a rabbit in a cage ; he shakes the cage vigorously , causing the rabbit to suddenly collapse , presumably dead . Ben informs Sawyer that they fitted him , like the rabbit , with a modified pacemaker ; should his heart rate reach 140 , his heart would explode . Ben threatens to implant one in Kate if Sawyer should tell her of his ordeal .
Meanwhile , Juliet Burke ( Elizabeth Mitchell ) begs Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) to help operate on Colleen . Upon arriving at the operating theatre , Jack notices some x @-@ rays , but Juliet informs him that they are not Colleen 's . During the surgery , Jack tries to save Colleen , but she eventually dies . Later , Jack informs Juliet that there was nothing they could do with Colleen , and then asks about the x @-@ rays , which Jack knows belong to a 40 @-@ year @-@ old man with a spinal tumor , and asks who he is there to save .
Danny , aware that the Oceanic Flight 815 survivors are responsible , takes his anger out on Sawyer by violently beating him ; Sawyer refrains from fighting back . Kate pleads with him to stop ; Danny ceases only after Kate admits to loving Sawyer . Afterwards , Kate notices a gap in her cage , and manages to climb through . She tries to free Sawyer , but he bitterly refuses , remembering Karl 's escape and bloody capture . Kate returns to her cage , insisting that she would not abandon him , and tells Sawyer that she lied about loving him so that Danny would stop .
The next day , Ben takes Sawyer for a walk to high ground . Sawyer learns that he has no pacemaker ; it was merely a con to prevent Sawyer from leaving , and Ben shows him the same rabbit from the day before , which had been merely sedated . Ben reveals to Sawyer that they are on a completely different island approximately twice the size of Alcatraz that overlooks the main island ; escape is impossible . Upon asking why he was conned , Ben tells Sawyer that in order to gain a con artist 's respect , they must be conned themselves .
= = = At the beach = = =
Desmond Hume ( Henry Ian Cusick ) offers to fix Claire Littleton 's ( Emilie de Ravin ) roof , but takes it back after Charlie Pace ( Dominic Monaghan ) offers to do this himself . Desmond then uses one of Paulo 's ( Rodrigo Santoro ) golf clubs to build a lightning rod next to Claire 's hut . As a storm brews , waking up Aaron , then lightning strikes the golf club instead of Claire 's hut , Hugo " Hurley " Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) looks on in amazement , as , again , Desmond seemed to have had a glimpse of the future .
= = Production = =
Leading up to the episode 's broadcast , showrunner Damon Lindelof asked in an interview , " Until now , Sawyer 's been the No. 1 con man on the island . What happens when he meets his match ? " Fellow showrunner Carlton Cuse added " Is he willing to put himself out there emotionally for another human being ? " . Evangeline Lilly described the scene where Kate declines to escape as a major moment to the character , saying that " due to this hillbilly she 's capable of returning to her cage . " Josh Holloway agreed , declaring that the episode revealed to Sawyer that " not everyone is evil " . The flashbacks were shot in an actual penitentiary , the Halawa Correctional Facility , which had been previously used for the prison where Desmond was incarcerated in " Live Together , Die Alone " . While some of the interns were portrayed by extras with soy ink tattoos , bikers with actual body paint were also used .
Referring to the scene in which Ben seemingly fits Sawyer with a lethal pacemaker , Michael Emerson comments
Sadistic may be the word , but he doesn 't seem to take much relish in it . He 's just sort of detached , he looks at it coldly . I sometimes feel like everything to him is a sort of scientific experiment and he is interested in a dispassionate way in how the experiment runs its course . I think some day if we ever find out what his parentage is , that his parents were people of science .
He also described the events as a demonstration that " Ben has more cards than you think ; ... he 's a step or two ahead , one layer or two deeper than anyone else who is playing the game " . The rabbit was a reference to Stephen King 's On Writing , where King uses a rabbit in a cage with the number 8 written on its back as an example for the connection between reader and writer . Emerson said that part of the appeal of the scene was that " bunnies look so innocent , and the audience feels so tenderly about them you can feel nothing but beastly being mean to them " . But Emerson added the rabbit in the scene had problems reacting to his attempts to scare him – " it was unfazed , it barely blinked " . When asked in an interview whether she got sick of shooting on the Hydra holding cell set , Elizabeth Mitchell responded
I guess so . It was creepy because it was supposed to be underwater , so it was a little bit dingy but kind of great at the same time ... what I will miss is just being one on one with another actor . And then also one on two obviously when it was Michael [ Emerson ] because the three of us , it was almost like being on stage . We were able to really work off of each other and I thought you don 't usually get that in a TV show .
= = Reception = =
This episode attracted 17 @.@ 09 million American viewers , standing as the seventh most watched program of the week .
IGN 's Chris Carabott said that " now that Lost has finally wrapped up most of the loose ends from season two , the episode can shift focus to this season 's mysteries . " He also felt the episode " offers a healthy mix of plot and character development with a fair share of revelations thrown in for good measure . " Christine Fenno of Entertainment Weekly declared herself " sold on the adrenaline @-@ rush direction the show has taken " , with praise to the flashbacks and the cliffhanger involving the reveal of the second island . Lost critic Andrew Dignan described " Every Man for Himself " as " quite the exhilarating episode , packing in enough thrills to make the 42 @-@ minutes fly by " in Slant Magazine . Ryan Mcgee of Zap2it considered " watching the con man get conned was brutally satisfying " , saying that Sawyer " [ ran ] the whole gamut of emotions " , and felt Colleen 's death and the reveal of Ben 's tumor " were good things , as people were already impatient by the glacial @-@ like pace of Season 3 . " Writing for AOL TV , Jonathan Toomey considered " Every Man for Himself " as " an interesting episode " which set up many new elements , and while Toomey called the flashback " a little dry and 100 % predictable " , he liked how it related to the other events in the story " right up to the title " . Mac Slocum of Filmfodder.com praised the episode for returning to the mythology , as he considered the previous episode lacked " the slack @-@ jawed wonder I 'm so accustomed to experiencing with this show " .
IGN ranked " Every Man for Himself " 70th out of the 115 Lost episodes , saying that it " offered plenty of food for thought . " On the other hand , a similar list by Los Angeles Times ranked the episode as the tenth worst of the series , describing it as the " only outright stinker " of early season 3 . Michael Emerson and Josh Holloway submitted this episode for consideration on their own behalf respectively in the category of " Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series " at the 2007 Emmy Awards , but neither was nominated .
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= Paxata =
Paxata is a privately owned software company headquartered in Redwood City , California . It develops self @-@ service data preparation software that gets data ready for data analytics software . Paxata 's software is intended for business analysts , as opposed to technical staff . It is used to combine data from different sources , then check it for data quality issues , such as duplicates and outliers . Algorithms and machine learning automate certain aspects of data preparation and users work with the software through a user @-@ interface similar to Excel spreadsheets .
The company was founded in January 2012 and operated in stealth mode until October 2013 . It has received more than $ 10 million in venture funding . Analysts have praised Paxata for creating software that is user @-@ friendly for non @-@ technical business users , but caution that they are in a noisy marketplace .
= = History = =
Paxata was founded in January 2012 . It initially raised $ 2 million in venture capital . The company came out of stealth mode in October 2013 . Simultaneously with its public release , Paxata announced an $ 8 million funding round led by Accel Partners . Adoption of the software grew quickly . In March 2014 , In @-@ Q @-@ Tel acquired an interest in the startup . It raised an additional $ 18 million in funding in September 2015 . It also began working with Cisco to jointly develop the Cisco Data Preparation suite of software and services .
= = Software = =
Paxata refers to its suite of cloud @-@ based data quality , integration , enrichment and governance products as " Adaptive Data Preparation . " The software is intended for business analysts , who need to combine data from a variety of sources , then check the data for duplicates , empty fields , outliers , trends and integrity issues before conducting analysis or visualization in a third @-@ party software tool . It uses algorithms and machine @-@ learning to automate certain aspects of data preparation . For example , it may automatically detect records belonging to the same person or address , even if the information is formatted differently in each record in different data sets .
The software has a spreadsheet @-@ based user interface . Patterns and anomalies in the data are color @-@ coded in the spreadsheet . Then users are provided with instructions on how to resolve data quality issues or to supplement the data with contextual information . Data sets and related quality issues can also be addressed in a collaborative environment through the " Paxata Share " feature . It runs on Apache Spark .
According to analyst firm Ovum , the software is made possible through advances in predictive analytics , machine learning and the NoSQL data caching methodology . The software uses semantic algorithms to understand the meaning of a data table 's columns and pattern recognition algorithms to find potential duplicates in a data @-@ set . It also uses indexing , text pattern recognition and other technologies traditionally found in social media and search software . One of the software 's users is dairy producer Dannon , which uses the software so that business staff can create their own reports on merchandising , supply chain and product data , without the IT department .
= = Reception = =
In its 2014 report " Cool Vendors in Data Integration and Data Quality " , Gartner praised Paxata for developing a " business @-@ user @-@ friendly " data quality product that does not use code . Ventana Research said its spreadsheet @-@ based user interface " should resonate well with business analysts , " who are resistant to move away from familiar Excel @-@ like programs . Gartner also said Paxata was recognized in the report due to its automated , algorithm @-@ based features and how it tracks any changes made to the data .
Ventana Research said Paxata was in a " noisy marketplace " . According to Gartner , while Paxata is an early entrant into the market , many startups and large corporations are making investments in developing similar competing products . According to Gigaom and IT Business Edge , one way Paxata differs is that it automatically merges multiple data @-@ sets into a single table , so it can be easily imported into a visualization or analysis tool .
Gartner said Paxata will have a difficult time finding a compelling pricing model , when many data discovery tools that it supplements provide some similar features . In contrast , Ventana said Paxata 's pricing was " a pretty small amount " compared to the amount of time users can save .
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= Pulveroboletus bembae =
Pulveroboletus bembae is a species of fungus in the Boletaceae family that was first described in 2009 . It is known only from the rainforest of northern Gabon , a region known for its high level of species diversity . Like all boletes , P. bembae has fleshy fruit bodies that form spores in tubes perpendicular to the ground on the underside of the cap . These yellowish tubes form a surface of pores , each about 1 – 2 mm in diameter . The brownish caps may reach up to 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) wide , and rest atop pale brown stems up to 5 @.@ 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) long . The stems have a woolly , whitish yellow ring of tissue that is short @-@ lived , and may be absent in older specimens . The spores of P. bembae are spindle- or fuse @-@ shaped , and have rough surfaces — a detail observable when viewed with scanning electron microscopy . The fungus grows in a mycorrhizal relationship with Gilbertiodendron dewevrei , the dominant tree species of the Guineo @-@ Congolian rainforest . Other similar Pulveroboletus species in the area include P. annulus and P. croceus , which may be differentiated from P. bembae by a combination of macro- and microscopic characteristics .
= = Discovery and classification = =
The specimens of Pulveroboletus bembae upon which the species description is based were collected in April , 2008 from three locations in Gabon : in Ogooue @-@ Ivindo Province at the Ipassa @-@ Makokou Research Station ; in the Minkébé National Park near Minvoul , and in Bitouga , both locations in the northerly province of Woleu @-@ Ntem . Until the report of this species and the related Pulveroboletus luteocarneus , 12 species of Pulveroboletus had been reported in tropical Africa . According to Degreef & De Kesel , who described the species in a 2009 publication , P. bembae belongs to the section Pulveroboletus of the genus Pulveroboletus . This section , defined by Singer in 1947 , is characterized by the presence of a pulverulent @-@ arachnoid veil ( covered with fine , powdery wax granules and cobwebby ) and fruit bodies that are sulphur @-@ yellow , greenish , or yellowish @-@ brown in color .
The specific epithet is derived from the word bemba , a name used by the Baka people for the tree Gilbertiodendron dewevrei that is associated with the fungus .
= = Description = =
The cap is initially convex — sometimes with a small rounded elevation in the center — and flattens out in maturity . It reaches 30 – 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter , and the color is almost uniformly rust @-@ brown to reddish brown , although young specimens have a slightly paler margin ( edge ) . The cap surface is dry and dull , but develops a sheen with age . In older specimens , the texture of the margins is described as rimulose — a condition in which a surface is cracked , but the cracks do not intersect one another to form a network and mark out areas . The cap cuticle extends slightly over the edge of the cap and curves downward , and is partly covered with remnants of the universal veil . The flesh at the center of the cap is less than about 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) thick , and gradually becomes very thin towards the margin . It is cream @-@ colored to pale yellow with pale reddish @-@ brown to light brown shades under the cuticle and down the stem .
The yellowish tubes on the underside of the cap are slightly swollen on one side , slightly depressed around the area of attachment to the stem . They are fused to the stem , in an adnate attachment ; rarely , some tubes will have a decurrent " tooth " ( tissue that runs slightly down the length of the stem ) that is less than 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) long . The pores formed by the tube ends are angular to round , and are more elongated near the stem . Their diameters are typically less than 1 – 2 mm in diameter , and are they are the same color as the tubes , or slightly greener . The stem is 37 – 55 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 2 in ) by 4 – 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 16 – 0 @.@ 20 in ) thick , cylindrical , with a narrow base measuring 2 – 4 mm , and sometimes attached to yellow mycelia . It is solid , but as it ages it becomes stuffed ( as if filled with cotton ) and eventually almost completely hollow . The stem surface is dull , dry , pale brown , and entirely covered with tiny brown to reddish brown squamules ( small scales ) . The flesh of the stem is cream @-@ colored , streaked with pale reddish brown to light brown from the upper third towards the base , while the base is light brown . The ring is located on either the stem or the margin of the cap . This woolly , whitish yellow ring of tissue is fragile and short @-@ lived , and has usually weathered away in older specimens . The odor of the mushroom is described as " mildly fungoid to earthy " , and the taste " mildly fungoid " .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The color of the spore print is unknown . The spores are somewhat spindle @-@ shaped , boletoid ( long , lean , and fuse @-@ shaped ) , with a pronounced suprahilar depression ( a surface indentation formed where the spore was attached to the spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia ) , and typically measure 9 @.@ 3 – 11 @.@ 3 by 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 7 µm . They are weakly pigmented , and their rough surfaces can be seen under scanning electron microscopy . The spores are inamyloid , meaning they will not absorb iodine stain from Melzer 's reagent . The basidia are 26 @.@ 9 – 39 @.@ 3 by 9 @.@ 0 – 12 @.@ 0 µm , cylindrical to narrowly club @-@ shaped , hyaline ( translucent ) , and have four sterigmata ( extensions that attach the spores ) . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) are 57 @.@ 4 – 92 @.@ 6 by 9 @.@ 4 – 17 @.@ 4 µm , spindle @-@ shaped , moderately frequent , and extend beyond the surface of the hymenium . They have thin , hyaline walls , and are colored the same as the hymenium , without any crystals or encrustations . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) , which measure 50 @.@ 6 – 75 @.@ 1 by 12 @.@ 2 – 16 @.@ 1 µm , are more abundant than the cheilocystidia , but otherwise share the same characteristics . The cap cuticle is made of a thin physalo @-@ palisadoderm — a type of tissue where the ends of the hyphae reach the same length and form a palisade of cells ; these short anticlinal hyphae are 20 – 40 by 5 – 8 µm , and support one or two inflated , brownish , spherical to spheropedunculate ( somewhat spherical with a stem ) terminal elements that are 25 – 45 µm wide , non @-@ amyloid , thin @-@ walled , and do not have any encrustations . The cuticle of the stem is made of smooth parallel hyphae . The squamules on the cap surface have a physalo @-@ palisadodermic arrangement made of short anticlinal hyphae that support elongated inflated elements of 15 – 30 by 10 – 15 µm and some scattered basidia . The flesh is made of hyaline , thin @-@ walled hyphae , measuring 10 – 15 µm wide , and organized in a parallel fashion . These hyphae do not have an associated mediostratum — a central strand of parallel hyphae from which other hyphae diverge sideways . Clamp connections are absent in the hyphae of P. bembae .
= = = Similar species = = =
Although the fruit bodies of P. bembae are roughly similar to those in Xerocomus , species in this genus do not have the powdery veil characteristic of P. bembae . Two similar species in the same area include P. annulus and P. croceus , described in 1951 by Belgian mycologist Paul Heinemann , based on specimens collected in the Congo . Although the identity of these two species is not fully clarified because of insufficient collections , P. bembae differs from both in its larger cystidia , its cream @-@ colored flesh with pale reddish @-@ brown to light brown tones under the cap cuticle ( compared to white in P. annulus and P. croceus ) , its yellow mycelium ( white in P. annulus and P. croceus ) , and differences in ecology .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The species has been found growing in small groups in the Guineo @-@ Congolian rainforest . This forest is dominated by the single canopy tree species Gilbertiodendron dewevrei . Not only does this tree provide food in the form of edible seeds for a wide variety of large mammals , it forms mycorrhizal relationships with P. bembae . This is a mutually beneficial relationship where the hyphae of the fungus grow around the roots of the plant , enabling the fungus to receive moisture , protection and nutritive byproducts of the tree , and affording the tree greater access to soil nutrients . The ectomycorrhizal symbiosis is thought to contribute to the success of the dominant species , by allowing it access to nutrients otherwise unavailable . The Congolian forests encompass an ecoregion known for its species richness and endemism , which is spread across four countries : Cameroon , Gabon , Republic of Congo , and the Central African Republic .
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