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= Sir George Collier , 1st Baronet =
Sir George Ralph Collier , 1st Baronet KCB ( 1774 – 24 March 1824 ) was an officer of the Royal Navy during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars , and the War of 1812 . He had an eventful early life , being shipwrecked early in his career and later captured by the French . Nevertheless , he saw enough service to attract the attention of powerful patrons that secured his rise through the ranks . An officer of considerable ability , he won a noteworthy victory against a stronger French opponent , before embarking on a period of distinguished service off the Spanish and Portuguese coasts , working closely with the British generals fighting the Peninsular War , and markedly contributing to their success . His good service led to a prime posting in command of a squadron despatched to hunt down and neutralise the American super frigates during the War of 1812 . He came close to capturing the USS Constitution , but lost her in circumstances that were unclear and would later return to haunt him . The years of peace that followed the end of the Napoleonic Wars saw him rewarded with a baronetcy , and his continued to serve in the navy where he was tasked with the suppression of the slave trade . The publishing of William James 's account of the War of 1812 , which lambasted him for incompetence and cowardice in his failure to catch the Constitution , broke his personal peace . Having failed to clear his name , and increasingly depressed by the accusations , Collier took his own life .
= = Family and early life = =
Collier was born in London in 1774 , the second son of the chief clerk of the Victualling Board Ralph Collier , and his wife Henrietta Maria . He began his education at the Chelsea Maritime Academy , but by January 1784 his name appeared in the books of the 74 @-@ gun third rate HMS Triumph as a captain 's servant to the Triumph 's commander , Captain Robert Faulknor . This was likely to have been only a nominal entry to gain seniority , and Collier 's naval service probably actually began three years later in January 1787 , when he joined the 28 @-@ gun frigate HMS Carysfort at the rank of midshipman . He moved in June 1790 to take up a position aboard Captain Edward Pellew 's 50 @-@ gun HMS Salisbury and spent the rest of that year serving on the Newfoundland station . Collier transferred again in December 1790 , joining the 100 @-@ gun first rate HMS Victory , then under Captain John Knight in the English Channel .
Collier 's next ship was Captain Samuel Hood 's 32 @-@ gun HMS Juno , which he joined in March 1791 . He remained with the Juno until she was paid off . On being discharged he took passage aboard the East Indiaman Winchelsea , bound for the East India station . The Winchelsea ran onto a reef in the Mozambique Channel on 3 September 1792 and was wrecked . Collier and the other survivors were able to reach Madagascar , where they remained until being picked up a Portuguese brig in May the following year . Before they could reach friendly soil the Portuguese ship was captured by a French privateer and Collier and his fellow survivors were sent to Île de France as prisoners . He remained in captivity there until being released in late 1794 , whereupon he sailed to the British @-@ held port of Madras .
= = French Revolutionary Wars = =
By now the French Revolutionary Wars had broken out , and after a period spent recuperating from his several ordeals , Collier joined Commodore Peter Rainier 's flagship HMS Suffolk in June 1795 . Collier had passed his lieutenant 's examination in 1790 , but only now did he receive his commission , when he was appointed lieutenant and commander of the Suffolk Tender on 31 July 1795 . Rainer sent him to the Cape of Good Hope , but shortly after his arrival , the commander of the station , Admiral Thomas Pringle ordered that Suffolk Tender be surveyed . She was subsequently condemned as unseaworthy , and Collier returned to Rainer at Madras without a ship . Rainer recommended that he return to Britain , where the good report of his service would assure him further employment and promotion . Collier duly arrived in England in May 1799 , and on 2 July that year received an appointment to the 64 @-@ gun HMS Zealand , which was then under the command of Captain Thomas Parr . A further advance came shortly afterwards , when he made first lieutenant on 29 July aboard Vice @-@ Admiral Andrew Mitchell 's flagship , the 50 @-@ gun HMS Isis . He was present at the capture of the Dutch squadron in the Vlieter Incident in August , and was chosen by Mitchell to carry the despatches back to Britain .
= = = Battle with the Flèche = = =
As was customary Collier received a promotion , to master and commander on 3 September 1799 , and a command , the 18 @-@ gun sloop HMS Victor , on 21 October . Collier commanded the Victor for the next couple of years , escorting convoys and on one occasion a convoy of troop transports to the Red Sea , bringing troops to defeat the French forces in Egypt . He stopped briefly at Diego Garcia to take on supplies , whereupon he fell in with the 22 @-@ gun French corvette Flèche . The two ships fought a brief engagement on 1 September 1801 , during which the Flèche damaged the Victor 's rigging and managed to escape . After repairing the damage , Collier searched the surrounding area before coming across his opponent on 5 September , sheltering in Mahé Roads . The channel was very narrow , and the wind unfavourable , but Collier managed to warp the Victor into the harbour , and with the aid of her staysails , closed on the French ship . After enduring raking fire for sometime , he was finally able to haul his ship around and the two vessels exchanged broadsides for over two hours . By then the Flèche was observed to be in a sinking condition , and her captain ran her aground . A party of men were sent over from the Victor , but having boarded the French vessel , found her crew had set her on fire and then abandoned ship . The men were temporarily evacuated while further assistance was sent across , after which they re @-@ boarded and managed to extinguish the fire . Just as this had been achieved , the Flèche slipped off the reef into deeper water and sank .
Collier therefore came away without his prize , but his exploit came to the attention of the First Lord of the Admiralty Earl St Vincent . Impressed by Collier 's daring , St Vincent promoted him to post @-@ captain , with the 50 @-@ gun HMS Leopard as his command . As a further mark of favour , St Vincent antedated his commission to 22 April 1802 , giving him greater seniority over the officers promoted a week later in the general promotion that followed the Peace of Amiens . With the paying off of the Leopard in 1803 Collier moved ashore , spending until 20 January 1806 in command of the Sea Fencibles at Liverpool . On 18 May 1805 he married Maria Lyon , a resident of the city . The couple did not have any children . It was during this period ashore that Collier devised and presented the plans for a blockade of the Texel , in the hopes of being appointed to lead the expedition . Nothing had come of the scheme by the time he received his next sea @-@ going command , that of the 42 @-@ gun HMS Minerva in February 1806 .
= = Napoleonic Wars = =
The Minerva was sent south to the Spanish and Portuguese coasts , where Collier found himself busy suppressing privateering , and the Spanish coastal forts . He was moved on 22 April 1807 to take up command of the 38 @-@ gun HMS Surveillante , and duly took part in the expedition to Copenhagen . He received approbation for his services , and the British commander , Admiral James Gambier sent him back to Britain with his despatches . Collier received a knighthood , and by 1812 was back in the Bay of Biscay . He was active off the coast of Spain that year , supporting the guerrillas in the countryside under Admiral Sir Home Popham , and was personally involved in some of the land @-@ based operations of the Peninsular War . He was wounded on 1 August 1812 in an attack on the castle at Santander , but though the attack failed , it led to the French withdrawing from the castle , considering it too exposed . Collier 's raids were particularly useful in forcing the French forces in the north of the county to attempt to fortify and defend hundreds of small coastal creeks and villages , instead of supporting the forces in the south , allowing Wellington to defeat them .
It was while operating off the Iberian Peninsula that Collier devised a need for an improved type of ships ' boat . He developed a design based on elements of both a whaleboat and a jolly boat , and had one built for him at Plymouth Dockyard . The boat proved extremely useful after tests aboard the Surveillante , especially at being able to land safely on a flat beach to give close support . Collier further modified it by installing a howitzer in the bows , and soon boats of its type were being requested by other captains for their ships . In 1813 Collier succeeded Sir Home Popham in commanding the north coast squadron , Spain . He and a small squadron supported General Arthur Wellesley and General Sir Thomas Graham in the capture of San Sebastián and the siege of Bayonne .
= = War of 1812 = =
On 15 March 1814 Collier received command of the 50 @-@ gun HMS Leander and was sent to North America to deal with the American super frigates that were causing losses to British merchant shipping . It was a highly sought after posting , and reflected the Admiralty 's approval of his efforts off Spain . Collier sought battle with the USS Constitution , but the American ship escaped from Boston and evaded him . He gathered a squadron consisting of the Leander , the 60 @-@ gun HMS Newcastle and the 40 @-@ gun HMS Acasta , and set off in pursuit . He almost caught up with the Constitution off St Jago , but failed to close on her , later claiming the weather frustrated his attempts . The Constitution was at the time sailing with two captured British prizes , the former HMS Levant and HMS Cyane . Collier 's three ships gave chase and were overhauling the Constitution , when , having allowed the Cyane to escape , the Levant broke away and Collier followed her . In doing so he retook the Levant , but allowed Constitution to escape . Collier continued to cruise in the area , but before he had another opportunity to pursue the Constitution , news reached him that the Treaty of Ghent had been signed and that the war was over .
= = Years of peace = =
Collier returned to Britain and on 20 September 1814 was created a baronet . He was invested as a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath on 2 January 1815 . He was also appointed groom of the bedchamber to the Duke of Gloucester that day . He continued to see active service at sea , being appointed as commodore of the West Africa Squadron , with the 36 @-@ gun HMS Creole as his flagship . Between 1818 and 1821 , he played a distinguished role in anti @-@ slavery efforts , which led to his election as an honorary life member of the African Institution on 17 May 1820 .
= = James 's account and death = =
Collier 's life was disturbed by the publication of William James 's Naval History in 1823 . James paid particular attention to the escape of the Constitution , and lamented Collier 's failure to bring her to action and capture her . James claimed Collier 's incompetence had allowed the Constitution to escape from Boston , while his failure to bring her to action when his squadron later sighted her was attributed to what amounted to cowardice on his part . James summed up the episode with
Most sincerely do we regret ... that this last and most triumphant escape of the Constitution , the first frigate of the United States that had humbled the proud flag of Britain , had , not long ago , been brought under the scrutiny of a court @-@ martial . The blame would then have fallen where it ought to have fallen ... The more it is investigated , the more it will show itself to be , the most blundering piece of business recorded in these six volumes .
Collier applied to the Admiralty for the opportunity to clear his name , but this was not satisfied . Friends and relations had become increasingly concerned about his mental state as a result . His brother took the precaution of removing the razors from his home , but Collier appears to have smuggled one to his room , and used it to cut his own throat early in the morning on 24 March 1824 . His servant who was sleeping in the same room immediately brought help , but nothing could be done and Collier died less than five minutes after inflicting the injury . The inquest later determined that ' The deceased destroyed himself , being in a state of temporary mental derangement . ' The baronetcy became extinct upon his death .
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= Action of 30 June 1798 =
The Action of 30 June 1798 was a minor naval engagement fought along the Biscay coast of France during the French Revolutionary Wars . The French Navy had been largely driven from the Atlantic Ocean early in the war following heavy losses in a series of failed operations . This had allowed the Royal Navy 's Channel Fleet to institute a close blockade on the French naval ports of the Biscay coast , particularly Brest in Brittany . The blockade strategy included a constantly patrolling inshore squadron composed of frigates , tasked with preventing the passage of French ships into or out of the port . In the spring of 1798 , several French frigates stationed in the Indian Ocean were sent back to France as the base at Île de France could no longer supply them effectively . One of these ships was the 40 @-@ gun frigate Seine , which departed Port Louis laden with 280 soldiers from the garrison .
Seine had a rapid passage back to European waters , arriving in the Bay of Biscay on 28 June . Early the following morning , with the Brittany coast in sight , Seine was spotted by the inshore frigate squadron of HMS Jason , HMS Pique and HMS Mermaid . While Mermaid cut Seine off from the coast , Jason and Pique gave chase as Seine fled southwards . Pique reached Seine at 23 : 00 that evening and for more than two and a half hours the frigates pounded at one another until Pique fell back . Pique and Jason continued the chase full speed through the night , until suddenly all three frigates crashed headlong into the sandbanks off La Tranche @-@ sur @-@ Mer on the Vendée coast . Even while grounded the frigates continued to fire on one another until Mermaid finally arrived and the outnumbered Seine surrendered . Jason and Seine were badly damaged but successfully refloated , the casualties on the packed decks of the French ship appallingly high , but Pique was an irretrievable wreck : the ship was evacuated and then burnt before the remainder of the squadron returned to Britain with their prize .
= = Background = =
In the early years of the French Revolutionary Wars , although the French Navy had sought to oppose the Royal Navy at sea from their main base at Brest in Brittany , the Royal Navy had achieved victories at the Glorious First of June and Battle of Groix . The losses inflicted on the French Atlantic fleet in these battles were compounded by large numbers of ships wrecked in storms during the disastrous Croisière du Grand Hiver and Expédition d 'Irlande operations . By 1798 the Royal Navy was unopposed in its control of the Atlantic , enforcing its supremacy by a strategy of close blockade , maintaining a battle fleet at sea off Brittany and an inshore squadron of frigates watching the approaches to Brest . In June 1798 the inshore squadron included a detachment comprising the 38 @-@ gun HMS Jason under Captain Charles Stirling , the 36 @-@ gun HMS Pique under Captain David Milne and 32 @-@ gun HMS Mermaid under Captain James Newman @-@ Newman .
For French warships oceanic travel was extremely hazardous and ships often travelled in numbers . In the spring of 1796 a squadron commanded by Contre @-@ amiral Pierre César Charles de Sercey had sailed from Rochefort to reinforce French naval forces in the Indian Ocean , based at Port Louis on the Île de France . Sercey 's squadron failed to make a significant impression , driven off from the East Indies in an inconclusive action off Sumatra , and then tricked into fleeing from a vulnerable East India Company merchant convoy in the Bali Strait Incident in January 1797 . By the end of the year the Colonial Assembly , which were unhappy with plans of the French Directory to abolish slavery , refused to continue supplying the squadron and garrison , forcing Sercey to disperse his ships . First Régénérée and Vertu were ordered back to France , and then in early 1798 the 40 @-@ gun Seine was instructed to follow them , carrying 280 soldiers from the garrison no longer supported by the Colonial Assembly . Seine , still commanded by Lieutenant Julien @-@ Gabriel Bigot following the death of Captain Latour off Sumatra in 1796 , sailed on 24 March , overcrowded with the stores and dependents accompanying the soldiers .
= = Battle = =
Despite the overloading , Seine made a rapid journey to European waters , arriving in the Bay of Biscay just three months later on 28 June . Sailing for Brest with the wind , the Penmarck rocks were visible from Seine at 07 : 00 on 29 June when three sails appeared to the northeast . This was the inshore squadron under Stirling , and Jason and Pique immediately gave chase while Mermaid diverted northwards , cutting Seine off from the Breton coast and the harbour of Lorient and forcing Bigot to turn away , fleeing southwards towards La Rochelle and the Vendée coast instead . Jason and Pique followed under all sail while Mermaid was left far behind .
Throughout the day the chase continued , the British frigates gaining slowly on their quarry and as darkness fell Pique closed with the larger French ship . At 23 : 00 Milne was close enough to open fire on Seine , to which Bigot responded without reducing speed . For the next two and a half hours the frigates exchanged broadsides at full speed as the French coastline rapidly approached ahead . At 01 : 35 a shot from Seine struck the main topmast on Pique , bringing it crashing down . The consequent loss of speed forced Milne back , Seine pulling away from the smaller ship but unable to escape Jason which was steadily gaining .
Stirling was concerned by the proximity of the coast and hailed Pique with orders to anchor before it grounded , but Milne did not hear the order correctly and instead increased sail , lurching ahead of Jason and straight onto a sandbank close to La Tranche @-@ sur @-@ Mer on the Vendée coast . Seine too had struck the shore a little distance ahead , and Stirling was unable to arrest Jason 's momentum before his ship too became stuck , lying between Pique and Seine . The French ship had been badly damaged in the crash , all three masts collapsing overboard at impact , but actually lay in a stronger position : Jason blocked Pique 's arc of fire and Stirling 's ship had swung with the rising tide , leaving its stern exposed . Bigot took advantage of this position to fire several raking broadsides into Jason , during which Stirling was wounded and command passed to Lieutenant Charles Inglis . Inglis responded to the fire by cutting stern gunports to fire chase guns at Seine , and Milne succeeded in dragging his frigate around through the novel expedient of ordering his men to run towards the bows carrying round shot . This sudden shift in weight gently rotated the grounded ship to face Seine and Milne could direct four of his 12 @-@ pounder long guns at the French ship . Under fire and with Mermaid finally approaching , Bigot determined that further resistance was hopeless and struck his colours .
= = = Combatant summary = = =
In this table , " Guns " refers to all cannon carried by the ship , including the maindeck guns that were taken into consideration when calculating its rate , as well as any carronades carried aboard . " Broadside weight " records the combined weight of shot that could be fired in a single simultaneous discharge of an entire broadside .
= = Aftermath = =
Dawn on 30 June revealed the three frigates grounded on the sandbar , prompting a response from the French forces in nearby La Rochelle . Two frigates , a brig and a squadron of gunboats were sent to fire on the British ships , but this force was dissuaded from engaging by the arrival of another British blockade squadron comprising HMS Phaeton under Captain Robert Stopford , HMS San Fiorenzo under Captain Sir Harry Neale and HMS Triton under Captain John Gore . Stopford 's squadron assisted Stirling 's force as Jason was towed off by Mermaid . Pique however was irretrievably stuck with water leaking into the hull . After all efforts to refloat the ship had been exhausted , the frigate was evacuated and stripped of stores before the wreck was set on fire . It took some time for boarding parties to reach Seine and a number of the French crew had taken the delay in seizure of the ship to dive overboard and swim for the beach , making an accounting of casualties difficult . As the day continued , boat parties of French civilians sailed out to the ship and climbed aboard , breaking into the liquor stores leading to drunken confusion on deck . Bigot was allowed to go ashore temporarily , as were four men escorting a lady from Île de France : all five French sailors subsequently returned to captivity voluntarily . Seine was subsequently refloated with jury masts after the guns were thrown overboard to lighten the ship , and the figurehead of Pique was nailed over her own , Seine sailing with the squadron to Portsmouth .
Losses on the British ships had been light , with seven killed on Jason , including the second lieutenant , and eleven wounded , including Stirling . Pique lost one killed and another lost overboard and six wounded . French losses were enormous , the effects of concentrated cannon fire on the packed decks producing casualties of approximately 170 killed and 100 wounded , the former including a number who drowned after the ship grounded . Bigot and his crew were brought to Britain as prisoners of war , the commander later exchanged and twice promoted on his return to France in recognition of his resistance during the engagement , although unsubstantiated rumours persisted that he had personally shot some of his men when they abandoned their guns . Milne was complimented for his tenacious pursuit of Seine and after repairs he and his crew were confirmed in possession of the French ship , which served in the Royal Navy under the same name . By the time the prize was commissioned many of its captors were prisoners of war . On 13 October 1798 Jason was patrolling off Brest when a number of French luggers were sighted . Stirling gave chase but Jason ran headlong into a submerged rock near the Pointe du Raz and began to founder . Stirling had no choice but to bring the frigate inshore and land on the French coast as the frigate sank . Stirling and his men were captured , except for twelve sailors who , in groups of six , stole a cutter and a jollyboat and escaped to Plymouth .
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= 1975 Pacific hurricane season =
The 1975 Pacific hurricane season officially started May 15 , 1975 in the eastern Pacific , and June 1 , 1975 in the central Pacific , and lasted until November 30 , 1975 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeast Pacific Ocean .
The 1975 Pacific hurricane season was near average , with 17 tropical storms forming . Of these , 9 became hurricanes , and 4 became major hurricanes by reaching Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The only notable storms are Hurricane Olivia , which killed 30 people , caused $ 30 million ( 1975 USD ) in damage , and left thousands homeless when it made landfall in October ; and an unnamed hurricane that developed at very high latitude , but had no effect on land . Hurricane Denise was the strongest storm of the year . Hurricanes Lily and Katrina passed close to Socorro Island and Tropical Storm Eleanor made landfall in Mexico . Hurricane Agatha sank a ship .
= = Season summary = =
The season began with the formation of Tropical Depression One on June 2 and ended with the extratropical transition of Tropical Storm Priscilla on November 7 . No named systems formed in May , two in June , four in July , six in August , three in September , one in October , and one in November . The total length of the season , from the formation of the first depression to the dissipation of the last , was 158 days .
In the eastern Pacific proper ( east of 140 ° W ) , sixteen tropical storms and eight hurricanes formed . Four of the hurricanes became major hurricanes by reaching Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . These numbers are close to the long @-@ term averages of fifteen tropical storms , nine hurricanes , and four major hurricanes . There were also four unnamed tropical depressions . The only system to enter or form in the central Pacific ( between 140 ° W and the international dateline ) was an unusual high @-@ latitude hurricane .
The only systems to make landfall this year were Tropical Storm Eleanor and Hurricane Olivia . Besides these two systems , Hurricane Agatha caused the sinking of a ship carrying millions of dollars worth of cargo . Tropical Storm Eleanor caused no serious impact .
The most devastating storm of the season was Hurricane Olivia . A late @-@ season major hurricane , Olivia came ashore near Mazatlán . The storm killed 30 people , left around 30 @,@ 000 people homeless , and caused 20 million dollars ( 1975 USD ) in damage .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane Agatha = = =
An area of disturbed weather about 290 mi ( 467 km ) southwest of Acapulco formed on June 1 . It organized into a tropical depression the next day . After heading southwestward , it turned to the northwest and strengthened into Tropical Storm Agatha on June 2 . Agatha maintained its course and steadily intensified . It reached hurricane intensity on June 3 while located about 170 mi ( 270 km ) southwest of Zihuatanejo . Hurricane Agatha started weakening thereafter , becoming a tropical storm on June 4 and a depression on June 5 . It dissipated shortly afterwords . At this time , Agatha was located about 140 mi ( 230 km ) south of the Tres Marias Islands .
Even though Agatha passed close to Mexico as it weakened , no impact is known to have been caused . Waves caused by Agatha did impact a ship called the Polynesian Diakan . A Greek freighter en route from Pago Pago to Terminal Island , California , the Polynesian Diakan began flooding on June 3 , forcing the 32 @-@ man crew to abandon the vessel . The exact cause of the initial flooding was unknown , but was speculated to be primarily due to cargo shifting and not the weather . The crew was rescued by the United States Coast Guard . Three members required hospitalization . After being reached on June 6 by a tugboat in a salvage attempt , the vessel capsized and sank near San Clemente Island on June 7 , taking its multi @-@ million dollar cargo of 71 containers of canned tuna with it . The reason for the sinking was unknown .
= = = Tropical Storm Bridget = = =
On June 27 , a tropical depression formed about 575 mi ( 925 km ) south of the tip of the Baja California Peninsula at a location atypical for tropical cyclogenesis . The depression moved generally westward , and intensified into Tropical Storm Bridget on June 28 . It started accelerating as it turned towards the northwest , then west , and eventually to the southwest . Bridget weakened into a tropical depression on July 2 and dissipated the next day . It remnant circulation hung about in the area for a few more days . Bridget never came near land and thus , no deaths or damage were recorded .
= = = Hurricane Carlotta = = =
A disturbance 480 mi ( 772 km ) south of Acapulco organized into a tropical depression on July 2 . It headed generally west @-@ northwest and steadily intensified , becoming a tropical storm later on July 2 . It became a hurricane on July 3 and ultimately peaked as a Category 3 hurricane . Hurricane Carlotta was first major hurricane , Category 3 or higher , of the season . It began weakening thereafter , and was a tropical storm by July 8 . Carlotta became a depression on July 10 and dissipated the next day . The hurricane did not come near land and caused no significant impact .
= = = Hurricane Denise = = =
An unstable area developed a circulation and became a tropical depression on July 4 . It headed west- northwest and became a tropical storm on July 7 . The next day , it was a hurricane and turned to the west . Continuing to strengthen , it reached Category 4 intensity on July 9 . This windspeed was the highest of the season . The hurricane turned to the southwest and gradually weakened . By July 11 it was nearly stationary . It then headed northwestward again and continued weakening , becoming a tropical storm on July 13 . It weakened into a depression on July 14 and dissipated immediately thereafter . Denise brought winds of near @-@ gale force to parts of Mexico , but otherwise caused no damage or casualties .
= = = Tropical Storm Eleanor = = =
An area of disturbed weather developed into a tropical depression on July 10 , 100 mi ( 160 km ) south of Acapulco . As its center of circulation became more pronounced and it was upgraded into Tropical Storm Eleanor . The tropical storm moved northwestward , and later curved northward . The system made landfall near Manzanillo on July 12 . It quickly dissipated . Eleanor brought 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) winds the Manzanillo , but damage from the storm is minor due to the lack of heavy rains .
= = = Tropical Storm Francene = = =
A rapidly moving squally area of disturbed weather that was moving on a northwestward path was upgraded into Tropical Depression Seven on July 27 . It intensified into a tropical storm later that day . Francene turned to the west and weakened into a tropical depression on July 28 . It slowly weakened and ceased to exist as a tropical cyclone on July 30 . Francene 's remnants persisted as a tropical disturbance for another twelve hours , before completely dissipating . This tropical cyclone caused no known impact .
= = = Tropical Storm Georgette = = =
An area of disturbed weather about 800 mi ( 1 @,@ 287 km ) south @-@ southwest of Cabo San Lucas organized a tropical depression on August 11 . It was upgraded to tropical storm intensity the next day . After heading generally westward and peaking as a weak to moderate tropical storm on August 12 , Georgette slowly weakened . It weakened into a depression on August 14 and underwent extratropical transition thereafter . The cyclone dissipated twelve hours later . Tropical Storm Georgette had no impact on land .
= = = Tropical Storm Hilary = = =
A tropical disturbance formed on August 11 and gradually organized . The next day , an atmospheric circulation developed . Based on this , this system was classified as Tropical Depression Nine on August 13 . The depression quickly intensified into a tropical storm and was named Hilary . The system gradually accelerated to the northwest and reached its peak strength on August 15 with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Tropical Storm Hilary then started a gradual weakening trend . It became a depression on August 16 , turned a little bit more westward , and dissipated on August 17 . Hilary never came near land , and as such caused no death or damage .
= = = Hurricane Ilsa = = =
On August 18 , a tropical depression formed south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec from a tropical wave that had entered the Pacific Ocean from the Atlantic Ocean . It strengthened into a tropical storm later that day . The tropical storm moved westward , and became a hurricane on August 21 . Ilsa became a Category 2 hurricane on August 22 . It maintained that intensity for three days as it moved out to sea . On August 25 , Ilsa turned westward and rapidly weakened . It fell to tropical storm intensity on August 26 . Later that day , while still maintaining winds of gale @-@ force , Ilsa ceased being a tropical cyclone . Ilsa 's remnants continued out over the open Pacific Ocean . The remains of Ilsa eventually interacted with another weather system . That triggered the development of the unnamed hurricane of August 31 – September 5 .
Hurricane Ilsa caused no casualties or damage . As the unnamed hurricane formed from Ilsa 's remnants , Ilsa and the latter system are unofficially the same tropical cyclone . Indeed , this year 's seasonal report from the Redwood City Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center , in the Monthly Weather Review includes a brief discussion of the unnamed hurricane in the report 's section on Hurricane Ilsa . Neither the Central Pacific Hurricane Center nor the official HURDAT " best track " database of tropical cyclone location and intensity data explicitly considers them the same . Hence , as far as official records matter , Ilsa and the unnamed hurricane of August 31 – September 5 are different tropical cyclones .
= = = Hurricane Jewel = = =
On August 24 , a tropical depression formed from a tropical disturbance about 250 mi ( 400 km ) south of Acapulco . It intensified into Tropical Storm Jewel the next day . The tropical cyclone headed generally northwest and paralleled the coast of Mexico . On August 27 , Jewel became a hurricane for mere six hours , the minimum possible time in HURDAT . Jewel then turned to the west , and then back to the northwest . Jewel weakened to depression strength on August 31 . Tropical Depression Jewel dissipated shortly after that , although its remnants remained distinct until September 3 . There was no impact .
= = = Hurricane Katrina = = =
On August 29 , an area of weather developed directly into a tropical storm , skipping the tropical depression stage . Katrina steadily intensified as it headed west @-@ northwest , gradually turning to the northwest . It peaked in intensity on September 3 as a Category 4 hurricane with winds of 130 mph ( 209 km / h ) , the second highest of the season . Katrina then headed westward and rapidly weakened . It was downgraded into a tropical storm on September 5 and a depression on September 6 . The last advisory was issued on September 7 when Katrina dissipated . Although the hurricane brought Category 3 @-@ equivalent winds to Socorro Island on September 2 , no damage was reported there or anywhere else .
= = = Hurricane Twelve = = =
A cold core low absorbed the remnant circulation of Hurricane Ilsa on September 2 . Convection subsequently increased . By September 3 it was definitely a tropical cyclone as an eye slowly formed . It then became a hurricane . The hurricane rapidly headed towards the northeast and approached a frontal cyclone . By September 5 the hurricane had transitioned into an extratropical cyclone after weakening from a hurricane . At the time it was less than 348 mi ( 560 km ) southwest of Juneau , Alaska . The extratropical low moved southeastward , retaining its identity until it reached Montana , where it was absorbed by a front .
It is unknown why this hurricane went unnamed , even though it clearly met the criteria for doing so . Any statement about why is purely speculative at this point . The hurricane is the furthest north a tropical cyclone existed in the Eastern Pacific , and is also the northernmost existence for a Pacific hurricane . It was the only tropical cyclone to exist in the central Pacific this year . No damage or casualties were reported , although it did hassle a few ships .
= = = Hurricane Lily = = =
Rain and wind reports from the Acapulco weather station suggested that a tropical depression was developing . This was confirmed on September 16 from ship reports . It intensified into a tropical storm and was named Lily . Tropical Storm Lily headed northwest in a nearly straight path . By 0000 UTC September 18 , the system was a moderate tropical storm located about 160 mi ( 260 km ) south of Manzanillo Lily was upgraded to hurricane status on the same day and eventually reached its peak strength . After passing southwest of Socorro Island , Lily weakened , becoming a storm on September 20 . Lily weakened into a depression on September 21 , turned to the west @-@ southwest , and dissipated . Its remnants remained visible until September 24 , when they were no longer distinct via weather satellite . On September 19 , the cyclone brought hurricane @-@ force winds to Socorro Island . No damage or casualties were reported .
= = = Tropical Storm Monica = = =
In late September , three tropical disturbances moved westward across the eastern Pacific Ocean . One of them organized into a tropical depression on September 28 . The next day the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Monica . The tropical storm initially headed west @-@ northwestward and gradually curved towards the north . It reached its peak intensity of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) on September 29 . Monica then gradually weakened . It became a tropical depression on October 1 . The cyclone dissipated shortly thereafter . No impact was reported in association with Tropical Storm Monica .
= = = Tropical Storm Nanette = = =
On September 28 , a system developed into a tropical depression , simultaneously with Tropical Storm Monica .. It headed generally westward and on September 29 , 18 hours after Monica did it , strengthened into a tropical storm . Nanette continued out to sea and slowly strengthened . It peaked in windspeed of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) on October 3 and turned to the southwest . It then slowly weakened . On October 4 , it weakened into a tropical depression and then degenerated into a disturbance that same day . No damage or deaths were reported .
= = = Hurricane Olivia = = =
On October 22 , Tropical Depression Eighteen formed from a cluster of three thunderstorms south of Mexico and then strengthened into a tropical storm . It moved northwestward initially , followed by a northeast turn . Olivia then intensified steadily . It reached Category 3 intensity and a peak of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) winds just before landfall . Early on October 25 , Olivia moved ashore just south of Mazatlán causing major damage . Olivia destroyed 7 @,@ 000 houses in the region , leaving 30 @,@ 000 people homeless , and damage totaled $ 20 million ( 1975 USD , $ 88 million 2016 USD ) . The hurricane killed 30 people , 20 of them were from drownings in shrimp boats .
= = = Tropical Storm Priscilla = = =
A nearly stationary cloudy area developed a circulation on November 2 . The depression drifted north for a while before turning to the west @-@ northwest on November 3 . It intensified into a tropical storm on November 4 . Priscilla then began turning to the north . However , the system failed to re @-@ curve , instead , the tropical storm turned generally westward . The tropical storm peaked in windspeed as a 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) high @-@ end storm on November 5 . It then turned to the northwest on a heading nearly directly at Clarion Island , but it dissipated on November 7 about 115 mi ( 185 km ) short of landfall .
= = = Other storms = = =
Besides the tropical storms and hurricanes this season , there were four additional tropical depressions that did not make a landfall anywhere . Tropical Cyclone Four formed on July 2 and dissipated the next day . It was the tropical cyclone to come closest to crossing 140 ° W and entering the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility this year . Tropical Cyclone Thirteen formed on September 12 and lasted four days . Tropical Cyclone Seventeen formed October 16 and dissipated a day later . Tropical Cyclone Nineteen , the penultimate system of the season , formed on November 1 and dissipated the next day .
= = 1975 storm names = =
These names were used for storms in 1975 . It is the same list used in the 1971 season . This is the last time this list was used , as modern naming began in 1978 .
The central Pacific used names and numbers from the west Pacific 's naming list . No names were used , as the one storm that formed in this area went unnamed .
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= Marilyn Monroe ( Nicki Minaj song ) =
" Marilyn Monroe " is a song by Trinidadian born recording artist Nicki Minaj . The song was written by Minaj , Daniel James , Leah Haywood , Ross Golan and J.R. Rotem , while production was handled by J.R. Rotem and Dreamlab . Musically , " Marilyn Monroe " is an introspective mid @-@ tempo ballad that contains an upbeat piano , synth beats , and features influences of bubblegum pop . Lyrically , the song alludes to oneself questioning the status of their relationship . The song makes frequent references to pop icon Marilyn Monroe , with many of her quotes woven into the song .
" Marilyn Monroe " was generally well received by music critics , with some noting its crossover potential , while others felt like the song was too similar to other artists . The song has received comparisons to the 2011 singles " Disaster " by JoJo and " Stuttering " by Fefe Dobson , as well as Minaj 's own 2010 single " Your Love " from her debut album Pink Friday . The album 's high digital sales led " Marilyn Monroe " to chart on the UK Singles Chart and US Billboard charts .
= = Production and composition = =
Following the success of Minaj 's debut album , Pink Friday , Cash Money co @-@ CEO , Brian " Birdman " Williams announced to Billboard that Minaj was aiming for a first quarter release in 2012 . In November 2011 , Minaj announced on Twitter that the album would be released on February 14 , 2012 , though it was later delayed to April 3 , 2012 . The album focuses on Roman Zolanski , one of Minaj 's alter egos that was first featured on Pink Friday .
J.R. Rotem , who previously produced a track for Minaj 's debut album , originally conceived " Marilyn Monroe " . According to Minaj , " He hit me up and he said , ' I have a song that I think only an icon can sing ' . I was like , ' Oh J.R. , shut up ! ' We laughed a little bit on iChat . " It was written by Minaj , Daniel James , Leah Haywood , Ross Golan and Rotem . Rotem and Dreamlab produced the track , with vocal production handled by Nicholas Cooper . Ariel Chobaz & Gelly Kusuma recorded and mixed " Marilyn Monroe " with assistance from Jon Sher at Conway Studios and Beluga Heights Studio , both studios in Los Angeles .
Musically , " Marilyn Monroe " is an introspective mid @-@ tempo ballad that contains an upbeat piano , synth beats , and features influences of bubblegum pop . The song is written in the key of E minor with a moderate pop tempo of 84 beats per minute . It follows the chord progression Em − C2 ( no 3 ) − G − D , and Minaj 's vocals span two octaves from G3 to D5 .
Celebrity Marilyn Monroe is mentioned numerous times throughout the song , including the famous quote " I 'm selfish , impatient and a little insecure . I make mistakes , I am out of control and at times hard to handle . But if you can 't handle me at my worst , then you sure as hell don 't deserve me at my best . " However , it has never been confirmed that Monroe actually said this . Minaj liked the track , as " it spoked to me as a woman . I 'm very infatuated with Marilyn Monroe . I had a moment with that song where I was like , ' Oh my God , every woman in this world needs to hear that ' . No , we 're not perfect . Sometimes , we think , ' What 's wrong with us ? ' We spend so much time criticizing ourselves . I needed to hear that , ' I 'm not perfect , but I 'm worth it ' . It resonated with me . I felt like the world needed to hear it . "
= = Release and reception = =
" Marilyn Monroe " was first leaked in February 2012 . On May 24 , 2012 , a poll was posted on Minaj 's official website asking fans to choose the next single ( s ) . The poll was divided into three categories : The first category asked fans to choose between " Marilyn Monroe " , " Fire Burns " , " Young Forever " , and " Gunshot " . " Marilyn Monroe " had the most votes and won the poll ; " Young Forever " came in second , " Fire Burns " came in third , and " Gun Shot " came in fourth . When asked whether " Marilyn Monroe " would become a single during an interview with The Guardian , Minaj replied : " It has to be . It will be . We wanted to do it now , but then UK radio started playing ' Va Va Voom ' . We 're definitely going to have ' Marilyn Monroe ' top of [ 2013 ] , and we 're going to spend quality time on the video . We 're going to take care of that one . "
" Marilyn Monroe " received mostly positive reviews . Andrew Hampp of Billboard gave the song a positive review , but felt the song was too similar to the JoJo song " Disaster " , adding that " Of the three mid @-@ tempo pop cuts on the album , ' Marilyn Monroe ' stands the best chance of pop crossover . " Andy Gill of The Independent called it one of the most impressive songs on the pop half of the album and also encouraged fans to download it . BBC 's Al Fox gave the song a positive review , praising " Young Forever " and " Marilyn Monroe " for displaying the same " tender vulnerabilities " of Minaj 's breakthrough anthem " Your Love " , saying that it is " a necessary and successful respite in an album so boastful " . Slant Magazine negatively compared " Marilyn Monroe " to the works of pop star Demi Lovato .
= = Live performances = =
Minaj performed the song on select dates of her debut concert tour , the Pink Friday Tour . She also added the song to her set list for her Pink Friday : Reloaded Tour .
= = Personnel = =
Source :
Locations
Recorded at Conway Studios , Los Angeles , CA , and Beluga Heights Studio , Los Angeles , CA
Mixed at Conway Studios , Los Angeles , CA
Credits
Writers : O. Maraj , D. James , L. Haywood , R. Golan , J. Rotem
Producers : J.R. Rotem
Co @-@ producers : Dreamlab
Recorded by : Ariel Chobaz & Gelly Kusuma
Recording Assistant : Jon Sher
Mixed by : Ariel Chobaz
Mix Assistant : Jon Sher
Vocal production by : Nicholas Cooper
= = Chart performance = =
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= Middleton , Leeds =
Middleton is a largely residential suburb of Leeds in West Yorkshire , England and historically a village in the West Riding of Yorkshire . It is situated on a hill 4 miles ( 6 km ) south of Leeds city centre and 165 miles ( 266 km ) north north @-@ west of London . In 2001 the population of the Middleton Park ward of Leeds City Council was 27 @,@ 487 , reducing to 26 @,@ 228 at the 2011 Census .
Middleton was occupied before the Norman Conquest and recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 . It developed as a manorial estate and its owners began to exploit the coal seams that outcropped within its boundaries . At the start of the Industrial Revolution a wooden wagonway was built to link the coal pits to Leeds . The colliery agent , John Blenkinsop designed an iron railway and its first steam @-@ powered locomotive which was built by Matthew Murray in Holbeck . The coal mines on which the local economy was based lasted until 1967 and the railway is a preserved and run by a trust after operating for 200 years .
Middleton Park , a remnant of the manorial estate , contains a large area of ancient woodland and parts of it , where coal was mined , are designated a scheduled ancient monument . It was the location of Middleton Hall and Middleton Lodge , homes to the local gentry .
The village developed along Town Street , a school , chapel and church were built in the 19th century but after the land was acquired by Leeds Council in 1920 a large council housing estate was built on the flatter land to the south , completely changing the rural nature of the settlement . Early transport was provided by a tram line and the Leeds Ring Road was built to Middleton . After the colliery closed the area began to decline and by 2001 , had areas of multiple deprivation and high levels of unemployment and anti @-@ social behaviour . The Middleton Regeneration Board has been established with the remit of addressing these issues .
= = History = =
The name Middleton is derived from the Old English middel @-@ tun , in this case the middle settlement or farm on the road from Morley to Rothwell .
Flint and bronze weapons have been discovered in the neighbourhood showing evidence of habitation during the Palaeolithic and Bronze Ages . Roman discoveries were made in 1607 and 1823 . Middleton was mentioned as Mildentone and Mildetone in the Domesday Book as having three carucates of land much of which was woodland . The land was given to Ilbert de Lacy who had a castle at Pontefract . Middleton Park is a remnant of the manorial estate which existed after the Norman Conquest . In the 13th century the boundary between Middleton and Beeston became the focus of a protracted dispute over where it lay in the dense woodland which covered the area . The dispute between William Grammary and Adam de Beeston was settled in 1209 by single combat and resulted in the construction of a boundary bank and ditch , a stretch of which can still be seen in Middleton Woods .
The Creppings were lords of the manor followed by the Leigh or Legh family . John of Gaunt , 1st Duke of Lancaster , held the manor from 1363 to 1370 and Simon Simeon , whose will mentioned coal mines , from 1401 – 1406 . The Leighs held the manor for much of the time between 1300 until 1697 when Anne Leigh married Ralph Brandling of Felling in Durham . The Leighs once occupied New Hall whose name is recalled in the street names in the area . William Gascoigne , who invented the micrometer and died fighting for the Royalists at Marston Moor in 1644 , was another resident of New Hall .
Middleton Hall on Town Street was built in the 18th century for the Brandlings but they chose to live mainly in Durham . Charles John Brandling of Gosforth House , the Member of Parliament for Newcastle between 1798 and 1812 and for Northumberland from 1820 until 1826 , married Henrietta Armitage of Middleton . The Brandlings appointed John Blenkinsop to manage their collieries in Middleton and he was the hall 's occupant in 1809 . The hall was destroyed in a fire in 1962 .
In 1760 the Brandlings built a new residence , Middleton Lodge , designed by James Paine . It was situated in what is now the park possibly on the site the original manor house . Members of the family lived there until 1860 including R.H. Brandling who donated land on Town Street on which the church is built . The Brandling 's fortunes declined and the estate was sold to the Middleton Estate & Colliery Company in 1862 . William Henry Maude , a partner in the company , occupied the house with his sister in 1871 . He died in a carriage accident in the park in 1911 . His sister remained at Middleton Lodge after the land had been acquired by the council until her death in 1933 after which the house became the headquarters of Middleton Golf Club . Middleton Lodge was demolished in 1996 .
= = = Industrial history = = =
There is evidence of coal mining in the Middle Ages in the shaft mounds , waggonways and similar archaeological features resulting from early mining activity in Middleton Woods . Before the 17th century the pits were bell pits and adits or day holes dug horizontally into the hill sides where the coal seam outcropped . In 1669 Frances Conyers of New Hall had " cole pits " in Middleton . The pits were small and numerous and many worked for a short time . Gin pits using horses to turn the windlass were the next development and the deeper pits had brick @-@ lined shafts and wooden headgear for hauling tubs of coal and miners out of the workings . This type of mine was in operation when Anne Leigh married Ralph Brandling whose family owned collieries in Durham . Brandling 's 1 @,@ 200 acre Middleton estate supplied coal to Leeds but was disadvantaged in the trade by poor roads . Deep mining arrived with the advent of steam engines to pump water out of the mines and keep the workings dry making it possible to raise coal from greater depths . In 1780 a Newcomen engine was installed at Middleton and by 1808 the mine employed 90 hewers and 60 putters . The market for coal grew as Leeds and its industries expanded .
The Middleton Railway , founded in 1758 , is the oldest continuously working railway in Britain to be established by an Act of Parliament ; the first such act in England . The railway , owned by Charles Brandling , ( 1733 – 1802 ) was a horse drawn wooden waggonway linking the collieries at Middleton to Cassons Close near Leeds Bridge in the centre of Leeds . In 1810 John Blenkinsop , Brandling 's agent at Middleton , was looking for cheaper ways of moving coal to Leeds . He designed the rack railway and Matthew Murray built the first Middleton Railway locomotive , " Salamanca " , at his Round Foundry in Holbeck . The locomotive 's first run , reported in The Leeds Mercury on 27 June 1812 , was " witnessed by thousands of spectators and crowned a complete success .... " . Three more locomotives were built . The Middleton Railway locomotives had a toothed cog wheel which meshed into a rack on the side of the rail , as it was felt this would provide the engines with a better grip when hauling coal wagons .
Before 1840 , women and children were employed in coal mines and there were frequent accidents . The worst disaster occurred in 1825 at the Gosforth Pit , named after the Brandling 's Durham estate , where an explosion of firedamp caused 24 deaths ; the oldest a collier aged 48 and the youngest a child of seven .
Broom Pit was the deepest at 810 feet ( 250 m ) , and longest @-@ lasting of the Middleton collieries . In 1896 the Middleton Broom , Little and Middleton Main Pits , all managed by John Neal , employed over 600 workers . By 1923 just the Broom Pit was working , employing more than 1 @,@ 000 men and supplying coking , gas and household coal and fireclay to the brickworks . Nearly 900 men were employed there in 1940 . At the time the collieries were nationalised in 1947 , the workforce had reduced to 436 . Operations at the pit ended in 1968 as the productivity of the colliery declined .
= = = 20th century = = =
In 1919 , the grounds of Middleton Lodge were leased by Leeds Council for use as a public park . The rural nature of the area changed soon after 1 April 1920 when the township was incorporated into the County Borough of Leeds . Leeds Council acquired land to construct " a vast low @-@ density corporation built cottage estate with circuses and avenues " . The houses were built using bricks from the fireclay works at Broom Pit on land once used for agriculture including West Farm and parts of Sissons Farm . By 1934 , 2 @,@ 377 council houses had been built and the housing estate was considered to be a " garden suburb " , but was found to be remote and lacking in facilities by the residents . An early resident was Keith Waterhouse , who wrote about his childhood exploits as the only member of the Middleton Hiking Club , in his book , City Lights .
The area attracted more social housing when the Westwoods and Manor Farm estates were developed in the 1960s . A large private housing estate was built at Sharp Lane after 1972 and 1 @,@ 300 houses were built at Leeds New Forest Village after 2005 .
= = Governance = =
Middleton was a township and chapelry dependent on Holy Trinity Church in the ancient parish of Rothwell in the wapentake of Agbrigg and Morley in the West Riding of Yorkshire . It became an ecclesiastical parish after 1849 . Between 1866 and 1920 it was a civil parish . Middleton was part of the Great Preston Gilbert Union from 1809 until 1862 which provided a workhouse and poor relief for the parishes within its jurisdiction . The Gilbert unions were exempt from the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 but disbanded in 1862 and after that Middleton became part of the Kirkstall Poor Law Union until 1869 when it joined the Hunslet Poor Law Union until 1920 , the same year it was incorporated into the City of Leeds .
Middleton is in the Middleton Park electoral ward and after the 2012 council elections , is represented on Leeds City Council by three Labour councillors .
The Middleton Park ward is in the Leeds Central parliamentary constituency . At the 2010 UK general election the seat was held by Hilary Benn who represents the Labour Party with 49 @.@ 3 % of the vote .
= = Geography = =
Middleton is 4 miles ( 6 km ) south of Leeds city centre and 165 miles ( 266 km ) north north @-@ west of London . It is situated on a hill and occupies most of a plateau which falls away sharply to the west ( towards Dewsbury Road ) and in the park to the north of Town Street from where there are extensive views towards the city centre . A height 140 metres ( 459 ft ) AOD is reached at the western end of Town Street and within the park are two steep @-@ sided valleys with small streams separated by a tongue of land , which meet at 60 metres ( 197 ft ) AOD , its lowest point . The underlying geology is the coal measures and a bed of fireclay . Several coal seams outcrop in Middleton Park and between them are sandstones and shales .
The township covered about 1700 acres , of which 450 are woodland known as Middleton Woods and contain the largest area of ancient woodland remaining in Leeds . The old village was a ribbon development along Town Street which runs west @-@ east along a ridge and Middleton housing estate occupies flattish land to the south . The high point of Middleton is by the water tower at the western end of Town Street . Middleton is in an area surrounded by three motorways , the M62 motorway to the south , the M1 to the east and the M621 to the north .
= = Demography = =
In 2010 , the Middleton Park ward which includes Belle Isle , had 27 @,@ 487 inhabitants of which 52 @.@ 2 % were female and 47 @.@ 8 % male . 21 @.@ 5 % of the residents were aged 15 or under compared with an England average of 18 @.@ 7 % . Life expectancy for males and females at 76 @.@ 57 years is more than three years less than the 79 @.@ 91 years for the rest of Leeds . In 2001 , most residents , 96 @.@ 3 % , identified as white British with 71 @.@ 6 % identifying as Christian and over 18 % having no religion . Most houses are in the lowest @-@ rated Council Tax bands A and B. In April 2012 , 1493 people were claiming Jobseekers Allowance which at 8 @.@ 3 % was nearly double the Leeds ' average . Middleton Park ward contained 10 @,@ 649 households in 2001 . There were 1 @,@ 201 households with dependent children and no adult in employment . Of the 1 @,@ 410 of lone @-@ parent households with dependent children , most were women ( 1 @,@ 307 ) and most had no job . Male lone @-@ parents numbered 95 of which 39 were in full @-@ time employment . Nearly half the households , 5 @,@ 170 , had no car or van .
While all recorded crime was below the Leeds ' average , criminal damage was substantially higher and nearly twice the England average . Most crimes committed in the area are violent or sexual offences , anti @-@ social behaviour , criminal damage or arson .
= = = Population change = = =
= = Economy = =
After the closure of the largest employer in the area , Broom Pit , in 1968 , a process of decline set in . Middleton is now primarily residential with areas of multiple deprivation and as a consequence , the Middleton Regeneration Board was set up to address concerns including reducing unemployment over a ten @-@ year period .
Facilities in the area include the St Georges Centre , a multi @-@ use building that houses health services including a minor injuries unit and drop @-@ in centre , a library , and a neighbourhood housing office .
Middleton has two main shopping areas , at Middleton Park Circus and the Middleton District Shopping Centre . At Middleton Park Circus there is an Aldi supermarket ( opened in Spring 2014 on the site of the former Middleton Arms pub ) , a Sainsburys Local supermarket , Boots chemist , a Post Office and several independent traders . Also in Spring 2014 , Asda opened a supermarket next to the Middleton District Centre ; this should provide over 300 jobs . The District Centre itself has several traders but had failed to develop .
= = Landmarks = =
Middleton Park , once the private estate of the lords of the manor of Middleton , is owned by Wade 's Charity and leased to Leeds City Council for a peppercorn rent . It has been one of Leeds many public parks since 1919 covering an area of nearly a square mile , 630 acres ( 2 @.@ 5 km2 ) , of which 200 acres ( 0 @.@ 81 km2 ) are of ancient woodland . There is a small lake , recreational areas and a golf course . The reclaimed site of Middleton Broom Pit was incorporated into the park . Two areas of the park , comprising ancient waggonways which are now surfaced footpaths , earthworks and remains of underground workings and shaft mounds , have been designated a scheduled ancient monument .
The Middleton Railway , a preserved heritage steam railway , operates from headquarters and museum at Moor Road Hunslet to Park Halt . It is operated by volunteers . From Middleton , Park Halt is accessed by a footpath that was originally a waggonway . The railway celebrated its 200th anniversary of steam haulage in 2012 .
On Town Street , a row of brick @-@ built cottages with stone slate roofs , known as Top of the town was built in the mid 18th century . The 19th @-@ century St Mary 's Church , with its contemporary lych gate and flanking walls are all Grade II listed buildings . In the churchyard is a war memorial erected in 1920 . To the west of the war memorial is a gatehouse which stood at an old entrance to the hall grounds . The distinctive white concrete water tower at the high point of the hill is at the south west corner of the park on Town Street .
= = Transport = =
To serve the growing population of the council estate , the Middleton Light Railway , an electric tramway , was built in 1925 by Leeds Corporation . The tramway from Leeds ran parallel to the colliery line to Hunslet Moor staithes and then headed south through Middleton Woods to a terminus on the Ring Road . The tramway was made into a circular route in 1949 when it was extended to Belle Isle Road and Balm Road in Hunslet . The tramway closed in 1959 . Its route through the park is now a footpath .
The original plans for the Leeds Supertram included a line to Middleton , but they were amended to save on costs and the later plans stipulated a terminus at Stourton . The scheme was axed when government funding was withdrawn .
Public transport in Middleton is coordinated by the West Yorkshire Passenger Transport Authority . Middleton is served by several bus routes operated by First Leeds and Arriva , with buses to Leeds city centre , Wakefield , Roundhay , Morley and the White Rose Centre .
= = Education = =
Teachers were employed in the village in 1811 and a Sunday school , built by the Brandlings , providing education in reading and writing , was established by 1833 and used for worship before the church was built . The 1833 school was the premises of a national school in 1845 . It became Middleton St Mary 's C of E School and moved to a new site in 1972 .
Other schools in Middleton are Middleton Primary School , in the centre of the housing estate which opened in the 1920s , St Philip 's Catholic Primary and Nursery School which opened in 1941 , and Westwood Primary School .
In the Middleton Park ward in 2012 , at the Foundation Stage ( 3 to 5 years ) , 51 @.@ 6 % of children have a good level of achievement and by the end of Key Stage 2 ( 11 years ) 69 @.@ 6 % of pupils achieved Level 4 or better . By the age of 16 , 32 @.@ 8 % of pupils achieved five or more A @-@ C grades including English and Maths in GCSEs , far less than the Leeds average of 53 @.@ 4 % . In secondary education , 16 @.@ 5 % of pupils are persistent absentees missing 15 % or more sessions during the school year and 12 @.@ 4 % of 16- to 18 @-@ year @-@ olds are not in employment , education or training .
= = Religion = =
Middleton was a chapelry of the ancient ecclesiastical parish of Rothwell . In 1497 a chantry chapel was endowed by Gilbert Leygh and dedicated to St Mary the Virgin , it was closed at the time of the Reformation though the building is extant and now a private residence .
R.H. Brandling of Middleton Lodge gave land on Town Street on which to build a church and parsonage in 1845 . St Mary 's Church was built in 1846 to designs by R. D. Chantrell , who also designed Leeds Parish Church . The church and its lych gate are designated Grade II listed buildings . The church originally had a tall spire which was taken down because of mining subsidence in 1939 . There is a tradition that local miners gave either a week 's wages or a week 's work towards the cost of its construction .
Out of the parish , two more parishes were created as the population increased after the Middleton council estate was built . In 1921 the church acquired a site on the Middleton housing estate on which to build . In 1925 a mission church was built off Middleton Park Avenue . The Church of St Cross was built in 1933 and became a parish church in 1935 with about two thirds of the Middleton housing estate in its boundaries . In the 1930s the Belle Isle housing estate was begun . The Church of St John and St Barnabus was built in Belle Isle in 1939 but not consecrated until 1947 because of the war . This church became a parish church .
Local Methodists reputedly met in a house on Town Street until a chapel was built in the 1860s . Middleton Methodist Chapel was built in 1896 replacing one built 30 years earlier by the Wesleyans . It was designed by Howdill and Howdill and built in brick . It has a tower to the north west and large west window . The interior survives largely unaltered and has a barrel @-@ vaulted ceiling . There is a Baptist church on Middleton Park Avenue . St Philip 's Roman Catholic Church , a modern building , is situated on St Philip 's Avenue .
= = Sport = =
A municipal golf club opened in 1933 at Middleton Lodge with an 18 @-@ hole course in the park . Middleton Leisure Centre offers a range of sporting and fitness activities .
Middleton Park FC offers football coaching and has community teams for all age groups , from 18 months old to adults . Rugby Union is played by Leeds Corinthians , who have a ground and clubhouse by the Middleton District Centre . Crown Green Bowling is represented by two clubs , one in Middleton Park with two greens and the other in Acre Close was originally the Middleton Tenants Bowling Club that changed its name to the Community Bowling Club when the old Tenants Hall was demolished in 2010 and a new one built .
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= Battle of Beirut ( 1912 ) =
The Battle of Beirut was a naval battle off the coast of Beirut during the Italo @-@ Turkish War . Italian fears that the Ottoman naval forces at Beirut could be used to threaten the approach to the Suez canal led the Italian military to order the destruction of the Ottoman naval presence in the area . On 24 February 1912 two Italian armoured cruisers attacked and sank an Ottoman casemate corvette and six lighters , retired , then returned and sank an Ottoman torpedo boat .
As a result of the battle all Ottoman naval forces in the region were annihilated , thus ensuring the approaches to the Suez Canal were open to the Italians . Besides the naval losses , the city of Beirut itself suffered significant damage from the Italian warships .
= = Background = =
During the Italo @-@ Turkish War , the Italian military feared that Ottoman naval forces in the Mediterranean would stage raid on the Italian supply and troopships headed for Italian East Africa . In order to prevent such a raid , Rear Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel was ordered to clear the harbor of Beirut of what Ottoman naval vessels he might find there . Revel 's force consisted of two armoured cruisers : Giuseppe Garibaldi and Francesco Ferruccio . Both cruisers were of the Giuseppe Garibaldi class and armed with two 10 inch guns in turrets , ten 6 inch guns , six 4 @.@ 7 inch guns , ten 6 @-@ pounders , ten 1 @-@ pounders , 2 Maxim machine guns , and five torpedo tubes .
In contrast the Ottoman forces consisted of the casemate corvette Avnillah and the torpedo boat Angora . The Angora was a relatively new vessel completed in 1906 and armed with two 37 mm cannons as well as two 14 inch torpedo tubes with a pair of torpedoes per tube . In contrast the Avnillah was an antiquated ironclad corvette built in 1869 . After a reconstruction was completed in 1907 she was armed with four 3 @-@ inch guns and eight six pounders . In addition to her cannon she was also armed with a single 14 inch torpedo tube . Thus the Ottoman force was entirely outgunned by the Italians , giving them a severe disadvantage in the looming battle .
= = Battle = =
The two Italian cruisers approached the harbor and fired a blank shot at the Ottoman vessels lying there . Upon sighting the Italian ships , the Ottoman commander on the Avnillah sent out a launch under a flag of truce to communicate with the enemy . While negotiating , the Ottoman commander ordered the Angora to position itself near the harbor 's mole . At 07 : 30 , Admiral Revel ordered the Ottoman launch to return with an ultimatum addressed to the Wāli of Beirut informing him to surrender his two warships by 09 : 00 . The message was received by the Wali at 08 : 30 . The Wali was in the process of issuing an order of surrender but this was not received by the Italians by the deadline . Accordingly , at 09 : 00 , the Italians began their attack on the Ottoman ships in the harbor .
At a distance of 6 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 yards ) , the Italians opened fire upon the Ottoman corvette . The Ottomans returned fire ineffectively until 09 : 35 when the Italian gunfire set the Avnillah afire . Receiving heavy damage and outgunned , the corvette struck her colours and the crew abandoned ship . At this point the Garibaldi sailed in close and engaged the Angora at 600 metres ( 660 yards ) with gunfire but failed to damage it . The Garibaldi then attempted to finish off the Avnillah by firing a torpedo at her . However , the torpedo deviated from its trajectory and hit several lighters moored nearby , sinking six of them . Undeterred , the Italian cruiser fired a second torpedo that struck the Ottoman corvette amidships . By 11 : 00 the corvette was sunk in shallow water and the pair of cruisers withdrew to the north . The action was not over however ; at 13 : 45 , the Italian cruisers returned and once more engaged the Ottoman forces . The only warship left in the harbor was the torpedo boat Angora so the Ferruccio moved in close and engaged it with gunfire for three minutes before it joined the Avni @-@ Illah at the bottom of Beirut 's harbor . Once the fighting had ended the two Italian cruisers sailed off in a westward direction .
= = Aftermath = =
The Ottoman naval presence at Beirut was completely annihilated , removing the only Turkish naval threat to Italian transports in the area and giving the Italians complete naval dominance of the southern Mediterranean Sea for the rest of the war . Casualties on the Ottoman side were heavy . Both Ottoman warships were sunk , with the Avnillah alone taking 58 killed and 108 wounded . In contrast the Italian ships not only took no casualties , but no direct hits from the Ottoman warships as well . The damage was not restricted to the Ottoman naval vessels present at Beirut , as the city took heavy damage as well . Stray shots from the cruisers decimated the city . Fires broke out as a direct result of the stray gunfire , destroying several banks and part of the city 's customs house as well as other buildings . Combined from the fires and shelling , 66 civilians were killed in the city along with hundreds of others wounded .
As retribution for the Italian actions at Beirut , four days after the battle the central Ottoman government ordered the Wilyets of Beirut , Aleppo , and Damascus to expel all Italian citizens from their jurisdictions , resulting in the deportation of over 60 @,@ 000 Italians from the region . Despite the retaliatory expulsion of Italian citizens from the area , the battle gave the Italian forces complete naval superiority in the approaches to the Suez Canal and Italian forces in Eritrea could now be reinforced without hesitation , eliminating much of the Ottoman threat to the region . Thus the battle was both a strategic and tactical Italian victory .
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= Arnaud Tsamere =
Arnaud Tsedri ( born 11 March 1975 ) , better known by the stage name Arnaud Tsamere ( French : [ aʁno tsamɛʁ ] ) , is a French comedian , actor , television presenter and sports journalist . Born in Bordeaux and raised in the Yvelines , he joined the Déclic Théâtre group after quitting his sales job . There , he acted in plays and participated in improvisation events . He wrote his first one @-@ man show , Réflexions profondes sur pas mal de trucs , in 2002 with Arnaud Joyet , and his second , Chose Promise , in 2007 with Joyet and François Rollin . His third , Confidences sur pas mal de trucs plus ou moins confidentiels , has been performed since 2014 . He has attended numerous comedy festivals and is currently a member of the Ligue Majeure d 'Improvisation .
Tsamere 's television career began when he presented the weather forecast on Canal + . From 2010 , he became well known for appearing on France 2 's sketch comedy show On n 'demande qu 'à en rire — and its short @-@ lived spin @-@ off the ONDAR Show — after he was discovered by Laurent Ruquier ; he often performed sketches with Jérémy Ferrari . He also plays Captain Sport Extrême in the comedy science fiction programme Hero Corp. In 2014 , he hosted TMC 's Canapé Quiz ; he has also appeared on various French talk , sports and game shows . Tsamere has acted in several films , including the short Being Homer Simpson with Philippe Peythieu and Véronique Augereau , and Fonzy , a 2013 adaptation of Starbuck .
= = Early life = =
Tsamere 's paternal grandparents are from Guipavas , and his father is Breton . He was born in Bordeaux , but grew up in Versailles , Rocquencourt and Trappes , in the Yvelines department . His father was a general in the French Air Force who was awarded the Legion of Honour , and his mother a housewife , whom he has described as " the best in her domain " . He has two brothers . He describes himself as having had a " strict upbringing " .
Speaking about his early life and its relation to his surreal comic style , Tsamere said :
I grew up in a very comfortable environment . I wanted for nothing ; serious things never happened to me in life . I have never been a victim of injustice , so I have nothing to protest . I don 't have any particular origins which would be interesting to talk about . ... So , I do absurd stuff because I don 't want to talk about other things .
After getting his baccalauréat , he studied law at university , where he discovered an improvisational match in his first year and " fell in love " with the performance . In 1998 , he obtained a master 's degree in business law and later got a job working in export sales . However , he realised that he " could no longer live without the stage " , and on the advice of his friend Arnaud Joyet and Déclic Théâtre co @-@ founder Alain Degois , quit his job and launched his career as a comedian .
= = Career = =
= = = Theatre and improvisation = = =
After quitting his previous job , Tsamere took part in the Déclic Théâtre improvisation group under its co @-@ founder Alain " Papy " Degois , who he said " pushed me , gave me confidence , coddled me [ and ] got me to act in plays and improvisation matches " . Between 2003 and 2005 , he played the baron Christian de Neuvillette in an adaptation of Cyrano de Bergerac at the Château de Gizeux with the theatre group La Pastière , to which he was introduced by Degois .
He began writing his first one @-@ man show in 2002 with his friend Arnaud Joyet , inspired by a videotape of comedian François Rollin . The show , entitled Réflexions profondes sur pas mal de trucs ( Profound reflections on quite a few things ) , played on theatrical " flops " , a form of humour that Tsamere said " can seem easy [ but ] is not when you really start to work on it " . It was performed at the Blancs Manteaux theatre from April 2005 to January 2006 .
Tsamere met Rollin at the Dinard Comedy Festival , and he joined Tsamere and Joyet to write a second show , Chose Promise ( Promised Thing ) . Written in 2007 , it stars Tsamere as an economics teacher named Patrice Valenton , performing as part of a promise made to a friend who died in a car accident . He chose to perform as a character under Rollin 's suggestion , so that he could depict failure under the guise of somebody who is not a comedian . Regarding the show 's theme of death , he said " It 's a bit strange , but it has the virtue of attracting the public 's attention " . Tsamere 's performance was well received by critics ; Le Parisien called the show a " masterpiece of the genre " . Chose Promise was released on DVD on 6 March 2013 after being recorded at the Théâtre Sébastopol in Lille . Tsamere has done three tours of the show , and its final two performances were at the Olympia in February 2014 .
Tsamere 's third show , Confidences sur pas mal de trucs plus ou moins confidentiels ( Secrets about quite a few more or less confidential things ) , also written with Rollin and Joyet , was performed on tour throughout France from November 2014 , and at Le Splendid from January 2015 . Tsamere has said it is based on the principal that " society laughs too much " , and will involve him talking about himself .
On 25 June 2012 at the Européen theatre , Tsamere performed alongside the On n 'demande qu 'à en rire jury member Éric Métayer in Métamère en impro . He performed La tournée du trio with his On n 'demande qu 'à en rire colleague Jérémy Ferrari , and Baptiste Lecaplain ; after a tour of 12 performances in Zéniths , they did several special performances in February 2014 . Tsamere has attended comedy festivals such as the Montreux Comedy Festival , where he performed with Ferrari , and the Avignon Festival . He is now part of the Ligue Majeure d 'Improvisation .
= = = Television and radio = = =
In 2005 , with the help of Frédéric Testot , whom he met at a Puy @-@ Saint @-@ Vincent comedy festival , Tsamere got the job of presenting the weather forecast in Le Grand Journal on Canal + . He also appeared in Canal + ' s SAV des émissions , presented by Testot and Omar Sy . After quitting the weather in June 2006 , he hosted La longue nuit du pénis on the same channel that September . It was a night dedicated to the penis , which Tsamere has described as " nothing pornographic or erotic . It was a series of serious documentaries . " He says he was asked after Frédérique Bel refused , because he was " probably the only one liable to accept " .
In 2007 Tsamere met Simon Astier during the recording of the M6 show Off Prime . He was given the role of Captain Sport Extrême in Astier 's comedy science fiction programme , Hero Corp , which is broadcast on France 4 . He only appeared in one episode of the first series , but more frequently in the second . Speaking about the differences between himself and his character , Tsamere said " He is a misogynist , beastly , an adventurer , unattached ... I am just the opposite " . He also said " I 've loved this character . I love playing crackpots . "
In 2010 he participated in the sketch comedy talent show On n 'demande qu 'à en rire , created and presented by Laurent Ruquier and broadcast on France 2 . Ruquier asked him to do so after he saw Tsamere in Monique est demandée caisse 12 and Le Comique . He has described it as " the missing piece of the puzzle " that allowed him to become well known . He already knew all of the original participants , except for Nicole Ferroni , whom he discovered at a comedy festival in Puy @-@ Saint @-@ Vincent in January 2011 . He is friends with Jérémy Ferrari , with whom he has performed sketches on the show . The two share a well @-@ known on @-@ stage rivalry .
Based on puns involving crime and food , his sketch " L 'avocat de la salade , la frite et la saucisse " was the first in the programme to achieve 99 out of 100 points . After participating in the show for two years and totalling 64 appearances , Tsamere announced in 2012 that he did not plan to return for its third season . However , he came back the next year after the cancellation of the ONDAR Show , and described his stage fright before his first performance after his return . When the show returned for its fourth season , he acted as patron ( parrain ) during the first week , and could save and work with eliminated candidates .
In September 2011 , Tsamere appeared with On n 'demande qu 'à en rire colleague Jérémy Ferrari in two editions of Ruquier 's late @-@ night talk show On n 'est pas couché — however , in what would have been their third week , they decided to quit the show as they thought that " our duo was not the right formula to succeed Jonathan [ Lambert , their predecessor ] " , as well as to concentrate on their " solo projects " . From October 2012 to January 2013 , Tsamere took part in the ONDAR Show , a spin @-@ off of On n 'demande qu 'à en rire in which its best comedians performed without judges in a format similar to American entertainment . However , the show was unpopular with critics — Le Nouvel Observateur 's Xavier Rousseau called it a " failed show " that " dashed hopes " — and the ONDAR Show was cancelled after 13 episodes due to low viewing figures .
In 2013 , Tsamere joined the team of beIN Sports ' programme Lunch Time , which was hosted by Darren Tulett . In February 2014 , it was announced that Tsamere would host the TMC game show Canapé Quiz , an adaptation of the American Hollywood Game Night . The show featured two teams , each composed of three celebrities and one member of the public , competing in a series of games . Three weeks later , TMC announced that Canapé Quiz had been cancelled and new episodes were to be moved to a later timeslot because of low viewing figures — 10 days after its launch , it failed to pass 100 @,@ 000 viewers . Discussing the show 's audience in an interview on Europe 1 , Tsamere stated that he did not care about the viewing figures , and also mentioned that he had received positive feedback about the show on Twitter , which he called " quite a revealing thing " . He also stressed that he has fun when filming Canapé Quiz . From 13 July 2015 , Tsamere will present the game show Une famille en or ( the French version of Family Feud and Family Fortunes ) when it returns on TMC ; it was previously presented by Christophe Dechavanne from 2007 to 2014 on TF1 . Tsamere said " It 's the challenge of taking the reins of a cult programme that interested me " .
He has also appeared on various game shows , including Mot de passe and Fort Boyard ( French versions of Million Dollar Password and The Crystal Maze respectively ) , as well as the chat show La nuit nous appartient on NRJ 12 . In 2012 , he performed on Rire & Chansons , a comedy and musical radio station .
= = = Film = = =
In 2011 , Tsamere 's first film role was Séverin in Charles Nemes ' Au bistro du coin . In the same year , he appeared in Pascale Pouzadoux 's La Croisière , and in the short films Le Métro ( directed by Dianeïa Schaefer ) and Deal ( Wilfried Méance ) . Tsamere played the character of Vincent in Arnaud Demanche 's short film Being Homer Simpson , in which he appeared alongside Philippe Peythieu and Véronique Augereau , the voice actors of Homer and Marge respectively in the French dub of the animated series The Simpsons . He also starred alongside José Garcia in Fonzy , a remake of the film Starbuck , in which he plays Maître Chasseigne . It was released on 30 October 2013 .
= = = Sports journalism = = =
Tsamere has written several columns about sport for the newspaper Le Monde , on topics such as golfer Tiger Woods , the cyclists Chris Froome and Lance Armstrong in the Tour de France , and the French football league Ligue 1 . In July 2015 , an article he wrote entitled " And then along came Sky and ruined everything " , which accused Froome of doping , was cited by BBC News 's Paris correspondent Hugh Schofield as an example of the hostility of the French press towards the cyclist .
= = Style and influences = =
Tsamere 's style can be described as absurd humour , which according to him " has no hold on current events , politics or religion " . He is a specialist in improvisation . He is known for his " slow burn " technique ( a term coined by On n 'demande qu 'à en rire jury member Jean @-@ Luc Moreau ) , in which he talks about a subject before moving on to another and repeatedly interrupting himself to return to the initial subject . His humour is popular with television audiences , and has boosted On n 'demande qu 'à en rire 's viewing figures .
On his website , Tsamere provides a link to that of François Rollin , as well as to that of English comedian Ricky Gervais , whom he calls " my absolute master " . Other role models of his are the brothers Simon and Alexandre Astier — he says of them and Gervais that he " could watch them perform anything " . He has stated that his favourite director is Tim Burton , linking this to his surreal style .
= = Personal life = =
Tsamere 's partner is the racing driver and television presenter Margot Laffite ( daughter of Jacques Laffite ) ; their first child was born on 4 February 2015 .
Tsamere is a cycling enthusiast and a fan of association football ; he called the latter " My first great love to which I have remained faithful for so many years " . He is a user of Twitter and describes himself as " a bit of a geek " , but says that he never retweets fans . He uses an iPad , which he says has allowed him to read more : he " love [ s ] new technology like a kid " . Tsamere quit smoking in June 2012 , saying that tobacco " disgusted " him ; he uses an electronic cigarette .
He enjoys romantic comedy films , of which his favourites are Pretty Woman and Notting Hill . Tsamere 's favourite television programme is the Belgian documentary series Strip @-@ Tease , and he describes himself as " a real TV addict " . He also likes Grey 's Anatomy , and Hero Corp , in which he appears — he says he is " not ashamed " to watch himself . He has read Une Vie by Guy de Maupassant , which he described as " so beautiful " , and the biography of Apple Inc. founder Steve Jobs , which he said is " the story of an incredible life " .
= = Credits = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Short films = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = = Non @-@ fictional appearances = = = =
= = = Radio = = =
2011 – : On va s 'gêner on Europe 1 ( regular commentator )
2012 : Rire & Chansons
= = = Theatre = = =
= = = General = = =
Tsamere , Arnaud ( interviewee ) ( 8 April 2013 ) . Arnaud Tsamere : maître de l 'absurde [ Arnaud Tsamere : master of the absurd ] . L 'Internaute ( Online video ) ( in French ) . Retrieved 16 August 2013 .
= = = Specific = = =
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= Malagasy cuisine =
Malagasy cuisine encompasses the many diverse culinary traditions of the Indian Ocean island of Madagascar . Foods eaten in Madagascar reflect the influence of Southeast Asian , African , Indian , Chinese and European migrants that have settled on the island since it was first populated by seafarers from Borneo between 100 CE and 500 CE . Rice , the cornerstone of the Malagasy diet , was cultivated alongside tubers and other Southeast Asian staples by these earliest settlers . Their diet was supplemented by foraging and hunting wild game , which contributed to the extinction of the island 's bird and mammal megafauna . These food sources were later complemented by beef in the form of zebu introduced into Madagascar by East African migrants arriving around 1 @,@ 000 CE . Trade with Arab and Indian merchants and European transatlantic traders further enriched the island 's culinary traditions by introducing a wealth of new fruits , vegetables and seasonings .
Throughout almost the entire island , the contemporary cuisine of Madagascar typically consists of a base of rice served with an accompaniment ; in the official dialect of the Malagasy language , the rice is termed vary ( [ ˈvarʲ ] ) , and the accompaniment , laoka ( [ ˈlokə ̥ ] ) . The many varieties of laoka may be vegetarian or include animal proteins , and typically feature a sauce flavored with such ingredients as ginger , onion , garlic , tomato , vanilla , salt , curry powder , or , less commonly , other spices or herbs . In parts of the arid south and west , pastoral families may replace rice with maize , cassava , or curds made from fermented zebu milk . A wide variety of sweet and savory fritters as well as other street foods are available across the island , as are diverse tropical and temperate @-@ climate fruits . Locally produced beverages include fruit juices , coffee , herbal teas and teas , and alcoholic drinks such as rum , wine and beer .
The range of dishes eaten in Madagascar in the 21st century offers insight into the island 's unique history and the diversity of the peoples who inhabit it today . The complexity of Malagasy meals can range from the simple , traditional preparations introduced by the earliest settlers , to the refined festival dishes prepared for the island 's 19th @-@ century monarchs . Although the classic Malagasy meal of rice and its accompaniment remains predominant , over the past 100 years other food types and combinations have been popularized by French colonists and immigrants from China and India . Consequently , Malagasy cuisine is traditional while also assimilating newly emergent cultural influences .
= = History = =
= = = Prior to 1650 = = =
Austronesian seafarers are believed to have been the first humans to settle on the island , arriving between 100 and 500 CE . In their outrigger canoes they carried food staples from home including rice , plantains , taro , and water yam . Sugarcane , ginger , sweet potatoes , pigs and chickens were also probably brought to Madagascar by these first settlers , along with coconut and banana . The first concentrated population of human settlers emerged along the southeastern coast of the island , although the first landfall may have been made on the northern coast . Upon arrival , early settlers practiced tavy ( swidden , " slash @-@ and @-@ burn " agriculture ) to clear the virgin coastal rainforests for the cultivation of crops . They also gathered honey , fruits , bird and crocodile eggs , mushrooms , edible seeds and roots , and brewed alcoholic beverages from honey and sugar cane juice .
Game was regularly hunted and trapped in the forests , including frogs , snakes , lizards , hedgehogs and tenrecs , tortoises , wild boars , insects , larvae , birds and lemurs . The first settlers encountered Madagascar 's wealth of megafauna , including giant lemurs , elephant birds , giant fossa and the Malagasy hippopotamus . Early Malagasy communities may have eaten the eggs and — less commonly — the meat of Aepyornis maximus , the world 's largest bird , which remained widespread throughout Madagascar as recently as the 17th century . While several theories have been proposed to explain the decline and eventual extinction of Malagasy megafauna , clear evidence suggests that hunting by humans and destruction of habitats through slash @-@ and @-@ burn agricultural practices were key factors . Although it has been illegal to hunt or trade any of the remaining species of lemur since 1964 , these endangered animals continue to be hunted for immediate local consumption in rural areas or to supply the demand for exotic bush meat at some urban restaurants .
As more virgin forest was lost to tavy , communities increasingly planted and cultivated permanent plots of land . By 600 CE , groups of these early settlers had moved inland and begun clearing the forests of the central highlands . Rice was originally dry planted or cultivated in marshy lowland areas , which produced low yields . Irrigated rice paddies were adopted in the highlands around 1600 , first in Betsileo country in the southern highlands , then later in the northern highlands of Imerina . By the time terraced paddies emerged in central Madagascar over the next century , the area 's original forest cover had largely vanished . In its place were scattered villages ringed with nearby rice paddies and crop fields a day 's walk away , surrounded by vast plains of sterile grasses .
Zebu , a form of humped cattle , were introduced to the island around 1000 CE by settlers from east Africa , who also brought sorghum , goats , possibly Bambara groundnut , and other food sources . Because these cattle represented a form of wealth in east African and consequently Malagasy culture , they were eaten only rarely , typically after their ritual sacrifice at events of spiritual import such as funerals . Fresh zebu milk and curds instead constituted a major part of the pastoralists ' diet . Zebu were kept in large herds in the south and west , but as individual herd members escaped and reproduced , a sizable population of wild zebu established itself in the highlands . Merina oral history tells that highland people were unaware that zebu were edible prior to the reign of King Ralambo ( ruled 1575 – 1612 ) , who is credited with the discovery , although archaeological evidence suggests that zebu were occasionally hunted and consumed in the highlands prior to Ralambo 's time . It is more likely that these wild herds were first domesticated and kept in pens during this period , which corresponds with the emergence of complex , structured polities in the highlands .
Foods were commonly prepared by boiling in water ( at first using green bamboo as a vessel , and later clay or iron pots ) , roasting over a fire or grilling over hot stones or coals . Fermentation was also used to create curds from milk , develop the flavor of certain dried or fresh tubers or produce alcoholic beverages from honey , sugar cane juice or other local plants . The techniques of sun curing ( drying ) , smoking and salting were used to preserve various foods for transport , trade or future consumption . Many foods prepared in these ways , such as a smoked dried beef called kitoza ( [ kiˈtuzə ̥ ] ) and salted dried fish , are still eaten in a similar form in modern @-@ day Madagascar .
By the 16th century , centralized kingdoms had emerged on the west coast among the Sakalava and in the Central highlands among the Merina . The Merina sovereigns celebrated the new year with an ancient Merina ceremony called the Royal Bath ( fandroana ) . For this ceremony , a beef confit called jaka ( [ ˈdzakə ̥ ] ) was prepared by placing beef in a decorative clay jar and sealing it with suet , then conserving it in an underground pit for a year . The jaka would be shared with friends at the following year 's festival . As a dessert , revelers would eat rice boiled in milk and drizzled with honey , a preparation known as tatao ( [ taˈtau ̯ ] ) . According to oral history , King Ralambo was the originator of these culinary traditions in Imerina . Ralambo 's father , King Andriamanelo , is credited with introducing the marriage tradition of the vodiondry ( [ vudiˈuɳɖʳʲ ] ) or " rump of the sheep , " wherein the most favored cut of meat — the hindquarters — was offered by the groom to the parents of the bride @-@ to @-@ be at an engagement ceremony . In contemporary Malagasy society the terminology persists but families are more likely to offer symbolic coins in place of an offering of food .
= = = 1650 – 1800 = = =
The advent of the trans @-@ Atlantic slave trade increased maritime trade at Malagasy ports , including food products . In 1696 , a trading vessel en route to the American colonies reportedly took a stock of local Malagasy rice to Charleston , South Carolina , where the grain formed the basis of the plantation industry . Trading ships brought crops from the Americas — such as sweet potato , tomato , maize , peanuts , tobacco and lima beans — to Madagascar in the 16th and 17th centuries ; cassava arrived after 1735 from a French colony at nearby Réunion Island . These products were first cultivated in coastal areas nearest to their ports of arrival , but soon spread throughout the island ; within 100 years of their introduction they were widespread throughout the central highlands . Similarly , pineapple and citrus fruits such as lemons , limes , oranges , consumed by sailors to ward off scurvy on long cross @-@ Atlantic trips , were introduced at coastal Malagasy ports . Local cultivation began soon afterward .
The prickly pear cactus or raketa ( [ raˈketə ̥ ] ) , also known in southern Madagascar as sakafon @-@ drano ( [ saˈkafuˈɳɖʳanʷ ] ) or " water food " , was brought from the New World to the French settlement at Fort Dauphin in 1769 by Frenchman Count Dolisie de Maudave . The plant spread throughout the southern part of the island , where it became a fundamental food crop for Mahafaly and Bara pastoralists . Consuming six or so of the fruits of this plant preempted the need to drink water , and once the spines had been removed , the cladodes of the plant would nourish and hydrate the zebu cattle they tended . The introduction of this plant enabled the southern pastoralists to become more sedentary and efficient herders , thus boosting population density and cattle count in the region .
= = = 1800 – 1896 = = =
The 18th century in the central highlands was characterized by increasing population density and consequent famines , aggravated by warring among the principalities of Imerina . At the turn of the 19th century , King Andrianampoinimerina ( 1787 – 1810 ) successfully united these fractious Merina groups under his rule , then used slaves and forced labor — exacted in lieu of taxes for those without means to offer material payment — to systematically work the irrigated rice fields around Antananarivo . In this way , he ensured regular grain surpluses that were sufficient to consistently feed the entire population and export products for trade with other regions of the island . Marketplaces were established across the island to serve as central trading points for designated commodities such as smoked and dried seafood and meats , dried maize , salt , dried cassava and various fruits . Rice cakes , including mofo gasy ( [ ˈmufʷˈɡasʲ ] ) and menakely ( [ menə ̥ ˈkelʲ ] ) , were also sold by market vendors . By this period , coastal cuisine had likewise evolved : early 19th century voyagers reported eating dishes on Île Sainte @-@ Marie prepared with curry powder ( including a spiced rice resembling biryani ) and drinking coffee and tea . Andrianampoinimerina 's son , Radama I , succeeded in uniting nearly the entire island under his rule , and established the Kingdom of Madagascar . A line of Merina monarchs would continue to govern the island until its colonization by the French in 1896 .
Under the Kingdom of Madagascar , plantations were established for the production of crops exported to foreign markets such as England and France . Cloves were imported and planted in 1803 , and coconuts — which had been relatively sparse on the island — were cultivated on plantations for the production of oil . Similarly , coffee had been grown on family plots of four to five trees until the early 19th century , when more intensive cultivation for export began . Vanilla , later to become one of Madagascar 's premiere export crops , was introduced by French entrepreneurs in 1840 and planted in eastern coastal rainforests . The technique of hand pollination , critical to higher vanilla yields , was introduced 30 years later . Nonetheless , vanilla remained a marginal crop until the end of the monarchy .
During Merina royal festivals , the hanim @-@ pito loha ( [ amˈpitʷˈlu ] ) were eaten . These were seven dishes said to be the most desirable in the realm . Among these dishes were voanjobory ( [ vwandzˈburʲ ] , Bambara groundnut ) , amalona ( [ aˈmalnə ̥ ] , eel ) , vorivorinkena ( [ vurvurˈkenə ̥ ] , beef tripe ) , ravitoto ( [ ravˈtutʷ ] , grated cassava leaves ) and vorontsiloza ( [ vurntsʲˈluzə ̥ ] , turkey ) , each cooked with pork and usually ginger , garlic , onion and tomato ; romazava ( [ rumaˈzavə ̥ ] , a stew of beef and greens ) and varanga ( [ vaˈraŋɡə ̥ ] , shredded roast beef ) completed the list . Colonization of Madagascar by the French meant the end of the Malagasy monarchy and its elaborate feasts , but the traditions of this elegant cuisine were preserved in the home , where these dishes are eaten regularly . They are also served in many restaurants throughout the island .
= = = 1896 – 1960 = = =
French colonial rule began in 1896 and introduced a number of innovations to local cuisines . Certain new food names derived from the French language — then the dominant language of the state — became widespread . Baguettes were popularized among cosmopolitan urbanites , as were a variety of French pastries and desserts such as cream horns , mille @-@ feuille , croissants and chocolat chaud ( hot chocolate ) . The French also introduced foie gras , now produced locally , and popularized a dish known in the highlands as composé : a cold macaroni salad mixed with blanched vegetables based on the French macédoine de légumes . The French established plantations for the cultivation of a variety of cash crops , including not only those already exploited in the 19th century , but new foreign fruits , vegetables and livestock , with varying degrees of success . Tea , coffee , vanilla , coconut oil and spices became successful exports . Coconut became a regular ingredient in coastal cuisine , and vanilla began to be used in sauces for poultry and seafood dishes .
Although a handful of Chinese settlers had arrived in Madagascar towards the end of the reign of Queen Ranavalona III , the first major influx of Chinese migrants followed an announcement by General Joseph Gallieni , first governor general of the colony of Madagascar , requesting 3 @,@ 000 Chinese laborers to construct a northern rail line between Antananarivo and Toamasina . Chinese migrants introduced a number of dishes that have become part of urban popular cuisine in regions with large Chinese communities , including riz cantonais ( Chinese fried rice ) , soupe chinoise ( Chinese @-@ style noodle soup ) , misao ( fried noodles ) , pao ( hum bao ) and nems ( fried egg rolls ) .
By the 1880s , a community of roughly 200 Indian traders had been established at Mahajanga , a port on the north @-@ west coast of Madagascar , near Bembatoka Bay at the mouth of the Betsiboka River . Thirty years later the population of Indians in Madagascar had increased to over 4 @,@ 000 , concentrated along the trading ports of the northwestern coast . These early Indian communities popularized curries and biryanis throughout the region . Khimo in particular , a dish based on the Indian keema , became a specialty of Mahajanga . Indian samosas ( sambos ) soon became a popular street food in most parts of Madagascar , where they may also be known by the name tsaky telozoro ( [ ˈtsakʲteluˈzurʷ ] , " three @-@ cornered snack " ) .
While French innovations enriched the cuisine in many ways , not every innovation was favorable . Since the French introduction of the prickly pear cactus in the 18th century , the lifestyle of southern pastoralists became increasingly reliant on the plant to ensure food and water for their zebu as well as fruit and water for themselves during the dry season between July and December . However , in 1925 , a French colonist wishing to eradicate the cactus on his property in the southwestern town of Toliara introduced the cochineal , an insect known to be a parasite of the plant . Within five years , nearly all the prickly pear cactus of southern Madagascar had been completely wiped out , sparking a massive famine from 1930 – 1931 . Although these ethnic groups have since adapted in various ways , the famine period is commonly remembered as the time when their traditional lifestyle was ended by the arrival of foreigners on their land .
= = Contemporary cuisine = =
Since Madagascar gained independence from French colonial rule in 1960 , Malagasy cuisine has reflected the island 's diverse cultures and historic influences . Throughout the country , rice is considered the preeminent food and constitutes the main staple of the diet in all but the most arid regions of the south and west . Accompanying dishes served with rice vary regionally according to availability of ingredients and local cultural norms . Outside the home , Malagasy cuisine is served at simple roadside stalls ( gargottes ) or sit @-@ down eateries ( hotely ) . Snacks and rice @-@ based meals may also be purchased from ambulatory street vendors . Upscale restaurants offer a wider variety of foreign cuisine and Malagasy dishes bearing French and other outside influences in preparation technique , ingredients and presentation alike .
= = = Rice ( vary ) = = =
Rice ( vary ) is the cornerstone of the Malagasy diet and is typically consumed at every meal . The verb " to eat a meal " in the Malagasy language is commonly mihinam @-@ bary – literally , to eat rice . Rice may be prepared with varying amounts of water to produce a fluffy dry rice ( vary maina , [ ˌvarʲ ˈmajnə ̥ ] ) eaten with some kind of accompaniment ( laoka ) in sauce . It may also be prepared with extra water to produce a soupy rice porridge called vary sosoa ( [ ˌvarʲ suˈsu ] ) which is typically eaten for breakfast or prepared for the sick . Vary sosoa may be accompanied with a dry laoka such as kitoza , smoked strips of zebu meat . A popular variation , vary amin 'anana ( [ ˈvarʲ ˌjamʲˈnananə ̥ ] ) , is a traditional porridge made with rice , meat and chopped greens . During a highland famadihana ( reburial ceremony ) , a special kind of rice called vary be menaka ( [ ˈvarʲ beˈmenakə ̥ ] , " rice with much fat " ) is rice served with fatty chunks of beef or preferably , highly fatty chunks of pork .
= = = Accompaniment ( laoka ) = = =
The accompaniment served with rice is called laoka in the highlands dialect , the official version of the Malagasy language . Laoka are most often served in some kind of sauce : in the highlands , this sauce is generally tomato @-@ based , while in coastal areas coconut milk is often added during cooking . In the arid southern and western interior where herding zebu is traditional , fresh or curdled zebu milk is often incorporated into vegetable dishes . Laoka are diverse and may include such ingredients as Bambara groundnuts with pork , beef or fish ; trondro gasy , ( [ ˌtʂundʐʷ ˈɡasʲ ] , various freshwater fish ) ; shredded cassava leaves with peanuts , beef or pork ; henan 'omby ( [ henˈnumbʲ ] , beef ) or akoho ( [ aˈkuː ] , chicken ) sauteed with ginger and garlic or simmered in its own juices ( a preparation called ritra [ ˈritʂə ̥ ] ) ; various types of seafood , which are more readily available along the coasts or in large urban centers ; and many more . A variety of local greens such as anamamy ( [ anaˈmamʲ ] , Morelle greens ) , anamafaitra ( Malagasy pronunciation : [ anaˈmafai ̯ ʈʳ ] , Martin greens ) and particularly anamalao ( Malagasy pronunciation : [ anamaˈlau ̯ ] , paracress ) — distinguished by the mildly analgesic effect the boiled leaves and flowers produce — are commonly sold alongside anandrano ( Malagasy pronunciation : [ ananˈɖʳanʷ ] , watercress ) and anatsonga ( Malagasy pronunciation : [ anaˈtsuŋɡə ̥ ] , bok choy ) . In the arid south and west , such as among the Bara or Tandroy peoples , staples include sweet potato , yams , taro root and especially cassava , millet and maize , generally boiled in water and occasionally served in whole milk or flavored with crushed peanuts .
Garlic , onions , ginger , tomatoes , mild curry , and salt are the most common ingredients used to flavor dishes , and in coastal areas other ingredients such as coconut milk , vanilla , cloves or turmeric may also be used . A variety of condiments are served on the side and mixed into the rice or laoka according to each individual 's taste rather than mixing them in as the food is being cooked . The most common and basic condiment , sakay ( [ saˈkai ̯ ] ) , is a spicy condiment made from red or green chili pepper . Indian @-@ style condiments made of pickled mango , lemon , and other fruits ( known as achards or lasary [ laˈsarʲ ] ) , are a coastal specialty ; in the highlands , lasary often refers to a salad of green beans , cabbage , carrots and onion in a vinaigrette sauce , popular as a side dish or as the filling of a baguette sandwich .
Ro ( [ ru ] , a broth ) may be served as the main laoka or in addition to it to flavor and moisten the rice . Ro @-@ mangazafy ( [ rumaŋɡaˈzafʲ ] ) is a rich and flavorful broth made with beef , tomato and garlic that often accompanies a dry laoka . By contrast , Romatsatso ( [ rumaˈtsatsʷ ] ) is a light and relatively flavorless broth made with onion , tomato and anamamy greens served with meat or fatty poultry . Ron @-@ akoho ( [ runaˈku ] ) , a broth made with chicken and ginger , is a home remedy for the common cold , while rompatsa ( [ rumˈpatsə ̥ ] ) — a broth made with tiny dried shrimp and beef , to which sweet potato leaves and potato are often added — is traditionally eaten by new mothers to support lactation . The national dish is the broth called romazava , which in its simplest form is made of beef with anamalao , anantsonga or anamamy , although ingredients such as tomato , onion and ginger are commonly added to create more complex and flavorful versions . Romazava is distinguished by its inclusion of anamalao flowers , which produce a mild analgesic effect when the broth is consumed .
= = = Street foods = = =
A variety of cakes and fritters collectively known as mofo ( [ ˈmuf ] , meaning " bread " ) are available from kiosks in towns and cities across Madagascar . The most common is mofo gasy , meaning " Malagasy bread " , which is made from a batter of sweetened rice flour poured into greased circular molds and cooked over charcoal . Mofo gasy is a popular breakfast food and is often eaten with coffee , also sold at kiosks . In coastal areas this mofo is made with coconut milk and is known as mokary ( [ muˈkarʲ ] ) . Other sweet mofo include a deep @-@ fried doughnut called menakely and a fried dough ball called mofo baolina ( [ ˌmuf ˈbolː ] ) , as well as a variety of fruit fritters , with pineapple and bananas among the most common fruits used . Savory mofo include ramanonaka ( [ ˌramaˈnunakə ̥ ] ) , a mofo gasy salted and fried in lard , and a fritter flavored with chopped greens , onions , tomatoes and chilies called mofo sakay ( [ ˌmuf saˈkai ̯ ] , meaning " spicy bread " ) .
In marketplaces and gas stations one may find vendors selling koba akondro ( [ kubaˈkundʐʷ ] ) , a sweet made by wrapping a batter of ground peanuts , mashed bananas , honey and corn flour in banana leaves and steaming or boiling the small cakes until the batter has set . Peanut brittle , dried bananas , balls of tamarind paste rolled in colored sugar , deep @-@ fried wonton @-@ type dough strings called kaka pizon ( [ kaka pizõ ] , meaning " pigeon droppings " ) also eaten in neighboring Reunion Island , and home @-@ made yogurts , are all commonly sold on the street . In rural areas , steamed cassava or sweet potatoes are eaten , occasionally with fresh or sweetened condensed milk .
= = = Desserts = = =
Traditionally , fresh fruit may be eaten after a meal as a dessert . Fresh sugarcane may also be chewed as a treat . A great variety of temperate and tropical fruits are grown locally and may be enjoyed fresh or sprinkled with sugar . Temperate fruits found in Madagascar include but are not limited to apples , lemons , pumpkins , watermelon , oranges , cherries and strawberries . Among the many tropical fruits commonly eaten in Madagascar are coconut , tamarind , mango , pineapple , avocado , passion fruit , and loquats , locally called pibasy ( [ piˈbasʲ ] ) . Guava , longans , lychees , persimmon and " pok @-@ pok " ( also called voanantsindrana [ vunˈtsinɖʳanə ̥ ] ) , a fruit similar to a physalis , are common , while on the west coast the fruit of the baobab tree is eaten during the brief period when it becomes available near the end of the rainy season .
Madagascar is known for its high @-@ quality cocoa and vanilla , much of which are exported . In the coastal areas of Madagascar or in upscale inland restaurants , vanilla may be used to prepare savory sauces for poultry .
Koban @-@ dravina ( [ ˌkubanˈɖʳavʲnə ̥ ] ) or koba ( [ ˈkubə ̥ ] ) is a Malagasy specialty made by grinding together peanuts and brown sugar , then enveloping the mixture in a sweetened rice flour paste to produce a cylindrical bundle . The bundle is wrapped in banana leaves and boiled for 24 to 48 hours or longer until the sugar becomes caramelized and the peanuts have softened . The resulting cake is served in thin slices . Bonbon coco is a popular candy made from shredded coconut cooked with caramelized sugar and formed into chewy balls or patties . A firm , cake @-@ like coconut milk pudding known as godro @-@ godro ( [ ɡuɖʳˈɡuɖʳʷ ] ) is a popular dessert also found in Comoros . French pastries and cakes are very popular across the island and may be purchased at the many pâtisseries found in towns and cities throughout Madagascar .
= = = Beverages = = =
Ranon 'ampango ( [ ˌranʷnamˈpaŋɡʷ ] ) and ranovola ( [ ranʷˈvulə ̥ ] ) , are the most common and traditional beverages in Madagascar . Both are names for a drink made by adding hot water to the toasted rice left sticking to the interior of its cooking pot . This drink is a sanitary and tasty alternative to fresh water .
In addition , a variety of other drinks are produced locally . Coffee is grown in the eastern part of the island and has become a standard breakfast drink , served black or with sweetened condensed milk at street @-@ side kiosks . Black tea , occasionally flavored with vanilla , and herbal teas — particularly lemongrass and lemon bush ( ravin 'oliva [ ˌravʲnoˈlivə ̥ ] ) — are popular . Juices are made from guava , passion fruit , pineapple , tamarind , baobab and other fruit . Fresh milk , however , is a luxury , and locally produced yogurts , ice creams or sweetened condensed milk mixed with hot water are the most common dairy sources of calcium . Cola and orange soft drinks are produced locally , as is Bonbon Anglais , a local sweet lemon soda . Coca @-@ Cola products are popular and widely consumed throughout the island .
Numerous alcoholic beverages are produced for local consumption and limited export . The local pilsner , Three Horses Beer , is popular and ubiquitous . Wine is produced in the southern highlands around Fianarantsoa , and rum ( toaka gasy [ ˌtokə ̥ ˈɡasʲ ] ) is widely produced and can be either drunk neat , flavored with exotic fruits and spices to produce rhum arrangé , or blended with coconut milk to make a punch coco cocktail . The most traditional form of rum , called betsabetsa [ ˌbetsəˈbetsə ̥ ] , is made from fermented sugarcane juice . Rum serves a ritual purpose in many parts of Madagascar , where it is traditional to throw the first capful of a newly opened bottle of rum into the northeast corner of the room as an offering and gesture of respect to the ancestors . At social gatherings it is common for alcoholic beverages to be accompanied with savory , fried snacks known collectively as tsakitsaky , commonly including pan @-@ fried peanuts , potato chips , nems , sambos and kaka pizon .
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= Lōʻihi Seamount =
Lōʻihi Seamount ( also known as Loihi ) is an active submarine volcano located about 35 km ( 22 mi ) off the southeast coast of the island of Hawaiʻi . The top of the seamount is about 975 m ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ) below sea level . This seamount lies on the flank of Mauna Loa , the largest shield volcano on Earth . Lōʻihi , meaning " long " in Hawaiian , is the newest volcano in the Hawaiian @-@ Emperor seamount chain , a string of volcanoes that stretches over 5 @,@ 800 km ( 3 @,@ 600 mi ) northwest of Lōʻihi . Unlike most active volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean that make up the active plate margins on the Pacific Ring of Fire , Lōʻihi and the other volcanoes of the Hawaiian @-@ Emperor seamount chain are hotspot volcanoes and formed well away from the nearest plate boundary . Volcanoes in the Hawaiian Islands arise from the Hawaiʻi hotspot , and as the youngest volcano in the chain , Lōʻihi is the only Hawaiian volcano in the deep submarine preshield stage of development .
Lōʻihi began forming around 400 @,@ 000 years ago and is expected to begin emerging above sea level about 10 @,@ 000 – 100 @,@ 000 years from now . At its summit , Lōʻihi Seamount stands more than 3 @,@ 000 m ( 10 @,@ 000 ft ) above the seafloor , making it taller than Mount St. Helens was before its catastrophic 1980 eruption . A diverse microbial community resides around Lōʻihi 's many hydrothermal vents .
In the summer of 1996 , a swarm of 4 @,@ 070 earthquakes was recorded at Lōʻihi . This series included more earthquakes than any other swarm in Hawaiian recorded history . The swarm altered 10 to 13 square kilometres ( 4 to 5 sq mi ) of the seamount 's summit ; one section , Pele 's Vents , collapsed entirely upon itself and formed the renamed Pele 's Pit . The volcano has remained relatively active since the 1996 swarm and is monitored by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) and the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) . The Hawaii Undersea Geological Observatory ( HUGO ) provided real @-@ time data on Lōʻihi between 1997 and 2002 . Lōʻihi last erupted in 1996 , before the earthquake swarm of that summer .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Geology = = =
Lōʻihi is a seamount , or underwater volcano , on the flank of Mauna Loa , the Earth 's largest shield volcano . It is the newest volcano created by the Hawaiʻi hotspot in the extensive Hawaiian @-@ Emperor seamount chain . The distance between the summit of the older Mauna Loa and the summit of Lōʻihi is about 80 km ( 50 mi ) , which is , coincidentally , also the approximate diameter of the Hawaiʻi hotspot . Lōʻihi consists of a summit area with three pit craters , an 11 km ( 7 mi ) long rift zone extending north from the summit , and a 19 km ( 12 mi ) long rift zone extending south @-@ southeast from the summit .
The summit 's pit craters are named West Pit , East Pit , and Pele 's Pit . Pele 's Pit is the youngest of this group and is located at the southern part of the summit . The walls of Pele 's Pit stand 200 m ( 700 ft ) high and were formed in July 1996 when its predecessor , Pele 's Vent , a hydrothermal field near Lōʻihi 's summit , collapsed into a large depression . The thick crater walls of Pele 's Pit — averaging 20 m ( 70 ft ) in width , unusually thick for Hawaiian volcanic craters — suggest its craters have filled with lava multiple times in the past .
Lōʻihi 's north – south trending rift zones create a distinctive elongated shape , from which the volcano 's Hawaiian name , meaning " long " , derives . The north rift zone consists of a longer western portion and a shorter eastern rift zone . Observations show that both the north and south rift zones lack sediment cover , indicating recent activity . A bulge in the western part of the north rift zone contains three 60 – 80 m ( 200 – 260 ft ) cone @-@ shaped prominences .
Until 1970 , Lōʻihi was thought to be an inactive volcano that had been transported to its current location by sea @-@ floor spreading . The seafloor under Hawaiʻi is 80 – 100 million years old and was created at the East Pacific Rise , an oceanic spreading center where new sea floor forms from magma that erupts from the mantle . New oceanic crust moves away from the spreading center . Over a period of 80 – 100 million years , the sea floor under Hawaiʻi moved from the East Pacific Rise to its present location 6 @,@ 000 km ( 4 @,@ 000 mi ) west , carrying ancient seamounts with it . When scientists investigated a series of earthquakes off Hawaiʻi in 1970 , they discovered that Lōʻihi was an active member of the Hawaiian @-@ Emperor seamount chain .
Lōʻihi is built on the seafloor with a slope of about five degrees . Its northern base on the flank of Mauna Loa is 1 @,@ 900 m ( 6 @,@ 200 ft ) below sea level , but its southern base is a more substantial 4 @,@ 755 m ( 15 @,@ 600 ft ) below the surface . Thus , the summit is 931 m ( 3 @,@ 054 ft ) above the seafloor as measured from the base of its north flank , but 3 @,@ 786 m ( 12 @,@ 421 ft ) high when measured from the base of its southern flank .
Lōʻihi is following the pattern of development that is characteristic of all Hawaiʻian volcanoes . Geochemical evidence from Lōʻihi lavas indicates that Lōʻihi is in transition between the preshield and shield volcano stage , providing valuable clues to the early development of Hawaiian volcanoes . In the preshield stage , Hawaiian volcanoes have steeper sides and a lower level of activity , producing an alkali basalt lava . Continued volcanism is expected to eventually create an island at Lōʻihi . Lōʻihi experiences frequent landslides ; the growth of the volcano has destabilized its slopes , and extensive areas of debris inhabit the steep southeastern face . Similar deposits from other Hawaiian volcanoes indicate that landslide debris is an important product of the early development of Hawaiian volcanoes . Lōʻihi is predicted to rise above the surface in 10 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 years .
= = = Age and growth = = =
Radiometric dating was used to determine the age of rock samples from Lōʻihi . The Hawaii Center for Volcanology tested samples recovered by various expeditions , notably the 1978 expedition , which provided 17 dredge samples . Most of the samples were found to be of recent origin ; the oldest dated rock is around 300 @,@ 000 years old . Following the 1996 event , some young breccia was also collected . Based on the samples , scientists estimate Lōʻihi is about 400 @,@ 000 years old . The rock accumulates at an average rate of 3 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 14 in ) per year near the base , and 7 @.@ 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) near the summit . If the data model from other volcanoes such as Kīlauea holds true for Lōʻihi , 40 % of the volcano 's mass formed within the last 100 @,@ 000 years . Assuming a linear growth rate , Lōʻihi is 250 @,@ 000 years old . However , as with all hotspot volcanoes , Lōʻihi 's level of activity has increased with time ; therefore , it would take at least 400 @,@ 000 years for such a volcano to reach Lōʻihi 's mass . As Hawaiian volcanoes drift northwest at a rate of about 10 cm ( 4 in ) a year , Lōʻihi was 40 km ( 25 mi ) southeast of its current position at the time of its initial eruption .
= = Activity = =
Lōʻihi is a young and fairly active volcano , although less active than nearby Kīlauea . In the past few decades , several earthquake swarms have been attributed to Lōʻihi , the largest of which are summarized in the table below . The volcano 's activity is now known to predate scientific record keeping of its activity , which commenced in 1959 . Most earthquake swarms at Lōʻihi have lasted less than two days ; the two exceptions are the 1991 – 92 earthquake , lasting several months , and the 1996 event , which was shorter but much more pronounced . Both of the earthquakes followed a pattern of activity that began on the flank and migrated to the summit . The 1996 event was directly observed by an autonomous ocean bottom observatory ( OBO ) , allowing scientists to calculate the depth of the earthquakes as 6 km ( 4 mi ) to 8 km ( 5 mi ) below the summit , approximating to the position of Lōʻihi 's extremely shallow magma chamber . This is evidence that Lōʻihi 's seismicity is volcanic in origin .
The low @-@ level seismic activity documented on Lōʻihi since 1959 has shown that between two and ten earthquakes per month are traceable to the summit . Earthquake swarm data have been used to analyze how well Lōʻihi 's rocks propagate seismic waves and to investigate the relationship between earthquakes and eruptions . This low level activity is periodically punctuated by large swarms of earthquakes , each swarm comprising up to hundreds of earthquakes . The majority of the earthquakes are not distributed close to the summit , though they follow a north – south trend . Rather , most of the earthquakes occur in the southwest portion of Lōʻihi . The largest recorded swarms took place on Lōʻihi in 1971 , 1972 , 1975 , 1991 – 92 and 1996 . The nearest seismic station is around 30 km ( 20 mi ) from Lōʻihi , on the south coast of Hawaiʻi . Seismic events that have a magnitude under 2 are recorded often , but their location cannot be determined precisely as it can for larger events . In fact , HUGO ( Hawaiʻi Undersea Geological Observatory ) , positioned on Lōʻihi 's flank , detected ten times as many earthquakes as were recorded by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory ( HVO ) seismic network .
= = = 1996 earthquake swarm = = =
The largest amount of activity recorded for the Lōʻihi seamount was a swarm of 4 @,@ 070 earthquakes between July 16 and August 9 , 1996 . This series of earthquakes was the largest recorded for any Hawaiian volcano to date in both amount and intensity . Most of the earthquakes had moment magnitudes of less than 3 @.@ 0 . " Several hundred " had a magnitude greater than 3 @.@ 0 , including more than 40 greater than 4 @.@ 0 and a 5 @.@ 0 tremor .
The final two weeks of the earthquake swarm were observed by a quick response cruise launched in August 1996 . The National Science Foundation funded an expedition by University of Hawaiʻi scientists , led by Frederick Duennebier , that began investigating the swarm and its origin in August 1996 . The scientists ' assessment laid the groundwork for many of the expeditions that followed . Follow @-@ up expeditions to Lōʻihi took place , including a series of manned @-@ submersible dives in August and September . These were supplemented by a great deal of shore @-@ based research . Fresh rock collected during the expedition revealed that an eruption occurred before the earthquake swarm .
Submersible dives in August were followed by NOAA @-@ funded research in September and October 1996 . These more detailed studies showed the southern portion of Lōʻihi 's summit had collapsed , a result of a swarm of earthquakes and the rapid withdrawal of magma from the volcano . A crater 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) across and 300 m ( 1 @,@ 000 ft ) deep formed out of the rubble . The event involved the movement of 100 million cubic meters of volcanic material . A region of 10 to 13 km2 ( 4 to 5 sq mi ) of the summit was altered and populated by bus @-@ sized pillow lava blocks , precariously perched along the outer rim of the newly formed crater . " Pele 's Vents , " an area on the southern side , previously considered stable , collapsed completely into a giant pit , renamed " Pele 's Pit " . Strong currents make submersible diving hazardous in the region .
The researchers were continually met by clouds of sulfide and sulfate . The sudden collapse of Pele 's Vents caused a large discharge of hydrothermal material . The presence of certain indicator minerals in the mixture suggested temperatures exceeded 250 ° C , a record for an underwater volcano . The composition of the materials was similar to that of black smokers , the hydrothermal vent plumes located along mid @-@ ocean ridges . Samples from mounds built by discharges from the hydrothermal plumes resembled white smokers .
The studies demonstrated that the most volcanically and hydrothermally active area was along the southern rift . Dives on the less active northern rim indicated that the terrain was more stable there , and high lava columns were still standing upright . A new hydrothermal vent field ( Naha Vents ) was located in the upper @-@ south rift zone , at a depth of 1 @,@ 325 m ( 4 @,@ 350 ft ) .
= = = Recent activity = = =
Lōʻihi has remained largely quiet since the 1996 event ; no activity was recorded from 2002 to 2004 . The seamount showed signs of life again in 2005 by generating an earthquake bigger than any previously recorded there . USGS @-@ ANSS ( Advanced National Seismic System ) reported two earthquakes , magnitudes 5 @.@ 1 and 5 @.@ 4 , on May 13 and July 17 . Both originated from a depth of 44 km ( 27 mi ) . On April 23 , a magnitude 4 @.@ 3 earthquake was recorded at a depth of approximately 33 km ( 21 mi ) . Between December 7 , 2005 , and January 18 , 2006 , a swarm of around 100 earthquakes occurred , the largest measuring 4 on the Moment magnitude scale and 12 km ( 7 mi ) to 28 km ( 17 mi ) deep . Another earthquake measuring 4 @.@ 7 was later recorded approximately midway between Lōʻihi and Pāhala ( on the south coast of the island of Hawaiʻi ) .
= = Exploration = =
= = = Early work = = =
Lōʻihi Seamount 's first depiction on a map was on Survey Chart 4115 , a bathymetric rendering of part of Hawaiʻi compiled by the US Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1940 . At the time , the seamount was non @-@ notable , being one of many in the region . A large earthquake swarm first brought attention to it in 1952 . That same year , geologist Gordon A. MacDonald hypothesized that the seamount was actually an active submarine shield volcano , similar to the two active Hawaiian volcanoes , Mauna Loa and Kīlauea . Macdonald 's hypothesis placed the seamount as the newest volcano in the Hawaiian @-@ Emperor seamount chain , created by the Hawaiʻi hotspot . However , because the earthquakes were oriented east – west ( the direction of the volcanic fault ) and there was no volcanic tremor in seismometers distant from the seamount , Macdonald attributed the earthquake to faulting rather than a volcanic eruption .
Geologists suspected the seamount could be an active undersea volcano , but without evidence the idea remained speculative . The volcano was largely ignored after the 1952 event , and was often mislabeled as an " older volcanic feature " in subsequent charts . Geologist Kenneth O. Emery is credited with naming the seamount in 1955 , describing the long and narrow shape of the volcano as Loihi . The Hawaiian word lōʻihi means " long " . In 1978 , an expedition studied intense , repeated seismic activity known as earthquake swarms in and around the Lōʻihi area . Rather than finding an old , extinct seamount , data collected revealed Lōʻihi to be a young , possibly active volcano . Observations showed the volcano to be encrusted with young and old lava flows . Fluids erupting from active hydrothermal vents were also found .
In 1978 , a US Geological Survey research ship collected dredge samples and photographed Lōʻihi 's summit with the goal of studying whether Lōʻihi is active . Analysis of the photos and testing of pillow lava rock samples appeared to show that the material was " fresh " , yielding more evidence that Lōʻihi is still active . An expedition from October 1980 to January 1981 collected further dredge samples and photographs , providing additional confirmation . Studies indicated that the eruptions came from the southern part of the rift crater . This area is closest to the Hawaiʻi hotspot , which supplies Lōʻihi with magma . Following a 1986 seismic event , a network of five ocean bottom observatories ( OBOs ) were deployed on Lōʻihi for a month . Lōʻihi 's frequent seismicity makes it an ideal candidate for seismic study through OBOs . In 1987 , the submersible DSV Alvin was used to survey Lōʻihi . Another autonomous observatory was positioned on Lōʻihi in 1991 to track earthquake swarms .
= = = 1996 to present = = =
The bulk of information about Lōʻihi comes from dives made in response to the 1996 eruption . In a dive conducted almost immediately after seismic activity was reported , visibility was greatly reduced by high concentrations of displaced minerals and large floating mats of bacteria in the water . The bacteria that feed on the dissolved nutrients had already begun colonizing the new hydrothermal vents at Pele 's Pit ( formed from the collapse of the old ones ) , and may be indicators of the kinds of material ejected from the newly formed vents . They were carefully sampled for further analysis in a laboratory . An OBO briefly sat on the summit before a more permanent probe could be installed .
Repeated multibeam bathymetric mapping was used to measure the changes in the summit following the 1996 collapse . Hydrothermal plume surveys confirmed changes in the energy , and dissolved minerals emanating from Lōʻihi . Hawaiʻi Undersea Research Laboratory , HURL 's 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 562 ft ) submersible Pisces V allowed scientists to sample the vent waters , microorganisms and hydrothermal mineral deposits .
In 1997 , scientists from the University of Hawaiʻi installed an ocean bottom observatory ( OBO ) on the summit of Lōʻihi Seamount . The submarine observatory was nicknamed HUGO , ( Hawaiʻi Undersea Geological Observatory ) . HUGO was connected to the shore , 34 km ( 21 mi ) away , by a fiber optic cable . It gave scientists real @-@ time seismic , chemical and visual data about the state of Lōʻihi , which had by then become an international laboratory for the study of undersea volcanism . The cable that provided HUGO with power and communications broke in October 1998 , effectively shutting it down . On January 19 of the following year , HUGO was visited by Pisces V. The observatory functioned for four years before it went dead again in 2002 .
Since 2006 , the Fe @-@ Oxidizing Microbial Observatory ( FeMO ) , funded by the National Science Foundation and Microbial Observatory Program , has led cruises to Lōʻihi investigate its microbiology every October . The first cruise , on the ship R / V Melville and exploiting the submersible JASON2 , lasted from September 22 to October 9 . These cruises study the large number of Fe @-@ oxidizing bacteria that have colonized Lōʻihi . Lōʻihi 's extensive vent system is characterized by a high concentration of CO2 and Iron , while being low in sulfide . These characteristics make a perfect environment for iron @-@ oxidizing bacteria , called FeOB , to thrive in .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Hydrothermal vent geochemistry = = =
Lōʻihi 's mid @-@ Pacific location and its well @-@ sustained hydrothermal system contribute to a rich oasis for a microbial ecosystem . Areas of extensive hydrothermal venting are found on Lōʻihi 's crater floor and north slope , and along the summit of Lōʻihi itself . Active hydrothermal vents were first discovered at Lōʻihi in the late 1980s . These vents are remarkably similar to those found at the mid @-@ ocean ridges , with similar composition and thermal differences . The two most prominent vent fields are at the summit : Pele 's Pit ( formally Pele 's Vents ) and Kapo 's Vents . They are named after the Hawaiian deity Pele and her sister Kapo . These vents were considered " low temperature vents " because their waters were only about 30 ° C. The volcanic eruption of 1996 and the creation of Pele 's Pit changed this , and initiated high temperature venting ; exit temperatures were measured at 77 ° C in 1996 .
= = = Microorganisms = = =
The vents lie 1 @,@ 100 m ( 3 @,@ 600 ft ) to 1 @,@ 325 m ( 4 @,@ 347 ft ) below the surface , and range in temperature from 10 to over 200 ° C. The vent fluids are characterized by a high concentration of CO
2 ( up to 17 mM ) and Fe ( Iron ) , but low in sulfide . Low oxygen and pH levels are important factors in supporting the high amounts of Fe ( iron ) , one of the hallmark features of Lōʻihi . These characteristics make a perfect environment for iron @-@ oxidizing bacteria , called FeOB , to thrive in . An example of these species is Mariprofundus ferrooxydans , sole member of the class Zetaproteobacteria . The composition of the materials was similar to that of black smokers , that are a habitat of archaea extremophiles . Dissolution and oxidation of the mineral observed over the next two years suggests the sulfate is not easily preserved .
A diverse community of microbial mats surround the vents and virtually cover Pele 's Pit . The Hawaiʻi Undersea Research Laboratory ( HURL ) , NOAA 's Research Center for Hawaiʻi and the Western Pacific , monitors and researches the hydrothermal systems and studies the local community . The National Science Foundation ( NSF ) funded an extremophile sampling expedition to Lōʻihi in 1999 . Microbial mats surrounded the 160 ° C vents , and included a novel jelly @-@ like organism . Samples were collected for study at NSF 's Marine Bioproducts Engineering Center ( MarBEC ) . In 2001 , Pisces V collected samples of the organisms and brought them to the surface for study .
NOAA 's National Undersea Research Center and NSF 's Marine Bioproducts Engineering Center are cooperating to sample and research the local bacteria and archaea extremophiles . The fourth FeMO ( Fe @-@ Oxidizing Microbial Observatory ) cruise occurred during October 2009 .
= = = Macroorganisms = = =
Marine life inhabiting the waters around Lōʻihi is not as diverse as life at other , less active seamounts . Fish found living near Lōʻihi include the Celebes monkfish ( Sladenia remiger ) , and members of the Cutthroat eel family , Synaphobranchidae . Invertebrates identified in the area include two species endemic to the hydrothermal vents , a bresiliid shrimp ( Opaepele loihi ) of the family Alvinocarididae ( described in 1995 ) , and a tube or pogonophoran worm . Dives conducted after the 1996 earthquake swarms were unable to find either the shrimp or the worm , and it is not known if there are lasting effects on these species .
From 1982 to 1992 , researchers in Hawaiʻi Undersea Research Laboratory submersibles photographed the fish of Lōʻihi Seamount , Johnston Atoll , and Cross Seamount at depths between 40 m ( 130 ft ) and 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) . A small number of species identified at Lōʻihi were newly recorded sightings in Hawaiʻi , including the Tassled coffinfish ( Chaunax fimbriatus ) , and the Celebes monkfish .
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= Lise Tréhot =
Lise Tréhot ( 14 March 1848 – 12 March 1922 ) was a French art model who posed for artist Pierre @-@ Auguste Renoir from 1866 until 1872 , during his early Salon period . She appeared in more than twenty paintings , including notable works such as Lise ( 1867 ) and In Summer ( 1868 ) , and she was the model for almost all of Renoir 's work featuring female figures at this time . Tréhot married Georges Briere de l 'Isle in 1883 and raised four children to whom she bequeathed two of Renoir 's paintings , Lise Sewing ( 1867 – 68 ) and Lise With a White Shawl ( 1872 ) , both of which are currently held by the Dallas Museum of Art .
= = Early life = =
Lise Tréhot was born in Ecquevilly , Seine @-@ et @-@ Oise , France , on 14 March 1848 , to Louis Tréhot and Amelie Elisabeth Boudin . Her father was the postmaster of the town until the mid @-@ 1850s , after which he moved the entire family to Paris where he sold lemonade and tobacco . She was the fourth in a family of six children , including three brothers and two sisters . A document from this time describes Tréhot 's profession as a dressmaker . Clémence Tréhot , her older sister , was the lover of artist Jules Le Coeur , who later introduced her to Pierre @-@ Auguste Renoir at his house in Marlotte , possibly in June 1865 .
= = Modeling period = =
Tréhot began modeling for Renoir when she was about eighteen and he was twenty @-@ five . Early paintings of Tréhot at this time include Lise in a Straw Hat ( 1866 ) and Lise Sewing ( 1867 – 68 ) . Renoir painted a modern nude of Tréhot as Diana ( 1867 ) , but it was rejected by the Salon of 1867 . Renoir found critical success the next year with Lise ( 1867 ) , which was well received at the Salon of 1868 . The Impressionist painting depicts Tréhot in a life @-@ size portrait , strolling through a wooded park as sunlight falls through the trees . Art critic Zacharie Astruc described Tréhot in Lise as " the likeable Parisian girl in the woods " , and as a working @-@ class girl . Émile Zola also approved , comparing Tréhot to Monet 's model and later wife Camille Doncieux . French art critic Théodore Duret later observed that because Renoir 's Lise was derivative of Gustave Courbet 's technique , its appearance at the Salon " provoked no definite opposition " . However , Renoir 's decision to shadow Tréhot 's face in darkness and emphasize the reflection of sunlight from her white dress in Lise led several critics to ridicule Tréhot 's appearance due to the unusual contrast .
At the Salon of 1869 , Tréhot appeared in a work named In Summer ( 1868 ) , dressed casually in a loose blouse falling off her shoulders . John Collins notes that Tréhot 's " dark , heavy @-@ set and expressionless features " worked well in such portraits , but were less successful in more formal , costume @-@ oriented paintings such as The Engaged Couple ( 1868 ) , where she poses with artist Alfred Sisley . In the summer of 1869 , she accompanied Renoir to his parent 's house in the Ville @-@ d 'Avray , and made trips to the Seine near Bougival where Renoir painted scenes with Monet on the water . La Barque ( 1870 ) is thought to depict Lise during this summer holiday .
In total , Tréhot appeared in more than twenty paintings by Renoir during his early Salon period from approximately 1866 until 1872 . According to art historian John House , " Lise was the model for virtually all of Renoir 's female figures at this time " .
Although little is known about the exact nature of Tréhot 's relationship with Renoir while she was modeling ; she is said to have given birth to a baby boy named Pierre on 14 December 1868 , but it is unclear what became of him and he may have died as an infant . On 21 July 1870 , Tréhot gave birth to a baby girl named Jeanne ( d . 1934 ) who was given to a wet nurse to raise as her own . Renoir continued to secretly support Jeanne financially until he died ( and after his death with the help of Ambroise Vollard ) , but never publicly or legally acknowledged that she was his daughter during his lifetime .
For unknown reasons , Tréhot stopped modeling for Renoir after 1872 ; it was said that she never spoke to or saw him again . Although Tréhot was an important part of Renoir 's early career , he never mentioned her in any published interviews , memoirs , or biographies .
= = Later life = =
In 1883 , more than a decade after Tréhot stopped modeling for Renoir , she married architect Georges Briere de l 'Isle ( 1847 – 1902 ) , As the wife of Brière de l 'Isle , she raised two sons and two daughters . Tréhot bequeathed two of Renoir 's paintings , Lise Sewing ( 1867 – 68 ) and Lise With a White Shawl ( 1872 ) , to her children . It is said that before her death , she destroyed many of her personal papers related to her time modeling for Renoir . Tréhot died in Paris on 12 March 1922 , at the age of 73 . She is buried in the Père Lachaise Cemetery .
= = Selected works as model = =
Tréhot 's list of selected works includes at least twenty @-@ five oil on canvas paintings , twenty @-@ three of which were painted by Renoir , while two are by Frédéric Bazille ( 1841 – 1870 ) . It is thought that Tréhot may have posed for as many as twenty @-@ three works for Renoir , but only once for Bazille ; Renoir 's Landscape with Two People ( 1866 ) , in which she appeared , has either been lost or destroyed , but is believed to have been preserved as a painting within a painting in Bazille 's Studio ( 1870 ) . Bazille 's work is the only known surviving image of the full painting ; a surviving fragment of the work has been identified , but its location is unknown . Tréhot is believed to have posed for La Toilette ( 1869 – 70 ) , another work by Bazille .
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= Longyearbyen =
Longyearbyen ( Norwegian pronunciation : [ ˈlɔŋjiːrbyːən ] ( lit . The Longyear Town ) is the largest settlement and the administrative centre of Svalbard , Norway . As of December 2015 , the town had a population of 2 @,@ 144 . Longyearbyen is located in the Longyear Valley and on the shore of Adventfjorden , a bay of Isfjorden located on the west coast of Spitsbergen . Since 2002 , Longyearbyen Community Council has had many of the same responsibilities of a municipality , including utilities , education , cultural facilities , fire brigade , roads and ports . The town is the seat of the Governor of Svalbard . It is the world 's northernmost settlement of any kind with greater than 1 @,@ 000 permanent residents .
Known as Longyear City until 1926 , the town was established by and named after John Munro Longyear , whose Arctic Coal Company started coal mining operations in 1906 . Operations were taken over by Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani ( SNSK ) in 1916 , which still conducts mining . The town was almost completely destroyed by the German Kriegsmarine on 8 August 1943 , but was rebuilt after the Second World War . Traditionally , Longyearbyen was a company town , but most mining operations have moved to Sveagruva since the 1990s , while the town has seen a large increase in tourism and research . This has seen the arrival of institutions such as the University Centre in Svalbard , the Svalbard Global Seed Vault and Svalbard Satellite Station . The community is served by Svalbard Airport , Longyear and Svalbard Church .
= = History = =
In 1896 , Vesteraalens Dampskibsselskab started tours to Hotellneset . To accommodate tourists , they built a prefabricated hotel , but it was not profitable and was closed after the 1897 season . However , two families overwintered in 1898 – 99 and Norway Post operated a post office at Hotellneset from 1897 to 1899 . The first commercially viable coal on Svalbard was harvested by Søren Zakariassen in 1899 . In 1901 , Bergen @-@ Spitsbergen Kullgrube @-@ kompani started mining coal in Adventtoppen .
The American industrialist John Munroe Longyear visited Spitsbergen as a tourist in 1901 , where he met with an expedition prospecting for coal . He returned to Spitsbergen 1903 , where he met Henrik B. Næss in Adventfjorden , who gave him samples and information on coal fields . Along with his associate Frederick Ayer , Longyear bought the Norwegian claims on the west side of Adventfjorden , and expanded the claims significantly the following year . In 1906 , the Boston @-@ based Arctic Coal Company , with Ayer and Longyear as the main shareholders , started mining in Mine 1a , after having built docks and housing . The company had American administration , but mostly Norwegian labourers , and named the town Longyear City . Coal was transported the 1 @.@ 2 kilometers ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) from the mine to the port using an aerial tramway . In 1913 , the company started preliminary work to open Mine 2a .
Following financial difficulties during the First World War , the mining operations were bought by Store Norske , which was incorporated in Oslo on 30 November 1916 . That year , SNSK built five new barracks , including one that was made into a hospital . SNSK introduced its own money with approval from Norges Bank , consisting entirely of banknotes at par with Norwegian krone . The American community buried their dead at Hotellneset . In 1918 , eleven people were killed by the Spanish flu and a graveyard was established in Longyear City . Two years later , 26 men were killed in a coal dust explosion in Mine 1 . This resulted in the mine being closed and electric operation being taken into use in Mine 2 . The same year , the first truck was delivered for use in the mining operations .
The Church of Norway appointed Thorleif Østenstad as Svalbard 's first vicar and teacher in 1920 . A school was established as a cooperation between the church and SNSK and had an inaugural eight pupils . The first Svalbard Church opened on 28 August 1921 , and the church 's reading room was from then used as a school . Longyear City was renamed Longyearbyen in 1926 .
The Norwegian Telecommunications Administration established a coast radio station , Svalbard Radio , at Finneset in 1911 , which was moved to Longyearbyen in 1930 . The town 's tourist industry started in 1935 , when SS Lyngen started calling regularly during the summer season . In 1937 , SNSK established Sverdrupbyen to house workers for Mine 1b and operation of the mine started in 1939 . In 1938 , Longyearbyen 's first road was completed , between the town center and Sverdrupbyen . Operations at Mine 2b , a different entrance to Mine 2a , started in 1939 .
Svalbard remained unaffected by the German occupation of Norway in 1940 . However , from 1941 the archipelago became of strategic importance in the supply chain between the Allied powers , as well as a source of badly needed coal . The Norwegian government @-@ in @-@ exile rejected a Soviet – British occupation ; instead the British Army started Operation Gauntlet to evacuate Spitsbergen . On 29 August 1941 , the entire population of Ny @-@ Ålesund was evacuated to Longyearbyen , and on 3 September 765 people were evacuated from Longyearbyen to Scotland . Later the last 150 men were also evacuated . With Longyearbyen depopulated , a small German garrison and air strip was established in Adventdalen , mostly to provide meteorological data . After the British Operation Fritham regained control of Barentsburg , the German forces left Longyearbyen without combat .
In September 1943 , the Kriegsmarine dispatched two battleships , Tirpitz and Scharnhorst , and nine destroyers to bombard Longyearbyen , Barentsburg and Grumant . Only four buildings in Longyearbyen survived : the hospital , the power station , an office building and a residential building , in addition to Sverdrupbyen . Longyearbyen remained unsettled until the end of the war , with the first ship from the mainland leaving on 27 June 1945 .
= = = Post @-@ Second World War = = =
Plans were laid during the war to ensure a quick reconstruction and commencing of mining . By 1948 , coal production reached the pre @-@ war level of 480 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 470 @,@ 000 long tons ; 530 @,@ 000 short tons ) per year . Nybyen was established in 1946 and consisted of five barracks , each housing 72 people . The first issue of Svalbardposten was published in November 1948 . Until then , there had irregularly been published various wall newspapers . In 1949 , Longyearbyen received telephone service with the mainland via a radio connection between Svalbard Radio and Harstad . In 1949 , a farm was built in Longyearbyen to hold cattle for milk , pigs and hens . A local radio station started broadcasting in 1950 . The burial ground remained in use until 1950 , seeing 44 people buried . However , it was discovered that the bodies were failing to decompose because of the permafrost . Bodies have since been sent to the mainland for burial . The community center Huset opened in 1951 .
Mining in Mine 1b was terminated in 1958 , but operation in Mine 5 started the following year . Preliminary work on Mine 4 started in 1954 , and from 1960 it was used as a reserve mine . The Norwegian Air Force started serving Longyearbyen with postal flights in the 1950s . In 1959 , a man fell seriously ill , so a landing strip was prepared in Adventdalen . From the same year , Braathens SAFE started serving the tundra airport with irregular winter flights . In 1957 , a principal was hired at the primary school and a new church was opened on 24 August 1958 . From 1961 , the primary school was supplemented by a private middle school . A branch of Tromsø Sparebank opened in 1959 .
In the 1960s , the town 's farm was closed and replaced by industrial liquifying of powdered milk . The first serial @-@ produced snowmobile was taken into use in 1961 . By 1969 , there were 140 registered snowmobiles and only 33 registered cars . From 1962 to 1984 , a recreational centre was run at Sverdrupbyen . Ordinary operation in Mine 4 started in 1966 but was terminated by 1970 , two years after Mine 2b closed . Operations in Mine 6 commenced in 1969 . Television broadcasting equipment was installed in 1969 , with the schedule of the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation being aired with a two @-@ week delay .
In 1971 , a new school building , with a combined primary and lower secondary school , was opened , along with a new gymnasium and a 12 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 41 ft ) swimming pool . The Svalbard Council was established on 1 November 1971 . It consisted of 17 non @-@ partisan members that were elected or appointed in three different groups — SNSK employees , government employees and others , although the ratio changed several times . Operations of Mine 3 started in March 1971 and operations in Mine 7 commenced the following year . In 1973 , the Ministry of Trade and Industry bought a third of SNSK . It continued buying additional shares until reaching a 99 @.@ 94 percent ownership in 1976 . The airport was opened in 1975 and initially provided four weekly services to mainland Norway and semi @-@ weekly services to Russia . In 1978 , the community received satellite communications with the mainland . The same year , an upper secondary program was introduced at the public school . From 1984 , television programmes were broadcast live via satellite .
Store Norske underwent a gradual change during the 1980s . Since 1980 , Spitsbergen money has been taken out of circulation and replaced with ordinary Norwegian currency . Mine 6 closed the following year . From 1982 , SNSK permitted private individuals to own and operate cars . By 1990 , there were 353 registered cars and 883 snowscooters . On 1 July 1983 , SNSK moved its head office from Bergen to Longyearbyen . Svalbard Samfunnsdrift ( SSD ) , a limited company that was responsible for public infrastructure and services , was established by SNSK on 1 January 1989 . Responsibilities included healthcare , the fire brigade , the kindergarten , roads , rubbish disposal , power production , the water and sewer system , the cinema , cultural actives and the library . Ownership was taken over by the Ministry of Trade and Industry on 1 January 1993 .
During the 1990s , the authorities started a process to " normalise " Longyearbyen by abolishing the company town scheme and introducing a full range of services , a varied economy and local democracy . Commercial enterprises included a shopping mall replacing SNSK 's provision store in 1992 . Similarly , Esso opened a commercial fuel station in 1994 . The Svalbard Council changed its regulations from 1993 and allowed parties to run for election . In a step to increase tourism , Svalbard Polar Hotel opened in 1995 , and a year later mining of Mine 3 terminated . Longyearbyen Community Council was established in 2002 , replacing the Svalbard Council and assimilating SSD , and took on many of the responsibilities and the structure of a municipality .
This period also saw the rise of a number of scientific establishments . The Agricultural University of Norway had established a primitive seed bank in 1984 . The University Centre in Svalbard opened on 6 September 1993 and had 30 students in its inaugural semester . Telenor Mobil established GSM coverage in 1995 , and in 2004 the Svalbard Undersea Cable System opened , providing fiber optic cable connection to the mainland . The European Incoherent Scatter Scientific Association ( EISCAT ) opened a radar in 1996 , followed by Svalbard Satellite Station in 1999 and the Svalbard Global Seed Vault in 2008 .
= = Geography = =
Longyearbyen , the largest settlement in Svalbard , is located in the lower portion of the Longyear Valley , along the Longyear River . The lower parts of the town lie along the southwestern shore of the bay of Adventfjorden , a 7 by 4 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 3 by 2 @.@ 5 mi ) branch of Isfjorden . Longyearbyen is on the Nordenskiöld Land peninsula of Spitsbergen , the largest island of the Svalbard archipelago . It is the world 's northern @-@ most town , with all settlements further north being research or meteorological outposts . Across the bay lie the ghost towns of Advent City and Hiorthhamn .
Longyearbyen is divided into several neighbourhoods . On the west side of the river , along the bay , lies the port and affiliated utility and industrial services . The western part of this area is called Bykaia and the eastern part Sjøområdet . Above lies Skjæringa , the site of the Governor 's offices . Slightly up the valley on the west side lies Gamle Longyearbyen ( " Old Longyearbyen " ) and the church . Even further up lies the graveyard , then Huset and the cinema , and finally Sverdrupbyen . Most of the residential , commercial and cultural institutions are located on the east side of the river . Along the bay the area is called Sjøskrenten . Further up lies the university centre and Gruvedalen , the largest residential area . Southwards from there is the main shopping area as well as the town hall . To the east is the residential area Lia and further up Haugen , which is also the location of the school . Furthest up in the valley is Mine 2b and Nybyen , which is mostly used as student housing . Westwards out of town towards Hotellneset is the airport and Mine 3 . The remaining mines are located in Adventdalen , to the east of town .
= = = Climate = = =
Svalbard 's climate is a combination of an Arctic climate ( Köppen : ET ) tempered by the North Atlantic Current . Nordenskiöld Land is the warmest and wettest part of the archipelago , caused by the convergence of mild and humid air from the south and cold air from the north . Average summer highs are typically 3 to 7 ° C ( 37 to 45 ° F ) while average winter highs are − 11 to − 13 ° C ( 12 to 9 ° F ) . Longyearbyen experiences midnight sun from 19 April to 23 August , polar night from 27 October to 14 February and civil polar night from 14 November to 29 January . However , due to shading from mountains , the sun is not visible in Longyearbyen until around 8 March . Snow typically covers the town from November to March . The warmest temperature ever recorded in Longyearbyen was 21 @.@ 3 ° C ( 70 @.@ 3 ° F ) in July 1979 and the coldest was − 46 @.@ 3 ° C ( − 51 @.@ 3 ° F ) in March 1986 . Svalbard and Longyearbyen are among the places in the world that have warmed fastest in the latest decades . The average temperatures in the table below are based on 1961 @-@ 90 . In the more recent period 1981 @-@ 2010 , winter has warmed 3 @.@ 4 ° C ( 6 @.@ 1 ° F ) and summer 1 ° C ( 1 @.@ 8 ° F ) compared to 1961 @-@ 90 .
= = Demographics = =
As of 2015 , Longyearbyen had a population of 2 @,@ 144 people . The largest regional group of Norwegians are from Northern Norway , particularly Nordland and Troms , which make more than 40 percent of the population . Roughly 300 people ( 16 percent ) are non @-@ Norwegian citizens , with the largest nationalities being from Thailand , Sweden , Russia and Ukraine . Because of the dominance of the mining industry , the gender distribution is skewed with 60 percent of adults being males . Longyearbyen has an over @-@ average share of its population between 25 and 44 years old , but nearly no residents over 66 . The number of children in relation to the population is at the national average , but Longyearbyen has significantly fewer teenagers than the national average .
Longyearbyen experiences a very high turnover ; in 2008 , 427 people ( 23 percent ) moved away from the town . The average person lived in Longyearbyen for 6 @.@ 3 years , although it is 6 @.@ 6 years for Norwegians and 4 @.@ 3 years for foreigners . In 2009 , about a quarter of the population had lived in the town since before 2000 , and can thus be regarded as permanent population . The longest residing people tend to work in the mining industry , followed by local government employees . The shortest tenures are held by students and employees in higher education , tourism and the state .
Seventy percent of households consist of a single person , compared to forty @-@ one percent on the mainland , giving an average 1 @.@ 6 people per household . The difference is largely caused by persons working on Svalbard while their family remains on the mainland . Longyearbyen 's population is more highly educated than the national average : 54 compared to 43 percent have upper secondary education and 30 compared to 26 percent have tertiary education . Among women , 40 percent have higher education .
= = Politics and government = =
Longyearbyen Community Council has many of the same responsibilities of a municipality . It is organised with a 15 @-@ member council that since 2011 has been led by Mayor Christin Kristoffersen of the Labour Party . The council 's main responsibilities are infrastructure and utilities , including power , land @-@ use and community planning , education from kindergarten to upper secondary level and child welfare . It operates three kindergartens in addition to the 13 @-@ grade Longyearbyen School .
No care or nursing services and welfare payments are available . Norwegian residents retain pension and medical rights through their mainland municipalities . The University Hospital of North Norway operates a clinic , Longyearbyen Hospital . Other public offices with presence on Longyearbyen are the Norwegian Directorate of Mining , the Norwegian Polar Institute , the Norwegian Tax Administration and the Church of Norway . Longyearbyen is subordinate Nord @-@ Troms District Court and Hålogaland Court of Appeal , both located in Tromsø .
The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 established full Norwegian sovereignty over the archipelago . The treaty came into effect in 1925 , following the Svalbard Act that established the institution of the Governor of Svalbard . She or he holds the responsibility as both county governor and chief of police , as well as holding other authority granted from the executive branch . Duties include environmental policy , family law , law enforcement , search and rescue , tourism management , information services , contact with foreign settlements and judge in some areas of maritime inquiries and judicial examinations — albeit never in the same cases as acting as police . Kjerstin Askholt has been governor since 2015 ; she is assisted by a staff of 26 professionals . The institution is subordinate to the Ministry of Justice and the Police , but reports to other ministries in matters within their portfolio .
Because of the special treaty status of Svalbard , Longyearbyen is subject to Norwegian legislation , but citizens of any signatory country may conduct commercial activities and live in town . However , people without a source of income can be rejected by the governor . The treaty limits Norway 's right to collect taxes to that of financing services on Svalbard . Therefore , Longyearbyen has a lower income tax than mainland Norway , and there is no value added tax . The treaty has resulted in Longyearbyen being a demilitarized zone and is not part of the European Economic Area nor the Schengen Area like the rest of Norway .
= = Culture = =
The community council runs a number of cultural activities , such as a cinema , a youth club , a library and a gallery . The town 's sports club is Svalbard Turn . Svalbardhallen is an indoor sport centre that includes a multi @-@ sport hall large enough for handball or three badminton courts , a shooting range and a 25 @-@ meter ( 82 ft ) swimming pool . Svalbard Church of the Church of Norway has the entire archipelago as its parish . The congregational hall is 126 m2 ( 1 @,@ 360 sq ft ) while the sitting room is 112 m2 ( 1 @,@ 210 sq ft ) . The church is built in half @-@ timber . Svalbardposten is a weekly newspaper published on Friday . Printing takes place in Tromsø and the majority of subscribers live on the mainland . Icepeople , an alternative newspaper in English , is also published weekly . There are two museums in town , Svalbard Museum and the Spitsbergen Airship Museum . Dark Season Blues has been held annually in October since 2003 . 20 residents of the town are members of the Liverbirds Svalbard and regularly meet in the Svalbar on match days during the winter months .
= = Economy = =
The only mining still taking place in Longyearbyen is at Mine 7 , located 15 kilometers ( 9 mi ) up Adventdalen . It produces 70 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 69 @,@ 000 long tons ; 77 @,@ 000 short tons ) of coal annually , of which 25 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 25 @,@ 000 long tons ; 28 @,@ 000 short tons ) is used to fuel Longyear Power Station , Norway 's only coal @-@ fueled power station . Most of Store Norske 's production is done at Sveagruva , located on Van Mijenfjorden , 60 kilometers ( 37 mi ) south of Longyearbyen . No roads connect the communities ; instead , workers live in dormitories in Svea . Seventy percent commute home to the mainland while thirty percent commute to Longyearbyen . Mining has not been profitable and Store Norske relies on state subsidies to retain production .
The University Centre in Svalbard ( UNIS ) has 350 students and a permanent faculty of 40 professors and assistants and 120 guest lecturers . UNIS does not offer degrees , but instead offers semester courses in biology , physics and geology . Student housing is located at Nybyen . The college is part of the 12 @,@ 000 m2 ( 130 @,@ 000 sq ft ) Svalbard Science Centre , which also features the Norwegian Polar Institute , EISCAT and Svalbard Science Forum . In 2006 , about 9 @,@ 000 research days were spent in Longyearbyen , most of which were by Norwegians . This made Longyearbyen the second @-@ largest research outpost on Svalbard , marginally below Ny @-@ Ålesund . In contrast , Longyearbyen has almost only Norwegian research , while Ny @-@ Ålesund is roughly evenly split between Norwegian and foreign .
Svalbard Satellite Station was built because of Longyearbyen 's excellent location to download data from satellites in polar orbit . Located at Platåberget above Hotellneset , it was built as a cooperation between NASA and the Norwegian Space Centre , but has since 2001 been operated by Kongsberg Satellite Services . EISCAT operates an incoherent scatter radar to study the northern lights . The Svalbard Global Seed Vault , administered by the Global Crop Diversity Trust , is a secure underground facility capable of storing millions of crop seeds . The facility has been designed to protect against natural and human disasters , including global warming , floods and fires and nuclear holocaust . The site was chosen for a number of factors including its remoteness , sound geology and the ambient temperature of the permafrost .
Longyearbyen is the centre of tourism on the archipelago , although most tourism is generated based on natural experiences rather than visiting the town itself . However , Longyearbyen does provide supplies , accommodation and several museums . In 2008 , Longyearbyen experienced 89 @,@ 000 guest @-@ nights , up from 30 @,@ 000 in 1995 . The average guest stayed 2 @.@ 2 nights and 60 percent of the capacity was used by tourists . About 40 @,@ 000 tourists flew into Longyearbyen . Two @-@ thirds of the tourists come from Norway . In 2007 , the tourism industry had a revenue of NOK 291 million and produced 200 man @-@ years .
= = Transport = =
Longyearbyen has a road network stretching 50 kilometers ( 30 mi ) , but the network does not extend to any other communities . In 2008 there were 1 @,@ 481 registered road vehicles and 49 percent of all households had a car . Cars are registered with ZN on the registration plates . There is a single workshop , Svalbard Auto , which is also a Toyota dealer .
Snowmobiles are a popular mode of transport and there are more snowmobiles than residents . In 2008 there were registered 2 @,@ 672 snowmobiles and 69 percent of households owned at least one . Off @-@ road motorized transport is prohibited on bare ground , but snowmobiles are used extensively during winter — both for commercial and recreational activities . Transport from Longyearbyen to Barentsburg ( 45 km or 28 mi ) and Pyramiden ( 100 km or 62 mi ) is possible by snowmobile by winter , or by ship all year round .
Svalbard Airport , Longyear is located at Hotellneset , 3 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) northwest of town . It has a 2 @,@ 483 @-@ meter ( 8 @,@ 146 ft ) long runway and is the only airport that is permitted to serve aircraft from off the archipelago . Scandinavian Airlines operates daily flights to Oslo and Tromsø , while there are irregular flights to Russia . Lufttransport operates regular charter services to Svea Airport and Ny @-@ Ålesund Airport , Hamnerabben . Arktikugol operates helicopters to Barentsburg and Pyramiden . There are two quays in Longyearbyen , one for export of coal and one for general goods . From 1907 to 1987 , the mining companies operated a network of aerial tramways to transport coal from the mines to the port .
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= Christ lag in Todes Banden , BWV 4 =
Christ lag in Todes Banden ( also spelled Todesbanden ) ( " Christ lay in death 's bonds " or " Christ lay in the snares of death " ) , BWV 4 , is a cantata for Easter by German composer Johann Sebastian Bach , one of his earliest church cantatas . It was probably intended for a performance in 1707 , an early work in the genre to which he later contributed complete cantata cycles for all occasions of the liturgical year . It was related to his application for a post at a Lutheran church at Mühlhausen . John Eliot Gardiner describes it as Bach 's " first @-@ known attempt at painting narrative in music " .
Christ lag in Todes Banden is a chorale cantata , a style in which both text and music are based on a hymn . In this instance , the source was Martin Luther 's hymn of the same name , the main hymn for Easter in the Lutheran church . The composition is based on the seven stanzas of the hymn and its tune , which was derived from Medieval models . Bach used the unchanged words of a stanza of the chorale in each of the seven vocal movements , in the format of chorale variations per omnes versus ( for all stanzas ) , and he used its tune as a cantus firmus . After an opening sinfonia , the variations are arranged symmetrically : chorus – duet – solo – chorus – solo – duet – chorus , with the focus on the central fourth stanza about the battle between Life and Death . All movements are in E minor , and Bach achieves variety and intensifies the meaning of the text through many musical forms and techniques .
Christ lag in Todes Banden is Bach 's first cantata for Easter – in fact , his only extant original composition for the first day of the feast – and his earliest surviving chorale cantata . He later repeatedly performed it as Thomaskantor in Leipzig , beginning in 1724 when he first celebrated Easter there . Only this second version survives . It is scored for four vocal parts and a Baroque instrumental ensemble , with a choir of cornetto and three trombones doubling the choral voices , a string section of two violins , two violas , and continuo . This exemplifies a 17th @-@ century " Choralkonzert " ( chorale concerto ) style ; the lost scoring of the earlier performances was perhaps similar .
Gardiner calls Bach 's setting of Luther 's hymn " a bold , innovative piece of musical drama " , and observes " his total identification with the spirit and letter of Luther 's fiery , dramatic hymn " .
= = Composition history = =
= = = Background = = =
Bach is believed to have written Christ lag in Todes Banden in 1707 . He was a professional organist aged 22 , employed from 1703 in Arnstadt as the organist of the New Church ( which replaced the burned Bonifatiuskirche , today known as the Bach Church ) . At age 18 , he had inspected the new organ built by Johann Friedrich Wender , was invited to play one Sunday , and was hired . The organ was built on the third tier of a theatre @-@ like church . Bach 's duties as a church musician involved some responsibility for choral music , but the exact year he began composing cantatas is unknown . Christ lag in Todes Banden is one of a small group of cantatas that survive from his early years .
In Arnstadt , the Kantor ( church musician ) Heindorff was responsible for church music in the Upper Church ( Liebfrauenkirche ) , and the New Church where Bach was the organist . He typically conducted music in the Upper Church and would appoint a choir prefect for vocal music in the New Church . Wolff notes that " subjecting his works to the questionable leadership of a prefect " was not what Bach would have done . Therefore , most cantatas of the period are not for Sunday occasions , but restricted to special occasions such as weddings and funerals . Christ lag in Todes Banden is the only exception , but was most likely composed not for Arnstadt but for an application to a more important post at the Divi Blasii church in Mühlhausen .
= = = Bach 's early cantatas = = =
Bach 's early cantatas are " Choralkonzerte " ( chorale concertos ) in the style of the 17th century , different from the recitative and aria cantata format associated with Neumeister that Bach started to use for church cantatas in 1714 . Wolff points out the relation of Bach 's early cantatas to works by Dieterich Buxtehude , with whom Bach had studied in Lübeck . Christ lag in Todes Banden shows similarities to a composition of Johann Pachelbel based on the same Easter chorale . Although there is no evidence that Bach and Pachelbel met , Bach grew up in Thuringia while Pachelbel was based in the same region , and Bach 's elder brother and teacher Johann Christoph Bach studied with Pachelbel in Erfurt . Another of Pachelbel 's works appears to be referenced in the early Bach cantata , Nach dir , Herr , verlanget mich , BWV 150 , and there has been recent speculation that Bach wanted to pay tribute to Pachelbel after his death in 1706 .
The texts for the early cantatas were drawn mostly from biblical passages and hymns . Features characteristic of his later cantatas , such as recitatives and arias on contemporary poetry , were not yet present , although Bach may have heard them in oratorios by Buxtehude , or even earlier . Instead , these early cantatas include 17th @-@ century elements such as motets and chorale concertos . They often begin with an instrumental sinfonia or sonata ( sonatina ) . The following table lists the seven extant works composed by Bach until 1708 , when he moved on to the Weimar court .
Bach uses the limited types of instruments at his disposal for unusual combinations , such as two recorders and two viole da gamba in the funeral cantata Gottes Zeit ist die allerbeste Zeit , also known as Actus Tragicus . He uses instruments of the continuo group as independent parts , such as a cello in Nach dir , Herr , verlanget mich and a bassoon in Der Herr denket an uns . The cantata for the inauguration of a town council is richly scored for trumpets , woodwinds and strings . Wolff notes :
The overall degree of mastery by which these early pieces compare favourably with the best church compositions from the first decade of the eighteenth century ... proves that the young Bach did not confine himself to playing organ and clavier , but , animated by his Buxtehude visit , devoted considerable time and effort to vocal composition . The very few such early works that exist , each a masterpiece in its own right , must constitute a remnant only ... of a larger body of similar compositions .
The Bach scholar Richard D. P. Jones notes in The Creative Development of Johann Sebastian Bach :
" His remarkable flair for test illustration is evident even in the early cantatas , particularly the two finest of them , the Actus tragicus , BWV 106 , and Christ lag in Todes Banden , BWV 4 . We already sense a powerful mind behind the notes in the motivic unity of the early cantatas , in the use of reprise to bind their mosaic forms together ... "
= = = Readings and chorale = = =
The prescribed readings for the feast day were from the First letter to the Corinthians ( " Christ is our Easter lamb " – 1 Corinthians 5 : 6 – 8 ) and from the Gospel of Mark ( the Resurrection of Jesus – Mark 16 : 1 – 8 ) .
The reformer Martin Luther wrote several hymns in German to be used in church services . His hymn " Christ lag in Todes Banden " was based on the Latin hymn " Victimae Paschali Laudes " , and first published in 1524 . It became a main Easter hymn in German Lutheranism . The hymn stresses the struggle between Life and Death . The third stanza refers to the " sting of death " , as mentioned in 1 Corinthians 15 . The fifth stanza relates to the " Osterlamm " , the Paschal Lamb . The sacrificial " blood " ( " Its blood marks our doors " ) refers to the marking of the doors before the exodus from Egypt . The final stanza recalls the tradition of baking and eating Easter Bread , with the " old leaven " alluding again to the exodus , in contrast to the " Word of Grace " , concluding " Christ would ... alone nourish the soul . " In contrast to most chorale cantatas that Bach composed later in Leipzig , the text of the chorale is retained unchanged , which he did again only in late chorale cantatas .
= = = Performances = = =
Christ lag in Todes Banden survives in a version from the 1720s when Bach held the position of Thomaskantor ( director of church music ) in Leipzig . There is documentary evidence suggesting that this Easter Sunday cantata was premiered in 1707 . It is known that Bach performed a cantata of his own composition at Easter in 1707 as a part of his application for the post of organist of Divi Blasii church in Mühlhausen , and this may have been Christ lag in Todes Banden . By this time , Bach was already demonstrating ingenuity in keyboard music , as known from the early works in the Neumeister Collection . Christ lag in Todes Banden is a significant milestone in his vocal music . It was completed seven years before his sequence of Weimar cantatas , begun in 1714 with Himmelskönig , sei willkommen , BWV 182 , and 17 years before he started a complete annual cycle of chorale cantatas in Leipzig in the middle of 1724 with O Ewigkeit , du Donnerwort , BWV 20 .
Bach would have been attracted to Mühlhausen for its status as a free imperial city and its several churches and tradition of vocal music . Wolff notes that Bach possibly sent two other cantata scores with his application , and once he knew the date of the audition may have composed Christ lag in Todes Banden in addition . A month after Easter , on 24 May 1707 , an agreement was reached to hire Bach , who seems to have been the only candidate considered seriously .
Bach performed the cantata again while Thomaskantor in Leipzig , notably at his first Easter there on 9 April 1724 . He also performed it the following year on 1 April 1725 , in his second cycle of Leipzig cantatas , a cycle of chorale cantatas based on Lutheran hymns . It followed in the cycle some forty newly composed cantatas . This early work fits the cycle in the sense that it is based on a chorale , but its style is different from the others .
= = Music = =
= = = Scoring and structure = = =
Bach structured the cantata in eight movements : an instrumental sinfonia and seven vocal movements corresponding to the stanzas of the hymn . The duration is given as 22 minutes .
The title of the original parts of the first Leipzig performance is ( in Johann Christoph Altnickol 's handwriting ) : " Feria Paschatos / Christ lag in Todes Banden / a.4. Voc : / Cornetto / 3 Trombon . / 2 Violini / 2 Viole / con / Continuo / Di Sign . Joh.Seb.Bach " , In this late version , Bach scored the work for four vocal parts ( soprano ( S ) , alto ( A ) , tenor ( T ) , and bass ( B ) ) , and a Baroque instrumental ensemble consisting of strings , brass and continuo . The brass parts , a choir of cornetto ( Ct ) and three trombones ( Tb ) playing colla parte with the voices at times , may have been added in the 1720s . They may also possibly represent the original scoring , in the style of the 17th @-@ century polychoral tradition .
The scoring of the cantata Christ lag in Todes Banden has been described as " archaic " and its style " medieval " :
The string section consists of two violin parts ( Vl ) and two viola parts ( VA ) ; this indicates an older practice as for instance found in 17th @-@ century church cantatas by Bach 's ancestors ( see Altbachisches Archiv ) , and in Jesus Christus ist um unsrer Missetat willen verwundet , a Passion setting from the early 18th century ( or older ) which Bach had performed a few years after composing the cantata Christ lag in Todes Banden . In the first half of the 18th century the standard for a string section soon evolved to two violin parts , one viola part and continuo .
The cornett used in the cantata was an instrument that belonged to an earlier age : by the second quarter of the 18th century it had almost entirely disappeared from Bach 's compositions .
Choral singing is less distinguished from sections of the cantata where vocal soloists sing in ensemble : compared to the clear demarcation between choral movements and movements for vocal soloists in Bach 's later works .
The harmony is often modal , instead of the modern tonal system .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring and keys follow the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from the book on all cantatas by the Bach scholar Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) and alla breve ( 2 / 2 ) . The continuo , played throughout , is not shown .
= = = Hymn tune = = =
Luther 's hymn is based on the 12th @-@ century Easter hymn " Christ ist erstanden " ( Christ is risen ) , which relies both in text and melody on the sequence for Easter , " Victimae paschali laudes " . A new version was published by Luther in 1524 and adapted by Johann Walter in his Wittenberg hymnal for choir , Eyn geystlich Gesangk Buchleyn ( 1524 ) . A slightly modified version appeared in 1533 in a hymnal by Kluge . This chorale tune would have been familiar to Bach 's congregations . Bach composed other arrangements during his career , including the two chorale preludes BWV 625 and BWV 718 , and the " Fantasia super Christ lag in Todes Banden " , BWV 695 . Bach 's organ works and the version in the cantata use the passing notes and regular rhythmic patterns of the 1533 version .
= = = Movements = = =
Unlike in Bach 's later cantatas , all movements are in the same key . The cantata begins with an instrumental sinfonia . The seven stanzas are treated in seven movements as chorale variations " per omnes versus " ( for all stanzas ) , with the melody always present as a cantus firmus . All stanzas end on the word Halleluja .
The symmetrical sequence of the seven stanzas is a feature more often found in Bach 's mature compositions : chorus – duet – solo – chorus – solo – duet – chorus . The musicologist Carol Traupman @-@ Carr notes the variety of treatment of the seven stanzas , while retaining the same key and melody :
Polyphonic chorale fantasia
Duet , with " walking bass " in continuo
Trio sonata
Polyphonic and imitative , woven around chorale melody
Homophonic with elaborate continuo line
Duet , using trio sonata texture with extensive imitation
Four @-@ part chorale setting ( Leipzig version )
John Eliot Gardiner , who conducted the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage in 2000 , calls Bach 's setting of Luther 's hymn " a bold , innovative piece of musical drama " , observing that Bach was " drawing on medieval musical roots ( the hymn tune derives from the eleventh @-@ century plainsong ' Victimae paschali laudes ' ) " , and noting Bach 's " total identification with the spirit and letter of Luther 's fiery , dramatic hymn " . Bach could follow " Luther 's ideal in which music brings the text to life " .
= = = = Sinfonia = = = =
The cantata begins with an instrumental sinfonia a work in the style of an overture to a contemporary Venetian opera , with chordal passages and occasional polyphony . It introduces the first line of the melody , The mood is sombre , recalling the " Death 's bonds " of the first line of the hymn : Christ 's death on the cross and burial .
= = = = Versus 1 = = = =
The opening stanza , " Christ lag in Todes Banden " ( Christ lay in death 's bonds ) is treated as a chorale fantasia . Without instrumental opening , the movement starts with the chorale tune sung by the soprano in very long notes , with all other parts entering soon after the soprano begins each choral statement . The alto line is derived from the chorale tune , while the viola parts principally reinforce the alto and tenor voices . The violin parts are independent and , as Traupman @-@ Carr notes " further activate the texture with a virtually continuous exchange of sixteenth @-@ note snippets " . The figure in the violins known as suspiratio ( sigh ) reflects " Christ 's suffering in the grip of death " .
The final Halleluja is faster , giving up the fantasia format for a four @-@ part fugue and in motet style , with all instruments doubling the voices . The style of the movement recalls the 16th @-@ century stile antico , although the style is still unmistakably Bach 's .
= = = = Versus 2 = = = =
The second stanza , Aria Duetto , is a duet of soprano and alto , " Den Tod niemand zwingen kunnt " ( No one could defeat death ) , over an ostinato continuo . It deals with " humanity helpless and paralysed as it awaits God 's judgement against sin " . Bach has the music almost freeze on the first words " den Tod " ( death ) , and the word " gefangen " ( imprisoned ) is marked by a sharp dissonance of the soprano and alto . In the Halleluja , the voices imitate each other on long notes in fast succession , creating a sequence of suspensions .
= = = = Versus 3 = = = =
The third stanza , " Jesus Christus , Gottes Sohn " ( Jesus Christ , God 's Son ) , is a trio of the tenor , two obbligato violins and continuo . The tenor sings the chorale melody almost unchanged . The violins illustrate first how Christ slashes at the enemy . The music stops completely on the word " nichts " ( nothing ) . The violins then present in four notes the outline of the cross , and finally the tenor sings a joyful " Halleluja " to a virtuoso violin accompaniment .
= = = = Versus 4 = = = =
" Es war ein wunderlicher Krieg , da Tod und Leben rungen " ( It was a strange battle , that death and life waged ) , is the center of the symmetrical structure . It is sung by the four voices , accompanied only by the continuo . The alto sings the cantus firmus , transposed by a fifth to B @-@ Dorian , while the other voices follow each other in a fugal stretto with entries just a beat apart until they fall away one by one . In the final Halleluja in all four voices , the bass descends nearly two octaves .
= = = = Versus 5 = = = =
Stanza five , " Hier ist das rechte Osterlamm " ( Here is the true Easter @-@ lamb ) , is sung by the bass alone , accompanied at first by a descending chromatic line in the continuo which has been compared to the Crucifixus of the Mass in B minor , but changing to " a dance @-@ like passage of continuous eighth notes " when the voice enters . For every line of the stanza , the bass sings a chorale tune , then repeats the words in counterpoint to the part of the tune repeated in the strings , sometimes transposed . Taruskin describes this : " With its antiphonal exchanges between the singer and the massed strings ... this setting sounds like a parody of a passacaglia @-@ style Venetian opera aria , vintage 1640 " . The bass sings the final victorious Hallelujas , spanning two octaves .
= = = = Versus 6 = = = =
" So feiern wir das hohe Fest " ( So we celebrate the high festival ) , is a duet for soprano and tenor accompanied only by the ostinato continuo . The chorale is shared by the voices , with the soprano singing it in E minor , the tenor in B minor . The movement is a dance of joy : the word " Wonne " ( joy ) is rendered in figuration that Gardiner finds reminiscent of Purcell . Bach incorporates the solemn rhythms of the French overture into this verse , reflecting the presence of the word feiern ( celebrate ) in the text . It may be the first time that Bach used these rhythms .
= = = = Versus 7 = = = =
Bach 's original setting of the final stanza , " Wir essen und leben wohl " ( We eat and live well ) , is lost ; it may have been a repeat of the opening chorus . In Leipzig , he supplied a simple four @-@ part setting .
= = Manuscripts and publication = =
The original autograph parts are kept in the Bach @-@ Archiv Leipzig . They were copied from the lost autograph score by six scribes , four of them known by name , including the composer .
A manuscript score by Franz Hauser , dating from c . 1820 – 1839 , is held by the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin – Preußischer Kulturbesitz . It bears a comment on page 178 : " Nach den auf der Thomasschule befindlichen / Original / : Autograph : / Stimmen in Partitur gebracht . / Lp. d 16 . Oct. 33 . / fHauser " ( After the original autograph parts in the Thomasschule , rendered in a score , Leipzig , 16 October 1833 ) .
The cantata was first published in 1851 as No. 4 in the first volume of the Bach @-@ Gesellschaft Ausgabe ( BGA ) , edited by Moritz Hauptmann . Half a century later a vocal score of the cantata appeared in Novello 's Original Octavo Edition , under the title Christ Lay in Death 's Dark Prison . The piano reduction was by John E. West , and the translation of the cantata 's text by Paul England . In 1905 this vocal score was republished in the United States by H. W. Gray . Henry S. Drinker 's translation Christ lay by death enshrouded appeared in a score edited by Arnold Schering and published by Eulenburg in 1932 . In 1967 Schering 's score edition was republished by W. W. Norton with an extended introduction and bibliography by Gerhard Herz . Breitkopf & Härtel , the publisher of the BGA , produced various editions of the cantata separately , for instance in 1968 a vocal score with Arno Schönstedt 's piano reduction and Charles Sanford Terry 's translation ( Christ lay in Death 's grim prison ) .
The New Bach Edition ( Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe , NBA ) published the score in 1985 , edited by Alfred Dürr , with the critical commentary published the next year . In 1995 Carus produced a revised edition of Hänssler 's 1981 Christ lag in Todesbanden , edited by Reinhold Kubik . Both the Hänssler and the Carus edition contained Jean Lunn 's Christ lay in death 's cold prison translation . Carus followed the NBA 's ... in Todes Banden spelling for the German title . In 2007 Carus republished their score edition with an introduction by Hans @-@ Joachim Schulze . Bach @-@ digital.de published high @-@ resolution facsimile images of the manuscript parts from the first quarter of the 18th century ( partly in Bach 's handwriting ) , and of an early 19th @-@ century score manuscript derived from these performance parts . Also in the 21st century , Serenissima Music published a vocal score of Christ lag in Todesbanden compatible with Kalmus ' performance material based on the BGA .
= = Selected recordings = =
Christ lag in Todes Banden was recorded early , and has been recorded often ; as of 2016 , the Bach @-@ Cantatas website lists 77 different complete recordings , the earliest dating from 1931 when Lluís Millet conducted the Orfeó Català in Francesc Pujol 's Catalan version of the cantata . The performance was recorded by La Voz de su Amo ( His Master 's Voice ) and appeared on three 78 rpm discs . It was recorded twice under the direction of Nadia Boulanger , a 1937 version recorded in Paris and a 1938 version recorded in Boston .
There are several recordings from the decades immediately after the war . Robert Shaw recorded the cantata in 1946 and again in 1959 . Günther Ramin conducted the Thomanerchor in 1950 , the anniversary of Bach 's death . The same year , Fritz Lehmann conducted the choir of the Musikhochschule Frankfurt with soloists Helmut Krebs and Dietrich Fischer @-@ Dieskau . Karl Richter and his Münchener Bach @-@ Chor first recorded it in 1958 .
Nikolaus Harnoncourt recorded Christ lag in Todes Banden in 1971 in a historically informed performance with original instruments and male singers ( the upper two parts are sung by boys and the countertenor Paul Esswood ) . This was at the start of the first project to record all Bach 's sacred cantatas , " J. S. Bach – Das Kantatenwerk " on Teldec . Christ lag in Todes Banden has since been included in the other " complete sets " , conducted by Rilling , Gardiner , Koopman , Leusink , and Suzuki ( details of these recordings are given in the table below ) .
The entries in the following sortable table are taken from the listings by Aryeh Oron on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Some recordings rely on choir without ( or with few ) solo voices . Choirs are roughly marked as large by red background to one voice per part ( OVPP ) by green background , orchestras from large ( red ) to period instruments in historically informed performances ( green ) .
= = Transcriptions = =
In 1926 Walter Rummel published a piano arrangement of the cantata 's fourth movement , " Jesus Christus , Gottes Sohn " . George Copeland recorded this transcription in 1938 ( re @-@ issued on CD 2001 ) , and Jonathan Plowright recorded it in 2005 .
After he had recorded his orchestration of the chorale prelude Christ lag in Todesbanden , BWV 718 , in 1931 , Leopold Stokowski recorded his arrangement for symphonic orchestra of BWV 4 's fourth movement in 1937 . As Chorale from the Easter cantata Christ lag in Todesbanden the arrangement 's score was copyrighted in 1950 and published by Broude Brothers . Later the arrangement was also recorded by José Serebrier and Robert Pikler .
= = Recent performances = =
In 2000 the cantata was performed at Eisenach , in the church where Bach was baptised , as part of the Monteverdi Choir 's Bach Cantata Pilgrimage ( the live recording was released in 2007 ) . The Monteverdi Choir also performed the cantata in 2013 in the Royal Albert Hall . This performance , which had audience participation , was part of a nine @-@ hour " Bach marathon " .
The cantata was successfully staged by English Touring Opera in 2012 . It was paired with the opera The Emperor of Atlantis and arranged by Iain Farrington for the same instrumental forces as the opera ( chamber ensemble including instruments not available to Bach such as saxophone ) .
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= 11th New York Infantry =
The 11th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment was an infantry regiment of the Union Army in the early years of the American Civil War . The regiment was organized in New York City in May 1861 as a Zouave regiment , known for its unusual dress and drill style , by Colonel Elmer E. Ellsworth , a personal friend of U.S. President Abraham Lincoln . Drawn from the ranks of the city 's many volunteer fire companies , the unit was known alternately as the Ellsworth Zouaves , First Fire Zouaves , First Regiment New York Zouaves , and U.S. National Guards .
The unit was among the first to occupy the territory of a Confederate state when it captured Alexandria , Virginia on May 24 , 1861 , less than 24 hours after the Commonwealth seceded from the Union . The regiment suffered extensive casualties during the First Battle of Bull Run during the fighting on Henry House Hill and while serving as the rear guard for the retreating Union Army .
The regiment would later be stationed near Hampton Roads during the Peninsula Campaign , but experienced little fighting . Sent back to New York City in May 1862 , the regiment was mustered out of service on June 2 , 1862 . There were several attempts to reorganize as a light infantry regiment through the summer of 1863 , and many new enlistees were involved in suppressing the New York Draft Riots but those efforts failed and the enlistees were transferred to the 17th New York Veteran Volunteer Infantry Regiment .
= = Organization and muster = =
On April 15 , 1861 , President Lincoln issued an Executive Order calling for 75 @,@ 000 ninety @-@ day enlistments to “ repossess the forts , places , and property which have been seized from the Union . ’ ’ That day , Lincoln wrote Ellsworth asking for his assistance in raising a regiment . Ellsworth had known the president well , from having assisted in organizing his campaign for the presidency in 1860 and received a commission to organize the 11th New York Infantry as a 90 @-@ day regiment . To the enlistees , a common yet often unknown stipulation included 90 days of service to the Federal government and up to two years of service to the state . This was not always communicated to the men who enlisted , including those of the 11th New York .
Ellsworth 's military knowledge came from a lifetime of studying military tactics , history , and manuals ; and later as colonel of Chicago 's National Guard Cadets . He never achieved his dream of attending West Point , as he could not gain the needed sponsorship . He was introduced to the famous French Zouaves through the teachings of his fencing instructor , Charles DeVillers , a former French Zouave . Ellsworth introduced this drill team to the flashy Zouave uniforms and drill that emulated French colonial troops in Algeria and turned the group , renamed the U.S. Zouave Cadets , into a national champion drill team . A national tour in 1860 brought Ellsworth to the attention of Abraham Lincoln , for whom the unit performed hundreds of military drill movements with their muskets and bayonets .
When a civil war seemed unavoidable , Ellsworth proceeded to New York City to recruit his own regiment from the city 's volunteer fire companies , stating : " I want the New York Firemen , for there are no more effective men in the country , and none with whom I can do so much . They are sleeping on a volcano at Washington and I want men who can go into a fight now . " Two days after his arrival , Ellsworth awarded officer commissions to several foremen of the volunteer fire companies and began recruiting in earnest .
Within four days , 2 @,@ 300 men had answered Ellsworth 's call . A selection of only the most desirable men cut that number to 1 @,@ 100 , which was considered a regiment 's full strength . When the state could not afford to supply the new troops , fundraisers were successful in raising $ 60 @,@ 000 for the regiment , enough to provide uniforms , several different models of Sharps rifles , and provisions .
News media covered the regiment 's formation :
More work has been done in six days than seemed possible . The men have been mustered into service ; the officers elected ; the uniforms made , and on Sunday afternoon eleven hundred as efficient and hardy soldiers as ever handled a gun , will start for the scene of rebellion . Col. Ellsworth arrived in this city on Thursday of last week . On Friday he called together a number of the principal men of the department . On Saturday he selected his officers . On Sunday he mustered one thousand men . On Monday he drilled them .
Like most Zouave regiments , the men of the 11th New York were fashioned in uniforms not typical of the standard ensemble of a Union soldier . During their service , the 11th New York wore two different style of uniforms , the first issued during the forming of the regiment and the second shortly before the Battle of Bull Run . The initial uniforms were purchased with funds donated by the Union Defense Committee . They were based on Ellsworth 's own design . The consisted of light gray jackets of a chasseur style , with dark blue and red trim along with gray trousers of a jeanscloth material with a blue stripe running down the seam , and tan leather leggings . Along with their gray uniforms , they wore red kepis with a blue band and also received a red fez with a blue tassel , military @-@ issue shirt and / or overshirts . Many Zouaves went off to war wearing the fire badge of their respective fire company . Contrary to modern art prints , the Fire Zouaves did not go off to war wearing fireman 's belts or paint mottos on their fezzes . The second uniform was issued when the first , not made of quality materials , fell apart on most men . This uniform was issued by the federal government , and to the disgust of the men , was not of the true Zouave style , but an American Zouave style . The new uniform had a dark blue Zouave jacket with red cuffs and red trimming with sky blue trimming inside the red . Blue fezzes with blue tassels were issued to provide greater flair to the uniform , as well as dark blue sashes , an issue of red overshirts ( not firemen 's shirts ) , and dark blue trousers . Before the First Battle of Bull Run , most of the Zouaves left their jackets in camp due to the July heat , however , they all retained their blue and red fezzes , and their red blue banded kepis . A number of havelocks were also issued to the regiment . Before the regiment departed from New York City on April 29 , 1861 , its members were reviewed by General John Adams Dix , Ambassador Cassius Marcellus Clay of Kentucky , as well as other notable members of the city and its fire department . Soon after , they marched through the streets escorted by 5 @,@ 000 firemen . Along the way , they received from the fire department a large white flag measuring 68 inches ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) by 54 inches ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) to serve as the regimental colors . The wife of John Jacob Astor II also presented the unit with a flag . Unbeknownst to the regiment , Washington D.C. had postponed their departure because they did not comply with army regulations . John E. Wool , commander of the Department of the East , knew of the postponement , but allowed the men to disembark , unaware the steamer Baltic carried no provisions . Quartermaster Arthur quickly purchased five @-@ day rations , by paying a higher price , and hired three tug boats to catch the steamer to deliver them . The Baltic arrived in Annapolis , Maryland where the men boarded a train to Washington , D.C ..
In Washington , men in the regiment broke into taverns , frightened women , swedged on meals and pursued imagined Confederates . They were returned to New York City and quartered in Battery Park . Their public antics and insubordination continued . Arthur had arrested any Fire Zouave found on the streets and jailed them on a steamer . When the number jailed reached 400 the steamer embarked to Hampton Roads where the men were banded with another regiment .
= = Early action = =
The regiment arrived in Washington , D.C. , on the evening of May 2 . There , they completed additional training and performed picket duty throughout the district . While quartered on the floor of the United States House of Representatives , the enlisted men took it upon themselves to set up a mock session , passing a law first abolishing the House of Representatives , then the Union and reconstituting both in a manner of their liking . The more embarrassing and lawbreaking actions by the regiment included the burning of fences , which resulted in a letter of reprimand from Brigadier General Joseph K. Mansfield along with six enlisted men being removed and sent back to New York . On May 7 , the 11th New York was officially sworn into Federal service by Brig. Gen. Irvin McDowell on the East Front of the unfinished Capitol in the presence of Lincoln , his son Tad and personal secretary John Hay .
On May 9 , the regiment had an opportunity to apply their experience as firefighters when asked to help extinguish a blaze at the Willard Hotel . Upon receiving word from General Mansfield , commander of the Department of Washington , Ellsworth dispatched ten men from each company to attend to the fire . Soon however , the entire regiment responded to the blaze . With Ellsworth having more men on the scene than the Washington Fire Department , he claimed the fire chief 's trumpet and assumed command of the incident . When the fire was extinguished , Henry Willard , owner of the hotel , invited the regiment to breakfast and money was collected providing them with $ 500 .
After nine days quartered at the capitol , the men of the 11th New York were moved to the heights near the Insane Asylum to Camp Lincoln . This move would allow for easy transport across the Potomac and into Virginia when necessary . While just five miles ( 8 km ) from the capitol , the standard of living the men were used to had changed dramatically , as their usual foodstuffs were replaced with beef steak , dry bread , and coffee . Ellsworth wrote to his fiance that they had not had butter in a week .
When the Commonwealth of Virginia seceded from the Union on May 23 , the regiment was ordered to assist in the occupation of Arlington Heights and Alexandria , Virginia , directly across the Potomac River from Washington . On May 24 , the regiment boarded the steamers Baltimore and Mount Vernon and was transported across the Potomac , landing at the Alexandria wharves under the guard of the gunboat Pawnee . The 11th New York was one of eight to enter Virginia , and Ellsworth 's men met no resistance as they moved through the streets .
After landing , members of Company E under Captain Leveridge were sent to take the railroad station , while Ellsworth , Major Charles Loeser , Lieutenant H. J. Winser and several men from Company A set out to secure the telegraph office . On the way there , Ellsworth spotted a Confederate flag atop the Marshall House inn . It was the same flag Ellsworth had seen for weeks from the White House during his visits with Lincoln . Ellsworth 's group entered the inn and quickly cut down the flag , but they encountered the proprietor , James Jackson , as they descended the stairs . Jackson killed Ellsworth with a shotgun blast to the chest , and Cpl. Francis Brownell responded in kind by fatally shooting the innkeeper .
After the death of Ellsworth , Noah L. Farnham , the regiment 's lieutenant colonel , was the obvious choice to take command . He was reluctant , however , labeling it an " unwelcome responsibility " . His appointment was graded as temporary , he was not commissioned as the regiment 's colonel and remained at rank while in its command . Regardless , he was a popular choice both with the enlisted men and in New York . One enlisted wrote in a letter home , " We have great faith in Colonel Farnham , having known him long and intimately as one deserving the confidence and esteem of his associates , and fully deserving of the position that he now occupies . " Several of the officers recruited by Ellsworth , however , did not approve and caused a small controversy by resigning their commissions .
The regiment remained on guard duty in and around Alexandria until July 15 , 1861 , when orders were received attaching the regiment to Orlando B. Willcox 's brigade , of Samuel P. Heintzelman 's division , in Brig. Gen. Irvin McDowell 's Army of Northeast Virginia . They were to march out the next morning . From July 16 to 21 , the regiment advanced to intercept Brig. Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard 's Confederate Army of the Potomac . Three of McDowell 's five divisions advanced towards Bull Run , outside the railroad junction at Manassas , Virginia . The 11th New York expected to first engage Confederates at Fairfax Court House on July 17 , only to find that they had pulled back towards Centreville , leaving Quaker Guns in their place . These movements were to precipitate the first large @-@ scale battle of the Civil War .
= = First Bull Run = =
The Zouaves ' first major combat experience occurred during the First Battle of Bull Run . On the morning of July 21 , Farnham 's men were awoken at 2 : 00 a.m. to begin their march to intercept the Confederate army . McDowell 's plan for the day was for divisions under Colonel Daniel Tyler and Brig. Gen. Heintzelman to cross Bull Run at Sudley Ford , expected to be only several miles north of their camp . Poor scouting by Union chief engineer John G. Barnard resulted in a 14 @-@ mile ( 23 km ) march for men entering battle that morning . During the march , lead units engaged skirmishers east of Sudley 's Ford with artillery in the early dawn . McDowell had divided his three divisions , sending Heintzelman to the north , sweeping down to cover the Union right , and thus his was the last division to engage . The other two divisions , under Tyler and David Hunter , engaged first on the Union left and center , at Matthews Hill . With those divisions facing heavy resistance , Heintzelman 's division with the 11th New York was called forward at the double @-@ quick . One observer commented that the 11th New York looked more like firemen randomly running to a fire than soldiers marching towards the front .
As the fight moved from Matthews Hill to Henry House Hill , the 11th New York fought beside the 1st Minnesota Volunteer Infantry Regiment and a battalion of US Marines . These units were ordered to support two batteries of cannon on the Federal right flank led by Captains Charles Griffin and James B. Ricketts . The 11th New York and 1st Minnesota were directed into position at the top of Henry House Hill by Major William Farquhar Barry , McDowell 's chief of artillery , and ordered to assault the Confederate line . On the initial confrontation with the 33rd Virginia Infantry on the left of Confederate General Thomas J. " Stonewall " Jackson 's line , both the Union and Confederate forces were initially confused because the some of 11th New York were wearing several colors of shirts and the Virginians were clad in dark blue frock coats and dark blue trousers . The Virginians fired a volley that took down several men and the Zouaves and Marines broke and ran , but a few of the men remained .
As the 11th New York and 1st Minnesota were regrouping along the Manassas @-@ Sudley Road , they were encountered by Confederate Colonel J. E. B. Stuart and his 150 cavalrymen . Stuart mistook the New Yorkers for retreating Confederates in the smoke and quickly rode forward , shouting , “ Don ’ t run , boys ; we are here . ” But after seeing a color bearer passing with the United States flag , he realized his mistake . Stuart ordered a small band of " Black Horse " cavalry , led by R. Welby Carter and the men of his Loudoun Company , to charge from the right and strike the 11th 's rear guard . The 11th New York saw them coming and shifted formations to meet Carter 's men . The 11th 's volleys quickly killed eight of the riders and wounded nine with the rest escaping back into the woods ; the charge had little effect on the organization of Fire Zouaves . While repulsing the cavalry charge , Colonel Farnham was wounded , but remained on the field aided by Lt. Colonel John Cregier and Major Loeser .
By 2 : 00 p.m. , the 11th New York and 1st Minnesota were joined by the 14th Brooklyn Regiment and again took their place behind the Union guns . However , soon confusion again erupted on the battlefield in front of them . As the gunners confronted the blue @-@ clad 33rd Virginia , Major Barry ordered Ricketts to hold his fire , allowing the Virginians to charge the batteries and capture the guns . While the 14th Brooklyn was able to quickly retake the guns , the Union regiments supporting the cannon were unable to withstand the near constant barrage from Confederate artillery and infantry and fell back again to the Manassas @-@ Sudley Road . The 11th New York , the Irish 69th New York Militia and 14th Brooklyn would charge Henry Hill four times , first in an effort to retake Ricketts ' and Griffin 's cannon , but each attempt failed . In the wild melee , the 69th 's color bearers were killed and its colors lost , but an officer of the 11th , Captain John Wildey , was able to recapture the Irish color , and then handed it back to the grateful Irishmen .
When the order to withdraw from the field came later that evening from General McDowell , the 11th New York served as a rearguard . It was during this retreat that the regiment saw its heaviest casualties . Although accounts of the battle differ , most sources list 177 men lost at Bull Run , with 35 men killed , 74 wounded , and another 68 missing and presumed captured . Those that were taken prisoner were initially confined in Richmond . In September , they were transferred to Castle Pinckney , South Carolina , where they remained until they were paroled the following May .
= = After Bull Run = =
On August 12 , 1861 , the remaining members of the regiment were sent back to New York City to disband , in preparation to reorganize , obtain equipment and replacements . On September 14 , 1861 , after reorganizing , they were ordered by Governor Edwin D. Morgan , at the request of Secretary of War Simon Cameron , to return to Virginia with two days ' cooked rations . They were to be encamped at Fort Monroe on the tip of the Virginia Peninsula . Morgan must not have been quick to follow up with Cameron , as two days later Cameron sent him a cable pleading for an update , asking , " Did you send the Fire Zouaves to Fort Monroe , as indicated in your message of the 14th ? "
An entry from January 31 , 1862 , of the Official Records places the 11th New York as a unit of the Department of Virginia at Camp Butler under the command of Brig. Gen. Joseph Mansfield . On March 8 , 1862 , they watched from shore as the USS Monitor and CSS Virginia dueled off the coast of Hampton Roads . Two members of the regiment were detailed to the nearby USS Cumberland and manned its cannons until they were forced to abandon ship . With manpower further depleted as a result of injury and disease , the regiment was returned to New York City on May 7 . There , it was mustered out of service on June 2 , 1862 .
= = Draft Riots and disbanding = =
On May 18 , 1863 , Colonel James C. Burke received authority to reorganize the original regiment as a three @-@ years regiment to be known as the J. T. Brady Light Infantry . Burke was required to raise 250 men for the effort but failed . His authorization was revoked on June 7 and transferred to Colonel Henry F. O 'Brien . O 'Brien was required to raise 250 men by August 1 , 250 others by September 1 , and an additional 250 men by November 1 . These recruiting efforts were hampered by the draft riot in New York City of July 1863 .
As the 11th New York Regiment had experienced first hand , the First Battle of Bull Run in July 1861 had taken a heavy toll on Union forces , including those from New York City . As the war dragged on , a military manpower shortage occurred in the Union and Congress passed the first conscription act in United States history on March 3 , 1863 , authorizing the President to draft male citizens between the ages of 18 and 35 for a three @-@ year term of military service .
Initially intended to express anger at the draft , the protests deteriorated into " a virtual racial pogrom , with uncounted numbers of blacks murdered on the streets " . The conditions in the city were such that Major General John E. Wool stated on July 16 , " Martial law ought to be proclaimed , but I have not a sufficient force to enforce it " .
States ' militias and Federal troops attached to the Army of the Potomac , including the newly reorganized 11th New York , were dispatched to quell the riots . Other regiments utilized included the 152nd New York , the 26th Michigan , the 27th Indiana and the 7th Regiment New York State Militia , which arrived from Frederick , Maryland after a forced march . In addition , New York governor Horatio Seymour sent the 74th and 65th regiments of the New York state militia , which had not been federalized , and a section of the 20th Artillery from Fort Schuyler in Throgs Neck . At the height of the violence , Colonel O 'Brien , the 11th Regiment 's commanding officer , was seized by the mob , beaten , and killed . In the wake of the riots , the reorganization produced few recruits and stalled . On October 1 , 1863 , the reorganization was discontinued and the men who had enlisted were transferred to the 17th Veteran Infantry Regiment .
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
During its limited but intense combat experience , the regiment saw 51 members killed , including three officers and 48 enlisted men . Among these was the regiment 's first commander , Colonel Elmer E. Ellsworth , who was the first conspicuous casualty of the Civil War . Private Francis E. Brownell became the first soldier in the Civil War to be awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions in killing Col. Ellsworth 's murderer .
Following Ellsworth 's death , Remember Ellsworth ! and Avenge Ellsworth became Union rallying cries . The 44th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment was raised by the People 's Ellsworth Committee and were known as the " People 's Ellsworth Regiment " , or more commonly " Ellsworth 's Avengers " , under the command of Stephen W. Stryker , a former lieutenant in the 11th New York .
Apart from those who died of battle wounds , three officers and 12 enlisted men succumbed to disease , including its second colonel , Noah Farnham , who died as a result of his wounds sustained at Bull Run and a bout of typhoid . A total of 66 men of the 11th New York Infantry Regiment died in the course of the war .
In 1903 , the flag for which Ellsworth gave his life , taken down from the top of Marshal House , was presented to the War Department by its custodian , the Ellsworth Post , Grand Army of the Republic . The flag had been carried by the regiment throughout the war and afterward maintained at their post headquarters . It was added to the war flag collection in Cullum Memorial Hall at West Point .
Historian David Detzer has argued that the fame that surrounds the 11th New York is misplaced . During its time in service , the 11th New York Regiment saw little fighting compared to other well @-@ known regiments such as the 69th New York , 20th Maine , and 28th Massachusetts . The 11th New York was often overshadowed by the 73rd New York , also known as the Second Fire Zouaves , which fought at Antietam , Gettysburg , and Appomattox . In addition , Ellsworth failed to consider that the New York City fire companies from which his troops were drawn often competed against each other at blazes . The cohesion he sought in firefighters did not exist and would not be created when they joined the regiment . In that respect , 11th New York was no different than many regiments , North and South .
= = Gallery = =
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= Battle of Gang Toi =
The Battle of Gang Toi ( 8 November 1965 ) was fought during the Vietnam War between Australian troops and the Viet Cong . The battle was one of the first engagements between the two forces during the war and occurred when A Company , 1st Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 1 RAR ) struck a Viet Cong bunker system defended by Company 238 in the Gang Toi Hills , in northern Bien Hoa Province . It occurred during a major joint US @-@ Australian operation codenamed Operation Hump , involving the US 173rd Airborne Brigade , to which 1 RAR was attached . During the latter part of the operation an Australian rifle company clashed with an entrenched company @-@ sized Viet Cong force in well @-@ prepared defensive positions . Meanwhile , an American paratroop battalion was also heavily engaged in fighting on the other side of the Song Dong Nai .
The Australians were unable to concentrate sufficient combat power to launch an assault on the position and consequently they were forced to withdraw after a fierce engagement during which both sides suffered a number of casualties , reluctantly leaving behind two men who had been shot and could not be recovered due to heavy machine @-@ gun and rifle fire . Although they were most likely dead , a battalion @-@ attack to recover the missing soldiers was planned by the Australians for the next day , but this was cancelled by the American brigade commander due to rising casualties and the need to utilise all available helicopters for casualty evacuation . The bodies of the two missing Australian soldiers were subsequently recovered more than 40 years later , and were finally returned to Australia for burial .
= = Background = =
= = = Military situation = = =
Although the initial American commitment to the war in Vietnam had been limited to advice and materiel support , by 1964 there were 21 @,@ 000 US advisors in South Vietnam . However , with the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) weakened by successive defeats at the hands of the communists , the South Vietnamese government faltering , and Saigon threatened with a major offensive , the situation led to a significant escalation of the war in 1965 , with a large @-@ scale commitment of US ground troops under the command of General William Westmoreland . At first the Americans had adopted a cautious strategy , applied to the strictly limited role of base defence by US Marine units . This was abandoned in April 1965 , and replaced by a new " enclave strategy " of defending key coastal population centres and installations . This strategy required the introduction of nine additional US battalions , or 14 @,@ 000 troops , to bring the total in Vietnam to 13 . Allied nations of the Free World Military Forces were expected to contribute another four battalions .
Westmoreland planned to develop a series of defensive positions around Saigon before expanding operations to pacify the South Vietnamese countryside and as a result a number of sites close to Viet Cong dominated areas were subsequently chosen to be developed into semi @-@ permanent divisional @-@ level bases . Such areas included Di An which was intended to become the headquarters of the US 1st Infantry Division , while the US 25th Infantry Division would be based in the vicinity of Cu Chi . However , large @-@ scale military operations to clear the intended base areas had to wait until the dry season . Yet the allied enclave strategy proved only transitory and further setbacks led to additional troop increases to halt the losing trend . With the situation reaching a crisis point during the Viet Cong wet season offensive in June 1965 , Westmoreland requested further reinforcement and US and allied forces increased to 44 battalions which would be used to directly bolster the ARVN .
Australia 's growing involvement in Vietnam reflected the American build @-@ up . In 1963 , the Australian government had committed a small advisory team , known as the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam ( AATTV ) , to help train the South Vietnamese forces . However , in June 1965 the decision to commit ground troops was made , and the 1st Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment — originally commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Ivan ' Lou ' Brumfield — was dispatched . Supporting 1 RAR was the 1 Troop , A Squadron , 4th / 19th Prince of Wales 's Light Horse equipped with M113 armored personnel carriers , artillery from the 105th Field Battery , Royal Australian Artillery and 161st Battery , Royal New Zealand Artillery , and 161st Reconnaissance Flight operating Cessna 180s and Bell H @-@ 13 Sioux light observation helicopters ; in total 1 @,@ 400 personnel . The Australian units and New Zealand artillery were attached to the US 173rd Airborne Brigade under the command of Brigadier General Ellis W. Williamson in Bien Hoa and operated throughout the III Corps Tactical Zone ( III CTZ ) to help establish the Bien Hoa – Vung Tau enclave . Although logistics and resupply were primarily provided by the Americans , a small logistic unit — 1st Australian Logistics Company — was situated at Bien Hoa airbase . Unlike later Australian units that served in Vietnam , which included conscripts , 1 RAR was manned by regular personnel only .
Attached to US forces , 1 RAR was primarily employed in search and destroy operations using the newly developed doctrine of airmobile operations , utilising helicopters to insert light infantry and artillery into an area of operations , and to support them with aerial mobility , fire support , casualty evacuation , and resupply . The battalion commenced operations in late June 1965 and initially focussed on defeating the Viet Cong 's wet season offensive . During this time US 173rd Brigade , including 1 RAR , conducted a number of operations into War Zone D — a major communist base area at the junction of Phuoc Long , Long Khanh , Bien Hoa and Binh Duong provinces — as well as in the Iron Triangle in November .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Opposing forces = = =
By late @-@ 1965 the junction of the Song Be and Song Dong Nai rivers had become a major communist staging area for men , equipment , and supplies for units based around Saigon and the Mekong Delta . Communist communications and resupply routes between War Zone C and D also met the Ho Chi Minh Trail in this area . Westmoreland planned to use the US 173rd Airborne Brigade to keep the Viet Cong off balance and to target their base areas , and consequently a search @-@ and @-@ destroy operation codenamed " Operation Hump " was planned . Operation Hump marked the half @-@ way point in the twelve @-@ month tour of duty of the US 173rd Airborne Brigade and was named accordingly . The concept of operations envisioned 1 RAR and 1st Battalion , US 503rd Infantry Regiment being inserted by helicopter during an airmobile operation into War Zone D , in an area about 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) north @-@ east of the US airbase at Bien Hoa . The Australian and American area of operations ( AO ) was to be separated by the Song Dong Nai , with 1 RAR to deploy into a landing zone ( LZ ) to the south , while the US 1 / 503rd Battalion would conduct a helicopter assault onto a LZ northwest of the Song Dong Nai and Song Be . Meanwhile , the US 173rd Airborne Brigade 's second battalion — 2nd Battalion , US 503rd Infantry Regiment — would be left to defend Bien Hoa airbase .
The area was thought to be a Viet Cong stronghold and American intelligence initially identified Q762 Main Force Regiment and D800 Main Force Battalion as being nearby . However , unknown to the allied force , the Viet Cong 9th Division had likely received forewarning of the operation and had deployed one of its most experienced regiments , supported by a number of local force battalions , determined for a test of allied strength . The 271 VC Main Force Regiment ( also known as Q761 Main Force Regiment ) subsequently took up defensive positions in the area , while the communist U1 headquarters protected by Company 238 , was situated on the plateau atop the Gang Toi Hills in an area which formed part of 1 RAR 's objective . U1 was responsible for co @-@ ordinating the Viet Cong regional defence against the Bien Hoa air base and for developing anti @-@ government resistance and had been tasked with rebuilding the covert organisation in Bien Hoa city and the surrounding villages up to the Dong Nai , as well as re @-@ establishing the link between Bien Hoa city and War Zone D , and for planning and executing attacks against the air base itself . Yet having relocated to the rainforest two months earlier , its presence was also unknown to the Australians and Americans . Regardless , A Company 1 RAR was scheduled to conduct a search of the plateau on the fourth day of the operation .
= = Battle = =
= = = Insertion and patrolling , 5 – 7 November 1965 = = =
On 5 November 1 RAR began the routine search @-@ and @-@ destroy operation , inserting by helicopter south of the Song Dong Nai at 08 : 00 , while the US 1 / 503rd Battalion was inserted onto LZ King north @-@ west of the Song Dong Nai and Song Be rivers at 11 : 00 . The operation started badly for the Australians and Americans with the fly @-@ in delayed . Despite a lengthy preparation by fire , a large Viet Cong force had been observed in the vicinity of LZ Queen prior to the insertion of the lead Australian rifle company — D Company under the command of Captain Peter Rothwell . The escorting helicopter gunships began taking small arms fire as they attempted to provide suppressing fire and Rothwell made the decision to activate the alternate landing zone to the north @-@ east , LZ Princess . D Company was subsequently inserted safely and swept back to LZ Queen , securing it for the remainder of the battalion . By mid @-@ morning 1 RAR occupied LZ Queen , with the 105 mm L5 pack howitzers of 105 Field Battery also flying @-@ in to provide direct support . Augmenting the Australian gunners , the US 3 / 319 Artillery Battalion and 161st Battery , Royal New Zealand Artillery occupied FSB Ace 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 4 @,@ 400 yd ) further south .
The scheme of manoeuvre adopted by 1 RAR dictated that each company undertake a dispersed patrol program in their own tactical area of responsibility , a fact which would allow them to search more ground , but limit their ability to concentrate combat power in the event of contact . A Company , under Major John Healy , patrolled east ; B Company moved north along the Song Be to Xom Xoai , while D Company patrolled south . C Company remained at LZ Queen to protect 105 Field Battery which had established a fire support base ( FSB ) . Over the next two days the Australians patrolled relentlessly through the leech @-@ infested swamps and dense jungle . At midday on 6 November A Company received two mortar rounds which failed to do any damage , but marked the start of a series of minor clashes . A Company had a number of contacts during this time , with the Australians killing a Viet Cong scout for the loss of two wounded in one skirmish . A further contact soon after resulted in two more Viet Cong killed and one wounded . Intelligence gained from these incidents indicated the presence of a Viet Cong Main Force Regiment in the area , while documents recovered contained plans for attacks on ARVN outposts near Bien Hoa Airbase .
By nightfall on 7 November , despite the earlier contacts , no major actions had occurred in the Australian AO . With the rifle companies now several kilometres apart , A Company had patrolled into a network of well used roads and tracks that formed part of a branch of the Ho Chi Minh Trail . Healy 's men spent the night astride the tracks and would resume patrolling the following day along a track which led to Hill 82 . Meanwhile , although unknown to them at the time , the US 1 / 503rd Battalion across the Song Dong Nai had patrolled to within 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 2 @,@ 200 yd ) of a major Viet Cong bunker system sited on two spur lines in the vicinity of Hill 65 .
= = = Hill 82 , 8 November 1965 = = =
Brumfield arrived by helicopter on the morning of 8 November , just as A Company was preparing to depart from its night location at 08 : 00 . With contact now seeming unlikely to the Australians , Healy was instructed to move to a rendezvous from which the battalion would be extracted back to Bien Hoa the following day . A Company subsequently set out on a compass bearing which would take them across the northern edge of the Gang Toi plateau . By 10 : 30 the Australians moved out in single file but had not gone far before a lone Viet Cong scout was observed shadowing them ; he was subsequently shot and killed by the rear section . Crossing a creek line the Australians uncovered a company @-@ sized camp of dugouts and trenches , before being fired upon at 15 : 40 by a single Viet Cong soldier who then fled . A Company halted briefly , and at this time two Viet Cong approached their position , before being killed by 1 Platoon .
The Australians continued in single file towards the top of the plateau , with 1 Platoon — under Sergeant Gordon Peterson — leading , followed by 2 and then 3 Platoon . The going was slow in the dense jungle and visibility was limited . By 16 : 30 the lead section was nearing the top of the hill having gone just 250 metres ( 270 yd ) , while the last platoon — 3 Platoon — was still leaving the harbour . Suddenly , 1 Platoon was hit by heavy small arms fire from at least three Viet Cong machine @-@ guns in well @-@ sited bunkers , supported by rifles and grenades . The fire engulfed the lead section and platoon headquarters , causing five casualties in the opening minute . Pinned down , the Australians went to ground and began returning fire , allowing all except one of the wounded to crawl to safety . Private Richard Parker , who had fallen directly in front of the bunker system , was unable to be recovered . Failing to respond to the shouts of his comrades , Parker was exposed to further hits , although was probably already dead . To support the beleaguered platoon , Healy subsequently ordered the support section from company headquarters to move forward to provide covering fire , while 3 Platoon moved up on the left flank . However , due to the dispersed patrolling plan adopted , the remaining companies were unable to provide any assistance .
Still at the bottom of the hill , 3 Platoon — under Second Lieutenant Clive Williams — had just shot and killed two Viet Cong moving along the creek line . Reaching the top of the hill to the left of company headquarters , Williams turned to the right towards the Viet Cong positions . Moving into extended line on a 120 metres ( 130 yd ) front the Australians had advanced just 50 metres ( 55 yd ) before the left flank was engaged by a number of machine @-@ guns from another sector of the Viet Cong position . In danger of being outflanked , 3 Platoon continued to advance regardless , using fire and movement . Just 15 metres ( 16 yd ) from the bunkers Private Peter Gillson , the machine @-@ gunner in the forward section , was shot as he tried to move around the twisted roots of a tall tree . As he fell two Viet Cong rushed forward to take the M60 machine @-@ gun ; however , Gillson was still conscious and they were killed at point blank range before he collapsed . Williams radioed Healy of the increasing danger while his platoon sergeant — Sergeant Colin Fawcett — had crawled forward under heavy fire to Gillson , whose body was wedged in the buttress of a large tree . Unable to find a pulse , Fawcett attempted to extract Gillson , but was unable to do so due to heavy fire . Two other attempts to recover the body were also beaten back , and although unsuccessful , Fawcett was later awarded the Military Medal for his actions .
Taking heavy fire from both the front and flanks , Williams had little choice but to withdraw . With the Viet Cong moving rapidly to encircle them , and unable to move forward , the Australians had to fight using small arms fire and grenades to extract themselves back to company headquarters without further casualties . However , by this time the artillery was beginning to have an impact as A Company 's forward observer , Captain Bruce Murphy , a New Zealander , directed the fires . The Australians had unavoidably been placed in the worst possible position to their supporting artillery , with 105 Battery firing on a line directly towards them from their gun @-@ line 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) on the other side of the Gang Toi plateau . Consequently , Murphy was unable to observe the fall of shot , and had to walk the rounds onto target by sound . A slight miscalculation could have sent a round over the hill into the Australian positions , regardless , and despite persistent rifle and machine @-@ gun fire , Murphy calmly directed the artillery throughout the battle . For his skill and bravery he was later awarded the Military Cross .
By 18 : 30 , more than two hours since the fighting began , darkness was approaching . The battalion would be unable to concentrate against the Viet Cong position until the following day , and Healy subsequently made the decision to withdraw . With the artillery falling as close as possible , the weight of the indirect fires provided the Australians with a degree of protection and an opportunity to extricate themselves . Lieutenant Ian Guild 's 2 Platoon was subsequently moved into position to cover the withdrawal , and carrying their wounded the Australians successfully broke contact without suffering further losses . A Company initially moved to a landing zone 120 metres ( 130 yd ) below the ridgeline which had been cleared to allow the casualties to be evacuated , yet there were no helicopters available . As a result , the Australians had to look after their casualties until the following morning , and they proceeded further north to a night harbour as the area was pounded by artillery , aerial bombing and helicopter gunships .
Healy assessed that his company had encountered a force of at least company @-@ size . Later it became apparent that they had indeed contacted Company 238 which was tasked with protecting the U1 headquarters and to carry out operations in the Bien Hoa region . Throughout the day Viet Cong reconnaissance parties , perhaps including those that had been contacted intermittently , had observed the approaching Australian force on a line leading directly to the U1 headquarters . During the fighting the Viet Cong company commander — Nguyen Van Bao — had split his force into two , allocating one platoon to fight the advancing Australians , and the other two to protect the headquarters . Following the Australian withdrawal Van Bao had also withdrawn , pre @-@ empting the ensuing barrage , yet the U1 base remained in communist hands .
= = = Fighting across the Song Dong Nai = = =
Meanwhile , across the river in the American AO the US 1 / 503rd Battalion had uncovered a large Viet Cong bunker system and became involved in fierce fighting that had included desperate hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , with both sides resorting to using bayonets . Throughout the morning the Australians had heard the increasing crescendo of firing as the battle raged ; however , as neither they nor the US 2 / 503rd Battalion had been called on to reinforce the US 1 / 503rd Battalion they had pressed on . The American paratroopers had contacted a well @-@ equipped Viet Cong Main Force regiment , complete with khaki uniforms , steel helmets and Soviet automatic weaponry and small arms . The fighting across the Song Dong Nai continued into the afternoon , before subsiding into sporadic sniper and small arms fire in the later afternoon and early evening . During the fighting , Specialist Lawrence Joel — a medic — distinguished himself tending to his wounded comrades while under heavy fire . He was subsequently awarded the Medal of Honor .
Brumfield demanded the right to return to Hill 82 in order to destroy the bunker system and to recover the bodies of Parker and Gillson , and he and Major John Essex @-@ Clark — the operations officer — began planning a battalion attack . However , with American casualties rising and all available helicopters required for casualty evacuation , the planned operation was cancelled . The thick jungle canopy compounded the issue , and Williamson decided to stage the casualties through an area secured by the Australians at LZ Princess . Operation Hump concluded on 9 November , with the US 1 / 503rd Battalion and 1 RAR being extracted by helicopter and returning to Bien Hoa in the late afternoon . Following 1 RAR 's return to Bien Hoa , Brumfield continued to petition for permission to conduct the operation . A battalion attack was subsequently planned for 14 November , but Williamson later deferred it dependent on the availability of air and helicopter support , and the start date of the upcoming Operation New Life . Ultimately it was never conducted .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Casualties = = =
The Battle of Gang Toi was the first set @-@ piece action between Australian and Viet Cong forces in the Vietnam War . Australian casualties included two missing ( presumed killed ) and six wounded , and despite the efforts of their comrades , the bodies of the Australian dead were unable to be recovered . Against these losses the Viet Cong had suffered at least six killed , one wounded and five captured . Confronted by an equal sized force , dug @-@ in in well @-@ prepared defences , the Australians had performed creditably enough even if they had been forced to withdraw , leaving the battlefield to the Viet Cong . Despite inflicting heavier casualties on the communists than they had suffered themselves , many of the Australians were depressed at having left two soldiers behind , and they longed for the opportunity to return to Gang Toi . In 2007 , more than 40 years after the fighting , an Australian Vietnam veteran — Jim Bourke , MG — and a team of volunteers successfully located the remains of both Parker and Gillson . They had been hastily buried together in a weapon pit the day after the battle by Viet Cong soldiers , and with the assistance of the Australian and Vietnamese governments they were subsequently returned to Australia for burial .
= = = Assessment = = =
Although A Company , 1 RAR had been mauled , the experience of the Australians at Gang Toi was relatively minor when compared to that of the Americans . During fierce fighting the US 1 / 503rd Battalion had suffered nearly a 100 casualties , including 40 killed and 51 wounded , while more than 400 Viet Cong were believed killed . American claims were later raised to over 700 killed when captured documents revealed the losses caused by artillery and air strikes . Yet it was questionable as to whether such battles of attrition would be viable , while equally the American battalion had taken casualties far beyond what would have been politically acceptable for 1 RAR . Indeed , their losses had been significant , and although claimed as a victory , the Americans had failed to secure the area even if the Viet Cong had temporarily surrendered control of the battlefield . Ultimately , the communists continued to use the Bien Hoa area as a major supply route for the rest of the war .
Brumfield considered Operation Hump to be the least successful operation in which the Australian battalion had participated , and he criticised it as being badly conceived from the start , and mounted with too little intelligence or prior reconnaissance . Indeed , from the initial landing zone being occupied by the Viet Cong , failures in the passage of information , the heavy losses suffered by the US 1 / 503rd Battalion and the subsequent difficulties with casualty evacuation , the operation had not run smoothly . The Australians were vengeful for their losses and wanted to return to collect their dead ; however , with 1 RAR absorbed into other operations the planned battalion attack on Hill 82 never occurred . Regardless , further operations followed in the months afterwards , with 1 RAR subsequently employed on Operation New Life in November and December , and later Operation Crimp in the Ho Bo Woods in January 1966 . Operation Hump was Brumfield 's last , with an old football injury forcing his evacuation to Australia in mid @-@ November . He was subsequently replaced by Lieutenant Colonel Alex Preece .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
At the strategic level the ARVN and the South Vietnamese government had both rallied after appearing on the verge of collapse and the communist threat against Saigon had subsided , yet additional troop increases were required if Westmoreland was to adopt a more offensive strategy , with US troop levels planned to rise from 210 @,@ 000 in January 1966 to 327 @,@ 000 by December 1966 . The Australian government increased its own commitment to the ground war in March 1966 , announcing the deployment of a two battalion brigade — the 1st Australian Task Force ( 1 ATF ) — with armour , aviation , engineer and artillery support ; in total 4 @,@ 500 men . Additional Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) and the Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) force elements would also be deployed and with all three services total Australian strength in Vietnam was planned to increase to 6 @,@ 300 personnel . 1 RAR was subsequently replaced by 1 ATF which was allocated its own area of operations in Phuoc Tuy Province , thereby allowing the Australians to pursue operations more independently using their own counter @-@ insurgency tactics and techniques . The task force arrived between April and June 1966 , constructing a base at Nui Dat , while logistic arrangements were provided by the 1st Australian Logistic Support Group which was established at the port of Vung Tau .
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= U.S. Route 62 in Oklahoma =
In Oklahoma , U.S. Highway 62 runs diagonally across the state , from the Texas state line in far southwestern Oklahoma to the Arkansas state line near Fayetteville . US @-@ 62 spends a total of 402 @.@ 48 miles ( 647 @.@ 73 km ) in the Sooner State . The highway passes through fifteen of Oklahoma 's counties . Along the way the route serves two of Oklahoma 's largest cities , Lawton and Oklahoma City , as well as many regionally important cities , like Altus , Chickasha , Muskogee , and Tahlequah . Despite this , US @-@ 62 has no lettered spur routes like many other U.S. routes in Oklahoma do .
US @-@ 62 has been part of the Oklahoma highway network since 1930 . With the advent of the Interstate system , the portion of its route through Oklahoma City was revised several times to adapt to the presence of the new freeways . The present @-@ day route of US @-@ 62 includes concurrencies with I @-@ 44 , I @-@ 240 , I @-@ 35 , and I @-@ 40 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Southwestern Oklahoma = = =
US @-@ 62 enters Oklahoma in Harmon County , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of Hollis . It then passes through that town , the county seat , where it serves as the southern terminus of State Highway 30 . US @-@ 62 meets the northern terminus of SH @-@ 5 in Gould . The highway passes through unincorporated McQueen 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) and then enters Jackson County . Just east of Duke , the route crosses SH @-@ 34 . Nine miles ( 14 @.@ 5 km ) later , US @-@ 62 becomes a multilane highway and begins a concurrency with SH @-@ 6 . The two highways travel together into Altus , where they intersect US @-@ 283 . SH @-@ 6 follows US @-@ 283 northward out of town , while US @-@ 62 heads east towards Headrick . US @-@ 62 runs just north of that town before crossing the North Fork of the Red River onto the Kiowa – Tillman County line .
US @-@ 62 continues eastward , sending US @-@ 62 BUS north to Snyder , which was the original US @-@ 62 alignment in the area . The county line then turns south of US @-@ 62 , and the route has an interchange with US @-@ 183 . US @-@ 62 heads farther east , meeting the other end of US @-@ 62 BUS 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) later . US @-@ 62 serves as the southern terminus of the northern State Highway 54 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) east of this . The road then enters Comanche County , where it serves as the southern border of Fort Sill . It serves as the southern terminus of another Oklahoma state highway , SH @-@ 115 , near Cache . A few miles of the highway east of SH @-@ 115 is freeway @-@ grade . Continuing east , US @-@ 62 becomes an expressway , Rogers Lane , that serves the north side of Lawton ( along with several Ft . Sill gates ) . In eastern Lawton , the highway has an interchange with Interstate 44 and begins a concurrency with it ( joining at Exit 40B ) , along with US @-@ 277 and US @-@ 281 .
I @-@ 44 / US @-@ 62 / 277 / 281 head northward through Fort Sill . At Exit 45 , the freeway serves as the eastern terminus of State Highway 49 . The three U.S. routes split off at Exit 46 , with I @-@ 44 continuing onto the northern section of the H. E. Bailey Turnpike . US @-@ 277 splits off to the east 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) later . US @-@ 62 / 281 then meet SH @-@ 19 in Apache . SH @-@ 9 begins overlapping the two U.S. routes 10 miles ( 16 km ) north of Apache . The three routes continue into Anadarko , where State Highway 8 briefly joins the concurrency . US @-@ 283 and SH @-@ 8 split off to the north , while US @-@ 62 / SH @-@ 9 head out of town to the east .
= = = Central Oklahoma = = =
US @-@ 62 / SH @-@ 9 cross into Grady County just west of Verden . At the western limits of Chickasha , US @-@ 81 joins the concurrency . In downtown Chickasha , US @-@ 81 splits off to the south , and US @-@ 277 once again joins with US @-@ 62 . In far eastern Chickasha , the routes have an interchange with I @-@ 44 ( the H.E. Bailey Turnpike ) . US @-@ 62 / 277 / SH @-@ 9 serve as the southern terminus of SH @-@ 92 and the western terminus of SH @-@ 39 . The three highways then angle northeast towards Blanchard , where they are briefly joined by State Highway 76 . Northeast of Blanchard , they are carried by an expressway . SH @-@ 9 splits off at a diamond interchange that also serves as the eastern terminus of the H.E. Bailey Turnpike Spur . The two U.S. routes continue north into Newcastle , running through town on a five @-@ lane ( two lanes in each direction plus center turn lane ) alignment . On the northern rim of Newcastle , the two routes encounter I @-@ 44 once again , at the northern terminus of the Bailey Turnpike . US @-@ 62 joins eastbound I @-@ 44 toward Oklahoma City , while US @-@ 277 terminates at the interchange .
I @-@ 44 / US @-@ 62 pick up State Highway 37 at Exit 107 , and the three highways cross the Canadian River into Cleveland County and Oklahoma City . SH @-@ 37 then splits off at Exit 110 . Just north of the Oklahoma County line , I @-@ 44 has an interchange at the western terminus of Interstate 240 at Exit 115 , and US @-@ 62 follows it east to Exit 4B , where it begins to concur with I @-@ 35 / US @-@ 77 . I @-@ 35 / US @-@ 62 / 77 head northward to the Fort Smith Junction . US @-@ 77 splits off to join with Interstate 235 , while I @-@ 35 / US @-@ 77 join with eastbound I @-@ 40 / US @-@ 270 . I @-@ 35 / US @-@ 62 split off to the north after just over a mile . US @-@ 62 leaves I @-@ 35 at Exit 130 , turning east onto N.E. 23rd St. , an at @-@ grade street
US @-@ 62 serves some of Oklahoma City 's eastern suburbs , including far northern Midwest City , far southern Spencer , Nicoma Park , and Choctaw . In eastern Harrah , the route meets the west terminus of State Highway 270 . The highway then crosses into far southern Lincoln County , where it crosses SH @-@ 120 at Midway . US @-@ 62 runs through two more unincorporated communities , Fowler and Jacktown ; the latter is the site of the US @-@ 62 / US @-@ 177 junction . US @-@ 62 enters Meeker 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) later , where it meets up with SH @-@ 18 . 12 miles ( 19 km ) further east , in Prague , it encounters US @-@ 377 / SH @-@ 99 .
= = = Green Country = = =
US @-@ 62 enters eastern Oklahoma 's Green Country as it crosses into Okfuskee County west of Paden . It begins to turn southeast , intersecting State Highway 48 west of Castle , before joining once again with I @-@ 40 near Okemah , at Exit 221 . US @-@ 75 also joins the interstate , 10 miles ( 16 km ) farther east at Exit 231 . The two U.S. routes split off at Exit 240B , where they continue the mainline of the Indian Nation Turnpike , which terminates at I @-@ 40 . The two U.S. routes serve eastern Henryetta , and west of Dewar , they are the western terminus of U.S. Highway 266 . In Okmulgee , US @-@ 62 turns east while US @-@ 75 continues north toward the Tulsa area . US @-@ 62 heads through Morris , where it intersects SH @-@ 52 . The highway then has a 9 @-@ mile ( 14 km ) overlap with SH @-@ 72 , after which it begins a concurrency with US @-@ 64 .
US @-@ 62 / 64 split up in Muskogee , where US @-@ 62 briefly shares pavement with US @-@ 69 . On the east side of town , it has an interchange with the Muskogee Turnpike / SH @-@ 165 freeway . Near Ft . Gibson , US @-@ 62 begins to concur with State Highway 10 , and the two routes stay joined through Tahlequah . US @-@ 62 starts to overlap State Highway 51 in Tahlequah as well ; the two highways split up near Eldon . The route enters Adair County near Proctor . It intersects with US @-@ 59 in Westville before US @-@ 62 crosses the state line into Arkansas .
= = History = =
When US @-@ 62 first appeared on the state highway map in 1930 , it had the same basic routing as it did today . In 1930 , most of the highway was of gravel or earthen construction . The only portions of the highway that were paved were from Chickasha to Tabler , from Newcastle to Oklahoma City and Meeker , from Okemah to Morris , and from just south of the US @-@ 64 junction to Fort Gibson . By 1948 , the entire stretch of US @-@ 62 through Oklahoma had been paved .
= = = Oklahoma City routing = = =
On 1950 @-@ 03 @-@ 06 , US @-@ 62 was rerouted through Oklahoma City . US @-@ 62 followed Newcastle Boulevard into the city and turned eastbound onto S.E. 29th Street , which it followed to Robinson Avenue . It then turned north onto Robinson , which was also US @-@ 77 , towards downtown . Through downtown , US @-@ 62 followed Robinson , while US @-@ 77 paralleled it one block to the east on Broadway . At N.E. 23rd Street , US @-@ 62 turned east , concurring with US @-@ 270 , US @-@ 66 CITY , and the second State Highway 1 . US @-@ 77 also ran along 23rd Street from Broadway to Lincoln Boulevard , where it split off to the north , along with US @-@ 66 CITY . US @-@ 62 / 270 / SH @-@ 1 then continued along 23rd Street to Spencer .
US @-@ 62 was realigned once again on April 6 , 1955 .
US @-@ 62 was realigned for a third time on September 4 , 1961 . This routing was only meant to be temporary , following Agnew , Exchange , and Reno Avenues to downtown . This change was followed up by the September 4 , 1963 rerouting , which put US @-@ 62 onto its present @-@ day routing ( though I @-@ 240 did not exist yet , and I @-@ 44 still ended at I @-@ 35 ) .
= = Junction list = =
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= David Jacobs ( table tennis ) =
Dian David Michael Jacobs ( born 21 June 1977 ) , commonly referred to as David Jacobs , is an Indonesian athlete who competes in table tennis , currently Class 10 para table tennis . Born in Ujung Pandang , he took up table tennis at the age of ten and rose quickly through national tournaments . He was training to play internationally by 2000 , and in 2001 he won his first gold medal , at the SEATTA Games in Singapore . Since 2010 he has competed in para table tennis , having spent most of his career competing against athletes with full functionality . He competed in the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , winning a bronze medal .
= = Early life = =
Jacobs was born in Ujung Pandang ( now Makassar ) on 21 June 1977 . He is of Ambonese descent . He began playing table tennis at age ten , with the support of his parents Jan and Nell , as well as his brothers Rano , Piere , and Joe ; as of 2012 his three brothers also play table tennis . In 1989 his parents registered him with the PTP Club in Semarang ; in his two years with the club he became a national champion at the elementary @-@ school level .
When Jacobs was ready to begin his junior high school , the family moved to Jakarta . Jacobs was signed with UMS 80 Club . He continued to improve and joined the provincial team . In 1997 he was sent to Beijing to train at the Shi Cha Hai Sports School . By 2000 Jacobs was already being prepared to compete at the international level by the Indonesian Table Tennis Association . As of January 2012 Jacobs is married to Jeanny Palar , with whom he has one child .
= = Table tennis career = =
While earning a degree in management from the Perbanas School of Economics , Jacobs continued training . He participated in his first Southeast Asian Games ( SEA Games ) in 2001 . Together with Yon Mardiono , in 2001 Jacobs won Indonesia 's only gold medal at the SEATTA table tennis championship in Singapore . In the men 's doubles competition they defeated the Thai duo Phucong Sanguansin and Phakphoom Sanguansin in three matches , scoring 11 @-@ 4 , 11 @-@ 4 , and 11 @-@ 6 . Paired with Mardiono for the first time for this tournament , Jacobs told The Jakarta Post that they " were determined not to let ourselves be dominated " .
Jacobs continued to play at the SEA Games , competing in Vietnam ( 2003 ) , the Philippines ( 2005 ) , and Thailand ( 2007 ) . He won the 2004 Pekan Olahraga Nasional competition for table tennis , which led to him receiving an honorary position at the Department of Sport ; he became a full @-@ time employee there in 2008 . In 2008 , Jacobs served as a coach for the Indonesian men 's table tennis team , and in 2009 he competed at the SEA Games in Kuala Lumpur .
= = Para table tennis career = =
Jacobs began playing in para table tennis tournaments later that year , becoming a member of the National Paralympic Committee in 2010 . He competes in Class 10 , which is the highest level of functionality in the system . He usually trains with opponents who maintain full functionality . Jacobs himself has a problem with one of his hands .
At the 2010 Asian Para Games in Guangzhou , China , Jacobs won a bronze medal . Before the competition he had only a month to train . He competed in several international tournaments , winning a gold in Thailand , silver in Beijing , bronze in the Czech Republic , silver in the United Kingdom , and gold in Taiwan . At the 2011 ASEAN ParaGames in Surakarta , Jacobs won seven gold medals : men 's singles ( open ) , men 's doubles ( open ) , mixed doubles ( open ) , men 's doubles , mixed doubles , team , and single . In January of the following year Jacobs took on Indonesian president Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono in a three @-@ game series . Although the president won one game with a score of 13 @-@ 11 , Jacobs took the series , winning two games with the scores 11 @-@ 7 and 11 @-@ 9 . After the competition , Yudhoyono gave a speech of the need to support Indonesia 's disabled athletes .
In March 2012 Jacobs won two gold medals at the Protour Paratable Tennis Liknano Open in Italy . In the men 's singles he defeated Ivan Karavec of the Czech Republic with a score of 11 @-@ 9 , 11 @-@ 7 , and 11 @-@ 8 , while in the men 's team play he was paired with Komet Akbar and defeated teams from the Netherlands and Czech Republic . In June he won the Slovakian Table Tennis Tournament , ranking him among the top three in the world .
Jacobs is one of several athletes who represented Indonesia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , with Ni Nengah Widiasih ( powerlifting ) , the swimmer Agus Ngaimin , and an athletics competitor , Setyo Budi Hartanto . Jacobs won the bronze medal in the Table Tennis Men 's Individual C10 classification . It was the nation 's first Paralympic medal in over twenty years .
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= My Life with Master =
My Life with Master is an independently published role @-@ playing game written by Paul Czege and published by Half Meme Press ( it was first released at the 2003 Gen Con gaming convention ) . My Life with Master is a game about role @-@ playing the servants or minions of an evil Master or Mistress .
The game is still in print ( as of May 2012 ) , and is available in printed book format or as a PDF file download from the publisher .
= = Gameplay = =
The prototypical setting of the role @-@ playing game is in an unspecified Central European country in the early 19th century . Players in the game portray the Igor @-@ like minions of an evil Master ( or Mistress ) who preys on the nearby Townsfolk .
Like most role @-@ playing games , there is a Gamemaster ( GM ) . In this case the GM plays the part of the Master . However , the GM and players together are supposed to " design " the Master , in terms of defining his " Wants " , " Needs " , " Aspect " , and " Type " . These traits have no explicit mechanical effect , but are used to define the desires and mannerisms of the Master and how he interacts with the Townsfolk and his minions . Masters have two game statistics , " Fear " ( a measure of his power over minions ) and " Reason " ( how much minions and Townsfolk can resist the Master 's control over them ) .
In contrast , the Master 's minions , the characters portrayed by the players , are defined ( in terms of game statistics ) by their levels of " Weariness " and " Self @-@ loathing " , and the connections of " Love " that they have ( successfully or unsuccessfully ) tried to make with the Townsfolk . Self @-@ loathing is a measure of the power that a minion has to intimidate the Townsfolk , while Weariness limits their abilities to complete their tasks . Love allows minions to resist their Master and his demands on them .
Gameplay is generally resolved through a series of " scenes " . A player describes what their minion is trying to do , be it carrying out their Master 's wishes or trying to resist him , interacting with the Townsfolk , attempting an act of Love ( which could result in increasing their " Love " trait , or increasing their " Self @-@ loathing " if the attempt fails ) , etc . A series of dice rolls are used to determine success or failure , and then the scene is played out according to that outcome .
Unlike other role @-@ playing games that may have long campaigns , My Life with Master games are typically designed to end after a small number of playing sessions . As one reviewer stated , My Life with Master " strives to tell a story , and stories have endings . " Usually , a game culminates with the death of the Master at the hands of one ( or more ) of his minions . Sometimes , the Master dies because the Townsfolk are " sick of his predations " and " storm his domicile -- pitchforks in hand and torches aflame " . Some or all of the players ' characters might also meet their end in the hands of the Townsfolk , or the Master kills them as they try to resist his commands and suffer the consequences of their failure .
= = Critical reception = =
My Life with Master won the 2004 Diana Jones Award . In addition , it also won the 2003 Out of the Box Award for Best Sui Generis RPG and the 2003 Indie Roleplaying Game of the Year .
Steve Darlington , in his review , stated that " even if you never play this game , you will be smarter simply for having read it " since " it quickly becomes hard to distinguish [ Czege 's ] choice of attributes from a high @-@ level academic deconstruction of the character tropes in gothic horror films at a level which could easily be found on a college reading list . " He also said that it is " one of the very few horror games that may actually need disclaimers , and maybe even safe words too " for its " darker subtext " about escaping from abusive relationships .
According to Heather Barnhorst " Czege writes with wit and doesn 't fear to let his understanding of game theory shine through . Colin Theriot 's illustrations evoke exactly the right mood for the setting and are enjoyable as stand @-@ alone art . "
Reviewer Matthew Pook warned that " Despite the simplicity of the [ game ] mechanics ... they are not as clearly written as they need to be ... The GM will need to make a close read of the otherwise well @-@ written text to help grasp how the outcome of a scene will alter a minion 's statistics . " He concluded his review stating " although not going to be everyone 's cup of tea , My Life With Master is the most interesting roleplaying game released this year [ 2003 ] and perhaps the most challenging . "
Game designer Greg Costikyan has praised My Life with Master for the way it " evokes emotions and feelings rare in games " , and considers it to work in part because the Gothic horror theme has " a defined narrative arc : hubris and terror , followed by a fall " .
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= Internet Watch Foundation and Wikipedia =
On 5 December 2008 , the Internet Watch Foundation ( IWF ) , a British watchdog group , blacklisted content on the English Wikipedia related to Scorpions ' 1976 studio album Virgin Killer , due to the presence of its controversial cover artwork , depicting a young girl posing nude , with a faux glass shatter obscuring her genitalia . The image was deemed to be " potentially illegal content " under English law which forbids the possession or creation of indecent photographs of children . The IWF 's blacklist are used in web filtering systems such as Cleanfeed .
The URL to the image 's description page , which depicts the cover art , was also blacklisted ; however thumbnails and the image itself remained accessible . The album cover had been deemed controversial at the time of its release , and was replaced in some markets with an alternate cover image featuring a photo of the band members . The IWF described the image as " a potentially illegal indecent image of a child under the age of 18 " . Wikipedia 's policies state that it does not censor content " that some readers consider objectionable or offensive , even exceedingly so " , although it does remove content that is " obviously inappropriate " , violates other Wikipedia policies , or is illegal in the United States .
As well as the direct consequence of censoring the article and image for UK @-@ based readers of the English Wikipedia through the affected ISPs ( a censoring that could be circumvented ) , and that the album cover was being made available unfiltered on other major sites including Amazon.co.uk ( from which it was later removed ) , and available for sale in the UK , the action also had some indirect effects on Wikipedia , namely temporarily preventing all editors using said ISPs in the UK from contributing to any page of the encyclopaedia , and preventing anonymous edits from these ISPs while the URL remained on the blacklist . This was described by the IWF as unintended " collateral damage " . This was due to the proxies used to access Wikipedia , as Wikipedia implements a blocking policy whereby contributors can be blocked if they vandalise the encyclopaedia . Therefore , all vandalism coming from one ISP would be directed through one proxy — hence one IP — and all of the ISP 's customers using that proxy would be barred from editing .
After invoking its appeals procedure and reviewing the situation , the IWF reversed their blacklisting of the page on 9 December 2008 , and announced that they would not blacklist other copies of the image hosted outside the UK .
= = Background = =
The album art of the Scorpions ' album Virgin Killer , featuring a young girl fully nude with a " smashed glass " effect covering her genitalia , was deemed controversial at the time of its release . The cover was replaced in some markets with an alternate cover image featuring a photo of the band members . RCA Records refused to sell the controversial album cover in the United States . The cover was not the only Scorpions ' cover which caused controversy however , as the covers for Taken by Force and Lovedrive have also caused controversy with their content .
In the United Kingdom , access to illegal content ( such as child pornography ) was strictly self @-@ regulated by individual internet service providers . This began when BT Group introduced Cleanfeed , a server @-@ side filtering system which uses data obtained from the Internet Watch Foundation . The IWF is a Quango organisation that operates a website where users can report web pages containing illegal or dubious content to be added to their blacklists . This was implemented in order to prevent users from accessing this material , since it is illegal to possess an indecent image of a child under the age of 18 per the Protection of Children Act . British ISPs were later obligated by the government to implement filters for illegal content by the beginning of 2007 .
= = Addition to IWF blacklist = =
On 5 December 2008 the Internet Watch Foundation added the Wikipedia URLs for the Virgin Killer article and the description page of the image to its blacklist . After the blacklisting , users of major UK ISPs , including BT , Vodafone , Virgin Media / Tesco.net , Be / O2 , EasyNet / UK Online / Sky Broadband , Orange , Demon , and TalkTalk ( Opal Telecom ) , were unable to access the content .
Sarah Robertson , director of communications for the IWF , said that the image was rated " 1 on a scale of 1 to 5 , where 1 is the least offensive " . She described the picture as " erotic posing with no sexual activity " . While the image itself has not been flagged as " illegal " , IWF determined it to be a " potentially illegal indecent image of a child under the age of 18 " .
The IWF said they were first notified of the Wikipedia URL on 4 December 2008 . This followed the May 2008 reporting of the cover image on Wikipedia by U.S.-based social conservative site WorldNetDaily to the Federal Bureau of Investigation . An officer of the Concerned Women for America , a conservative Christian advocacy group , commented , " By allowing that image to remain posted , Wikipedia is helping to further facilitate perversion and paedophilia " . EContent magazine subsequently reported that the discussion page associated with the article declared " Prior discussion has determined by broad consensus that the Virgin Killer cover will not be removed " , and asserted that Wikipedia contributors " favour inclusion in all but the most extreme cases " . However , according to The Guardian because " the IWF doesn 't talk to people outside of the UK they weren 't able to appreciate what was going on " . Internet security expert Richard Clayton explained that " We see this borderline stuff all the time ; it 's a no @-@ win " , before adding that the decision seems to have been based on taking the image out of context , particularly " given that you can go into HMV and buy a copy on the high street " . On 9 December 2008 the IWF reversed its blacklist of the Wikipedia pages on the basis of the " contextual issues involved in this specific case and , in light of the length of time the image has existed and its wide availability " .
= = Effects on Wikipedia = =
The blacklisting of Virgin Killer also caused other inadvertent issues for Wikipedia users in the United Kingdom . Usually most Internet users have a unique IP address visible to websites . However , as a result of ISPs using the IWF blacklist implemented through Cleanfeed technology , traffic to Wikipedia via those affected ISPs was then routed through a small number of proxy servers . This caused problems for users of the site . Since Wikipedia allows users to anonymously edit its encyclopaedia articles , these individuals are identified only through their IP addresses , which are used to selectively block users who vandalise the site or otherwise break its rules . The proxy filtering makes it impossible to uniquely distinguish users , and to prevent vandalism Wikipedia " instituted a blanket ban on anonymous edits from the six ISPs , which account for 95 % of British residential internet users " . This had the immediate effect of requiring nearly all registered users in the UK to request the lifting of IP Autoblocks on their accounts before they could edit again , and the de facto permanent effect of barring any contribution from people without user accounts on the site , who contribute merely under an IP address and not a user name .
The MediaWiki software that Wikipedia runs on can interpret X @-@ Forwarded @-@ For ( XFF ) headers , allowing Wikipedia to identify a user 's main IP address rather than the proxy IP address , allowing the ability to block proxy users individually by their client 's IP rather than the proxy server IP ( avoiding the need to block the whole proxy due to the actions of a single user ) . However , none of the ISPs subscribing to this system pass XFF information to Wikipedia , having the impact of reversing the normal method of identification and blocking on Wikipedia . IP addresses assumed to be assigned to an individual person or organisation were assigned instead to millions of people and thousands of registered editors . Wikipedia servers saw them all as the IP of the proxy rather than each as the IP of their own machine .
Due to erroneous use of Border Gateway Protocol ( BGP ) and other routing technology to redirect the connections to the filtering proxies , users of some networks were temporarily prevented from accessing or editing any content hosted by Wikimedia , a problem reminiscent of Pakistan 's accidental blocking of YouTube for much of the world instead of only their own citizens .
= = Responses = =
On 7 December 2008 , the Wikimedia Foundation , a non @-@ profit organisation which supports Wikipedia , issued a press release about the blacklisting of their sites by the IWF stating that they had " no reason to believe the article , or the image contained in the article , has been held to be illegal in any jurisdiction anywhere in the world " , and noting that not just the image but the article itself had been blocked .
On 9 December 2008 , Jimmy Wales , who holds the board @-@ appointed " community founder " seat on the Wikimedia Board of Trustees , told the UK 's Channel 4 News that he had briefly considered legal action . After the block had been removed , Mike Godwin , general counsel for the Wikimedia Foundation , stated " there is still plenty to be troubled by in the operations of the Internet Watch Foundation and its blacklist " .
On 9 December 2008 , the IWF rescinded the block , issuing the following statement :
[ ... ] the image in question is potentially in breach of the Protection of Children Act 1978 . However , the IWF Board has today ( 9 December 2008 ) considered these findings and the contextual issues involved in this specific case and , in light of the length of time the image has existed and its wide availability , the decision has been taken to remove this webpage from our list .
= = Aftermath = =
The incident was commented in some countries implementing or considering to implement Internet filtering or censorship plans . In Australia , Electronic Frontiers Australia vice @-@ chairman Colin Jacobs said that " [ the ] incident in Britain , in which virtually the entire country was unable to edit Wikipedia because the country 's Internet Watch Foundation had blacklisted a single image on the site , illustrated the pitfalls of mandatory ISP filtering " . The Sydney Morning Herald has commented that " Ironically , the banning of the image has only made it visible to more people as news sites publicise the issue and the image spreads across sites other than Wikipedia . " an example of the Streisand effect .
At the time of the incident Amazon US were also displaying the image on their site and the IWF stated that it " might yet add Amazon US to its list of ' blocked ' sites for hosting the picture " ; however , Amazon subsequently took the decision to remove the image from their site . In an impact study preparing a bill dealing with cybercrime , the Cabinet of France listed the Virgin Killer block as an example of indiscriminate filtering .
The Electronic Frontier Foundation criticised the IWF 's reasoning :
We agree with their decision [ to reverse the ban ] , but they have the wrong reasoning [ for the reversal ] : they had no business censoring that article in the first place — the community of Wikipedia editors is if anything the more legitimate , reliable and grown @-@ up adjudicator of which images are appropriate subject matter for an encyclopaedia .
The IWF continues to assert that the image is indeed child porn , and asserts that the image would be blocked if it were on a British server .
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= Window of Opportunity ( Stargate SG @-@ 1 ) =
" Window of Opportunity " is the sixth episode from season 4 of the science fiction television series Stargate SG @-@ 1 , and first aired on the American subscription channel Showtime on August 4 , 2000 . The episode is based on a time loop scenario , with SG @-@ 1 team members Colonel O 'Neill and Teal 'c repeatedly reliving the same ten hours after a mission on a planet . Since the rest of their team and all personnel at Stargate Command are unaware of the happenings and do not remember the time resets , O 'Neill and Teal 'c are forced to find a solution on their own .
Penned by Joseph Mallozzi and Paul Mullie , " Window of Opportunity " was the writing duo 's second script , and their first episode to air . Mallozzi and Mullie later became executive producers of both Stargate SG @-@ 1 and Stargate Atlantis . The episode 's unique story style caused an unexpected shortage of footage during filming , which director Peter DeLuise compensated for by shooting additional scenes , many of which were humorous . " Window of Opportunity " is widely regarded as a fan favorite .
= = Plot = =
On a mission on P4X @-@ 639 , a planet experiencing strong solar activity , the SG @-@ 1 team encounters an alien archaeologist named Malikai ( Robin Mossley ) . When a geomagnetic disturbance hits its peak , the Stargate activates simultaneously on the planet and on Earth , and a flash strikes Malikai , Colonel O 'Neill ( Richard Dean Anderson ) and Teal 'c ( Christopher Judge ) near an Ancient altar . Moments later , O 'Neill finds himself in the Stargate Command ( SGC ) cafeteria in the middle of a breakfast conversation with Dr. Daniel Jackson ( Michael Shanks ) and Major Carter ( Amanda Tapping ) , who claim to have no knowledge of the planet . O 'Neill and Teal 'c later express familiarity with the events , and they are checked and certified to be in perfect health . Before SG @-@ 1 can resume their planned mission to the planet , an unscheduled offworld activation of the Earth Stargate , accompanied by flashes , transports O 'Neill back to breakfast .
While the events at the SGC repeat themselves , Daniel makes first progress in the translation of writings in the photos of the ancient altar . SG @-@ 1 return to the planet where Malikai lets slip he too remembers what 's happening , but O 'Neill finds himself back at breakfast before the altar 's activation can be stopped . With the help of O 'Neill 's and Teal 'c's explanations , Carter devises a plan to break the time loop by preventing an incoming wormhole , which fails . Meanwhile , Daniel attempts to translate the altar 's writing loop after loop , but his memory is reset each time along with everyone else 's , and he cannot possibly translate it all within just a few hours . Ultimately , O 'Neill and Teal 'c realize the only solution is to learn and remember the alien language themselves . After many loops of teaching , Daniel makes an offhand remark about events that occur during each loop having no consequences once the loop is over , which inspires O 'Neill and Teal 'c to indulge in wildly outrageous behavior as a means of dealing with the boredom and frustration of being caught in repeating time . The pair play golf through the active Stargate ( much to General Hammond 's irritation in at least one loop ) , Teal 'c takes action against the painful starts of his loops by slamming the door back in the face of the airman who accidentally hit him with it in the beginning of each loop , O 'Neill tries pottery @-@ making ( clearly improving with each progressive loop ) , bicycles through the base , and just before the end of one loop , resigns from the Air Force whilst wearing an outrageous sweatshirt for the sole purpose of grabbing Carter and kissing her in the seconds before the loop resets .
After what is later believed to have been at least three months , Daniel is finally able to reconstruct the planet 's history with the finished translations : the Ancients had attempted to escape a mysterious plague by building a time machine but never got it to work properly . Upon returning to the planet , SG @-@ 1 learn of the death of Malikai 's wife , whom Malikai wants to visit in the past with the help of the time machine . O 'Neill 's experience of his son 's death convinces Malikai to shut down the device before yet another new loop can start . Back at the SGC , O 'Neill , Carter , and Daniel have their first breakfast after the loops , and O 'Neill answers Daniel 's question about unusual activities in the loops with a long look at Carter .
= = Production = =
" Window of Opportunity " was the second Stargate SG @-@ 1 script by Joseph Mallozzi and Paul Mullie , and their first episode to air . The writing duo 's first script , " Scorched Earth " , would air three episodes later . Choosing " Ad Infinitum " as the episode 's working title , Mallozzi and Mullie originally pitched " Window of Opportunity " as a darker story from the finished episode . SG @-@ 1 would encounter a world whose scientists work feverishly on preventing an imminent apocalypse , but after being unable to find a solution in time , they initiate a time loop that would trap the SG @-@ 1 team . Executive producer Brad Wright however noted the similarities to the Star Trek : The Next Generation episode " Cause and Effect " , and writer Robert C. Cooper suggested a lighter direction similar to the feature film Groundhog Day , which O 'Neill would briefly reference in the episode . To simplify continuity in the shooting process , Brad Wright encouraged chaos @-@ theory @-@ type fluctuations in the story as early as in the episode 's concept meeting . Director Peter DeLuise asked the prop department to glue the Froot Loops to O 'Neill 's breakfast spoon to have the same loops in the same spots in each take .
According to Paul Mullie , having Froot Loops as O 'Neill 's breakfast was not scripted , and he is unsure if the loop reference was intentional . This was contradicted by Script coordinator Cath @-@ Anne Ambrose who said " I had to get Fruit Loops cleared [ by the company that makes them ] , and so the guy calls me back and says , ' Well how do you feel about Eggo Waffles ? Would you consider using Eggo Waffles instead of Fruit Loops ? ' So I go to these guys [ the writing department ] and ask , ' How do you feel about waffles ? ' And they 're like , ' No ! It 's Fruit Loops ! It 's a time loop ! No ! ' Waffle sales were down . "
The off @-@ world scenes were filmed on an interior sound stage , using occasional lens flares and off @-@ camera fans to simulate weather . A matte painting by the in @-@ house visual effects department later served as a sky replacement for the used greenscreen . The Vancouver @-@ based company GDFX was responsible for almost all visual effects shots , some of which were re @-@ used within the episode to save money . Other visual effects clips were re @-@ used from previous episodes . " Window of Opportunity " was the first episode to feature a rear @-@ screen projection in the briefing room . To speed up the shooting process , scenes were filmed in thematic blocks instead of in a story @-@ chronological order , and short sequences were re @-@ used to help the audience with a visual recall in new scenes . Sound effects were later added to give the wooden altar prop the impression of being made of stone .
It became evident by the third day of production that the episode was going to run significantly short , partly caused by the time @-@ efficient filming style . The scene in which Daniel informs Jack and Teal 'c of the opportunity to do whatever they like , was a late pitch by Brad Wright , who had also had the idea for some time to show someone golfing through the Stargate . Preliminary discussions about computer @-@ generating the golf ball to not break the US $ 100 @,@ 000 Stargate prop were later overturned , and the actors used a real golf ball . Many of the other humorous scenes in " Window of Opportunity " were improvised on set during filming . With juggling being one of Richard Dean Anderson 's earlier careers , director Peter DeLuise filmed the juggling sequence in a last effort to fill the episode 's time slot . " Window of Opportunity " has no deleted scenes .
As the first episodes of season 4 addressed the attraction between O 'Neill and Carter , its after @-@ effects were chosen to be still noticeable in " Window of Opportunity " . The progressing frustration of Teal 'c , " the man of infinite patience " , is shown by his Kel 'no 'reem 'ing ( a fictional meditational state ) during the briefing . The episode 's main guest star was Robin Mossley as Malikai ; Mossley would play a different character in the season 10 episode " Morpheus " . Several crew members make cameo appearances in " Window of Opportunity " . Nicole Forrest , the show 's head of accounting and director Peter Woeste 's wife , appears as Malikai 's wife on a photographic device . One of Anderson 's stand @-@ ins on SG @-@ 1 , Bill Nikolai , plays the technician in O 'Neill 's bicycle scene . Director Peter DeLuise briefly appears as an airman who helps Daniel recover from being repeatedly knocked down by Sgt. Siler in each loop . Siler himself is played by stunt coordinator Dan Shea . The name of writer Joseph Mallozzi appears as the author of the book that O 'Neill and Teal 'c use to study the Ancient language .
= = Reception = =
In his book Approaching the Possible , Jo Storm saw the episode 's title hinting at an " inevitable " story line about the sexual tension between O 'Neill and Carter that has been looming since the beginning of the series . The characters " break [ ing ] the rules of conduct for their jobs " ( fraternization ) made the episode " seem completely unnatural " , while it allowed the writers to explore possibilities in the narrative . Jo Storm also credited the writers for breaking the " boring " convention of getting either only one or all teammembers caught in a time loop . The producers enjoyed having O 'Neill and Teal 'c instead of the usual intellectual combination of Carter and Daniel solve the puzzle . Peter DeLuise regarded the episode as " funnier " and " more lighthearted " than usual episodes .
A season 4 DVD review by digitallyobsessed.com gave " Window of Opportunity " 4 out of 5 points , calling it an " enjoyable " , " charming " , and " unique " episode and " one of the series ' most entertaining stories " . Other reviewers found the episode " hilarious " and " a fine example of SG @-@ 1 at its humorous best " . The 2000 XPosé Yearbook ranked " Window of Opportunity " as the second @-@ best episode of science fiction television in the year 2000 . A sampling of fan opinions on space.com in 2001 showed the episode as a " clear favorite " . In a fan poll conducted in 2007 on the Sci @-@ Fi Channel 's website , " Window of Opportunity " was voted the " best episode ever " out of thirty @-@ two preselected Stargate SG @-@ 1 episodes , and the majority of participants in a 2007 SG @-@ 1 fan poll on MSN Canada named the episode their " favorite of all time . "
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= Black River National Forest Scenic Byway =
The Black River National Forest Scenic Byway is a National Forest Scenic Byway that runs along the Black River in the Ottawa National Forest in the U.S. state of Michigan . The byway follows County Road 513 ( CR 513 ) through Gogebic County in the Upper Peninsula . As a county road , it is maintained jointly by the Gogebic County Road Commission ( GCRC ) with assistance from the U.S. Forest Service ( USFS ) . The byway provides access to several waterfalls and other visitor attractions in the area . The route of the byway first existed as a wagon road in the 1840s and as a county road in the 1920s . The byway designation was instituted on June 20 , 1992 , and the byway was dedicated later that year .
= = Route description = =
While CR 513 ( Black River Road ) extends further south to connect with US Highway 2 near Bessemer , the National Forest Scenic Byway designation starts at the intersection with CR 204 ( Airport Road ) west of the Gogebic @-@ Iron County Airport and north of the Big Powderhorn Mountain . From this southern starting point , the roadway runs northward along the Black River through the Ottawa National Forest . CR 513 runs along the western side of the river , staying shy of the banks as it passes through the woods . The woods through which the roadway passes contain pine , hemlock and hardwood trees . The Royal Palm Ranch , a nationally known equestrian school is located along the road on 100 acres ( 40 ha ) of land next to the river . The byway curves away from the river near Copper Peak , the tallest ski flying hill in the world . The 18 @-@ story facility allows visitors on clear enough days to see 85 miles ( 137 km ) in the distance to places like Minnesota , Isle Royale and Canada .
North of Copper Peak , the road once again roughly parallels the river , but staying away from the river 's course . The road provides access to five sets of waterfalls . The first is Great Conglomerate Falls , followed by Potawatomi , Gorge , Sandstone and Rainbow falls . The falls are connected to the road by four separate hiking trails . The byway continues past these landmarks before terminating at Black River Harbor . The harbor is the site of a 1920s fishing village , one of only two harbors in the National Forest System . The area was also host to three taverns built by the Civilian Conservation Corps during the Great Depression and a pedestrian suspension bridge used by the North Country Trail to cross the mouth of the river .
= = History = =
According to the surveys of William A. Burt in 1848 , a wagon road ran south from the modern site of the Black River Harbor to Chippewa Hill , the location of Copper Peak . A wagon road was built by the State of Michigan in 1904 to connect the waterfront with Bessemer . The county had purchased the land around the waterfront in 1924 for a park , and a county road running parallel to the Black River was in place by 1927 . The residents of the fishing village were forced to move and settled at Black River Village . The roadway was improved to a gravel surface by 1930 , and fully paved in late 1949 or early 1950 . In 1967 , the Gogebic County exchanged the park land along the river , including the harbor , with the USFS for other land in the area , and the harbor has been under federal maintenance since . Local officials originally proposed the National Forest Scenic Byway designation for the road in April 1991 . The desire was to " showcase a special part of the National Forest " and boost tourism to the area , according to the park ranger in charge of handling the application . The designation was conferred by the USFS on June 20 , 1992 , with a dedication ceremony on September 19 that year .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire road is in Ironwood Township , Gogebic County .
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= 2009 Giro d 'Italia =
The 2009 Giro d 'Italia was the 92nd running of the Giro d 'Italia , one of cycling 's Grand Tours . It was held from 9 to 31 May 2009 , and marked the 100th year since the first edition of the race . Starting in Venice and finishing in Rome , 22 teams competed over 21 stages .
The Giro was raced on a unique path through Italy , taking the peloton to some historic cities and towns in Italian cycling . Though the route lacked any well @-@ known , storied climbs , the many intermediate and mountain stages in the second and third weeks of the race proved deceptively difficult . The 10th and the 16th stages were both called the race 's queen stage , as both contained multiple difficult mountain climbs .
Riders protested during the ninth stage , a criterium in Milan . This protest was nominally about the overall safety conditions of the stage , and was sparked by life @-@ threatening injuries sustained by Pedro Horrillo the day before . In the protest , riders declined to contest the stage except for a final sprint finish , a decision that proved controversial with race organizers and fans .
Denis Menchov won the race , having taken the lead in a long time trial in stage 12 , and defended vigorously against attacks by his closest challenger , Danilo Di Luca , during the mountain stages of the final week . Di Luca came in second , 41 seconds behind the winner , and won the mauve jersey as points classification winner . Subsequent to the Giro , both he and third @-@ place finisher Franco Pellizotti became embroiled in doping scandals , were given bans , and had their results stripped .
= = Teams = =
Twenty @-@ two teams were announced for the Giro . These included fifteen ProTour teams , and seven Professional Continental teams . Three ProTour teams did not wish to participate , and were thus not invited : Cofidis , Euskaltel – Euskadi , and Française des Jeux . Conversely , the organizers of the race originally declined to invite Fuji – Servetto , but changed this decision on 23 April , inviting them as the Giro 's 22nd and final team . Each team sent a squad of nine riders , so the Giro began with a peloton of 198 cyclists .
The 22 teams that took part in the race were :
= = Pre @-@ race favorites = =
The Astana team did not include 2008 race champion Alberto Contador , who chose not to defend his championship , but did include Lance Armstrong , who had recently returned from retirement . Though his appearance was put in doubt after he crashed out of stage 1 of the Vuelta a Castilla y León and broke his collarbone , Armstrong announced on 16 April that he would start the Giro despite undergoing surgery for his injury . Silence – Lotto star Cadel Evans was originally announced to be taking part in the Giro , but he publicly announced shortly afterward that he would not ride it , and accused RCS Sport ( the organizers of the race ) of using his name to promote the event . Contador and Evans both chose to focus on the Tour de France later in the season .
Many riders were named as contenders , including Ivan Basso , Levi Leipheimer , Armstrong , Damiano Cunego , Carlos Sastre , Gilberto Simoni , Danilo Di Luca , Marzio Bruseghin , and Denis Menchov . Before his collarbone injury , Armstrong was considered an overall favorite , and it was also noted that three time trials , including the insertion of an unusually long time trial mid @-@ race , might favor him . Pre @-@ race analysis noted that Armstrong , when on his best form , would be a rider very likely to gain from having such a long race against the clock included in the Giro .
Former winner Stefano Garzelli named Leipheimer as the favorite , as did some American media outlets . Armstrong considered Basso to be the favorite when speaking about the Giro in December 2008 . Other news outlets also referred to Basso as the pre @-@ race favorite .
Only a small number of stages were expected to end in a sprint , barring a successful breakaway . Sprinters in the event included Mark Cavendish , Alessandro Petacchi , Allan Davis , Filippo Pozzato , Robert Hunter , Robert Förster , Tyler Farrar , Juan José Haedo , and Oscar Gatto .
= = Route and stages = =
The first Giro d 'Italia was held in 1909 , and the 2009 route was designed to commemorate the 100th anniversary , though interruptions due to World War I and World War II meant this was only the 92nd race . Milan , which had for years been the city in which the Giro concluded , was the site of a ten @-@ lap criterium on the same circuit that began the first Giro d 'Italia . Every city that hosted a stage start or finish in the first Giro was visited in 2009 with the exception of Genoa , although Arenzano ( in the province of Genoa ) hosted the finish to stage 11 . The 11th stage also went over the Passo del Turchino , a climb used every year in the classic cycling race Milan – San Remo .
The tenth stage was planned to mimic stage 17 of the 1949 Giro d 'Italia , which was won by Italian cycling legend Fausto Coppi en route to the overall victory . That route originally included the Col d 'Izoard , a climb in France which has been featured in the Tour de France numerous times . Race organizers were forced to alter this stage to cover only the Italian side of the Alps rather than also visit France , as there were concerns over radio communication in the area , and the roads stood the risk of landslides . It was subsequently made longer than first planned , with an additional , shorter climb added . Stages 10 and 16 , the latter of which went over Monte Petrano and two other first @-@ category climbs , were both called the race 's queen stage .
The route received a small amount of criticism for failing to include any well @-@ known and especially difficult climbs such as the Passo del Mortirolo or Monte Zoncolan , instead including stages featuring multiple climbs with lesser ascents . Race director Angelo Zomegnan responded to the criticism by saying , " I won 't follow the philosophy that the selection of climbs has to be determined by their names . "
The 21 stages of the 2009 Giro d 'Italia were divided into five categories : one team time trial , seven flat stages , four intermediate stages , seven mountain stages and two individual time trials . The type of stage together with the average speed of the winner decided how much time each cyclist would be allowed to finish that stage before being eliminated from the race .
= = Race overview = =
The Giro began with a team time trial in Lido , a barrier island in the city of Venice . The starting order of the teams was decided by a random draw . Team Columbia – High Road , the first team to take the course , won the stage , giving their star sprinter Mark Cavendish the first pink jersey as leader of the race . Cavendish was defeated in a sprint finish the following day by Italian Alessandro Petacchi , who was riding for the LPR Brakes – Farnese Vini team . Petacchi became the next wearer of the pink jersey , after he won the Stage 3 sprint into Valdobbiadene . Cavendish went on to win three mass @-@ start stages , but Team Columbia – High Road 's success was not limited to Cavendish 's victories nor the team time trial , as Edvald Boasson Hagen and Kanstantsin Sivtsov also took stage wins .
The first two high mountain stages of the Giro revealed the men who would battle for the overall race title . Danilo Di Luca of LPR Brakes – Farnese Vini took the win in Stage 4 , and put himself just 2 seconds off the pink jersey . The next day , he claimed the jersey , when he was second to stage winner Denis Menchov at Alpe di Siusi as an elite group of favorites emerged including Menchov , Di Luca , and others who had performed well on the climb and were in high places in the overall standings .
Menchov was fifth after Alpe di Siusi , but rose to second before stage 12 , the very long and hilly individual time trial in Cinque Terre . There , he claimed a convincing victory ; only Levi Leipheimer finished within a minute of Menchov 's winning time . Di Luca was nearly two minutes slower than him , finished sixth on the stage , and fell to second overall , with Menchov assuming the race lead . Di Luca tried repeatedly to shed Menchov during the remaining mountain stages to make up the time difference , which was never more than a minute . The two riders were involved in sprints for time bonuses at the finish line in stages 16 and 17 , as well as an intermediate sprint in stage 20 . Menchov was consistently quicker than Di Luca in these sprints . With his superior time @-@ trial skills providing the difference in the final stage , the Russian was able to emerge as Giro champion , despite a dramatic fall in the final kilometre before the finish line .
Stefano Garzelli was the winner of the mountains classification , gaining points for consistent high placings on the summit stage finishes , as well as a brief breakaway on the mountainous stage 10 . The points classification was won by Di Luca , after he finished in the top ten in eight of the road stages . The youth classification was won by Kevin Seeldraeyers , who remained consistent after Thomas Lövkvist lost nearly 25 minutes on stage 16 . Lövkvist had , for one day earlier in the race , led not just the youth but also the general classification .
Controversy arose during the ten @-@ lap Milan criterium of the ninth stage , when the riders staged a protest over what they viewed as unsafe riding conditions in that stage and those that preceded it . The most visible cause for the protest was Rabobank rider Pedro Horrillo 's accident during the eighth stage ; Horrillo sustained numerous fractures and head injuries after tumbling over a barricade on the roadside while descending the Culmine di San Pietro . Horrillo fell more than 60 m ( 200 ft ) , and nearly died as a result of his injuries . After spending five weeks in hospitals in both Italy and his native Spain , Horrillo eventually recovered , though the day on the Culmine di San Pietro was his last as a professional cyclist , as he retired before the 2010 season began .
The protest at first only involved the criterium being neutralized – that is , the race director agreed that each rider would receive the same finishing time as the stage winner regardless of when they actually crossed the line . After the riders rode a lap of the course , they decided instead not to contest the stage at all , riding the first six circuits 20 km / h ( 12 mph ) slower than previous stages . After four laps , they stopped altogether as race leader Di Luca addressed the unhappy crowd to explain their actions . The times for the stage did not count , and there was no aggressive riding until a final sprint finish . Along with Di Luca , Lance Armstrong was considered the principal voice speaking for the peloton on this day . Although the protest was referred to by some as " unanimous , " cyclists such as Filippo Pozzato , who was himself bearing injuries sustained in a crash that would later force him to leave the race , said the riders had been too hasty in their decision , and that it should have been made conclusively before the stage began . Armstrong apologized to the fans for the effect the protest had on what was supposed to be a grand spectacle , but also contended that it was the correct decision for the peloton to make .
Success in stages was limited to a few teams . Though there were nearly as many stages ( 21 ) as teams in the event ( 22 ) , only eight teams ultimately came away with stage victories . Six different riders won multiple stages – Cavendish , Petacchi , Menchov , Di Luca , Carlos Sastre , and Michele Scarponi . Teammates of Sastre , Scarponi and Cavendish were also stage winners ; Sastre 's Cervélo TestTeam provided the winners to stages 14 ( Simon Gerrans ) and 21 ( Ignatas Konovalovas ) , and Scarponi 's teammate Leonardo Bertagnolli was the winner of stage 15 . The only teams to be single stage winners were Liquigas with Franco Pellizotti in stage 17 , and Silence – Lotto with classics specialist Philippe Gilbert three days later in a stage thought to resemble a classic . Pellizotti was also the third @-@ place overall finisher . With wins for Quick Step 's Seeldraeyers in the youth classification , Garzelli of Acqua & Sapone in the climbers ' competition , and Astana in the Trofeo Fast Team ranking , 11 teams – half of the total entries – won significant prizes during the race .
= = = Aftermath = = =
About two months after the event concluded , on 22 July , it was announced that second place overall finisher and points classification winner Di Luca had given two positive tests for continuous erythropoietin receptor activator ( CERA , an erythropoietin derivative ) on 20 and 28 May , before the Cinque Terre time trial and the Mount Vesuvius stage in the race 's final week . He was provisionally suspended with immediate effect by the Union Cycliste Internationale ( UCI ) , cycling 's governing body . It was announced on 8 August that the analyses of the B @-@ samples from those controls confirmed the initial results , making it likely that Di Luca will be stripped of some or all of his results from the race . LPR Brakes – Farnese Vini fired him on 13 August . Di Luca at first maintained his innocence and claimed a conspiracy against him by the labs handling the tests . A period of legal maneuvering between Di Luca and the Italian National Olympic Committee ( CONI ) followed . CONI officials asked their anti @-@ doping tribunal ( TNA ) to suspend Di Luca for three years – while two years is a customary ban for a doping positive , CONI prosecutors sought a third year for recidivism , stemming from Di Luca 's previous doping incident two years earlier . He was given a two @-@ year suspension , retroactive to July 2009 , and indicated that he would appeal it to the Court of Arbitration for Sport . In October 2010 , Di Luca was reinstated to active status by CONI , due to his cooperation with several ongoing doping investigations , though his results were indeed stricken from the record . On 10 January 2011 , he signed with Team Katusha and indicated that he would return to the Giro in 2011 to support Katusha team leader Joaquim Rodríguez .
Five days before the start of the 2010 Giro d 'Italia , 2009 podium finisher Pellizotti was identified as a rider of interest to the UCI 's biological passport program due to irregular blood values . He was removed from his team 's start list for the Giro and provisionally suspended . The UCI asked that CONI open disciplinary proceedings against him , which had no resolution until after the 2010 season finished . TNA cleared him on 21 October and declared him free to race , at which time the Liquigas team intended to re @-@ sign him . The UCI decided in January 2011 to appeal his case to the CAS . The hearing was held in March , and Pellizotti asked for a quick resolution , with plans to return with Movistar Team in the 2011 Tirreno – Adriatico if he were cleared . The court reached its decision after five days , upholding the UCI 's appeal , handing Pellizotti a two @-@ year ban , and stripping all his results from this Giro and the 2009 Tour de France . Consequently , Pellizotti has said he is quitting the sport .
= = Classification leadership = =
In the 2009 Giro d 'Italia , four different jerseys were awarded . For the general classification , calculated by adding each cyclist 's finishing times on each stage , and allowing time bonuses for the first three finishers on mass @-@ start stages , the leader received a pink jersey . This classification is considered the most important of the Giro d 'Italia , and the winner is considered the winner of the Giro .
Additionally , there was a points classification , which awarded a mauve jersey . In the points classification , cyclists got points for finishing in the top 15 in a stage . The stage win awarded 25 points , second place awarded 20 points , third 16 , fourth 14 , fifth 12 , sixth 10 , and one point fewer per place down the line , to a single point for 15th . In addition , points could be won in intermediate sprints .
There was also a mountains classification , which awarded a green jersey . In the mountains classifications , points were won by reaching the top of a mountain before other cyclists . Each climb was categorized as either first , second , or third category , with more points available for the higher @-@ categorized climbs . The highest point in the Giro ( called the Cima Coppi ) , which in 2009 was Sestrière in stage 10 , afforded more points than the other first @-@ category climbs .
The fourth jersey represented the young rider classification , which awarded a white jersey . This was decided the same way as the general classification , but only riders born after 1 January 1984 were eligible .
There were also two classifications for teams . The first was the Trofeo Fast Team . In this classification , the times of the best three cyclists per team on each stage were added ; the leading team was the team with the lowest total time . The Trofeo Super Team was a team points classification , with the top 20 placed riders on each stage earning points ( 20 for first place , 19 for second place and so on , down to a single point for 20th ) for their team .
The rows in the following table correspond to the jerseys awarded after that stage was run .
= = Final standings = =
= = = Minor classifications = = =
Other less well @-@ known classifications , whose leaders did not receive a special jersey , were awarded during the Giro . These awards were based on points earned throughout the three weeks of the tour . Each mass @-@ start stage had one intermediate sprint , the Traguardo Volante , or T.V. The T.V. gave bonus seconds towards the general classification , points towards the regular points classification , and also points towards the T.V. classification . This award was known in previous years as the " Intergiro " and the " Expo Milano 2015 " classification . It was won by Italian Giovanni Visconti , of ISD .
Other awards included the Combativity classification , which was a compilation of points gained for position on crossing intermediate sprints , mountain passes and stage finishes . Mountains classification winner Stefano Garzelli won this award . The Azzurri d 'Italia classification was based on finishing order , but points were awarded only to the top three finishers in each stage . It was won , like the closely associated points classification , by Danilo Di Luca . Additionally , the Trofeo Fuga Cervelo rewarded riders who took part in a breakaway at the head of the field , each rider in an escape of ten or fewer riders getting one point for each kilometre that the group stayed clear . Quick @-@ Step 's Mauro Facci was first in this competition . Teams were given penalty points for minor technical infringements . Silence – Lotto and Quick @-@ Step were most successful in avoiding penalties , and so shared leadership of the Fair Play classification .
= = = World Rankings points = = =
The Giro was one of 24 events throughout the season that contributed points towards the 2009 UCI World Ranking . Points were awarded to the top 20 finishers overall , and to the top five finishers in each stage .
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= Nikephoros Melissenos =
Nikephoros Melissenos ( Greek : Νικηφόρος Μελισσηνός , ca . 1045 – 17 November 1104 ) , Latinized as Nicephorus Melissenus , was a Byzantine general and aristocrat . Of distinguished lineage , he served as a governor and general in the Balkans and Asia Minor in the 1060s . In the turbulent period after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 , when several generals tried to seize the throne for themselves , Melissenos remained loyal to Michael VII Doukas and was exiled by his successor Nikephoros III Botaneiates . In 1080 – 1081 , with Turkish aid , he seized control of what remained of Byzantine Asia Minor and proclaimed himself emperor against Botaneiates . After the revolt of his brother @-@ in @-@ law Alexios I Komnenos , however , which succeeded in taking Constantinople , he submitted to him , accepting the rank of Caesar and the governance of Thessalonica . He remained loyal to Alexios thereafter , participating in most Byzantine campaigns of the period 1081 – 1095 in the Balkans at the emperor 's side . He died on 17 November 1104 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Origins and early career = = =
Nikephoros Melissenos was probably born circa 1045 at Dorylaeum , where his family had extensive estates . Through both his father and his mother , he was of aristocratic descent : his father belonged to the Bourtzes line , while his mother to the illustrious Melissenos family , which dated back to the 8th century and had produced several distinguished generals . Sometime before 1067 , Nikephoros married Eudokia Komnene , the second daughter of the Domestic of the Schools John Komnenos and Anna Dalassene and sister of the future Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos ( r . 1081 – 1118 ) . They had at least one known son , who was named John Komnenos .
Melissenos held the rank of magistros and the post of governor ( doux ) of Triaditza ( modern Sofia ) for some time during the 1060s . In 1070 , he joined the field army commanded by his eldest brother @-@ in @-@ law , the protostrator Manuel Komnenos , in a campaign against the Seljuk Turks . The campaign ended in defeat near Sebasteia ( modern Sivas ) , and Melissenos along with Manuel Komnenos were captured by a Turkish chieftain whom the Byzantines called Chrysoskoulos . Manuel , however , quickly persuaded the Turk to enter into Byzantine service , and their captivity ended .
Melissenos remained loyal to Michael VII Doukas ( r . 1071 – 1078 ) during the rebellion of the strategos of the Anatolic Theme , Nikephoros Botaneiates ( Nikephoros III ) , which began in October 1077 . Michael VII rewarded him by appointing him to Botaneiates 's post , but after Botaneiates 's victory and entry into Constantinople in April 1078 , Melissenos was exiled to the island of Kos .
= = = Rebellion = = =
In autumn 1080 , Melissenos left Kos and returned to Asia Minor . There , he succeeded in gaining the support of the local population , and in recruiting many Turkish tribesmen as mercenaries to his army . One by one , the cities of western and central Asia Minor opened up their gates to him , and Turkish garrisons were installed in them . Botaneiates tried to send Alexios Komnenos , who had recently suppressed the revolts of Nikephoros Bryennios and Nikephoros Basilakes , against him , but he refused . In February 1081 , Melissenos 's troops took Nicaea , where he was acclaimed as emperor , and defeated a loyalist army under the eunuch John .
In March 1081 , Melissenos was encamped with his army at Damalis , on the Asian shore across the Bosporus from Constantinople . There , he received news of the revolt of the Komnenoi against Botaneiates and the proclamation of Alexios Komnenos as emperor . He sent letters to the Komnenoi , suggesting a division of authority over the imperial territory , with the Balkans remaining under Komnenian control and himself keeping Asia Minor , although he also emphasized that the Byzantine Empire should remain united . In reply , the Komnenoi offered to recognize him as Caesar – the second highest dignity after the imperial title itself – and to give him the governance of Thessalonica – the Empire 's second @-@ most important city – if he would submit to them . Melissenos initially refused to accept this offer , but as the Komnenoi were on the verge of taking Constantinople and might refuse to make similar concessions later , he eventually agreed .
At the same time , the emperor Nikephoros Botaneiates tried to forestall the capital 's fall to the Komnenoi by sending for Melissenos and asking him to enter the city and assume imperial authority . His envoys , however , were obstructed by George Palaiologos and never reached Melissenos . Constantinople fell to the Komnenian forces , and on 8 April 1081 , Melissenos too entered the imperial capital . True to his word , Alexios I raised him to Caesar and gave him authority over Thessalonica , as well as allotting the city 's revenues to his income . At the same time , however , Alexios raised his brother Isaac Komnenos to the newly created dignity of sebastokrator , which he placed above that of Caesar , bypassing Melissenos .
This act of submission , unique among the various rebels of the time , may throw some light on Melissenos 's motivation for his uprising , according to the historian Jean @-@ Claude Cheynet . Cheynet believes that Melissenos was probably more concerned with safeguarding his Asian estates from the depredations of the Turks , and when Alexios granted him Thessalonica and equivalent estates around it – some of which Melissenos later distributed to his clients , like the Bourtzes family – he readily gave up the contest for the Byzantine throne .
Despite the end of Melissenos 's revolt , it left a profound legacy : although Melissenos himself submitted to Alexios Komnenos , the towns he had occupied and garrisoned with Turkish soldiers in Ionia , Phrygia , Galatia , and Bithynia remained in their hands . Thus , by becoming involved in the Byzantine civil wars as mercenaries and allies – especially through their use by Botaneiates and Melissenos during their respective revolts to hold down various cities for them – the Turks completed their relatively peaceful take @-@ over of central and western Asia Minor .
= = = Service under Alexios Komnenos = = =
Melissenos continued to serve Alexios I faithfully throughout the rest of his life . In autumn 1081 , he marched alongside Alexios in his campaign against the Normans of Robert Guiscard . In the Battle of Dyrrhachium , which ended in a crushing Byzantine defeat , he commanded the Byzantine army 's right wing .
In the 1083 campaign in Thessaly against the Normans , who , under Guiscard 's son Bohemond were besieging Larissa , Melissenos was used by Alexios as the centerpiece to a ruse . The emperor gave him the imperial insignia and a detachment of the army , which Bohemond proceeded to attack in the belief that this was the main Byzantine force , since the emperor was present with it . While the Normans pursued Melissenos 's men , Alexios with the main army took and looted the Norman camp , forcing Bohemond to lift the siege and withdraw .
Melissenos fought alongside Alexios in the Battle of Dristra ( late August 1087 ) against the Pechenegs , commanding the Byzantine left wing . The battle ended in a heavy Byzantine defeat , and Melissenos was taken captive along with many other Byzantines , to be ransomed by the emperor after some time . In spring 1091 , Melissenos was sent to Ainos to recruit soldiers from among the Bulgarians and Vlachs . Occupied with this task , he did not join the imperial army in time for the crushing Byzantine victory over the Pechenegs at the Battle of Levounion on 29 April , arriving the next day .
Later in the same year , he participated in the family council of Philippopolis which examined the accusations of conspiracy raised against John Komnenos , the doux of Dyrrhachium by the Archbishop of Ochrid Theophylact . The council degenerated into a heated family quarrel , where John 's father , the sebastokrator Isaac , accused Melissenos and Adrian Komnenos of slandering his son , but in the end Alexios dismissed the charges .
In the 1095 campaign against the Cumans , Melissenos , along with George Palaiologos and John Taronites were left in charge of defending the region of Berrhoe ( modern Stara Zagora ) against Cuman attacks . This is the last mention of Melissenos in Anna Komnene 's Alexiad . He died on 17 November 1104 .
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= Spider @-@ Man =
Spider @-@ Man is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics existing in its shared universe . The character was created by writer @-@ editor Stan Lee and writer @-@ artist Steve Ditko , and first appeared in the anthology comic book Amazing Fantasy # 15 ( Aug. 1962 ) in the Silver Age of Comic Books . Lee and Ditko conceived the character as an orphan being raised by his Aunt May and Uncle Ben , and as a teenager , having to deal with the normal struggles of adolescence in addition to those of a costumed crime @-@ fighter . Spider @-@ Man 's creators gave him super strength and agility , the ability to cling to most surfaces , shoot spider @-@ webs using wrist @-@ mounted devices of his own invention , which he calls " web @-@ shooters " , and react to danger quickly with his " spider @-@ sense " , enabling him to combat his foes . And later in his life founded his own company call Parker Industries .
When Spider @-@ Man first appeared in the early 1960s , teenagers in superhero comic books were usually relegated to the role of sidekick to the protagonist . The Spider @-@ Man series broke ground by featuring Peter Parker , the high school student behind Spider @-@ Man 's secret identity and with whose " self @-@ obsessions with rejection , inadequacy , and loneliness " young readers could relate . While Spider @-@ Man had all the makings of a sidekick , unlike previous teen heroes such as Bucky and Robin , Spider @-@ Man had no superhero mentor like Captain America and Batman ; he thus had to learn for himself that " with great power there must also come great responsibility " — a line included in a text box in the final panel of the first Spider @-@ Man story but later retroactively attributed to his guardian , the late Uncle Ben .
Marvel has featured Spider @-@ Man in several comic book series , the first and longest @-@ lasting of which is titled The Amazing Spider @-@ Man . Over the years , the Peter Parker character has developed from shy , nerdy high school student to troubled but outgoing college student , to married high school teacher to , in the late 2000s , a single freelance photographer . In the 2010s , he joins the Avengers , Marvel 's flagship superhero team . Spider @-@ Man 's nemesis Doctor Octopus also took on the identity for a story arc spanning 2012 – 2014 , following a body swap plot in which Peter appears to die . Separately , Marvel has also published books featuring alternate versions of Spider @-@ Man , including Spider @-@ Man 2099 , which features the adventures of Miguel O 'Hara , the Spider @-@ Man of the future ; Ultimate Spider @-@ Man , which features the adventures of a teenaged Peter Parker in an alternate universe ; and Ultimate Comics Spider @-@ Man , which depicts the teenager Miles Morales , who takes up the mantle of Spider @-@ Man after Ultimate Peter Parker 's supposed death .
Spider @-@ Man is one of the most popular and commercially successful superheroes . As Marvel 's flagship character and company mascot , he has appeared in countless forms of media , including several animated and live @-@ action television series , syndicated newspaper comic strips , and in a series of films . The character was first portrayed in live action by Nicholas Hammond in the 1977 television movie Spider @-@ Man . In films , Spider @-@ Man has been portrayed by actors Tobey Maguire ( 2002 – 2007 ) and Andrew Garfield ( 2012 – 2014 ) , while Tom Holland portrays the character in the Marvel Cinematic Universe , first appearing in Captain America : Civil War in 2016 . Reeve Carney starred as Spider @-@ Man in the 2010 Broadway musical Spider @-@ Man : Turn Off the Dark . Spider @-@ Man has been well received as a superhero and comic book character and is usually ranked as one of the greatest comic book characters of all time alongside DC Comics characters such as Superman and Batman .
= = Publication history = =
= = = Creation and development = = =
In 1962 , with the success of the Fantastic Four , Marvel Comics editor and head writer Stan Lee was casting about for a new superhero idea . He said the idea for Spider @-@ Man arose from a surge in teenage demand for comic books , and the desire to create a character with whom teens could identify . In his autobiography , Lee cites the non @-@ superhuman pulp magazine crime fighter the Spider ( see also The Spider 's Web and The Spider Returns ) as a great influence , and in a multitude of print and video interviews , Lee stated he was further inspired by seeing a spider climb up a wall — adding in his autobiography that he has told that story so often he has become unsure of whether or not this is true . Though at the time teenage superheroes were usually given names ending with " boy " , Lee says he chose " Spider @-@ Man " because he wanted the character to age as the series progressed , and moreover felt the name " Spider @-@ Boy " would have made the character sound inferior to other superheroes . At that time Lee had to get only the consent of Marvel publisher Martin Goodman for the character 's approval . In a 1986 interview , Lee described in detail his arguments to overcome Goodman 's objections . Goodman eventually agreed to a Spider @-@ Man tryout in what Lee in numerous interviews recalled as what would be the final issue of the science @-@ fiction and supernatural anthology series Amazing Adult Fantasy , which was renamed Amazing Fantasy for that single issue , # 15 ( cover @-@ dated August 1962 , on sale June 5 , 1962 ) . In particular , Lee stated that the fact that it had already been decided that Amazing Fantasy would be cancelled after issue # 15 was the only reason Goodman allowed him to use Spider @-@ Man . While this was indeed the final issue , its editorial page anticipated the comic continuing and that " The Spiderman [ sic ] ... will appear every month in Amazing . "
Regardless , Lee received Goodman 's approval for the name Spider @-@ Man and the " ordinary teen " concept , and approached artist Jack Kirby . As comics historian Greg Theakston recounts , Kirby told Lee about an unpublished character on which he had collaborated with Joe Simon in the 1950s , in which an orphaned boy living with an old couple finds a magic ring that granted him superhuman powers . Lee and Kirby " immediately sat down for a story conference " , Theakston writes , and Lee afterward directed Kirby to flesh out the character and draw some pages . Steve Ditko would be the inker . When Kirby showed Lee the first six pages , Lee recalled , " I hated the way he was doing it ! Not that he did it badly — it just wasn 't the character I wanted ; it was too heroic " . Lee turned to Ditko , who developed a visual style Lee found satisfactory . Ditko recalled :
One of the first things I did was to work up a costume . A vital , visual part of the character . I had to know how he looked ... before I did any breakdowns . For example : A clinging power so he wouldn 't have hard shoes or boots , a hidden wrist @-@ shooter versus a web gun and holster , etc . ... I wasn 't sure Stan would like the idea of covering the character 's face but I did it because it hid an obviously boyish face . It would also add mystery to the character ....
Although the interior artwork was by Ditko alone , Lee rejected Ditko 's cover art and commissioned Kirby to pencil a cover that Ditko inked . As Lee explained in 2010 , " I think I had Jack sketch out a cover for it because I always had a lot of confidence in Jack 's covers . "
In an early recollection of the character 's creation , Ditko described his and Lee 's contributions in a mail interview with Gary Martin published in Comic Fan # 2 ( Summer 1965 ) : " Stan Lee thought the name up . I did costume , web gimmick on wrist & spider signal . " At the time , Ditko shared a Manhattan studio with noted fetish artist Eric Stanton , an art @-@ school classmate who , in a 1988 interview with Theakston , recalled that although his contribution to Spider @-@ Man was " almost nil " , he and Ditko had " worked on storyboards together and I added a few ideas . But the whole thing was created by Steve on his own ... I think I added the business about the webs coming out of his hands . "
Kirby disputed Lee 's version of the story , and claimed Lee had minimal involvement in the character 's creation . According to Kirby , the idea for Spider @-@ Man had originated with Kirby and Joe Simon , who in the 1950s had developed a character called the Silver Spider for the Crestwood Publications comic Black Magic , who was subsequently not used . Simon , in his 1990 autobiography , disputed Kirby 's account , asserting that Black Magic was not a factor , and that he ( Simon ) devised the name " Spider @-@ Man " ( later changed to " The Silver Spider " ) , while Kirby outlined the character 's story and powers . Simon later elaborated that his and Kirby 's character conception became the basis for Simon 's Archie Comics superhero the Fly . Artist Steve Ditko stated that Lee liked the name Hawkman from DC Comics , and that " Spider @-@ Man " was an outgrowth of that interest .
Simon concurred that Kirby had shown the original Spider @-@ Man version to Lee , who liked the idea and assigned Kirby to draw sample pages of the new character but disliked the results — in Simon 's description , " Captain America with cobwebs " . Writer Mark Evanier notes that Lee 's reasoning that Kirby 's character was too heroic seems unlikely — Kirby still drew the covers for Amazing Fantasy # 15 and the first issue of The Amazing Spider @-@ Man . Evanier also disputes Kirby 's given reason that he was " too busy " to also draw Spider @-@ Man in addition to his other duties since Kirby was , said Evanier , " always busy " . Neither Lee 's nor Kirby 's explanation explains why key story elements like the magic ring were dropped ; Evanier states that the most plausible explanation for the sudden change was that Goodman , or one of his assistants , decided that Spider @-@ Man as drawn and envisioned by Kirby was too similar to the Fly .
Author and Ditko scholar Blake Bell writes that it was Ditko who noted the similarities to the Fly . Ditko recalled that , " Stan called Jack about the Fly " , adding that " [ d ] ays later , Stan told me I would be penciling the story panel breakdowns from Stan 's synopsis " . It was at this point that the nature of the strip changed . " Out went the magic ring , adult Spider @-@ Man and whatever legend ideas that Spider @-@ Man story would have contained " . Lee gave Ditko the premise of a teenager bitten by a spider and developing powers , a premise Ditko would expand upon to the point he became what Bell describes as " the first work for hire artist of his generation to create and control the narrative arc of his series " . On the issue of the initial creation , Ditko states , " I still don 't know whose idea was Spider @-@ Man " . Kirby noted in a 1971 interview that it was Ditko who " got Spider @-@ Man to roll , and the thing caught on because of what he did " . Lee , while claiming credit for the initial idea , has acknowledged Ditko 's role , stating , " If Steve wants to be called co @-@ creator , I think he deserves [ it ] " . He has further commented that Ditko 's costume design was key to the character 's success ; since the costume completely covers Spider @-@ Man 's body , people of all races could visualize themselves inside the costume and thus more easily identify with the character . Writer Al Nickerson believes " that Stan Lee and Steve Ditko created the Spider @-@ Man that we are familiar with today [ but that ] ultimately , Spider @-@ Man came into existence , and prospered , through the efforts of not just one or two , but many , comic book creators " .
= = = Commercial success = = =
A few months after Spider @-@ Man 's introduction , publisher Goodman reviewed the sales figures for that issue and was shocked to find it to have been one of the nascent Marvel 's highest @-@ selling comics . A solo ongoing series followed , beginning with The Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 1 ( cover @-@ dated March 1963 ) . The title eventually became Marvel 's top @-@ selling series with the character swiftly becoming a cultural icon ; a 1965 Esquire poll of college campuses found that college students ranked Spider @-@ Man and fellow Marvel hero the Hulk alongside Bob Dylan and Che Guevara as their favorite revolutionary icons . One interviewee selected Spider @-@ Man because he was " beset by woes , money problems , and the question of existence . In short , he is one of us . " Following Ditko 's departure after issue # 38 ( July 1966 ) , John Romita , Sr. replaced him as penciler and would draw the series for the next several years . In 1968 , Romita would also draw the character 's extra @-@ length stories in the comics magazine The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man , a proto @-@ graphic novel designed to appeal to older readers . It only lasted for two issues , but it represented the first Spider @-@ Man spin @-@ off publication , aside from the original series ' summer annuals that began in 1964 .
An early 1970s Spider @-@ Man story led to the revision of the Comics Code . Previously , the Code forbade the depiction of the use of illegal drugs , even negatively . However , in 1970 , the Nixon administration 's Department of Health , Education , and Welfare asked Stan Lee to publish an anti @-@ drug message in one of Marvel 's top @-@ selling titles . Lee chose the top @-@ selling The Amazing Spider @-@ Man ; issues # 96 – 98 ( May – July 1971 ) feature a story arc depicting the negative effects of drug use . In the story , Peter Parker 's friend Harry Osborn becomes addicted to pills . When Spider @-@ Man fights the Green Goblin ( Norman Osborn , Harry 's father ) , Spider @-@ Man defeats the Green Goblin , by revealing Harry 's drug addiction . While the story had a clear anti @-@ drug message , the Comics Code Authority refused to issue its seal of approval . Marvel nevertheless published the three issues without the Comics Code Authority 's approval or seal . The issues sold so well that the industry 's self @-@ censorship was undercut and the Code was subsequently revised .
In 1972 , a second monthly ongoing series starring Spider @-@ Man began : Marvel Team @-@ Up , in which Spider @-@ Man was paired with other superheroes and villains . From that point on there have generally been at least two ongoing Spider @-@ Man series at any time . In 1976 , his second solo series , Peter Parker , the Spectacular Spider @-@ Man began running parallel to the main series . A third series featuring Spider @-@ Man , Web of Spider @-@ Man , launched in 1985 to replace Marvel Team @-@ Up . The launch of a fourth monthly title in 1990 , the " adjectiveless " Spider @-@ Man ( with the storyline " Torment " ) , written and drawn by popular artist Todd McFarlane , debuted with several different covers , all with the same interior content . The various versions combined sold over 3 million copies , an industry record at the time . Several limited series , one @-@ shots , and loosely related comics have also been published , and Spider @-@ Man makes frequent cameos and guest appearances in other comic series . In 1996 The Sensational Spider @-@ Man was created to replace Web of Spider @-@ Man .
In 1998 writer @-@ artist John Byrne revamped the origin of Spider @-@ Man in the 13 @-@ issue limited series Spider @-@ Man : Chapter One ( Dec. 1998 - Oct. 1999 ) , similar to Byrne 's adding details and some revisions to Superman 's origin in DC Comics ' The Man of Steel . At the same time the original The Amazing Spider @-@ Man was ended with issue # 441 ( Nov. 1998 ) , and The Amazing Spider @-@ Man was restarted with vol . 2 , # 1 ( Jan. 1999 ) . In 2003 Marvel reintroduced the original numbering for The Amazing Spider @-@ Man and what would have been vol . 2 , # 59 became issue # 500 ( Dec. 2003 ) .
When primary series The Amazing Spider @-@ Man reached issue # 545 ( Dec. 2007 ) , Marvel dropped its spin @-@ off ongoing series and instead began publishing The Amazing Spider @-@ Man three times monthly , beginning with # 546 @-@ 548 ( all Jan. 2008 ) . The three times monthly scheduling of The Amazing Spider @-@ Man lasted until November 2010 when the comic book was increased from 22 pages to 30 pages each issue and published only twice a month , beginning with # 648 @-@ 649 ( both Nov. 2010 ) . The following year , Marvel launched Avenging Spider @-@ Man as the first spinoff ongoing series in addition to the still twice monthly The Amazing Spider @-@ Man since the previous ones were cancelled at the end of 2007 . The Amazing series temporarily ended with issue # 700 in December 2012 , and was replaced by The Superior Spider @-@ Man , which had Doctor Octopus serve as the new Spider @-@ Man , having taken over Peter Parker 's body . Superior was an enormous commercial success for Marvel , and ran for 31 @-@ issue before the real Peter Parker returned in a newly relaunched The Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 1 in April 2014 .
= = Fictional character biography = =
In Forest Hills , Queens , New York , high school student Peter Parker is a science @-@ whiz orphan living with his Uncle Ben and Aunt May . As depicted in Amazing Fantasy # 15 ( Aug. 1962 ) , he is bitten by a radioactive spider ( erroneously classified as an insect in the panel ) at a science exhibit and " acquires the agility and proportionate strength of an arachnid " . Along with super strength , Parker gains the ability to adhere to walls and ceilings . Through his native knack for science , he develops a gadget that lets him fire adhesive webbing of his own design through small , wrist @-@ mounted barrels . Initially seeking to capitalize on his new abilities , Parker dons a costume and , as " Spider @-@ Man " , becomes a novelty television star . However , " He blithely ignores the chance to stop a fleeing thief , [ and ] his indifference ironically catches up with him when the same criminal later robs and kills his Uncle Ben . " Spider @-@ Man tracks and subdues the killer and learns , in the story 's next @-@ to @-@ last caption , " With great power there must also come — great responsibility ! "
Despite his superpowers , Parker struggles to help his widowed aunt pay rent , is taunted by his peers — particularly football star Flash Thompson — and , as Spider @-@ Man , engenders the editorial wrath of newspaper publisher J. Jonah Jameson . As he battles his enemies for the first time , Parker finds juggling his personal life and costumed adventures difficult . In time , Peter graduates from high school , and enrolls at Empire State University ( a fictional institution evoking the real @-@ life Columbia University and New York University ) , where he meets roommate and best friend Harry Osborn , and girlfriend Gwen Stacy , and Aunt May introduces him to Mary Jane Watson . As Peter deals with Harry 's drug problems , and Harry 's father is revealed to be Spider @-@ Man 's nemesis the Green Goblin , Peter even attempts to give up his costumed identity for a while . Gwen Stacy 's father , New York City Police detective captain George Stacy is accidentally killed during a battle between Spider @-@ Man and Doctor Octopus ( # 90 , Nov. 1970 ) .
In issue # 121 ( June 1973 ) , the Green Goblin throws Gwen Stacy from a tower of either the Brooklyn Bridge ( as depicted in the art ) or the George Washington Bridge ( as given in the text ) . She dies during Spider @-@ Man 's rescue attempt ; a note on the letters page of issue # 125 states : " It saddens us to say that the whiplash effect she underwent when Spidey 's webbing stopped her so suddenly was , in fact , what killed her . " The following issue , the Goblin appears to kill himself accidentally in the ensuing battle with Spider @-@ Man .
Working through his grief , Parker eventually develops tentative feelings toward Watson , and the two " become confidants rather than lovers " . A romantic relationship eventually develops , with Parker proposing to her in issue # 182 ( July 1978 ) , and being turned down an issue later . Parker went on to graduate from college in issue # 185 , and becomes involved with the shy Debra Whitman and the extroverted , flirtatious costumed thief Felicia Hardy , the Black Cat , whom he meets in issue # 194 ( July 1979 ) .
From 1984 to 1988 , Spider @-@ Man wore a black costume with a white spider design on his chest . The new costume originated in the Secret Wars limited series , on an alien planet where Spider @-@ Man participates in a battle between Earth 's major superheroes and villains . He continues wearing the costume when he returns , starting in The Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 252 . The change to a longstanding character 's design met with controversy , " with many hardcore comics fans decrying it as tantamount to sacrilege . Spider @-@ Man 's traditional red and blue costume was iconic , they argued , on par with those of his D.C. rivals Superman and Batman . " The creators then revealed the costume was an alien symbiote which Spider @-@ Man is able to reject after a difficult struggle , though the symbiote returns several times as Venom for revenge .
Parker proposes to Watson a second time in The Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 290 ( July 1987 ) , and she accepts two issues later , with the wedding taking place in The Amazing Spider @-@ Man Annual # 21 ( 1987 ) . It was promoted with a real @-@ life mock wedding using models , including Tara Shannon as Watson , with Stan Lee officiating at the June 5 , 1987 , event at Shea Stadium . However , David Michelinie , who scripted based on a plot by editor @-@ in @-@ chief Jim Shooter , said in 2007 , " I didn 't think they actually should [ have gotten ] married . ... I had actually planned another version , one that wasn 't used . "
In a controversial storyline , Peter becomes convinced that Ben Reilly , the Scarlet Spider ( a clone of Peter created by his college professor Miles Warren ) is the real Peter Parker , and that he , Peter , is the clone . Peter gives up the Spider @-@ Man identity to Reilly for a time , until Reilly is killed by the returning Green Goblin and revealed to be the clone after all . In stories published in 2005 and 2006 ( such as " The Other " ) , he develops additional spider @-@ like abilities including biological web @-@ shooters , toxic stingers that extend from his forearms , the ability to stick individuals to his back , enhanced Spider @-@ sense and night vision , and increased strength and speed . Peter later becomes a member of the New Avengers , and reveals his civilian identity to the world , furthering his already numerous problems . His marriage to Mary Jane and public unmasking are later erased in another controversial storyline " One More Day " , in a Faustian bargain with the demon Mephisto , resulting in several adjustments to the timeline , such as the resurrection of Harry Osborn , the erasure of Parker 's marriage , and the return of his traditional tools and powers .
That storyline came at the behest of editor @-@ in @-@ chief Joe Quesada , who said , " Peter being single is an intrinsic part of the very foundation of the world of Spider @-@ Man " . It caused unusual public friction between Quesada and writer J. Michael Straczynski , who " told Joe that I was going to take my name off the last two issues of the [ story ] arc " but was talked out of doing so . At issue with Straczynski 's climax to the arc , Quesada said , was
... that we didn 't receive the story and methodology to the resolution that we were all expecting . What made that very problematic is that we had four writers and artists well underway on [ the sequel arc ] " Brand New Day " that were expecting and needed " One More Day " to end in the way that we had all agreed it would . ... The fact that we had to ask for the story to move back to its original intent understandably made Joe upset and caused some major delays and page increases in the series . Also , the science that Joe was going to apply to the retcon of the marriage would have made over 30 years of Spider @-@ Man books worthless , because they never would have had happened . ... [ I ] t would have reset way too many things outside of the Spider @-@ Man titles . We just couldn 't go there ....
Following the " reboot " , Parker 's identity was no longer known to the general public ; however , he revealed it to other superheroes. and others have deduced it . Parker 's Aunt May marries J. Jonah Jameson 's father , Jay Jameson . Parker became an employee of the think @-@ tank Horizon Labs . In issue # 700 , the dying supervillain Doctor Octopus swaps bodies with Parker , who remains as a presence in Doctor Octopus 's mind , prompting a two @-@ year storyline in the series The Superior Spider @-@ Man in which Peter Parker is absent and Doctor Octopus is Spider @-@ Man . Peter eventually regains control of his body . Following Peter Parker 's return , The Amazing Spider @-@ Man was relaunched in April 2014 . In December 2014 , following the Death of Wolverine comic book , Spider @-@ Man became the new headmaster of the Jean Grey School and began appearing more prominently in X @-@ Men stories , taking Wolverine 's role in the comic Wolverine and the X @-@ Men .
= = Personality = =
As one contemporaneous journalist observed , " Spider @-@ Man has a terrible identity problem , a marked inferiority complex , and a fear of women . He is anti @-@ social , [ sic ] castration @-@ ridden , racked with Oedipal guilt , and accident @-@ prone ... [ a ] functioning neurotic " . Agonizing over his choices , always attempting to do right , he is nonetheless viewed with suspicion by the authorities , who seem unsure as to whether he is a helpful vigilante or a clever criminal .
Notes cultural historian Bradford W. Wright ,
Spider @-@ Man 's plight was to be misunderstood and persecuted by the very public that he swore to protect . In the first issue of The Amazing Spider @-@ Man , J. Jonah Jameson , publisher of the Daily Bugle , launches an editorial campaign against the " Spider @-@ Man menace . " The resulting negative publicity exacerbates popular suspicions about the mysterious Spider @-@ Man and makes it impossible for him to earn any more money by performing . Eventually , the bad press leads the authorities to brand him an outlaw . Ironically , Peter finally lands a job as a photographer for Jameson 's Daily Bugle .
The mid @-@ 1960s stories reflected the political tensions of the time , as early 1960s Marvel stories had often dealt with the Cold War and Communism . As Wright observes ,
From his high @-@ school beginnings to his entry into college life , Spider @-@ Man remained the superhero most relevant to the world of young people . Fittingly , then , his comic book also contained some of the earliest references to the politics of young people . In 1968 , in the wake of actual militant student demonstrations at Columbia University , Peter Parker finds himself in the midst of similar unrest at his Empire State University .... Peter has to reconcile his natural sympathy for the students with his assumed obligation to combat lawlessness as Spider @-@ Man . As a law @-@ upholding liberal , he finds himself caught between militant leftism and angry conservatives .
= = Powers , skills , and equipment = =
A bite from a radioactive spider triggers mutations in Peter Parker 's body , granting him superpowers . In the original Lee @-@ Ditko stories , Spider @-@ Man has the ability to cling to walls , superhuman strength , a sixth sense ( " spider @-@ sense " ) that alerts him to danger , perfect balance and equilibrium , as well as superhuman speed and agility . The character was originally conceived by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko as intellectually gifted , but later writers have depicted his intellect at genius level . Academically brilliant , Parker has expertise in the fields of applied science , chemistry , physics , biology , engineering , mathematics , and mechanics . With his talents , he sews his own costume to conceal his identity , and he constructs many devices that complement his powers , most notably mechanical web @-@ shooters . This mechanism ejects an advanced adhesive , releasing web @-@ fluid in a variety of configurations , including a single rope @-@ like strand to swing from , a net to snare or bind enemies , and a simple glob to foul machinery or blind an opponent . He can also weave the web material into simple forms like a shield , a spherical protection or hemispherical barrier , a club , or a hang @-@ glider wing . Other equipment include spider @-@ tracers ( spider @-@ shaped adhesive homing beacons keyed to his own spider @-@ sense ) , a light beacon which can either be used as a flashlight or project a " Spider @-@ Signal " design , and a specially modified camera that can take pictures automatically .
= = Other versions = =
Due to Spider @-@ Man 's popularity in the mainstream Marvel Universe , publishers have been able to introduce different variations of Spider @-@ Man outside of mainstream comics as well as reimagined stories in many other multiversed spinoffs such as Ultimate Spider @-@ Man , Spider @-@ Man 2099 , and Spider @-@ Man : India . Marvel has also made its own parodies of Spider @-@ Man in comics such as Not Brand Echh , which was published in the late 1960s and featured such characters as Peter Pooper alias Spidey @-@ Man , and Peter Porker , the Spectacular Spider @-@ Ham , who appeared in the 1980s . The fictional character has also inspired a number of deratives such as a manga version of Spider @-@ Man drawn by Japanese artist Ryoichi Ikegami as well as Hideshi Hino 's The Bug Boy , which has been cited as inspired by Spider @-@ Man . Also the French comic Télé @-@ Junior , which published strips based on popular TV series , produced original Spider @-@ Man adventures in the late 1970s ; artists included Gérald Forton , who later moved to America and worked for Marvel .
= = Supporting characters = =
Spider @-@ Man has had a large range of supporting characters introduced in the comics that are essential in the issues and storylines that star him . After his parents died , Peter Parker was raised by his loving aunt , May Parker , and his uncle and father figure , Ben Parker . After Uncle Ben is murdered by a burglar , Aunt May is virtually Peter 's only family , and she and Peter are very close .
J. Jonah Jameson is depicted as the publisher of the Daily Bugle and is Peter Parker 's boss and as a harsh critic of Spider @-@ Man , always saying negative things about the superhero in the newspaper . Despite his role as Jameson 's publishing editor and confidant Robbie Robertson is always depicted as a supporter of both Peter Parker and Spider @-@ Man .
Eugene " Flash " Thompson is commonly depicted as Parker 's high school tormentor and bully , but in later comic issues he becomes a friend to Peter . Meanwhile , Harry Osborn , son of Norman Osborn , is most commonly recognized as Peter 's best friend but has also been depicted sometimes as his rival in the comics .
Peter Parker 's romantic interests range between his first crush , the fellow high @-@ school student Liz Allan , to having his first date with Betty Brant , the secretary to the Daily Bugle newspaper publisher J. Jonah Jameson . After his breakup with Betty Brant , Parker eventually falls in love with his college girlfriend Gwen Stacy , daughter of New York City Police Department detective captain George Stacy , both of whom are later killed by supervillain enemies of Spider @-@ Man . Mary Jane Watson eventually became Peter 's best friend and then his wife . Felicia Hardy , the Black Cat , is a reformed cat burglar who had been Spider @-@ Man 's girlfriend and partner at one point .
= = = Enemies = = =
Writers and artists over the years have established a rogues gallery of supervillains to face Spider @-@ Man . In comics and in other media . As with the hero , the majority of the villains ' powers originate with scientific accidents or the misuse of scientific technology , and many have animal @-@ themed costumes or powers . Examples are listed down below in the ordering of their original chronological appearance : Note : Alter ego characters who are the most high profile in the supervillain alias but others have shared that supervillain name are in bold . Indicates a group team .
= = = = Archenemies = = = =
Unlike a lot of well known rivalries in comics book depictions . Spider @-@ Man is cited to have more than one archenemy and it can be debated or disputed as to which one is worse :
^ Doctor Octopus is regarded as one of Spider @-@ Man 's worst enemies and archenemy . He has been cited as the man Peter might have become if he had not been raised with a sense of responsibility . He is infamous for defeating him the first time in battle and for almost marrying Peter 's Aunt May . He is the core leader of the Sinister Six and has also referred himself as the " Master Planner " . ( " If This Be My Destiny ... ! " ) Later depictions revealed him in Peter Parker 's body where he was the titular character for a while .
^ Norman Osborn using the Green Goblin alias is also commonly described as Spider @-@ Man 's archenemy . Mostly after he is responsible for setting up the death of Spider @-@ Man 's girlfriend in one of the most famous Spider @-@ Man stories of all time which helped end the Silver Age of Comic Books and begin the Bronze Age of Comic Books . He was thought to be dead after that but writers help bring him back from the 1990s and he returned to plague Spider @-@ Man once more in the comic books ( such as being involved of the killing of Aunt May ) and other heroes ( such as the Avengers ) . He is also a enemy of Spider @-@ Man sometimes just as Norman and not just only as the Green Goblin .
^ Another character commonly described as archenemy is Venom . Eddie Brock as Venom is commonly described as the mirror version or the evil version of Spider @-@ Man in many ways . Venom 's goals is usually depicted as trying to ruin Spider @-@ Man 's life and mess with Spider @-@ Man 's head when it comes to targeting enemies . He is one of the few villains depicted as unbeatable to Spider @-@ Man without a few weaknesses . Venom is also one of the most popular Spider @-@ Man villains . This popularity has led him to be an established iconic character of his own with own comic book stories .
= = Cultural influence = =
In The Creation of Spider @-@ Man , comic book writer @-@ editor and historian Paul Kupperberg calls the character 's superpowers " nothing too original " ; what was original was that outside his secret identity , he was a " nerdy high school student " . Going against typical superhero fare , Spider @-@ Man included " heavy doses of soap @-@ opera and elements of melodrama " . Kupperberg feels that Lee and Ditko had created something new in the world of comics : " the flawed superhero with everyday problems " . This idea spawned a " comics revolution " . The insecurity and anxieties in Marvel 's early 1960s comic books such as The Amazing Spider @-@ Man , The Incredible Hulk , and X @-@ Men ushered in a new type of superhero , very different from the certain and all @-@ powerful superheroes before them , and changed the public 's perception of them . Spider @-@ Man has become one of the most recognizable fictional characters in the world , and has been used to sell toys , games , cereal , candy , soap , and many other products .
Spider @-@ Man has become Marvel 's flagship character , and has often been used as the company mascot . When Marvel became the first comic book company to be listed on the New York Stock Exchange in 1991 , the Wall Street Journal announced " Spider @-@ Man is coming to Wall Street " ; the event was in turn promoted with an actor in a Spider @-@ Man costume accompanying Stan Lee to the Stock Exchange . Since 1962 , hundreds of millions of comics featuring the character have been sold around the world .
Spider @-@ Man joined the Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade from 1987 to 1998 as one of the balloon floats , designed by John Romita Sr. , one of the character 's signature artists . A new , different Spider @-@ Man balloon float is scheduled to appear from at least 2009 to 2011 .
When Marvel wanted to issue a story dealing with the immediate aftermath of the September 11 attacks , the company chose the December 2001 issue of The Amazing Spider @-@ Man . In 2006 , Spider @-@ Man garnered major media coverage with the revelation of the character 's secret identity , an event detailed in a full page story in the New York Post before the issue containing the story was even released .
In 2008 , Marvel announced plans to release a series of educational comics the following year in partnership with the United Nations , depicting Spider @-@ Man alongside UN Peacekeeping Forces to highlight UN peacekeeping missions . A BusinessWeek article listed Spider @-@ Man as one of the top ten most intelligent fictional characters in American comics .
Rapper Eminem has cited Spider @-@ Man as one of his favorite comic book superheroes .
In 2015 , the Supreme Court of the United States decided Kimble v. Marvel Entertainment , LLC , a case concerning royalties on a patent for an imitation web @-@ shooter . The opinion for the Court , by Justice Elena Kagan , included several Spider @-@ Man references , concluding with the statement that " with great power there must also come — great responsibility " .
= = = Reception = = =
Spider @-@ Man is well received as a comic book character , always appearing as one of the greatest comic book characters or superheroes of all time and almost always being the top Marvel Comics character . Spider @-@ Man was declared the number one superhero on Bravo 's Ultimate Super Heroes , Vixens , and Villains TV series in 2005 . Empire magazine placed him as the fifth @-@ greatest comic book character of all time . Wizard magazine placed Spider @-@ Man as the third greatest comic book character on their website . In 2011 , Spider @-@ Man placed third on IGN 's Top 100 Comic Book Heroes of All Time , behind DC Comics characters Superman and Batman. and sixth in their 2012 list of " The Top 50 Avengers " . In 2014 , IGN identified Spider @-@ Man the greatest Marvel Comics character of all time . A 2015 poll at Comic Book Resources named Spider @-@ Man the greatest Marvel character of all time . IGN described him as the common everyman that represents many normal people but also noting his uniqueness compared to many top @-@ tiered superheroes with his many depicted flaws as a superhero . IGN also noted that despite being one of the most tragic superheroes of all time that he is " one of the most fun and snarky superheroes in existence . " Empire noted and praised that despite the many tragedies that Spider @-@ Man faces that he retains his sense of humour at all times with his witty wisecracks . The magazine website also praised the depiction of his " iconic " superhero poses describing it as " a top artist 's dream " .
George Marston of Newsarama placed Spider @-@ Man 's origin story as the greatest origin story of all time opining that " Spider @-@ Man 's origin combines all of the most classic aspects of pathos , tragedy and scientific wonder into the perfect blend for a superhero origin . "
= = = Real @-@ life Spider @-@ Men = = =
Real @-@ life " Spider @-@ Men " include :
In 1981 , skyscraper @-@ safety activist Dan Goodwin , wearing a Spider @-@ Man suit , scaled the Sears Tower in Chicago , Illinois , the Renaissance Tower in Dallas , Texas , and the John Hancock Center in Chicago , Illinois .
Alain Robert , nicknamed " Spider @-@ Man " , is a rock and urban climber who has scaled more than 70 tall buildings using his hands and feet , without using additional devices . He sometimes wears a Spider @-@ Man suit during his climbs . In May 2003 , he was paid approximately $ 18 @,@ 000 to climb the 312 @-@ foot ( 95 m ) Lloyd 's building to promote the premiere of the movie Spider @-@ Man on the British television channel Sky Movies .
'The Human Spider ' , alias Bill Strother , scaled the Lamar Building in Augusta , Georgia in 1921 .
Fathers 4 Justice member David Chick used a Spider @-@ Man outfit to obtain publicity for fathers ' rights in London .
Sonchai Yoosabai , a firefighter in Thailand , is considered a real @-@ life Spider @-@ Man . He rescued an 8 @-@ year @-@ old boy with autism from falling off the ledge of a building by scaling it with no ropes and then rescuing the boy .
= = = Awards = = =
From the character 's inception , Spider @-@ Man stories have won numerous awards , including :
1962 Alley Award : Best Short Story — " Origin of Spider @-@ Man " by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko , Amazing Fantasy # 15
1963 Alley Award : Best Comic : Adventure Hero title — The Amazing Spider @-@ Man
1963 Alley Award : Top Hero — Spider @-@ Man
1964 Alley Award : Best Adventure Hero Comic Book — The Amazing Spider @-@ Man
1964 Alley Award : Best Giant Comic — The Amazing Spider @-@ Man Annual # 1
1964 Alley Award : Best Hero — Spider @-@ Man
1965 Alley Award : Best Adventure Hero Comic Book — The Amazing Spider @-@ Man
1965 Alley Award : Best Hero — Spider @-@ Man
1966 Alley Award : Best Comic Magazine : Adventure Book with the Main Character in the Title — The Amazing Spider @-@ Man
1966 Alley Award : Best Full @-@ Length Story — " How Green was My Goblin " , by Stan Lee & John Romita , Sr. , The Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 39
1967 Alley Award : Best Comic Magazine : Adventure Book with the Main Character in the Title — The Amazing Spider @-@ Man
1967 Alley Award Popularity Poll : Best Costumed or Powered Hero — Spider @-@ Man
1967 Alley Award Popularity Poll : Best Male Normal Supporting Character — J. Jonah Jameson , The Amazing Spider @-@ Man
1967 Alley Award Popularity Poll : Best Female Normal Supporting Character — Mary Jane Watson , The Amazing Spider @-@ Man
1968 Alley Award Popularity Poll : Best Adventure Hero Strip — The Amazing Spider @-@ Man
1968 Alley Award Popularity Poll : Best Supporting Character — J. Jonah Jameson , The Amazing Spider @-@ Man
1969 Alley Award Popularity Poll : Best Adventure Hero Strip — The Amazing Spider @-@ Man
1997 Eisner Award : Best Artist / Penciller / Inker or Penciller / Inker Team — 1997 Al Williamson , Best Inker : Untold Tales of Spider @-@ Man # 17 @-@ 18
2002 Eisner Award : Best Serialized Story — The Amazing Spider @-@ Man vol . 2 , # 30 – 35 : " Coming Home " , by J. Michael Straczynski , John Romita , Jr . , and Scott Hanna
= = In other media = =
Spider @-@ Man has appeared in comics , cartoons , films , video games , coloring books , novels , records , and children 's books . On television , he first starred in the ABC animated series Spider @-@ Man ( 1967 – 1970 ) and the CBS live @-@ action series The Amazing Spider @-@ Man ( 1978 – 1979 ) , starring Nicholas Hammond . Other animated series featuring the superhero include the syndicated Spider @-@ Man ( 1981 – 1982 ) , Spider @-@ Man and His Amazing Friends ( 1981 – 1983 ) , Fox Kids ' Spider @-@ Man ( 1994 – 1998 ) , Spider @-@ Man Unlimited ( 1999 – 2000 ) , Spider @-@ Man : The New Animated Series ( 2003 ) , and The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man ( 2008 – 2009 ) . A new animated series titled Ultimate Spider @-@ Man , starring Drake Bell , premiered on Disney XD on April 1 , 2012 .
A tokusatsu series featuring Spider @-@ Man was produced by Toei and aired in Japan . It is commonly referred to by its Japanese pronunciation " Supaidā @-@ Man " . Spider @-@ Man also appeared in other print forms besides the comics , including novels , children 's books , and the daily newspaper comic strip The Amazing Spider @-@ Man , which debuted in January 1977 , with the earliest installments written by Stan Lee and drawn by John Romita , Sr. Spider @-@ Man has been adapted to other media including games , toys , collectibles , and miscellaneous memorabilia , and has appeared as the main character in numerous computer and video games on over 15 gaming platforms .
Spider @-@ Man was also featured in a trilogy of live @-@ action films directed by Sam Raimi and starring Tobey Maguire as the titular superhero . The first Spider @-@ Man film of the trilogy was released on May 3 , 2002 ; its sequel , Spider @-@ Man 2 , was released on June 30 , 2004 and the next sequel , Spider @-@ Man 3 , was released on May 4 , 2007 . A third sequel was originally scheduled to be released in 2011 , however Sony later decided to reboot the franchise with a new director and cast . The reboot , titled The Amazing Spider @-@ Man , was released on July 3 , 2012 ; directed by Marc Webb and starring Andrew Garfield as the new Spider @-@ Man . A sequel titled The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 was released on May 2 , 2014 . Most recently , Sony and Disney have made a deal for Spider @-@ Man to appear in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . Tom Holland made his debut as Spider @-@ Man in the 2016 MCU film Captain America : Civil War , before he is scheduled to star in Spider @-@ Man : Homecoming in 2017 , directed by Jon Watts .
A Broadway musical , Spider @-@ Man : Turn Off the Dark , began previews on November 14 , 2010 at the Foxwoods Theatre on Broadway , with the official opening night on June 14 , 2011 . The music and lyrics were written by Bono and The Edge of the rock group U2 , with a book by Julie Taymor , Glen Berger , Roberto Aguirre @-@ Sacasa . Turn Off the Dark is currently the most expensive musical in Broadway history , costing an estimated $ 70 million . In addition , the show 's unusually high running costs are reported to be about $ 1 @.@ 2 million per week .
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= Bill Cunningham ( rugby union ) =
William " Bill " Cunningham ( 8 July 1874 – 3 September 1927 ) was a New Zealand rugby union player who represented New Zealand — known as the All Blacks — between 1901 and 1908 . Most notably he toured with the Original All Blacks on their 1905 – 06 tour of the British Isles , France and North America . They were the first New Zealand representative team to visit the British Isles , and of their 32 matches there Cunningham played in 23 . He played mainly at lock , and was added to the touring party due to his strong scrummaging ability . He played in three Test matches during the trip : against Scotland , Ireland and France , but did not play in the loss to Wales due to injury , the All Blacks ' only defeat on tour .
Born near Te Awamutu , Cunningham originally played club rugby in Waihi , in the Coromandel region . Lying within the Auckland Rugby Football Union 's boundaries , he was selected to play for Auckland province in 1899 and continued to represent the side until his retirement in 1913 . He was first picked for New Zealand in 1901 , and played against New South Wales that year , but was not selected again until the 1905 Originals ' tour . After the tour he continued to represent New Zealand in both 1907 and 1908 . Affiliating to Rongowhakaata , he was a member of the first ever New Zealand Māori team in 1910 , and played for them again in 1912 . On retirement in 1913 he had appeared for Auckland 45 times , and for New Zealand 39 — both large numbers for the time .
= = Early life and family = =
Born at Rangiaowhia , near Te Awamutu , on 8 July 1874 , Cunningham was the son of Hera ( Sarah ) Ngaihika Halbert and her second husband , James Cunningham . Hera was the daughter of Thomas Halbert , a whaler and trader who landed in Poverty Bay in about 1832 , and his fifth wife , Keita Kaikiri , who belonged to the Rongowhakaata iwi . Hera later remarried Paratene Tatae , a cousin of Te Kooti : their daughters included Reremoana Hakiwai , and Keita Kaikiri Paratene , who married Reweti Tuhorouta Kohere .
Cunningham married Ethel Minnie Dance of Waihi on 23 September 1907 .
= = Early career = =
Cunningham first played representative rugby union for Auckland province in 1899 . He was selected from his club Waihi West ( a club in Waihi on the Coromandel Peninsula ) , which was affiliated to the Goldfield subunion . At the time the Goldfields Rugby Union was a subunion of the Auckland Rugby Football Union , but its constituent clubs are now affiliated to the Thames Valley Rugby Football Union .
He was first selected to play for New Zealand in 1901 , and played against Wellington and the New South Wales team that was touring New Zealand at the time . Both matches were comfortably won , with the tourists defeated 20 – 3 . Cunningham played his first of four matches for Auckland against international opposition , against the same New South Wales side a week later , with his Auckland team winning 24 – 3 .
Cunningham moved to Auckland in 1902 , and played his club rugby for City , before joining Ponsonby the following season . He had been displaced from the national team by this time , with Cantabrian Bernard Fanning preferred at lock . The New Zealanders used a different scrum formation than seen today , and only one lock was ever required .
Despite not being selected for New Zealand in 1904 , Cunningham continued to appear for Auckland , and played in two particularly notable matches that season . In 1904 the first Ranfurly Shield match was played . The shield , a provincial challenge trophy won by defeating the holder , was to become the most prestigious trophy in domestic New Zealand rugby . Due to their unmatched provincial record at the time Auckland were awarded the shield . The first shield challenge was played against Wellington , who were not expected to pose much of a threat . Auckland had not lost at home in six years , but , with Cunningham in the side , Auckland lost 6 – 3 . The second notable match that season was against the touring British Isles who were conducting a tour of Australia and New Zealand . The Aucklanders defeated the British Isles side 13 – 0 , with Cunningham scoring a try and contributing significantly to the dominance of his team 's forwards .
= = Original All Blacks = =
The first ever tour of a New Zealand representative team to the British Isles was planned for 1905 , and a preliminary tour of Australia and New Zealand was undertaken to help fund the tour . Cunningham was not in the original touring squad , and so played for Auckland against New Zealand . According to Winston McCarthy , New Zealand 's forwards were at " sixes and sevens mainly through want of a good lock . " Following the conclusion of the preliminary tour of Australia and New Zealand it was clear that a specialist lock forward needed to be added to the side . Fanning , who had kept Cunningham out of the New Zealand side in 1903 and 1904 , had retired following the 1904 season and consequently Cunningham did enough to earn selection as the team 's only specialist lock .
The team departed aboard the Rimutaka and during the voyage conducted training drills on the ship 's deck ; for this the forwards were coached by the team 's captain , Dave Gallaher , with help from Cunningham . Vice @-@ captain and first five @-@ eighth Billy Stead was in charge of the backs , and consequently the services of the New Zealand Rugby Union @-@ appointed coach Jimmy Duncan were not used .
After a six @-@ week voyage , the team arrived in Plymouth , England on 8 September 1905 . After finally arriving in England , the side opened their tour against Devon . Cunningham played in the match which was won easily by the New Zealanders 55 – 4 . Devon were expected to pose a serious challenge , but were overwhelmed and only managed to score a drop @-@ kick . A series of large victories followed against domestic opposition throughout England , and by the time the All Blacks played their first Test match against Scotland , the team had played and won nineteen matches , and scored 612 points while conceding only 15 .
When time for the Scotland Test did arrive , it was discovered that as the ground had not been covered for protection from the elements , and had frozen over . The Scotland Football Union wanted to abandon the match , but Gallaher and the tour manager George Dixon contended that the weather would improve enough for the pitch to thaw , and the match was eventually allowed to proceed . The Test was closely contested , with Scotland leading 7 – 6 at half @-@ time , but the All Blacks scored two late tries , including one to Cunningham , to win 12 – 7 ; despite the close score @-@ line , the New Zealanders were clearly the better of the two sides .
Cunningham was selected for the Ireland match a week later . The fixture was won 15 – 0 by New Zealand in front of 12 @,@ 000 people at Landsdowne Road . The tourists then returned to England where they defeated England 15 – 0 at Crystal Palace , but Cunningham was not selected due to injury . He was still injured for the Wales Test , and this may have contributed to New Zealand 's defeat . The 3 – 0 loss , the New Zealander 's first of the tour , was narrow and controversial , and according to team manager Dixon , " New Zealand suffered by the absence from the team of G. W. [ George ] Smith , W. Cunningham , and J. W. [ Billy ] Stead . "
Cunningham recovered to play the team 's final Test , against France in Paris , where he played as " breakaway " ( flanker ) rather than his usual position of lock . His last two tour matches were against British Columbia during the American leg of the tour , after which the side returned to New Zealand . The " Original All Blacks " — as the team is now known — had played 35 games and lost only once . Over their 32 matches in the British Isles , of which Cunninghham had played 23 , New Zealand scored 830 points and conceded 39 ; overall they scored 976 points and conceded only 59 . On their arrival back in New Zealand on 6 March 1906 , the All Blacks were welcomed by a crowd of 10 @,@ 000 before being hosted at a civic reception in Auckland . The 1905 – 06 Originals are remembered as perhaps the greatest of All Black sides , and set the standard for all their successors . They introduced a number of innovations to Britain and Ireland , including specialised forward positions and unfamiliar variations in attacking plays .
= = Later career = =
Cunningham continued to play for Auckland on his return from the Originals ' tour . They had regained the Ranfurly Shield in 1905 , and he played in a number of shield defences over the subsequent seasons . He was selected for the New Zealand team that toured Australia in 1907 where he played seven matches , including all three Tests against Australia . He was again selected for the All Blacks in 1908 , this time to play the touring Anglo @-@ Welsh team , and played in all three Tests . This was his last appearance for New Zealand , which gave him 39 appearances for his national team , including 9 Test matches . He was later selected for the inaugural New Zealand Māori team ( now called the Māori All Blacks ) on their 1910 tour of Australia , and again for another tour in 1912 .
He continued to play for Auckland until 1913 . This period included two more matches against international opposition : a victory over the 1908 Anglo @-@ Welsh side 11 – 0 , and a defeat of Australia in 1913 . Auckland had held the Ranfurly Shield throughout this time , and had endured a number of close shield challenges during their reign . They had 23 successful shield defenses before they faced Taranaki on 16 August 1913 . In the match Taranaki scored a converted try ( worth five points at the time ) four minutes from full @-@ time to end Auckland 's shield reign . Cunningham had played in 16 of Auckland 's 24 shield matches during their tenure . He retired from provincial rugby at the end of that season .
= = Personal life and playing style = =
Cunningham was very physically fit and strong , and was " remarkably agile " according to writer Matt Elliott . He was very popular with his teammates and possessed a good sense of humour . Like the other Māori in the 1905 – 06 All Blacks Billy Stead he was able to speak the language . Outside of rugby he spent his early working @-@ life as an axeman . He also spent some time as a miner , and later worked for the Auckland Harbour Board . At the time of his death he was working at an Auckland freezing works .
= = Death and legacy = =
Cunningham died suddenly from acute meningitis at Auckland in September 1927 , and his funeral was attended by a number of dignitaries , including representatives of the New Zealand , Auckland , New South Wales and Thames Rugby Unions . His pallbearers were all former All Blacks , and included fellow Original All Blacks George Tyler , George Nicholson and George Gillett . After his casket had been lowered into its grave at Hillsborough Cemetery , an Auckland representative jersey was thrown on top .
Under the average height on a line @-@ out , yet no man ever beat him , a genius in scrum , no need to tell him when to keep the ball or let it out . Am I wrong in saying that his death removes the greatest lock the Dominion [ of New Zealand ] ever possessed ? He had three intuitions as far back as November 1904 [ sic ] , that Wales would beat us , that war would occur between England and Germany within ten years , and that he would not live to get the old age pension . How lamentably true . How hard to write the innate qualities of this Nature 's gentleman , a hard but clean player , respected and appreciated by opponents , and adored by his intimates . He goes West leaving us the poorer by his departure .
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= Only Girl ( In the World ) =
" Only Girl ( In the World ) " is a song by Barbadian singer Rihanna from her fifth album , Loud ( 2010 ) . The album 's lead single , it was released on September 10 . Crystal Johnson wrote the song in collaboration with producers Stargate and Sandy Vee . Rihanna contacted Stargate before Loud 's production and asked them to create lively , uptempo music . " Only Girl ( In the World ) " was the first song composed for the album , and the singer decided to include it on the track list before she recorded her vocals . Backed by strong bass and synthesizer , it is a Europop song that incorporates elements of Hi @-@ NRG and rave in its composition . In its lyrics , Rihanna demands physical attention from her lover .
Critical response to " Only Girl ( In the World ) " was positive ; a number of critics praised its composition and Rihanna 's decision to move away from the dark themes of her previous album , Rated R ( 2009 ) . The song reached number one on the United States ' Billboard Hot 100 chart two weeks after Loud 's second single , " What 's My Name ? " , peaked at number one . It was the first time in the chart 's history that an album 's lead single reached number one after its second single . In the United Kingdom the song spent two weeks at number one and is the nineteenth @-@ bestselling single of all time by a female artist , with over a million copies sold . The song peaked at number one in Australia , New Zealand , Canada and Ireland , and reached the top five in France , Germany and Switzerland .
Rihanna performed " Only Girl ( In the World ) " on Saturday Night Live in the United States , The X Factor in the United Kingdom and a shortened version at the 31st Brit Awards . Anthony Mandler directed the song 's music video , in which Rihanna is alone in an open natural landscape . The video suggests that she is the only female in the world , echoing the song 's title and lyrics , and critics praised its bright , colorful theme . " Only Girl ( In the World ) " won the Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording at the 53rd Grammy Awards in 2011 .
= = Concept and development = =
" Only Girl ( In the World ) " was written by Crystal Johnson with the song 's producers , Stargate and Sandy Vee . Rihanna had previously worked with Stargate on the singles " Hate That I Love You " , " Don 't Stop the Music " and " Rude Boy " . In February 2011 Stargate said that Rihanna approached the Norwegian production duo before she began recording the then @-@ untitled project , saying that she wanted to have fun and produce happy , uptempo songs . According to Tor Erik Hermansen of Stargate , " Only Girl ( In the World ) " was the first song created for Loud and Rihanna decided to include it on the album before recording her vocals . In a webchat with fans , Rihanna said that she wanted to take the next step as an artist : " I didn ’ t want to go backward and remake Good Girl Gone Bad . I wanted the next step in the evolution of Rihanna , and it ’ s perfect for us . You guys are always defending me , so now you ’ ve got some great songs to justify it . " The singer described " Only Girl ( In the World ) " as having a " bigger sound " than " Rude Boy " .
The song was recorded during Rihanna 's Last Girl on Earth tour . Its instrumental was recorded by Mikkel Storleer Eriksen of Stargate and Miles Walker at Roc the Mic Studios in New York City and Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles , and by Vee at the Bunker in Paris . Kuk Harrell produced Rihanna 's vocals , recording them with Josh Gudwin and Marcos Tovar . Inaam Haq , Dane Liska and Brad Shea recorded additional vocals . The song was mixed by Phil Tan at the Ninja Beat Club in Atlanta and by Vee at The Bunker , with engineering by Damien Lewis . Eriksen , Vee and Hermansen provided the instrumentation , and Johnson sang background vocals .
= = Composition = =
" Only Girl ( In the World ) " is a Europop song with a length of three minutes and fifty @-@ five seconds . It also incorporates elements of Hi @-@ NRG , rave and R & B styles . It is in the key of F @-@ sharp minor , and written in common time with a moderate tempo of 126 beats per minute . Its instrumentation includes synthesizers , a " heavy whipping bass " and a " strobing " electro beat . Brad Wete of Entertainment Weekly described the song as a " stronger , sexier " version of her 2007 single , " Don 't Stop the Music " .
Rihanna 's voice spans one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half octaves in " Only Girl ( In the World ) " , from F ♯ 3 to C ♯ 5 , and her vocal has a " silky " , " seductive " tone . In the song 's lyrics Rihanna yearns for her lover 's attention , which makes her feel like the only girl in the world . The singer " pours her heart out " in the chorus : " Want you to make me feel like I 'm the only girl in the world / Like I 'm the only one that you 'll ever love / Like I 'm the only one who knows your heart / Only girl in the world . " According to Digital Spy writer Nick Levine , the chorus " thumps like a rabbit having an epileptic fit . " Rihanna sings suggestively , " Baby , I 'll tell you all my secrets that I 'm keepin ' / You can come inside / And when you enter , you ain 't leavin ' / Be my prisoner for the night . " Fraser McAlpine of the BBC compared the song 's message to that of the German fairy tale " Rapunzel " ; Rihanna is not willing to throw her hair out of the castle for just any man to come and satisfy her , " particularly not someone who isn 't prepared to make the climb up to her scarily high window . "
= = Critical response = =
The song received a generally @-@ positive response from music critics . Gerrick D. Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times called the track a " surefire hit " and something of a " comeback " . MTV News writer James Dinh praised the uptempo song , comparing it to the " stark " lead single " Russian Roulette " from Rihanna 's previous Rated R. Monica Herrera wrote for Billboard that " Only Girl ( In the World ) " " aims squarely for dance @-@ floor domination . " Nick Levine of Digital Spy gave the song four stars out of five , calling it a " crowd @-@ pleaser " but not overly original .
According to Levine and Jim Farber of the New York Daily News , " Only Girl ( In the World ) " was Rihanna 's most pop @-@ sounding song since " Don 't Stop the Music " . Analyzing the song , the BBC 's Fraser McAlpine questioned why " Only Girl ( In the World ) " leaves a " positive impression " on the listener despite its arrogant , domineering tone . Critical at first ( " Listen to the pneumatic hiss at the heart of this song . Try and endure the pumping thrust without getting winded . There is simply too much pressure being stuffed into our ears , with too much brutal force " ) , he concluded that Rihanna sings the song with great passion and gave it four stars out of five . James Dolan gave the song two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five in Rolling Stone , writing that " the trance beat won 't keep you in the club unless someone else is paying for the drinks . "
= = Commercial performance = =
= = = North America = = =
In the United States , " Only Girl ( In the World ) " debuted at number 75 on the Billboard Hot 100 on September 25 , 2010 , jumping to number three the following week , before peaking at number one ( Rihanna 's ninth ) on November 25 . Loud 's second single , " What 's My Name ? " ( featuring Drake ) , topped the Hot 100 two weeks before ; it was the first time in chart history that an album 's first single reached number one after its second . " Only Girl ( In the World ) " was Rihanna 's fourth number @-@ one song of 2010 , and she was the first female and the first artist since Usher ( in 2004 ) with four number @-@ one singles in a calendar year . The singer also had the most number @-@ one singles ( nine ) since 2000 . " Only Girl ( In the World ) " appeared on the Billboard Hot 100 year @-@ end chart in 2010 and 2011 at numbers 47 and 40 , respectively .
The song debuted on the Digital Songs chart at number one with sales of 249 @,@ 000 , Rihanna 's eighth number @-@ one single and her sixth to debut atop the chart ( the most in both categories by any artist since the chart 's 2005 introduction ) . The singer set a Mainstream Top 40 ( Pop Songs ) radio @-@ airplay chart record when " Only Girl ( In the World ) " rose from number two to number one on November 25 , 2010 , her seventh number @-@ one . The song was number 46 and number 33 , respectively , on the 2011 Billboard Digital Songs and Pop Songs year @-@ end charts . " Only Girl ( In the World ) " was Rihanna 's twelfth number @-@ one on the Dance Club Songs songs chart and number 46 on the 2010 Billboard year @-@ end chart . The song has been certified six times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , and has sold 3 @.@ 6 million copies in the US as of June 2015 . In Canada , " Only Girl ( In the World ) " debuted at number 65 on September 25 , 2010 and rose to number one for a week the following week . On November 6 the song returned to number one for three consecutive weeks , remaining on the chart for a total of 35 weeks .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
In the United Kingdom " Only Girl ( In the World ) " debuted at number two on the UK Singles Chart on October 31 , 2010 , with 126 @,@ 000 copies sold . Cheryl Cole debuted at number one with " Promise This " , selling 157 @,@ 000 copies , and Cole and Rihanna had the highest and second @-@ highest debut sales figures of the year . The song , Rihanna 's sixth number @-@ two song on the UK Singles Chart , rose to number one the next week for two consecutive weeks . It was Rihanna 's fourth UK number @-@ one single , following " Umbrella " ( 2007 ) , " Take a Bow " ( 2008 ) and " Run This Town " ( 2009 ) . By December 2011 " Only Girl ( In the World ) " was the 108th song to sell more than a million copies in the United Kingdom , the fifteenth by a female artist , Rihanna 's first as primary artist and second overall ; the 107th million @-@ seller was Eminem 's " Love the Way You Lie " six weeks before , on which Rihanna was featured .
Rihanna was the second non @-@ United Kingdom , non @-@ North American million @-@ selling artist ; the first was Danish singer Whigfield with her 1994 song , " Saturday Night " . Although at the time the only other female two @-@ song million @-@ seller was Canadian singer Celine Dion , two of Rihanna 's subsequent singles — " We Found Love " ( 2011 ) and " Diamonds " ( 2012 ) — have also sold more than a million copies each . " Only Girl ( In the World ) " is the nineteenth @-@ bestselling single by a female artist and the 99th overall of all time in the United Kingdom . The song was the fourth- and 68th @-@ bestselling single , respectively , of 2010 and 2011 . Certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipments exceeding 600 @,@ 000 copies , it has sold 1 @,@ 080 @,@ 000 copies . " Only Girl ( In the World ) " peaked at number one on the UK Single Downloads Chart and the Scottish Singles Chart .
= = Music video = =
Director Anthony Mandler filmed the music video for " Only Girl ( In the World ) " at a location two hours from Los Angeles . Rihanna told JustJared.com that the video was filmed in a " big landscape " so she was the only person in the frame , echoing the song 's title . The singer is also " frolicking in a red field and lying in a bed of flowers . " The video features large balloons in different colours , a swing hanging from the sky and a tree with multi @-@ colored lights . Rihanna 's outfits include a mohair sweater , a floral miniskirt and a white @-@ bra @-@ and @-@ boyshorts two @-@ piece .
Entertainment Weekly writer Tanner Stransky praised the video 's simplicity , noting that it seems " as if Rihanna is speaking directly to you , the viewer , and she is your one and only amid swallowing rolling , beautiful , swallowing landscapes . It 's an effect that makes you focus squarely on [ Rihanna ] , who 's ensconsced in flirty outfits . " According to Joyce Lee of CBS , Rihanna appeared to have progressed from the " edgy " music videos of the Rated R singles to a more feminine , colourful tone . A Mail Online reviewer and Seth Sommerfield of Spin echoed Lee 's comments , with the former calling it " beautifully shot " and the latter " whimsical [ and ] beautiful " . The Mail Online reviewer called the video a departure from the " hard @-@ edged , heavier image " music videos of Rated R. Billboard reviewer Jason Lipshutz described the tree with flashing lights as " surreal imagery . "
= = Live performances and covers = =
Rihanna performed " Only Girl ( In the World ) " and a solo version of " What 's My Name ? " on Saturday Night Live in New York City on October 30 , 2010 . The next day , she flew to London to perform the song on The X Factor . Rihanna 's dancers had a food fight with cakes and cream while she sang , and the show 's producers had only one minute to clear the stage before the weekly elimination results were announced . On November 7 she performed the song at the MTV Europe Music Awards in Madrid , wearing a " fairy tale " -inspired ensemble and walking through a set of flowers against a sunset . Two days later , Rihanna sang " Only Girl ( In the World ) " on the Italian version of The X Factor in a floral @-@ print bikini , boots and a red pigtail . The next day she flew to France to sing the song on Le Grand Journal , on a set covered with white balloons .
The singer returned to London on November 11 to record an interview for The Graham Norton Show , which included a live performance of " Only Girl ( In the World ) " . Rihanna opened the American Music Awards with a medley of songs from Loud . She began with an a cappella version of " Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) " , sitting on a stylized tree of lights above " a field of sable @-@ colored blades of grass . " Rihanna then sang a solo version of " What 's My Name ? " and a short version of " Only Girl ( In the World ) " . According to Mawuse Ziegbe of MTV News , the singer " kicked up the island theme " as drummers in tribal dress circled her .
Rihanna performed a short version of " Only Girl ( In the World ) " at the 31st Brit Awards on February 15 , 2011 , as part of a medley with two other singles from Loud : " S & M " and " What 's My Name ? " . She had planned to perform " S & M " only ( to coincide with its United Kingdom release ) , but was asked by the British Phonograpic Industry to " tone down the sexual references in the song 's lyrics " . Rihanna was reportedly angered at the request and a related one to perform a different song . She made the changes because the BPI wanted to avoid complaints like those received after the seventh @-@ series finale of The X Factor on December 11 , 2010 , when Rihanna was criticized for wearing a provocative outfit and performing a suggestive , " disgusting " dance routine before the 9 pm UK watershed . Rihanna performed " Only Girl ( In the World ) " , " California King Bed " , " What 's My Name ? " and " S & M " on NBC 's May 27 , 2011 Today as part of its summer concert series . The song , which was included on the Loud , 777 and the Diamonds World Tours , was the opener for her performance at Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend on May 24 , 2012 .
Katy Perry covered " Only Girl ( In the World ) " as part of an acoustic mash @-@ up with Willow Smith 's " Whip My Hair " on her California Dreams Tour ( 2011 ) . Ellie Goulding covered the song during her appearance on Radio 1 's Live Lounge , and the cover was the B @-@ side of her single " Lights " .
= = Formats and track listings = =
Digital download
" Only Girl ( In the World ) " – 3 : 55
German CD single
" Only Girl ( In the World ) " – 3 : 55
" Only Girl ( In the World ) " ( Extended Club Mix ) – 5 : 39
UK CD single
" Only Girl ( In the World ) " – 3 : 55
" Only Girl ( In the World ) " ( Instrumental ) – 3 : 55
= = Awards = =
= = Charts = =
= = = All @-@ time charts = = =
= = Certifications = =
Since May 9 , 2013 RIAA certifications for digital singles include on @-@ demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads .
= = Radio and digital release history = =
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= Badnjak ( Serbian ) =
The badnjak ( Cyrillic : бадњак , Serbian pronunciation : [ bǎdɲaːk ] ) , also called veseljak ( весељак , [ ʋɛˈsɛ ̌ ʎaːk ] , literally " jovial one " in Serbian ) , is a log brought into the house and placed on the fire on the evening of Christmas Eve , a central tradition in Serbian Christmas celebrations much like a yule log in other European traditions . The tree from which the badnjak is cut , preferably a young and straight oak , is ceremonially felled early on the morning of Christmas Eve . The felling , preparation , bringing in , and laying on the fire , are surrounded by elaborate rituals , with many regional variations . The burning of the log is accompanied by prayers that the coming year brings food , happiness , love , luck , and riches . The log burns on throughout Christmas Day , when the first visitor strikes it with a poker or a branch to make sparks fly , while wishing that the family 's happiness and prosperity be as abundant as the sparks . As most Serbs today live in towns and cities , the badnjak is often symbolically represented by a cluster of oak twigs with brown leaves attached , with which the home is decorated on Christmas Eve .
Since the early 20th century , the Serbian badnjak tradition has also been celebrated more publicly . Before World War I , soldiers of the Kingdom of Serbia developed the custom of laying a badnjak on a fire in their barracks . In the succeeding Kingdom of Yugoslavia , the military badnjak ceremony was further elaborated and standardized in army service regulations , but the tradition ended at the outbreak of World War II . Since the early 1990s , the Serbian Orthodox Church has , together with local communities , organized public celebrations on Christmas Eve in which the badnjak plays a central role . Parishioners festively cut the sapling to be used as the badnjak and take it to their church , where it is consecrated by a priest before it is ceremonially placed on a fire built in the churchyard .
The festive kindling of the badnjak commemorates the fire that — according to Serbian folk tradition — the shepherds of Bethlehem built in the cave where Jesus Christ was born , to warm the Baby Jesus and his mother throughout the night . The badnjak may also be seen as a symbol of the cross upon which Christ was crucified , the warmth of its fire symbolizing the salvation which , in the Christian belief , the crucifixion made possible for mankind . Scholars regard the tradition as inherited from the old Slavic religion . They interpret the badnjak as an incarnation of the spirit of vegetation , and as a divinity who dies by burning to be reborn , to whom sacrifices and prayers were offered for the fertility of fields , the health and happiness of the family . The burning symbolized sunshine , securing the vitalizing power of the sun in the coming year . Other South Slavic peoples have similar traditions , and the custom that a family brings a log into the house and burns it on Christmas Eve has also been recorded in other parts of Europe .
= = Family celebration = =
= = = Felling and preparing = = =
Traditionally , the badnjak ceremony begins on Christmas Eve , but there are many regional variations surrounding the details . Early in the morning the head of each family , usually accompanied by several male relatives , selects and fells the tree from which a log will be cut for their household . The group announces its departure by firing guns or small celebratory mortars called prangija . The Turkey oak is the most popular species of tree selected in most regions , but other oaks are also chosen . Beech , pear , quince , hornbeam , and plum trees are used in eastern Serbia , although less frequently than oak trees . In some areas of Montenegrin Littoral where oaks do not grow , olives , bay laurels , elms , or strawberry trees are used instead . Young , straight , and undamaged specimens are preferred . The badnjak may be more valued if it is felled stealthily in someone else 's rather than in one 's own woods .
Generally , each household prepares one badnjak , although more are cut in some regions . Depending on the local custom , Montenegrin Serbs may fell two , three , an arbitrary number greater than two , or the number equal to the male members of household plus one . The latter means that each of the males has a log associated with him , with the thickest log representing the head of household and the thinnest linked to the family 's prosperity . If there is only one man in the household , three rather than two logs are prepared . The logs may be cut from different species of tree . In parts of the Bay of Kotor , each household prepares four sets of badnjaks , as they are burned there not only on Christmas Eve , but also on the eves of New Years Day , Epiphany , and the Feast of Saint Sava .
In Grbalj , south @-@ west of Kotor , the number of the logs is equal to the number of people in the household . A terebinth is cut down for the badnjak associated with the woman of the house , called the badnjačica ( [ badˈɲatʃitsa ] ) , meaning she @-@ badnjak . The same term is also used in other areas where only a pair of oak logs is cut , in which case badnjačica refers to the smaller of the two . In Resava , the badnjačica is prepared from an Italian oak , and the badnjak from a Turkey oak . In Zagarač , central Montenegro , both of the logs may be cut from the same tree if it is tall enough , the badnjačica then coming from the upper , thinner part of the trunk . The pair is in some regions joined by a third log called the badnjačić — badnjak the child . Although young and thin trees are usually used for the badnjak , in northern Dalmatia 's region of Bukovica two relatively thick logs with diameters of 30 to 50 centimeters ( 12 to 20 inches ) are prepared , plus one thinner log ( called trinity ) . In other areas dry oak branches are collected from the ground , and used instead of a log .
When the head of household finds a suitable tree , he stands in front of it facing east . After throwing grain at the tree , he greets it with the words " Good morning and happy Christmas Eve to you " , makes the Sign of the Cross , says a prayer , and kisses the tree . He may also explain to the badnjak why it will be cut : " I have come to you to take to my home , to be my faithful helper to every progress and improvement , in the house , in the pen , in the field , and in every place . " He then cuts it slantwise on its eastern side , using an axe . Some men put gloves on before they start to cut the tree , and from then on never touch the badnjak with their bare hands . The tree should fall to the east , unhindered by surrounding trees . It must not be left half @-@ cut , as then it will curse the house of the man . In some regions , if the tree is not cut down after the third blow of the axe , then it must be pulled and twisted until its trunk breaks . The resulting badnjak has a so @-@ called " beard " , the part of the trunk at which it broke off from the base of the tree . In Šumadija , half of a circular loaf of bread is left on the stump , the other half being eaten on the way back home . In Zagarač , the stump is covered with moss or dry leaves , and it will be visited again in spring : the stump sprouting through the cover is an omen of good luck and prosperity .
The first splinter from the tree is taken home and placed where prosperity is especially desired , such as beside the beehives , in the hen roost , or between milk basins in the dairy room , in the hope that the coming year 's kaymak will clot to form thick layers in the basins . It may also be placed beneath some baker 's yeast , so that the prosperity of the household may grow like yeast . In Semberija , a piece of the splinter is put in the dough for the česnica , a round loaf of bread prepared specially for Christmas dinner . This is done " because of bees " , as the reason is traditionally termed .
The top of the felled tree is removed , leaving the badnjak of such a length that allows it to be carried on a man 's shoulder , up to about 2 @.@ 5 meters ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) long . Its branches may be lopped off , or not , depending on the local custom . Once in the home , each badnjak is leaned vertically against the house beside the entrance door . In Montenegrin Littoral , each should be adorned with leaved bay laurel , olive , juniper , and rosemary twigs , which are tied to the trunk 's top , middle , and base with ivy or red silken or woolen threads . In parts of eastern Serbia and Kosovo the badnjak is wrapped in a man 's shirt .
In west Serbia 's region of Rađevina , centered on the town of Krupanj , the badnjak prepared for each household is cut into three logs , the most important of which is the dozemak — the log that comes from the part of the trunk that grew nearest to the ground . In Resava , Levač , Temnić , and Jadar of Serbia , as well as in Ozren and Romanija of Bosnia , the badnjak is cut into three logs associated respectively with the men , the women , and the children .
= = = Bringing in and burning = = =
In the evening , a man of the family brings their badnjak into the house . If there is more than one badnjak , the thickest of them is regarded as the main one , and is brought in first . Stepping across the threshold , right foot first , the man greets his gathered family with the words " Good evening and happy Christmas Eve to you . " The woman of the house greets him back , saying " May God give you well @-@ being , and may you have good luck " , or " Good luck to you , and together with you for many years to come [ may we be ] " , or similar , before throwing grain from a sieve at the man and the badnjak he carries . In the clan of Kuči , the woman touches the " beard " of the main badnjak with a whole loaf of bread . In Montenegro , two women holding lighted candles stand one on either side of the house door as the badnjaks are carried in .
Upon entering the house the man approaches the fireplace , called ognjište ( [ ˈɔɡɲiːʃtɛ ] ) — the hearth of an ognjište is similar to a campfire , in that it has no vertical surround . He lays the badnjak down on the fire and moves it a little forward , to summon prosperity for the household . Any other logs are brought in by other males and laid on the fire parallel or perpendicular to the first . In a family with the tradition of burning the badnjak and badnjačica , they are laid one across the other ; the males then kiss the former , and the females the latter . In Bukovica the two thicker logs are placed side by side , and the thinner one ( trinity ) is placed in parallel on top . In 19th @-@ century Herzegovina , families with large houses would load their logs onto three or four pairs of oxen , which were then led into the house . The logs were unloaded and laid on the fire , and the oxen driven out through the back door .
Immediately after the badnjak has been brought in , or immediately before in some places , an armful of straw is spread over the floor . The straw is usually brought in with the same greetings and throwing of grain as the badnjak . The person spreading it may imitate a hen clucking to call her chicks , " Kvo , kvo , kvo " , with the family 's children imitating chicks , " Piju , piju , piju " , while they pick at the straw . In Čečava , northern Bosnia , the children then lie down on the straw , before closing their eyes and picking a stalk with their lips : the child that picked the longest stalk will supposedly be the luckiest in the following year . In the Bay of Kotor , the ceremony is accompanied by the words " Kuda slama , tuda slava " — " Whither straw , thither celebration . " A common custom is to scatter a handful of walnuts over the straw . It will be collected and taken out of the house on the morning of the second day after Christmas . Some of the straw may be set aside and used in apotropaic practices in the coming year .
The thicker end of the log , the end that was nearest to the tree 's roots , may have a special significance . In Montenegro it is called the head of the badnjak ; the main log is laid on the fire with its head pointing east . In central Serbia the badnjak is laid with its thicker end sticking out from the ognjište . The household 's shepherds would kiss over it to ensure an abundance of lambs in the coming year . In Gruža it is coated with honey which is then licked by children . At the side of ognjište where the thicker end is situated , the family may place a plowshare , a round loaf of bread , a glove filled with wheat , sugar , or a sieve containing grain , honey , cakes , wine , salt , prunes , walnuts , and apples . The cut surface of the thicker end is in Čečava kissed by all the family members after the badnjak is laid on the fire .
The head of the household takes a jug of wine and pours some on the badnjak ; in some regions , he may strew wheat grains over the logs . He then proposes a toast : " Grant , O God , that there be health and joy in this home , that our grain and grapevines yield well , that children be born healthy to us , that our property increase in the field , pen , and barn ! " or , " Hail , badnjak , veseljak ! I give you wheat and wine , and you give me every good thing and peace ! " or similar . The name veseljak , literally " jovial one " , is used along with badnjak in some areas . The head drinks a draught of wine from the jug , after which it is passed to other members of household . In the clan of Kuči , wine is poured on the " beard " of the badnjak , and then a little girl sits for a moment on the log — for the well @-@ being of the cattle . Christmas Eve dinner follows , which traditionally includes a round loaf of unleavened bread , beans , fish , walnuts , honey , and red wine . The bread is not cut with a knife , but broken with hands .
The badnjak should not be jumped over or trodden upon , and blowing on its fire is avoided . It should not be moved when about to burn through , lest the log break at the place most consumed by the fire , which is usually strongest at the center of the fireplace ; the separation of the log should be a result of the fire only . None of the family members should fall asleep before the log splits , otherwise some of them may die in the coming year , without warning .
The moment when the badnjak burns through may be marked with festivities , such as the log being kissed by the head of household , and wine being poured over it accompanied by toasts . A reward may be given to the family member who was the first to notice the event , and in the past the men would go outside and fire their guns in celebration . There is a special verb preveseliti used instead of the common pregoreti to express " to burn through " when referring to the badnjak , which has the same root as the noun veseljak . Once the log has burnt through , some families let the fire go out , while in others the men keep watch in shifts during the night to keep the badnjak burning .
Once the badnjak has burnt through , the thicker end is often taken out of the fire and used according to the local custom . It may be carried around the beehives , extinguished , and placed between the branches of a young plum or apple tree . The men may make crosses from it and put them under the eaves , on the fields , meadows , vineyards , and apiaries , so that the coming year may be happy and fruitful . It may also be set aside for next Christmas Eve , to be placed on the fire immediately before the new badnjak , as a symbol of continuity . In Kosovo , a part of the badnjak is preserved and burned again on New Years Day and Epiphany .
The badnjak burns on through Christmas Day , whether rekindled or kept burning from the Eve . The first visit the family receives that day is considered important , comparable to New Years Day first @-@ footing in the British Isles . The family may choose someone , usually a young male , to be their first visitor , known as a polaznik , before the arrival of whom no outsider is allowed to enter the house . Early on the morning of Christmas Day he steps into the house , right foot first , and greets the family with " Christ is Born " , to which they reply " Truly He is Born . " The polaznik then approaches the ognjište and repeatedly strikes the burning log with a poker or a branch to make sparks fly . At the same time he utters a wish that the happiness and prosperity of the household be as abundant as the sparks :
The wording of this well @-@ wishing may vary , but its intention is always the same , to invoke happiness and prosperity . The polaznik will then throw a coin into the fire before being presented with a round loaf of bread , the traditional gift for the polaznik , usually accompanied by some other present . The custom to use a domestic animal as a polaznik was kept in some regions until the first half of the 20th century . In Rađevina , the head of the household would lead a sheep into the house , place it between the ognjište and himself , and utter the wishes while striking the badnjak with a branch cut from it , before saying : " We passed one fire , we are not afraid of another . " His wife would then kiss him over the sheep after saying " may the ewes kiss the lambs as we kiss each other . "
Embers of the badnjak may be used for divination in Jadar . The number of these equal to the sum of grain and livestock sorts grown by the family are taken out from the ognjište and placed on the česnica . Each of the sorts is associated with its own ember on that loaf . The sort whose ember retains its glow longer than the others should be the most productive in the coming year . The log sparking by itself presages a rich harvest of honey . Cooled coals of the badnjak may be placed between the branches of fruit trees ; the young trees may be provided also with twigs from the badnjak . Its ash may be spread over the fields and mixed with fodder . Some of the ash may be set aside to be taken with water as a remedy for headache . There are also numerous other regional practices connected with the badnjak .
These ancient traditions have modern , reduced versions . Modern houses usually have no ognjište on which to burn a badnjak , but it may be symbolically represented by several oak twigs , some of which are burnt in a wood @-@ burning kitchen stove and the others placed beside it . Some people chop the badnjak into shorter logs so that they can be put into the hearth and burnt . The most prevalent custom , however , is to place a cluster of oak twigs , with their brown leaves still attached , in whichever location in the home the family feels is appropriate . This cluster is also called the badnjak , and it is usually kept in the home until next Christmas Eve . For the convenience of those living in towns and cities , such little badnjaks can be bought at marketplaces or distributed in churches . In a common arrangement , the cluster of oak twigs is bound together with twigs of European Cornel and several stalks of straw .
The laying of a badnjak on the fire was considered the least a Serbian family could do to show their devotion to Serbian tradition . In Petar II Petrović @-@ Njegoš 's poem The Mountain Wreath , the plot of which takes place in 18th @-@ century Montenegro , Voivode Batrić urges converts to Islam to return to Christianity and Serbdom : " [ ... ] Lay the Serbian Christmas @-@ log [ badnjak ] on the fire , paint the Easter eggs various colours , observe with care the Lent and Christmas fasts . As for the rest , do what your heart desires ! " Petrović @-@ Njegoš describes the holiday atmosphere that surrounds the burning badnjak on Christmas Eve through the words of Abbot Stefan , one of the mains characters of The Mountain Wreath :
= = Public celebration = =
The badnjak ceremony , originally performed only within the family , became a more public celebration . A custom developed before World War I in the Kingdom of Serbia to lay the badnjak on a fire built in military barracks , so that the soldiers stationed there over Christmas could share in the holiday atmosphere . In the succeeding Kingdom of Yugoslavia , the military badnjak ceremony was standardized in army service regulations . On Christmas Eve , under the command of a specially appointed officer , the representatives of military units of a garrison formed a festive procession on horses , accompanied with music . Members of citizens ' associations and other civilians of the garrison town usually joined the procession as it proceeded to the nearest wood to collect the badnjak . They felled a set number of trees , dedicated respectively to the Royal Palace , the military command of the town , the respective commands of units of the garrison , its oldest officer , and its officers ' assembly house . The procession brought the trees to the barracks , in whose yard an open fire was built . The garrison commander then placed the trees ceremonially on the fire , and gave an appropriate address .
More and more state institutions , private firms , organizations , and clubs joined the procession each year , and the event began to take on the character of a public holiday . During the 1930s , the laying of badnjak on the fire became a court ritual . It was performed , in the presence of the royal family , by representatives of the army in the Royal Palace 's room with a fireplace . At the end of the 1930s in some parts of Yugoslavia , especially Vojvodina and Montenegro , the military badnjak ceremony was performed not in the barracks yard but in a square in the garrison town . An open fire was built , on which the badnjak was placed by an Orthodox priest in the presence of soldiers and citizens . This tradition , symbolizing the unity of state , church , and people , was ended by the outbreak of World War II .
Yugoslavia 's socialist government suppressed or discouraged public religious celebrations until the early 1990s . Since then , the Serbian Orthodox Church has , together with local communities , organized public celebrations on Christmas Eve . There are typically three elements to such celebrations : the preparation , the ritual , and the festivity . The preparation consists of cutting down the oak sapling to be used as the badnjak , taking it to the church yard , and preparing drink and food for the assembled parishioners . The ritual includes Vespers , placing the badnjak on the open fire built in the church yard , blessing or consecrating the badnjak , and an appropriate program with songs and recitals . In some parishes they build the fire on which to burn the badnjak not in the church yard but at some other suitable location in their town or village . The festivity consists of gathering around the fire and socializing . Each particular celebration has its own specific traits however , reflecting the traditions of the local community .
The expedition to cut down the badnjak is the basic activity in the preparation part of the celebration . It can be performed by an individual , but it is usually a collective act accompanied by a festive procession that may include carriages and horsemen . After the tree to be used as the badnjak is cut down , it is adorned with straw , ribbons , oranges , apples , and sometimes with the Serbian flag . In some parishes more than one badnjak is used in the celebration , and a different tree is felled for each . Often bunches of leaved oak twigs are prepared to be distributed to the congregation gathered at the church . Each badnjak is festively taken to the church gate , often transported on carriages . The badnjak may be taken into the churchyard without any ceremony , or it may be followed by a procession , as is the case in parts of Republika Srpska and the Bay of Kotor .
The ritual is the central part of the celebration . Vespers vary from place to place with respect to the time of the beginning of the service , its length and structure . The laying of badnjak on the fire usually comes after the service , and is done by a priest or by a respected parishioner . Before the burning , the tree may be processionally carried around the church . In the case of more than one badnjak , the trees are placed in the shape of a cross . The assembled devotees throw then into the fire their twig bunches , each representing a small badnjak . The consecration or blessing is performed by a priest : he strews wheat grains over the badnjak , censes it while singing the Troparion of the Nativity , and as he intones prayers , he pours wine and spreads honey on it . Instead of applying wine and honey , holy water may be sprinkled on the tree by dipping a bunch of basil into a bowl with the water . This rite is generally performed after the placing on the fire , although it may happen before , in which case the consecration may be performed in the church itself or in its yard .
After the ritual the priest delivers a short sermon , followed by the church choir singing Christmas songs ; poems that praise the Nativity of Jesus Christ may be recited . In Montenegro , decasyllable Serbian epics are sung to an accompaniment played on the gusle , a traditional Serbian bowed string instrument . The celebration ends with parishioners gathered around the fire , served with cooked rakia , wine , or tea , and the food allowed during the Nativity Fast . Parishioners may pick a twig from the badnjak and take it home to place in front of their icon , or at another appropriate location .
Although Serbian public religious celebrations , as those of other peoples , were discouraged in Socialist Yugoslavia until the early 1990s , they continued among Serbian Americans . The public badnjak ceremony was held in Serbian Orthodox parishes in the United States during that period , as it is today .
= = Interpretation = =
The origin of the badnjak is explained by the events surrounding the Nativity of Jesus Christ . According to the Gospel of Luke 2 : 1 – 20 , Mary Theotokos gave birth to Christ at Bethlehem , wrapped him in cloths and laid him in a manger . By Holy Tradition , the manger was located in a cave near that town . An angel of the Lord appeared to a group of shepherds who were keeping watch over their flock by night in that region , and told them that the Savior was born at Bethlehem . They went there and found the baby lying in the manger , as the angel described to them . By folk tradition , the shepherds brought firewood to the cave and built a fire to warm the newborn Christ and his mother throughout the night . The burning of the badnjak commemorates this event .
While blessing the badnjak , some priests chant the following prayer : " O Lord Jesus Christ , our God , who did plant the Tree of Life in paradise so that it might bestow upon us eternal blessedness , bless also now this tree which is a symbol of Thy cross and the Tree of Life in paradise , and which reminds us of Thy holy birth and of the logs which the shepherds of Bethlehem kindled to warm themselves when they came to worship Thee , the divine infant , and thereby prefigured Thy salvation @-@ bearing cross . "
Scholars regard the badnjak customs as practises inherited from the old Slavic religion . In the pre @-@ Christian religion of the Serbs , as shown by Serbian scholar Veselin Čajkanović , there were trees seen as dwelling places of spirits or divinities . Čajkanović argues that there were also trees seen as divinities per se . He considers the badnjak as a convincing example of the latter . Salutations , prayers , and sacrifices such as grain , wine , and honey are offered to him ( the name badnjak is of masculine gender in Serbian ) ; he is consistently treated not as a tree but as a person .
German scholar and folklorist Wilhelm Mannhardt holds that the log represented an incarnation of the spirit of vegetation . The sacrifices offered to the badnjak were meant to guarantee the fertility of fields , the health and happiness of the family . Its burning symbolized sunshine , and was intended to secure the vitalizing power of the sun in the ensuing year . The lighting of the log could be regarded as a fusion of tree worship and fire worship , attested in Slavic customs ; e.g. , Istrians fed the logs lighted on St. John 's Day by sprinkling wheat upon them . Čajkanović characterizes the pre @-@ Christian badnjak as a divinity who dies by burning to be reborn , comparing it in this respect with Attis , Osiris , Adonis , and Sandan . He also proposes that the crosses made from the thicker end of the log may have originated from idols representing deities comparable with the Roman Lares , the cruciform having developed from an anthropomorphic shape of the idols . The badnjak is preferably cut from an oak , which was the most respected tree in the old Slavic religion , associated with the supreme god Perun .
Archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans was a guest in a Serbian highlander family in the region of Krivošije , Montenegrin Littoral . Analyzing the practices , he concluded that the badnjak customs were connected with ancestor worship . The lighting of the log on the ognjište could be seen as a solemn annual rekindling of the sacred hearth fire , regarded as the center of the family life and the seat of the ancestors . The belief that ancestral spirits dwell in the domestic hearth was attested among Slavic and other peoples . Fire worship in the old Slavic religion was mostly transformed into the cult of domestic fire , and thus joined with ancestor worship . A trace of sacrifice to the fire is the coin thrown into it by the polaznik after the ritual of making sparks fly from the badnjak .
Fire from the domestic hearth was under no circumstances given out of the house on Christmas Eve , not even to a neighbor whose fire had gone out . The reason for this prohibition , according to Čajkanović , was the belief that the Eve is a time when the ancestral spirits , guardians of the family 's happiness and prosperity , are especially active in this world . Christmas Eve dinner is a feast prepared in their honor , and they join the family at it . They gather on the straw spread over the floor , and on the hearth . These spirits could be removed from the family if any piece of their fire were taken away by an outsider . In people 's words , fire should not be given lest the luck be taken away from the house , or for better crops , or because of bees . Referring to the latter explanation , Čajkanović argues that , in the old religion of the Serbs , the bees were regarded as pure and sacred insects , in whom ancestral spirits could dwell . The same explanation , " because of bees " , is also given for the aforementioned custom of putting a piece of the badnjak 's first splinter in the dough for the česnica .
Russian philologist Vladimir Toporov has proposed that the felling of the badnjak was originally a reenactment of the mythical fight in which Mladi Božić ( " young god " ) slew his father Stari Badnjak ( " old Badnjak " ) . Božić , the diminutive form of the noun bog , meaning god , is also the Serbian for " Christmas " . The characters of Stari Badnjak and Mladi Božić are found in old Serbian Christmas songs , where they are not explicitly referred to as father and son , and no fight between them is mentioned . By Toporov , the former personified the last day of the Old Year , the climax of the power of Chaos , and the latter personified the first day of the New Year , the beginning of reestablishment of Cosmic Order . He regards Stari Badnjak and Mladi Božić as originating from respectively the dragon and the dragon slayer of the Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European mythology . Stari Badnjak would be related to both the Vedic serpent Ahi Budhnya ( " the Dragon of the Deep " ) killed by Indra , and the Greek dragon Python killed by Apollo . The words badnjak , budhnya , and python stem from the Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European root * bhudh- , denoting bottom , foundation , depths , and related notions .
According to Russian philologist and mythographer Boris Uspensky , Stari Badnjak and Mladi Božić have analogues in East Slavic tradition — Nikola 's Dad and Nikola . The name Nikola is a popular reference to Saint Nicholas of Myra , whose feast falls nineteen days before Christmas , on 6 December , his " dad " being celebrated the day before . Nikola is portrayed in East Slavic folklore as merciful and protective towards the common people , patron of animals and agriculture , connected with riches , abundance , and fertility . Uspensky argues that this saint took on attributes of the serpentine god Volos , whose cult was very strong among East Slavs before Christianization . He was the adversary of the dreadful thunder @-@ god Perun , who is in this case reflected in Nikola 's Dad .
The notion of a quarrel between Nikola and his " dad " is present in a number of legends . The connection between the father – son pairs of Stari Badnjak – Mladi Božić and Nikola 's Dad – Nikola is corroborated by the fact that , in many East Slavic regions , practices characteristic for Christmas have been transferred to the Feast of Saint Nicholas . There is , however , an inversion in the comparison between these two pairs . In the former pair , the first stems from the mythical dragon , and the second from the dragon fighter , while in the latter pair it is vice versa . This inversion explains , by Uspensky , the fact that in some areas Nikola 's Dad is celebrated on the day after his son 's feast , rather than on the eve of it . In that way , the " dragon " ( Nikola ) comes before the " dragon fighter " ( Nikola 's Dad ) , as is the case with Stari Badnjak and Mladi Božić .
Serbian ethnologist Petar Vlahović has proposed that the noun badnjak and the related adjective badnji ( attributive " Christmas Eve " ) are derived from the root of the verb bdeti ( " to be awake " ) , referring to a custom of staying awake through the night before Christmas Day . The same etymology of the adjective badnji has also been proposed by Vuk Stefanović Karadžić , 19th @-@ century Serbian philologist , systematizer of oral literature , and ethnographer .
= = Similar European traditions = =
The custom that a family solemnly brings a log into the house and lights it on the hearth on Christmas Eve has been recorded in various parts of Europe . In England , a Yule log used to be festively kindled on the domestic hearth so " that sweet luck may come while the log is a @-@ teending " , as described by 17th @-@ century poet Robert Herrick . In France , the log had different regional names : chalendal , calignaou , tréfoir , and tréfouet . In Provence , it had to be cut from a fruit tree ; it was brought in by the whole family while they sang a carol praying for blessing on the house , that the women might bear children , the nanny @-@ goats kids , and the ewes lambs , and that their grain and wine might abound . Before the log was placed on the fire , the youngest child in the family poured wine on it . Logs were devotionally laid on the domestic fire on Christmas Eve in various parts of Italy ; in Tuscany , Christmas is called Festa di Ceppo , literally " feast of log " . In the Val di Chiana , the children of the family were blindfolded and commanded to beat the burning log with tongs . Traces of Christmas @-@ log customs can also be found in Germany and Scandinavia . In Thuringia the family placed a Christklotz ( Christ log ) on the fire before going to bed , so that it might burn all through the night .
In Croatian tradition , objects of two different types are referred to as badnjak . The first type includes leaved branches cut from Turkey oaks or hazel trees , up to 2 meters ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long with as many catkins as possible . Such a branch used to be placed on Christmas Eve morning above the house door , under the eaves , or on the roof , and had an aesthetic role . The other type includes logs cut usually from oak trunks . In the evening the family used to ritually bring three such logs into the house and burn them on the hearth . These practices are no longer performed , but in some places a modified form of badnjak is used : a cross is carved into the bark of pieces of firewood which are burned in kitchen stoves on Christmas Eve . In Bulgaria , the youngest man of the family goes on the Eve into a forest to cut down an oak , elm , or pear tree , which will be used as the badnik ( бъдник ) . After the man brings it into the house , a hole is bored in one end of the badnik and filled with wine , cooking oil , and incense . The hole is plugged , and that end of the log is wrapped with a white linen cloth before the badnik is festively burned on the hearth .
In Greece , a large log was lit on the hearth on Christmas Eve and kept burning or smoldering through the Twelve Days of Christmas . This was done as a protection against the demons called Kallikantzaroi , believed to be emerging from their dens at night during that period to attack people and damage their property . The fire and smoke from the log was thought to prevent the Kallikantzaroi from entering the house down the chimney . The ritual burning of logs on the Eve was also carried out in Albania . When the buzm , as the log was called there , was about to be brought into the house , a member of the family would go out into the yard , shout the name of the household 's head , and proclaim that the buzm was coming and bringing all kinds of delicious things . The head of the household would respond by saying " You are welcome ! " and the buzm would be ceremonially brought in , greeted by the family and treated with great respect . The log would be placed on the hearth , and often a significant part of all food and drink in the house would be put on the log and burned together with it .
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= Puente ( song ) =
" Puente " is a latin pop song by Guatemalan recording artist Ricardo Arjona , released on August 9 2010 as the lead single from his twelfth studio album , Poquita Ropa ( 2010 ) . The song was written by Arjona , who produced it with longtime collaborators Dan Warner and Lee Levin under their stage name Los Gringos . Two versions of the song were made , one of them being a mixture of salsa , merengue along with Cuban music influences ; and the other an acoustic version made with piano and percussion .
Lyrically , " Puente " is a song related to the actual situation of Cuba and the immigration to the United States . The song received critical praise , with a critic stating that it " brings the album to an extraordinary conclusion " , and received comparisons with Fito Páez 's song " Habana " . Commercially , " Puente " did not attain commercial success , managing only to reach number 36 on the US Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart .
An accompanying music video for " Puente " was released in August 2010 . It was directed by Joaquín Cambré and filmed between Mexico and Argentina . The clip , which showcases the problematic issues of migration in Cuba , was filmed by Arjona while he was on the Quinto Piso Tour with the collaboration of children from 5 to 13 age old . As of 11 July 2012 , the video has reached 1 @.@ 4 million views on YouTube .
= = Background = =
With Poquita Ropa , Arjona wanted to drastically change his musical style . He tried to use as few instruments as possible , resulting in a production that sounds like a capella performances . Arjona said about the album , " music and women look better with little clothes " , and that " they [ the songs ] are like women ; they get things up and are so concerned about this that they forget that the less clothes , more beauty . The songs are often overwhelmed by ourselves , because we saturate them with arrangements looking to exalt their qualities and we end up hiding them . "
Arjona produced the album with the assistance of Dan Warner , who has worked with Shakira , Celine Dion and Christina Aguilera . Jason Birchmeier from Allmusic commented that Poquita Ropa " finds Arjona at his most naked , backed by spare arrangements of acoustic guitar , piano , and Hammond B @-@ 3 along with occasional touches of strings , woodwinds , and chorus vocals . " Poquita Ropa was the first album that Arjona recorded without producer Tommy Torres , whose last production was 5to Piso ( 2008 ) . The album is similar in style to Arjona 's work on Galería Caribe ( 2000 ) .
= = Composition = =
" Puente " is a latin pop song with salsa , merengue and Cuban music influences crafted in eight and a half minutes and divided in three parts . The first one is an a cappella song , sang mainly with a piano . The second part is a ballad with Caribbean and Latin sounds , with some salsa and Cuban influences . The third is a mixture of salsa and merengue , with Cuban influences . The song was written by Arjona , who produced it alongside longtime collaborators Dan Warner and Lee Levin , under their stagename Los Gringos . Mónica Maristain from newspaper La Nación compared it with a song released by Fito Páez in 1999 , " Habana " . Jason Birchmeier from Allmusic praised the song , stating that it " brings the album to an extraordinary conclusion . "
In the song , Arjona sings : " Habana / siempre en las mitades , tan mitad española , tan mitad africana / saben bien las olas que en cada ventana siempre hay un testigo / Habana . " He also said that " Puente " was the only song that was " not allowed to undress " . When asked about " Puente " ' s main theme , Arjona commented , " Although many believe is a threshed topic , it isn 't for a Cuban , be it on the island or Florida . The status of this dispute hasn 't changed since 1959 and I 've never seen something as disgusting as a rivalry between people occasioned from politics . Chávez can fight with Uribe , Fidel with Obama , but what has this to do with two third @-@ generation cousins that inherit an enmity for a politic matter [ ? ] " .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Puente " was released on 17 August 2010 . It was directed by Argentinian director Joaquín Cambre , who also worked with Arjona on the music video for " Sin Ti , Sin Mi " . In the video , to brothers live separately , one of them in La Havana , and the other in Miami , Florida . The video ends with the boys encountering each other in a bridge , along many other people . The video shows the problematic about the migration on Cuba . Arjona shot the video while on his Quinto Piso Tour . It was filmed between Mexico and Argentina , with the collaboration of children from 5 to 13 age old . Coambre commented about the video that " " Puente " for me is an array of images that tell the same story in opposite realities . Two boys exactly alike ; one lives in an abandoned hotel on the beach and the other lives in a big city skyscraper , yet both are equally lonely . Miami and Havana are where those two boys are in their own worlds and see that the only way out of their realms are when they decide to encounter one another . "
The video starts showing Arjona inside a room powering on an old video projector and singing while watching a black and white film projected on the wall . This scenes are shown until the music style of the song changes into salsa . Then , after the musical change , scenes of two twin brothers are shown , interpolated , one of them living in Havana , the other living in Miami , Florida . The following scenes show the technological differences to which the brothers are attached , before going into the musical change to merengue and cuban music , on which two large group of kids , led by the two brothers , are shown sprinting throughout two shores until they meet and start to celebrate . Then , the final musical change is shown , along a collage of different scenes from the United States and Cuba . Finally , Arjona is shown again sit along the video projector , and the clip ends . As of 14 July 2012 , the video has reached 1 @.@ 4 million views on YouTube .
= = Trackslisting = =
Digital Download
" Puente " ( Caribe ) — 8 : 29
Digital Download — Acoustic
" Puente " ( Acoustic ) — 4 : 46
= = Credits and personnel = =
The credits are taken from the iTunes exclusive digital booklet .
" Puente " ( Acoustic )
" Puente " ( Caribe )
Technical credits
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Eugenia Washington =
Eugenia Scholay Washington ( June 27 , 1838 – November 30 , 1900 ) was an American historian , civil servant , and a founder of the lineage societies , Daughters of the American Revolution and Daughters of the Founders and Patriots of America .
Washington was born in 1838 near Charles Town , Virginia , in present @-@ day West Virginia . She was the daughter of William Temple Washington , through whom she was a great @-@ grandniece of George Washington , first President of the United States , and a grandniece of Dolley Payne Todd Madison . Following her family 's relocation to Stafford County , she and her family witnessed the Battle of Fredericksburg first hand during the American Civil War .
Due to her family 's limited financial resources after the war and her father 's illness , Washington accepted a position as a clerk within the United States Post Office Department in Washington , D.C. , to support her family . There , Washington was one of the four co @-@ founders of the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution ( with Mary Desha , Mary Smith Lockwood , and Ellen Hardin Walworth ) . Washington had reportedly been inspired by her experiences during the American Civil War to found an organization for preserving the shared heritage of women from the North and South of the United States . Washington was the DAR 's first Registrar General , and was made " number one " on the " grand roll " of the society 's membership . In 1898 , Washington founded another lineage society , the National Society of Daughters of the Founders and Patriots of America , with the broader goal of preserving the history of the American colonial era .
While visiting a relative in Louisiana around 1870 , Washington attended a Roman Catholic mission . She later converted to Roman Catholicism from her Episcopal faith , after which she became a prominent lecturer of the Catholic faith . Washington never married , and she died in 1900 . Washington was interred beside her mother at the Moncure family burial ground of her sister 's estate , " Glencairne , " in Falmouth , Virginia .
= = Early life , family , and ancestry = =
Eugenia Scholay Washington was born on June 27 , 1838 , at " Megwillie " plantation near Charles Town in Jefferson County , Virginia ( now West Virginia ) , to William Temple Washington ( 1800 – 1877 ) and his wife , Margaret Calhoun Fletcher ( 1805 – 1865 ) . The name of the plantation on which she was born , " Megwillie , " was a portmanteau of both her mother and father 's nicknames .
Through her father , Washington was the granddaughter of George Steptoe Washington ( 1771 – 1809 ) and Lucy Payne Washington Todd ( 1772 ? – 1846 ) . She was also the great @-@ granddaughter of Samuel Washington ( 1734 – 1781 , younger brother of George Washington ) , and the great @-@ grandniece of George Washington ( 1732 – 1799 ) . Her grandfather , George Steptoe Washington , was a " favorite nephew " of George Washington and was left an inheritance following Washington 's death . Washington 's grandmother , Lucy Payne Washington Todd , was a sister of First Lady of the United States Dolley Payne Todd Madison ( 1768 – 1849 ) . The widowed Dolley Payne Todd married James Madison at Washington 's grandparents ' residence , Harewood .
Through her mother , Washington was great @-@ grandniece of John C. Calhoun ( 1782 – 1850 ) . Also through her mother , Washington was descended from Charles Francois Joseph , Count de Flechir ( born in France in 1755 ) , who served in the American Revolutionary War and was " a friend and kinsman " of Gilbert du Motier , Marquis de Lafayette . Flechir 's grandson and Washington 's grandfather , Thomas Fletcher , served on the staff of General William Henry Harrison in the War of 1812 .
Washington 's father , William Temple Washington , was educated at the College of William & Mary and home schooled his children . Around 1859 , William Washington relocated his family to a plantation at Falmouth in Stafford County , Virginia , located on the north side of the Rappahannock River across from Fredericksburg . Washington 's father suffered from paralysis , and she cared for him from a young age .
= = American Civil War = =
Following her family 's relocation to Falmouth , Washington continued to live a " tranquil life " caring for her father until the American Civil War . Union and Confederate forces fought near the family plantation , so Washington and her family " suffered all the horrors and the hardships " of the war . The family witnessed the Battle of Fredericksburg , December 11 – 15 , 1862 , first hand . A wounded Union Army officer was brought to their home early in the battle and placed in Washington 's care while waiting a surgeon , thus delaying the evacuation of Washington and her disabled father . As the battle drew even nearer , Washington " sheltered her father 's body with her own " in a trench created by a cannon , and they remained in that position for an entire day .
By the end of the American Civil War , Washington and her family were " deprived of all worldly goods " . Washington 's mother , Margaret , died shortly after the war 's conclusion in 1865 , and her father , William Temple , died twelve years later in 1877 .
= = United States Post Office Department = =
After her mother 's death , Washington accepted a position as a clerk within the United States Post Office Department in Washington , D.C. , to support herself and her ailing father . Eva Bryan , former president of the Daughters of Founders and Patriots of America , considered Washington 's position an " honorable " one for a woman , because of the family 's financial straits , although otherwise " the great @-@ great @-@ niece of George Washington would not normally be employed . " Washington and her father relocated from Falmouth to Washington in 1867 , and she lived there until her death in 1900 . During her tenure with the Post Office , Washington was known as " Miss Eugie " and " considered quite attractive and always received a great deal of attention wherever she went " . During her last decade , Washington served as a clerk in the Dead Letter Office .
= = Daughters of the American Revolution = =
Washington was one of the four co @-@ founders of the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution ( with Mary Desha , Mary Smith Lockwood , and Ellen Hardin Walworth ) . The organization 's founders emulated the Sons of the American Revolution , founded in New York City on April 30 , 1889 , which excluded women . According to society tradition , Washington 's experiences during the American Civil War " inspired in her a will to assist women from both the North and the South in the worthy cause of preserving their shared heritage " .
Washington and Desha consulted regularly with Sons of the American Revolution members for advice , particularly Registrar General Dr. George Brown Goode , Secretary General A. Howard Clark , William O. McDowell ( SAR member # 1 ) , and Wilson L. Gill ( secretary at the inaugural meeting ) . On October 11 , 1890 , at 2 pm , the 18 founding members and these four men met at the Stratford Arms in Washington , D.C. , thus forming the Daughters of the American Revolution . Washington , Desha , Lockwood , and Walworth are called co @-@ founders since they held two to three meetings in August 1890 .
Washington was the DAR 's first Registrar General , and her name appears as member " number one " on the " grand roll " of membership . Washington also served as secretary general , vice president general , and in 1895 she became honorary vice president general , an office which she held until her death . Under Washington 's leadership , the society raised funds for a national monument to Mary Ball Washington , mother of George Washington . Washington ardently carried out the duties of her offices at DAR , despite suffering with a serious eye condition that made it difficult for her to write . Washington stated , " We want a patriotic society founded on service and I will not become a member of an organization which is founded on rank and not on the service of the ancestors . "
= = Daughters of Founders and Patriots of America = =
Washington founded another lineage society , the National Society of Daughters of the Founders and Patriots of America , in June 1898 . Washington established this organization with the broader goals of preserving the history of the American colonial era ( like The Colonial Dames of America and The National Society of Colonial Dames of America ) , as well as encouraging appreciation of American history and fostering patriotism . Washington disliked the " bickering " within the DAR , and to ensure a more " congenial " society that " remained small and cordial " , she required that the new organization members also be direct descendants of " a colonist who arrived in America between May 13 , 1607 and May 13 , 1687 " as well as qualify for the DAR . Washington chose the deadline date of May 13 , 1687 ( broader than the Mayflower Society ) , so that she would be eligible for membership in the society , but this criterion also limited membership of descendants of slaves since that emigration began a few decades later . While Washington intended for the organization not to grow beyond 300 members , membership in the Daughters of Founders and Patriots of America grew to 2 @,@ 800 by the mid @-@ 1980s .
= = Catholic faith = =
While visiting a family member in Louisiana around 1870 , Washington attended a Catholic mission organized by the Paulists at a neighboring parish . After " careful study " , Washington was received into the Roman Catholic Church . Prior to her conversion , Washington consulted with a clergyman at her Episcopal church , and in response to his concern , she replied : " Oh no , I must act up to my convictions and I shall pray hard that you may be given the same grace . " Washington became a prominent lecturer of the Catholic faith and attended the Cathedral of St. Matthew the Apostle in Washington , D.C.
= = Later life and death = =
Washington never married . In 1892 , Washington purchased a second residence at 5706 Berwyn Road in Berwyn Heights , Maryland , from James E. Waugh ; she owned it until her death . While in Washington , D.C. , she resided with her cousin Fanny Washington Finch at 813 13th Street , Northwest . Washington died at the age of 62 on Friday , November 30 , 1900 , at her home on 13th Street . Washington 's housemate and cousin Fanny Washington Finch predeceased her in March of that year . Only " a few acquaintances " among Washington 's colleagues and employees in her Post Office bureau knew she was ill , and she worked until a week before her death .
Washington 's sister , Jean Washington Moncure , also a resident of Washington and married to Thomas Gascoigne Moncure , arranged for Washington 's funeral at her own house and interment next to their mother at the Moncure estate " Glencairne " on the Rappahannock River near Falmouth . On December 1 , 1900 , the funeral train left the Pennsylvania Railroad station in Washington , D.C. , for Fredericksburg , Virginia . The Fredericksburg Betty Lewis Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution " escorted " Washington 's remains . A simple graveside service was performed by Reverend Dr. Smith , pastor of St. George 's Episcopal Church in Fredericksburg . A memorial service and requiem mass for Washington were held at St. Patrick 's Catholic Church in Washington , D.C. , on December 31 , 1900 . Following Washington 's death , her sister Jean was the last surviving patrilineal descendant of William Temple Washington .
= = Legacy = =
By Washington 's death in 1900 , membership in the National Society of Daughters of the American Revolution numbered around 35 @,@ 000 . Many chapters of the society expressed their appreciation and respect . She was also mentioned at the groundbreaking of the Memorial Continental Hall on October 11 , 1902 , by Cornelia Cole Fairbanks . In 1908 , a " mourning pin " crafted on the occasion of the death of George Washington that had been given to Washington by her grandmother , Lucy Payne Washington Todd , was donated to the Memorial Continental Hall by Jennie White Hopkins .
On April 17 , 1929 , under the leadership of President General Grace L. H. Brosseau , the Daughters of the American Revolution dedicated a memorial to its four founders , including Washington ; it was sculpted by Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney and is located at Constitution Hall in Washington , D.C. The Daughters of the American Revolution also maintained Washington 's gravesite at " Glencairne , " and in 1979 they installed a plaque honoring her . In October 1990 , the Daughters of the American Revolution held a ceremony at her gravesite to mark the centennial jubilee of the organization 's founding . On October 13 , 1999 , a year after their own centennial , 21 members of the Daughters of Founders and Patriots of America met at the gravesite to unveil a larger memorial plaque honoring her .
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= Huolongjing =
The Huolongjing ( traditional Chinese : 火龍經 ; simplified Chinese : 火龙经 ; pinyin : Huǒ Lóng Jīng ; Wade @-@ Giles : Huo Lung Ching ; rendered by its translator into English as Fire Drake Manual ; in modern English , Fire Dragon Manual ) is a 14th @-@ century military treatise that was compiled and edited by Jiao Yu and Liu Bowen of the early Ming Dynasty ( 1368 – 1644 ) in China . It outlined the use of various " fire weapons " involving the use of gunpowder .
The Huolongjing provides information about various gunpowder compositions , including " magic gunpowder " , " poison gunpowder " , and " blinding and burning gunpowder " . It has descriptions of the Chinese hollow cast iron grenade bomb , shrapnel bombs , and bombs containing poisonous concoctions . The book describes the 10th @-@ century Chinese fire arrow and its evolution into the metal @-@ tube @-@ launched rocket , various rocket launchers , the advent of the two @-@ stage rocket that has a booster rocket , and fin – mounted , winged rockets . The book also describes the use of explosive land mines and naval mines , and the latter 's use of a complex trigger mechanism . The book describes the development of other weapons , including various proto – guns such as the fire lance , handguns with up to ten barrels , handguns with possible serpentine locks used as components in matchlock firearms , early bombard and cannon , cannon barrels filled with metal balls containing poisonous gunpowder solutions , and cannons that were mounted on wheeled carriages .
Although Jiao Yu did not provide the book 's preface until the Nanyang publication of 1412 , the book was published in the 14th century and was a compilation of material written since the late 13th century . From his own personal accounts , Jiao Yu also described gunpowder weapons that were in use since 1355 , with his involvement in the Red Turban Rebellion and revolt against Yuan Dynasty Mongol rule .
= = Gunpowder warfare and weapons = =
= = = Firearms and flamethrowers = = =
The military treatise of Jiao Yu and Liu Bowen went into a great amount of detail about the gunpowder weapons of their time . The fire lance and fire tube — a combination of a firearm and flamethrower — came in many different versions and were styled with many different names by the time Jiao Yu edited the Huolongjing . The earliest of these were made of bamboo tubes , although metal versions began to appear in the 12th century . Others , according to description and illustrated pictures of the Huolongjing , emitted arrows called the ' lotus bunch ' accompanied by a fiery blast . Some of these low – nitrate gunpowder flamethrowers used poisonous mixtures , including arsenious oxide , and would blast a spray of porcelain bits as shrapnel .
The earliest depiction of a fire lance is dated c . 950 , a Chinese painting on a silk banner found at the Buddhist site of Dunhuang . The oldest existent bronze handgun is the Heilongjiang hand cannon from the Heilongjiang archaeological excavation , dated to 1288 . For that year , the Yuan Shi historical text describes the rebellion of the Christian Mongol prince Nayan and the Jurchen @-@ born military commander Li Ting who , along with a Korean brigade conscripted by Kublai Khan , suppressed Nayan 's rebellion using foot soldiers armed with handguns and portable bombards .
The earliest metal barrel guns were not designed for high @-@ nitrate gunpowder and a bore @-@ filling projectile ; rather , they were designed for the low @-@ nitrate flamethrower fire lance that shot small co @-@ viative missiles . This was called the " bandit @-@ striking penetrating gun " ( ji zei bian chong ) , and was illustrated in a drawing in the Huolongjing . In the Islamic world , the fire lance first appears in a book of 1280 written by Hasan al – Rammah , and again appears in a manuscript of 1320 . In Europe , the first representation of the fire lance is of a horse @-@ mounted knight wielding the weapon in a Latin manuscript illustration dated to 1396 , and also appeared in an illustration of Taccola 's De Mechinis ( 1449 ) .
The Huolongjing also describes and illustrates metal @-@ barrel handguns , including guns with up to ten barrels . It describes the use of a " match @-@ holding lance gun " ( chi huo – sheng qiang ) , it described its arrangement as a match brought down to the touch hole of three gun barrels , one after the other . During the reign of the Yongle Emperor ( 1402 – 1424 ) , the Shenji Brigade was formed with cavalry horses that were said to have tubes filled with flammable materials holstered to their sides , along with troops with firearms and light artillery on carriages . In addition to firearms and fire lances , the Huolongjing also illustrates the tall , vertical , mobile shield used to hide and protect infantry gunmen , known as the " mysteriously moving phalanx @-@ breaking fierce @-@ flame sword @-@ shield " . This large , rectangular shield would have been mounted on wheels with five rows of six circular holes each where the gun barrels could be placed . The shield itself would have been accompanied by swordsmen on either side to protect the gunmen .
= = = Bombards and cannons = = =
In China , the first cannon @-@ barrel design portrayed in artwork was a stone sculpture dated to 1128 found in Sichuan province , although the oldest archaeological discovery of a cannon is a bronze cannon of China inscribed with the date , " 2nd year of the Dade era , Yuan Dynasty " ( 1298 ) . The prototype to the metal barrel was of course one made of bamboo , which was recorded in use by a Chinese garrison commander at Anlu , Hubei province , in the year 1132 . One of the earliest references to the destructive force of a cannon in China was made by Zhang Xian in 1341 , with his verse known as The Iron Cannon Affair . Zhang wrote that its cannonball could " pierce the heart or belly when it strikes a man or horse , and can even transfix several persons at once " . Jiao Yu wrote that the cannon , called the " eruptor " , was cast in bronze and had an average length of 53 inches ( 130 cm ) . He wrote that some cannons were simply filled with about 100 lead balls , but others , called the " flying @-@ cloud thunderclap eruptor " ( 飞云霹雳炮 ; feiyun pili pao ) had large rounds that produced a bursting charge upon impact . He wrote that the Chinese in his day had discovered how to pack hollow , cast iron shells of cannonballs with gunpowder to create an explosive effect upon contact with enemy targets . In perspective , exploding cannonball rounds were not discovered in Europe until the 16th century . He also mentioned the use of the " poison @-@ fog magic smoke eruptor " , in which " blinding gunpowder " and " poisonous gunpowder " were packed into the hollow cannonball shells and were effective in burning the faces and eyes of enemies , along with choking them with a formidable spray of poisonous smoke . He wrote that cannons were mounted on frames or on wheeled carriages so that they could be rotated in all directions .
= = = Land mines and naval mines = = =
The first recorded use of a land mine stated that the officer Lou Qianxia of the late Song Dynasty created them to kill invading Mongol troops in 1277 . Jiao Yu wrote that land mines were spherical , made of cast iron , and their fuses were ignited by the enemy movement disturbing a trigger mechanism . Although his book did not elaborate on the trigger mechanism , a late Ming Dynasty book of 1606 said that a complex system of a pin release , dropping weights , cords and axles worked to rotate a spinning " steel wheel " that acted as a flint to provide sparks that ignited the mines ' fuses underground . For the use of naval mines , he wrote of slowly burning joss sticks that were disguised and timed to explode against enemy ships nearby :
The sea – mine called the ' submarine dragon – king ' is made of wrought iron , and carried on a ( submerged ) wooden board , [ appropriately weighted with stones ] . The ( mine ) is enclosed in an ox @-@ bladder . It subtlety lies in the fact that a thin incense ( – stick ) is arranged ( to float ) above the mine in a container . The ( burning ) of this joss stick determines the time at which the fuse is ignited , but without air its glowing would of course go out , so the container is connected with the mine by a ( long ) piece of goat 's intestine ( through which passes the fuse ) . At the upper end the ( joss stick in the container ) is kept floating by ( an arrangement of ) goose and wild – duck feathers , so that it moves up and down with the ripples of the water . On a dark ( night ) the mine is sent downstream ( towards the enemy 's ships ) , and when the joss stick has burnt down to the fuse , there is a great explosion .
In the later " Tiangong Kaiwu " ( The Exploitation of the Works of Nature ) treatise , written by Song Yingxing in 1637 , the ox bladder described by Jiao Yu is replaced with a lacquer bag and a cord pulled from a hidden ambusher located on the nearby shore , which would release a flint steel – wheel firing mechanism to ignite the fuse of the naval mine .
= = = Gunpowder and explosives = = =
There were several gunpowder compositions proposed by Jiao Yu , with additions to the standard formula of potassium nitrate ( saltpetre ) , sulphur , and charcoal by adapting gunpowder weapons to early chemical warfare . He described the suitable uses of " magic gunpowder " , " poison gunpowder " , or " blinding and burning gunpowder " in warfare , which displays the various amounts of compositions used in his time . For the making of poisonous gunpowder in hand @-@ thrown or catapult @-@ launched grenade bombs , he advised that a mixture of tung oil , urine , sal ammoniac , feces , and scallion juice is heated and coated upon tiny iron pellets and broken porcelain . For this , Jiao Yu wrote , " even birds flying in the air cannot escape the effects of the explosion " . His book also outlined the use of the " flying @-@ sand magic bomb releasing ten thousand fires " , which included the use of a tube of gunpowder placed in an earthenware pot that was previously filled with quicklime , resin , and alcoholic extracts of poisonous plants , which would be released in the explosion .
During the 14th century , Chinese gunpowder solutions had reached their maximum explosive potential , with levels of nitrate ranging from 12 % to 91 % . At least six formulae in use by the Chinese that were considered to have maximum explosive force . This came about because of the enrichment of sulphur from pyrite extracts during the earlier Song Dynasty period , while Chinese gunpowder formulae by the late 12th century and at least by 1230 were potential enough for explosive detonations and bursting cast iron shells . The root of all this was the Chinese military handbook written in 1044 , the Wujing Zongyao , which outlined the earliest formulae for gunpowder , which was used in bombs hurled by catapults . Later , Wei Xing ( d . 1164 ) of the Song Dynasty was said to have created a gunpowder formula of saltpetre , sulphur , and willow charcoal for his projectile carriages for launching " fire – stones " up to 400 yards ( 370 m ) .
Although its destructive force was widely recognized by the 11th century , the Chinese had earlier termed gunpowder as a " fire @-@ drug " ( huo yao ) because of Chinese beliefs in its pharmaceutical properties . Its value in festival entertainment could be seen in firework displays , such as the martial demonstration in 1110 to entertain the court of Emperor Huizong . Leading up to its 10th @-@ century use with Fire Arrows and in fuses for igniting flamethrowers shooting Greek Fire , Daoist alchemists had experimented with various black powder solutions during the Han and Tang Dynasties . After the Wujing Zongyao of 1044 had explicitly stated formulae for gunpowder , the Chinese government became frightened that it could fall into the hands of neighbouring enemies , and in 1076 enacted a strict governmental monopoly over the production and distribution of sulphur . Although saltpetre was a central component of the " fire @-@ drug " and a flavour enhancer for food during the Tang and Song periods , in 1067 the Song government banned the populace of modern Shanxi and Hebei provinces to sell sulphur and saltpetre in any form to foreigners . While engaged in a war with the Mongols in 1259 , the official Li Zengbo wrote in his text " Ko Zhai Za Gao , Xu Gao Hou " that the city of Qingzhou was manufacturing one to two thousand strong iron @-@ cased bomb shells a month , dispatching to Xiangyang and Yingzhou about ten to twenty thousand such bombs at a time .
= = = Fire arrows and rockets = = =
Jiao Yu termed the earliest fire arrows launched from bows ( not rocket launchers ) " fiery pomegranate shot from a bow " because the lump of gunpowder – filled paper wrapped round the arrow below the metal arrow – head resembled the shape of a pomegranate . Jiao Yu advised that a piece of hemp cloth should be used to strengthen the wad of paper and sealed with molten pine resin . Although he described the fire arrow in great detail , it was mentioned by the much earlier Xia Shaozeng , when 20 @,@ 000 fire arrows were handed over to the Jurchen conquerors of Kaifeng City in 1126 . An even earlier Chinese text of the Wujing Zongyao ( 武经总要 , " Collection of the Most Important Military Techniques " ) , written in 1044 by the Song scholars Zeng Gongliang and Yang Weide , described the use of three spring or triple bow arcuballista that fired arrow bolts holding gunpowder . Although written in 1630 ( second edition in 1664 ) , the Wulixiaoshi of Fang Yizhi said that fire arrows were presented to Emperor Taizu of Song in 960 . Even after the rocket was invented in China the fire arrow continued in use ; this could be seen in the Second Opium War , where Chinese used fire arrows against the French in 1860 .
By the time of Jiao Yu , the term " fire arrow " had taken on a new meaning and incorporated the earliest rockets found in China . The simple transition of this was to use a hollow tube instead of a bow or ballista firing gunpowder @-@ impregnated fire arrows . The historian Joseph Needham wrote that this discovery came sometime before Jiao Yu during the late Southern Song Dynasty ( 1127 – 1279 ) . From the section of the oldest passages in the Huolongjing , the text reads :
One uses a bamboo stick 4 ft 2 in long , with an iron ( or steel ) arrow – head 4 @.@ 5 in long ... behind the feathering there is an iron weight 0 @.@ 4 in long . At the front end there is a carton tube bound on to the stick , where the ' rising gunpowder ' is lit . When you want to fire it off , you use a frame shaped like a dragon , or else conveniently a tube of wood or bamboo to contain it .
In the late 14th century , the Chinese had discovered how to combine the rocket launching tube with the fire lance . This involved three tubes attached to the same staff . As the first rocket tube was fired , a charge was ignited in the leading tube which expelled a blinding lachrymatory powder at the enemy , and finally the second rocket was fired . An illustration of this appears in the Huolongjing , which describes the effectiveness of this weapon to obfuscate the location of the rockets from the enemy . The Huolongjing also describes and illustrates two kinds of mounted rocket launchers that fired multiple rockets . There was a cylindrical , basket @-@ work rocket launcher called the " Mr. Facing @-@ both @-@ ways rocket arrow firing basket " , as well as an oblong @-@ section , rectangular , box rocket launcher known as the " magical rocket @-@ arrow block " . Rockets described in the Huolongjing were not all in the shape of standard fire arrows because there some had artificial wings attached . An illustration shows that fins were used to increase aerodynamic stability for the flight path of the rocket , which according to Jiao Yu could rise hundreds of feet before landing at the designated enemy target .
The Huolongjing also describes and illustrates the oldest known multistage rocket ; this was the " fire @-@ dragon issuing from the water " ( huo long chu shui ) , which was used mostly by the Chinese navy . It was a two @-@ stage rocket that had carrier or booster rockets that would automatically ignite a number of smaller rocket arrows that were shot out of the front end of the missile , which was shaped like a dragon 's head with an open mouth , before eventually burning out . This multistage rocket may be considered the ancestor of modern cluster munitions . Needham says that the written material and illustration of this rocket come from the oldest stratum of the Huolongjing , which can be dated to about 1300 @-@ 1350 from the book 's part 1 , chapter 3 , page 23 .
= = Historical perspective = =
Gunpowder warfare originated in medieval China and underwent technological advancement during the preceding dynasties ; however , its technological and methodical perfection occurred elsewhere . Although the inventions and writings of Jiao Yu and the Chinese " fire @-@ weapons " of his time revolutionised warfare in China , there was little Chinese innovation in gunpowder weapons during and after the 15th century . With no significant enemies , there was no need to advance gunpowder weaponry . In stark contrast , in the competitive European environment , failing to adopt and improve gunpowder technology meant conquest by your neighbours . When the Portuguese arrived in China in the early 16th century , they were mostly unimpressed with Chinese firearms in comparison to their own . With the progression of the earliest European arquebus to the matchlock and the wheellock , and the advent of the flintlock musket of the 17th century , they surpassed the level of earlier Chinese innovation . The Chinese of the late Ming Dynasty adopted the Ottoman Turkish matchlockman 's kneeling position and bought European firearms for their infantry musketeers . Illustrations of Ottoman and European riflemen with detailed illustrations of their weapons appeared in Zhao Shizhen 's book Shenqipu of 1598 .
The 16th @-@ century breech @-@ loading model entered China around the time that the Portuguese embassy of Fernão Pires de Andrade came to China in 1517 and was eventually rejected . Portuguese and Chinese ships battled near Tuen Mun in 1521 and the Portuguese were repelled by the Ming Dynasty navy . These hostilities began when the Malacca Sultanate ( a tributary vassal loyal to the Ming ) was defeated and conquered by the Portuguese under Afonso de Albuquerque in 1511 , and in the process slaughtered a large community of Chinese merchants living there .
In 1523 , the Chinese navy captured two Western ships with Portuguese breech @-@ loading culverins aboard , which the Chinese called a folangji ( 佛郎機 ; meaning either a Frank or Frankish culverin ) . According to the Ming Shi , these cannons were presented to the Jiajing Emperor by Wang Hong and their design was copied in 1529 . The Frankish culverin was first illustrated in China in a drawing in a Chinese book published in 1562 . However , according to earlier Ming records , it was the War Ministry official He Ru who first acquired these guns in 1522 , while copies of them were made by Yang San ( Pedro Yang ) and Dai Ming — Westernised Chinese in Beijing , . In an even earlier account of Wang Yangming ( 1472 – 1529 ) , the philosopher and governor of Jiangxi , he intended to use folangji cannons to suppress the rebellion of Prince Zhu Chenhao in 1519 . In any case , the arrival of the breech @-@ loading rifle and cannon into China signified the beginning of continual European influence upon Chinese firearms and artillery . Song Yingxing wrote in his encyclopedia of 1637 that both foreign and unique , native , gunpowder weapons were used :
Refined copper is used in the casting of Western @-@ ocean cannon , the Red @-@ hair barbarian cannon , and the French cannon . Equal amounts of refined and raw [ or blister ] copper are used in making such arms as signal guns and muskets . For making guns like Xiangyang , Zhankou , First General and Second General , iron is used .
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= Andy Murray =
Andrew Barron " Andy " Murray , OBE ( born 15 May 1987 ) is a Scottish professional tennis player currently ranked world No. 2 in singles . Murray represents Great Britain in his sporting activities and is a three @-@ time Grand Slam tournament winner , Olympic champion and Davis Cup champion . His elder brother is former world No. 1 doubles player Jamie Murray .
Murray has reached at least the quarterfinals of all Grand Slam tournaments he has participated in since 2011 , with the exception of the 2015 US Open . He was first ranked as British No. 1 on 27 February 2006 . He achieved a top @-@ 10 ranking by the ATP for the first time on 16 April 2007 , and reached a career peak of world No. 2 on 17 August 2009 .
Murray is the 2012 Olympic Gold Medalist , having defeated Roger Federer to become the first British singles champion in over 100 years . He won a silver medal in the 2012 mixed doubles with Laura Robson .
At the 2012 US Open , Murray became the first British player since 1977 , and the first British man since 1936 , to win a Grand Slam singles tournament , when he defeated Novak Djokovic in the final in five sets . This title made him the only British male to become a Grand Slam singles champion during the Open Era . On 7 July 2013 , Murray won the 2013 Wimbledon Championships , becoming the first British player to win a Wimbledon senior singles title since Virginia Wade in 1977 , and the first British man to win the Men 's Singles Championship since Fred Perry , 77 years previously .
He is the only male player to date to have won Olympic Gold and the US Open in the same calendar year , as well as the third man to hold the Gold Medal and two majors on different surfaces ( after Andre Agassi and Rafael Nadal ) . Subsequent to his success at the Olympics and Wimbledon , Murray was voted the 2013 BBC Sports Personality of the Year . In the 2016 Gentlemen 's Singles , Murray won his second Wimbledon title , beating Canadian Milos Raonic to become the first British man to win multiple Wimbledon singles titles since Fred Perry in 1935 .
Murray has been the runner @-@ up in eight other singles Grand Slam finals : the 2008 US Open , the 2010 , 2011 , 2013 , 2015 and 2016 Australian Opens , the 2012 Wimbledon Championships , and the 2016 French Open losing three to Roger Federer and five to Novak Djokovic . He is the first man in the Open Era to achieve five runner @-@ up finishes at the Australian Open , after losing to Djokovic in the final of the 2016 Australian Open . In 2011 , Murray became only the seventh player in the Open Era to reach the semifinals of all four Grand Slam tournaments in one year .
After reaching the final of the 2016 French Open , Murray became the tenth player in the Open Era to reach the final of all four Grand Slam events and is joint ninth on the list for finals reached . He is only the second British player ( after Fred Perry ) of either sex to have reached the final of all four majors .
He featured in Great Britain 's Davis Cup winning team in 2015 , winning 11 matches ( 8 singles and 3 doubles ) as they secured their first Davis Cup title since 1936 . Murray was voted the 2015 BBC Sports Personality of the Year , while the Davis Cup team won the 2015 BBC Sports Personality Team of the Year Award . He has scored a total 34 wins and 7 losses with the British Davis Cup team .
= = Early and personal life = =
Murray was born in Glasgow , Scotland , the son of Judith " Judy " Murray ( née Erskine ) and William Murray . His maternal grandfather , Roy Erskine , was a professional footballer in the late 1950s . Murray is an avid supporter of Hibernian Football Club , the team his grandfather represented . Murray 's elder brother , Jamie , is also a professional tennis player , playing on the doubles circuit . Murray was born with a bipartite patella , where the kneecap remains as two separate bones instead of fusing together in early childhood , but was not diagnosed until the age of 16 . He is seen to hold his knee due to the pain caused by the condition and has pulled out of events because of it . Murray began playing tennis at the age of three when his mother Judy took him to play on the local courts . He played in his first competitive tournament at age five and by the time he was eight he was competing with adults in the Central District Tennis League .
Murray grew up in Dunblane and attended Dunblane Primary School . He and his brother were present during the 1996 Dunblane school massacre , when Thomas Hamilton killed 16 children and a teacher before shooting himself ; Murray took cover in a classroom . Murray says he was too young to understand what was happening and is reluctant to talk about it in interviews , but in his autobiography Hitting Back he states that he attended a youth group run by Hamilton , and that his mother gave Hamilton lifts in her car . Murray later attended Dunblane High School .
Murray 's parents split up when he was only 10 . He believes the impact this had on him could be the reason behind his competitive spirit . At 15 , he was asked to train with Rangers Football Club at their School of Excellence , but declined , opting to focus on his tennis career instead . He then decided to move to Barcelona , Spain . There he studied at the Schiller International School and trained on the clay courts of the Sánchez @-@ Casal Academy , coached by Pato Alvarez . Murray described this time as " a big sacrifice " . His parents had to find £ 40 @,@ 000 to pay for his 18 @-@ month stay there . While in Spain , he trained with Emilio Sánchez , formerly the world No. 1 doubles player .
In February 2013 , Murray bought Cromlix House for £ 1 @.@ 8 million which opened as a 15 @-@ room five @-@ star hotel in April 2014 . Later that month Murray was awarded Freedom of Stirling and received an Honorary Doctorate from the University of Stirling in recognition of his services to tennis .
Murray began dating Kim Sears , daughter of player @-@ turned @-@ coach Nigel Sears , in 2005 . Their engagement was announced in November 2014 , and they married on 11 April 2015 at Dunblane Cathedral in his home town . The couple have a daughter , Sophia Olivia , born on 7 February 2016 .
= = Career = =
= = = Junior tennis = = =
Leon Smith , Murray 's tennis coach from 11 to 17 , described Murray as " unbelievably competitive " , while Murray attributes his abilities to the motivation gained from losing to his older brother Jamie . In 1999 , at the age of 12 , Murray won his age group at the Orange Bowl , a prestigious event for junior players .
In July 2003 , Murray started out on the Challenger and Futures circuit . In his first tournament , he reached the quarterfinals of the Manchester Challenger . In September , Murray won his first senior title by taking the Glasgow Futures event . He also reached the semifinals of the Edinburgh Futures event .
For the first six months of 2004 , Murray had a knee injury and couldn 't play .
In July 2004 , Murray played a Challenger event in Nottingham , where he lost to future Grand Slam finalist Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga in the second round . Murray then went on to win Futures events in Xàtiva and Rome .
In September 2004 , he won the Junior US Open and was selected for the Davis Cup World Group play @-@ off match against Austria later that month ; however , he was not selected to play . Later that year , he won BBC Young Sports Personality of the Year .
As a junior , Murray reached as high as No. 6 in the world in 2003 ( and No. 8 in doubles ) . In the 2004 @-@ instated combined rankings , Murray reached No. 2 in the world .
Junior Slam results : Australian Open : -
French Open : SF ( 2005 )
Wimbledon : 3R ( 2004 )
US Open : W ( 2004 )
= = = 2005 = = =
Murray began 2005 ranked world No. 407 , but when he was in South America in January , he hurt his back and had to take 3 months off .
In March , he became the youngest Briton to play in the Davis Cup . Murray turned professional in April and was given a wild card entry to a clay @-@ court tournament in Barcelona , the Open SEAT , where he lost in three sets to Jan Hernych . In April , Murray parted acrimoniously from his coach Pato Alvarez , complaining about his negative attitude . Murray then reached the semifinals of the boys ' French Open where he lost in straight sets to Marin Čilić .
Mark Petchey agreed to coach Murray for 4 weeks till the end of Wimbledon , but it metamorphosed into a full @-@ time position . Given a wild card to Queen 's , Murray progressed past Santiago Ventura in straight sets for his first ATP match win . Following a second round win against Taylor Dent , he played former Australian Open champion Thomas Johansson in the third round , losing in three sets after cramping and twisting his ankle . Following his performance at Queen 's , Murray received a wild card for Wimbledon . Ranked 312 , Murray became the first Scot in the Open Era to reach the third round of the men 's singles tournament at Wimbledon . In the third round , Murray lost to 2002 Wimbledon finalist David Nalbandian due to cramping and fatigue , having led by two sets to love .
Following Wimbledon , Murray won Challengers events on the hard courts of Aptos and Binghamton , New York . He then experienced his first Masters event at Cincinnati , where he beat Taylor Dent , before losing in three sets to world No. 4 , Marat Safin . With a wild card entry , Murray played Andrei Pavel in the opening round of the US Open , where he recovered from being down two sets to one to win his first five @-@ set match . However , he lost in the second round to Arnaud Clément in another five set contest . Murray was again selected for the Davis Cup match against Switzerland . He was picked for the opening singles rubbers , losing in straight sets to Stanislas Wawrinka . Murray made his first ATP final at the Thailand Open where he faced world No. 1 Roger Federer . Murray lost in straight sets .
Murray beat Tim Henman in their first meeting , at the Basel Swiss Indoors in the first round , and eventually reached the quarterfinals .
In November , Murray captained Scotland at the inaugural Aberdeen Cup against England led by Greg Rusedski . This was an exhibition tournament , and the only event where Murray played Rusedski , they never met on the Tour . Rusedski beat Murray in the first match , but Murray won the second . This was also the first time that Andy and his brother Jamie Murray played doubles as seniors . Scotland defeated England 4 ½ – 2 ½ . He completed the year ranked 64 and was named the 2005 BBC Scotland Sports Personality of the Year .
= = = 2006 : British No. 1 = = =
The 2006 season saw Murray compete on the full circuit for the first time and split with his coach Mark Petchey and team up with Brad Gilbert .
On 27 February , Murray became the British Number 1 , ending Tim Henman 's seven @-@ year run . Murray was now world No 42 , Greg Rusedski No 43 , and Tim Henman No 49 . Rusedski regained his British no 1 status on 15 May for eight weeks , after which Murray became no 1 again on 10 July .
Murray suffered a straight sets defeat at the Australian Open , to Argentine Juan Ignacio Chela in the first round and to Gaël Monfils at the French Open , in five sets . Murray did reach the fourth round for the first time at both Wimbledon and the US Open .
Murray played in Davis Cup ties against Serbia , Israel and Ukraine . Murray missed the opening singles matches before losing the doubles as Britain lost their tie against Serbia . During the tie with Israel , Murray won his rubber and lost the doubles before pulling out with a neck injury before the reverse singles , as Britain lost the tie . Against Ukraine , Murray won both his singles rubbers , but lost the doubles , as Britain won the tie .
At the Masters , Murray lost in the first round in Miami , Monte Carlo and Rome . Murray went out of the tournaments in Indian Wells and Hamburg in the second round . Murray reached his first Masters semifinal in Toronto at the Rogers Cup , losing to Richard Gasquet .
At Cincinnati , Murray became only one of two players , alongside Rafael Nadal , to defeat Roger Federer in 2006 , breaking the Swiss star 's 55 match winning streak on hard courts . He lost two rounds later to Andy Roddick , but broke into the top 20 for the first time . In the final two Masters events in Madrid and Paris , Murray exited both tournaments at the last @-@ 16 stage ending his season , with losses to Novak Djokovic and Dominik Hrbatý . When the tour reached San Jose , California ; Murray defeated a top ten player for the first time , Andy Roddick . Murray went on to claim the SAP Open title defeating world No. 11 Lleyton Hewitt . Murray was a finalist at the Legg Mason Tennis Classic . Playing doubles with his brother in Bangkok the pair reached the final . After the French Open , where Murray was injured again , he revealed that his bones hadn 't fully grown , causing him to suffer from cramps and back problems .
In November , the Aberdeen Cup was held for the second time , with Murray leading the Scotland team and Greg Rusedski captaining England . Scotland won 6 ½ – 1 .
= = = 2007 : World top 10 = = =
Murray reached the fourth round of the Australian Open , where he lost a five @-@ set match against world No. 2 , Rafael Nadal .
Following the Miami Masters , where he reached the semifinals , Murray became the world No. 10 on 16 April .
The British No. 1 sustained tendon damage during his first round match at the German Open in Hamburg . Murray was up 5 – 1 when he hit a forehand from the back of the court and snapped the tendons in his wrist , leaving him out of action from 15 May until 7 August , thereby missing Wimbledon . During this rest period , Murray rose to world No. 8 , but by 7 August , he had dropped to no 14 .
Murray suffered a third round loss at the US Open . At the Masters tournaments , Murray reached the semifinals of Indian Wells and Miami . At Rome and Cincinnati , Murray exited in the first round whilst going out in the second in Canada . In the final two masters tournaments , Murray exited in the third round in Madrid and he went out in the quarterfinals of Paris . Murray won titles in San Jose and St. Petersburg . He also reached the final of tournaments in Doha and Metz , finishing the season ranked 11th in the world .
In November , Murray split with his coach Brad Gilbert and added a team of experts along with Miles Maclagan , his main coach .
= = = 2008 : First Grand Slam final and first Masters titles = = =
In 2008 , Murray suffered a first round loss at the Australian Open to eventual runner @-@ up Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga , and a third round loss at the French Open to Nicolás Almagro . Murray then made his first Grand Slam quarterfinal at Wimbledon before making his first final at the US Open . During the tournament in New York , Murray claimed his first win over Nadal . That victory meant that he 'd become the first player from Britain since Greg Rusedski in 1997 to reach a major final . In his first Grand Slam final Murray suffered a straight sets loss to Federer . At the Beijing Olympics , Murray suffered one of the worst defeats of his career , losing his first round singles match to world No. 77 Yen @-@ hsun Lu of Taiwan in straight sets . That abject defeat was still on his mind in a BBC interview five years later – despite an intervening Olympic gold medal and a head @-@ to @-@ head win – when he met the same player ( now ranked 75 in the world ) in the 2nd round of Wimbledon 2013 .
In the Masters tournaments Murray went out in round four in Indian Wells and the first round of Miami . In the clay Masters Murray made the third round of Monte Carlo and Hamburg and the second of Rome . On the American hard court swing Murray made the semifinals of Toronto before winning his first Masters shield in Cincinnati . He added another shield to his collection in Madrid ; before losing in the quarterfinals of Paris . Now at No. 4 in the world , Murray qualified for the first time for the Masters Cup . He played well in defeating an injured Federer but lost to Davydenko in the semifinals . Murray ended 2008 ranked fourth in the world . Murray also won tournaments in Doha , Marseille and St Petersburg .
= = = 2009 : World No. 2 = = =
Murray opened the 2009 season with a successful defence of his title at the Qatar Open in Doha , defeating Andy Roddick in straight sets . At the Australian Open , Murray made it to the fourth round , losing to Fernando Verdasco . Murray won his eleventh career title in Rotterdam , defeating No. 1 , Nadal in the three sets . Murray next went to Dubai but withdrew before the quarterfinals with a re @-@ occurrence of a virus that had affected him at the Australian Open . The virus caused Murray to miss a Davis Cup tie in Glasgow . Murray then lost in the finals to Nadal at Indian Wells , but won a week later in Miami over Djokovic for another masters title .
In the lead @-@ up to the French Open , Murray beat world No. 9 , Nikolay Davydenko at the Monte Carlo Masters , the first time he had beaten a top ten player on clay , though he lost to Nadal in the semifinals . Murray was upset in round two of the Rome Masters by qualifier Juan Mónaco , and he reached the quarterfinals of the Madrid Masters , losing to Juan Martín del Potro . During this time Murray achieved the highest ever ranking of a British male in the Open Era when he became world No. 3 on 11 May 2009 . Murray reached the quarterfinals of the French Open , but was defeated by Fernando González in four sets .
Murray won for the first time on grass at Queen 's and became the first British winner of the tournament since 1938 . In the final Murray defeated American James Blake . At Wimbledon , against Stanislas Wawrinka , Murray 's fourth round match was the first match to be played entirely under Wimbledon 's retractable roof , also enabling it to be the latest finishing match ever at Wimbledon . However Murray lost a tight semifinal to Andy Roddick .
Murray returned to action in Montreal , defeating del Potro in three sets to take the title . After this victory , he overtook Nadal in the rankings and held the number two position until the start of the US Open . Murray followed the Masters win playing at the Cincinnati Masters , where he lost to Federer . At the US Open , Murray was hampered by a wrist injury and suffered a straight @-@ sets loss to Čilić . Murray won both his singles matches , and lost at doubles in the Davis Cup against Poland , but was then forced to miss six weeks with a wrist injury .
In November , Murray won at Valencia , but bowed out in round two of the Paris Masters . To end the season , Murray did not make it out of the round robin at the World Tour Finals in London .
= = = 2010 : Australian Open runner @-@ up and two Masters titles = = =
Murray and Laura Robson represented Britain at the Hopman Cup . The pair progressed to the final , where they were beaten by Spain . At the Australian Open Murray beat Nadal and Čilić before losing in the final to world No. 1 Roger Federer . At the BNP Paribas Open in Indian Wells , Murray reached the quarterfinals , losing to Robin Söderling in straight sets . Murray next played at the 2010 Sony Ericsson Open , but lost his first match of the tournament to Mardy Fish , afterwards saying that his mind hadn 't been fully on tennis . At the Monte @-@ Carlo Rolex Masters , Murray suffered another first match loss , this time to Philipp Kohlschreiber . He entered the doubles competition with Ross Hutchins ; the duo lost to the Bryan Brothers on a champions tie @-@ breaker . Murray reached the third round in the Rome Masters , and the quarterfinals at the Madrid Masters , losing both times to David Ferrer .
After playing an exhibition match , Murray started the French Open with three tough wins , before losing in straight sets to Tomáš Berdych in the fourth round . In London , Murray progressed to the third round , where he faced Mardy Fish . At 3 – 3 in the final set with momentum going Murray 's way ( he had just come back from 3 – 0 down ) , the match was called off for bad light , leaving Murray fuming . Coming back the next day , Murray was edged out by the eventual finalist in a tie @-@ breaker for his second defeat by him in the year . At Wimbledon , Murray progressed to the semifinals , losing to Nadal in straight sets . On 27 July 2010 , Andy Murray and his coach Maclagan split , and Murray replaced him with Àlex Corretja .
Starting the US hard @-@ court season with the 2010 Farmers Classic , Murray reached the final but lost against Sam Querrey in three sets . This was his first loss to Querrey in five career meetings . In Canada , Murray became the first player since Andre Agassi in 1995 to defend the Canadian Masters . Murray defeated Nadal and then Federer in straight sets , ending his eight @-@ month title drought . At the Cincinnati Masters , Murray first complained about the speed of the court , and then in a quarterfinal match with Fish , Murray complained that the organisers refused to put the match on later in the day With temperatures reaching 33 ° C in the shade , Murray won the first set in a tie @-@ breaker but began to feel ill . The doctor was called on court to actively cool Murray down . Murray admitted after the match that he had considered retiring . He lost the second set , but forced a final @-@ set tie @-@ breaker , before Fish won . After losing to Stanislas Wawrinka in the third round of the US Open , questions about Murray 's conditioning arose , as he called the trainer out twice during the match .
His next event was the China Open in Beijing , where Murray reached the quarterfinals , losing to Ivan Ljubičić . Murray then won the Shanghai Rolex Masters dismissing Roger Federer in straight sets . He did not drop a single set throughout the event . Murray returned to Spain to defend his title at the Valencia Open 500 but lost in the second round to Juan Mónaco . However , in doubles , Murray partnered his brother Jamie Murray to the final , where they defeated Mahesh Bhupathi and Max Mirnyi . The victory was Murray 's first doubles title and the second time he had reached a final with his brother .
Murray reached the quarterfinals at the BNP Paribas Masters losing to Gaël Monfils in three sets . Combined with his exit and Söderling 's taking the title , Murray found himself pushed down a spot in the rankings , to No. 5 from No. 4 . At the Tour finals in London , Murray went 2 – 1 in round robin play before facing Nadal in the semifinal . They battled for over three hours , before Murray fell to the Spaniard in a final @-@ set tie @-@ breaker , bringing an end to his season .
= = = 2011 : Second Australian Open final and two Masters titles = = =
Murray and Laura Robson lost in the round @-@ robin stage 2011 Hopman Cup , losing all three ties even though Murray won all of his singles matches . Then Murray , along with other stars such as Federer , Nadal , and Djokovic , participated in the Rally for Relief event to help raise money for the flood victims in Queensland .
Seeded fifth in the 2011 Australian Open , Murray met former champion Novak Djokovic in the final and was defeated in straight sets . In Rotterdam , he was defeated by Marcos Baghdatis in the first round . Murray reached the semifinals of the doubles tournament with his brother Jamie . Murray lost to qualifiers in the first rounds at the Masters Series events in Indian Wells and Miami , after which he split with coach Àlex Corretja .
Murray returned to form at the Monte @-@ Carlo Rolex Masters , but lost to Nadal in the semifinals . Murray sustained an elbow injury before the match and subsequently withdrew from the 2011 Barcelona Open Banco Sabadell due to the injury . Murray lost in the third round at the Mutua Madrileña Madrid Open , but made it to the semifinals of the Rome Masters , where he lost to Novak Djokovic .
At the French Open , Murray won two tough early matches , before losing in his first semifinal at Roland Garros , against Rafael Nadal .
Murray defeated Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga to win his second Queen 's Club title . At Wimbledon , Murray lost in the semifinal to Nadal , despite taking the first set . At the Davis Cup tie between Great Britain and Luxembourg , Murray led the British team to victory . Murray was the two @-@ time defending 2011 Rogers Cup champion , but lost in the second round to South African Kevin Anderson . However , the following week , he won the 2011 Western & Southern Open after Novak Djokovic retired due to injury . At the 2011 US Open , Murray battled from two sets down to win a five @-@ set second @-@ round encounter with Robin Haase , but lost in the semifinals to Rafael Nadal in four sets .
Murray easily won the small 250 @-@ class Thailand Open , and the following week he won his third title in four tournaments at the Rakuten Japan Open Tennis Championships . His opponent in the final was Rafael Nadal , whom he beat for the first time in the year in three sets . Murray then won the doubles with his brother Jamie Murray , becoming the first person in the 2011 season to capture both singles and doubles titles at the same tournament . Murray then successfully defended his Shanghai Masters crown with a straight @-@ sets victory over David Ferrer in the final . At the ATP World Tour Finals , Murray lost to David Ferrer in straight sets and withdrew from the tournament after the loss with a groin pull . Murray ended the year as No. 4 in the world behind Djokovic , Nadal , and Federer .
= = = 2012 : US Open champion , Wimbledon runner @-@ up and Olympic gold = = =
With Ivan Lendl as his new full @-@ time coach , Murray began the season by playing in the 2012 Brisbane International . He overcame a slow start in his first two matches to win his 22nd title by beating Alexandr Dolgopolov in the final . In doubles , he lost in the quarterfinals against second seeds Jürgen Melzer and Philipp Petzschner in a tight match . After an exhibition tournament , Murray made it to the semifinals of the 2012 Australian Open , where he was defeated by Djokovic in a four @-@ hour @-@ and 50 @-@ minute match .
At the Dubai Duty Free Tennis Championships , Murray defeated Djokovic in the semifinals , but lost in the final to Roger Federer . After an early defeat at the BNP Paribas Open , Murray made the finals of the Miami Masters , losing to Djokovic . Murray then had quarterfinal losses at the Monte Carlo Masters and Barcelona Open , and a third round loss at the Italian Open . Murray battled back spasms all through the French Open , and in the quarterfinals he was beaten by David Ferrer .
Murray lost in the opening round of the Queen 's Club Championships to world No. 65 Nicolas Mahut . At Wimbledon , Murray set the record for the latest finish at the championships when he completed a four @-@ set victory over Marcos Baghdatis at 23 : 02 BST . Murray beat Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga in the semifinal in four sets to become the first male British player to reach the final of Wimbledon since Bunny Austin in 1938 . In the final , he faced Federer , but after taking the first set , he lost the match in four sets .
Murray next competed at the London 2012 Summer Olympics in singles , doubles , and mixed doubles . He partnered his brother Jamie Murray in doubles and suffered a first @-@ round exit to Austria ( Jürgen Melzer and Alexander Peya ) in three sets . In the mixed doubles , Murray was partnered by Laura Robson . They made it all the way to the finals where they lost to the Belarusian top seeds ( Victoria Azarenka and Max Mirnyi ) in three sets , settling for the silver medal . In singles , Murray lost only one set on his way to the finals where he met Federer , defeating him in straight sets , for the loss of just 7 games . By winning the Olympic gold medal , Murray became the first British man to win the Olympic singles gold medal in tennis since Josiah Ritchie in 1908 , and only the 7th man in the open era to win two medals at the same Olympic Games . Murray retired early in the Rogers Cup due to a knee injury , and was beaten by unseeded Jérémy Chardy at the Cincinnati Masters in straight sets .
He next competed in the final major of the season at the US Open . He cruised through his opening two rounds in straight sets against Alex Bogomolov and Ivan Dodig , before facing a tough four @-@ set battle with Feliciano López , where Murray had to win three tie @-@ breakers . In the fourth round , he defeated the Canadian Milos Raonic in straight sets , and then in the quarterfinals , had to come from a set and two breaks down against Marin Čilić to prevail in four . In the semifinals , he defeated Tomáš Berdych in a long @-@ fought match that lasted almost four hours , to reach his second consecutive Grand Slam final . Murray defeated Djokovic in five sets , becoming the first British man to win a Grand Slam final since Fred Perry in 1936 , and the first Scottish @-@ born player to win a Grand Slam final since Harold Mahony in 1896 . The win would also set several records for Murray : it involved the longest tiebreak in US Open final history at 12 – 10 in the first set , it made Murray the first man ever to win an Olympic gold medal and the US Open in the same year , and it tied with the 1988 US Open final ( in which Murray 's coach Lendl competed ) as the longest final in the tournament 's history . By defeating Djokovic in the final , Murray achieved his 100th Grand Slam match win of his career . The victory made Murray part of the " Big Four " according to many pundits , including Novak Djokovic .
In his first tournament after the US Open , Murray reached the semifinals of the Rakuten Japan Open after entering as defending champion . He was beaten by Milos Raonic in a close three @-@ set match . He was defending champion in the doubles with his brother Jamie . However , they were knocked out in the quarterfinals by top seeds Leander Paes and Radek Štěpánek . At the penultimate Masters 1000 tournament of the year in Shanghai , after receiving a bye into round two , Murray 's first match was due to be played against Florian Mayer . However , Mayer had to pull out due to injury , giving Murray a walkover into round three . After beating Alexandr Dolgopolov in the third round , he then overcame Radek Štěpánek in a three @-@ set quarterfinal . Murray next faced Roger Federer in the semifinals , whom he defeated in straight sets to set up a second consecutive final against Djokovic , and his third consecutive Shanghai final . After failing to capitalise on five match points , Murray eventually lost in three sets , bringing to an end his 12 – 0 winning streak at the competition . When Nadal pulled out of both the Paris Masters and the Year @-@ End Championships , Murray finished the year at No. 3 in the world , after four years at No. 4 . This was the first time Murray had finished the year higher than No. 4 in the world . At the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Murray found himself voted third overall , ahead of Mo Farah . Murray won the World Breakthrough of the Year at the Laureus World Sports Awards .
Murray was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 2013 New Year Honours for services to tennis .
= = = 2013 : Wimbledon champion and third Australian Open final = = =
Murray began his 2013 season by retaining his Brisbane International title , defeating Grigor Dimitrov in the final in straight sets . Trying to win his second Major in a row , he began the 2013 Australian Open well with a straight sets victory over Dutchman Robin Haase . He followed this up with straight set victories over João Sousa , practice partner Ričardas Berankis and French No. 14 seed Gilles Simon . In the quarterfinals he cruised past Jérémy Chardy in straight sets to set up a semifinal clash with Roger Federer . After exchanging sets , Murray eventually prevailed in 5 sets , recording his first Grand Slam tournament triumph over Federer . With this victory , each member of the ATP 's most dominant quartet of the previous four years ( Federer , Nadal , Djokovic and Murray ) had beaten the other three at the Majors . This victory set up Murray 's third consecutive Major final appearance , and second in a row against Djokovic . After taking the first set in a tiebreak , Murray was eventually defeated in four sets . His defeat in this final meant that Murray became only the second man in the Open Era to achieve three runner @-@ up finishes at the Australian Open , the other being Stefan Edberg .
At the BNP Paribas Open in Indian Wells , Murray lost at the quarterfinal stage to Juan Martín del Potro in three sets . At the Miami Masters , Murray made it through his first four matches without dropping a set , and after overcoming Richard Gasquet in the semifinals , faced David Ferrer in the final . After losing the first set , and facing match point in the decider at 5 – 6 , Murray eventually took the match in a third set tiebreaker to win his second Miami Masters title , and leapfrog Roger Federer into second place in the rankings , ending a near @-@ decade long time period in which neither Federer or Rafael Nadal were ranked in the top two . Murray briefly fell back to No. 3 in the world , following a third round defeat by Stanislas Wawrinka in Monte @-@ Carlo , but reclaimed the No. 2 ranking as a result of Federer failing to defend his title at the Mutua Madrid Open . Later , Murray lost at the quarterfinal stage to Tomáš Berdych in straight sets .
At the Rome Masters , Murray retired due to a hip injury during his second round match against Marcel Granollers on his 26th birthday . Murray had just battled back to tie the match at one set all after winning the second set on a tiebreak . This left Murray with only eleven days to be fit for the start of the French Open .
Speaking at a press conference after the match , Murray said , " As it is , I 'd be very surprised if I was playing in Paris . I need to make a plan as to what I do . I 'll chat with the guys tonight and make a plan for the next few days then make a decision on Paris after the next five days . " He would go on to withdraw from Roland Garros later , citing a back injury . After a four @-@ week break due to injury , Murray made his comeback at the 2013 Aegon Championships , where he was the top seed . After a rain delayed first day , Murray had to complete his second round match against Nicolas Mahut , and his subsequent match against Marinko Matosevic on the same day , both of which he won in straight sets . After beating Benjamin Becker in the quarterfinals , Murray next faced his first top ten opponent since losing to Tomáš Berdych in Madrid , taking on Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga in the semifinals . After dropping the first set against the Frenchman , Murray eventually raised his level and won in three to set up a final against Marin Čilić of Croatia , his third consecutive final on grass courts . He came from behind again to beat Čilić in three sets to claim his third title at Queen 's Club .
Going into Wimbledon , Murray hadn 't lost a match on grass since the previous year 's final , and was on a winning streak of 11 matches on grass . In the first two rounds , Murray faced Benjamin Becker and Yen @-@ hsun Lu respectively , defeating both in straight sets . His third round match was against 32nd seed Tommy Robredo , and despite a tour comeback over the past year , Murray overcame the Spaniard in straight sets to set up a clash with Mikhail Youzhny , the highest seed left in Murray 's half following the unexpectedly early exits of Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal . Despite facing a fightback in the second set , Murray won in straight sets to make it through to his tenth consecutive Grand Slam quarterfinal , in which he was to play Fernando Verdasco , the first left @-@ handed player Murray had faced since the 2012 US Open . For the seventh time in his career , Murray had to come back from a deficit of two sets to ultimately come through in five , setting up a semifinal clash with 24th seed Jerzy Janowicz , the Polish player who beat Murray in their previous encounter . After Murray failed to break Janowicz 's serve , the Pole took the opening set in the tiebreak , following a double fault from Murray . However Murray managed to up his level of play , and won the next three sets , making it through to his second consecutive Wimbledon final , and third consecutive major final against Novak Djokovic .
Despite the Serb being the favourite to win the title throughout the Championships , Murray overcame Djokovic in a straight sets match that lasted over three hours , to become the first British winner of the men 's singles title since Fred Perry in 1936 , the first Scot of either sex to win a Wimbledon singles title since Harold Mahony in 1896 , and to extend his winning streak on grass to 18 matches . With the win , he also became only the second man in the open era after Rafael Nadal to hold the Olympic singles gold medal and Wimbledon title simultaneously .
At the US Open , Murray entered a Grand Slam tournament as defending champion for the first time , and started strongly with a straight sets win against Michaël Llodra . He backed this up with wins over Leonardo Mayer , Florian Mayer and Denis Istomin to reach the quarterfinals at a major for the 11th straight tournament . In the last 8 , Murray faced Stanislas Wawrinka of Switzerland , but lost in straight sets , ending Murray 's streak of four consecutive major finals . Following his disappointing run of form on hard courts , Murray next joined the Great Britain Davis Cup team in their World Group Play @-@ off tie on clay against Croatia , where he played in two singles and the doubles rubbers . After defeating 16 @-@ year @-@ old Borna Ćorić in straight sets , Murray teamed up with Colin Fleming to defeat Croatian number 1 Ivan Dodig and Mate Pavić in the doubles , and take a 2 – 1 lead in the tie . Murray then sealed Britain 's return to the World Group by defeating Dodig in straight sets .
Following the Davis Cup , Murray 's season was cut short by his decision to undergo surgery , in order to sort out the lower back problems that had caused him problems since the early stages of the previous season . After being forced to withdraw from the French Open in May , the injury flared up again during the US Open and later during the Davis Cup World Group Play @-@ offs , Murray made the decision that surgery was the best way to sort the problem out for the long @-@ term . Following the conclusion of the 2013 season , Murray was voted the 2013 BBC Sport Personality of the Year , after having been heavy favourite since the nominees were announced .
= = = 2014 : Recovery from surgery and 30th career title = = =
Murray started his season at the Qatar Open in Doha . In the first round , he defeated Mousa Shanan Zayed in straight sets in 37 minutes without dropping a single game , but was defeated in three sets by world No. 40 Florian Mayer in the second round , despite being a set and a break up three games into the second set . He then played a warm @-@ up match at the 2014 AAMI Classic in Kooyong against world No. 43 Lleyton Hewitt , losing in two close tiebreaks .
He next headed to Melbourne for the 2014 Australian Open , where he drew the world No. 112 , Go Soeda of Japan . Despite worries that he was not match @-@ fit , Murray got off to a strong start , dispatching the Japanese number 2 in under 90 minutes , losing just 5 games in the process . He next went on to defeat Vincent Millot and Feliciano López respectively in straight sets . In the fourth round , Murray dropped his first set of the tournament on his way to beating Stephane Robert in four sets to set up a meeting with long @-@ standing rival Roger Federer in the quarterfinals . Despite saving two match points to take the third set , he ultimately went out in four , ending his streak of four consecutive Australian Open semifinals . As a result of losing before the final , Murray fell to No. 6 in the world , falling out of the top 5 for the first time since 2008 .
He next headed to the United States to compete in the Davis Cup World Group first round with Great Britain , who went into the tie as outsiders . Murray won both of his ties against Donald Young and Sam Querrey respectively , helping Britain to their first Davis Cup quarterfinal since 1986 . Murray 's next tournament was the Rotterdam Open after receiving a late wild card , however he lost to Marin Čilić in straight sets in the quarterfinals . His following competition , the Mexican Open in Acapulco , ended in a semifinal defeat by Grigor Dimitrov in a thrilling three @-@ setter that required two tiebreakers to decide the final two sets .
At Indian Wells , Murray struggled in his first two matches against Lukáš Rosol and Jiří Veselý respectively , overcoming both in close three @-@ set encounters to set up a fourth round clash with Canadian Milos Raonic , which he lost in three sets . Murray offered to play with 2012 Wimbledon Doubles champion Jonathan Marray , because Marray was unable to convince anyone to join him on court . For Murray and Marray 's first competitive match together , they won a doubles clash against Gaël Monfils and Juan Mónaco only to lose in the second round to the No 2 seeds Alexander Peya and Bruno Soares .
In March , Murray split with coach Ivan Lendl , who had been widely praised for helping Murray achieve his goal of winning Grand Slam titles . At the 2014 Miami Masters , Murray defeated Matthew Ebden , Feliciano López and Jo Wilfried Tsonga but lost to Djokovic in the quarterfinals . In the Davis Cup quarterfinals against Italy , he beat Andreas Seppi in his first rubber , then teamed up with Colin Fleming to win the doubles rubber . Murray had only beaten one top ten player on clay , Nikolay Davidenko , back in 2009 , and so in his final singles match , was stunned by Fabio Fognini in straight sets , which took Great Britain to the deciding final rubber . However , in this match his compatriot , James Ward was defeated by Andreas Seppi , also in straight sets , knocking Murray and Great Britain out of the Davis Cup .
Murray next competed at the Madrid Open and following his opening win , over Nicolas Almagro , he dedicated the victory to former player Elena Baltacha . He then lost to qualifier Santiago Giraldo in the following round . Murray then reached the quarterfinals of the Rome Masters where he lost to world No. 1 Rafael Nadal in a tight match in which he had been up a break in the final set . At the French Open , Murray defeated Andrey Golubev and Marinko Matosevic before edging out 28th seed Philipp Kohlschreiber 12 – 10 in the final set . This was the first time Murray had ever gone beyond 7 – 5 in a deciding set . He followed this up with a straight sets win over Fernando Verdasco and then recorded a five set victory over Frenchman Gaël Monfils in the quarterfinal , which saw Murray rise to world No. 5 and equal his best ever French Open by reaching the semifinals . However , he subsequently lost to Nadal in straight sets , winning only 6 games in the match . After losing the 2014 French Open semifinals to Nadal , Murray appointed former women 's world No. 1 , and two @-@ times slam titlist , Amélie Mauresmo as his coach in a ' historic move ' which made Mauresmo the first woman to coach a top male tennis player .
After strong grass court seasons in 2012 and 2013 , Murray was seeded third for the 2014 Wimbledon Championship , behind Novak Djokovic and Rafael Nadal , who were seeded first and second respectively . He began his title defence with straight sets wins over David Goffin and Blaž Rola , defeating the latter for the loss of just two games . Murray continued his good form , defeating Roberto Bautista Agut and Kevin Anderson , the 27th and 20th seeds , again in straight sets to reach his seventh consecutive Wimbledon quarterfinal . Murray 's defence then came to a halt as Grigor Dimitrov ended his 17 match winning @-@ streak on the grass of Wimbledon ( this includes the 2012 Olympics ) with a straight sets win , meaning Murray failed to reach the semifinals for the first time since 2008 . After his defeat at the Championships , Murray dropped to 10th in the world , his lowest ranking since 2008 .
Prior to the North American hard court swing , Murray announced he was extending his partnership with Amélie Mauresmo until the end of the US Open , but was ideally looking for a long @-@ term deal . He also revealed he had only just returned to a full training schedule following his back surgery last September . Murray reached back @-@ to @-@ back quarterfinals at the Canadian Open and Cincinnati Masters , losing to eventual champions Jo Wilfried Tsonga , after being a break up in the decider , and Roger Federer , after being two breaks up in the second set , respectively . He made it to the quarterfinals of the 2014 US Open , losing to Novak Djokovic , after earning his first top ten win of the year in the previous round against Jo Wilfried Tsonga . This was the first season since 2009 where Murray failed to reach a grand slam final . As a consequence Murray fell outside of the top 10 ranking places for the first time since June 2008 .
Murray took a wildcard into the inaugural Shenzhen Open in China , entering as the number 2 seed . Victories over Somdev Devvarman , Lukáš Lacko and Juan Mónaco saw Murray reach his first final of the season , breaking a drought of 14 months following his title at Wimbledon . In the final he faced Tommy Robredo of Spain , the second final between the two . After saving five championship points in the second set tie break , Murray went on to win the title in three sets , Robredo 's drop in fitness ultimately proving decisive . He then took his good form into Beijing , where he reached the semifinals before losing to Djokovic in straight sets , however he lost in the third round at the Shanghai Masters to David Ferrer despite being a set up . Following his early exit in Shanghai , Murray took a wildcard into the Vienna Open in an attempt to claim a place at the ATP World Tour Finals . He reached the final , where he once again faced Ferrer , and triumphed in three sets for his second title of the season , and the 30th of his career . Murray defeated Ferrer again in the semifinals of the Valencia Open to move into his third final in five weeks , and further strengthen his bid for a place at the season finale in London . In a repeat of the Shenzhen Open final , Murray again saved five championship points as he overcame Tommy Robredo in three sets . Murray then went on to reach the quarterfinals of the Paris Masters , where he was eliminated by Djokovic in what was his 23rd match in the space of only 37 days . However , his win over Dimitrov in the third round had already guaranteed him a spot at the ATP World Tour Finals .
At the ATP World Tour Finals , Murray lost his opening round robin match to Kei Nishikori but won his second match against Milos Raonic . However , he lost his final group match against Federer in straight sets and only managed to win one game against him , marking his worst defeat since losing to Djokovic in the 2007 Miami Masters , eliminating him from the tournament . Despite the loss , his late @-@ season run had already propelled him back up the rankings to No. 6 in the world , his best ranking since June .
Following the conclusion of the season , Murray mutually agreed a split with long @-@ term backroom staff , training partner Dani Vallverdu and fitness coach Jez Green . They had been with him for five and seven years respectively but were both reported to have been unhappy at the lack of consultation they had been given about the appointment of Mauresmo . Murray also took part in the inaugural season of the International Premier Tennis League , representing the Manila Mavericks , who had drafted him as an icon player in February . Murray took part in the first three matches of the tournament which were all played in Manila .
= = = 2015 : Fourth Australian Open final , first clay titles and Davis Cup champion = = =
Murray began his year by winning an exhibition event in Abu Dhabi . He then played the Hopman Cup with Heather Watson and , despite winning all his singles matches in straight sets , they finished second in their group behind Poland . His first competitive tournament of the year was the Australian Open . He won his opening three matches in straight sets before defeating 11th seed Grigor Dimitrov to reach the quarterfinal . Wins over Nick Kyrgios and Tomáš Berdych followed as Murray reached his fourth final at the tournament ( three of which were against Djokovic ) and the eighth grand slam final of his career . He lost the final to Novak Djokovic in four sets , however his run to the final saw his return to the top four in the world rankings for the first time in 12 months .
Murray next participated in the Rotterdam Open as the top seed , but he lost in the quarterfinals to Gilles Simon who ended a 12 match losing streak against Murray . Murray then played in the Dubai Championships but suffered another quarterfinal defeat to 18 @-@ year @-@ old Borna Ćorić and as a result , Murray slipped to No. 5 in the world rankings behind Rafael Nadal and Kei Nishikori . Afterwards , Murray played the Davis Cup World Group in Glasgow against the United States . He won both his matches against Donald Young and John Isner , allowing Great Britain to progress to the quarterfinals for the second consecutive time with a 3 – 2 lead over the United States .
Murray then reached the semifinals of the 2015 Indian Wells , overtaking Tim Henman 's record of 496 career wins to have the most career wins for a British man in the Open Era . However , he suffered a 6th consecutive defeat to Djokovic in straight sets . Murray then reached the final of the 2015 Miami Open , recording his 500th career win along the way to become the first British player to have 500 or more wins in the Open Era . He went on to lose the final to Djokovic , this time in three sets . Murray added Jonas Björkman to his coaching staff in March initially on a five @-@ week trail to help out in periods when Mauresmo was unavailable as she only agreed to work with him for 25 weeks . However , at the end of the Australian Open , Mauresmo had informed Murray that she was pregnant and he announced at the end of April , that Björkman would be his main coach for all of the grass court season and all of the US hard court swing , while Mauresmo would only be with the team for Wimbledon .
Murray won his first ATP clay court title at the 2015 BMW Open . He defeated German Philipp Kohlschreiber in three close sets to become the first Briton since Buster Mottram in 1976 to win a tour level clay court event . The following week he reached his second final on clay , at the Madrid Open after recording only his second and third victories over top 10 opposition on clay , against Raonic and Nishikori . In the final , he defeated Rafael Nadal in straight sets for his first Madrid title on clay , and first ever clay court Masters 1000 title . The win was Murray 's first over Nadal , Federer or Djokovic since Wimbledon 2013 , and his first over Nadal on a clay court .
Murray continued his winning streak at the Italian Open , beating Jeremy Chardy in straight sets in his opening match , but then withdrew due to fatigue after having played nine matches in the space of 10 days . Murray then reached his third semifinal at the French Open , but lost to Djokovic in five sets after threatening a comeback from two sets to love down , ending his 15 match winning streak on clay . To start his grass court campaign , Murray went on to win a record tying fourth Queen 's Club title , defeating the big serving South African Kevin Anderson in straight sets in the final . At the third grand slam of the year , the 2015 Wimbledon Championships , Murray dropped only two sets on his way to setting up a semifinal clash with Roger Federer . Many people saw Murray as the favourite due to his recent form , however he lost to the Swiss veteran in straight sets , gaining only one break point in the entire match .
After Wimbledon , Murray returned to Queen 's Club , to play for Great Britain against France in their Davis Cup quarterfinal tie . Great Britain went 1 – 0 down when James Ward lost to Gilles Simon in straight sets , however Murray levelled the tie with a victory against Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga . Murray then teamed up with his brother Jamie to win the doubles rubber , coming back from a set down to defeat Tsonga and Nicolas Mahut in four sets , giving Britain a crucial 2 – 1 lead going into the final day . He then faced Simon in the fourth rubber and after initially being a set and a break down , he suddenly found his form again towards the end of the second set and eventually won in four sets , winning 12 of the last 15 games in the process ( with Simon struggling from an ankle injury ) . With a 3 – 1 lead over France , this resulted in Great Britain reaching their first Davis Cup semifinal since 1981 .
Murray next participated at the Citi Open ( for the first time since 2006 ) , as the top seed and favourite to win the tournament . However , he suffered a defeat in his first match , losing to world No. 53 Teymuraz Gabashvili in a final set tiebreak , despite serving for the match . In doubles , he partnered Daniel Nestor , however they lost in the first round to the fourth seeds , Rohan Bopanna and Florin Mergea , also in three sets .
He bounced back from this defeat by winning the Montreal Masters Rogers Cup , defeating Tsonga and Nishikori in the quarterfinals and semifinals respectively . He then prevailed in the final against Djokovic in three sets . This broke his eight @-@ match , two @-@ year losing streak against Djokovic , his last win against him being in the finals of Wimbledon in 2013 . Winning the title , he also surpassed Federer in terms of ranking , becoming the world No. 2 for the first time in over two years . In doubles , he partnered Leander Paes and they won their first match against Chardy and Anderson , but were then defeated by Murray 's brother Jamie and John Peers in two sets – the first time the Murray brothers had competed against each other in a Tour @-@ level match .
In the second Master Series tournament of the US Hard Court season , the Cincinnati Masters , Murray defeated veteran Mardy Fish in the second round , and then beat both Grigor Dimitrov and Richard Gasquet in three @-@ set matches , having to come from a set down on both occasions , while Dimitrov had served for the match in the deciding set . In the semifinal , he lost to defending champion Roger Federer in straight sets , and after Federer went on to win the tournament , this result saw Murray return to the No. 3 ranking and seeding for the US Open . At the US Open , Murray beat Nick Kyrgios in four sets before beating Adrian Mannarino in five sets after being two sets down , equaling Federer for winning eight matches from two sets to love down . He then beat Thomaz Bellucci in straight sets but suffered a defeat in the fourth round to Kevin Anderson in four sets . This ended Murray 's five @-@ year run of 18 consecutive Grand Slam quarterfinals ( not counting his withdrawal from the 2013 French Open ) since his third round loss to Stan Wawrinka in the 2010 US Open .
Playing against Australia in the semifinals of the Davis Cup World Group in Glasgow , Murray won both his singles rubbers in straight sets , against Thanasi Kokkinakis and Bernard Tomic . He also partnered his brother Jamie , and they won in five sets against the pairing of Sam Groth and Lleyton Hewitt , the results guiding Great Britain to the Davis Cup final for the first time since 1978 with a 3 – 2 lead over Australia .
After losing in the semifinals of the Shanghai Masters to Djokovic in straight sets , Murray reached the finals of the Paris Masters for the lost of just one set , with victories against Borna Ćorić , David Goffin and David Ferrer . After a three set win over Richard Gasquet , he joined Novak Djokovic , Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal as the only players to reach the semifinals ( or better ) at all nine of the ATP World Tour Masters 1000 tournaments , and also ensured that he compiled his best match record in a single season . He then lost the final to Djokovic again in straight sets .
As the world No. 2 , Murray participated in the ATP World Tour Finals in London , and was drawn into the Ilie Năstase group with David Ferrer , Rafael Nadal and Stan Wawrinka . He went out in the round @-@ robin stage , after defeating Ferrer and losing to Nadal and Wawrinka . However , after Federer failed to win the tournament , he finished the season as world No. 2 for the first time .
In the Davis Cup final , Murray 's victory over Ruben Bemelmans in straight sets pulled Great Britain level in the final after Kyle Edmund had lost the first singles rubber in five sets , played on indoor clay courts at Ghent . He then partnered his brother Jamie in a four @-@ set victory over the pairing of Steve Darcis and David Goffin , before defeating Goffin again in the reverse singles on Sunday , thus ensuring a 3 – 1 victory for Great Britain , their first Davis Cup title since 1936 and their tenth overall . Murray also became only the third person since the current Davis Cup format was introduced to win all eight of his singles rubbers in a Davis Cup season , after John McEnroe and Mats Wilander .
= = = 2016 : Second Wimbledon title , Australian Open and Roland Garros Finals = = =
Murray began his 2016 season by playing in the Hopman Cup , pairing up with Heather Watson again . However , they finished second in their group after losing their tie to eventual champions Nick Kyrgios and Daria Gavrilova .
Murray played his first competitive tournament of 2016 at the Australian Open where he was aiming to win his first title there after four runner @-@ up finishes . He went on to reach his fifth Australian Open final with victories over Alexander Zverev , Sam Groth , João Sousa , Bernard Tomic , David Ferrer and Milos Raonic , dropping four sets along the way . However , in a rematch of the previous year final , he was unable to win his first title as he lost in the final to an in @-@ form Novak Djokovic ( who won a record @-@ equaling sixth title ) in straight sets . Murray then played at 2016 Davis Cup defeating Taro Daniel in straight sets and Kei Nishikori in five sets . Murray then competed at the first Masters 1000 of the year at the 2016 Indian Wells Masters He defeated Marcel Granollers in the second round in straight sets but had an early loss to Federico Delbonis in the third round . Murray then played at the 2016 Miami Open as the 2nd seed . He defeated Denis Istomin in the second round in straight sets but had another early loss , to 26th seed Grigor Dimitrov despite taking the first set .
Murray began his clay court season at the 2016 Monte @-@ Carlo Rolex Masters as the 2nd seed . Murray struggled in his second round match against Pierre @-@ Hugues Herbert but Murray came through in 3 sets . Murray struggled again in his third round match against 16th seed Benoît Paire as Murray was down a set and two breaks . Paire also served for the match in the third set but Murray still came through in 3 sets . Murray then defeated 10th seed Milos Raonic in straight sets in the quarterfinals . In the semifinals Murray lost to 5th seed and eventual champion Rafael Nadal despite winning the first set . Murray then played at the 2016 Mutua Madrid Open as the 2nd seed and the defending champion . Murray defeated qualifier Radek Štěpánek in three sets . He then proceeded to the semifinals after defeating 16th seed Gilles Simon and 8th seed Tomáš Berdych both in straight sets . In the semifinals Murray defeated Rafael Nadal in straight sets who Murray had lost to earlier in the year . In the final Murray lost to number 1 seed Novak Djokovic in three sets . This loss made Murray 's ranking go from 2 to 3 . Murray regained his number two ranking after he won the 2016 Internazionali BNL d 'Italia . He defeated Mikhail Kukushkin , Jérémy Chardy , 12th seed David Goffin , Lucas Pouille , and number 1 seed Novak Djokovic all in straight sets . This was his first win over Djokovic on clay and became the first British player since Virginia Wade in 1971 to win the title and the first British man since George Patrick Hughes in 1931 . Murray then moved on to the French Open where he struggled in the opening rounds coming through two five @-@ set matches against Radek Štěpánek and French wildcard Mathias Bourgue . He came through in straight sets against big servers Ivo Karlović and John Isner to reach the quarterfinals where he beat home favourite Richard Gasquet in four sets to set up a semifinal clash against defending champion Stanislas Wawrinka . Murray defeated Wawrinka in four sets to become the first British player since Bunny Austin in 1937 , to reach a French Open final . He was unable to win his maiden French Open final , losing to Novak Djokovic in four sets .
Murray started his grass season at the 2016 Aegon Championships as the 1st seed and the defending champion . Murray defeated Nicolas Mahut in straight sets despite facing a set point in the first set and three set points in the second set . He then defeated Aljaž Bedene in straight sets . He then had three set wins over Kyle Edmund and 5th seed Marin Čilić . In the final he was down a set and a break to 3rd seed Milos Raonic . Murray still managed to come back and win a record five Queen 's Club Championships . Murray then played at the third major of the year at the 2016 Wimbledon Championships as the 2nd seed . Murray had straight set wins over Liam Broady , Lu Yen @-@ hsun , John Millman , and Nick Kyrgios in the first four rounds . Murray then defeated 12th seed Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga in five sets in the quarterfinal and 10th seed Tomáš Berdych in straight sets to reach his third straight major final . In the final on 10 July , Murray defeated Canadian Milos Raonic in straight sets to win his second Wimbledon title and third Major title overall .
= = National representation = =
= = = Davis Cup = = =
= = = = 2005 = = = =
Murray made his Davis Cup debut for Great Britain in the Europe / Africa Zone Group 1 2nd Round against Israel in 2005 at 17 years of age , the youngest ever player for Great Britain . He teamed up with fellow debutant David Sherwood and came out victorious in the crucial doubles rubber against the experienced Jonathan Erlich and Andy Ram , helping Britain advance 3 – 2 .
In September , Murray played his debut singles match for the Davis Cup in the World Group Play @-@ off against Switzerland in Geneva on clay with Greg Rusedski , Alan Mackin and David Sherwood . Captain Jeremy Bates surprised everyone by naming Andy Murray as the British No 1 and Alan Mackin as British No 2 . Under the Davis Cup rules , this meant that for Friday ’ s singles , Murray played the Swiss No 2 , Stan Wawrinka while Mackin played the Swiss No 1 , Roger Federer . Both of them lost their rubbers , giving Switzerland a 2 – 0 lead . Under the rules , for Sunday ’ s reverse singles , Bates would have been able to substitute Mackin with Greg Rusedski , so that Rusedski would play Wawrinka , while Murray played Federer . However , Bates believed that Federer was virtually unbeatable because he was on a winning streak and hadn ’ t lost since June , and consequently Britain gambled on beating Wawrinka twice , with Murray playing Wawrinka when he was freshest . In the doubles , Murray / Rusedski played Federer and Yves Allegro , leaving Rusedski to play only once . The British tactics came to nought as Switzerland won the doubles rubber as well , gaining un unassailable 3 – 0 lead after two the days . Alan Mackin and David Sherwood were consequently nominated for the dead singles rubbers losing both of them , resulting in a clean sweep for Switzerland .
= = = = 2006 = = = =
For the Europe / Africa Zone Group I tie against Serbia and Montenegro , Murray had been suffering with a bacterial infection , so he was restricted to playing the doubles alongside Greg Rusedski , which they lost . With Arvind Parmar also losing in the singles , Great Britain were beaten 3 – 2 .
In the same week as the relegation 1st round play @-@ off against Israel , Murray was officially entered for the ATP tournament in Indianapolis , sparking fears about his commitment . There was a controversial move by the Lawn Tennis Association to pay £ 500 @,@ 000 towards the cost of Murray 's next coach , Brad Gilbert as a way of securing Murray 's long @-@ term services for the Davis Cup team . In the event , Murray played , winning his first singles . However he lost the doubles with Jamie Delgado , during which Murray damaged his shoulder and neck . He was diagnosed with whiplash , causing him to sit out the final day ’ s singles , and eventually Great Britain were beaten 3 – 2 to proceed to the relegation 2nd round play @-@ off against Ukraine . With Murray and Greg Rusedski playing , Great Britain beat Ukraine 3 – 2 , to stay in Group I.
= = = = 2007 = = = =
In the tie against the Netherlands , Andy Murray and Tim Henman won the opening singles , then Jamie Murray and Greg Rusedski won the doubles to secure victory . Rusedski announced his retirement on the doubles court .
In the run up to World Group play @-@ off against Croatia , Tim Henman had announced he would retire after this match . Murray said " I 'm not going to want to let the team down or let Tim down , I 'd feel terrible if I was the one that was responsible for losing Tim 's last tie . This means a lot to me and it 's definitely going to be the biggest Davis Cup match of my career . " " Everyone is going to want to win for Tim . I 'm hoping the way I play will show him what his career meant to my development and me . " Great Britain beat Croatia 4 – 1 to qualify for the World Group in 2008 .
After the retirement of Tim Henman and Greg Rusedski , the Davis Cup team was now dependent on Murray having to win three matches , though Henman had told him how wearing and time consuming that can be . While the LTA was funding Brad Gilbert , Murray was obligated to play for his country , but in November , Murray finished with Brad Gilbert as his coach .
= = = = 2008 = = = =
Murray skipped the World Group 1st round tie against Argentina , over fears he could exacerbate a knee injury , leaving the British team in a hopeless situation – they lost 4 – 1 . Jamie was furious that Andy was letting them down and the Murrays would not speak to each other for two weeks . Seven months later , as the brothers prepared for the tie against Austria , Andy declared that he had healed the rift with Jamie . When Jamie Murray and Ross Hutchins were beaten in the doubles , John Lloyd suffered criticism for not playing Andy . Great Britain lost their World Group play @-@ off to Austria 3 – 2 and were relegated to Europe / Africa Zone Group I.
= = = = 2009 = = = =
Murray withdrew from the tie against Ukraine after failing to shake off a virus , and Great Britain lost 4 – 1 .
Murray suffered an injury to his left wrist at the US Open , and would have rested if his next event had not been the Davis Cup . At the Poland match , he won both his singles rubbers . For the doubles with Ross Hutchins , Murray began in the right @-@ hand court , the side usually occupied by the less dominant partner , so as to afford more protection to his troublesome left wrist than when striking double @-@ handed backhands from the left court . , though allowed his partner to resume his usual role in the second set . However , the pair succumbed to the world @-@ class Polish duo , and Poland won 3 – 2 ; Great Britain were relegated to Europe / Africa Zone Group II for the first time since 1996 . Murray had aggravated his wrist injury , so couldn 't play for another six weeks .
= = = = 2010 = = = =
Murray pulled out of the match against Lithuania , so younger players could gain more international experience , and to allow him to focus on trying to win Grand Slam titles . His absence was criticised by Davis Cup captain John Lloyd . The Lithuanian side entered the tie as underdogs ; fielding a team of teenagers , but Lithuania won 3 – 2 . This was the first time that Great Britain had lost five ties in a row and was described as a humiliating Davis Cup defeat for Great Britain . It led to the resignation of John Lloyd as Davis Cup captain , with Britain now threatened with relegation to the lowest tier of the competition .
= = = = 2011 = = = =
Murray returned for the Europe / Africa Zone Group II tie versus Luxembourg . He beat Laurent Bram , a tennis coach , 6 – 0 , 6 – 0 , 6 – 0 , the last time a Briton had achieved this score line in Davis Cup was Alan Mills defeating Josef Offenheim in 1959 , also against Luxembourg . Andy and Jamie Murray teamed up for the first time in Davis Cup doubles for a straight sets win . In his second singles match , Andy then recorded a third straight sets victory , over world No. 81 Gilles Müller , with Great Britain eventually winning 4 – 1 .
Three of Hungary 's top four players were not available for the Great Britain vs Hungary tie , so Murray defeated Sebo Kiss , a law student without a ranking , in his first singles rubber . Earlier , James Ward overcame sickness to beat the Hungarian No 1 , then Colin Fleming and Ross Hutchins won the doubles , and Great Britain was promoted into Europe / Africa Zone Group I for the first time since 2009 .
Afterwards , Murray criticised the tournament schedule and cast doubt on his availability for next year ’ s Davis Cup .
= = = = 2013 = = = =
By 2013 , Great Britain 's other tennis players had earned the team a chance to return to the World Group . Murray was suffering a vulnerable back and intended to have surgery after the US Open . Murray revealed that the fear of being branded “ unpatriotic ” led him to delay the surgery until after the Davis Cup tie in Croatia in September , which jeopardised his place in the next Australian Open . With Croatia 's No 1 Marin Čilić absent for committing a doping offence , Murray won both his singles matches and the doubles with Colin Fleming , Great Britain eventually winning 4 – 1 , for their first victory on clay since Ukraine in 2006 , and returning to the World Group for the first time since 2008 .
= = = = 2014 = = = =
At the World Group first round tie against the United States in San Diego , Murray defeated Donald Young and James Ward unexpectedly beat Sam Querrey on the first day . On the last day , Murray beat Sam Querrey to put Great Britain into the quarterfinals of the Davis Cup for the first time since 1986 . Britain ’ s only previous victory on American soil was 111 years ago .
Murray had to recover from a virus to play in the Quarter Final tie against Italy in Naples after missing the Thursday draw ceremony . James Ward lost his rain delayed match , while Murray ’ s match against Andreas Seppi was halted on Friday evening due to fading light with the score at 6 – 4 , 5 – 5 to Murray . On Saturday morning , Murray finished his match , winning 6 – 4 , 7 – 5 , 6 – 3 . Two hours later , Murray partnered Colin Fleming to win the doubles rubber . Murray had only beaten one top ten player on clay , Nikolay Davydenko , back in 2009 , and was upset by Fabio Fognini , world No. 13 , in straight sets , which took Great Britain to the deciding final rubber . However , James Ward was defeated by Andreas Seppi , also in straight sets , knocking Great Britain out of the Davis Cup .
= = = = 2015 = = = =
Murray helped lead Great Britain to the final of the World Group for the first time since 1978 , winning both his singles rubbers in the matches against the USA , France and Australia . In the final , Murray defeated Belgium 's David Goffin to win the Davis Cup for Great Britain , 79 years after the national team 's last win .
= = = Olympics = = =
Murray represented Great Britain at his maiden Olympics in Beijing 2008 . He competed in the singles and doubles competitions . Despite being seeded sixth in the singles competition , he was eliminated in the first round by Chinese Taipei 's Yen @-@ hsun Lu . Along with his brother Jamie , he advanced to the second round of the doubles competition with a win over the Canadian pairing of Daniel Nestor and Frédéric Niemeyer . The Murray brothers were eliminated in the second round by France 's Arnaud Clément and Michael Llodra . In February , Murray pulled out of the Davis Cup tie against Argentina , because of a knee injury , so Argentina thrashed the under @-@ strength British team . Jamie Murray scathingly criticised Andy and they did not speak to each other for a fortnight . Their rift continued in the Olympic doubles , over a perceived lack of effort from Andy .
At the London 2012 Olympics , Murray competed in the singles , doubles ( partnering his brother Jamie ) and mixed doubles ( partnering Laura Robson ) . In the singles , he won the Gold Medal , including straight @-@ set victories over Novak Djokovic in the semifinals and Roger Federer in the final , four weeks after Federer had beaten him in on the same court in the Wimbledon final . He also won the silver medal in the mixed doubles , losing to the Belarusian pairing of Max Mirnyi and Victoria Azarenka .
= = Rivalries = =
= = = Murray vs. Djokovic = = =
Novak Djokovic and Andy Murray have met 34 times with Djokovic leading 24 – 10 . Djokovic leads 5 – 1 on clay , 19 – 7 on hard courts , and Murray leads 2 – 0 on grass . The two are almost exactly the same age , with Murray being only a week older than Djokovic . They went to training camp together , and Murray won the first match they ever played as teenagers . The pair have met 17 times in finals , with Djokovic leading 10 – 7 . Ten of the finals were at ATP Masters 1000 events , and they are tied at 5 – 5 . They have met in seven Major finals : The 2011 Australian Open , the 2012 US Open , the 2013 Australian Open , the 2013 Wimbledon Championships , the 2015 Australian Open , the 2016 Australian Open , and the 2016 French Open . Djokovic has won in Australia four times and their single French open final , Murray emerged as the victor at the US Open and Wimbledon . The former of Murray 's victories was the longest ever final at the US Open , tying with the 1988 final played between Ivan Lendl and Mats Wilander at 4 hours and 53 minutes , while the latter was notable for being the first home triumph in men 's singles at Wimbledon since 1936 .
They also played a nearly five @-@ hour long semifinal match in the 2012 Australian Open , which Djokovic won 7 – 5 in the fifth set after Murray led 2 sets to 1 . Murray and Djokovic met again in 2012 at the London 2012 Olympic Games , with Murray winning in straight sets . During the final of the 2012 Shanghai Masters , Murray held five championship points in the second set , however Djokovic saved each of them , forcing a deciding set . He eventually prevailed to win his first Shanghai Masters title , ending Murray 's 12 – 0 winning streak at the event . The three set matches they played in Rome and Shanghai in 2011 and 2012 respectively were voted the ATP World Tour Match of the Year for each respective season . Due to the tight competition between 2008 and 2013 , many saw this as the emerging rivalry . Djokovic went on to dominate the rivalry after the 2013 Wimbledon final , winning 13 of their last 15 matches . Their most recent meeting took place at the 2016 French Open final where Djokovic defeated Murray in four sets to win his first French Open title and complete the Career Grand Slam .
= = = Murray vs. Federer = = =
Andy Murray and Roger Federer have met 25 times with Federer leading 14 – 11 . Federer leads 12 – 10 on hard courts , 2 – 1 on grass , and they have never met on clay . After Federer won the first professional match they played , Murray dominated the first half of the rivalry , winning 8 of their first 13 matches from 2005 until 2010 . The second half of the rivalry has been dominated by Federer , who since won 9 of their last 12 matches from 2010 , and has lead their rivalry since the 2014 ATP World Tour Finals . Federer leads 5 – 3 in finals , having won each of their Grand Slam Final meetings at the 2008 US Open and 2010 Australian Open , both of which Federer won in straight sets , and the 2012 Wimbledon Championships , where Murray took the first set , but ended up losing in 4 sets . Murray leads 6 – 3 in ATP 1000 tournaments and 2 – 0 in finals . They have met five times at the ATP World Tour Finals , with Murray winning in Shanghai in 2008 and Federer coming out victorious in London in 2009 , 2010 , 2012 , and in 2014 .
In August 2012 , Murray met Federer in the final of the London 2012 Olympics at Wimbledon Centre Court , just four weeks after the 2012 Wimbledon Final , in which Federer had defeated Murray to win his record @-@ tying 7th title at the All @-@ England Club . Murray defeated Federer in straight sets to win the gold medal , denying Federer a Career Golden Slam . In 2013 Murray beat Federer for the first time in a Major in the semifinals of the Australian Open , prevailing in five sets after Federer had come back twice from a set down . Their last grand slam meeting was at the 2015 Wimbledon Championships semifinals , where a dominant Federer defeated Murray in straight sets , earning a place in his 10th Wimbledon final . Murray is one of only three players to have recorded 10 or more victories over Federer , the other two being Nadal and Djokovic . Their most recent meeting took place at the 2015 Cincinnati Masters semifinals , with Federer winning the match in two close sets , recording his fifth consecutive victory over Murray .
= = = Murray vs. Nadal = = =
Murray has played against Nadal on 24 occasions since 2007 , with Nadal leading 17 – 7 . Nadal leads 7 – 2 on clay , 3 – 0 on grass and 7 – 5 on hard courts . The pair regularly meet at Grand Slam level , with nine out of their twenty @-@ one meetings coming in slams , with Nadal leading 7 – 2 ( 3 – 0 at Wimbledon , 2 – 0 at the French Open , 1 – 1 at the Australian Open and 1 – 1 at the US Open ) . Eight of these nine appearances have been at quarterfinal and semifinal level . They have never met in a Slam final , however , Murray leads 3 – 1 in ATP finals , with Nadal winning at Indian Wells in 2009 and Murray winning in Rotterdam the same year , Tokyo in 2011 , and at Madrid in 2015 .
Murray lost three consecutive Grand Slam semifinals to Nadal in 2011 from the French Open to the US Open . Of the past 20 Grand Slam drawsheets , they have been drawn in the same half 16 times . The pair had not met for three years since the final of the 2011 Japan Open until the quarterfinals of the 2014 Rome Masters , although they were scheduled to meet in the semifinal of the 2012 Miami Masters before Nadal withdrew with injury . At the semifinal stage of the 2014 French Open , Nadal triumphed in a dominant straight sets win for the loss of just 6 games . In one of their most recent meetings , Murray beat Nadal for the first time on clay , and the first time in a Masters 1000 final , at the Madrid Open in 2015 . Murray beat Nadal at the 2016 Mutual Madrid Open in the semifinals . Their most recent meeting took place at the 2016 Madrid Open semifinals with Murray winning the match in straight sets .
= = Playing style = =
Murray plays an all @-@ court game with an emphasis on defensive baseline play , and professional tennis coach Paul Annacone stated that Murray " may be the best counterpuncher on tour today . " His strengths include groundstrokes with low error rate , the ability to anticipate and react , and his transition from defence to offence with speed , which enables him to hit winners from defensive positions . His playing style has been likened to that of Miloslav Mečíř . Murray also has one of the best two @-@ handed backhands on the tour , with dynamic stroke execution while he primarily uses his forehand and a sliced backhand to let opponents play into his hands . Tim Henman has stated that Murray may now have the best lob in the game , succeeding Lleyton Hewitt . Murray 's tactics often involve passive exchanges from the baseline . He is capable of injecting sudden pace into his groundstrokes to surprise his opponents who are used to the slow rally . Murray is also one of the top returners in the game , often able to block back fast serves with his excellent reach and ability to anticipate . For this reason , Murray is rarely aced .
Murray is known for being one of the most intelligent tacticians on the court , often constructing points . Murray is most proficient on a fast surface , like grass , where he has won eight singles titles including the Wimbledon Championships and the 2012 Olympic Gold Medal . He has worked hard since 2008 on improving his clay court game , ultimately winning his first clay titles during 2015 at Munich and Madrid , as well as his first French Open final . While Murray 's serve is a major weapon for him , with his first serve reaching speeds of 130 mph or higher on some occasions and winning him many free points , it can become inconsistent when hit under pressure , especially with a more vulnerable and slower second serve . Since his 2011 season and Ivan Lendl 's coaching , he has worked to improve his consistency , second serve and mental game , resulting in a more offensive game .
= = Endorsements and equipment = =
In 2009 , German manufacturer Adidas and Murray signed a five @-@ year @-@ deal worth £ 30 million . This included wearing their range of tennis shoes . The contract with Adidas allowed Murray to keep his shirt sleeve sponsors Shiatzy Chen , Royal Bank of Scotland and Highland Spring . Before he was signed by Adidas in late 2009 , he wore Fred Perry apparel . At the end of their contract together Adidas decided not to re @-@ sign with Murray , and he began a 4 @-@ year partnership with athletic apparel company Under Armour in December 2014 , reportedly worth $ 25 million . Murray uses Head rackets , and regularly appears in advertisements for the brand . In June 2012 , the Swiss watch manufacturer Rado announced that Murray had signed a deal to wear their D @-@ Star 200 model .
= = Charitable work = =
Murray is a founding member of the Malaria No More UK Leadership Council and helped launch the charity in 2009 with David Beckham . Footage from the launch at Wembley Stadium can be seen on YouTube and the charity 's website . Murray also made ' Nets Needed ' , a short public service announcement , for the charity to help raise awareness and funds to help in the fight against malaria . Murray has also taken part in several charity tennis events , including the Rally for Relief events that took place prior to the start of the 2011 Australian Open .
In June 2013 , Murray teamed up with former British number 1 Tim Henman for a charity doubles match against Murray 's coach and eight @-@ time grand slam champion Ivan Lendl , and world No. 6 Tomáš Berdych at the Queen 's Club in London . The event named Rally Against Cancer was organised to raise money for Royal Marsden Cancer Charity after his best friend and fellow British player Ross Hutchins was diagnosed with Hodgkin 's lymphoma . The event took place following the final day of competitive play at the AEGON Championships , on Sunday 16 June . Subsequently , following his victory at the tournament , Murray donated his entire prize money pot to The Royal Marsden Cancer Charity .
In June 2014 , following the death of Elena Baltacha , Murray featured in an event known as ' Rally for Bally ' . Murray played at Queen 's Club alongside Victoria Azarenka , Martina Hingis , Heather Watson and his brother Jamie . The event raised money for the Royal Marsden Cancer Charity and the Elena Baltacha Academy of Tennis . Children from Baltacha 's academy took to the court to play alongside Murray . As a result of his various charitable exploits , Murray was awarded the Arthur Ashe Humanitarian of the Year award for 2014 .
= = Image = =
= = = National identity = = =
Murray identifies himself as Scottish and British . His national identity has often been commented on by the media . While making a cameo appearance on the comedy show Outnumbered , Murray was asked whether he was British or Scottish , to which he responded " It depends if I 'm winning " . Much of the discussion about Murray 's national identity began prior to Wimbledon 2006 , when he was quoted as saying he would " support whoever England is playing " at the 2006 World Cup . English ex @-@ tennis player Tim Henman confirmed that the remarks had been made in jest and were only in response to Murray being teased by journalist Des Kelly and Henman about Scotland 's failure to qualify .
Murray initially refused to endorse either side of the debate in the 2014 referendum on Scottish independence , citing the abuse he had received after his comments in 2006 . Just before the referendum , Murray tweeted a message that was considered by the media to be supportive of independence . He received online abuse for expressing his opinion , including messages that were described as " vile " by Police Scotland ; one referred to the Dunblane massacre . A few days after the vote , in which a 55 % majority opposed Scottish independence , Murray said that he did not regret stating his view , but admitted that it was out of character and that he would concentrate on his tennis career in the future .
= = = Other = = =
In 2006 , there was uproar after a match with Kenneth Carlsen . Having been given a warning for racket abuse , he went on in the post @-@ match interview to state that he and Carlsen had " played like women " during the first set . Murray was booed for the remark , but explained later that the comment had been intended as a jocular response to what Svetlana Kuznetsova had said at the Hopman Cup . A few months later , Murray was fined for swearing at the umpire during a Davis Cup doubles rubber with the Serbia and Montenegro Davis Cup team . Murray refused to shake hands with the umpire at the end of the match .
In 2007 , Murray suggested that tennis had a match @-@ fixing problem , stating that everyone knows it goes on , in the wake of the investigation surrounding Nikolay Davydenko . Both Davydenko and Rafael Nadal questioned his comments , but Murray responded that his words had been taken out of context .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Ranking = = =
= = = Grand Slam tournament performance timeline = = =
Finals : 11 ( 3 titles , 8 runner @-@ ups )
= = = Olympic Games = = =
= = = = Finals : 2 ( 1 gold medal , 1 silver medal ) = = = =
= = = = = Singles : 1 ( 1 – 0 ) = = = = =
= = = = = Mixed Doubles : 1 ( 0 – 1 ) = = = = =
= = = Records and achievements = = =
These records were attained in the Open Era .
Records in bold indicate peer @-@ less achievements .
Records in italics are currently active streaks .
= = Awards and honours = =
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= Gilly Roach =
Gilbert " Gilly " Roach is a fictional character from the British Channel 4 soap opera Hollyoaks , played by Anthony Quinlan . The character debuted on @-@ screen during the episode airing on 4 October 2005 . Gilly was created in 2005 by executive producer David Hanson . Gilly has often been portrayed as a push @-@ over and has a double act partnership with fellow character Rhys Ashworth . His main character traits have been his " nice attitude " , with Quinlan branding Gilly in his first five years as a " push @-@ over " . He has been labelled a loser and unlucky in love after failed relationships with Jessica Harris , Beth Clement , Cheryl Brady and Jem Costello . In 2009 , executive producer Lucy Alan made changes to the character and reached a mutual agreement with Quinlan to shave off his hair , which has characterised Gilly during his early years .
In 2010 he was paired with Steph Cunningham , who was later killed on @-@ screen after Stenson quit her role . This resulted in a long @-@ running storyline for Gilly in which he was seen taking a " dark journey " unable to cope with grief . Another big storyline for the character occurs in 2011 when Jacqui McQueen accuses him of rape ; the storyline subsequently received media attention . A fictional jury consisting of viewers is to decide if he is guilty or innocent . Other storylines have involved the effects of binge drinking , which was portrayed during an online spin @-@ off drama . Gilly has sometimes proved unpopular with television critics , with one branding him a " dampy drizzle of a character " . Quinlan has also been nominated for minor awards for his portrayal . In 2011 , it was announced that Quinlan would be leaving the serial to pursue other projects and would leave at the end of the rape storyline .
= = Character development = =
= = = Relationship with Beth Clement = = =
BBC America described Gilly on their official website stating : " His most endearing quality is his honesty and despite his countless flaws , what you see is what you get . He 's hardly a ladykiller but what he lacks in appearance he makes up for with charisma . " E4 publicity describe Gilly as fun @-@ loving and always trying to woo females but hardly manages to impress them and has also been described as unlucky @-@ in @-@ love after his failed relationships . Initially he failed to impress females and didn 't have much in common with them . Gilly has been portrayed as a strong supporter of Manchester City F.C. , it was this single thing that drew him and Beth Clement ( Sinéad Moynihan ) together . Gilly was later made a fool by Beth and his best friend Rhys Ashworth ( Andrew Moss ) after they continued an affair despite the fact they were siblings , they split , Beth subsequently died and due to Gilly 's forgiving personality he later forgave Rhys . Holy Soap opined that this was a stand out moment of the character 's duration . Another storyline showing his timid personality was when he was mugged by a group of teenagers and was left fearing for his safety and even let them pick on him on the streets . In a further twist Gilly was left feeling so ashamed of the attack he pretended it was adult attackers fearing what people would think of him .
= = = Binge drinking = = =
During a spin @-@ off series titled Hollyoaks : The Morning After The Night Before , Gilly and Josh Ashworth head to Manchester . The series explored the dangers of bringe drinking and was funded by the Home Office . This was the start of changes implemented to the character that would continue into the main series . During the spin @-@ off he was portrayed having negative experiences with excessive alcohol consumption , of this Quinlan said : " Gilly and Josh had a little fight over Ruby ( Nika McGuigan ) , so the character did change due to all the drink consumed . His mood changed further when he attempted to run after Josh after the scuffle , and fell down a set of stairs in the nightclub , losing some of his teeth . After the incident he couldn 't wait to get back home to the village . "
He then stated that he wanted viewers to learn from his character 's scenario and be responsible while drinking , stating : " It will make people think twice about binge drinking and make people aware of the consequences if you do . " When the character lost his teeth it made the character 's low confidence worsen , Quinlan made comment of this saying : " Gilly 's confidence was always low really - self @-@ confidence , self @-@ belief . But having no teeth isn 't good to look at - not a good look . It 's going to draw attention to him and not do him any favours . " To enable continuity the character was scripted a slight speech impediment , behind the scenes Quinlan had a special palette fitted , it was a real one fitted by real life dentists and paid for by the show , it would black the character 's front teeth and leave a chipped one at the side . Quinlan also revealed it was quite difficult to speak when wearing it , but praised it as being realistic to have some form of speech impediment having teeth knocked out . Talking of his character 's changes and lessons learnt during the special episodes Quinlan said : " I think Gilly 's learnt to chill out a little , not to follow the crowd and be a sheep . Everyone was drinking loads , he got caught up in it and he came out on the wrong side of it . So , I think there is a lesson learned there - Gilly will do his own thing and not drink as much . "
= = = Relationship with Steph Cunningham = = =
Gilly was later seen using his new look in attempt to get the affections of Steph Cunningham ( Carley Stenson ) . After failing he acted out of character and struck up a scam date with Cheryl Brady ( Bronagh Waugh ) to make Steph jealous but it back @-@ fired when his false tooth came loose in Cheryl 's mouth . He later has relationships with Cheryl and Jem Costello ( Helen Russell @-@ Clark ) . Another change implemented during this period was a dramatic change to the character 's appearance after new series producer Lucy Allan and Quinlan came to a mutual decision to transform his hairstyle by shaving it all off , a stark contrast as during his early years he was constantly seen with long hair .
After Gilly eventually starts a relationship with Steph , she is diagnosed with cervical cancer and initially keeps the news a secret from him . Stenson spoke of Steph 's reasoning stating : " With Gilly , she 's embarrassed and doesn 't want him to look after her . " Speaking of the storyline Quinlan stated during an interview with Inside Soap : " I think Gilly 's really gutted that he didn 't get together with Steph sooner - he wasted so much time with Cheryl and Jem , when really he was in love with her . " At one point Steph cancels her wedding to Gilly because he cannot accept she is dying , of this Quinlan states : " His denial is not helping her . She 's tying to take this in her stride and wants to spend quality time with the people she loves before she goes . She tells him he has to accept she 's going to die or the wedding is off. and she hands back her engagement ring . " Quinlan has also stated he was eager for the pair to marry because of the " tear jerking " scenes it would create . Steph is killed off during a special week of episodes dubbed " fire week " . The cast filmed many stunts themselves , and Quinlan filmed scenes in front of a burning set , and he stated he " was very manly about it " whilst filming a ladder rescue scene . Gilly 's immediate grief resulted in the characters name trending on Twitter , of this Quinlan stated : " So glad that the ep had the impact that was desired ! Buzzing Gilly is trended again ! " Gilly 's grief is made worse because of Steph making the decision to die prematurely . Conversing this Quinlan said : " He 's grieving - he just can 't understand why she took her life like that . " He added that Gilly 's grief turns to anger because he cannot get the answers to his questions . Quinlan opined that he wanted Gilly to take a different root stating : " I 'd like to see Gilly go down a bit of a different route because he ’ s been a bit of a push @-@ over in the past . I 'd like to see his character progress a bit more and I 'd like to see a side of him that we haven 't seen before . " Gilly 's grief then continued to get worse with Quinlan adding : " The poor guy 's heading off on a very dark journey that I 'm sure he 'll live to regret . " As Gilly is still so angry , at Steph 's funeral , the director of the episode asked Quinlan not to cry at all during the ceremony . Quinlan added " It was all so heartfelt , though , that I broke down for real a few times - and I think that 's going to come across in the final episode . "
= = = Sexual assault = = =
Gilly later finds himself attracted to Lynsey Nolan ( Karen Hassan ) ; he initially fears he is moving on to soon . Whilst interviewed by Inside Soap Quinlan describes the scenes in which they share their first kiss stating : " Gilly gets a new job at Look Sharpe as a personal trainer , and invites Lynsey for a free session , Lynsey 's looking pretty good when she turns up , so Gilly gets a bit sweaty and hot under the collar - and she ends up hopping into the tub and dragging Gilly in fully clothed ! " They later meet up and feel awkward because of Gilly 's grief for Steph , of this Quinlan adds : " They 're getting on well , but as soon as the word date is mentioned , it goes a bit wrong , nerves get the better of them and they have a huge row . " Off @-@ screen Quinlan was not happy with the fact Gilly is trying to move on quick , of this he states : " I thought it was a bit harsh , it feels like it 's a little too soon , doesn 't it ? We 'll just have to wait and see what the future holds for Gilly and Lynsey - but there 's no comparison to Steph ... "
In December 2010 Channel 4 released a press statement which revealed Jacqui McQueen ( Claire Cooper ) would cheat on Rhys with Gilly and that the night 's events would " change their lives forever " . It was later announced that the storyline would see Jacqui accusing Gilly of raping her . The storyline received much coverage in various tabloid newspapers who also branded it as a " shock plot " for the serial . None of the cast members involved in the storyline knew if Jacqui had actually been raped , of this Cooper states : ' They 're telling the same story but are looking at it from different angles . Just who to believe is a very grey area . It will split the village and the viewers . We don 't know what happened that night , We 've just been told that our characters each think they 're telling the truth . [ Anthony ] and I have talked about it a lot . I even read his scripts to try to work it out . The outcome will be a surprise for both of us.'
The storyline began to play out on @-@ screen in February 2011 , describing how it starts to develop and the effects it has on Gilly , a spokesperson for the serial told Inside Soap : " She runs into Gilly who 's also got relationship problems , . The drink starts to flow , and one thing leads to another ... Gilly consumed with guilt over sleeping with his best friend 's girlfriend , it doesn 't help that Jacqui leaves Gilly 's place while he 's asleep - and runs into Rhys . But after Gilly wakes up , he knows he has to tell his mate what he 's done . When Gilly confesses , Rhys is both furious and hurt , and lashes out violently . [ ... ] Once he 's confronted Gilly , he demands an explanation from Jacqui - and is stunned when she tells him she was actually raped , it 's absolutely devastating . " The storyline later takes another turn when Gilly confronts Jacqui in the village with everyone watching , leading everyone to doubt if he did commit the act or not .
It was later revealed that the details were left unclear because Lime Pictures had decided to leave the outcome of the rape trial to viewers . Viewers have been given the chance to apply for the fictional jury , consisting of a cross section of society , including non @-@ Hollyoaks viewers . They will be shown evidence from the case and then decide whether Gilly is guilty or innocent . Chief executive of Lime Pictures , Carolyn Reynolds stated : " We wanted to open up the thorny issue of how hard it is to be a juror and whether the court room is the best place to resolve some of these questions about rape . " The storyline was developed with the " St Mary 's Sexual Assault Referral Centre " and other charities . DCI Ben Snuggs , leader of Don 't Cross the Line campaign , explained : " This storyline represents an issue that we see all too often , involving whether consent is clear on the part of both parties involved in sexual activity , and particularly when alcohol and drugs are involved . "
In late 2011 , Quinlan announced his departure from Hollyoaks . The serial decided to write a conclusion to the rape storyline , airing in a special three @-@ hander episode centered on Gilly , Jacqui and Rhys which featured Gilly confessing to the rape as he knew Jacqui was not consenting when he raped her .
= = Storylines = =
Gilly is from Manchester . When the Ashworths move to Hollyoaks , Gilly decides to move with them . He sneaks into a Halloween party at HCC , Gilly kisses Jessica Harris ( Jennifer Biddall ) and assumes the role of her wannabe boyfriend . This leads to him pretending to be a philosophy student just to get close to her and finds a rival in Mark Jury ( Asier Newman ) , Jessica 's real boyfriend . The two battled for affections but Jessica could not decide between them and ended both relationships . Neville ( Jim Millea ) buys Drive ' n ' Buy and Gilly becomes an employee , mainly so he can become close to Sarah Barnes ( Loui Batley ) . The pair start going on dates , however , Sarah loses interest . Any chance of a relationship ends when Gilly reveals Rhys slept with her mother , Kathy Barnes ( Sarah Jane Buckley ) . Rhys becomes jealous over Gilly and Sarah and kicks him out of the home . Gilly moves into the student halls with ex @-@ girlfriend , Jess . After Gilly defends Zak after he is accused of stealing Zoë 's belongings , he and Rhys renew their friendship and he moves back into the Ashworths ' . Gilly finds out Rhys is an escort and decides to be one himself , unaware the job involves nothing sexual .
Rhys discovers Zak and Gilly are planning a strip show at nightclub The Loft . Rhys agrees to join , however , is replaced by Calvin Valentine ( Ricky Whittle ) . During the strip show , Rhys tries to chat up a girl , who is only interested in Gilly . Gilly meets a young woman named Molly Traverse ( Kate Deakin ) , whom he is put off by when she mentions marriage . During her battle with anorexia , Hannah Ashworth ( Emma Rigby ) and friend , Melissa Hurst ( Carla Chases ) , begin being horrible to Gilly . Hannah hits him , however , after returning from hospital , she apologises . After finding out his girlfriend Beth is his half @-@ sister , Rhys begins being jealous after she and Gilly grow close . Gilly and Beth grow closer and kiss . They start a relationship and agree to take it slowly . Gilly decides to become a lifeguard . Whilst cleaning up , Gilly sees boss , Simon Crosby ( Simon Lawson ) , leaving a cubicle with a crying child . Gilly automatically assumes he is a paedophile . Gilly breaks into Simon 's house and finds pictures of children in their swimwear , one of whom is Tom Cunningham ( Ellis Hollins ) . He also finds a boy 's room with a lock on the door . Gilly shows various residents the proof . Angry parents begin to gather outside Simon 's home and vandalise it by smashing the windows . Realsing his reputation is ruined , Simon attempts suicide . Simon 's wife Gemma Grosby ( Gemma Langford ) shows Gilly a picture of their son , who died . Gilly realises Simon is innocent and feels guilty .
Gilly goes backpacking around Thailand . At this time , Beth and Rhys rekindle their romance and start an affair . Guilty , Beth leaves with Gilly and they return later in 2008 . Gilly proposes to Beth , who agrees to make Rhys , who is in a relationship with Mercedes McQueen ( Jennifer Metcalfe ) , jealous . Michaela McQueen ( Hollie @-@ Jay Bowes ) catches Rhys and Beth kissing and tells Gilly , who refuses to believe . Later , Michaela tells Gilly to go home in an attempt to make him see the truth . Gilly does so and catches Rhys and Beth sleeping together . He begins to beat up Rhys and calls the police . Realising they face a prison sentence for incest , Rhys and Beth leave Hollyoaks , however , they are involved in a car crash which results in Beth 's death . After time away , Rhys returns and he and Gilly decide to make up .
Gilly meets Leila Roy ( Lena Kaur ) and the pair begin a relationship . The romance is short as Leila tells Gilly they cannot be together . Gilly is upset by the breakup . After a break of several months , Gilly returned . At the SU Bar , Gilly begins looking for a new girlfriend with Josh Ashworth ( Sonny Flood ) . A drunken Hannah then throws herself at Gilly and tries to kiss him . Gilly tells her he sees her as a sister . She then apologises . In Hollyoaks : The Morning After the Night Before , Gilly goes to Manchester to party with Josh . Josh and Gilly begin a fight which ends with Gilly losing his front teeth . After returning to the village , Gilly begins to develop feelings for Steph and is jealous towards her relationship with Fernando Fernandez ( Jeronimo Best ) .
Whilst at a boot camp trip with Steph and Fernando , Steph believes Gilly has feelings for Sarah , and is unaware his feelings are for her . During the trip , after Steph , Fernando and Gilly leave , Sarah is killed in a tragic parachute jump . Gilly writes a poem for Steph , and in it , offends Fernando . When Steph reads it she is angry at Gilly , who tells her it is Rhys who has the feelings for her . Fernando punches Rhys as Gilly convinces Steph he had nothing to do with the poem . In order to make Steph jealous , Gilly kisses Cheryl who is trying to make Calvin jealous . Despite using him , Cheryl develops true feelings for Gilly . Frankie Osborne ( Helen Pearson ) works out that Gilly is in love with Steph . However , Gilly denies it , saying that he loves Cheryl . Cheryl catches Gilly looking at an engagement ring , which Fernando has bought for Steph . She assumes the ring is for her and tells everyone in The Dog in the Pond that she and Gilly are getting married . Gilly reluctantly goes along , not wanting to hurt her feelings . Cheryl notices the growing closeness between Gilly and Steph and confronts him . On discovering he is in love with Steph , she breaks off their engagement , at the same time Steph and Fernando break up . Gilly goes travelling with Zoe and Mike Barnes ( Tony Hirst ) . Steph , after being told about Gilly 's feelings for her , rushes after him to admit her love just as Gilly leaves . Gilly returns on 5 March with his girlfriend Jem . Steph is upset when he proposes to Jem . Steph admits her feelings to Gilly , but he decides to stay with Jem . Rhys tells Jem that Gilly still loves Steph causing them to split up . Gilly and Steph finally confess their true feelings to each other and begin a relationship .
Steph is diagnosed with cervical cancer and does not tell Gilly , who later finds out from Cheryl . Gilly is angry at Steph for keeping this from him . Steph undergoes a hysterectomy to remove the cancer . However , doctors tell her and Gilly it failed . She is soon told her cancer is terminal . Gilly takes the news bad . The pair split up when Steph feels it is unfair on Gilly , but they get back together and start to plan their wedding . Gilly and Steph eventually get married beside the village river .
Gilly and Steph take a walk round the village on bonfire night where she finally admits she 's scared of dying , they have a heart to heart conversation where she realises she 's it is how she is going to die that scares her . When the pair see restaurant Il Gnosh on fire , Gilly rings for help whilst Steph runs into the burning building to save Amy Barnes ( Ashley Slanina @-@ Davies ) and her children . Gilly stands on a ladder outside and begs her to come out , however she tells him she 's ready to die and walks back into the flames . Gilly deals with his grief by becoming angry that Steph has ' left ' him . After Rhys tries to comfort him , Gilly goes into Steph 's room and trashes it after seeing that she has still kept her photo of her and Max Cunningham ( Matt Littler ) on their wedding day , placed on a table . Gilly argues with Steph 's family as they blame him for not saving her and disagree on the funeral arrangements . Frankie then tells him that Steph had never loved him and that Max would have done anything to save Steph from the fire , making him further deeply upset and angry . He starts drinking heavily , causing trouble on many occasions .
Gilly starts to date Lynsey , he initially thinks it is too soon after Steph 's death . He is shocked when she finds a lump and it halts their relationship . He sleeps with Jacqui when they get drunk , she tells Rhys he sexually assaulted her . She reports him to the police and Gilly faces trial . Steph 's family support Gilly however many villagers do not .
During the trial it is shown Gilly and Jacqui remember the same events very differently . The jury find Gilly not guilty however the events ruin Gilly and Rhys ' friendship as Rhys eventually believes Jacqui . Lynsey also takes Jacqui 's side . Gilly then goes to spend some time away from the village . He returns in September and is given a job at Chez Chez by Cheryl leading Rhys to quit before punching him .
Gilly moves in with Cheryl , and they begin to rekindle their romantic relationship . But when they try to become physically intimate , Gilly becomes overwhelmed with memories of the rape and cannot go through with sleeping with Cheryl . Later that night , he goes to Rhys ' and Jacqui 's flat , and in a three @-@ hander episode , the three of them discuss everything that 's happened and they all eventually come to the conclusion that Gilly did indeed rape Jacqui . Jacqui forgives him , and Gilly decides that he must leave the village . He confesses the rape to everyone in his life and says his goodbyes . Cheryl in particular is devastated by Gilly 's abrupt departure and begs for him to stay , but he refuses . Jacqui comforts Cheryl as she sobs on the steps outside her flat , while Gilly and Rhys share one final look goodbye before he leaves the village forever .
= = Reception = =
Quinlan was nominated for sexiest male at the 2010 Inside Soap Awards . He was also nominated in the category of " Best Serial Drama Performance " at the 2011 National Television Awards . That same year he was nominated in the category of " Best Actor " at the British Soap Awards . Ruth Deller of Lowculture has criticised Gilly , branding him as a poor character . Commenting on Steph 's death she stated : " No wonder that , gazing upon his face , she realised she was better off burning to death than enduring one more day staring at him . " She praised Paul Marquess ' cast cull of 2010 , but stated that Gilly is " still hanging around like that bit of dog mess you can ’ t get out of the grooves in your trainers . " She also opined : " A damp drizzle of a character , Gilly hasn ’ t worked as Rhys ’ s wide boy sidekick , hasn ’ t worked as a loved @-@ up hippy , hasn ’ t worked as a doting husband , doesn ’ t work on any level . " Also stating she wanted Hollyoaks serial killer Silas Blissett ( Jeff Rawle ) to kill him . Colin Robertson , writing for British tabloid newspaper The Sun brands Gilly a kind @-@ hearted type character .
Roz Laws writing for the Sunday Mercury felt there was " plenty of chemistry " present between Gilly and Steph . Their relationship was frequently commented on by the Daily Mail 's Jaci Stephen in her weekly soap column . She expressed disinterest in Steph and Cheryl 's rivalry over Gilly , and found it implausible that Jem and Steph would quarrel over him . When the two finally admitted their feelings for one another in May 2010 , Stephen accurately predicted that their happiness would be short @-@ lived . She bemoaned the lack of subtlety in the scripting of the lead @-@ up to their wedding , observing : " Of course , you know that the moment she says that nothing is going to stop her marrying Gilly , the Grim Reaper will be pulling up in his hearse , shortly behind the wedding car . "
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= The Perks of Being a Wallflower =
The Perks of Being a Wallflower is a coming @-@ of @-@ age epistolary novel by American writer Stephen Chbosky which was first published on February 1 , 1999 by Pocket Books . Its narrator is an introverted teenager known as Charlie , who describes his experiences in a series of letters to an anonymous stranger . Set in the early 1990s , the novel follows Charlie through his freshman year of high school in a Pittsburgh suburb . Intelligent beyond his years , he is an unconventional thinker ; as the story begins , the reader learns that Charlie is also shy and unpopular .
Chbosky took five years to develop and publish The Perks of Being a Wallflower , creating the characters and other aspects of the story from his own memories . The novel addresses themes permeating adolescence , including introversion , sexuality , and drug use . Chbosky makes several references to other literary works , films , and pop culture in general .
Although Chbosky 's first book was a commercial success , it was banned in some American schools for its content and received mixed reviews from literary critics . In 2012 , he adapted and directed a film version starring Logan Lerman , Ezra Miller and Emma Watson . The film boosted the novel 's sales , and the book reached The New York Times Best Seller list .
= = Plot = =
The story begins with a quiet , sensitive , 15 @-@ year @-@ old boy named Charlie writing letters about his life to an unknown recipient . Charlie chooses that person because he said that he heard he was nice and thought that this person would not be judgmental . He discusses his first year at high school , grappling with two traumatic experiences from his past : the suicide of his only middle @-@ school friend , Michael , a year before , and the death of his favorite aunt , Helen , during his early childhood .
His English teacher , Mr. Anderson , notices Charlie 's passion for reading and writing , and acts as a mentor by assigning him extracurricular books and reports . Although he is a wallflower , Charlie is befriended by two seniors : Patrick and Sam . Patrick is secretly dating Brad , a closeted football player , and Sam is Patrick 's stepsister . Charlie quickly develops a crush on Sam and subsequently admits his feelings to her . It is revealed that Sam was sexually abused as a child , and she kisses Charlie to ensure that his first kiss is from someone who truly loves him .
In parallel , Charlie witnesses his sister 's boyfriend hit her across the face , but she forbids him from telling their parents . He eventually mentions the occurrence to Mr. Anderson , who tells Charlie 's parents about it . Charlie 's relationship with his sister rapidly deteriorates and she continues to see her boyfriend against her parents ' wishes . Eventually , he discovers that his sister is pregnant and agrees to bring her to an abortion clinic without telling anyone . His sister breaks up with her boyfriend , after which her and Charlie 's relationship begins to improve significantly .
Charlie is accepted by Sam and Patrick 's group of friends and begins experimenting with tobacco , alcohol and other drugs . As Charlie engages with his new friends he can control his flashbacks of Aunt Helen , who died in a car crash on her way to buy him a birthday gift . Eventually , Mary Elizabeth , a member of the group , invites Charlie to the school 's Sadie Hawkins dance and the two enter into a desultory relationship . During a game of Truth or Dare , when dared to kiss the prettiest girl in the room he kisses Sam ; Mary Elizabeth storms out , the rest of the group shuns him and Patrick suggests that Charlie stay away from Sam for a while . His flashbacks return .
Patrick and Brad 's relationship is discovered by Brad 's abusive father , and Brad disappears from school for a few days . Upon returning , Brad is cold and mean towards Patrick , while Patrick attempts to reconnect with him . However , when Brad derogatorily attacks Patrick 's sexuality in public , Patrick physically attacks Brad until other football players join in and gang up on Patrick . Charlie breaks up the fight , regaining the respect of Sam and her friends . Patrick begins spending much of his time with Charlie and Patrick kisses Charlie impulsively and then apologizes , but Charlie understands that he is recovering from his romance with Brad . Soon Patrick sees Brad engaging with a stranger in the park and Patrick is able to move on from the relationship .
As the school year ends , Charlie is anxious about losing his older friends — especially Sam , who is leaving for a summer college @-@ preparatory program and has learned that her boyfriend cheated on her . When Charlie helps her pack , they talk about his feelings for her ; she is angry that he never acted on them . They begin to engage sexually , but Charlie suddenly grows inexplicably uncomfortable and stops Sam . Charlie begins to realize that his sexual contact with Sam has stirred up repressed memories of having been molested by his aunt Helen as a child .
In an epilogue , Charlie is discovered by his parents in a catatonic state and does not show any movement despite being hit reluctantly by his father . After being admitted to a mental hospital , it emerges that Helen sexually abused him when he was young , and his love for her ( and empathy for her troubled youth ) caused him to repress his traumatic memories . This psychological damage explains his flashbacks and derealization phases throughout the book . In two months Charlie is released , and Sam and Patrick visit him . In the epilogue , Sam , Patrick and Charlie go through the tunnel again and Charlie stands up and exclaims that he felt infinite .
He comes to terms with his past : " Even if we don 't have the power to choose where we come from , we can still choose where we go from there " . Charlie decides to " participate " in life , and his letter @-@ writing ends .
= = Background and writing = =
Chbosky first conceived random ideas , including " a kid standing up in a tunnel , " a girl he likes , and parties he goes to . After five years with these elements in mind , he had the idea of writing the novel during a difficult period in his life . He was experiencing a " bad breakup " which led him to ask , " Why good people let themselves get treated so badly ? " The author tried to answer the question with the sentence " we accept the love we think we deserve " . That meant to be an advice to remark that one is in charge of one 's life as he is referring to " not just romance love but also love of self , it 's love of your future , it 's the love you have for your life . "
The story began when Chbosky was in school , evolving from another book on which he was working . In that book he wrote the sentence , " I guess that 's just one of the perks of being a wallflower " , which led him to realize " that somewhere in that ... was the kid I was really trying to find . " Chbosky began writing the novel in the summer of 1996 while he was in college , and within a month and six weeks he completed the story . He rewrote it into two more drafts , concluding the published version in the summer of 1998 .
Charlie , " [ his ] hope in the form of a character " , is loosely based on the author and Chbosky included " countless details " in the novel from the time he lived in Pittsburgh . The other characters were " pieces of real people in [ his ] life " ; Chbosky focused on people 's struggles and what they are passionate about , attempting to " hone in [ on ] the essence of each . " The characters of Sam and Patrick were an " amalgamate and celebration " of several people Chbosky has met ; Sam was based on girls who confided in him , and Patrick was " all the kids I knew who were gay and finding their way to their own identity . "
= = Style and themes = =
The idea of anonymous letters came from a real experience ; during his senior year in high school , Chbosky wrote an anonymous letter to Stewart Stern about how Rebel Without a Cause had influenced him . A year and a half later , Stern found Chbosky and became his mentor . By using a series of letters from Charlie to an anonymous character , Chbosky found " the most intimate way " to talk directly to the reader . He thought the letters would help him keep the story cohesive , " to convey the highs and lows of being young — one day , you 're on top of the world and you ’ ve had the greatest of times " .
Critics have identified primary themes of teenage reality and ( for adults ) nostalgia . According to David Edelstein of the New York Magazine , Chbosky captures the " feeling [ that ] you belong when among friends , yet you 'd soon be alone " and notes that " the pain of loss ... [ is ] almost as intense as the bliss ... it 's nostalgia with an emphasis on nostos , pain [ sic ] . " Word Riot 's Marty Beckerman said that The Perks of Being a Wallflower connects with young people because its scenes are " so universal and happen to so many teenagers . " Chbosky wanted to convey respect for teenagers , to " validate and respect and celebrate what [ teenagers ] are going through every day " , and said that the novel is for " anyone who 's felt like an outcast . "
Although it is also read by adults , The Perks of Being a Wallflower is targeted at a teenaged audience . The book addresses a range of themes ( including sex and drugs ) dispassionately . Other themes include friendship , body image , first love , suicide , eating disorders and sexuality . Chbosky appreciates the importance of entertainment in adolescence : " Books , songs , and movies are more than entertainment when we 're young . They help all of us discover who we are , what we believe , and what we hope our life can be . " As such , there are several cultural references : musical ( The Smiths and Fleetwood Mac ) , literary ( This Side of Paradise , On the Road , To Kill a Mockingbird ) and theatrical ( The Rocky Horror Picture Show ) .
= = Publication and reception = =
The Perks of Being a Wallflower was first published on February 1 , 1999 by Pocket Books through its MTV Books imprint . It became the subsidiary 's best @-@ selling book with 100 @,@ 000 copies in print as of 2000 , and was included on school reading lists and gathered a cult following . In spite of it , The Perks of Being a Wallflower has appeared six times on the American Library Association 's list of 10 most @-@ frequently @-@ challenged books . Usually , there are request to remove it from high school public libraries because it deals with drugs use among teenagers , homosexuality , suicide , and has sexually explicit scenes and " offensive language . " Since Chbosky " didn 't write it to be a controversial book , " he was surprised by the bans .
Critical response was mixed ; Publishers Weekly called the novel " trite " , dealing with " standard teenage issues " in which " Chbosky infuses a droning insistence on Charlie 's supersensitive disposition . " Although Kirkus Review said it had " the right combination of realism and uplift " , the reviewer criticized Chbosky 's " rip @-@ off " of J. D. Salinger 's The Catcher in the Rye . Although other reviewers made similar comparisons , Chbosky said he " was not trying to mimic [ Salinger 's ] style as a writer " ; he saw " how readers could compare Charlie to Salinger 's Holden Caulfield " , but " they are very different people with unique problems and perspectives " .
Francisca Goldsmith of the School Library Journal said the novel " cleverly " makes the readers the recipients of Charlie 's letters , and it " will engage teen readers for years to come . " Common Sense Media 's Kate Pavao praised its relevant themes for teenagers : " Readers will find themselves quickly feeling sorry for the protagonist and worrying about him throughout his transformative journey . " In an Amazon.com review , Brangien Davies wrote : " What is most notable about this funny , touching , memorable first novel from Stephen Chbosky is the resounding accuracy with which the author captures the voice of a boy teetering on the brink of adulthood . " For The A.V. Club , Marah Eakin wrote that although for an adult " Perks suffers from an overabundance of pure , raw angst ... unlike some more arrested development @-@ friendly YA fare like Harry Potter , Perks speaks to a more specific age range and does it well . "
With the announcement of a film adaptation the novel received more attention ; it sales increased from 88 @,@ 847 copies in 2011 to 425 @,@ 933 in 2012 , and it reached the New York Times bestseller lists . It entered the Children 's Paperpack Books category on the June 23 , 2012 list , and had 1 @.@ 5 million copies in print in November 2012 . As of May 11 , 2014 it appeared on The New York Times top 10 list for the 71st non @-@ consecutive week , and was in the top 15 on the November 23 list . The novel has been published in 16 countries in 13 languages .
= = Film adaptation = =
Since he wrote The Perks of Being a Wallflower Chbosky aspired to adapt it into a film , calling this " a lifelong dream of mine . " After the publication of the novel Chbosky said he received film offers , refusing them because he " owed the fans a movie that was worthy of their love for the book . " In 2010 Mr. Mudd began developing a film version , and the author was signed to write and direct the film by producers John Malkovich , Lianne Halfon and Russell Smith . The film , shot in the Pittsburgh area from May 9 to June 29 , 2011 , starred Logan Lerman as Charlie , Emma Watson as Sam , Ezra Miller as Patrick , and Nina Dobrev as Charlie 's sister , Candace .
It premiered on September 8 , 2012 at the Toronto International Film Festival , and was released theatrically in the United States by Summit Entertainment on September 21 . According to Metacritic it has received " generally favorable reviews " , with an average of 67 out of 100 based on 36 reviews . Rotten Tomatoes reported an 85 % approval rate , based on 151 reviews . The film was a commercial success , grossing over $ 33 million worldwide from a $ 13 million production budget .
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= Kelly Rowland =
Kelendria Trene " Kelly " Rowland ( born February 11 , 1981 ) is an American singer , songwriter , actress , and television personality . Rowland rose to fame in the late 1990s as a member of Destiny 's Child , one of the world 's best @-@ selling girl groups of all time . During their hiatus , Rowland released her debut solo album Simply Deep ( 2002 ) , which sold 2 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide and produced the number @-@ one single " Dilemma " with Nelly , as well as the international top @-@ ten hit " Stole " . Rowland also transitioned into acting , with guest appearances in television sitcoms , and starring roles in Freddy vs. Jason ( 2003 ) and The Seat Filler ( 2005 ) .
Following the disbandment of Destiny 's Child in 2005 , she released her second album Ms. Kelly ( 2007 ) , which included international hits " Like This " and " Work " . In 2009 , Rowland served as a host on the first season of The Fashion Show , and was featured on David Guetta 's number @-@ one dance hit " When Love Takes Over " . The song 's global success influenced Rowland to explore dance music on her third album Here I Am ( 2011 ) , which spawned the international top @-@ ten hit " Commander " and US R & B / Hip @-@ Hop number @-@ one " Motivation " . In 2011 , she returned to television as a judge on the eighth season of The X Factor UK , and in 2013 , became a judge on the third and final season of The X Factor USA . Rowland 's fourth album Talk a Good Game ( 2013 ) , which saw a return to her " R & B roots " , was released to positive reviews .
Throughout a career spanning 19 years , Rowland has sold over 27 million records as a solo artist and 60 million records with Destiny 's Child . Her work has earned her several awards and nominations , including four Grammy Awards , two Billboard Music Awards and two Soul Train Music Awards . Rowland has also received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame with Destiny 's Child , and as a solo artist she has been honored by the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers and Essence for her contributions to music . In 2014 , Fuse ranked Rowland in their " 100 Most Award @-@ Winning Artists " list at number 20 .
She currently hosts BET 's Chasing Destiny with Frank Gatson Jr . They formed a girl group , June 's Diary .
= = Early life = =
Kelendria Trene Rowland was born on February 11 , 1981 , in Atlanta , Georgia . She is the daughter of Doris Rowland ( née Garrison ; December 6 , 1947 – December 2 , 2014 ) and Christopher Lovett Rowland . Kelly has an older brother named Orlando . When she was seven , her mother took her and left her father , who was an abusive alcoholic . At the age of eight , she relocated to Houston . Rowland was placed into a girl group , along with Beyoncé and friend LaTavia Roberson . Originally named Girl 's Tyme in 1992 , they were eventually cut down to six members . West coast R & B producer , Arne Frager , flew to Houston to see them and eventually brought them to his studio , The Plant Recording Studio , in Northern California . As part of efforts to sign Girl 's Tyme to a major label record deal , Frager 's strategy was to debut them in Star Search , the biggest talent show on national TV at that time . They participated , but lost the competition .
To manage the group , Mathew Knowles , Beyoncé 's father , resigned in 1995 from his job as a medical @-@ equipment salesman . He dedicated his time and established a " boot camp " for their training . At this time Rowland moved in with the Knowles 's . Not long after the inclusion of Rowland , Mathew cut the original lineup to four with LeToya Luckett joining in 1993 . Rehearsing in Tina Knowles ' hairstyling salon and their backyards , the group continued performing as an opening act for other established R & B girl groups of the time . They auditioned before record labels and were finally signed to Elektra Records , only to be dropped months later , before they could release an album .
= = Career = =
= = = 1997 – 2001 : Destiny 's Child = = =
Taken from a passage in the Biblical Book of Isaiah , the group changed their name to Destiny 's Child in 1993 . Together , they performed in local events and , after four years on the road , the group was signed to Columbia Records in late 1997 . That same year , Destiny 's Child recorded their major label debut song " Killing Time " , for the soundtrack to the 1997 film , Men in Black . The following year , the group released their self @-@ titled debut album , spawning hits such as " No , No , No " . The album established the group as a viable act in the music industry , amassing moderate sales and winning the group three Soul Train Lady of Soul Awards . The group rose to fame after releasing their multi @-@ platinum second album The Writing 's on the Wall in 1999 . The album featured some of the group 's most widely known songs such as " Bills , Bills , Bills " , " Jumpin ' Jumpin ' " and " Say My Name " , which became their most @-@ successful song at the time , and would remain as one of their signature songs . " Say My Name " won Best R & B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals and Best R & B Song at the 43rd Annual Grammy Awards . The Writing 's on the Wall sold more than 15 million copies worldwide , essentially becoming their breakthrough album .
Along with their commercial successes , the group became entangled in much @-@ publicized turmoil involving the filing of a lawsuit by Luckett and Roberson for breach of contract . The issue was heightened after Michelle Williams and Farrah Franklin appeared in the video of " Say My Name " , implying that Luckett and Roberson had already been replaced . Eventually , Luckett and Roberson left the group . Franklin would eventually fade from the group after five months , as evidenced by her absences during promotional appearances and concerts . She attributed her departure to negative vibes in the group resulting from the departure . After settling on their final lineup , the trio recorded " Independent Women Part I " , which appeared on the soundtrack to the 2000 film , Charlie 's Angels . It became their best @-@ charting single , topping the Billboard Hot 100 for eleven consecutive weeks . The success cemented the new lineup and skyrocketed them to fame . Later that year , Luckett and Roberson withdrew their case against their now @-@ former band mates , while maintaining the suit against Mathew , which ended in both sides agreeing to stop public disparaging .
Later that year , while Destiny 's Child was completing their third album Survivor , Rowland appeared on the remix of Avant 's single " Separated " . Survivor , which channeled the turmoil the band underwent , spawned its lead single of the same name , which was a response to the experience . The song went on to win a Grammy Award for Best R & B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals . The themes of " Survivor " , however , caused Luckett and Roberson to refile their lawsuit ; the proceedings were eventually settled in June 2002 . Meanwhile , the album was released in May 2001 , debuting at number one on the US Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 663 @,@ 000 copies sold . To date , Survivor has sold over twelve million copies worldwide , over forty percent of which were sold in the US alone . The album also spawned the number @-@ one hit " Bootylicious " . After releasing their remix album This Is the Remix in 2002 , the group announced their temporary break @-@ up to pursue solo projects .
= = = 2002 – 06 : Simply Deep and acting career debut = = =
In 2002 , Rowland was featured on Nelly 's single " Dilemma " , which won the pair a Grammy Award for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration . The song became one of the most successful singles of the year , topping many charts worldwide including the United States , where it became Rowland 's first number @-@ one single as a solo artist , selling worldwide over 7 @,@ 6 million copies . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian wrote that because of the song 's success , " Rowland is no longer a mere backing vocalist for Beyoncé " .
Rowland 's debut solo album , Simply Deep , was released on October 22 , 2002 in the US . Featuring production contributions by Mark J. Feist , Big Bert , Rich Harrison , and singers Brandy and Solange Knowles providing background vocals , the album took Rowland 's solo work further into an alternative music mixture , which Rowland described as a " weird fusion [ of ] a little bit of Sade and a little bit of rock . " Simply Deep debuted at number 12 on the Billboard 200 and at number three on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart , with first @-@ week sales of 77 @,@ 000 copies sold . It was eventually certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . As of 2013 , Simply Deep remains as Rowland 's best @-@ selling album in the US , with 602 @,@ 000 copies sold . Released to an even bigger success in international territories , the album topped the UK Albums Chart and became a gold @-@ seller in Australia , Canada and New Zealand , resulting in worldwide sales total of 2 @.@ 5 million copies . Simply Deep yielded the international top @-@ ten single " Stole " and the UK top @-@ five single " Can 't Nobody " .
Rowland transitioned into acting in 2002 , playing the recurring role of Carly in the fourth season of UPN sitcom The Hughleys . She continued her acting career the following year , with guest roles in UPN sitcom Eve as Cleo , and in NBC drama series American Dreams as Martha Reeves . In August 2003 , Rowland made her big screen debut playing the supporting role of Kia Waterson alongside Robert Englund and Monica Keena in the slasher film , Freddy vs. Jason , which grossed $ 114 @.@ 5 million at the box office worldwide .
In July 2005 , Rowland starred opposite Duane Martin and Shemar Moore in the romantic comedy The Seat Filler , which grossed $ 17 @.@ 9 million worldwide . She played Jhnelle , a pop star who falls for an awards @-@ show seat filler whom she mistakes for a high @-@ profile entertainment attorney . After a three @-@ year hiatus that involved concentration on individual solo projects , Rowland rejoined Beyoncé and Michelle Williams for Destiny 's Child 's final studio album Destiny Fulfilled , released on November 15 , 2004 . The album hit number two on the Billboard 200 , and spawned the top @-@ five singles " Lose My Breath " and " Soldier " , which features T.I. and Lil Wayne . The following year , Destiny 's Child embarked on a worldwide concert tour , Destiny Fulfilled ... And Lovin ' It . During the last stop of the European tour in Barcelona , Spain on June 11 , Rowland announced that they would disband following the North American leg of the tour . Destiny 's Child released their first compilation album Number 1 's on October 25 in the US , which peaked at number one on the Billboard 200 . On March 28 , 2006 , Destiny 's Child accepted a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame .
After Hurricane Katrina in 2005 , Rowland and Beyoncé founded the Survivor Foundation , a charitable entity set up to provide transitional housing for victims and storm evacuees in the Houston , Texas area . The Survivor Foundation extended the philanthropic mission of the Knowles @-@ Rowland Center for Youth , a multi @-@ purpose community outreach facility in downtown Houston . Rowland and Beyoncé lent their voices to a collaboration with Kitten Sera , entitled " All That I 'm Lookin for " . The song appeared on The Katrina CD album , whose proceeds went to the Recording Artists for Hope organization . In 2006 , Rowland joined other artists such as Pink and Avril Lavigne in ads for so @-@ called empowerment tags for the ALDO Fights AIDS campaign , which went on sale exclusively at ALDO stores and benefited the YouthAIDS initiative . Rowland returned to television that same year , playing Tammy Hamilton , in the sixth season of UPN sitcom Girlfriends . Rowland initially hoped her three @-@ episode stint would expand to a larger recurring role , but as the show was moved to The CW Television Network the following year plans for a return eventually went nowhere .
= = = 2007 – 09 : Ms. Kelly , new management and label = = =
In June 2007 , Kelly Rowland embarked on the Ms. Kelly Tour to promote her second solo album Ms. Kelly . The five date tour visited Europe , North America , Africa and Asia . Ms. Kelly was released on July 3 , 2007 in the United States . Originally entitled My Story , the album 's first version was actually scheduled for a June 2006 release , but Rowland , her management and Columbia Records decided to shelve the album at the last minute to re @-@ work a version with a different vibe as the singer considered the final track listing " too full of midtempos and ballads . " Rowland eventually consulted additional producers to collaborate on the album , including Billy Mann , Mysto & Pizzi , Sean Garrett , Scott Storch , and Polow da Don . Upon its release , Ms. Kelly debuted at number six on the Billboard 200 , and at number two on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart , with first @-@ week sales of 86 @,@ 000 copies . Outside the US , the album widely failed to reprise the success of Simply Deep , barely reaching the top @-@ forty on the majority of all charts it appeared on , except for the UK , where it opened at number 37 .
Ms. Kelly included the UK top @-@ five hit " Like This " , featuring Eve , and the international top @-@ ten hit " Work " . In July 2007 , Rowland released her first DVD entitled BET Presents Kelly Rowland , which celebrates the release Ms. Kelly and features an interview with Rowland about the album 's production , footage of her time with Destiny 's Child , live performances and music videos . Following the album 's lukewarm sales , it was re @-@ released as an extended play entitled , Ms. Kelly : Diva Deluxe , on March 25 , 2008 . Previously unreleased Bobby Womack cover " Daylight " , a collaboration with Travie McCoy , served as the EP 's lead single and was a moderate success in the UK .
In 2007 , Rowland , along with stars such as Jessica Simpson and the cast of Grey 's Anatomy autographed pink Goody Ouchless brushes that were made available for auction on eBay , with all proceeds going to Breast Cancer Awareness . In addition , the singer teamed up with Kanye West , Nelly Furtado and Snoop Dogg to design a Nike sneaker for another eBay auction . All proceeds went to AIDS Awareness . In October 2007 , Rowland auditioned for the role of Louise , Carrie Bradshaw 's assistant , in the 2008 film adaptation of HBO 's comedy series Sex and the City . The part eventually went to Jennifer Hudson . Two months later , Rowland appeared as a choirmaster in the first season of the NBC talent show Clash of the Choirs among other musicians such as Michael Bolton , Patti LaBelle , Nick Lachey , and Blake Shelton . Rowland 's choir finished fifth in the competition , and Clash of the Choirs did not return for a second season .
In 2008 , Rowland officially became ambassador for MTV 's Staying Alive Foundation , which aims to reduce stigma against people living with HIV and AIDS . She visited projects in Tanzania and Kenya to promote the charity , and underwent an HIV test in Africa to raise awareness of the disease . In 2009 , Rowland connected with Serve.MTV.com , MTV 's platform to connect young people with local volunteerism opportunities , for a series of on @-@ air PSAs . From battling homelessness to beautifying impoverished neighborhoods to saving whales , Rowland was joined by the likes of Cameron Diaz , will.i.am , and Sean Kingston as they discuss causes they volunteer to support , and urge young people to join with their friends in making civic service a part of their lifestyle . That same year , she spearheaded a bone marrow drive , and joined fellow singers Alesha Dixon and Pixie Lott to create T @-@ shirts for River Island in aid of the Prince 's Trust , profits from which help change young lives .
In January 2009 , Rowland ended her professional relationship with Beyoncé 's father Mathew Knowles , who had managed her career since she was a member of Destiny 's Child . Knowles stressed that no animosity was involved in the decision and acknowledged that Rowland will always be a part of the Knowles family . Then two months later , Rowland announced that she left Columbia Records , adding that she " felt the need to explore new directions , new challenges , and new freedoms outside my comfort zone . " In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , Rowland stated that the label ended her contract because Ms. Kelly was not commercially successful . She later signed with Universal Motown Records .
In April 2009 , Rowland was featured on David Guetta 's single " When Love Takes Over " , which topped many charts in Europe , selling over 5 @,@ 5 million copies worldwide , and received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Dance Recording . Billboard crowned the song as the number one dance @-@ pop collaboration of all time . In May 2009 , Rowland was cast to host the first season of Bravo 's reality competition series The Fashion Show alongside Isaac Mizrahi , but was replaced by fashion model Iman in the second season .
= = = 2010 – 12 : Here I Am and The X Factor UK = = =
In 2010 , Kelly Rowland launched I Heart My Girlfriends , a charity that focuses on self @-@ esteem , date violence prevention , community service , abstinence , sports , drugs and alcohol and smoking avoidance , obesity , disabilities , and education . In April 2010 , Rowland toured Australia alongside Akon , Pitbull , Sean Paul , Jay Sean , and Eve for the Australian urban festival , Supafest . Later that month , her song " Everywhere You Go " , featuring an all @-@ star supergroup of international artists called Rhythm of Africa United , was released as the MTN theme song for the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa . In October 2010 , the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) honored Rowland at the second annual ASCAP Presents Women Behind the Music , an event which recognizes women in all areas of the music industry . Rowland 's first compilation album , Work : The Best of Kelly Rowland , was released on October 25 , 2010 but failed to impact the charts .
In January 2011 , Rowland reunited with Nelly on " Gone " , a sequel to their successful 2002 collaboration " Dilemma " . Upon its release , the song failed to reprise the success of " Dilemma " . In April 2011 , Rowland appeared on Italian DJ Alex Gaudino 's single " What a Feeling " , which became another UK top @-@ ten hit . Originally scheduled for release in 2010 , Rowland 's third studio album Here I Am was released on July 26 , 2011 in the United States . The album sold 77 @,@ 000 copies in its first week and debuted atop the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart . Here I Am produced the successful lead single " Commander " , which peaked in the top @-@ ten of many charts in Europe , and the UK top @-@ ten single " Down for Whatever " . It also included another successful single " Motivation " , with Lil Wayne , which topped the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart for seven consecutive weeks and was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . " Motivation " won Song of the Year at the 2011 Soul Train Music Awards and Top R & B Song at the 2012 Billboard Music Awards , and received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration .
Rowland was the face of Diddy 's women 's fragrance Empress , the female counterpart to his men 's fragrance I Am King . She was also the worldwide ambassador for watchmakers company TW Steel . Rowland 's second compilation album , Playlist : the Very Best of Kelly Rowland , was released on October 18 , 2011 , but failed to impact the charts . She also released her first fitness DVD entitled , Sexy Abs with Kelly Rowland . Later that year , it was confirmed that Rowland would replace Dannii Minogue as a judge for the eighth series of The X Factor UK alongside Louis Walsh , Gary Barlow and Tulisa Contostavlos . Due to a conflicting schedule , Rowland did not return for the ninth series in 2012 and was replaced by Nicole Scherzinger . During the Black Women in Music event held on February 8 , 2012 , Essence magazine honored Rowland and music executive Sylvia Rhone for their contributions to music . In April 2012 , Rowland toured Australia alongside Ludacris , Chris Brown , Trey Songz , T @-@ Pain , Ice Cube , Lupe Fiasco , and Big Sean for the urban festival , Supafest . That same month , she returned to the big screen playing the supporting role of Brenda in the romantic comedy Think Like a Man . The film , which also starred Michael Ealy , Jerry Ferrara , Meagan Good , Regina Hall , and Kevin Hart , topped the US box office and grossed $ 91 @.@ 5 million . Rowland recorded " Need a Reason " with Future and Bei Maejor for the Think Like a Man soundtrack .
In June 2012 , Rowland became the face of popular rum brand Bacardi . Rowland and German production team Project B reworked the Bacardi song , " Bacardi Feeling ( Summer Dreamin ' ) " , and released an accompanying music video to help promote the brand . In August 2012 , Rowland became a dance master in the first season of the Australian talent show Everybody Dance Now alongside Jason Derulo . The show was cancelled after the fourth episode due to poor ratings .
= = = 2013 – 14 : Talk a Good Game and The X Factor USA = = =
In January 2013 , Destiny 's Child released a compilation album entitled Love Songs , a collection of romance @-@ themed songs from their previous albums and newly recorded song " Nuclear " . On February 3 , 2013 , during Beyoncé 's performance at the Super Bowl XLVII halftime show , held at the Mercedes @-@ Benz Superdome in New Orleans , Rowland and Michelle Williams joined her on stage to perform " Bootylicious " , " Independent Women " and " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " . On February 24 , 2013 , Rowland co @-@ hosted the Academy Awards pre @-@ show for the 85th Academy Awards alongside Kristin Chenoweth , Lara Spencer , Robin Roberts and Jess Cagle . In May 2013 , it was announced that Rowland would replace Britney Spears as a judge on The X Factor USA for its third and final season , joining Simon Cowell , Demi Lovato and fellow new judge Paulina Rubio . Later that month , Rowland performed as a supporting headlining act at the RiverFest 2013 in Little Rock , Arkansas .
Rowland embarked on the Lights Out Tour , a co @-@ headlining tour with The @-@ Dream , to promote her fourth studio album Talk a Good Game . Formerly titled Year of the Woman , the album was released on June 18 , 2013 in the US . It is Rowland 's first release with Republic Records following Universal Music Group 's decision to close Universal Motown and Universal Republic , and reviving Motown Records and Republic Records . Talk a Good Game sold 68 @,@ 000 copies in its first week and debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 , becoming Rowland 's third top @-@ ten album in the US . The album 's lead single " Kisses Down Low " was a moderate success on the US R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart and was certified gold by RIAA for exceeded 500 @,@ 000 copies sold . The second and final single " Dirty Laundry " was acclaimed by critics for its lyrical and the emotional honesty . In December 2013 , Rowland appeared in Beyoncé 's " Grown Woman " music video and alongside Williams in Beyoncé 's " Superpower " music video and provided backing vocals on the same track , taken from her self @-@ titled fifth studio album .
In February 2014 , Rowland was featured on Joe 's single " Love & Sex Part 2 " . In March 2014 , she was named a spokesperson for cosmetic company , Caress . During an interview with HuffPost Live on March 26 , 2014 , Rowland revealed that she has begun recording her fifth studio album and said the new music , which encompasses horns , drums , and flutes , was influenced by iconic female singers including Diana Ross . Rowland also announced in the interview that she left Republic Records , adding that she " just needed a fresh , new start . " In June 2014 , Rowland and Beyoncé were featured on Williams ' single " Say Yes " . The same month , her song " The Game " and its music video appeared on Pepsi 's visual album for the 2014 FIFA World Cup titled , Beats of the Beautiful Game . On July 19 , 2014 , Rowland was featured on Adrian Marcel 's song " Honey " from his mixtape Weak After Next and on Beau Vallis 's song " Love Stand Still " . Rowland also contributed background vocals to the song " You 're My Star " , the first single released from Tank 's 2014 album Stronger .
= = = 2015 – present : Empire , Chasing Destiny and fifth studio album = = =
In August 2015 , she was featured on Jacob Whitesides 's single " I Know What You Did Last Summer " . Rowland is part of the recurring cast of the second season of the American drama television series Empire . She played Leah Walker , Lucious Lyon 's mother , in flashbacks and starred in five episodes . She recorded a song for the show called " Mona Lisa " which included on the EP Empire : Music from " Be True " , released on October 21 , 2015 . On October 26 , 2015 , Rowland released a new song titled " Dumb " which will appear on her fifth album , set for a 2016 release . Rowland says that she 's been hard at work in the studio and will release new music in 2016 , is shooting a music video , and has recorded 45 songs for her new album . Rowland along with other female artists such as Missy Elliot , Kelly Clarkson , Zendaya , Janelle Monae , Lea Michele and newcomers Chloe & Halle , all feature on a charity single put together by US First Lady Michelle Obama . This Is For My Girls was written by Diane Warren and was released on March 15 . The song was created to raise funds and awareness towards Obama 's Let Girls Learn initiative - aimed at boosting education rates amongst adolescent girls around the world who are denied the right to an education The iTunes @-@ exclusive record will be used to both coincide with Obama 's Texan SXSW speech and to promote the First Lady 's third @-@ world educational initialtive " Let Girls Learn " .
On April 5 , 2016 Rowland stepped into her " music @-@ mogul shoes " for the debut of Chasing Destiny . Partnering with BET , Rowland began the search to find the next superstars for an all female group . As stated by Rowland herself , she 's not looking for reality stars , but she 's looking for stars . The show also stars Frank Gatson Jr .. The group released its first single in June 2016 titled " All of Us " .
= = Personal life = =
Rowland began dating American football player Roy Williams in 2004 and they became engaged later that year , however , the couple called off their engagement in January 2005 , two months prior to the planned wedding ceremony in March . Williams stated that they did not " know each other well enough to get married " . Shortly after , Rowland appeared on the cover of Modern Bride wearing her wedding dress . The singer stated that she was so embarrassed about the cover because the public already knew about her separation from Williams . " I didn 't even want to go out of the house and I really didn 't want to put my family in the position of having to answer questions about the wedding " .
Rowland and her manager Tim Witherspoon ( not to be confused with the former heavyweight boxing champion ) reportedly began dating in 2011 . She announced her engagement to Witherspoon during an appearance on The Queen Latifah Show on December 16 , 2013 . They were married in Costa Rica on May 9 , 2014 , with guests including Beyoncé and her sister Solange Knowles . On June 10 , 2014 , Rowland announced via Instagram that she and Witherspoon were expecting their first child . On November 4 , 2014 , Rowland gave birth to her son Titan Jewell Witherspoon .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Musical style = = =
Rowland 's voice is classified as a three @-@ octave lyric mezzo @-@ soprano , and her music includes various styles of musical genres such as contemporary R & B , pop , hip hop , soul , rock and dance . Her debut solo album Simply Deep ( 2002 ) followed an adult @-@ alternative rock sound , while her second album Ms. Kelly ( 2007 ) featured an urban sound . In an interview with The Independent , Rowland admitted that with her first two albums she struggled to find her sound . " I was in a stage with the first two records where I was searching and I was like , let me try a rock @-@ dance approach , the label [ and management ] wanted me to try it and I did it ... And then after that came a more urban approach with Ms. Kelly in 2007 . " Her third album Here I Am ( 2011 ) consisted of a pop and R & B sound , with subtle influences of dance . Rowland stated that meeting David Guetta had influenced her to record dance music . During production of the album , Rowland stated that part of the reason for the new sound on Here I Am was wanting to do something different , saying " I knew I couldn 't be afraid of this direction , and I wasn 't going to let the thoughts and opinions of others make me afraid to go in this direction " .
Most of the lyrical themes in Simply Deep ( 2002 ) speak of love and life experiences , particularly in the songs " Dilemma " , in which Rowland expresses her endless love to her love interest , and " Stole " , in which she sings about an emotional " tale of school shootings and suicides " . In Ms. Kelly ( 2007 ) , Rowland covers topics such as her " deeply personal relationship issues " in her songs , " Still in Love with My Ex " , " Flashback " , " Love " , " Better Without You " and " Gotsta Go ( Part I ) " . Alex Macpherson of The Guardian noted that the songs could be about Rowland 's former relationship with American football player Roy Williams . Here I Am ( 2011 ) included common themes of womanhood , sexual intimacy and love . Some of Rowland 's other songs such as " Work " , " I 'm Dat Chick " and " Work It Man " have been musically compared to the work of former Destiny 's Child bandmate Beyoncé .
= = = Influences = = =
Rowland has cited Whitney Houston , her namesake Kevin Rowland and Janet Jackson as her biggest musical influences . She stated that Houston " was the woman that inspired me to sing " . Rowland is also inspired by Sade Adu and says that " she has a style that 's totally her own " . Her other inspirations include Destiny 's Child , Martin Luther King , Jr . , Mariah Carey , Mary J. Blige , Naomi Campbell , and Oprah Winfrey , whom she describes as " the female version of God " . Rowland has discussed how living in Miami has influenced her style , growth , and music . From a fashion perspective , Rowland credits her grandmother , Halle Berry , Jennifer Lopez , Beyoncé , and Oprah Winfrey as her style icons . Rowland cited Houston , Beyoncé , and Brandy Norwood as vocal inspirations for her second solo album Ms. Kelly , " I love how different they are . I love how they take themselves to the next level " . Her third solo album Here I Am was inspired by Donna Summer and Diana Ross , as well as dance producers David Guetta and will.i.am. Rowland 's fourth solo album Talk a Good Game was also inspired by Houston , Marvin Gaye , and Stevie Wonder .
= = = Public image = = =
After Destiny 's Child disbanded , Rowland has always been compared by the media to her former groupmate Beyoncé . After the international success of her singles " Dilemma " and " Stole " and of her debut album Simply Deep , music critics wrote of Rowland as an emancipated and different artist from Beyoncé , that has established herself as a solo singer and songwriter . Over the years , the media have speculated about a feud between the two and have often referred to Rowland as living in Beyoncé 's shadow . In an interview with omg ! Insider , Rowland commented on the feud rumors stating , " I think the people wanted those stories for years and that 's just so sad on them because it 's not like that " . She also commented on her relationship with Beyoncé stating , " I love my sister and she is so incredibly supportive . One of the closest people to me . I love her to death " . Rowland expressed her envy of Beyoncé 's solo success in the lyrics to " Dirty Laundry " : " When my sister was on stage , killing it like a motherfucker , I was in rage , feeling it like a motherfucker . Bird in a cage , you 'd never know what I was dealing with . Went our separate ways but I was happy she was killin ' it . Bittersweet , she was up , I was down . No lie , I feel good for her but what do I do now ? " . The song garnered widespread media attention upon its release .
Rowland stated that there was a time in her life when she struggled about being dark @-@ skinned . Beyoncé 's mother Tina Knowles would eventually help Rowland embrace her skin color . In October 2007 , Rowland underwent plastic surgery to receive breast implants . She stated , " I simply went from an A @-@ cup to a B @-@ cup " and that " the decision was 10 years in the making " . In 2012 , Rowland ranked at number 61 on Complex magazine 's list of " The 100 Hottest Female Singers of All Time " and was recognized as one of the best @-@ dressed women by Glamour UK . In April 2013 , Rowland ranked seventh on People 's Most Beautiful in the World list .
= = Discography = =
Simply Deep ( 2002 )
Ms. Kelly ( 2007 )
Here I Am ( 2011 )
Talk a Good Game ( 2013 )
= = Filmography = =
Freddy vs. Jason ( 2003 )
The Seat Filler ( 2005 )
Think Like a Man ( 2012 )
= = Tours = =
Headlining
2003 : Simply Deeper Tour
2007 : Ms. Kelly Tour
2013 : Lights Out Tour ( Co @-@ headlined with The @-@ Dream )
Supporting
2010 : Supafest ( Australia )
2011 : F.A.M.E. Tour ( North America )
2012 : Supafest ( Australia )
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= Radioland Murders =
Radioland Murders is a 1994 comedy mystery film directed by Mel Smith and co @-@ written / produced by George Lucas . Radioland Murders is set in the 1939 atmosphere of old @-@ time radio and pays homage to the screwball comedy films of the 1930s . The film tells the story of writer Roger Henderson trying to settle relationship issues with his wife while dealing with a whodunit murder mystery in a radio station . The films stars an ensemble cast , including Brian Benben , Mary Stuart Masterson , Scott Michael Campbell , Michael Lerner and Ned Beatty . Radioland Murders also features numerous small roles and cameo appearances , including Michael McKean , Bobcat Goldthwait , Jeffrey Tambor , Christopher Lloyd , George Burns ( in his final film appearance ) , Billy Barty and Rosemary Clooney .
George Lucas began development for the film in the 1970s , originally attached as director for Willard Huyck and Gloria Katz 's script . Universal Pictures commenced pre @-@ production and both Steve Martin and Cindy Williams had already been approached for the two leads before Radioland Murders languished in development hell for over 20 years . In 1993 , Lucas told Universal that advances in computer @-@ generated imagery from Industrial Light & Magic ( owned by Lucasfilm ) , particularly in digital mattes , would help bring Radioland Murders in for a relatively low budget of about $ 10 million , which eventually rose to $ 15 million . Mel Smith was hired to direct and filming lasted from October to December 1993 . Radioland Murders was released on October 21 , 1994 to negative reviews from critics and bombed at the box office , only grossing $ 1 @.@ 37 million in US totals .
= = Plot = =
In 1939 , a new radio network based at station WBN in Chicago , Illinois begins its inaugural night . The station 's owner , General Walt Whalen , depends on his employees to impress main sponsor Bernie King . This includes writer Roger Henderson , assistant director Penny Henderson ( Roger 's wife , seeking divorce ) , page boy Billy Budget , engineer Max Applewhite , conductor Rick Rochester , announcer Dexter Morris , director Walt Whalen , Jr. and stage manager Herman Katzenback . After King commissions rewrites on the radio scripts , the WBN writers get angry , adding to the fact that they have not been paid in weeks .
When Ruffles Reedy , a trumpet player , falls dead from rat poisoning , a series of events ensue . Director Walt Jr. is hanged ( the mysterious killer makes it look like a suicide ) , and his father , the General , has the Chicago Police Department ( CPD ) get involved to solve the murder mysteries as the nightly radio performance continues . Herman Katzenback is then killed after attempting to fix the main stage when the machinery malfunctions . Penny is appointed both stage manager and director due to Walt Jr. and Katzenback 's deaths . Writer Roger Henderson tries to solve the killings , much to the annoyance of the police , led by Lieutenant Cross .
Because Roger unfortunately appears at every scene of crime just as the murders take place , he is ruled as the prime suspect . Roger and Billy Budget then theorize that announcer Dexter Morris is the next to die . Dexter ignores their warning and is killed by electrocution . By going through private documents in WBN 's file room , Roger finds that the victims all previously worked together at a radio station in Peoria , Illinois , which he then correlates into a secretive FCC scandal . King ( laughing gas ) and General Whalen ( falls down an elevator shaft ) are the next to die after Roger 's warning , causing even more suspicion from the police .
After escaping from custody , Roger uses Billy to communicate and send scripts to Penny . When rewriting one of the programs , Gork : Son of Fire , Roger attempts to write the script with self @-@ referential events , proving to everyone that the mysterious killer is actually sound engineer Max Applewhite . Max explains that his killings were a revenge scheme that dealt with stock holders and patents , specifically detailing his invention of television , which other scientists have copied . Roger and Penny are taken by Max atop the radio tower at gunpoint . Max is eventually killed when a biplane shows up and guns him down . Impressed by the nightly performance , the sponsors decide to fund WBN . Roger and Penny reconcile their complex relationship and decide not to divorce .
= = Cast = =
Brian Benben as Roger Henderson : Ecstatic writer of WBN and husband to Penny . Much to the consternation of the police force , Roger solves the murder mystery .
Mary Stuart Masterson as Penny Henderson : Stressed WBN secretary who is promoted to both director and stage manager after the deaths of Walt Jr. and Herman Katzenback . She initially intends to divorce Roger after catching him in a compromising position with Claudette Katzenback , but they later reconcile their relationship .
Scott Michael Campbell as Billy Budget : WBN page boy who is used by Roger to communicate with Penny and send scripts , despite the fact that he is trying to hide from the police .
Michael Lerner as Lieutenant Cross : Short @-@ tempered policeman who has a vendetta against Roger .
Ned Beatty as General Walt Whalen : Owner of WBN who commands his staff with a military @-@ like work environment . The General dies after falling down an elevator shaft .
Brion James as Bernie King : WBN 's main sponsor who has no sense of humor . King eventually dies from laughing gas .
Stephen Tobolowsky as Max Applewhite : WBN 's sound engineer who is found to be responsible for the murders . Max dies after getting shot atop the radio tower .
Michael McKean as Rick Rochester : WBN band conductor who despises Dexter ( McKean also appeared as Benben 's boss in Dream On ) .
Corbin Bernsen as Dexter Morris : The station 's announcer who has a smoking habit . Dexter dies of electrocution , ignoring Roger and Billy 's warning .
Bobcat Goldthwait as Wild Writer : Violent and melancholic WBN writer .
Anita Morris as Claudette Katzenback : Famous singer and Herman 's wife . Penny catches her with Roger , presumably having sex , but this appears to have been a prank Claudette created . Roger originally believes she was responsible for killings . This was Anita Morris ' final acting role , as she died seven months before the film 's release .
Jeffrey Tambor as Walt Whalen , Jr . : The General 's toupée @-@ wearing son and show director .
Larry Miller as Herman Katzenback : German stage manager of WBN . Herman is the third to die and is aware of Claudette 's multiple affairs with other employees .
Christopher Lloyd as Zoltan : Eccentric sound designer .
Harvey Korman as Jules Cogley : Alcoholic writer who confirms that Ruffles ' death came from poisoning .
Dylan Baker as Detective Jasper : Cross ' idiot assistant .
Jack Sheldon as Ruffles Reedy : Drunk trumpet player of Rochester 's band . He is the first to die .
Cameo appearances are provided by George Burns ( in his final feature film , as Milt Lackey , a 100 @-@ year @-@ old comedian ) , Joey Lawrence , Billy Barty , Peter MacNicol , Robert Klein , Ellen Albertini Dow , Candy Clark , Bo Hopkins ( as Billy Budget 's parents ) and Wilbur Fitzgerald , as well as singers Rosemary Clooney and Tracy Byrd .
= = Production = =
The genesis of Radioland Murders came from executive producer / co @-@ writer George Lucas 's obsession with old @-@ time radio . Lucas conceived the storyline of the film during the writing phase of American Graffiti , viewing it as a homage to the various Abbott and Costello films , primarily Who Done It ( 1942 ) , in which Abbott and Costello star as two soda jerks solving a murder in a radio station . Radioland Murders also shares some inspiration from The Big Clock ( 1948 ) . When Universal Pictures accepted American Graffiti in 1972 , Lucas also allowed the studio first look deals for both Radioland Murders and an untitled science fiction film ( which eventually became the basis for Star Wars ) .
Lucas eventually negotiated a deal to produce Radioland Murders for Universal shortly after the successful release of American Graffiti in late 1973 . Willard Huyck and Gloria Katz prepared a rough draft based on Lucas 's 1974 film treatment , and Universal was confident enough to announce pre @-@ production soon after . Lucas was set to direct with Gary Kurtz producing . In the original Huyck / Katz script , Roger and Penny were not a married couple seeking divorce , but were boyfriend and girlfriend with a love @-@ hate relationship . Their script also included the controversy over the invention of radio .
In July 1978 , Lucas revealed that Radioland Murders was still in development , and that both Steve Martin and Cindy Williams were approached for the two leads . The script was being rewritten and the planned start date was early @-@ 1979 . However , throughout the 1970s to early 1990s , Radioland Murders remained in development hell . Between this time , Lucas commissioned Theodore J. Flicker to perform a rewrite . In early @-@ 1993 Lucas told Universal that advances in computer @-@ generated imagery from Industrial Light & Magic ( owned by Lucasfilm ) , particularly in digital mattes , would help bring Radioland Murders in for a relatively low budget of about $ 10 million , which eventually rose to $ 15 million .
Universal agreed to greenlight Radioland Murders if Lucas would " update " the script . The Huyck / Katz script contained parodies of old @-@ time radio that the general public in the 1970s would likely acknowledge . Universal reasoned that the script would have to be modified in an attempt to accustom audiences from the MTV Generation . Based on Ron Howard 's recommendation , Lucas hired Jeff Reno and Ron Osborn ( known for their work on Moonlighting ) to " update " the screenplay . The shooting script was prepared by Lucas , who combined his favorite elements of the Reno / Osborn draft with the original Huyck / Katz script from the 1970s . Lucas then hired Mel Smith to direct , who recommended Brian Benben for the lead role . Lucas specifically choose Smith because he believed the British comedian / filmmaker could handle Radioland Murders ' form of slapstick comedy and dark humor . Universal was adamant that the ensemble cast be filled with then @-@ popular TV stars of the early 1990s . Christopher Lloyd agreed to make a small appearance as the eccentric sound designer Zoltan on the agreement that all of his scenes were shot in one day .
Principal photography for Radioland Murders began on October 28 , 1993 at Carolco Studios in Wilmington , North Carolina . Brief filming also took place at Hollywood Center Studios . Production designer Gavin Bocquet ( Star Wars prequels , Stardust ) disguised the film 's limited rooms in a beehivelike structure . Larger areas , notably the exterior of the building and the transmission tower on the roof , were created or augmented with digital mattes added by visual effects supervisor Scott Squires ( The Lost World : Jurassic Park , Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace ) at Industrial Light & Magic . Following a break , in which Lucas , director Mel Smith and editor Paul Trejo reviewed the footage using the new digital Avid Technology editing system ( the successor to EditDroid ) , the cast and crew were reassembled for a further two weeks of filming . Principal photography for Radioland Murders ended on December 23 , 1993 .
= = Release = =
To market Radioland Murders , Universal attached a film trailer to The Flintstones in May 1994 . The studio believed both films would specifically appeal to the Baby Boom Generation . Radioland Murders was originally set to be theatrically released in September 1994 before it was pushed back . The film was released in the United States on October 21 , 1994 in 844 theaters , only grossing $ 1 @.@ 37 million . Ultimately the film bombed at the box office because it did not recoup its $ 15 million budget . It ranks among the top ten widely @-@ released films for having the biggest second weekend drop at the box office , dropping 78 @.@ 5 % from $ 835 @,@ 570 to $ 179 @,@ 315 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Radioland Murders received negative reviews with Rotten Tomatoes calculated a 24 % approval rating based on 17 reviews collected . Roger Ebert criticized the film for containing too much slapstick comedy instead of subtle humor . Although he praised the art direction and visual effects , Ebert believed " the movie just doesn 't work . It 's all action and no character , all situation and no comedy . The slapstick starts so soon and lasts so long that we don 't have an opportunity to meet or care about the characters in a way that would make their actions funny . " Richard Schickel , writing in Time magazine gave a mixed review , mainly criticizing the film for its fast pacing . Caryn James of The New York Times dismissed the film for trying too hard to pay homage to screwball comedy films of the 1930s .
Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle gave a mixed reaction , feeling the filmmakers failed in attempting to woo audiences with nostalgia . Internet reviewer James Berardinelli called the film a " horrible concoction synthesizing elements of The Hudsucker Proxy and Brain Donors , and setting them in the world of David Lynch 's On the Air . This film has more gags in it than anything this side of a Zucker , Abrahams and Zucker production , too few of which work . "
= = = Home media = = =
The first Region 1 DVD release came in March 1998 by Image Entertainment . Universal Studios Home Entertainment re @-@ released the film on DVD in August 2006 .
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= Albin K. Longren =
Albin Kasper Longren ( January 18 , 1882 – November 19 , 1950 ) was an American aviation pioneer from the state of Kansas . Beginning in 1911 , Longren successfully flew airplanes of his own design and construction . Fully self @-@ taught as an aircraft designer and pilot , he built a thriving career as a barnstormer with his own craft , becoming known throughout the Midwest as the " Birdman " .
He established his own aeronautics manufacturing company , Longren Aircraft Corporation , which produced several models through the 1920s . The handcrafted Longren planes were well regarded by aviation professionals of the era . Longren created several innovations including the design for the first semi @-@ monocoque airplane body . In addition to his own independent enterprises , he worked for many years with some of the best @-@ known companies in the industry – Spartan , Luscombe , and Cessna – until his retirement in 1945 .
= = Early life = =
Albin K. Longren was born on January 18 , 1882 , in a rural cabin just outside Leonardville , Kansas . Known familiarly as " A.K. " , he was one of the eight children of local farmers Charles and Emma Longren . As a young man he worked as a hardware dealer , but was also known as a handyman and an avid tinkerer who built his own automobiles and motorcycles out of spare parts .
He served in the Clay Center Kansas National Guard and in that capacity was called to assist in crowd safety at one of the popular flying demonstrations in Topeka in June 1910 . Longren 's interest in aircraft was ignited after he witnessed the featured airplane spin out shortly after takeoff and crash to the ground . The 28 @-@ year @-@ old tinkerer immediately set upon building his own improved version of a flying machine .
= = Aviation career = =
= = = Topeka I = = =
Longren obtained space in Topeka for a small factory and enlisted the help of his brother Ereanius and his friend William Janicke , a fellow mechanic . Together the three men began working on Longren 's design for a new airplane , despite having no prior aviation experience or professional assistance . The trio built the prototype in complete secrecy , wishing to forestall publicity of any potential failures ; they even disassembled the craft and transported it discreetly in boxes to its first flight trial .
The new biplane was 12 metres ( 39 ft ) long with a 9 @.@ 8 metres ( 32 ft ) wingspan , and weighed 283 kilograms ( 625 lb ) . A pusher configuration with a 60 @-@ hp V8 engine and two ribbed canvas wings , the debut Longren aircraft – eventually designated the Topeka I – flew for the first time in trials beginning on September 2 , 1911 . Three days later , in his first public demonstration , Longren piloted the plane through a brief but satisfying circular pattern at 61 metres ( 200 ft ) in the air , for a total distance of about 9 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 6 mi ) . A beaming Longren told the local newspaper , " I ’ m glad now to let the people of Topeka know what I 've built . "
= = = Longren Aircraft Company = = =
To pay for construction of new planes at his factory , Longren performed frequently at airshows . Barnstorming before crowds across the U.S. , he became a popular attraction in his own right , nicknamed " Birdman " . Longren , who had never had formal training as a pilot , ended up flying 1 @,@ 372 demonstrations over the next few years .
Longren met his future wife Dolly Trent while performing in Minneapolis and married her soon thereafter . His wife quickly became an essential member of his small @-@ scale airplane factory : admiringly he said , " she could repair a plane as well as any man . " A Kansas beauty queen , Dolly also helped Longren 's cause in the arena of public relations . As one historian wrote , " she was a bubbly counterpart to her taciturn husband . "
Longren established his own firm , the Longren Aircraft Corporation of Topeka , and began offering his airplanes via mail order . He designed and sold ten different models , all of which were acknowledged for their high quality and durability . The company , however , had only moderate sales and fluctuating commercial success . In late 1915 , he was seriously injured in a mishap at a flying demonstration in Abilene , Texas , and thereafter the barnstormer devoted most of his time to architecture and design . He also took some time off beginning in 1917 when America entered the First World War – for nearly two years , he served as chief inspector of aircraft at the nation 's first military aviation research and development center , McCook Field in Ohio .
= = = Longren AK = = =
Returning to Topeka , he set upon constructing what he billed as " The New Longren Airplane " , also known as the Longren AK . A small biplane powered by a 60 @-@ hp Anzani three @-@ cylinder radial engine , the AK was sturdy , fast , and nimble . Its most arresting feature , however , was the folding set of wings which , when turned inward on the fuselage , shrank the plane 's width from 5 @.@ 8 metres ( 19 ft ) to a mere 2 @.@ 7 metres ( 9 ft ) . Longren hoped that buyers would keep the tidy craft in barns or car garages ; it was thought that the AK could become " the Ford of the air " . With its new products , the struggling company had achieved national stature by 1921 , just a decade after Longren 's first flight .
= = = Fuselage design = = =
The AK was not the commercial breakthrough that Longren would have liked , but it featured a design innovation that would burnish his reputation greatly . Improving upon the day 's standard airplane bodyform – essentially a wooden frame with a fabric skin – Longren designed the first semi @-@ monocoque fuselage . The AK body was formed by joining two mirroring halves into a simple but aerodynamic shape . The two halves formed a hard shell , made of strong vulcanized fibrous material and reinforced on both sides with wood veneer . The advanced design of the AK was remarkable for its day , and presents what Air & Space / Smithsonian calls " the world 's first semi @-@ monocoque , truly composite shell fuselage " .
The U.S. government showed interest in Longren 's finely handcrafted airplanes . Karl Smith , a general inspector from the Navy , toured the Topeka factory and his report praised Longren 's low @-@ tech manufacturing skills : despite using " more or less unsatisfactory equipment " , Longren was able to produce a first @-@ rate fuselage which the inspector described as " phenomenal in its strength and particularly easy to build " . The fuselage 's three @-@ ply bonded material particularly impressed the Navy , who found its resistance to bullets most intriguing . But the novice entrepreneur was unable to raise the necessary capital to begin production in the desired quantities , and the Navy took its business elsewhere .
= = = Later work = = =
Despite all his prowess in piloting and design work , Longren was unable to maintain the financial side of his business and in 1924 he declared bankruptcy . He sold most of the company 's assets and designs to new investors who in turn founded the Alexander Aircraft Company . Longren went on to work as a prized consultant for several other aeronautics firms including Spartan and Luscombe .
He was responsible for numerous aviation @-@ related patents throughout his career . His most significant work concerned the process of " stretch @-@ forming " metal into assembly @-@ ready fuselage panels . Luscombe was the first of many manufacturers to benefit from this patent when it produced its Luscombe Phantom , the first mass @-@ produced airplane with an all @-@ aluminum , semi @-@ monocoque fuselage . Longren brought most of his patents over to Cessna in 1935 when he joined that company as Vice @-@ President for the next three years .
Through the 1930s , new incarnations of Longren Aircraft appeared briefly , according to Longren 's energies and financial state . The last and most substantial iteration was conceived in 1938 solely as a fuselage manufacturer , with headquarters in Torrance , California . It persevered long after its founder 's departure , until April 1959 , when it was acquired by Aeronca .
= = Death and legacy = =
After his 1945 retirement , Longren moved to a ranch in Adin , California , where he stayed until his death in 1950 . His body was brought back to Kansas and buried near his birthplace in Leonardville .
He ranks as an early pioneer of aviation , having built and flown his own inventions at a time roughly contemporaneous with the Wright brothers during the heady , pre @-@ WWI era of aeroplane vogue . He was accepted into the exclusive pioneers ' club of Early Birds of Aviation soon after its foundation , and he was formally added to the Kansas Aviation Museum 's Hall of Fame in 1997 . A single example of Longren 's aircraft – the 1914 pusher biplane that he crashed in Abilene – remains on permanent exhibit at the Kansas Museum of History .
Longren remains a local Kansas hero : the Kansas Aviation Hall of Fame recognizes him for " outstanding aviation contributions " to the state , which is home to Amelia Earhart and Clyde Cessna , and where the city of Wichita is celebrated as the " Air Capital of the World " . For Kansas , Longren is both the first successful pilot and the first aircraft manufacturer in the state .
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= Battle of Burton Bridge ( 1322 ) =
The 1322 Battle of Burton Bridge was fought between Thomas , 2nd Earl of Lancaster and his cousin Edward II of England during the Despenser War . Edward 's army was proceeding northwards to engage Lancaster , having defeated his Marcher Lord allies in Wales . Lancaster fortified the bridge at Burton upon Trent , an important crossing of the River Trent , in an attempt to prevent the king from proceeding . Edward arrived at nearby Cauldwell on 7 March 1322 and intended to use the ford at Walton @-@ on @-@ Trent to cross the river and outflank Lancaster . Edward was delayed for three days by floodwaters , during which time some of his force was deployed opposite Lancaster 's men at the bridge .
On 10 March 1322 Edward 's main force crossed the river at Walton and proceeded to the south side of Burton . Lancaster moved his men outside the town , intending to face the king in open battle , but withdrew northwards when he saw that he was heavily outnumbered . Lancaster was pursued closely by the king 's men and eventually captured at the Battle of Boroughbridge ; he was later executed on the king 's orders . Lancaster 's defeat removed the immediate threat to Edward 's rule , but the king continued to prove unpopular with his barons , and in 1327 was forced to abdicate the throne in favour of his son Edward III .
= = Background = =
Thomas , Earl of Lancaster had long been an enemy of the king , alienated by his practice of promoting young favourites ( and alleged lovers ) such as Piers Gaveston , 1st Earl of Cornwall , who had at one stage been made regent in Edward 's absence . Lancaster further demonstrated his disapproval of the king by his refusal to assist Edward in his Scottish campaigns , including the decisive defeat at the Battle of Bannockburn . The resulting raids by the Scottish on Northern England forced Edward to concede to demands from his barons for the kingdom to be governed by a council led by the earl and to submit to the restrictions on royal power laid out in the Ordinances of 1311 . Shortly afterwards Lancaster captured and executed Gaveston after an attack upon Scarborough Castle . The new baronial council demonstrated itself no more suited to rule than the king by failing to prevent the loss of Berwick @-@ upon @-@ Tweed to the Scots in 1318 .
Edward continued to alienate the Barons by promoting young men such as Hugh Despenser the Younger , a known enemy of Lancaster 's . In 1318 Lancaster met with Archbishop of Dublin Alexander de Bicknor and two bishops at Horninglow , now a suburb of Burton upon Trent , in initial negotiations that resulted in the signing of the Treaty of Leake , an attempt to reconcile the king and his barons . However such co @-@ operation was short @-@ lived as Despenser 's continued rise threatened the holdings of the Welsh Marcher Lords and in 1321 Lancaster joined them in an outright rebellion against Edward .
= = Battle = =
Edward acted quickly against the Marcher Lords , defeating them easily due to a lack of co @-@ ordination amongst them , before moving north to confront Lancaster . The earl moved from his base at Pontefract , West Yorkshire to block the strategically important crossing of the River Trent at Burton . He arrived in early March 1322 , having lost much of his stores to floods en route , and set about fortifying the western end of the bridge , a 36 @-@ arch stone structure that was 515 yards ( 471 m ) long and just 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide . Lancaster sent out men to prevent the king from crossing the Trent elsewhere and outmanoeuvring him . Two such men were John de Myner , master forester of Needwood Forest , and Richard de Holland , who broke the bridges at Wychnor and Hamstall Ridware . De Holland was later fined 40 shillings by the king for his actions . De Holland 's kinsman Lord Robert de Holland had long been a supporter of Lancaster , was said to be his closest friend , and had raised troops for him to send against the king 's men in Cheshire . However , on 4 March de Holland received a secret order from the king to join him against Lancaster which he seems to have obeyed , forming a body of troops at Ravensdale Park in Derbyshire ostensibly to reinforce Lancaster 's army at Burton .
Edward arrived at nearby Cauldwell on 7 March 1322 , intending to make use of the ford at Walton @-@ on @-@ Trent to outflank Lancaster . This ford was , however , impassable due to flooding , and for three days Edward waited . During this time Edward ordered an attack upon Lancaster 's fortified position , and despite a full day 's fighting , the Royalist forces were unable to make any headway . Lancaster awaited reinforcement from Holland , who had encamped with his men at Dalbury , 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) north of Burton . Holland , however , apparently wished to await the result of the battle prior to committing himself and revealing his loyalties . Holland may have actually sent Lancaster letters intended to draw his men away from Burton .
Edward 's troops were able to cross the Trent at Walton on 10 March 1322 and advanced upon Burton from the south . Lancaster , outflanked , then moved from his positions at the bridge to a field outside of Burton , firing the town as he went . Once he realised how badly outnumbered his men were , and that Holland was not moving to his aid , Lancaster decided to withdraw and was pursued by Edward . The clash is not classified as a battle by English Heritage , though some casualties were suffered , and is not registered as a battlefield with the Battlefields Trust . The casualties included the keeper of Alton Castle , Sir Roger D 'Amory , who was injured in the fight and later died of his wounds at Tutbury .
= = Aftermath = =
The king 's troops , led by John de Warenne , 7th Earl of Surrey and Edmund of Woodstock , 1st Earl of Kent , chased Lancaster to Tutbury and Kenilworth , capturing both towns and devastating the counties of Staffordshire and Derbyshire . Holland , seeing the outcome of the battle and knowing that the king had recently imprisoned his daughter at the Tower of London , openly acted against Lancaster . Holland 's men attacked and robbed various supporters of Lancaster at Windley including Hugh de Audley and Lancaster 's wife Alice de Lacy to the value of £ 1000 . He also ordered the men raised in Cheshire to march towards Burton and prevent the escape of Lancaster 's troops to the River Mersey . Holland turned his troops over to the king at Derby on 13 March but was coldly received , his past alliance with Lancaster condemning him to imprisonment at Dover Castle and the loss of his estates . He was beheaded by an unknown gang in 1328 and his head was given to Thomas Lancaster 's brother Henry , 3rd Earl of Lancaster .
Lancaster was able to flee Tutbury Castle under cover of darkness and , with much of his army , evaded Edward 's patrols to cross the flooded River Dove and make his way northwards . Upon taking Tutbury Edward ordered D 'Amory 's corpse to be posthumously executed for treason . Lancaster fled north where Sir Andrew Harclay , having heard of the king 's victory at Burton , moved to engage him at the Battle of Boroughbridge . Lancaster was defeated and captured by Harclay and later executed at Pontefract . Edward ordered a chapel constructed on the Burton bridge in commemoration of his victory there .
Lancaster had finally been dealt with , but Edward continued to upset his barons , reneging upon his previously agreed limitations to royal power , continuing to promote Despenser and losing key battles against the Scots . With Edward 's reign becoming more unpopular , Lancaster 's grave became a site of pilgrimage for those who opposed him . Edward 's own queen , Isabella of France , sided with her lover , the Marcher Lord Roger Mortimer , and in 1327 forced Edward to abdicate in favour of his son who became Edward III .
In the aftermath of the battle , the Audley family claimed to have lost £ 300 of goods : seven cartloads of gold cloth , silver vessels and chapel ornaments from Heleigh Castle . These had been ordered to be removed to Tutbury Priory by Peter de Lymesey , but according to the prior they never arrived and were taken to Tutbury Castle and subsequently lost in the retreat of the Lancastrians from Burton . Burton Abbey also suffered damage at the hands of the Lancastrian forces .
The Abbot of Burton was charged with concealing goods from the king after it was claimed he had taken the Earl of Lancaster 's money and goods left behind after the battle , to the value of £ 200 . The abbot claimed that all he had found was a single silver cup which he subsequently gave to the king . The finding in 1831 of a large quantity of silver coins , suspected to be part of Lancaster 's treasure , in the River Dove , near Tutbury may support the abbot 's case . In either case , the next year Edward felt able to award Burton Abbey the advowsons of Tatenhill and Hanbury , which had previously belonged to Lancaster , in " perpetual memory of the glorious victory which God gave to the King over his enemies and the rebels near Burton @-@ on @-@ Trent , and also to relieve the condition of the Abbey " .
The battle gave rise to a tradition at nearby Chartley Park , a holding of Robert de Ferrers , 2nd Baron Ferrers of Chartley . The baron maintained a herd of white cattle with black ears , descended from wild specimens found when the park was formed from part of the ancient Needwood Forest . In 1322 an unusual black calf was born in the herd that was said to have foretold the Battle of Burton Bridge and the subsequent downfall of the de Ferrers house ( who were supporters of Lancaster ) . Subsequently it was said that the birth of a dark @-@ hued or part @-@ coloured calf in the herd would foretell a death in the de Ferrers family within the year . Such omens were said to have preceded the deaths of , amongst others , Robert Shirley , 7th Earl Ferrers ; his wife ; their son Robert Sewallis Shirley and his wife and the son , daughter and wife of Washington Shirley , the 8th Earl . Another local tradition places the legendary figure of Robin Hood at the battle fighting for Lancaster .
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= Military history of the Aleutian Islands =
The military history of the Aleutian Islands began almost immediately following the purchase of Alaska by the United States . Prior to the early 20th century , the Aleutian Islands were essentially ignored by the military of the United States , although the islands played a small role in the Bering Sea Arbitration when a number of British and American vessels were stationed at Unalaska to enforce the arbitrators ' decision . By the early 20th century , a number of war strategies examined the possibility of conflict breaking out between the Empire of Japan and the United States . While the Aleutian Islands were seen as a potential staging point for invasions by either side , this possibility was dismissed owing to the islands ' dismal climate . In 1922 , the Washington Naval Treaty was signed , after which the United States Navy began to take an interest in the islands . However , nothing of significance was to materialize until World War Two .
In June 1942 , the Imperial Japanese Navy attacked and captured Attu Island and Kiska . The Americans wanted to recapture the two islands , and in January the following year began their advance by capturing Amchitka without opposition . On March 26 , the Battle of the Komandorski Islands ensued after the United States Navy imposed a naval blockade on the two islands to reduce the opportunities for the Japanese to keep their Attu and Kiska bases supplied . In May , Attu Island was recaptured , with a total of almost 3 @,@ 000 deaths from both sides combined . The Americans then prepared to attack Kiska in August , only to find that the entire island had been evacuated by the Japanese in late July . During the recapture of Kiska by the United States , 313 men died as a result of friendly fire and a mine , despite no Japanese soldiers being present on the island .
During the 1960s and early 1970s , the United States Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) executed a number of nuclear tests on the island of Amchitka in the face of vehement opposition from environmental and local indigenous groups . The first test , conducted in 1965 , caused significant damage to the surrounding area , although the details of this damage were not released to the public until 1969 . In 1969 , the AEC executed a ' calibration shot ' to determine whether Amchitka would be suitable for future tests . In 1970 , the AEC announced plans to detonate a bomb named ' Cannikin ' , set to release a blast 385 times that released by the dropping of an atomic bomb on Hiroshima in 1945 . After a United States Supreme Court challenge to the testing failed by one vote , the testing proceeded as scheduled in November 1971 .
= = Early history = =
In 1853 , prior to the purchase of Alaska by the United States , the United States Navy sent the USS Fenimore Cooper to the Aleutian Islands with the aim of locating potential harbors and find coal deposits . No coal deposits were found . In 1867 , the United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire . By 1869 , a number of military posts had been established by the Government of the United States , although the Aleutian Islands did not receive such a post , with the nearest post being located on Kodiak Island . The United States Army made the decision to leave the exploration of the Aleutians to the United States Navy , and the latter showed little interest in doing so . The Aleutian Islands played a small role in the ongoing sealing dispute between the United Kingdom and the United States , which later culminated in the Bering Sea Arbitration . In 1888 , following what the United States Government saw as an infringement on the nation 's sovereignty by Canadian and Japanese sealers , the United States Navy sent a number of its ships to Unalaska to police the foreign sealers . By 1891 , an accord had been reached between the United Kingdom and the United States , and for some time a number of British and American vessels remained in Unalaska to enforce the deal .
By October 1906 , many in the U.S. government , including Secretary of State Elihu Root , were worried that war could break out in the Pacific between the United States and Japan . However , the Aleutian Islands were believed to be of little strategic importance to the United States , and were ignored by a number of pre @-@ war strategies formulated by the U.S. armed forces , including the Naval War Board 's 1896 plan , which would have brought only a few scout ships to the Islands . In 1911 , the Naval War Board considered three options through which Japan could mount an invasion of the United States , one of which involved an attack on the Aleutian Islands . However , this option was discarded by the Board owing to the cold climate of the islands .
The Aleutian Islands played little part in the proceedings of World War I , as the events of this war were concentrated in Europe . In 1922 , the Washington Naval Treaty was signed by the United States , the British Empire , the Empire of Japan , the French Third Republic , and the Kingdom of Italy . Article XIX of the Treaty required Japan , Britain and the United States to maintain the status quo in terms of military fortifications in their respective Pacific Rim territories . While Japan and Britain gained a number of exemptions from the terms of Article XIX ( for example , Australia and New Zealand were not prevented from building up their fortifications as a result of the Treaty ) , Japan made it a requirement of their agreement to the Treaty that the Aleutian Islands were not to be exempted .
= = The interwar period = =
Although the United States Navy was prevented from developing fortifications on the Aleutian Islands due to the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty , the Navy believed that at some point the United States ' treaty obligations would no longer apply , and began to scout the Aleutians for possible naval bases . In 1923 , two scouting ships investigated the possibility of establishing anchorages off the Islands , and attempted to claim the United States Army 's bases on the Aleutians for the purposes of national security .
After the mid @-@ 1920s , little attention was paid to the Aleutian Islands as a potential strategic area . United States President Herbert Hoover did not concentrate his government 's resources on developing the nation 's military due to the economic challenge posed by the Great Depression . In 1930 , one of Hoover 's aides claimed that North America 's coastal islands would play little part in a potential war between the United States and Japan unless the Navy was rendered ineffective and Canada turned against its southern neighbor . In June 1933 , a Japanese ship visited Attu Island three times . Although the ship was purportedly only carrying farming and forestry specialists , John Troy , then the Governor of Alaska , believed that the Aleutian Islands was a possible target for enemy navies and lobbied the federal government for military support . While Major General Benjamin Foulois was willing to commit to deploying more military resources in the resource @-@ rich strip of land stretching from Fairbanks to Anchorage , he was not willing to devote more of his military 's resources to the Aleutians , as , according to him , there was " nothing in southeastern Alaska or along the Aleutian Islands which is worth making an effort to defend . "
In May 1934 , following reports of a Japanese spy operating out of Dutch Harbor , the United States Navy dispatched Edwin T. Layton to the Aleutians to investigate the allegations . The result of this investigation was the arrest of the only Japanese man in the region , as well as the town 's only prostitute , a woman accused of conspiring with the Japanese man . During the 1930s , a number of United States governmental committees , boards and reports concluded that air bases in the Aleutians would be for the most part impractical due to the region 's inclement weather .
= = World War II = =
= = = Preparing for battle = = =
On December 7 , 1941 , the Imperial Japanese Navy executed a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor , bringing the United States into a war against Japan , Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy . The Pacific Theater was divided into three sectors – north , central and south , with the Aleutians falling inside the north sector , though it was also part of the American theater . With the Aleutians located just 650 miles ( 1 @,@ 050 km ) east of the Kuril Islands , the former served as an ideal physical bridge between the two nations of Japan and the United States . Although dismal climate conditions on the Aleutians made an approach by Japan unlikely , neither of the two countries could afford to not cover their bases with respect to these islands . On April 18 , 1942 , sixteen aircraft bombed Tokyo in what has become known as the Doolittle Raid . The Imperial High Command were unsure of where the aircraft originated and speculated that a hidden air base existed on the western tip of the Aleutian Islands , sparking interest by the High Command in capturing the island chain .
An early strategic plan by Isoroku Yamamoto involved the occupation of the western Aleutians and Midway Island as a ' decoy ' to lure the United States Navy 's Pacific fleet away from Pearl Harbor so as to effect the complete destruction of the Hawaiian base before reconstruction efforts could take hold . However , the Aleutians campaign meant that fewer ships could be devoted to the Battle of Midway , a turning point during World War Two . The United States armed forces had broken the Japanese communications code , and were able to learn of the Japanese plan to attack the Aleutians by May 21 , 1942 . The Imperial Japanese Navy 's plan was to attack and hold Attu and Kiska for future use , while inflicting damage on Dutch Harbor and Adak . Once the United States Navy learned of the plan , Admiral Chester W. Nimitz sent a third of his Pacific Fleet to the Aleutian Islands , under orders to hold Dutch Harbor at all costs .
= = = The initial attacks = = =
By June 1 , 1942 , the American military contingent on the Aleutians numbered 2 @,@ 300 . On 2 June , a patrol plane spotted a Japanese armada 800 miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) southwest of Dutch Harbor . On June 3 , Imperial Japanese Navy Admiral Boshirō Hosogaya ordered some of his aircraft to attack Dutch Harbor , despite rough conditions in the air and on the ground . Only half managed to attack the town , with 17 aircraft arriving in the airspace above Dutch Harbor around 6 : 00am . Finding themselves confronted by U.S. forces , the aircraft hastily dropped their bombs and quickly returned to their carriers . On June 4 , the aircraft returned , and attacked the town 's oil storage tanks , a barracks ship and part of the military base 's hospital . On that day , 43 Americans died and 64 were wounded . Ten Japanese aircraft were lost , as were 11 American planes .
On June 6 , the Imperial Japanese Navy returned to the Aleutians , occupying Kiska on that day and Attu Island the next . Despite the U.S. not posting any forces to oppose the occupation of those islands , the Japanese public was informed of a great triumph over U.S. forces on the islands . It was the desire of the Joint Chiefs of Staff to recapture these islands as quickly as possible , and on August 30 , 1942 , 4 @,@ 500 U.S. Army troops secured the island of Adak , to be used as a staging post to recapture Kiska . In two weeks , Army engineers had constructed an airfield on the island , and on September 14 , a number of Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberators took off from Adak to attack Kiska . Repeated bombings during the fall season convinced the Japanese of the Americans ' desire to recapture Kiska and Adak , and by November the Japanese had bolstered troop numbers on the ground on both islands . During the winter months , the short daily sunshine period and inclement weather protected the Japanese from attack .
= = = Moving towards Kiska = = =
On January 11 , 1943 , U.S. forces captured Amchitka , an island just fifty miles from Kiska . However , challenges faced the Americans stationed there from the outset – on the first night that the Americans spent on the ground , harsh winds destroyed many of the Americans ' boats , and on the second night a blizzard reduced the base 's line of sight . By mid @-@ February , Army engineers had completed an airfield on the island , after which attacks on the island by the Japanese became less frequent .
With the Americans moving closer towards Kiska and Attu , the Japanese were finding it increasingly difficult to resupply their bases there . In March 1943 , Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid established a naval blockade around the islands , refusing to let Japanese ships through . On March 26 , Admiral Hosogaya attempted to break the blockade with eight battle ships as well as three transports , resulting in the Battle of the Komandorski Islands , the last battle fought only between surface ships in the Pacific War . Following the American victory in this battle , the Japanese were forced to resupply their occupied possessions in the Aleutian chain by submarine .
Following the Battle of the Komandorski Islands , Admiral Kinkaid requested a larger force of 25 @,@ 000 troops to support an assault on Kiska . However , as there were not enough ships to transport such a large division to the Aleutians , Kinkaid suggested that the Americans ' objective change from Kiska , which was defended by about 9 @,@ 000 men , to Attu , which was home to only 500 Japanese . On April 1 , Kinkaid received approval from the Joint Chiefs of Staff to execute the operation , codenamed SANDCRAB . The terrain of Attu Island was not hospitable for such an operation – much of the island 's landmass not covered in snowy peaks was covered in muskeg , a marshy soil type that is almost impossible to cross by foot . In addition , Attu Island was subject to frequent storms and soupy fogs .
= = = The recapture of Attu Island = = =
The 7th Infantry Division was selected to undertake the task of recapturing Attu Island . The Division arrived at Cold Bay on April 30 , 1943 , and despite the cold weather prevailing in the region , many of the American troops were wearing only regular field clothing as the Division had previously been stationed in California . Due to poor weather , the Americans ' assault on Attu was delayed twice – first to May 4 and then to May 11 . When the operation commenced on May 11 , heavy fog shrouded the recapturing force from the Japanese , which hampered the latter 's attempts at defending the island .
However , the inclement weather also hampered the Americans ' advance , and until May 15 the recapturing forces were unsure of whether the Japanese had held their position or retreated . When the fog lifted on that day , it became clear that the Japanese had retreated further west . However , when the American forces gave chase , they were immediately slowed by an accidental air strike upon them by an American aircraft . By May 29 , the Japanese forces numbered only 700 – 1 @,@ 000 , and these troops attempted to run through the advancing American forces as a last show of defiance against the recapturing forces . By May 30 , the Americans had recaptured Attu , and although a few small pockets of Japanese troops remained on the island , the Battle of Attu had essentially concluded .
During the American assault on Attu Island , 2 @,@ 400 Japanese troops were killed , and only 25 were captured . The Americans ' losses were significantly lower , at 566 dead and 1 @,@ 442 wounded . The bodies of the killed Japanese troops were buried in mass graves on the island – only five per cent of Japanese troops fighting on Attu Island wore dog tags , making identification difficult . In addition , many fallen Japanese were buried by their fellow soldiers up in the island 's peaks , and many bodies still remain undiscovered . The American burials were undertaken at Massacre Bay as well as at Holtz Bay – in the former case , the bodies of the soldiers were buried in group graves . Large holes of seven feet in depth were dug by bulldozers , and eight small foot @-@ deep graves were dug at the bottom of each of these holes to serve as the American soldiers ' final resting places .
= = = The recapture of Kiska = = =
With Attu Island secure , the Americans diverted their attention towards forcing the Japanese off Kiska . U.S. intelligence estimated at that point that the number of Japanese troops on Kiska was likely to be 10 @,@ 000 , so Kinkaid deployed 34 @,@ 426 men , composed of both Americans and Canadians , to the Aleutians to work on recapturing Kiska . With the recapturing operation scheduled to begin on August 15 , the Eleventh Air Force dropped 424 tons of bombs on Kiska during the month of July . In addition , the Navy fired 330 tons of shells onto the island during the same period . In late July , the pilots charged with scouting for enemy forces on Kiska reported a sharp decline in the amount of fire received by their planes from Japanese forces on the ground . The Americans believed that one of two events had occurred – either Kiska had been evacuated , or the Japanese had retreated into the hills of Kiska .
By 4 : 00pm on August 15 , a total of 6 @,@ 500 troops were on the ground on the west side of Kiska . The Canadian contingent came ashore on the north side of the island the next day . However , the invasion was an embarrassment for the Allied forces . The island of Kiska was , in fact , uninhabited – the entire Japanese force of 5 @,@ 183 men had left the island on July 28 without the Americans noticing . However , the Americans suffered significant casualties during their ' invasion ' – 313 men died as a result of accidents , with many dying due to accidental fire . Of the total 313 dead , 70 died when the destroyer USS Abner Read struck a mine , while at least 21 died due to friendly fire . The Japanese had completely deserted their buildings on the island , leaving behind them scrawled messages on the walls for the Allied troops to read – most attacked President of the United States Franklin Roosevelt and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Winston Churchill ; for example , one of the messages read , in a mixture of English and German , " You are dancing by foolische order of Rousebelt [ sic ] . "
On August 24 , 1943 , Kiska was declared secure by the American forces . The Aleutian Islands campaign was officially over .
For the commanding officers stationed on the Aleutian Islands during the Aleutian Islands campaign , attacking the Kuril Islands from the Aleutians was a logical continuation to recapturing Attu and Kiska . However , these officers faced resistance from their superiors in Washington and their troops on the ground . Troop morale had sharply declined as a result of the island 's dismal conditions , creating a condition that the troops called the ' Aleutian stare ' amongst those who had been on the island for more than six months . An American assault of the Kuriles never materialised .
= = Nuclear testing = =
During the 1960s , the United States Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) conducted nuclear tests on Amchitka . Despite being designated as a national wildlife refuge by President William Taft in 1913 , Amchitka was chosen as a nuclear testing site by the AEC . There were several reasons for this decision . Firstly , Amchitka was close to the former Soviet Union , making it an ideal location for a nuclear test to intimidate the latter . However , the public reason given by the AEC was the island 's remoteness . Forceful objections were raised against the testing by a number of organisations and groups , most notably the Aleut people , who , although they vacated the island in the 19th century after Russian fur traders reduced sea otter numbers in the area , are resident on nearby islands , and were concerned about radiation leaks as well as potential physical damage resulting from the nuclear tests .
In 1965 , the Long Shot nuclear test was executed by the Department of Defense . Almost immediately , fallout from the nuclear test began to leak into adjacent freshwater lakes , although details of this contamination were not made public until 1969 . On October 2 , 1969 , the AEC executed a calibration shot underground to determine whether the island would be a safe place for future tests . However , this test set off a number of reactions in the surrounding area – the test triggered earthquakes and landslides , and sent water from lakes flying 50 feet ( 15 m ) up into the air .
In 1970 , the AEC announced plans for another test , named Cannikin . The environmental movement , then in its infancy , vehemently opposed the testing , and filed a suit in the United States Supreme Court to stop the testing . This motion was denied by a 4 to 3 vote . On November 6 , 1971 , the Cannikin bomb was detonated , creating a 60 feet ( 18 m ) deep crater in the island , killing 1 @,@ 000 sea otters and thousands of birds . The blast was 385 times that created by the Hiroshima bombing , and was the largest underground test of a nuclear weapon in history .
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= Pilot ( Supernatural ) =
" Pilot " is the first episode of the television series Supernatural . It premiered on The WB on September 13 , 2005 and was written by series creator Eric Kripke , and directed by David Nutter . The Supernatural pilot introduces the characters of Sam ( Jared Padalecki ) and Dean Winchester ( Jensen Ackles ) , brothers who travel throughout the country hunting supernatural creatures , as they battle a ghostly Woman in White ( Sarah Shahi ) while searching for their missing father ( Jeffrey Dean Morgan ) .
Kripke had been developing the concept for ten years before it was greenlit as a television series . Before it could be filmed , the script underwent numerous revisions . It was produced in Los Angeles , though future episodes were filmed in Vancouver , British Columbia , to save money . The episode established the series ' tradition of a rock @-@ music soundtrack , and included background music scored by Kripke 's friend Christopher Lennertz . The series premiere received mixed reviews , with critics praising the horror elements but having varying opinions of the lead actors ' performances .
= = Plot = =
In Lawrence , Kansas , Mary Winchester ( Samantha Smith ) investigates a sound coming from her infant son Sam 's nursery . She sees a figure standing over his crib , and confronts him . Her husband , John ( Morgan ) , is awoken by her screams and finds her pinned to the ceiling with a slash across her stomach . She bursts into flames , and John is forced to evacuate the house with Sam and his older son , Dean , while the house erupts into flames .
Twenty @-@ two years later , Sam ( Jared Padalecki ) and his girlfriend Jessica Moore ( Adrianne Palicki ) celebrate his high LSAT score . Later that night , Dean ( Jensen Ackles ) shows up at Sam 's home . Though the brothers have not spoken in years , Dean comes looking for help in finding their father , who disappeared while hunting a supernatural entity . After Sam hears a voicemail from his father that contains electronic voice phenomenon of a woman saying , " I can never go home , " he agrees to help Dean in the search . The brothers head to John 's last known whereabouts — the town of Jericho — where he had been investigating the disappearances of young men along a single stretch of road over ten years . Sam and Dean discover a local legend of a murdered girl who has returned as a homicidal , hitchhiking ghost . Research points to Constance Welch ( Shahi ) , who jumped to her death off a nearby bridge after drowning her children . While they stakeout the bridge that night , Sam tells Dean he does not want to return to hunting supernatural creatures . He points out that finding whatever creature killed their mother — a task their father has dedicated his life to — will not bring her back . The two are interrupted by a ghostly woman jumping off the bridge . Sam and Dean later check into a local motel , and discover their father is also renting a room there . They break into it and discover his research scattered all over the room ; all his findings point to Constance being a woman in white .
When Dean leaves the room to get food , he is arrested by the police , who believe he is connected to the disappearances . At the police station , they show him John 's journal , and he notices the message " Dean 35 @-@ 11 " written inside it . As Dean is interrogated , Sam tracks down Constance 's husband ( Steve Railsback ) , and learns the locations of both her grave site and the house in which she drowned their children . Sam then fakes a 911 call so Dean can escape the station . However , Constance targets Sam in his car ; she attempts to seduce him and requests he take her home . Sam refuses , but she possesses the car so that it drives Sam to her home . She attacks him once they arrive at her old house . Dean forces her to temporarily dissipate by shooting her with rock salt , and Sam uses the opportunity to crash the car into the house . Constance reappears and attacks them , but the spirits of her children confront her . They embrace their mother , causing her to scream in pain as demonic like beings spawn from under her , dragging her down through the floor .
Dean deduces John 's message was coordinates to where he has headed . Sam still does not want to join the search , so Dean drops him off at his apartment . Lying alone in bed , Sam discovers Jessica pinned to the ceiling with a slash across her stomach . She ignites into flames as Dean breaks in and rescues Sam . While firefighters attempt to put out the inferno , Sam decides to join his brother in the search for their father and the creature that killed their mother and Jessica .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Series creator Eric Kripke had previously written for the WB series Tarzan , and was offered the chance to pitch show ideas to the network . He used the opportunity for Supernatural , a concept he had been developing for nearly ten years . Kripke envisioned Supernatural as a road trip series , deeming it the " best vehicle to tell these stories because it 's pure , stripped down and uniquely American ... These stories exist in these small towns all across the country , and it just makes so much sense to drive in and out of these stories . " Though the network rejected his initial pitch — a tabloid reporter investigates supernatural occurrences throughout the country — they were still interested in a series featuring urban legends . Kripke quickly suggested a Route 66 @-@ style series , and the network loved it . Filming was greenlit after director David Nutter , who previously had worked with Kripke on Tarzan , signed on .
= = = Cast and characters = = =
The pilot stars Jared Padalecki and Jensen Ackles as Sam and Dean Winchester , whom Kripke likened to Luke Skywalker and Han Solo of Star Wars . Padalecki knew executive producers McG and Nutter , the former convincing him to audition for the role . He was excited to play " the reluctant hero " , and compared Sam to The Matrix 's Neo . However , Nutter also asked Ackles to audition for the role of Sam . Nutter and Kripke found themselves in a predicament , as they felt both actors were great as Sam . To remedy the situation , Warner Bros. president Peter Roth suggested Ackles instead audition for Dean . Kripke agreed , believing Ackles ' " smart @-@ ass attitude " made him " born to play " the Harrison Ford @-@ like character , and Ackles preferred the character of Dean after reading the script . Both actors were the only ones to audition , and network executives instantly noticed a brotherly chemistry between them . Evil Dead @-@ actor Bruce Campbell was Kripke 's first choice to portray John Winchester , father of Sam and Dean . However , Campbell was unavailable , and Jeffrey Dean Morgan eventually received the role . With Morgan 's scene taking place 22 years before the series , he expected to be replaced by an older actor for subsequent episodes , and was surprised when he was later asked to reprise the role .
For the role of Constance Welch — the Woman in White — production set out to find the " perfect actress " . Nutter , a fan of The L Word , had watched an episode featuring actress Sarah Shahi one night during the casting process . He felt she was " really sharp " and a " fine actress " , with a " seductive quality about her " . Surprised when she came in to audition the following day , he knew she " had the job when she walked in the door " . Because the scene involving Constance 's husband Joseph Welch merely discusses Constance 's backstory , the scene hinged on the actors ' performances . Seeking a " great actor " , Nutter recalled his previous experience working with Steve Railsback , and offered him the role . Other guest stars include Adrianne Palicki as Sam 's girlfriend Jessica Moore , and Samantha Smith as Mary Winchester . The latter felt she landed the part due to her joking around with Nutter during the audition .
= = = Writing = = =
The episode was written by series creator Eric Kripke , who described its creation as a " very difficult , birthing process " due to the numerous rewrites required . The original version did not feature the Woman in White , and John Winchester died in the teaser . In the revised script , Sam and Dean Winchester were raised by their aunt and uncle instead of their father . Because of this , Sam is unaware that supernatural beings exist , and Dean must convince him of the truth when he asks for help . Kripke realized this made the backstory too complicated , and reworked it with co @-@ executive producer Peter Johnson so that their father raised them to be hunters like him . This decision granted the brothers proficiency in both fighting and swindling people . Other revised concepts included Sam believing Dean to be a serial killer who murdered their father , and John dying instead of Sam 's girlfriend Jessica . The scene in which the brothers discuss their childhood and delve into their backstory was rewritten 20 to 30 times , and the final version was heavily trimmed .
A gas @-@ station scene within the episode was meant to establish what the brothers and the series are about — bantering , credit card scams , and classic rock ; Kripke feared that it would be cut because it was character @-@ based and did not further the episode 's plot . He also did not want the series to feature ballad music typical of The WB network , and forced the use of classic rock for the soundtrack by writing the music into the script . For the episode 's villain , Kripke used the well @-@ known urban legend of the vanishing hitchhiker , but combined it with the Mexican legend of La Llorona to give the spirit more motivation and characterization . The ghost was younger in an earlier version of script , and murdered her parents instead of her children ; this was revised to allow for the casting of an older actress .
Originally , the studio did not want Kripke to kill Jessica at the episode 's end , but rather keep her as a recurring character in the series . Kripke felt this would not fit the series 's format , and decided to have her revealed as a demon , with the revelation prompting Sam to join Dean in hunting . However , with only a short amount of screentime available to depict this , Kripke believed it would be a " tough aspect to sell " . Because Luke Skywalker only begins his journey after the deaths of his aunt and uncle , Kripke found it more appropriate for Sam 's motivation to be Jessica 's death . Thus , the character is killed in the same manner as Sam 's mother , making the deaths the " right bookends " .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography for the pilot took place in Los Angeles , though subsequent episodes of the series are filmed in Vancouver , British Columbia to save money . The bridge sequences were shot at Lake Piru , near a War of the Worlds filming location , and the library and phone booth scenes were filmed at an elementary school . Triplet babies portrayed Sam in the episode 's teaser , and production found it difficult to get them to cry on cue . Though a real house served as the first @-@ story level in the teaser , the upstairs was constructed on a sound stage because of the special effects required for Mary 's fiery death . Script rewrites for the opening sequence — a better introduction for Sam was needed — required reshoots on the set of The O.C. two months after principal photography .
= = = Effects = = =
To depict the supernatural aspects of the show , the series makes use of visual , special , and make @-@ up effects , as well as stuntwork . Businesses , such as visual effects company Entity FX , were contracted for production of the pilot episode . Subsequent episodes were filmed in Vancouver and required a new crew that works exclusively for the show . Mary Winchester 's death scene , which had the character pinned to the ceiling and burning to death , required actress Samantha Smith to lie on a floor with two propane pipes spouting fire approximately five feet away from her on either side . For the actual burning of the character , a fake body the crew named " Christina " was made out of wire and papier @-@ mâché , and was then ignited on a fake ceiling . However , the room quickly caught fire , forcing an evacuation . Green screen coincided with the visual effects for the ghostly Woman in White , and executive producer McG chose to make the imagery of her death sequence an homage to Chris Cunningham 's Aphex Twin video " Windowlicker " . Japanese horror also influenced the scene , such as the school uniforms worn by the ghost children , the water cascading down the stairs , and the Dark Water elements .
= = = Music = = =
The episode 's synthesized orchestral score was written by Christopher Lennertz , Kripke 's friend and next @-@ door neighbor . The two attended USC School of Cinematic Arts together , and worked together on various projects afterwards . Lennertz described Supernatural as " one of those dream situations where you get to work with someone who you admire , but also have a relationship with already " , and noted he and Kripke " were already on the same page without even talking about [ the series ' music ] " .
For the scenes involving Mary and Jessica 's deaths at the hands of the demon Azazel , Lennertz used a piano solo with discordant notes and reverberations to create a " really nasty " sounding echo effect . He would later reuse this theme in the season one episode " Nightmare " . The episode also included a number of rock songs , which would become a tradition for the series . Kripke wanted to feature the song " Enter Sandman " , but Metallica would not grant permission .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , the pilot was viewed by an estimated 5 @.@ 69 million viewers . The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Diana Steenbergen of IGN , who was " hooked right away " , gave the pilot episode a score of 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 . She felt it began " heartbreakingly " , and the " genuinely scary " death scenes of Mary and Jess " will haunt ... the viewers " . Steenbergen praised both the writers and the lead actors for making the " [ exposition scenes ] still feel natural , for the most part " , and noted Ackles and Padalecki were " instantly convincing as brothers " . Also credited for this " well paced " episode was director David Nutter , who did an " excellent job of setting up the atmosphere and tone of the series " . Likewise , BuddyTV 's Don Williams posited , " It 's about as good as a pilot can get . " He ranked it ninth out of his favorite episodes of the first three seasons , believing it introduces the characters " in a memorable fashion " and " wonderfully " establishes the show 's universe . Robert Bianco of USA Today deemed the series as possibly " the simplest and the scariest " of the season 's new dark shows , and wrote , " It wants nothing more than to frighten you — and tonight , it does . " He noted the episode " [ pulls ] off a few surprises " and " works its way to an ending that lives up to Dean 's ' no chick @-@ flick moments ' " . However , Bianco criticized the " pauses for comic relief " ; he felt Ackles ' " comic touch " was " not yet as skillful as it needs to be " , with Ackles ' attempts at being " humorously annoying " leaving him " simply annoying " . Despite the episode having a somewhat unoriginal villain and a " relatively simple " solution , Brian Lowry of Variety deemed the series ' debut as " a promising plunge into the darkness " . Lowry applauded Ackles , who " brings an easygoing charm and engaging wise @-@ ass personality to the absurd notion of traveling the country with a trunk full of wooden stakes and holy water " .
Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times found the first half of the episode " quite effective " , with the " camera angles , spooky music and jumpy sequences ... [ being ] as frightening as those found in any horror movie , with an added twist of suspense " . However , she deemed the depiction of the ghostly villain as " pretty silly " , and noted the second half " stops building suspense and turns predictable " . Calling the series " Ghostbusters ' Creek " , Stanley felt the episode " reverts to a WB family drama about the bonds between two mismatched brothers and their father " . Similarly , Matthew Gilbert of the Boston Globe called Ackles and Padalecki " generic cuties who hold their lips together tightly , except to utter the word ' Dude ' " . Although Gilbert noted there are a couple " moderately creepy " twists , he found there to be " nothing about the central family story in Supernatural or its bland actors that makes it addictive " .
Work on the pilot episode garnered two Emmy Award nominations in 2006 . Lennertz was nominated in the category of " Outstanding Music Composition For A Series ( Dramatic Underscore ) " , and the sound editors for " Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series " .
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= Rufus Wainwright ( album ) =
Rufus Wainwright is the eponymous debut studio album by Canadian @-@ American singer @-@ songwriter Rufus Wainwright , released in the United States on May 19 , 1998 through DreamWorks Records . The album was produced by Jon Brion , except " In My Arms " was produced and mixed by Pierre Marchand , and " Millbrook " and " Baby " were produced by Brion and Van Dyke Parks . Lenny Waronker was the executive producer .
Wainwright was signed to the DreamWorks label in 1996 after Waronker heard the demo tape he recorded with Marchand . Over the course of two years , Wainwright and Brion recorded 56 songs on 62 rolls of tape at a cost that exceeded $ 700 @,@ 000 , which was then narrowed down to twelve tracks for the album . No singles were released from Rufus Wainwright , though Sophie Muller directed the music video for " April Fools " , which featured Wainwright in Los Angeles attempting to prevent the deaths of opera heroines . To support the album , Wainwright toured throughout the United States and Canada following its release .
Overall , reviews for the album were positive . Though the album failed to chart in any nations , Wainwright reached number 24 on Billboard 's Top Heatseekers chart ( which highlights sales by new and developing musical recording artists ) and Rolling Stone named Wainwright the Best New Artist of 1998 . Rufus Wainwright also earned him recognitions from the Gay & Lesbian American Music Awards , the GLAAD Media Awards and the Juno Awards . The album was released in Japan with the bonus track " A Bit of You " , and later in 2008 in LP form through the record label Plain Recordings .
= = Background = =
Wainwright , born into a musical family which included parents Loudon Wainwright III and Kate McGarrigle and sister Martha Wainwright , began touring in his early teens with his family throughout Canada , Europe and the United States . At age fourteen , his song " I 'm a Runnin ' , written for the 1988 Canadian film Tommy Tricker and the Stamp Traveller , earned him a Genie Award nomination for Best Achievement in Music – Original Song and a Juno Award nomination in 1990 for Most Promising Male Vocalist of the Year .
Wainwright attended McGill University in Montreal to study classical composition for a short time . With his mother 's support , he began pursuing pop songwriting and learned how to play guitar . Wainwright started performing at the night club Sarajevo , and eventually recorded a demo tape with record producer Pierre Marchand , a " family friend " who had also worked with Kate and Anna and who also later produced Wainwright 's second studio album Poses . Songs were recorded at Marchand 's studio in Morin @-@ Heights , Quebec , and no edits were made to the simple live tunes . The tape impressed Wainwright 's father , who passed the songs along to producer Van Dyke Parks , who in turn presented them to DreamWorks executive Lenny Waronker . Waronker had signed McGarrigle to Warner Bros. Records in the 1970s . Describing his initial reaction to Wainwright 's music , Waronker stated : " When I was about to listen to his tape , I remember clearly I was thinking , ' Gee , if he has the mom 's musicality and smarts , and the dad 's smarts and voice , that 'd be nice . ' Then I put it on and I said , ' Oh , my God , this is stunning . ' " Wainwright acknowledged that having musicians as parents gave him a " foot in the door " , but attributed his success to hard work .
= = Development = =
Wainwright was signed to DreamWorks in 1996 . Waronker paired the singer with producer Jon Brion , and together they spent " most of 1996 and 1997 " recording 56 songs on 62 rolls of tape . Costs for the recording sessions reached between $ 700 @,@ 000 and $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . Wainwright admitted that he and Brion took their time recording the album in Los Angeles , and considered the extended time a " blessing " and " luxury " , claiming that " most people have two weeks to record their first album " . According to Wainwright , Waronker " didn 't care how long it took , as long as we were doing good work . " Waronker was pleased with the final product , and he and Wainwright agreed on the twelve tracks that made up the album .
Songs on the album were produced by Brion , except " In My Arms " was produced and mixed by Marchand and " Millbrook " and " Baby " were produced by Brion and Van Dyke Parks . Waronker served as the executive producer . Rufus Wainwright was recorded mostly in Los Angeles studios — Ocean Way Three & Seven , Sunset Sound Factory , Sunset Sound , Media Vortex , Hook Studios , Groove Masters , Red Zone , Sony , The Palindrome Recorder , and NRG Recording Services — although recording also took place in Marchand 's Wild Sky in Morin @-@ Heights . Parks conducted his orchestrations at Studio B in the Capitol Studios complex . Wainwright and Brion did not always get along , the latter admitting to The New York Times : " Rufus had all these beautiful songs but every time the vocals would kick in , he 'd write some complicated keyboard part so you couldn 't hear them . He wasn 't interested in listening to ideas about simplifying arrangements . " The duo also contributed the songs " Le Roi D 'Ys " and " Banks of the Wabash " ( both " contemporary " cover versions ) to the 1997 soundtrack to the film The Myth of Fingerprints . Brion later considered " Le Roi D 'Ys " , recorded in around six hours , to be one of his favorite tracks by Wainwright .
Rufus Wainwright was released on May 19 , 1998 through DreamWorks . Following the album 's release , which earned him mostly positive reviews , Wainwright contributed to The McGarrigle Hour , a 1998 album by Kate & Anna McGarrigle featuring family members Loudon and Martha along with singers Emmylou Harris and Linda Ronstadt . In December 1998 , Wainwright appeared in a Gap commercial in which he performed Frank Loesser 's 1947 song " What Are You Doing New Year 's Eve ? " In 1999 , he was one of several featured artists promoted by Best Buy as part of a campaign to promote young talent . The album was re @-@ issued in 2008 in LP form through the record label Plain Recordings .
= = Songs = =
The " neo @-@ operatic " opening track " Foolish Love " , arranged by Van Dyke Parks , was described by Allmusic contributor Matthew Greenwald as a " lush , orchestral @-@ soaked ballad , with incredible strings " . He asserted that Wainwright 's lyrics took the form of a letter to himself , defining his goals and " sense of purpose " . The song " Danny Boy " , with its " fabulous wordplay that stays literate and easy to understand at the time " , contains " subtle " horn lines and sampled percussion . The song alludes to Wainwright 's homosexuality , which Greenwald considered a " brave move " . According to biography author Kirk Lake , " Danny Boy " is a companion piece to " Foolish Love " and together they represent the start and end of a relationship between a gay man and a straight man . Danny , the straight " drug @-@ addled " title figure with whom Wainwright had a three @-@ year relationship , is the subject of both songs in addition to others on the album ; he appears in the album 's collage artwork . Wainwright sings of being so blinded by love that he fails to notice the " ship with eight sails " threatening to come around the bend , a reference to Bertolt Brecht 's 1928 musical The Threepenny Opera .
The chorus in " April Fools " begins with an " unusually upbeat attitude " and was considered by Greenwald to be the most accessible track on the album . The song showcased Jim Keltner 's drum performance as well as Wainwright 's piano playing . Driven by Wainwright 's guitar playing , " In My Arms " was described by Greenwald as a " forlorn " , Spanish @-@ influenced ballad that sounded as though it " could have been recorded in France in the 1920s " . The song " Millbrook " is an ode to his boarding school compatriots . Wainwright has admitted to being " upset and drunk " when recording the final take . " Baby " , which has been considered one of the most melancholic songs on the album , contains " oddly placed " and " slightly quirky " major seventh chords . Greenwald called the lyrics " a stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness pleasure , relating the confusing and intoxicating emotions of young love . "
" Beauty Mark " is an ode to Wainwright 's mother , the title referring to the mole above her lip . The song is one of the few up @-@ tempo tracks on the album and contains multiple keyboard overdubs by Brion . Chris Yurkiw of the Montreal Mirror considered the track to be the most moving love song on the album , with an " overt and open @-@ hearted " reference to his homosexuality : " I may not be so manly , but still I know you love me . " Wainwright 's Summer Stage performance of " Beauty Mark " appears on his 2005 DVD All I Want . In " Barcelona " , Wainwright recalls a love affair that took place in the city of the same name . The song is loosely about AIDS and contains the Italian language lyric " Fuggi , regal fantasima " , taken from Giuseppe Verdi 's opera Macbeth . According to Wainwright , the line appears in a scene when " Macbeth is going mad and sees the ghost , and in [ Wainwright 's ] mind the ghost was AIDS . " " Matinee Idol " is about the rise and fall of an entertainment figure , inspired by the death of actor River Phoenix . According to Greenwald , the musical song has a " 1920s , cabaret musical feel " . " Damned Ladies " is a slow ballad about the " beloved yet doomed ladies of opera " . Wainwright said the following of " Damned Ladies " , which contains references to nine opera heroines : " In the song , I lament how these women are constantly dying brutal deaths , which I can see coming but cannot stop . It gets me every time . " Greenwald described " Sally Ann " as 1920s love ballad of " lost love and emotional regret " . The melody in " Imaginary Love " , the album 's closing track , contains sixth and major seventh chords .
= = Promotion = =
Wainwright acknowledged that his debut album was " not a single driven album " ; no singles were released from Rufus Wainwright . To promote the album , a music video was produced for the song " April Fools " . Directed by Sophie Muller , the video features Wainwright in Los Angeles " amidst a clique of classic opera characters " such as Madame Butterfly , attempting to prevent each of them from committing suicide . However , in each instance he arrives too late . The video also contains cameo appearances by No Doubt 's Gwen Stefani , a friend of Muller 's , and Hole bassist Melissa Auf der Maur , a high school acquaintance and former roommate of Wainwright 's . Part of the video was filmed in Stefani 's house .
Wainwright performed " Beauty Mark " on Today , the American morning news and talk show . He also taped an episode of MTV 's television program 120 Minutes to promote the album , which aired on March 28 , 1999 . An advertisement in Billboard promoting the album also referred to appearances on CBS News Sunday Morning , Late Night with Conan O 'Brien , Late Show with David Letterman , and Sessions at West 54th .
In the year prior to the album 's release , Wainwright opened for artists such as Barenaked Ladies and Sean Lennon . On March 1 , 1999 , Wainwright began his first tour as a headlining act in Hoboken , New Jersey . During that month , Wainwright toured throughout New England and the mid @-@ Atlantic states , Ontario ( Ottawa and Toronto ) , Quebec ( Montreal ) , the Southern United States ( Nashville and Atlanta ) , and midwestern United States ( Cincinnati , Chicago , and Pontiac ) . Wainwright continued to tour throughout the month of April before heading to Europe . Stops were mostly along the West Coast , including four in California , Portland , Oregon , and Seattle . Three concerts were also held in Canada , including Vancouver , Edmonton , and Calgary .
= = Critical reception = =
Overall , reception of the album was positive . Speaking of second @-@ generation artists emerging around the same time , Allmusic 's Jason Ankeny wrote that Wainwright " deserves to be heard regardless of his family tree " . Furthermore , Ankeny complimented the musician for his songwriting abilities and his " knack for elegantly rolling piano melodies and poignantly romantic lyrics " . Music journalist Robert Christgau characterized Wainwright as a " mind @-@ boggling original " whose talent is " too big to let pass " . One NME reviewer called the album " floridly impersonal and " grandiosely arranged " , but also criticized Wainwright for being " too overwrought and naff " . Greenwald complimented Martha 's backing vocals in the song " In My Arms " , as well as Parks ' " positively sterling " string arrangement in " Millbrook " . Furthermore , he praised the vocal duet between Rufus and Martha in " Sally Ann " , claiming that a similar sibling performance had not been heard since The Everly Brothers . The album 's cabaret elements and 1970s singer @-@ songwriter style drew comparisons to Cole Porter and Joni Mitchell . Josh Kun of Salon.com wrote that Wainwright poetically incorporated " foolish love and fantasy love , healing love and destructive love and love that makes you want to lose your sense of self just so you can find it again . " Kun asserted that the songs were " built on a similar set of angled melodies and hairpin turns of phrase " , and that each " succeeds as its own distinctly intimate portrait of emotion and desire " .
Ann Powers , music critic for The New York Times , included the album at number five on her list of the Top 10 albums of 1998 . The album was also included in The Village Voice 's 1998 Pazz & Jop Critics Poll , which combined ballots from 496 critics . Rufus Wainwright was nominated four times by the Gay & Lesbian American Music Awards , an organization that provided the foundation for the recognition of the excellence of LGBT artists . Wainwright received the award for Best New Artist , the album was nominated for Album of the Year , and " April Fools " was nominated for Video of the Year and Best Pop Recording . The GLAAD Media Awards , created by the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation ( GLAAD ) to recognize and honor the mainstream media for their fair and accurate representations of the LGBT community , presented Wainwright with the award for Outstanding Music Album . At the Juno Awards of 1999 , Rufus Wainwright earned Wainwright the Juno Award for Best Alternative Album .
= = Commercial reception = =
Album sales were limited — by March 1999 only 35 @,@ 000 copies had been sold . In 2001 , Michael Giltz of The Advocate wrote that Wainwright 's biggest sales boost came from the Gap advertisement rather than radio play . Despite low sales , Wainwright reached number 24 on Billboard 's Top Heatseekers chart , and Rolling Stone named him 1998 's Best New Artist . The January 19 , 1999 CMJ New Music Report showed that Rufus Wainwright spent nine weeks on CMJ Radio 200 reaching a peak position of number 52 , five weeks on CMJ Code Radio reaching a peak position of number 42 , as well as nine weeks on CMJ Triple A reaching a peak position of number 9 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Wainwright .
" Foolish Love " – 5 : 46
" Danny Boy " – 6 : 12
" April Fools " – 5 : 00
" In My Arms " – 4 : 08
" Millbrook " – 2 : 11
" Baby " – 5 : 13
" Beauty Mark " – 2 : 14
" Barcelona " – 6 : 53
" Matinee Idol " – 3 : 08
" Damned Ladies " – 4 : 07
" Sally Ann " – 5 : 01
" Imaginary Love " – 3 : 28
Bonus track
" A Bit of You " – 5 : 00 ( Japan )
Track listing adapted from Allmusic .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Allmusic and the album liner notes .
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= Aboriginal peoples in Canada =
Aboriginal peoples in Canada , or Aboriginal Canadians , ( also known as Indigenous peoples in Canada and Indigenous Canadians ) are the indigenous peoples within the boundaries of present @-@ day Canada . They comprise the First Nations , Inuit and Métis . Although " Indian " is a term still commonly used in legal documents , the descriptors " Indian " and " Eskimo " have somewhat fallen into disuse in Canada and are sometimes considered pejorative .
Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are some of the earliest known sites of human habitation in Canada . The Paleo @-@ Indian Clovis , Plano and Pre @-@ Dorset cultures pre @-@ date current indigenous peoples of the Americas . Projectile point tools , spears , pottery , bangles , chisels and scrapers mark archaeological sites , thus distinguishing cultural periods , traditions and lithic reduction styles .
The characteristics of Canadian Aboriginal culture included permanent settlements , agriculture , civic and ceremonial architecture , complex societal hierarchies and trading networks . The Métis culture of mixed blood originated in the mid @-@ 17th century when First Nation and Inuit people married Europeans . The Inuit had more limited interaction with European settlers during that early period . Various laws , treaties , and legislation have been enacted between European immigrants and First Nations across Canada . Aboriginal Right to Self @-@ Government provides opportunity to manage historical , cultural , political , health care and economic control aspects within first people 's communities .
As of the 2011 census , Aboriginal peoples in Canada totaled 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 685 people , or 4 @.@ 3 % of the national population , spread over 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands with distinctive cultures , languages , art , and music . National Aboriginal Day recognizes the cultures and contributions of Aboriginals to the history of Canada . First Nations , Inuit and Métis peoples of all backgrounds have become prominent figures and have served as role models in the Aboriginal community and help to shape the Canadian cultural identity .
= = Terminology = =
The terms First Peoples and First Nations are both used to refer to indigenous peoples of Canada . The terms First Peoples or Aboriginals in Canada are normally broader terms than First Nations , as they include Inuit , Métis and First Nations . First Nations ( most often used in the plural ) has come into general use for the indigenous peoples of North America in Canada , and their descendants , who are neither Inuit nor Métis . On reserves , First Nations is being supplanted by members of various nations referring to themselves by their group or ethnical identity . In conversation this would be " I am Haida " , or " we are Kwantlens " , in recognition of their First Nations ethnicities . In this Act , " Aboriginal peoples of Canada " includes the Indian , Inuit and Métis peoples of Canada .
Indian remains in place as the legal term used in the Canadian Constitution . Its usage outside such situations can be considered offensive . Aboriginals is more commonly used to describe all indigenous peoples of Canada . It also refers to self @-@ identification of aboriginal people who live within Canada claiming rights of sovereignty or aboriginal title to lands .
The term Eskimo has pejorative connotations in Canada and Greenland . Indigenous peoples in those areas have replaced the term Eskimo with Inuit . The Yupik of Alaska and Siberia do not consider themselves Inuit , and ethnographers agree they are a distinct people . They prefer the terminology Yupik , Yupiit , or Eskimo . The Yupik languages are linguistically distinct from the Inuit languages . Linguistic groups of Arctic people have no universal replacement term for Eskimo , inclusive of all Inuit and Yupik people across the geographical area inhabited by the Inuit and Yupik peoples .
Besides these ethnic descriptors , Aboriginal peoples are often divided into legal categories based on their relationship with the Crown ( i.e. the state ) . Section 91 ( clause 24 ) of the Constitution Act , 1867 gives the federal government ( as opposed to the provinces ) the sole responsibility for " Indians , and Lands reserved for the Indians " . The government inherited treaty obligations from the British colonial authorities in Eastern Canada and signed treaties itself with First Nations in Western Canada ( the Numbered Treaties ) . It also passed the Indian Act in 1876 which governed its interactions with all treaty and non @-@ treaty peoples . Members of First Nations bands that are subject to the Indian Act with the Crown are compiled on a list called the Indian Register , and such people are called Status Indians . Many non @-@ treaty First Nations and all Inuit and Métis peoples are not subject to the Indian Act . However , two court cases have clarified that Inuit , Métis , and non @-@ status First Nations people , all are covered by the term " Indians " in the Constitution Act , 1867 . The first was Re Eskimos in 1939 covering the Inuit , the second being Daniels v. Canada in 2013 which applies to Métis and non @-@ Status First Nations .
Notwithstanding Canada 's location within the Americas , the term " Native American " is not used in Canada as it is typically used solely to describe the indigenous peoples within the boundaries of the present @-@ day United States .
= = History = =
= = = Paleo @-@ Indians period = = =
According to archaeological and genetic evidence , North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation . During the Wisconsin glaciation , 50 @,@ 000 – 17 @,@ 000 years ago , falling sea levels allowed people to move across the Bering land bridge that joined Siberia to north west North America ( Alaska ) . Alaska was ice @-@ free because of low snowfall , allowing a small population to exist . The Laurentide ice sheet covered most of Canada , blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska ( East Beringia ) for thousands of years .
Aboriginal genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single ancestral population , one that developed in isolation , conjectured to be Beringia . The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 years . Around 16 @,@ 500 years ago , the glaciers began melting , allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond .
The first inhabitants of North America arrived in Canada at least 15 @,@ 000 years ago , though increasing evidence suggests an even earlier arrival . It is believed the inhabitants entered the Americas pursuing Pleistocene mammals such as the giant beaver , steppe wisent , musk ox , mastodons , woolly mammoths and ancient reindeer ( early caribou ) . One route hypothesized is that people walked south by way of an ice @-@ free corridor on the east side of the Rocky Mountains , and then fanned out across North America before continuing on to South America . The other conjectured route is that they migrated , either on foot or using primitive boats , down the Pacific Coast to the tip of South America , and then crossed the Rockies and Andes . Evidence of the latter has been covered by a sea level rise of hundreds of metres following the last ice age .
The Old Crow Flats and basin was one of the areas in Canada untouched by glaciations during the Pleistocene Ice ages , thus it served as a pathway and refuge for ice age plants and animals . The area holds evidence of early human habitation in Canada dating from about 12 @,@ 000 . Fossils from the area include some never accounted for in North America , such as hyenas and large camels . Bluefish Caves is an archaeological site in Yukon , Canada from which a specimen of apparently human @-@ worked mammoth bone has been radiocarbon dated to 12 @,@ 000 years ago .
Clovis sites dated at 13 @,@ 500 years ago were discovered in western North America during the 1930s . Clovis peoples were regarded as the first widespread Paleo @-@ Indian inhabitants of the New World and ancestors to all indigenous peoples in the Americas . Archaeological discoveries in the past thirty years have brought forward other distinctive knapping cultures who occupied the Americas from the lower Great Plains to the shores of Chile .
Localized regional cultures developed from the time of the Younger Dryas cold climate period from 12 @,@ 900 to 11 @,@ 500 years ago . The Folsom tradition are characterized by their use of Folsom points as projectile tips at archaeological sites . These tools assisted activities at kill sites that marked the slaughter and butchering of bison .
The land bridge existed until 13 @,@ 000 – 11 @,@ 000 years ago , long after the oldest proven human settlements in the New World began . Lower sea levels in the Queen Charlotte sound and Hecate Strait produced great grass lands called archipelago of Haida Gwaii . Hunter @-@ gatherers of the area left distinctive lithic technology tools and the remains of large butchered mammals , occupying the area from 13 @,@ 000 – 9 @,@ 000 years ago . In July 1992 , the Federal Government officially designated X ̲ á : ytem ( near Mission , British Columbia ) as a National Historic Site , one of the first Indigenous spiritual sites in Canada to be formally recognized in this manner .
The Plano cultures was a group of hunter @-@ gatherer communities that occupied the Great Plains area of North America between 12 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 years ago . The Paleo @-@ Indians moved into new territory as it emerged from under the glaciers . Big game flourished in this new environment . The Plano culture are characterized by a range of projectile point tools collectively called Plano points , which were used to hunt bison . Their diets also included pronghorn , elk , deer , raccoon and coyote . At the beginning of the Archaic Era , they began to adopt a sedentary approach to subsistence . Sites in and around Belmont , Nova Scotia have evidence of Plano @-@ Indians , indicating small seasonal hunting camps , perhaps re @-@ visited over generations from around 11 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 years ago . Seasonal large and smaller game fish and fowl were food and raw material sources . Adaptation to the harsh environment included tailored clothing and skin @-@ covered tents on wooden frames .
= = = Archaic period = = =
The North American climate stabilized by 8000 BCE ( 10 @,@ 000 years ago ) ; climatic conditions were very similar to today 's . This led to widespread migration , cultivation and later a dramatic rise in population all over the Americas . Over the course of thousands of years , American indigenous peoples domesticated , bred and cultivated a large array of plant species . These species now constitute 50 – 60 % of all crops in cultivation worldwide .
The vastness and variety of Canada 's climates , ecology , vegetation , fauna , and landform separations have defined ancient peoples implicitly into cultural or linguistic divisions . Canada is surrounded north , east , and west with coastline and since the last ice age , Canada has consisted of distinct forest regions . Language contributes to the identity of a people by influencing social life ways and spiritual practices . Aboriginal religions developed from anthropomorphism and animism philosophies .
The placement of artifacts and materials within an Archaic burial site indicated social differentiation based upon status . There is a continuous record of occupation of S 'ólh Téméxw by Aboriginal people dating from the early Holocene period , 10 @,@ 000 – 9 @,@ 000 years ago . Archaeological sites at Stave Lake , Coquitlam Lake , Fort Langley and region uncovered early period artifacts . These early inhabitants were highly mobile hunter @-@ gatherers , consisting of about 20 to 50 members of an extended family . The Na @-@ Dene people occupied much of the land area of northwest and central North America starting around 8 @,@ 000 BCE . They were the earliest ancestors of the Athabaskan @-@ speaking peoples , including the Navajo and Apache . They had villages with large multi @-@ family dwellings , used seasonally during the summer , from which they hunted , fished and gathered food supplies for the winter . The Wendat peoples settled into Southern Ontario along the Eramosa River around 8 @,@ 000 – 7 @,@ 000 BCE ( 10 @,@ 000 – 9 @,@ 000 years ago ) . They were concentrated between Lake Simcoe and Georgian Bay . Wendat hunted caribou to survive on the glacier @-@ covered land . Many different First Nations cultures relied upon the buffalo starting by 6 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 BCE ( 8 @,@ 000 – 7 @,@ 000 years ago ) . They hunted buffalo by herding migrating buffalo off cliffs . Head @-@ Smashed @-@ In Buffalo Jump , near Lethbridge , Alberta , is a hunting grounds that was in use for about 5 @,@ 000 years .
The west coast of Canada by 7 @,@ 000 – 5000 BCE ( 9 @,@ 000 – 7 @,@ 000 years ago ) saw various cultures who organized themselves around salmon fishing . The Nuu @-@ chah @-@ nulth of Vancouver Island began whaling with advanced long spears at about this time . The Maritime Archaic is one group of North America 's Archaic culture of sea @-@ mammal hunters in the subarctic . They prospered from approximately 7 @,@ 000 BCE – 1 @,@ 500 BCE ( 9 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 500 years ago ) along the Atlantic Coast of North America . Their settlements included longhouses and boat @-@ topped temporary or seasonal houses . They engaged in long @-@ distance trade , using as currency white chert , a rock quarried from northern Labrador to Maine . The Pre @-@ Columbian culture , whose members were called Red Paint People , is indigenous to the New England and Atlantic Canada regions of North America . The culture flourished between 3 @,@ 000 BCE – 1 @,@ 000 BCE ( 5 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 years ago ) and was named after their burial ceremonies , which used large quantities of red ochre to cover bodies and grave goods .
The Arctic small tool tradition is a broad cultural entity that developed along the Alaska Peninsula , around Bristol Bay , and on the eastern shores of the Bering Strait around 2 @,@ 500 BCE ( 4 @,@ 500 years ago ) . These Paleo @-@ Arctic peoples had a highly distinctive toolkit of small blades ( microblades ) that were pointed at both ends and used as side- or end @-@ barbs on arrows or spears made of other materials , such as bone or antler . Scrapers , engraving tools and adze blades were also included in their toolkits . The Arctic small tool tradition branches off into two cultural variants , including the Pre @-@ Dorset , and the Independence traditions . These two groups , ancestors of Thule people , were displaced by the Inuit by 1000 Common Era ( CE ) .
= = = Post @-@ Archaic periods = = =
The Old Copper Complex societies dating from 3 @,@ 000 BCE – 500 BCE ( 5 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 500 years ago ) are a manifestation of the Woodland Culture , and are pre @-@ pottery in nature . Evidence found in the northern Great Lakes regions indicates that they extracted copper from local glacial deposits and used it in its natural form to manufacture tools and implements .
The Woodland cultural period dates from about 2 @,@ 000 BCE – 1 @,@ 000 CE , and has locales in Ontario , Quebec , and Maritime regions . The introduction of pottery distinguishes the Woodland culture from the earlier Archaic stage inhabitants . Laurentian people of southern Ontario manufactured the oldest pottery excavated to date in Canada . They created pointed @-@ bottom beakers decorated by a cord marking technique that involved impressing tooth implements into wet clay . Woodland technology included items such as beaver incisor knives , bangles , and chisels . The population practising sedentary agricultural life ways continued to increase on a diet of squash , corn , and bean crops .
The Hopewell tradition is an Aboriginal culture that flourished along American rivers from 300 BCE – 500 CE . At its greatest extent , the Hopewell Exchange System networked cultures and societies with the peoples on the Canadian shores of Lake Ontario . Canadian expression of the Hopewellian peoples encompasses the Point Peninsula , Saugeen , and Laurel complexes .
= = = = First Nations = = = =
First Nations peoples had settled and established trade routes across what is now Canada by 500 BCE – 1 @,@ 000 CE . Communities developed each with its own culture , customs , and character . In the northwest were the Athapaskan , Slavey , Dogrib , Tutchone , and Tlingit . Along the Pacific coast were the Tsimshian ; Haida ; Salish ; Kwakiutl ; Heiltsuk ; Nootka ; Nisga 'a ; Senakw and Gitxsan . In the plains were the Blackfoot ; Káínawa ; Sarcee and Peigan . In the northern woodlands were the Cree and Chipewyan . Around the Great Lakes were the Anishinaabe ; Algonquin ; Míkmaq ; Iroquois and Huron . Along the Atlantic coast were the Beothuk , Maliseet , Innu , Abenaki and Mi 'kmaq .
Many Canadian Aboriginal civilizations established characteristics and hallmarks that included permanent urban settlements or cities , agriculture , civic and monumental architecture , and complex societal hierarchies . These cultures had evolved and changed by the time of the first permanent European arrivals ( c. late 15th – early 16th centuries ) , and have been brought forward through archaeological investigations .
There are indications of contact made before Christopher Columbus between the first peoples and those from other continents . Aboriginal people in Canada interacted with Europeans around 1000 CE , but prolonged contact came after Europeans established permanent settlements in the 17th and 18th centuries . In Columbus ' time there was speculation that other Europeans had made the trip in ancient or contemporary times ; Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés records this in his General y natural historia de las Indias of 1526 , which includes biographical information on Columbus . European written accounts generally recorded friendliness of the First Nations , who profited in trade with Europeans . Such trade generally strengthened the more organized political entities such as the Iroquois Confederation . Throughout the 16th century , European fleets made almost annual visits to the eastern shores of Canada to cultivate the fishing opportunities . A sideline industry emerged in the un @-@ organized traffic of furs overseen by the Indian Department .
Prominent First Nations people include Joe Capilano , who met with King of the United Kingdom , Edward VII , to speak of the need to settle land claims and Ovide Mercredi , a leader at both the Meech Lake Accord constitutional reform discussions and Oka Crisis .
= = = = Inuit = = = =
The Inuit are the descendants of what anthropologists call the Thule culture , which emerged from western Alaska around 1 @,@ 000 CE and spread eastward across the Arctic , displacing the Dorset culture ( in Inuktitut , the Tuniit ) . Inuit historically referred to the Tuniit as " giants " , or " dwarfs " , who were taller and stronger than the Inuit . Researchers hypothesize that the Dorset culture lacked dogs , larger weapons and other technologies used by the expanding Inuit society . By 1300 , the Inuit had settled in west Greenland , and finally moved into east Greenland over the following century . The Inuit had trade routes with more southern cultures . Boundary disputes were common and led to aggressive actions .
Warfare was common among Inuit groups with sufficient population density . Inuit , such as the Nunatamiut ( Uummarmiut ) who inhabited the Mackenzie River delta area , often engaged in common warfare . The Central Arctic Inuit lacked the population density to engage in warfare . In the 13th century , the Thule culture began arriving in Greenland from what is now Canada . Norse accounts are scant . Norse @-@ made items from Inuit campsites in Greenland were obtained by either trade or plunder . One account , Ívar Bárðarson , speaks of " small people " with whom the Norsemen fought . 14th @-@ century accounts that a western settlement , one of the two Norse settlements , was taken over by the Skræling .
After the disappearance of the Norse colonies in Greenland , the Inuit had no contact with Europeans for at least a century . By the mid @-@ 16th century , Basque fishers were already working the Labrador coast and had established whaling stations on land , such as been excavated at Red Bay . The Inuit appear not to have interfered with their operations , but they did raid the stations in winter for tools , and particularly worked iron , which they adapted to native needs .
Notable among the Inuit are Abraham Ulrikab and family who became a zoo exhibit in Hamburg , Germany , and Tanya Tagaq , a traditional throat singer . Abe Okpik was instrumental in helping Inuit obtain surnames rather than disc numbers and Kiviaq ( David Ward ) won the legal right to use his single @-@ word Inuktituk name .
= = = = Métis = = = =
The Métis are people descended from marriages between Europeans ( mainly French ) and Cree , Ojibway , Algonquin , Saulteaux , Menominee , Mi 'kmaq , Maliseet , and other First Nations . Their history dates to the mid @-@ 17th century . When Europeans first arrived to Canada they relied on Aboriginal peoples for fur trading skills and survival . To ensure alliances , relationships between European fur traders and Aboriginal women were often consolidated through marriage . The Métis homeland consists of the Canadian provinces of British Columbia , Alberta , Saskatchewan , Manitoba , Quebec , New Brunswick , Nova Scotia , and Ontario , as well as the Northwest Territories ( NWT ) .
Amongst notable Métis people are television actor Tom Jackson , Commissioner of the Northwest Territories Tony Whitford , and Louis Riel who led two resistance movements : the Red River Rebellion of 1869 – 1870 and the North @-@ West Rebellion of 1885 , which ended in his trial .
The languages inherently Métis are either Métis French or a mixed language called Michif . Michif , Mechif or Métchif is a phonetic spelling of Métif , a variant of Métis . The Métis today predominantly speak English , with French a strong second language , as well as numerous Aboriginal tongues . A 19th @-@ century community of the Métis people , the Anglo @-@ Métis , were referred to as Countryborn . They were children of Rupert 's Land fur trade typically of Orcadian , Scottish , or English paternal descent and Aboriginal maternal descent . Their first languages would have been Aboriginal ( Cree , Saulteaux , Assiniboine , etc . ) and English . Their fathers spoke Gaelic , thus leading to the development of an English dialect referred to as " Bungee " .
S.35 of the Constitution Act , 1982 mentions the Métis yet there has long been debate over legally defining the term Métis , but on September 23 , 2003 , the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that Métis are a distinct people with significant rights ( Powley ruling ) .
Unlike First Nations people and Inuit , there has been no distinction between status and non @-@ status , and the Métis , their heritage and aboriginal ancestry have often been absorbed and assimilated into their surrounding populations .
= = = Forced assimilation = = =
From the late 18th century , European Canadians ( and the Canadian government ) encouraged assimilation of Aboriginal culture into what was referred to as " Canadian culture " . These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , with a series of initiatives that aimed at complete integration of the aboriginal peoples . These policies , which were made possible by legislation such as the Gradual Civilization Act and the Indian Act , focused on European ideals of Christianity , sedentary living , agriculture , and education .
The attempt at Christianization of the aboriginal people of Canada had been ongoing since the first missionaries arrived in the 1600s , however it became more systematic with the Indian Act in 1876 , which would bring new sanctions for those who did not convert to Christianity . For example , the new laws would prevent non @-@ Christian aboriginals from testifying or having their cases heard in court and ban alcohol consumption . When the Indian Act was amended in 1884 , traditional aboriginal religious and social practices , such as the Potlatch , would be banned , and further amendments in 1920 would prevent aboriginals from wearing traditional dress or performing traditional dances in an attempt to stop all non @-@ Christian practices .
Another focus of the Canadian government was to make the aboriginal groups of Canada sedentary , as they thought that this would make them easier to assimilate . In the 19th century , the government began to support the creation of model farming villages , which were meant to encourage non @-@ sedentary aboriginal groups to settle in an area and begin to cultivate agriculture . When most of these model farming villages failed , the government turned instead to the creation of Aboriginal reservations with the Indian Act of 1876 . With the creation of these reservations came many restricting laws , such as further bans on all intoxicants , restrictions on eligibility to vote in band elections , decreased hunting and fishing areas , and inability for aboriginals to visit other groups on their reservations .
Through the Gradual Civilization Act in 1857 , the government would encourage aboriginals to enfranchise – to remove all legal distinctions between [ Indians ] and Her Majesty ’ s other Canadian Subjects . If an aboriginal chose to enfranchise , it would strip them and their family of aboriginal title , with the idea that they would become more integrated into Canadian society . However , they were often still defined as non @-@ citizens by Europeans , and those few who did enfranchise were often met with disappointment .
The final government strategy of assimilation , made possible by the Indian Act was the Canadian residential school system :
Of all the initiatives that were undertaken in the first century of Confederation , none was more ambitious or central to the civilizing strategy of the Department , to its goal of assimilation , than the residential school system … it was the residential school experience that would lead children most effectively out of their " savage " communities into " higher civilization " and " full citizenship . "
Beginning in 1847 and lasting until 1996 , the Canadian government , in partnership with the Catholic Church , ran 130 residential boarding schools across Canada for aboriginal children , who were forcibly taken from their homes . While the schools were said to educate , they were plagued by under @-@ funding , disease , and abuse .
Because of laws and policies that encouraged or required aboriginals to assimilate into a Eurocentric society , Canada violated the United Nations Genocide Convention that Canada signed in 1949 and passed through Parliament in 1952 . The residential school system that removed aboriginal children from their homes has led scholars to believe that Canada can be tried in international court for genocide . A legal case resulted in settlement of 2 billion C $ in 2006 and the establishment of a Truth and Reconciliation Commission which confirmed the injurious effect on children of this system and turmoil created between aboriginal Canadians and Canadian Society . In 2008 Prime Minister Stephen Harper issued an apology on behalf of the Canadian government and its citizens for the residential school system .
= = Politics , law and legislation = =
= = = Treaties = = =
The Canadian Crown and Aboriginal peoples began interactions during the European colonialization period . Numbered treaties , the Indian Act , the Constitution Act of 1982 and case laws were established . Aboriginals construe these agreements as being between them and the Crown of Canada through the districts Indian Agent , and not the Cabinet of Canada . The Māori interprets the Treaty of Waitangi in New Zealand similarly . A series of eleven treaties were signed between Aboriginals in Canada and the reigning Monarch of Canada from 1871 to 1921 . The Government of Canada created the policy , commissioned the Treaty Commissioners and ratified the agreements . These Treaties are agreements with the Government of Canada administered by Canadian Aboriginal law and overseen by the Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development .
According to the First Nations – Federal Crown Political Accord " cooperation will be a cornerstone for partnership between Canada and First Nations , wherein Canada is the short @-@ form reference to Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada . The Supreme Court argued that treaties " served to reconcile pre @-@ existing Aboriginal sovereignty with assumed Crown sovereignty , and to define Aboriginal rights " . First Nations people interpreted agreements covered in treaty 8 to last " as long as the sun shines , grass grows and rivers flow . "
= = = Indian Act = = =
The Indian Act is federal legislation that dates from 1876 . There have been over 20 major changes made to the original Act since then , the last time being in 1951 ; amended in 1985 with Bill C @-@ 31 . The Indian Act indicates how Reserves and Bands can operate and defines who is recognized as an " Indian " .
In 1985 , the Canadian Parliament passed Bill C @-@ 31 , " An Act to Amend the Indian Act " . Because of a Constitutional requirement , the Bill took effect on April 17 , 1985 .
It ends discriminatory provisions of the Indian Act , especially those that discriminated against women .
It changes the meaning of " status " and for the first time allows for limited reinstatement of Indians who were denied or lost status and / or Band membership .
It allows bands to define their own membership rules .
Those people accepted into band membership under band rules may not be status Indians . C @-@ 31 clarified that various sections of the Indian Act would apply to band members . The sections under debate concern community life and land holdings . Sections pertaining to Indians ( Aboriginals ) as individuals ( in this case , wills and taxation of personal property ) were not included .
= = = Royal Commission = = =
The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples was a Royal Commission undertaken by the Government of Canada in 1991 to address issues of the Aboriginal peoples of Canada . It assessed past government policies toward Aboriginal people , such as residential schools , and provided policy recommendations to the government . The Commission issued its final report in November 1996 . The five @-@ volume , 4 @,@ 000 @-@ page report covered a vast range of issues ; its 440 recommendations called for sweeping changes to the interaction between Aboriginal , non @-@ Aboriginal people and the governments in Canada . The report " set out a 20 @-@ year agenda for change . "
= = = Health policy = = =
In 1995 , the federal government announced the Aboriginal Right to Self @-@ Government Policy . This policy recognizes that First Nations and Inuit have the constitutional right to shape their own forms of government to suit their particular historical , cultural , political and economic circumstances . The Indian Health Transfer Policy provided a framework for the assumption of control of health services by Aboriginal peoples , and set forth a developmental approach to transfer centred on self @-@ determination in health . Through this process , the decision to enter transfer discussions with Health Canada rests with each community . Once involved in transfer , communities can take control of health programme responsibilities at a pace determined by their individual circumstances and health management capabilities . The National Aboriginal Health Organization ( NAHO ) incorporated in 2000 , is an Aboriginal @-@ designed and @-@ controlled not @-@ for @-@ profit body in Canada that works to influence and advance the health and well @-@ being of Aboriginal Peoples .
= = = Political organization = = =
First Nations and Inuit organizations ranged in size from band societies of a few people to multi @-@ nation confederacies like the Iroquois . First Nations leaders from across the country formed the Assembly of First Nations , which began as the National Indian Brotherhood in 1968 . The Métis and the Inuit are represented nationally by the Métis National Council and the Inuit Circumpolar Council respectively .
Today 's political organizations have resulted from interaction with European @-@ style methods of government through the Federal Interlocutor for Métis and Non @-@ Status Indians . Aboriginal political organizations throughout Canada vary in political standing , viewpoints , and reasons for forming . First Nations , Métis and Inuit negotiate with the Canadian Government through Indian and Northern Affairs Canada in all affairs concerning land , entitlement , and rights . The First Nation groups that operate independently do not belong to these groups .
= = Culture = =
Countless North American Indigenous words , inventions and games have become an everyday part of Canadian language and use . The canoe , snowshoes , the toboggan , lacrosse , tug of war , maple syrup and tobacco are just a few of the products , inventions and games . Some of the words include the barbecue , caribou , chipmunk , woodchuck , hammock , skunk , and moose . Many places in Canada , both natural features and human habitations , use indigenous names . The word " Canada " itself derives from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word meaning " village " or " settlement " . The province of Saskatchewan derives its name from the Saskatchewan River , which in the Cree language is called " Kisiskatchewani Sipi " , meaning " swift @-@ flowing river . " Canada 's capital city Ottawa comes from the Algonquin language term " adawe " meaning " to trade . " Modern youth groups such as Scouts Canada and the Girl Guides of Canada include programs based largely on Indigenous lore , arts and crafts , character building and outdoor camp craft and living .
Aboriginal cultural areas depend upon their ancestors ' primary lifeway , or occupation , at the time of European contact . These culture areas correspond closely with physical and ecological regions of Canada . The indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast were centred around ocean and river fishing ; in the interior of British Columbia , hunter @-@ gatherer and river fishing . In both of these areas the salmon was of chief importance . For the people of the plains , bison hunting was the primary activity . In the subarctic forest , other species such as the moose were more important . For peoples near the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River , shifting agriculture was practised , including the raising of maize , beans , and squash . While for the Inuit , hunting was the primary source of food with seals the primary component of their diet . The caribou , fish , other marine mammals and to a lesser extent plants , berries and seaweed are part of the Inuit diet . One of the most noticeable symbols of Inuit culture , the inukshuk is the emblem of the Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympics . Inuksuit are rock sculptures made by stacking stones ; in the shape of a human figure , they are called inunnguaq .
Indian reserves , established in Canadian law by treaties such as Treaty 7 , are lands of First Nations recognized by non @-@ indigenous governments . Some reserves are within cities , such as the Opawikoscikan Reserve in Prince Albert , Saskatchewan , Wendake in Quebec City or Stony Plain 135 in the Edmonton Capital Region . There are more reserves in Canada than there are First Nations , which were ceded multiple reserves by treaty . Aboriginal people currently work in a variety of occupations and may live outside their ancestral homes . The traditional cultures of their ancestors , shaped by nature , still exert a strong influence on them , from spirituality to political attitudes . National Aboriginal Day is a day of recognition of the cultures and contributions of the First Nations , Inuit and Métis peoples of Canada . The day was first celebrated in 1996 , after it was proclaimed that year , by then Governor General of Canada Roméo LeBlanc , to be celebrated on June 21 annually . Most provincial jurisdictions do not recognize it as a statutory holiday .
= = = Languages = = =
There are 13 Aboriginal language groups , 11 oral and 2 sign , in Canada , made up of more than 65 distinct dialects . Of these , only Cree , Inuktitut and Ojibway have a large enough population of fluent speakers to be considered viable to survive in the long term . Two of Canada 's territories give official status to native languages . In Nunavut , Inuktitut and Inuinnaqtun are official languages alongside the national languages of English and French , and Inuktitut is a common vehicular language in territorial government . In the NWT , the Official Languages Act declares that there are eleven different languages : Chipewyan , Cree , English , French , Gwich ’ in , Inuinnaqtun , Inuktitut , Inuvialuktun , North Slavey , South Slavey and Tłįchǫ . Besides English and French , these languages are not vehicular in government ; official status entitles citizens to receive services in them on request and to deal with the government in them .
Source : Statistics Canada , 2006 Census Profile of Federal Electoral Districts ( 2003 Representation Order ) : Language , Mobility and Migration and Immigration and Citizenship Ottawa , 2007 , pp. 2 , 6 , 10 .
= = = Visual art = = =
Aboriginals were producing art for thousands of years before the arrival of European settler colonists and the eventual establishment of Canada as a nation state . Like the peoples who produced them , indigenous art traditions spanned territories across North America . Indigenous art traditions are organized by art historians according to cultural , linguistic or regional groups : Northwest Coast , Plateau , Plains , Eastern Woodlands , Subarctic , and Arctic .
Art traditions vary enormously amongst and within these diverse groups . Indigenous art with a focus on portability and the body is distinguished from European traditions and its focus on architecture . Indigenous visual art may be used conjunction with other arts . Shamans ' masks and rattles are used ceremoniously in dance , storytelling and music . Artworks preserved in museum collections date from the period after European contact and show evidence of the creative adoption and adaptation of European trade goods such as metal and glass beads . The distinct Métis cultures that have arisen from inter @-@ cultural relationships with Europeans contribute culturally hybrid art forms . During the 19th and the first half of the 20th century the Canadian government pursued an active policy of forced and cultural assimilation toward indigenous peoples . The Indian Act banned manifestations of the Sun Dance , the Potlatch , and works of art depicting them .
It was not until the 1950s and 1960s that indigenous artists such as Mungo Martin , Bill Reid and Norval Morrisseau began to publicly renew and re @-@ invent indigenous art traditions . Currently there are indigenous artists practising in all media in Canada and two indigenous artists , Edward Poitras and Rebecca Belmore , have represented Canada at the Venice Biennale in 1995 and 2005 respectively .
= = = Music = = =
The Aboriginal peoples of Canada encompass diverse ethnic groups with their individual musical traditions . Music is usually social ( public ) or ceremonial ( private ) . Public , social music may be dance music accompanied by rattles and drums . Private , ceremonial music includes vocal songs with accompaniment on percussion , used to mark occasions like Midewivin ceremonies and Sun Dances .
Traditionally , Aboriginal peoples used the materials at hand to make their instruments for centuries before Europeans immigrated to Canada . First Nations people made gourds and animal horns into rattles , which were elaborately carved and brightly painted . In woodland areas , they made horns of birch bark and drumsticks of carved antlers and wood . Traditional percussion instruments such as drums were generally made of carved wood and animal hides . These musical instruments provide the background for songs , and songs the background for dances . Traditional First Nations people consider song and dance to be sacred . For years after Europeans came to Canada , First Nations people were forbidden to practice their ceremonies .
= = Demographics and classification = =
There are three ( First Nations , Inuit and Métis ) distinctive groups of North America indigenous peoples recognized in the Canadian Constitution Act , 1982 , sections 25 and 35 . Under the Employment Equity Act , Aboriginal people are a designated group along with women , visible minorities , and persons with disabilities . They are not a visible minority under the Employment Equity Act and in the view of Statistics Canada .
The 2011 Canadian Census enumerated 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 685 Aboriginal people in Canada , 4 @.@ 3 % of the country 's total population . This total comprises 851 @,@ 560 people of First Nations descent , 451 @,@ 795 Métis , and 59 @,@ 445 Inuit . National representative bodies of Aboriginal people in Canada include the Assembly of First Nations , the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami , the Métis National Council , the Native Women 's Association of Canada , the National Association of Native Friendship Centres and the Congress of Aboriginal Peoples .
Approximately 40 @,@ 115 individuals of Aboriginal heritage could not be counted during the 2006 census . This is due to the fact that certain Aboriginal reserves and communities in Canada did not participate in the 2006 census , since enumeration of those communities were not permitted . In 2006 , 22 Native communities were not completely enumerated unlike in the year 2001 , when 30 First Nation communities were not enumerated and during 1996 when 77 Native communities could not be completely enumerated . Hence , there were probably 1 @,@ 212 @,@ 905 individuals of Aboriginal ancestry ( North American Indian , Metis , and Inuit ) residing in Canada during the time when the 2006 census was conducted in Canada .
Indigenous people assert that their sovereign rights are valid , and point to the Royal Proclamation of 1763 , which is mentioned in the Canadian Constitution Act , 1982 , Section 25 , the British North America Acts and the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties ( to which Canada is a signatory ) in support of this claim .
A. ^ % of the provincial or territorial population that is Aboriginal
B. ^ According to Statistics Canada this figure " Includes those who identified themselves as Registered Indians and / or band members without identifying themselves as North American Indian , Métis or Inuit in the Aboriginal identity question . "
Ethnographers commonly classify indigenous peoples of the Americas in the United States and Canada into ten geographical regions , cultural areas , with shared cultural traits . The Canadian regions are :
Arctic cultural area – ( Eskimo – Aleut languages )
Subarctic culture area – ( Na @-@ Dene languages – Algic languages )
Eastern Woodlands ( Northeast ) cultural area – ( Algic languages and Iroquoian languages )
Plains cultural area – ( Siouan – Catawban languages )
Northwest Plateau cultural area – ( Salishan languages )
Northwest Coast cultural area – ( Penutian languages , Tsimshianic languages and Wakashan languages )
In the 20th century the Aboriginal population of Canada increased tenfold . Between 1900 and 1950 the population grew by 29 % . After the 1960s the infant mortality level on reserves dropped dramatically and the population grew by 161 % . Since the 1980s the number of First Nations babies more than doubled and currently almost half of the First Nations population is under the age of 25 .
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= Rounds ( album ) =
Rounds is the third full @-@ length solo album by British electronic musician Kieran Hebden , released under his alias Four Tet on 5 May 2003 by Domino Recording Company . Wanting to make a more personal record , Hebden recorded and produced the album in his North London flat over ten months using a desktop computer and a home hi @-@ fi system . Its ten tracks feature elements of hip @-@ hop , jazz and folk ; apart from a guitar part recorded for " Slow Jam " , the music is composed exclusively from between 200 and 300 samples , many processed beyond recognition .
Rounds produced two singles and one EP . Critics praised the album for its unique fusion of electronic and " organic " styles , and Metacritic lists it as the fourth best @-@ reviewed album of 2003 . Several publications included Rounds on " best albums of the decade " lists . In May 2013 , on the tenth anniversary of its release , Domino reissued Rounds with a bonus disc including a 2004 live performance .
= = Background and recording = =
After being a member of Fridge since 1995 , Kieran Hebden began releasing solo records under the name Four Tet in 1998 . His first release was the " Thirtysixtwentyfive " single , followed by the albums Dialogue in 1999 and Pause in 2001 . The albums were influenced by hip @-@ hop , jazz and electronic music . Hebden felt his output had sounded too much like his influences and wanted to make a record that was more personal and harder to define . Hebden drew on influences from Pete Rock , DJ Premier , Jim O 'Rourke , Timbaland , the Neptunes and Rodney Jerkins .
Hebden recorded Rounds over ten months in his North London flat , using a desktop computer and a home hi @-@ fi system . With the exception of a guitar part recorded for " Slow Jam " , he composed the music exclusively from a file of samples he had assembled over several years . The album uses between 200 and 300 samples ; each song is built from between 20 and 30 samples heavily processed with the software packages AudioMulch and Cool Edit Pro , in many cases beyond recognition . The nine @-@ minute track " Unspoken " was originally based on a sample from the Tori Amos song " Winter " but was reworked when Hebden failed to get sample clearance . Hebden also used a Creative Labs microphone to record the guitar part for " Slow Jam " and some sounds from television and sequenced the results in Cakewalk Pro Audio 9 .
After spending the early part of his career naming his songs with random words , he decided to use more personal titles . " As Serious as Your Life " takes its name from a 1977 Val Wilmer book about free jazz in New York City . Hebden was given a copy of the book by his father and said " I did hope that some kid would get interested and ask what the title was and then check out the book , so it 's a bit like leaving little trails for people . " He was inspired to title the album Rounds after hearing that his sister had been singing a musical round , telling an interviewer : " It seemed totally relevant ; a round is all about repetition and phasing , which is the essence of what I 've been doing since I 've been making music . "
= = Music = =
Rounds contains ten instrumental tracks with a total running time of 45 minutes , which Colin Joyce of Spin called a " folktronica tapestry . " Sound on Sound writer Sam Inglis said that the album was a " blend of fragile acoustic fragments , brutal beats and glitchy electronica " ; The Age described it as " electronic music that sounds deceptively organic . " Guardian critic David Peschek , who noted the influence of hip @-@ hop , R & B and folk music , wrote that " Rounds invents its own dizzying , unlikely genres . " John Bush of AllMusic found the album contained elements of electronic and experimental music combined with " a dreamy melodicism sure to endear it to indie pop fans . " Dusted critic Michael Crumsho noticed the influence of folk and jazz , writing that Hebden had " taken his earlier nods to other specific genres and turned them into something wholly his own . " PopMatters ' Adrien Begrand noted how " Hebden shifts the focus from hip @-@ hop beats , jazz influences , and far @-@ reaching sonic adventurousness , to a more spare , focused sound " that contributed to Rounds ' original sound . Nick Southall , in his review for Stylus magazine , stated that " it is more of the same , but ' the same ' for Four Tet is perpetual evolution and motion . "
" Unspoken " was named by several critics as the album 's centrepiece ; Begrand described it as " virtuosic laptop music " . NME critic Tony Naylor thought that " As Serious as Your Life " was one of the album 's more straightforward songs . The album 's closing track , " Slow Jam " , which Pitchfork reviewer Andy Beta said " has that long goodbye of the best melancholy closers , " was described by Begrand as a " warm , wide @-@ eyed , watching @-@ the @-@ sun @-@ rise song " that features chiming guitars and a sample of a child 's squeaky toy .
= = Release = =
The track " She Moves She " was released as a 12 @-@ inch single on 31 March 2003 , with " Cradle " on the B @-@ side . Rounds was released on double vinyl and compact disc by Domino on 5 May 2003 , spending one week on the UK Albums Chart at number 60 . The second single , " As Serious as Your Life " , was released in October 2003 on 7- and 12 @-@ inch formats featuring remixes and a 23 @-@ minute live version ; a second 12 @-@ inch of the same song , containing a remix by Jay Dee featuring rapping by Guilty Simpson , was released on 18 November 2003 . An EP , My Angel Rocks Back and Forth , was released in May 2004 , containing Rounds tracks , two remixes , and the unreleased songs " I 've Got Viking in Me " and " All the Chimers " , plus a DVD of music videos for " My Angel Rocks Back and Forth " , " She Moves She " , " As Serious as Your Life " and Pause single " No More Mosquitoes " .
Domino reissued Rounds in May 2013 on double vinyl , CD , and download . The CD and vinyl releases include a bonus CD of live material recorded in 2004 previously only available on the limited edition 2004 live album Live in Copenhagen 30th March 2004 .
= = Reception = =
Rounds received critical acclaim . At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews and ratings from mainstream critics , the album received a metascore of 89 based on 26 reviews , indicating " universal acclaim . "
AllMusic reviewer John Bush wrote that " though Rounds is experimental by nature " it " offers something for nearly every audience that could approach it . " Michael Crumsho of Dusted found the album " a musical salvo from an artist who ’ s confidently coming into his own " , describing it as " a cozy , evocative soundtrack that ’ s as intricate as it is beautiful . " In his review for The Guardian , David Peschek described the album as " a trove of bewitching melody and subtle invention " , and wrote that " Rounds succeeds not only as a meticulously conceived piece of art but also as a moving expression of human warmth . " In NME , Tony Naylor wrote that the album was " extraordinary " , " essential " and " full of remarkable sonic ideas . " Andy Beta , writing for Pitchfork Media , praised the record 's " internal order " which " allows it to stand out against previous laptop explorations of immense record collections " .
Adrien Begrand 's review in PopMatters found that Rounds is " a remarkable record " and that " sublime , computer @-@ crafted recordings like Rounds provides in spades are making the most exciting sounds right now in 2003 . " In Spin , Will Hermes described the album as a " varied trip " and noted " a darker vibe suggesting the influence of Hebden 's labelmate Dan Snaith of Manitoba . " Stylus Magazine writer Nick Southall recognised Hebden 's " perpetual evolution and motion , " declaring that " this is simply a great record of beautiful music . " Robert Christgau 's review of Rounds for the Village Voice argued that Hebden " imagines an aural space in which electronic malfunction is cute rather than annoying or ominous , " using " the computer as music box . " Tom Ridge of The Wire stated that " nothing here sounds like an exercise in genre plundering , " and that " Hebden has devised a musical identity that is distinctly different from his work with Fridge , but both projects share a passion for defying boundaries . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Rounds was ranked number four on the Metacritic list of highest @-@ scoring albums of 2003 , and was named as one of the albums of 2003 by many publications , including the NME , The Wire , The Observer , Prefix magazine , Pitchfork , Drowned in Sound , the BBC , The Face , Q and Uncut .
Several publications rated Rounds as one of the best albums of the decade , with Pitchfork Media placing it at number 123 on their list of the top 200 albums of the 2000s . On similar lists , Drowned in Sound placed it at number 13 , One Thirty BPM placed it at number 99 , and No Ripcord at number 48 . GQ rated it as one of the 40 best albums of the 21st century .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Kieran Hebden .
= = Chart performance = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
Kieran Hebden – music , production
Additional personnel
Guy Davie – mastering
Matt Cooper – layout , design
Jason Evans – photography
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= A. Merritt 's Fantasy Magazine =
A. Merritt 's Fantasy Magazine was a pulp magazine which published five issues from December 1949 to October 1950 . It took its name from fantasy writer A. Merritt , who had died in 1943 , and it aimed to capitalize on Merritt 's popularity . It was published by Popular Publications , alternating months with Fantastic Novels , another title of theirs . It may have been edited by Mary Gnaedinger , who also edited Fantastic Novels and Famous Fantastic Mysteries . It was a companion to Famous Fantastic Mysteries , and like that magazine mostly reprinted science @-@ fiction and fantasy classics from earlier decades .
= = Publication history and contents = =
In 1942 , Popular Publications acquired Famous Fantastic Mysteries and Fantastic Novels , both of them pulp magazines specializing in reprints of fantasy , from the Munsey Company . Fantastic Novels had ceased publication in April 1941 , but was relaunched by Popular in early 1948 as a companion to Famous Fantastic Mysteries , which was still being published . The following year Popular decided to add another fantasy reprint magazine to their line @-@ up : the title they chose was A. Merritt 's Fantasy Magazine , and the first issue was dated December 1949 . Abraham Merritt ( usually known as A. Merritt ) , after whom the magazine was named , was one of the most popular fantasy authors of the pulp era : the magazine was intended to take advantage of his popularity , but only five issues appeared , over a period of just under a year , before the magazine was cancelled .
In addition to Merritt 's novel Creep , Shadow ! , which appeared in the first issue , the magazine printed several well @-@ received stories . These included " The Smoking Land " , a novel by Frederick Faust , under the pseudonym George Challis , and a detective novel by Jack Mann , The Ninth Life . A letter to the magazine from a young Robert Silverberg appeared in one of the letter columns .
Different theories have been offered as to why the magazine failed . Editor and science fiction historian Malcolm Edwards suggests that Merritt 's death six years earlier , in 1943 , made the magazine a risky proposition , despite Merritt 's continuing popularity in the late 1940s . Science fiction historian and critic Sam Moskowitz suggests that , conversely , the magazine did not go far enough in depending on Merritt 's popularity , as it only printed three works of his during its run . This may have been because Merritt was sufficiently popular that it was not easy for the magazine to obtain reprint rights to his stories .
= = Bibliographic details = =
The editor was not announced in the magazine . Mary Gnaedinger was the editor for the two companion magazines , Famous Fantastic Mysteries and Fantastic Novels , but Sam Moskowitz has suggested that it was unlikely Gnaedinger was the editor for A. Merritt 's Fantasy Magazine . The magazine remained in pulp format throughout its short run . It was 132 pages and priced at 25 cents for all five issues . A Canadian edition of all five issues appeared ; these were identical to the originals in every way except for the back cover advertisement and the format — the Canadian issues were half an inch longer .
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= Constitution of May 3 , 1791 =
The Constitution of 3 May 1791 ( Polish : Konstytucja 3 maja , Lithuanian : Gegužės trečiosios konstitucija ) was adopted by the Great Sejm ( parliament ) of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , a dual monarchy comprising Poland and Lithuania . Drafted over 32 months beginning on 6 October 1788 , and formally adopted as the Government Act ( Ustawa rządowa ) , the document was designed to redress the Commonwealth 's political defects . The system of Golden Freedoms , also known as the " Nobles ' Democracy " , had conferred disproportionate rights on the nobility ( szlachta ) and over time had corrupted politics . The adoption of the Constitution was preceded by a period of agitation for — and gradual introduction of — reforms beginning with the Convocation Sejm of 1764 and the election of Stanisław August Poniatowski as the Commonwealth 's last king .
The constitution sought to supplant the prevailing anarchy fostered by some of the country 's magnates with a more democratic constitutional monarchy . It introduced elements of political equality between townspeople and nobility , and placed the peasants under the protection of the government , thus mitigating the worst abuses of serfdom . It banned parliamentary institutions such as the liberum veto , which had put the Sejm at the mercy of any deputy who could revoke all the legislation that had been passed by that Sejm . The Commonwealth 's neighbours reacted with hostility to the adoption of the constitution . Frederick William II 's Kingdom of Prussia broke its alliance with the Commonwealth , which was attacked and then defeated in the War in Defence of the Constitution by an alliance between Catherine the Great 's Imperial Russia and the Targowica Confederation of anti @-@ reform Polish magnates and landless nobility . The King , a principal co @-@ author , eventually capitulated to the Confederates .
The 1791 document remained in force for less than 19 months ; it was annulled by the Grodno Sejm on 23 November 1793 . By 1795 , the Second and Third Partitions of Poland ended the existence of the sovereign Polish state . Over the next 123 years , the Constitution of 3 May , 1791 , was seen as proof of successful internal reform and as a symbol promising the eventual restoration of Poland 's sovereignty . In the words of two of its co @-@ authors , Ignacy Potocki and Hugo Kołłątaj , it was " the last will and testament of the expiring Country . " British historian Norman Davies described the document as " the first constitution of its type in Europe " ; others have called it the world 's second @-@ oldest codified national constitution after the 1789 U.S. Constitution .
= = Background = =
Polish constitutionalism can be traced to the 13th century , when government by consensus and representation was already well established in the young Polish state . The emergence of parliamentary bodies , the sejm and sejmiki , followed . By the 17th century , Poland 's legal and political tradition was characterized by : parliamentary institutions and a system of checks and balances on state power , which was itself limited by decentralization ; the idea of a contractual state , embodied in texts like the Henrician Articles and the Pacta conventa ; the concept of individual liberties ; and the notion that the monarch owed duties to his subjects . This system , which primarily benefited the Polish nobility ( szlachta ) , came to be known as the " nobles ' democracy " .
= = = End of the Golden Age = = =
The 1791 Constitution was a response to the increasingly perilous situation in the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , which had been a major European power only a century earlier and was still the largest state on the continent . In the 1590s , at the peak of the nobles ' democracy , King Sigismund III Vasa 's court preacher — the Jesuit Piotr Skarga — had condemned the weaknesses of the Commonwealth . In the same period , writers and philosophers such as Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski and Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki , and the egzekucja praw ( Execution @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Laws ) reform movement led by Jan Zamoyski had advocated political reforms . In 1656 , Sigismund 's son King John II Casimir Vasa made a solemn vow at the ' old ' Lvov Cathedral on behalf of the entire Republic of Poland , that he would free the Polish peasants “ from their unjust burdens and oppression . ” As he was struggling with the Sejm , in 1661 John Casimir — whose reign saw highly destructive wars and obstructionism by the nobility — correctly predicted that the Commonwealth was in danger of a partition by Russia , Brandenburg and Austria .
As the Sejm failed to implement sufficient reforms , the state machinery became increasingly dysfunctional . A major cause of the Commonwealth 's downfall was the liberum veto ( " free veto " ) , which since 1652 had allowed any Sejm deputy to nullify all the legislation enacted by that Sejm . As a result , deputies bribed by magnates or foreign powers — primarily from the Russian Empire , the Kingdom of Prussia and France — or deputies who believed they were living in an unprecedented " Golden Age " paralysed the Commonwealth 's government for over a century . The threat of the liberum veto could only be overridden by the establishment of a " confederated sejm " , which was immune to the liberum veto . Declaring that a sejm either constituted a " confederation " or belonged to one was a contrivance prominently used by foreign interests in the 18th century to force a legislative outcome .
By the early 18th century , the magnates of Poland and Lithuania controlled the state , ensuring that no reforms that might weaken their privileged status ( the " Golden Freedoms " ) would be enacted . The ineffective monarchs who were elected to the Commonwealth throne in the early 18th century , Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland of the House of Wettin , did not improve matters . The Wettins , used to the absolute rule practiced in their native Saxony , tried to govern through intimidation and the use of force , which led to a series of conflicts between their supporters and opponents — including another pretender to the Polish throne , King Stanisław Leszczyński . Those conflicts often took the form of confederations — legal rebellions against the king permitted under the Golden Freedoms — including the Warsaw Confederation ( 1704 ) , Sandomierz Confederation , Tarnogród Confederation , Dzików Confederation and the War of the Polish Succession . Only 8 out of 18 Sejm sessions during the reign of Augustus II ( 1694 – 1733 ) passed legislation . For 30 years during the reign of Augustus III , only one session was able to pass legislation . The government was near collapse , giving rise to the term " Polish anarchy " , and the country was managed by provincial assemblies and magnates .
Other reform attempts in the Wettin era were led by individuals such as Stanisław Dunin @-@ Karwicki , Stanisław A. Szczuka , Kazimierz Karwowski and Michał Józef Massalski ; these mostly proved to be futile .
= = = Early reforms = = =
The Enlightenment greatly influenced certain Commonwealth circles during the 1764 – 95 reign of its last king , Stanisław II August Poniatowski . Poniatowski was an " enlightened " Polish magnate who had been a deputy to several Sejms between 1750 and 1764 and had a deeper understanding of Polish politics than previous monarchs . The Convocation Sejm of 1764 , which elected Poniatowski to the throne , was controlled by the Czartoryski family 's reformist Familia party and was backed up by Russian military forces , which the Czartoryskis invited . In exchange for passing decrees favorable to them , the Russians and Prussians let the confederated Convocation Sejm enact a number of reforms , including the weakening of liberum veto and ensuring it no longer applied to treasury and economic matters . A more comprehensive reform package was presented by Andrzej Zamoyski , but opposition from Prussia , Russia and the Polish nobility thwarted this ambitious program , which proposed to decide on all motions by majority voting . In part because his election was imposed by Empress Catherine the Great , Poniatowski 's political position was weak from the beginning . He proceeded with cautious reforms such as the establishment of fiscal and military ministries and the introduction of a national customs tariff , which was soon abandoned because of opposition from Frederick the Great of Prussia . These measures had already been authorized by the Convocation Sejm ; more legislative and executive improvements inspired by Familia or the King were implemented during and after the 1764 Sejm .
The Commonwealth 's magnates viewed reform with suspicion and neighboring powers , content with the deterioration of the Commonwealth , abhorred the thought of a resurgent and democratic power on their borders . With the Commonwealth Army reduced to around 16 @,@ 000 , it was easy for its neighbors to intervene directly — the Imperial Russian Army numbered 300 @,@ 000 and the Prussian Army and Imperial Austrian Army had 200 @,@ 000 each .
Russia 's Empress Catherine and Prussia 's King Frederick II provoked a conflict between members of the Sejm and the King over civil rights for religious minorities , such as Protestants and Greek Orthodox whose positions , which were guaranteed equal with the Catholic majority by the Warsaw Confederation of 1573 , had worsened considerably . Catherine and Frederick declared their support for the szlachta and their " liberties " , and by October 1767 Russian troops had assembled outside Warsaw in support of the conservative Radom Confederation . The King and his adherents had little choice but to acquiesce to Russian demands . During the Repnin Sejm ( named after the unofficially presiding Russian ambassador Nicholas Repnin ) the King accepted the five " eternal and invariable principles " which Catherine had vowed to " protect for all time to come in the name of Poland 's liberties " : the election of kings , the right of liberum veto , the right to renounce allegiance to and raise rebellion against the king ( rokosz ) , the szlachta 's exclusive right to hold office and land , and landowners ' power over their peasants . Thus all the privileges ( " Golden Freedoms " ) of the nobility that had made the Commonwealth ungovernable were guaranteed as unalterable in the Cardinal Laws . The Cardinal Laws and the rights of " religious dissenters " passed by the Repnin Sejm were personally guaranteed by Empress Catherine . By these acts of legislation , for the first time , Russia formally intervened in the Commonwealth 's constitutional affairs .
During the 1768 Sejm , Repnin showed his disregard for local resistance by arranging the abduction and imprisonment of Kajetan Sołtyk , Józef A. Załuski , Wacław Rzewuski and Seweryn Rzewuski , all vocal opponents of foreign domination and the recently proclaimed policies . The Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth had legally and practically become a protectorate of the Russian Empire . Nonetheless , several minor beneficial reforms were adopted , political rights of the religious minorities were restored and the need for more reforms was becoming increasingly recognized .
King Stanisław August 's acquiescence to the Russian intervention encountered some opposition . On February 29 , 1768 , several magnates — including Józef Pułaski and his young son Kazimierz Pułaski ( Casimir Pulaski ) — vowing to oppose Russian influence , declared Stanisław August a lackey of Russia and Catherine , and formed a confederation at the town of Bar . The Bar Confederation focused on limiting the influence of foreigners in Commonwealth affairs , and being pro @-@ Catholic was generally opposed to religious tolerance . It began a civil war to overthrow the King , but its irregular forces were overwhelmed by Russian intervention in 1772 .
The defeat of the Bar Confederation set the scene for the partition treaty of August 5 , 1772 , which was signed at Saint Petersburg by Russia , Prussia and Austria . The treaty divested the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth of about a third of its territory and population — over 200 @,@ 000 km2 ( 77 @,@ 220 sq mi ) and 4 million people . The three powers justified their annexation , citing anarchy in the Commonwealth and its refusal to cooperate with its neighbors ' efforts to restore order . King Stanisław August yielded and on April 19 , 1773 , he called the Sejm into session . Only 102 of about 200 deputies attended what became known as the Partition Sejm . The rest were aware of the King 's decision and refused . Despite protests from the deputy Tadeusz Rejtan and others , the treaty — later known as the First Partition of Poland — was ratified .
The first of the three successive 18th @-@ century partitions of Commonwealth territory that would eventually remove Poland 's sovereignty shocked the Commonwealth 's inhabitants and made it clear to progressive minds that the Commonwealth must either reform or perish . In the thirty years before the Constitution , there was a rising interest among progressive thinkers in constitutional reform . Before the First Partition , a Polish noble , Michał Wielhorski was sent to France by the Bar Confederation to ask the philosophes Gabriel Bonnot de Mably and Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau for their suggestions on a new constitution for a reformed Poland . Mably submitted his recommendations Du gouvernement et des lois en Pologne ( The Government and Laws of Poland ) in 1770 – 71 , whereas Rousseau finished his Considerations on the Government of Poland in 1772 when the First Partition was already underway . Works advocating the need for reform and presenting specific solutions were published in the Commonwealth by Polish – Lithuanian thinkers : On an Effective Way of Councils or on the Conduct of Ordinary Sejms ( 1761 – 63 ) , by Stanisław Konarski , founder of the Collegium Nobilium ; Political Thoughts on Civil Liberties ( 1775 ) and Patriotic Letters ( 1778 – 78 ) , by Józef Wybicki , author of the lyrics of the Polish National Anthem ; ( Anonymous Letters to Stanisław Małachowski ( 1788 – 89 ) and The Political Law of the Polish Nation ( 1790 ) , by Hugo Kołłątaj , head of the Kołłątaj 's Forge party ; and Remarks on the Life of Jan Zamoyski ( 1787 ) , by Stanisław Staszic . Ignacy Krasicki 's satires of the Great Sejm era were also seen as crucial to giving the constitution moral and political support .
A new wave of reforms supported by progressive magnates such as the Czartoryski family and King Stanisław August were introduced at the Partition Sejm . The most important included the 1773 establishment of the Commission of National Education ( Komisja Edukacji Narodowej ) — the first ministry of education in the world . New schools were opened , uniform textbooks were printed , teachers received better education and poor students were provided with scholarships . The Commonwealth 's military was to be modernized and funding to create a larger standing army was agreed . Economic and commercial reforms — including some intended to cover the increased military budget previously shunned as unimportant by the szlachta — were introduced . A new executive assembly , the 36 @-@ strong Permanent Council comprising five ministries with limited legislative powers , was established , giving the Commonwealth a governing body in constant session between Sejms and therefore immune to their liberum veto disruptions .
In 1776 , the Sejm commissioned former chancellor Andrzej Zamoyski to draft a new legal code . By 1780 , he and his collaborators had produced the Zamoyski Code ( Zbiór praw sądowych ) . It would have strengthened royal power , made all officials answerable to the Sejm , placed the clergy and their finances under state supervision , and deprived landless szlachta of many of their legal immunities . The Code would also have improved the situation of non @-@ nobles — townspeople and peasants . Zamoyski 's progressive legal code , containing elements of constitutional reform , met with opposition from native conservative szlachta and foreign powers ; the 1780 Sejm did not adopt it .
= = Adoption = =
An opportunity for reform occurred during the " Great Sejm " — also called the " Four @-@ Year Sejm " — of 1788 – 92 , which began on October 6 , 1788 , with 181 deputies . In accordance with the Constitution 's preamble , from 1790 it met " in dual number " when 171 newly elected deputies joined the earlier @-@ established Sejm . On its second day , the body became a confederated sejm to avoid the liberum veto . Concurrent world events appeared to have been opportune for the reformers . Russia and Austria were at war with the Ottoman Empire , and the Russians found themselves simultaneously fighting in the Russo @-@ Swedish War , 1788 – 1790 . A new alliance between the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth and Prussia seemed to provide security against Russian intervention , and King Stanisław August drew closer to leaders of the reform @-@ minded Patriotic Party .
The Sejm passed few major reforms in its first two years , but the subsequent two years brought more substantial changes . The Sejm adopted the 1791 Free Royal Cities Act , which was formally incorporated into the final constitution . This act addressed a number of matters related to the cities , crucially expanding burghers ' ( i.e. , townspeople 's ) rights , including electoral rights . While the Sejm comprised representatives of the nobility and clergy , the reformers were supported by the burghers , who in late 1789 organized in Warsaw a " Black Procession " demanding full political enfranchisement of the bourgeoisie . On 18 April 1791 the Sejm — fearing that the burghers ' protests , if ignored , could turn violent , as they had in France not long before — adopted the Free Royal Cities Act .
The new constitution was drafted by the King , with contributions from Ignacy Potocki , Hugo Kołłątaj and others . The King is credited with writing the general provisions and Kołłątaj with giving the document its final shape . Stanisław August wanted the Commonwealth to become a constitutional monarchy similar to that of Great Britain , with a strong central government based on a strong monarch . Potocki wanted the Sejm to be the strongest branch of government . Kołłątaj wanted a " gentle " revolution , carried out without violence , to enfranchise other social classes in addition to the nobility .
The proposed reforms were opposed by the conservatives , including the Hetmans ' Party . Threatened with violence by their opponents , the advocates of the draft began the debate on the Government Act two days early , while many opposing deputies were away on Easter recess . The debate and subsequent adoption of the Government Act was executed as a quasi @-@ coup d 'état . No recall notices were sent to known opponents of reform , while many pro @-@ reform deputies secretly returned early . The royal guard under the command of the King 's nephew Prince Józef Poniatowski were positioned about the Royal Castle , where the Sejm was gathered , to prevent opponents from disrupting the proceedings . On May 3 , the Sejm convened with only 182 members , about half its " dual " number . The bill was read and overwhelmingly adopted , to the enthusiasm of the crowds outside . A protest was submitted the next day by a small group of deputies , but on May 5 the matter was officially concluded and protests were invalidated by the Constitutional Deputation of the Sejm . It was the first time in the 18th century that a constitutional act had been passed in the Commonwealth without the involvement of foreign powers .
Soon after , the Friends of the Constitution ( Zgromadzenie Przyjaciół Konstytucji Rządowej ) — which included many participants in the Great Sejm — was organised to defend the reforms already enacted and to promote further ones . It is now regarded as the first modern @-@ style political party in Poland 's history . The response to the new constitution was less enthusiastic in the provinces , where the Hetmans ' Party enjoyed considerable influence . General support among the middle nobility was crucial and still very substantial ; most of the provincial sejmiks deliberating in 1791 and early 1792 supported the constitution .
= = Features = =
The Polish constitution was one of several to reflect Enlightenment influences , in particular Rousseau 's social contract and Montesquieu 's advocacy of a separation and balance of powers between the three branches of government and his advocacy of a bicameral legislature . Once the government was established , it aimed to ensure , in accordance with Article V , that " the integrity of the states , civil liberty , and social order shall always remain in equilibrium " . According to Polish @-@ American historian Jacek Jędruch , the liberality of its provisions " fell somewhere below [ those of ] the French , above the Canadian , and left the Prussian far behind " , but did not equal the American Constitution " . King Stanisław August Poniatowski said the new constitution was " founded principally on those of England and the United States of America , but avoiding the faults and errors of both , and adapted as much as possible to the local and particular circumstances of the country . " George Sanford said that the Polish constitution provided " a constitutional monarchy close to the English model of the time . "
Article I acknowledged the Roman Catholic faith as the " dominant religion " , but guaranteed tolerance and freedom to all religions . It was less progressive than the 16th @-@ century Warsaw Confederation , and placed Poland clearly within the Catholic sphere of influence . Article II confirmed many old privileges of the nobility , stressing that all nobles are equal and should enjoy personal security and the right to property . Article III stipulated that the earlier Free Royal Cities Act ( Miasta Nasze Królewskie Wolne w Państwach Rzeczypospolitej ) of April 18 ( or 21 ) , 1791 , was integral to the constitution . Personal security — neminem captivabimus , the Polish habeas corpus act — was extended to townspeople ( including Jews ) . Townspeople also gained the right to acquire landed property and became eligible for military officers ' commissions and public offices , such as reserved seats in the Sejm and seats in the executive commissions of the Treasury , the Police and the Judiciary . Membership of the nobility was also made easier for burghers to acquire .
With half a million burghers in the Commonwealth now substantially enfranchised , political power became more equally distributed , but little was done about the less politically conscious and active classes , such as the Jews and peasants . Although Article IV placed the Commonwealth 's peasantry under the protection of the national law — a first step toward enfranchising the country 's largest and most oppressed social class — the low status of the peasantry as compared to other classes was not eliminated , as the constitution did not abolish serfdom . Not until the Second Partition and Kościuszko 's Proclamation of Połaniec in 1794 would the Polish government begin to abolish serfdom .
Article V stated that " all power in civil society [ should be ] derived from the will of the people . " The constitution referred to the country 's " citizens " , which for the first time in Polish legislation was meant to include townspeople and peasants , as well as nobles . The document 's preamble and 11 individual articles introduced the principle of popular sovereignty applied to the nobility and townspeople , and the separation of powers into legislative ( a bicameral Sejm ) , executive ( " the King and the Guardians " , the Guardians of the Laws being the newly established top governmental entity ) and judicial branches . It advanced the democratization of the polity by limiting the excessive legal immunities and political prerogatives of landless nobility .
Legislative power , as defined in Article VI , rested with the bicameral parliament ( an elected Sejm and an appointed Senate ) and the king . The Sejm met " ordinarily " every two years and " extraordinarily " whenever required by a national emergency . Its lower chamber — the Chamber of Deputies ( Izba Poselska ) — comprised 204 deputies ( 2 from each powiat , 68 each from the provinces of Greater Poland , Lesser Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania ) and 21 plenipotentiaries of royal cities ( 7 from each province ) . The royal chancellery was to inform the sejmiks of the legislation it intended to propose in advance , so that the deputies would have time to prepare for the discussions . The Sejm 's upper chamber — the Chamber of Senators ( Izba Senacka ) — comprised between 130 and 132 ( sources vary ) senators ( voivodes , castellans , and bishops , as well as governments ministers without the right to vote ) . The Senate was presided over by the king , who had one vote which could be used to break ties . The king and all deputies had legislative initiative , and most matters — known as general laws , and divided into constitutional , civil , criminal , and those for the institution of perpetual taxes — required a simple majority , first from the lower chamber , then from the upper one . For the more specialized resolutions , such as for treaties of alliance , declarations of war and peace , ennoblements and increases in national debt , a majority vote of both chambers voting jointly was needed . The Senate ( but not the king ) had a suspensive veto over the laws that the Sejm passed , applicable until the next Sejm session , when it could be overruled .
Article VI also recognized the Prawo o sejmikach , the act on regional assemblies ( sejmiks ) that had been passed on March 24 , 1791 . By reducing the enfranchisement of the noble classes , this law introduced major changes to the electoral ordinance . Previously , all nobles had been eligible to vote in sejmiks , which de facto meant that many of the poorest , landless nobles — known as " clients " or " clientele " of local magnates — voted as the magnates bade them . Now the voting right was tied to a property qualification : one had to own or lease land and pay taxes , or be closely related to somebody who did , to be eligible to vote . 300 @,@ 000 of 700 @,@ 000 previously eligible nobles were thus disfranchised , much to their displeasure . Voting rights were restored to landowners who were in military service . They had lost these rights in 1775 . Voting was limited to males of at least 18 years of age . The eligible voters elected deputies to local powiats , or county sejmiks , which elected deputies to the General Sejm .
Finally , Article VI explicitly abolished several institutional sources of government weakness and national anarchy , including the liberum veto ( which was replaced by a simple majority vote ) , confederations and confederated sejms , and the excessive influence of sejmiks stemming from the previously binding nature of their instructions to their Sejm deputies . The confederations were declared " contrary to the spirit of this constitution , subversive of government and destructive of society " . Thus the new constitution strengthened the powers of the Sejm , moving the country towards a constitutional monarchy .
Executive power , according to Article V and Article VII , was in the hands of " the king in his council " , a cabinet of ministers called the Guardians of the Laws ( or Guard of the Laws , Straż Praw ) . The ministries could not create or interpret the laws and all acts of the foreign ministry were provisional and subject to the Sejm 's approval . The king presided over this council , which was composed of the Roman Catholic Primate of Poland — who was also president of the Education Commission — and five ministers appointed by the king : a minister of police , a minister of the seal ( internal affairs ) , a minister of foreign affairs , a minister belli ( of war ) , and a minister of treasury . Council members also included — without a vote — the Crown Prince , the Marshal of the Sejm , and two secretaries . This royal council descended from similar councils that had functioned since King Henry 's Articles ( 1573 ) , and from the recent Permanent Council . Acts of the king required the countersignature of the respective minister . A minister was required to cosign a law if the king demanded it , unless that minister refused and all other ministers unanimously endorsed his objection , in which case the king could withdraw the law or press the issue by taking it before the parliament . The stipulation that the king , " doing nothing of himself , ... shall be answerable for nothing to the nation , " parallels the British constitutional principle that " The king can do no wrong . " ( In both countries , the respective minister was responsible for the king 's acts . ) The ministers were responsible to the Sejm , which could dismiss them by a vote of no confidence with a two @-@ third majority in both houses . Ministers could be also held accountable by the Sejm court , and a simple majority vote was sufficient for the Sejm to demand that a minister face an impeachment trial . The king was the nation 's commander @-@ in @-@ chief , commanding its armies ; the institution of the hetman ( high @-@ ranking military official ) was not mentioned . The king also had the right to grant pardon except in cases of treason . The decisions of the royal council were carried out by commissions , including the previously created Commission of National Education , and the new Commissions for Police , the Military and the Treasury , whose members were elected by the Sejm .
The constitution also changed the government from an elective monarchy in its unique Polish variant to a hereditary monarchy . This provision was intended to reduce the destructive , vying influences of foreign powers at each royal election . The royal dynasty was elective , and if it were to die out a new one would be chosen by " the Nation " . The king held the throne " by the grace of God and the will of the Nation " , and " all authority derives from the will of the Nation . " The institution of pacta conventa was preserved . On Stanisław August 's death the Polish throne would become hereditary and pass to Frederick Augustus I of Saxony of the House of Wettin , which had provided Poland 's two most recent elective kings before Stanisław August . This provision was contingent upon Frederic Augustus ' consent , but he declined when the offer was presented to him by Adam Czartoryski .
Discussed in Article VIII , the judiciary was separated from the two other branches of the government , and was to be served by elective judges . Courts of first instance existed in each voivodeship and were in constant session , with judges elected by the regional sejmik assemblies . Appellate tribunals were established for the provinces , based on the reformed Crown Tribunal and Lithuanian Tribunal . The Sejm elected from its deputies the judges for the Sejm court , a precursor to the modern State Tribunal of Poland . Referendary courts were established in each province to hear the cases of the peasantry . Municipal courts , described in the law on towns , complemented this system .
Article IX covered procedures for regency , which should be taken up jointly by the council of the Guardians , headed by the Queen , or in her absence by the Primate . Article X stressed the importance of education of royal children and tasked the Commission of National Education with this responsibility . The last article of the constitution , Article XI , concerned the national standing army . Said army was defined as a " defensive force " dedicated " solely to the nation 's defense " . The army was to be increased in strength to 100 @,@ 000 men .
To further enhance the Commonwealth 's integration and security , the constitution abolished the erstwhile union of Poland and Lithuania in favor of a unitary state . Its full establishment , supported by Stanisław August and Kołlątaj , was opposed by many Lithuanian deputies . As a compromise , the Grand Duchy of Lithuania received numerous privileges guaranteeing its continued existence . Related acts included the Deklaracja Stanów Zgromadzonych ( Declaration of the Assembled Estates ) of May 5 , 1791 , confirming the Government Act adopted two days earlier , and the Zaręczenie Wzajemne Obojga Narodów ( Reciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations , i.e. , of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania ) of October 22 , 1791 , affirming the unity and indivisibility of Poland and the Grand Duchy within a single state and their equal representation in state @-@ governing bodies . The Reciprocal Guarantee strengthened the Polish – Lithuanian union while keeping many federal aspects of the state intact .
The Constitution of the 3rd May was also translated into Lithuanian , that marked the significant change in the upper society way of thinking , marked the efforts of the modernization of the State .
The Constitution remained to the last a work in progress . The provisions of the Government Act were detailed in a number of laws passed in May and June 1791 : on sejm courts ( two acts of May 13 ) , the Guardians of the Laws ( June 1 ) , the national police commission ( a ministry , June 17 ) and municipal administration ( June 24 ) . The constitution included provisions for amendments , which were to be dealt with by an extraordinary Sejm held every 25 years . Its co @-@ author Hugo Kołłątaj announced that work was underway on " an economic constitution ... guaranteeing all rights of property [ and ] securing protection and honor to all manner of labor ... " . A third planned basic law was mentioned by Kołłątaj ; a " moral constitution " , most likely a Polish analog to the United States Bill of Rights and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen . The constitution called for the preparation of a new civil and criminal code , tentatively called the Stanisław August Code . The King also planned a reform improving the situation of the Jews .
= = Aftermath : war and the final two partitions = =
The constitution remained in effect for little over a year before being overthrown by Russian armies allied with conservative Polish nobility in the Polish – Russian War of 1792 , also known as the War in Defense of the Constitution . With the wars between Turkey and Russia and Sweden and Russia having ended , Empress Catherine was furious over the adoption of the document , which she believed threatened Russian influence in Poland . Russia had viewed Poland as a de facto protectorate . " The worst possible news have arrived from Warsaw : the Polish king has become almost sovereign " was the reaction of one of Russia 's chief foreign policy authors , Alexander Bezborodko , when he learned of the new constitution . The contacts of Polish reformers with the Revolutionary French National Assembly were seen by Poland 's neighbors as evidence of a revolutionary conspiracy and a threat to the absolute monarchies . The Prussian statesman Ewald von Hertzberg expressed the fears of European conservatives : " The Poles have given the coup de grâce to the Prussian monarchy by voting a constitution " , elaborating that a strong Commonwealth would likely demand the return of the lands Prussia acquired in the First Partition .
Magnates who had opposed the constitution draft from the start , Franciszek Ksawery Branicki , Stanisław Szczęsny Potocki , Seweryn Rzewuski , and Szymon and Józef Kossakowski , asked Tsarina Catherine to intervene and restore their privileges — the Cardinal Laws abolished under the new statute . To that end these magnates formed the Targowica Confederation . The Confederation 's proclamation , prepared in St. Petersburg in January 1792 , criticized the constitution for contributing to " contagion of democratic ideas " following " the fatal examples set in Paris " . It asserted that " The parliament ... has broken all fundamental laws , swept away all liberties of the gentry and on the third of May 1791 turned into a revolution and a conspiracy . " The Confederates declared an intention to overcome this revolution . We " can do nothing but turn trustingly to Tsarina Catherine , a distinguished and fair empress , our neighboring friend and ally " , who " respects the nation 's need for well @-@ being and always offers it a helping hand " , they wrote .
Russian armies entered Poland and Lithuania , starting the Polish – Russian War of 1792 . The Sejm voted to increase the army of the Commonwealth to 100 @,@ 000 men , but owing to insufficient time and funds this number was never achieved and soon abandoned even as a goal . The Polish King and the reformers could field only a 37 @,@ 000 @-@ man army , many of them untested recruits . This army , under the command of Józef Poniatowski and Tadeusz Kościuszko , defeated or fought to a draw the Russians on several occasions , but in the end , a defeat loomed inevitable . Despite Polish requests , Prussia refused to honor its alliance obligations . Stanisław August 's attempts at negotiations with Russia proved futile . As the front lines kept shifting to the west and in July 1792 Warsaw was threatened with siege by the Russians , the King came to believe that victory was impossible against the numerically superior enemy , and that surrender was the only alternative to total defeat . Having received assurances from the Russian ambassador Yakov Bulgakov that no territorial changes will occur , the Guardians of the Laws cabinet voted 8 : 4 to surrender . On July 24 , 1792 , King Stanisław August Poniatowski joined the Targowica Confederation , as the Empress had demanded . The Polish Army disintegrated .
Many reform leaders , believing their cause was for now lost , went into self @-@ imposed exile . Some hoped that Stanisław August would be able to negotiate an acceptable compromise with the Russians , as he had done in the past . But the King had not saved the Commonwealth and neither had the Targowica Confederates , who governed the country for a short while . To their surprise , the Grodno Sejm , bribed or intimidated by the Russian troops , enacted the Second Partition of Poland . On November 23 , 1793 , it concluded its deliberations under duress , annulling the constitution and acceding to the Second Partition . Russia took 250 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 97 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , while Prussia took 58 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 22 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . The Commonwealth now comprised no more than 215 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 83 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . What was left of the Commonwealth was merely a small buffer state with a puppet king , and Russian garrisons keeping an eye on the reduced Polish army .
For a year and a half , Polish patriots waited while planning an insurrection . On March 24 , 1794 in Kraków , Tadeusz Kościuszko declared what has come to be known as the Kościuszko Uprising . On May 7 , he issued the Proclamation of Połaniec ( Uniwersał Połaniecki ) , granting freedom to the peasants and ownership of land to all who fought in the insurrection . Revolutionary tribunals administered summary justice to those deemed traitors to the Commonwealth . After initial victories at the Battle of Racławice ( April 4 ) , the capture of Warsaw ( April 18 ) and the Wilno ( April 22 ) — the Uprising was crushed when the forces of Russia , Austria and Prussia joined in a military intervention . Historians consider the Uprising 's defeat to have been a foregone conclusion in face of the superiority in numbers and resources of the three invading powers . The defeat of Kościuszko 's forces led in 1795 to the third and final partition of the Commonwealth .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Historical significance = = =
The constitution has been both idealized and criticized for either not going far enough or for being too radical . As it remained in force for only 18 months and 3 weeks , its influence was in any case limited . For generations , the memory of the constitution — recognized by political scientists as a progressive document for its time — helped keep alive Polish aspirations for an independent and just society , and continued to inform the efforts of its authors ' descendants . Bronisław Dembiński , a Polish constitutional scholar , stated a century later that , " The miracle of the Constitution did not save the state but did save the nation . " In Poland it is mythologized , and viewed as a national symbol and the culmination of enlightenment in Polish history and culture . In the words of two of its co @-@ authors , Ignacy Potocki and Hugo Kołłątaj , it was " the last will and testament of the expiring Country . " The May 3 anniversary of its adoption has been observed as Poland 's most important civil holiday since Poland regained independence in 1918 .
The constitution was a milestone in the history of law and the rise of democracy . Irish statesman Edmund Burke described it as " the noblest benefit received by any nation at any time ... Stanislas II has earned a place among the greatest kings and statesmen in history . " It was the first to follow the 1788 ratification of the United States Constitution . Poland and the United States , though geographically distant , displayed similarities in their approaches to the design of political systems . The May 3 Constitution has been called the second constitution in world history . American expert on constitutional law Albert Blaustein called it the " world 's second national constitution " , and American journalist Bill Moyers wrote that it was " Europe 's first codified national constitution ( and the second oldest in the world ) " . British historian Norman Davies calls it " the first constitution of its type in Europe " . Together with the Great Sejm , it has been subject to a large body of works by Polish scholars , starting with the still @-@ often cited 19th @-@ century works of Walerian Kalinka and Władysław Smoleński , and continued in the 20th century by Bogusław Leśnodorski .
The document 's official name was Ustawa Rządowa ( " Government Act " ) , where " government " referred to the political system . In the Commonwealth , the term " constitution " ( Polish : konstytucja ) had denoted all the legislation , of whatever character , that had been passed by a Sejm .
= = = Holiday = = =
May 3 was declared a Polish holiday ( Constitution Day — Święto Konstytucji 3 Maja ) on May 5 , 1791 . The holiday was banned during the partitions of Poland but reinstated in April 1919 under the Second Polish Republic — the first holiday officially introduced in the newly independent country . It was again outlawed during World War II by both the Nazi and Soviet occupiers . It was celebrated in Polish cities in May 1945 , although in a mostly spontaneous manner . The 1946 anti @-@ communist demonstrations did not endear it to the Polish communists , and it competed for attention with the communist @-@ endorsed May 1 Labor Day celebrations in the Polish People 's Republic ; this led to its " rebranding " as Democratic Party Day and removal from the list of national holidays by 1951 . Until 1989 , May 3 was a frequent occasion for anti @-@ government and anti @-@ communist protests . May 3 was restored as an official Polish holiday in April 1990 after the fall of communism . In 2007 , May 3 was declared a Lithuanian national holiday . Polish @-@ American pride has been celebrated on the same date , for instance in Chicago , where since 1982 Poles have marked it with festivities and the annual Polish Constitution Day Parade .
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= Brian & Stewie =
" Brian & Stewie " is the 17th episode of the eighth season of the American animated television series Family Guy , and 150th episode of the series overall . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on May 2 , 2010 . The episode features anthropomorphic dog Brian and baby Stewie after they are accidentally trapped inside a bank vault over a weekend . The two are ultimately forced to reveal their true feelings about each other , and eventually go on to question each other 's existence and purpose in life . Brian and Stewie become even closer to each other as time goes on , and climactically help each other survive being trapped inside the vault . The episode breaks from the show 's usual set @-@ up , and is the only episode of the series not to use any cutaway gags with Brian and Stewie being the only two characters featured in the entire episode . In repeats of the episode there is no main title sequence , nor is any music played over the end credits .
The episode was written by Gary Janetti and directed by Dominic Bianchi . It received mostly positive reviews from critics for its serious dialogue , but poor reviews for its gross @-@ out humor , in addition to receiving criticism from the Parents Television Council . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 7 @.@ 68 million homes in its original airing . The episode aired along with a series of musical numbers from throughout the show 's eight seasons . " Brian & Stewie " was released on DVD along with ten other episodes from the season on December 13 , 2011 .
= = Plot = =
Brian and Stewie visit the local Quahog bank so that Brian can deposit holiday money in his safe deposit box . Stewie then wants to go to a store to return a $ 3 @,@ 000 Thom Browne sweater . While they are still inside the vault , the door closes at the end of the work day and locks them inside until the next morning . Frightened , Stewie soils his diaper . Worried he will get a rash from the dirty diaper , Stewie desperately tries to make Brian eat his feces by threatening him with a gun that Brian had stored in his deposit box . They discover that Stewie has a cellphone in his pocket , but there 's only enough charge in the battery for one short phone call . Unfortunately , Stewie uses the last of the phone 's battery charge to call the clothing store rather than for help . Enraged , Brian strikes Stewie , throws his phone on the ground ( thus damaging the phone ) , and yells at Stewie , making him cry . Instantly remorseful and wanting to repair his relationship with Stewie , Brian reluctantly agrees to eat Stewie 's feces in order to provide him with a clean diaper and make up for making Stewie cry . While watching Brian eating , Stewie becomes nauseated and throws up ; Stewie then convinces Brian to eat the vomit . Realizing that he has nothing to clean his bottom with , Stewie manages to convince Brian to clean his bottom with his tongue in order to avoid infection , much to Stewie 's pleasure . Afterward , they both decide to take a nap , but soon they realize that the next day is Sunday , meaning that they will have to wait another day before they can be released from the vault .
Awaking from his nap , Brian decides to drink a bottle of scotch that he had stored in his safety deposit box . He offers Stewie a sip , and they both become so drunk that Brian agrees to pierce Stewie 's ear with a pin from his sweater , leaving Stewie with a bloody ear for the rest of the episode . Stewie and Brian discuss The Dog Whisperer and Cesar Millan , and Brian explains that he is inspired by the philosophy about dogs ' instinctive ability to live in the present and with purpose . Stewie , however , points out that Brian himself does not appear to live with any specific purpose . Angered at the implication , Brian begins insulting Stewie , who bitterly retaliates by revealing that he could have gone all day without having his diaper changed , and only thinks of Brian as a passing amusement . Stewie dares Brian to shoot him with the revolver in the deposit , which Brian earlier said to be bullet @-@ free . It is revealed that Brian lied , and he attempts to shoot Stewie . The two then find a security camera hanging on a wall of the vault . Brian tries to use it to call for help , but Stewie points out if there was someone out there , they would have been saved . Brian then realizes that the camera has recorded him cleaning Stewie , which amuses the infant , but Brian is upset about gaining a laughingstock reputation . Stewie then prematurely causes the gun to discharge , causing the bullet to randomly ricochet off the vault walls , smashing Stewie 's already @-@ broken phone and the bottle of Scotch , and forcing the two under the table .
Soon after sobering up , Stewie stretches and takes out a Jenny Craig Anytime Bar from his shopping bag . Brian loses his temper with Stewie for not revealing that he had been storing food the entire time . After Brian calms down , Stewie asks him why he had the gun in the first place , eventually coaxing Brian into revealing that he keeps the gun in case he ever wants to commit suicide . Brian confesses that he cannot find his purpose in life , and finds comfort in knowing he has the option of killing himself . He admits that the Scotch was to be a last drink . Stunned , Stewie admits that he would be lost without Brian , claiming he is the only person in the world that he really cares about , and he eventually confesses that he loves him as an irreplaceable friend , and that he gives his life meaning . Brian tells Stewie he loves him back . In addition , Stewie reminds Brian that maybe making someone else happy is enough , because it is the best gift one person can give , for which Brian thanks him . Stewie falls asleep as Brian reads the beginning of David Copperfield to him . The following morning , the vault door opens , and Brian carries a sleeping Stewie and their belongings out of the room in silence . The credits also roll in silence .
= = Production and development = =
The episode was written by series consulting producer Gary Janetti as his second episode of the season , and directed by series regular Dominic Bianchi , also in his second episode of the season . In an interview with Forbes , series producer Kara Vallow revealed that the plot was inspired by an episode of the CBS sitcom All in the Family entitled " Archie in the Cellar , " in which Archie Bunker is locked in a cellar , breaking from the show 's usual storyline . Vallow and Family Guy creator Seth MacFarlane were fans of All in the Family during its original airing and came up with the original concept for the episode . Vallow went on to state that the episode " [ is ] like a one @-@ act stage play in a way , " because it " [ doesn 't ] rely on our standard cutaways and gags . " In a first for the series , the only voice actor to perform in the episode was series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane , who portrays both characters . In addition , neither composer Ron Jones nor composer Walter Murphy contributed any background music to the episode whatsoever . The writer of the episode , Gary Janetti , wrote the episode based on a loose script written by MacFarlane , as well as various phone conversations about the structure of the storyline , and the various acts .
" Brian & Stewie " , along with the eleven other episodes from Family Guy 's eighth season , was released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on December 13 , 2011 . The sets include brief audio commentaries by various crew and cast members for several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes and animatics , a special mini @-@ feature which discussed the process behind animating " And Then There Were Fewer " , a mini @-@ feature entitled " The Comical Adventures of Family Guy – Brian & Stewie : The Lost Phone Call " , and footage of the Family Guy panel at the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International .
In its initial airing , the episode aired with a framing device involving Stewie and Brian standing in front of a red curtain and addressing the television audience . The two begin the program by introducing the " very special " episode and , after the episode aired , conclude it by introducing a series of musical numbers . Together , the episode and musical number aired as an hour @-@ long special , in celebration of a week @-@ long " Fox Rocks " television event . The initial airing included musical numbers from the fourth season episode " The Fat Guy Strangler " , the sixth season episode " Play It Again , Brian " , and the eighth season episode " Business Guy " , as well as other numbers , including " You 've Got A Lot to See " from " Brian Wallows and Peter 's Swallows " , " Shipoopi " from " Patriot Games " , and " My Drunken Irish Dad " from the episode " Peter 's Two Dads " . In repeats of the episode the usual main title sequence is replaced by a still shot of the show 's logo on a black background , whilst the end credits are shown without any musical accompaniment .
= = Cultural references = =
In addition to " Archie in the Cellar " , the plot of the episode is inspired by the All in the Family episode " Two 's a Crowd " , in which Archie and Mike are locked in a storeroom , drink brandy and share their deepest secrets . The episode also makes reference to an episode of The Twilight Zone entitled " Time Enough at Last " , in which a banker named Henry Bemis sneaks into a bank vault and is knocked unconscious . In the episode , Henry Bemis is reading a copy of David Copperfield , which Brian also reads during the episode .
= = Reception = =
In an improvement over the previous six episodes , the episode was viewed in 7 @.@ 68 million homes in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings , despite airing simultaneously with Desperate Housewives on ABC , Celebrity Apprentice on NBC and Cold Case on CBS . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 7 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating The Simpsons , The Cleveland Show , as well as the accompanying musical special , which received a total rating of 3 @.@ 3 .
The episode received varied reviews from critics and viewers . Reviewers generally disliked the episode 's humor , but were positive about the more serious moments . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club believed that the show 's concept , which allowed only two characters and a single scene , was " ambitious " but that the end result was " flaccid . " He commented that with no cut @-@ away gags or side plots , the episode was " basically everything critics of the show would like the show to have " but was deprived of Family Guy 's trademark fast pace and reduced to " a series of what amounts to grossout comedy sketches . " Television critic Ramsey Isler of IGN added that the gross @-@ out humor " didn 't work for me " and found the " more serious stuff " in the episode to be the most entertaining . Said Isler , " the addition of more dramatic themes and the elimination of the cutaway gags really showed what this show could be if Seth [ MacFarlane ] and team put more effort in . " In a subsequent review of Family Guy 's eighth season , Isler listed " Brian & Stewie " as being " surprisingly dramatic , " and , " had it not been for the extended poop @-@ eating jokes and rehashed musical numbers in the second half , I 'd say it was one of the better efforts the show has ever put out . " Jason Hughes of TV Squad was also " more than a little disturbed " by the amount of time spent on Stewie 's soiled diaper . However , he noted , " I didn 't laugh much at ' Brian & Stewie ' , but I found myself absolutely captured by their discussion throughout the episode . " Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly described the episode as " tedious , predictably vulgar , and , by the end , sentimental . " Adam Rosenberg of MTV wrote , " Beneath all of the more disturbing elements there 's actually some very thoughtful , mature discussion of suicide and what love means amidst it all . " Andrew Hanson of The Los Angeles Times found the soiled diaper gag " too sick to watch " and " the grossest " moment featured in Family Guy so far , but conceded that that may have been the producer 's intention . Still , Hanson described Brian 's suicidal confession as " deep " and stated , " It ’ s nice to see that Family Guy is still trying new things and going out on a limb even at episode No. 150 . " The episode was voted # 5 on BBC Three 's list of Top Ten Family Guy episodes .
The Parents Television Council , a conservative media watchdog group and frequent critic of MacFarlane @-@ produced programs , called on the Federal Communications Commission to investigate Family Guy after the episode aired , citing the scenes where Brian is talked into eating Stewie 's feces and vomit . PTC president Tim Winter said that , " Given the patently offensive depictions of one character eating excrement out of a diaper , then eating vomit , and finally licking the remaining excrement from a baby ’ s bottom – while the baby expresses physical gratification from having his bottom licked – we believe that the broadcast decency law has been broken . It seems as though Family Guy creator , Seth MacFarlane , carefully reviewed the legal definition of broadcast indecency and set out to violate it as literally as he could . " The Parents Television Council went on to name the episode as its " Worst TV Show of the Week " , ending the week of May 7 , 2010 , citing the extreme indecency of the episode .
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= Harold L. George =
Not to be confused with Harold Huston George for whom George Air Force Base was named
Harold Lee George ( July 19 , 1893 – February 24 , 1986 ) was an American aviation pioneer who helped shape and promote the concept of daylight precision bombing . An outspoken proponent of the industrial web theory , George taught at the Air Corps Tactical School and influenced a significant group of airmen passing through the school , ones who had powerful influence during and after World War II . He has been described as the leader of the so @-@ called " Bomber Mafia " , the men who advocated an independent military arm composed of heavy bombers . George helped shape America 's bomber strategy for the war by assisting Air War Plans Division with the development of a complete aircraft production and bombing strategy .
In 1934 , George helped institute the Order of Daedalians , and served as that organization 's first Wing Commander .
During World War II , George led the Air Transport Command , taking it from 130 obsolescent aircraft to 3 @,@ 000 modern transports , operated by 300 @,@ 000 airmen . Following the war , he helped Hughes Aircraft become a very profitable company , and was twice elected mayor of Beverly Hills , California .
= = Early career = =
George was born July 19 , 1893 in Somerville , Massachusetts , to Horace and Susan E. George . He attended George Washington University , but decided to interrupt his studies when the United States became directly involved in World War I. George joined the United States Army and on May 21 , 1917 , received his commission as second lieutenant in the Cavalry as a reserve officer . A month later , he went on active duty with the Cavalry at Fort Myer , Virginia , and married Anna Virginia Helms on August 10 . In October George resigned his reserve commission to become a flying cadet with the Aviation Section , U.S. Signal Corps .
George attended the ASSC School of Military Aeronautics ( an eight @-@ week ground school ) set up on the campus of Princeton University and learned to fly at Love Field , Texas , receiving his rating of Reserve Military Aviator and a new commission on March 28 , 1918 . George went to France that September with an initial assignment to the 7th Aviation Instruction Center ( bombardment ) at Clermont @-@ Ferrand . Two months later he was posted to Ourches @-@ sur @-@ Meuse with the 163rd Aero Squadron , one of two DH @-@ 4B day bomber squadrons of the new 2nd Day Bombardment Group , Second Army Air Service . In the week in which it saw action in November 1918 , just prior to the armistice , the 163d flew 69 sorties in support of the Meuse @-@ Argonne Offensive . George observed that massed bombers , flying in formation , swamped enemy defenses and so reduced the attacker 's casualties .
= = Bombing advocate = =
In France , George met William " Billy " Mitchell and became convinced that Mitchell 's vision of an independent Air Force was the best future direction for the American military .
After the war , George was assigned to the 49th Bombardment Squadron at Kelly Field , Texas . On July 1 , 1920 , when the Air Service became a combat arm of the line , he transferred to it in the permanent grade of 1st lieutenant . He next served with the 14th Bombardment Squadron at Langley Field , Virginia , and with the Aberdeen Proving Ground , Maryland from 1921 to 1925 . There George assisted Mitchell in his bombing demonstration against old battleships , and helped develop air @-@ to @-@ ship tactics . In August 1925 , George went to Washington as chief of the Bombardment Section in the Operations Division of the Office of the Chief of Air Service . Later that year , still at the rank of first lieutenant , he was one of several young air officers to testify at Mitchell 's court @-@ martial .
In July 1929 , George was ordered to Hawaii for two years with the 5th Composite Group at Luke Field . In September , 1931 , he went to Maxwell Field , Alabama , to study at the Air Corps Tactical School ( ACTS ) where he helped refine the precision daylight bomber doctrine taught there . He was promoted to captain during the assignment , on December 1 , 1931 . Following graduation , George became an instructor at ACTS , teaching air tactics and precision bombing doctrine , and became de facto leader of the influential " Bomber Mafia " . With Haywood S. Hansell , Laurence S. Kuter and Donald Wilson , George researched , debated and codified what the men believed would be a war @-@ winning strategy that Wilson termed " industrial web theory " . In 1934 , George was made director of the Department of Air Tactics and Strategy , and vigorously promoted the doctrine of precision bombing in which massed air fleets of heavy bombers would be commanded independently of naval or ground warfare needs .
George was promoted to the temporary rank of major in July 1936 . He graduated from the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , the following year and returned to Langley as commanding officer of the 96th Bombardment Squadron . George flew to South America as a part of Air Corps goodwill flights in February 1938 and November 1939 , and received for his participation the Order of the Southern Cross ( Knight ) , from the government of Brazil . In 1940 , George took command of the 2d Bombardment Group , which in 1937 had become the first unit equipped with the B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress bomber . Promoted to the temporary rank of lieutenant colonel on December 30 , 1940 , he also filled the position of Executive Officer of the 2nd Bombardment Wing from January 1941 .
In July 1941 , George was appointed assistant chief of staff for Air War Plans Division , a unit of the newly created USAAF Air Staff in Washington . In that capacity he assembled a small group of " bomber mafia " members ( including Hansell , Kuter , and Kenneth N. Walker ) to prepare AWPD – 1 , an estimate of air resources needed in the event of war that became the plan for the air war against Germany . He was promoted to to colonel on January 2 , 1942 , and to brigadier general on April 19 , 1942 when he took command of the Air Corps Ferrying Command ( ACFC ) .
= = Air transport = =
In June 1942 , ACFC was redesignated Air Transport Command and tasked to become not just a delivery service of aircraft from factory to the field , but a worldwide cargo and personnel air transportation service . George led it brilliantly throughout World War II , with the able assistance of many staff officers including his deputy , General C. R. Smith , peacetime president of American Airlines .
New organizations were formed and new cross ocean routes were established in the face of the enemy and under difficult conditions . George took the ferrying command from 130 obsolescent aircraft to 3 @,@ 000 modern military transports , and expanded the personnel from 11 @,@ 000 to 300 @,@ 000 . For this major contribution to his country , George received the Distinguished Service Medal , Legion of Merit , Distinguished Flying Cross , and Air Medal , as well as decorations from Great Britain , France , Brazil , Peru and China .
After the war he served for a while as director of information for the USAAF and as senior Air Force representative of the military staff of the United Nations . He retired from active duty December 31 , 1946 , with rank of lieutenant general dating back to March 1945 .
= = Post @-@ war activity = =
George accepted a position at Hughes Aircraft to work for Howard Hughes , along with fellow bomber advocate Ira C. Eaker . Eaker and George transformed Hughes Aircraft into a very profitable military contractor , reaching $ 100M in sales in 1948 . George expanded the company beyond the manufacture of aircraft to focus on the new field of military electronics , primarily by bringing together expert electronics designer Dean Wooldridge and engineer @-@ businessman Simon Ramo , both hired by George in 1946 . In August 1953 , Ramo and Wooldridge resigned . George followed a few months later to help form the Ramo @-@ Wooldridge Corporation , competing directly with Hughes by developing ballistic missile defenses . In 1958 , Ramo @-@ Wooldridge would merge with Thompson Products , to become Thompson Ramo Wooldridge , which was shortened to TRW in 1965 .
After moving there in 1948 , George was elected to the City Council of Beverly Hills , California , in 1952 , and in 1954 he was elected mayor , a one @-@ year term . He served a second term in 1959 . During his second term , George established an annual award to honor outstanding Beverly Hills police officers , given in the name of Clinton H. Anderson , the city 's police chief .
In 1955 , George was recalled to active duty in the United States Air Force for eight months as special consultant to the Air Force Chief of Staff . George was relieved from active duty November 4 , 1955 .
By 1984 , George was living in Laguna Hills , California . That year , he collected and donated more than $ 21 @,@ 000 to various Republican Party candidates and conservative causes including the Jesse Helms @-@ founded National Congressional Club and the " Helms for Senate " campaign . On February 24 , 1986 , George died in Laguna Hills . He was survived by his wife Violette , three daughters and one son .
= = Legacy = =
In his directorship of ACTS , George is known today as the unofficial leader of the men in the Army Air Corps who closed ranks and pushed exclusively toward the concept of daylight precision bombing as a strategic , war @-@ winning doctrine . Though he played a fundamental role in the development of U.S. air power strategy , he is perhaps better known as the first commander of Air Transport Command — the man who guided and expanded that organization throughout World War II .
The Order of Daedalians has , since 1956 , awarded the " Lieutenant General Harold L. George Civilian Airmanship Award " , a trophy " presented annually to the pilot , copilot and / or crew of a United States certified commercial airline selected by a Federal Aviation committee to have demonstrated ability , judgment and / or heroism above and beyond normal operational requirements . " The Air Force Aid Society bestows the " Lieutenant General Harold Lee George Educational Grant Award . "
= = Recognition = =
George was awarded :
Distinguished Service Medal
Legion of Merit
Distinguished Flying Cross
Air Medal
1939 - Knight of the Order of the Southern Cross ( Brazil )
= = Effective dates of promotion = =
Second Lieutenant - May 21 , 1917
First Lieutenant - April 1921
Captain - December 31 , 1931
Major - July 1936
Lieutenant Colonel - February 1941
Colonel - January 1942
Brigadier General - April 1942
Major General - June 1942
Lieutenant General - March 16 , 1945 .
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= These Are the Voyages ... =
" These Are the Voyages ... " is the series finale of the UPN American science fiction television show Star Trek : Enterprise . The 22nd episode of the fourth season and the 98th of the series overall , it first aired on May 13 , 2005 , in the United States . " These Are the Voyages ... " is a frame story , where the 22nd century events of Star Trek : Enterprise are shown through a 24th @-@ century holodeck re @-@ creation during the Star Trek : The Next Generation episode " The Pegasus " . The episode features guest stars Jonathan Frakes , Marina Sirtis , and Jeffrey Combs , as well as a voice cameo from Brent Spiner . Series creators Rick Berman and Brannon Braga , who co @-@ wrote the episode , conceived " These Are the Voyages ... " as a valentine to Star Trek fans .
Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . In this episode , the story moves to the year 2370 , when Commander William Riker grapples with making a difficult admission to his commanding officer about a cover @-@ up . Riker , after consulting Counsellor Troi , turns to the simulated events of the year 2161 for guidance , when the crew of Enterprise travels home to Earth for both decommissioning and the formation of the United Federation of Planets .
Reaction to " These Are the Voyages ... " was negative . Critics and cast alike believed The Next Generation frame robbed the characters and their fans of closure , and that the death of Commander Tucker felt forced and unnecessary . The final episode attracted 3 @.@ 8 million viewers , the highest number since the previous season . After a strong premiere , Enterprise had grappled with declining ratings throughout its run . By the fourth season , fewer than three million viewers tuned in each week despite what some fans and critics considered an increase in episode quality . After selling the syndication rights , UPN and Paramount announced in February 2005 that the fourth season would be the show 's last . With no new Star Trek episodes in the fall of 2005 , the 2005 – 2006 season was the first year without a first @-@ run Star Trek in 18 years . Despite the cancellation , Paramount hoped to revive the series , and Berman began work on a possible new Star Trek film , which was ultimately rejected in favor of the J. J. Abrams @-@ directed Star Trek .
= = Plot = =
In 2370 , Commander William Riker , aboard Enterprise @-@ D , is troubled by the events of " The Pegasus " and seeks guidance . At Lieutenant Commander Deanna Troi 's suggestion , Riker sets a holo @-@ program to the date 2161 , some six years after the events of " Terra Prime " , to a time when the original Enterprise ( NX @-@ 01 ) is due to be decommissioned after ten years of active service . The starship and its crew are also returning to Earth for the signing of the Federation Charter , and Captain Archer frets over the speech he will give to the assembled delegates .
En route , Riker and Troi observe as Enterprise is contacted by Shran , a former Andorian Imperial Guard who Archer believed was dead . Apparently his young daughter has been kidnapped , and he asks for Archer 's help in rescuing her from Rigel X. Archer decides to assist , despite Commander T 'Pol 's warning that they may be late returning for the ceremony . Riker joins the Enterprise crew as it assaults Shran 's enemies and brings his daughter safely back . Troi also advises that Riker assume the role of ship 's chef , hoping to earn the confidence of the simulated crew . As he prepares food with the crew , he learns more about their memories and impressions of Tucker .
He also watches as the kidnappers board Enterprise , and how , in order to save Archer 's life , Commander Tucker overloads two conduits and dies after becoming mortally wounded . He notices that Archer is troubled that he must write a speech about how worthwhile their explorations have been , despite his friend 's death , but T 'Pol assures him that Tucker would have considered it worthwhile . On Earth , Troi watches as Archer enters a crowded grand hall to give his speech and Riker joins her , now sure of what course he should take . The final shot of the episode is a montage of the ships named Enterprise as Captains Picard , Kirk , and Archer recite the " Where no man has gone before " monologue .
= = Production = =
" These Are the Voyages ... " was written by Braga and Berman , the pair 's only script of the fourth season . Enterprise writer Mike Sussman told TrekNation in May 2005 that Braga had considered the idea of an episode crossover featuring characters from other Star Trek series prior to the finale . Sussman 's original idea for the episode was to have The Doctor of Star Trek : Voyager treating an ill patient who may or may not have been Archer trapped in the future . Due to the subject matter , Sussman said his version would not have been suitable for the final episode . In interviews , Berman said that the episode had always been intended as the season finale regardless of cancellation , and gave conflicting answers regarding whether Trip would still have been killed if the show was to continue .
Allan Kroeker directed the episode , his third series finale following Star Trek : Deep Space Nine 's " What You Leave Behind " and Star Trek : Voyager 's " Endgame " . " These Are the Voyages ... " featured guest appearances by Jonathan Frakes and Marina Sirtis as their Next Generation characters William Riker and Deanna Troi . Brent Spiner , another Next Generation veteran who had guest @-@ starred earlier in the fourth season of Enterprise , had an off @-@ screen speaking role as the android Data . Jeffrey Combs appeared as the Andorian Shran , whom Coto had wanted to be a permanent addition to the cast in the event of another season .
Filming of the final episode began on Friday , February 25 , after the first half of the day was spent completing " Terra Prime " . Principal photography took eight days to complete , one day longer than usual . The snowy complex set of Rigel X , first seen in the pilot episode , was used , as was the rarely seen Enterprise 's galley . Enterprise @-@ D locations such as hallways and the observation lounge were re @-@ created . Frakes and Sirtis arrived at the lot at the same time that a " Save Enterprise " rally was being held outside the gates . Similar to " What You Leave Behind " , many of the production staff cameoed for a large crowd scene at the end of the episode , as Archer prepares to give his speech . Fifteen " VIPs " including writers Judith and Garfield Reeves @-@ Stevens , André Bormanis , and Manny Coto joined two dozen extras in forming part of the audience . The rest of the digital set was filled by a computer @-@ generated crowd . After their parts were finished , the final dismissal of each cast member was met with applause . Jolene Blalock and Scott Bakula were the last actors to be released , and Bakula gave a speech thanking the production crew for making the cast feel welcome . Filming ended on Tuesday , March 8 , and the sets were struck . Frakes and Sirtis returned on March 9 to complete green screen shots , which would be used when their characters entered or exited the holodeck . Before the episode 's release , Berman would not elaborate on the final episode 's content , saying " It 's going to have some surprising twists and turns . It 's somewhat of a valentine . "
= = Reception and home media release = =
" These Are the Voyages ... " was negatively received by both critics and the show 's cast . Before the episode aired , Blalock called the episode " appalling . " She followed up her remarks by saying she was upset over the finale being a The Next Generation episode rather than an end for Enterprise . Connor Trinneer ( who played Commander Trip Tucker ) , felt that the finale should have had a memorable farewell that he described as a " M * A * S * H moment " , but that the producers did not want to focus on such an element . Anthony Montgomery ( who played Ensign Travis Mayweather ) was similarly displeased with the finale and said " I feel there could have been a more effective way to wrap things up for our show as well as the franchise as a whole . It just seemed to take a little bit away from what the Enterprise cast and crew worked so diligently to achieve over the past four years . " While Frakes enjoyed working with Sirtis again , he said that " the reality is it was a bit of a stretch to have us shut down [ the Enterprise cast 's ] show , " and that in hindsight it was a disservice to them . The early criticism forced the show 's producers to hold a conference and address the issue . Braga admitted there was cast unrest , but defended the episode as a way to close not just Enterprise but Star Trek as a whole .
Reviewers were also critical of the Next Generation tie @-@ in . Sci Fi Weekly 's Patrick Lee said the framing story " reduces [ the Enterprise cast ] to the status of lab rats . " Lee further noted that even without the guest appearances , the episode did not live up to the best offerings of the season , including " In a Mirror , Darkly " . National Post 's Alex Strachan called the Next Generation cameos reminders of better Star Trek , compared to the " bad make @-@ up effects , bad acting , bad music " of the latest show . Rob Salem of the Toronto Star said the cameos served no narrative purpose , and that the episode " robs [ the ] characters ( and their fans ) of any significant long @-@ term development or satisfying sense of closure . " Reviewers also criticized the episode 's ending , where viewers never got to see Archer 's rousing speech . IGN said that the episode was " Berman and Braga 's parting shot , making sure that everyone knew who was in charge , " and that the sharp contrast between " These Are the Voyages ... " and " Terra Prime " brought into relief the reason why both should not be allowed to produce Star Trek ever again .
The death of Tucker was another object of controversy . Salem described the development as " a major character is pointlessly killed off in service of a pointless plot device , " a complaint echoed by IGN . Actor Connor Trinneer , who played Trip , said during a convention appearance that the character had " gotten out of much worse scrapes than that , " and the death seemed forced . The writers , Trinneer contended , wanted to kill off a character to " get the fans talking , " and so Trip was killed off simply to manipulate viewers . Several critics ended their reviews by saying that whether fans would be disappointed or pleased by the episode , the majority of casual viewers would not care one way or another .
In response to some of these criticisms , Coto stated that he personally considered the two @-@ part story " Demons " and " Terra Prime " that preceded " These Are the Voyages ... " the actual finale of the Enterprise storyline . Berman said " I 've read a lot of the criticisms and I understand how some people feel , but [ Braga ] and I spent a lot of time coming up with the idea and a somewhat , I would say , unique ending to a series , especially when you ’ re ending it prematurely . [ ... ] You never like to disappoint people , but I think it 's nonsense to say that it was more a Next Generation episode than an Enterprise episode . The only elements of [ The Next Generation ] that were present were there as a sounding board to allow us to look at a mission that took place six years after " Terra Prime " . "
The episode was released on DVD home media as part of the season four box set on November 1 , 2005 in the United States . The Blu ray release of the final season of Enterprise was made available on April 29 , 2014 .
= = Series cancellation = =
" Broken Bow " , Enterprise 's 2001 premiere episode , attracted 12 @.@ 5 million viewers in its first broadcast , but ratings quickly dropped to a low of 5 @.@ 9 million viewers . Enterprise was threatened with cancellation by the third season . The show survived by slashing its budget amid broadcaster UPN 's schedule revamp . The show was moved to Fridays in 2004 , while the rest of UPN 's programming became more female @-@ friendly , in part due to the success of America 's Next Top Model . The third season introduced a season @-@ long story arc , to some of the best reviews of the entire series . In the fourth season , Manny Coto became executive producer after writing and co @-@ producing the show since 2003 . While Coto 's episodes were hailed by critics and fans as equaling the quality of previous Star Trek television series , the average viewership dropped to 2 @.@ 9 million , with a series @-@ low showing of 2 @.@ 5 million in January 2005 . According to TrekNation , Enterprise 's final episode attracted 3 @.@ 8 million viewers , an increase of 69 % over the previous season 's finale .
On February 3 , 2005 , UPN and Paramount announced that the fourth season of the show would be its last . The network waited until the series had been sold to syndication before making the announcement . The cancellation marked the first time new Star Trek episodes would not appear on television in 18 years , since Star Trek : The Next Generation premiered . The fourth season continued production so that Paramount could sell an attractive 98 episodes to syndicates .
A series @-@ ending wrap party was held for the cast and crew at the Roosevelt Hotel in April . Cast members spoke about their feelings about the end of the series . John Billingsley said the show " was a great ride , and it changed my life . It 's something that will last forever for me . " He was happy to say goodbye to the two @-@ hour makeup sessions to create his character , Phlox . Many of the cast were taking a break and going on vacation before seeking new acting jobs . Among the notable guests were Star Trek Nemesis screenwriter John Logan , who was not affiliated with Enterprise , and Peter Weller , who appeared as a villain in " Terra Prime " .
Actress Jolene Blalock ( T 'Pol ) criticized the early stories as boring and lacking intriguing content . She felt that early Enterprise scripts ignored basic tenets of Star Trek chronology , and offered " revealing costumes instead of character development " . UPN executives stated that the male @-@ oriented episodes of Enterprise did not mesh with the viewership of its other top shows , such as Top Model and Veronica Mars . Brannon Braga suggested that the reason for the cancellation was viewer fatigue , noting that " after 18 years and 624 hours of Star Trek , the audience began to have a little bit of overkill . " Fans , meanwhile , criticized Berman and Braga for ignoring Star Trek canon and refusing to fix their shows . Michael Hinman , news coordinator for SyFy Portal , stated that in addition to the oversaturation of Star Trek , there " also is an oversaturation of Braga and Berman . [ ... ] They couldn 't sit back and say , ' You know , we just can 't keep this fresh . ' No , it was more about their stupid egos , and their nonsensical ' Even if it 's broke , don 't fix it ' attitude . " Braga defended the series , noting that The Next Generation faced little competition from other science fiction shows , while Enterprise had to contend with a plethora of shows such as Battlestar Galactica .
Newspapers covering Enterprise 's cancellation and its final episode often said that the failure of Enterprise was evidence that the franchise had moved too far from its roots and grown too dark . Andy Dehnhart of MSNBC said that " while the writers and production designers deserve credit for offering worlds that were perhaps slightly more believable , they lost the fantastic , wondrous approach to space travel that The Next Generation borrowed from the original Star Trek and then perfected . " USA Today 's Michael Peck said that without the " dreams " of earlier series , " Star Trek becomes just another television drama . " Melanie McFarland of the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer , meanwhile , said the show " never found the sense of uniqueness within the Trek universe that every version that came before it possessed . " Despite the cancellation , Paramount remained optimistic . Studio head David Stapf looked " forward to a new chapter of this enduring franchise in the future . " Berman and screenwriter Erik Jendrensen developed a concept for a new film taking place after Enterprise but before the 1960s television show . Meanwhile , Paramount asked Roberto Orci for ideas to revive the franchise , resulting in the production of a reboot film set in an alternate timeline from the 1966 @-@ 2005 franchise simply titled Star Trek , released in May 2009 and directed by J. J. Abrams .
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= History of Texas A & M University =
The history of Texas A & M University , the first public institution of higher education in Texas , began in 1871 , when the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas was established as a land @-@ grant college by the Texas Legislature . Classes began on October 4 , 1876 . Although Texas A & M was originally scheduled to be established under the Texas Constitution as a branch of the yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ created University of Texas , subsequent acts of the Texas Legislature never gave the university any authority over Texas A & M. In 1875 , the Legislature separated the administrations of A & M and the University of Texas , which still existed only on paper . The Agricultural and Mechanical College formally opened on Oct. 4 , 1876 .
For much of its first century , enrollment at Texas A & M was restricted to white men who were willing to participate in the Corps of Cadets and receive military training . During this time , a limited number of women were allowed to attend classes but forbidden from gaining a degree . During World War I , 49 % of A & M graduates were in military service , and in 1918 , the senior class was mustered into military service to fight in France . During World War II , Texas A & M produced over 20 @,@ 000 combat troops , contributing more officers than both the United States Military Academy and United States Naval Academy combined .
Shortly after World War II , the Texas Legislature redefined Texas A & M as a university and the flagship school of the Texas A & M University System , making official the school 's status as a clear and separate institution from the University of Texas . In the 1960s , the state legislature renamed the school Texas A & M University , with the " A & M " becoming purely symbolic . Under the leadership of James Earl Rudder , the school became racially integrated and coeducational . Membership in the Corps of Cadets became voluntary .
In the second half of the 20th century , the university was recognized for its research with the designations sea @-@ grant university and space @-@ grant university . The school was further honored in 1997 with the establishment of the George Bush Presidential Library on the western edge of the campus .
= = Early years = =
The US Congress laid the groundwork for the establishment of Texas A & M with their proposal of the Morrill Act . The Morrill Act , signed into law July 2 , 1862 , was created to enable states to establish colleges where the " leading object shall be , without excluding other scientific and classical studies and including military tactics , to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and mechanical arts ... in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions in life " . States were granted public lands to be sold at auctions to establish a permanent fund to support the schools . Both the Republic of Texas and the Texas State Legislature also set aside public lands for a future college .
The Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas , known as Texas A.M.C. , was established by the state legislature on April 17 , 1871 as the state 's first public institution of higher education . The legislature provided US $ 75 @,@ 000 for the construction of buildings at the new school , and state leaders invested profits from the sale of 180 @,@ 000 acres ( 730 km2 ) received under the Land @-@ Grant College Act in gold frontier defense bonds , creating a permanent endowment for the college . A committee tasked with finding a home for the new college chose Brazos County , which agreed to donate 2 @,@ 416 acres ( 10 km2 ) of land . Jefferson Davis , former President of the Confederate States of America , was offered the presidency of the college but turned it down .
The college officially opened on October 4 , 1876 with six professors . Forty students were present on the first day of classes , but by the end of the school year the number had grown to 106 students . Only men were admitted , and all students were required to participate in the Corps of Cadets and receive military training . The campus bore minimal resemblance to its modern counterpart . Wild animals roamed freely around the campus , and the area served as a meeting point for the Great Western Cattle Trail .
Despite its name , the college taught no classes in agriculture , instead concentrating on classical studies , languages , literature , and applied mathematics . After four years , students could attain degrees in scientific agriculture , civil and mining engineering , and language and literature . Local farmers complained that the college was abusing its mission , and , in November 1879 , the president and faculty were replaced and given a mandated curriculum in agriculture and engineering .
During these early years , student life was molded by the Corps of Cadets . The Corps was divided into a battalion of three companies , and rivalry among the companies was strong , giving birth to the Aggie spirit and future traditions . No bonfires , yell practices , or athletics teams existed as yet , and social clubs and fraternities were discouraged .
Enrollment , which had climbed as high as 500 students , declined to only 80 students in 1883 , the year the University of Texas opened in Austin , Texas . Although the Texas Constitution specified that the Agricultural and Mechanical College was to be a branch of a proposed University of Texas , the Austin school was established with a separate Board of Regents . Texas A.M.C. continued to be governed by its own Board of Directors .
The two Texas schools quickly began to battle over the limited funds that the state legislature made available for higher education . In 1887 , the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station was established at Texas A.M.C. , enabling the college to gain more funding . Many residents of the state saw little need for two colleges in Texas , and some wanted to close the agricultural and mechanical school .
= = Sul Ross era = =
Texas A.M.C. president Lawrence Sullivan Ross , known affectionately to students as " Sully " , is credited for saving the school from closure and transforming it into a respected military institution . Ross , the immediate past governor of Texas , had been a well @-@ respected Confederate Brigadier General and enjoyed a good reputation among state residents .
When Ross arrived at the school , he found no running water , a housing shortage , a disgruntled faculty , and many students running wild . As Ross began to make improvements , parents began to send their children to the school in the hopes that they would learn from Ross 's example . Although enrollment had always been limited to men , in 1893 , Ethel Hudson , the daughter of an A & M professor , became the first woman to attend classes at the school and helped edit the annual yearbook . She was made an honorary member of the class of 1895 . Several years later her twin sisters became honorary members of the class of 1903 , and slowly other daughters of Aggie professors were allowed to attend classes .
Under Ross 's seven and one @-@ half year tenure , many enduring Aggie traditions formed . These traditions include the first Aggie Ring , the first yearbook , and the formation of the Aggie Band . Ross 's tenure also saw the school 's first intercollegiate football game , played against the University of Texas .
= = Program expansion = =
By 1910 , the school listed eight degree programs , including agriculture , architecture , agricultural engineering , chemical engineering , civil engineering , electrical engineering , mechanical engineering , and textile engineering . Five years later the state legislature , in cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture , established the Texas Agricultural Extension Service , organized the Texas Forest Service , and authorized a School of Veterinary Medicine at the college . The college was unprepared for the growth , and for the next ten years several hundred students lived in tents in a field in the middle of campus .
During this time , women were also given a more official standing . The Texas Legislature in 1911 refused to give A & M permission to hold a summer semester unless women were also permitted to attend . For the next several decades during the summers cadets were not required to be in uniform and women could attend class and participate in intramural activities .
Texas A & M graduates were called to use their military training during World War I , and by 1918 , 49 % of all graduates of the college were in military service , a larger percentage than any other college or university . In early September 1918 , the entire senior class was mustered into military service , with plans to send the younger students at staggered dates throughout the next year . Many of the seniors were fighting in France when the war ended two months later . In total , over 1200 former students served as commissioned officers during World War I.
Texas A & M Hillel , the oldest Hillel organization in the United States , was founded in 1920 . The organization occurred three years before the national Hillel Foundation was organized at the University of Illinois .
After the war , Texas A & M grew rapidly and became nationally recognized for its programs in agriculture , engineering , and military science . The first graduate school was organized in 1924 , and , in 1925 , Mary Evelyn Crawford Locke became the first female to receive a diploma from Texas A & M , although she was not allowed to participate in the graduation ceremony . The following month the Board of Directors officially prohibited all women from enrolling . In 1926 , they codified that women in summer school had an unofficial status and could not pursue a degree . By 1930 , however , over 1800 women had attended classes at A & M.
In the late 1920s , following the discovery of oil on university lands , Texas A & M and the University of Texas negotiated a settlement for the division of the Permanent University Fund which enabled A & M to receive one @-@ third of the revenue . This guaranteed wealth enabled A & M to expand . Enrollment increased even during the Great Depression , as student cooperative housing projects enabled the students to attend the school at low costs . During the Depression , as professors were forced to accept a 25 % pay cut , the Board of Directors partially rescinded its order against female enrollment , allowing no more than 20 females at a time to enroll in the school , and further restricting the group to daughters of professors .
Texas A & M expanded its degree offerings in the late 1930s and awarded its first Ph.D. in 1940 . Other programs at the college likewise began offering doctoral degrees throughout the next few decades .
World War II gave Texas A & M an opportunity to prove itself on a worldwide stage . The school produced 20 @,@ 229 fighting men who served in combat ; of these , 14 @,@ 123 were officers , more than the combined total of the United States Naval Academy and the United States Military Academy and more than three times the totals of any other Senior Military College . Seven Aggies received the Medal of Honor during the worldwide conflict , tying with Virginia Tech as the most of any school outside of the military academies at West Point and Annapolis , and 29 former students reached the rank of general . In addition , the college received nationwide exposure during the war when a reporter wrote a widely distributed story about the Aggie Muster on the island of Corregidor . The intense interest resulted in a World War II propaganda movie , We 've Never Been Licked , which was filmed on the A & M campus and showcased many of the school traditions .
Though Texas A & M was originally established as a branch of the yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ created University of Texas , subsequent acts of the Texas Legislature never gave the University any authority over Texas A & M. This internal legal conflict in Texas was nullified in 1948 when Texas A & M became the flagship school of the newly created Texas A & M University System , a clear and separate institution from the University of Texas System . A & M 's Board of Directors continued to oversee the system . Enrollment soared as many former soldiers used the G.I. Bill to further their education . Unprepared for the growth , between 1949 and 1953 Texas A & M used the former Bryan Air Force Base as an extension of the campus . An estimated 5 @,@ 500 men lived , studied , ate , showered , and attended classes at the base , which became known as the Annex ( and later as Riverside Campus ) .
= = Rudder era = =
The Texas Legislature defeated a nonbinding resolution in the 1950s to encourage A & M to admit women . The school newspaper , The Battalion began writing editorials to encourage coeducation , causing the Student Senate to demand the editor of the paper resign . Later in the year students defeated 2 – 1 a campus resolution on coeducation .
On March 26 , 1959 retired Major General James Earl Rudder , who ( outside of Sul Ross ) arguably had the most significant effect on the campus ( and especially in terms of transforming it into the modern university of today ) , became the 16th president of the college , his alma mater . At the time , the college was still an all @-@ male military school with a 7 @,@ 500 student enrollment . Within several years of his arrival , the 58th Legislature of Texas officially changed the name of the school from the Agricultural & Mechanical College of Texas to Texas A & M University . The Legislature specified that in the new name of the school , the A and the M were purely symbolic , reflecting the school 's past , and no longer stood for " Agricultural and Mechanical " .
With Rudder 's strong encouragement , in 1963 , the A & M Board of Directors officially reversed their stance on admitting women . The wives and daughters of faculty , staff and students as well as female staff members were finally allowed to officially participate in undergraduate programs , although they were not permitted to join the Corps of Cadets .
The following year the college was officially integrated as A & M welcomed its first African American student . More change ensued , as , in 1965 , the Board of Directors voted to make membership in the Corps of Cadets voluntary . The same year the Board voted to allow any woman , not just those connected to students and professors , to attend the university . The Board required that Rudder approve each female applicant ; he accepted any woman who met the academic requirements . During Rudder 's tenure , African @-@ American students were also welcomed , and in 1967 , James L. Courtney of Dallas became the first African American to receive an undergraduate degree from Texas A & M University . He remained at Texas A & M and , in 1970 , became the first African American to receive a D.V.M. degree from the College of Veterinary Medicine .
When Rudder died in 1970 , after 11 years as president of the school , Texas A & M University had grown to more than 14 @,@ 000 students from all 50 states and 75 nations . The school had become coeducational and had even begun construction of an all @-@ female dormitory . The curriculum had been broadened , with upgraded academic and faculty standards , and the school had initiated a multimillion @-@ dollar building program .
= = Recent years = =
On September 17 , 1971 , Texas A & M University was one of the first four institutions to be designated a sea @-@ grant college in recognition of oceanographic development and research . A third designation was added on August 31 , 1989 when Texas A & M was named a space @-@ grant college . The university remains one of few institutions nationwide to hold designations as a land- , sea- , and space @-@ grant college .
= = = Diversification = = =
The Corps welcomed its first female members in the fall of 1974 . At the time , the women were segregated into a special unit , known as W @-@ 1 , and suffered harassment from many of their male counterparts . Women were originally prohibited from serving in leadership positions or in the more elite Corps units such as the Fish Drill Team , the band , and Ross Volunteers . These groups were opened to female participation in 1985 , following a federal court decision in a class @-@ action lawsuit filed by a female cadet . Two years later , in 1990 , female @-@ only units were eliminated .
In November 1976 , the university denied official recognition to the Gay Student Services Organization on the grounds that homosexuality was illegal in Texas , and the group 's stated goals — offering referral services and providing educational information to students — were actually the responsibility of university staff . The students sued the university for violation of their First Amendment right to freedom of speech in February 1977 . For six years , Gay Student Services v. Texas A & M University wound its way through the courts ; although the trial court ruled in favor of Texas A & M several times , the 5th Circuit Court of Appeals repeatedly overturned the verdict . The U.S. Supreme Court declined to review the case , letting stand the circuit court ruling that the students ' free speech rights had been compromised .
The case set a national precedent by removing legal restrictions on gay rights groups on campuses . The subsequent recognition of the group provided a university precedent for allowing social organizations . In 1977 , the university had also denied recognition to Sigma Phi Epsilon , a national social fraternity , because its presence on campus might result in " a social caste system " .
= = = Presidential library = = =
The George Bush Presidential Library was established in 1997 on 90 acres ( 364 @,@ 220 m2 ) of land donated by Texas A & M at the western edge of the campus . This tenth presidential library was built between 1995 and 1997 and contains the presidential and vice @-@ presidential papers of George H.W. Bush and the vice @-@ presidential papers of Dan Quayle .
To coincide with the opening of the George Bush Presidential Library , Texas A & M established the George Bush School of Government and Public Service . The school , which offers a master 's degree in public policy and one in international affairs as well as two research degrees , officially launched in 1997 . It became a separate school within the university in 1999 .
= = = Bonfire collapse = = =
At 2 : 42 a.m. on November 18 , 1999 , the partially completed Aggie Bonfire , standing 40 feet ( 12 m ) tall and consisting of about 5000 logs , collapsed during construction . Of the 58 students and former students working on the stack , 12 were killed and 27 others were injured . The incident received nationwide attention , with over 50 satellite trucks broadcasting from the Texas A & M campus within hours .
On November 25 , 1999 , the date that Bonfire would have burned , Aggies instead held a vigil and remembrance ceremony on site . Over 40 @,@ 000 people , including former President George H.W. Bush and his wife Barbara and then @-@ Texas governor George W. Bush and his wife Laura , lit candles and observed up to two hours of silence at the site of the Bonfire collapse .
A commission put together by Texas A & M University discovered that a number of factors led to the Bonfire collapse , including " excessive internal stresses " on the logs and " inadequate containment strength " , where the wiring used to tie the logs together was not strong enough . The wiring broke after logs from upper tiers were " wedged " into lower tiers .
Texas A & M officials , Bonfire student leaders , and the university itself were the subject of several lawsuits by parents of the students injured or killed in the collapse . On May 21 , 2004 , Federal Judge Samuel B. Kent dismissed all claims against the Texas A & M officials , and , in 2005 , 36 of the 64 original defendants , including all of the student leaders , settled their portion of the case for an estimated US $ 4 @.@ 25 million , paid by their insurance companies . A federal appeals court dismissed the remaining lawsuits against Texas A & M and its officials in 2007 .
= = = Vision 2020 = = =
In 1997 , university president Ray Bowen appointed a task force to create a new strategic plan for the university . The task force , made up of more than 250 faculty , staff , students , former students , local residents , and various private- and public @-@ sector representatives , devoted more than two years to examining all aspects of the university and studying benchmark institutions before unveiling the plan , dubbed Vision 2020 , in 1999 .
Vision 2020 's goal is to make Texas A & M University recognized as a consensus " top 10 " public university by the year 2020 . The plan identifies 12 areas in which the university should focus on improving . Dr. Robert M. Gates succeeded Bowen in 2002 , and during his four @-@ year tenure as president , Vision 2020 's short @-@ term focus narrowed to four key steps :
Increasing the size of the faculty by 447 positions within five years .
Building new academic facilities totaling roughly US $ 272 million .
Enriching the undergraduate and graduate education experience .
Gates ' leadership resulted in the largest academic expansion in the university 's history . As of September 8 , 2006 , Vision 2020 's progress includes :
346 new teachers and researchers from around the world with completion slated for September 1 , 2007
Hispanic enrollment increased 9 @.@ 6 % , African American enrollment increased 9 @.@ 4 % , and Asian American enrollment rose 24 @.@ 3 % compared to 2005 .
Over $ 500 million in new construction across campus including Interdisciplinary Life Sciences Building ( US $ 95 million ) , two emerging technologies buildings ( US $ 50 million each ) , and a nuclear magnetic resonance imaging building ( US $ 8 million ) .
The student @-@ faculty ratio dropped from 22 : 1 in 2001 to 20 : 1 in the fall of 2005 .
= = = Hurricane relief = = =
Following Hurricane Katrina in 2005 , Texas A & M opened Reed Arena as a temporary shelter to house over 200 evacuees from New Orleans . Although school was barely in session and there was minimal notice , the students and staff of A & M prepared the facility , setting up several hundred beds on the arena floor and making arrangements for the evacuees to get new clothes and have medical checks . Aggie students organized a child care facility , and Aggie athletes escorted teenagers to the Aggie Rec Center to play basketball . Less than three weeks later , Reed Arena was again opened as a temporary shelter for people fleeing Hurricane Rita .
= = = Current status = = =
With strong support from Rice University and the University of Texas at Austin , the Association of American Universities inducted Texas A & M in May 2001 , based on the depth of the university 's research and academic programs . Furthermore , in 2004 , the honors organization Phi Beta Kappa opened its 265th chapter at Texas A & M.
On December 18 , 2006 , former Texas A & M University president Robert M. Gates was sworn in as the 22nd U.S. Secretary of Defense . Gates ' successor , Elsa Murano , on January 3 , 2008 became both the university 's first female and first Hispanic president . Murano 's term as president ended abruptly June 2009 , and was succeeded by Interim President R. Bowen Loftin . Loftin was eventually selected as university president in February 2010 .
As of the fall 2012 the university has a current enrollment of more than 50 @,@ 000 , the sixth @-@ largest university in the United States and the largest university in Texas . As of 2007 , the percentage of women and men at the school are roughly equal . However , for a number of years female of the freshman class have outnumbered males . The university has awarded more than 320 @,@ 000 degrees , of which 70 @,@ 000 have been graduate and professional degrees . Texas A & M has two branch campuses , one in Galveston , Texas , and one in the Middle Eastern country of Qatar . The latter branch campus had the distinction in 2011 of being the first school outside the U.S recognizing engineers as members of Tau Beta Pi , the Engineering Honor Society
In 2013 , Texas A & M Health Science Center was formally merged into the university . The university also purchased the Texas Wesleyan University School of Law and renamed it the Texas A & M School of Law . On October 23 , 2013 , plans to build a new branch campus , Texas A & M University at Nazareth - Peace Campus , in Israel , were announced .
= = Athletics = =
In 1914 , Texas A & M became a charter member of the Southwest Conference until its dissolution in 1996 . Texas A & M subsequently joined the Big Eight with The University of Texas at Austin , Baylor , and Texas Tech to form the Big 12 Conference . Texas A & M left the Big 12 Conference for the Southeastern Conference on July 1 , 2012 . This ended Texas A & M 's scheduled NCAA athletic competitions with its Texas Southwest Conference rivals .
As of the end of the 2012 athletics season , Texas A & M has won 17 national titles in all of its varsity sports . The school has two Heisman Trophy winners : John David Crow in 1957 and the 2012 winner , Johnny Manziel .
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= Pine Island Glacier =
Pine Island Glacier ( PIG ) is a large ice stream glacier , and the fastest melting glacier in Antarctica , responsible for about 25 % of Antarctica 's ice loss . The glacier ice streams flow west @-@ northwest along the south side of the Hudson Mountains into Pine Island Bay , Amundsen Sea , Antarctica . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from surveys and United States Navy ( USN ) air photos , 1960 – 66 , and named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US @-@ ACAN ) in association with Pine Island Bay .
The area drained by Pine Island Glacier comprises about 10 percent of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . Satellite measurements have shown that the Pine Island Glacier Basin has a greater net contribution of ice to the sea than any other ice drainage basin in the world and this has increased due to recent acceleration of the ice stream .
The ice stream is extremely remote , with the nearest continually occupied research station at Rothera , nearly 1 @,@ 300 km ( 810 mi ) away . The area is not claimed by any nations and the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any new claims while it is in force .
= = Ice sheet drainage = =
The Antarctic ice sheet is the largest mass of ice on earth , containing a volume of water equivalent to 57 m ( 187 ft ) of global sea level . The ice sheet forms from snow which falls onto the continent and compacts under its own weight . The ice then moves under its own weight toward the edges of the continent . Most of this transport to the sea is by ice streams ( faster moving channels of ice surrounded by slower moving ice walls ) and outlet glaciers . The Antarctic ice sheet consists of the large , relatively stable , East Antarctic Ice Sheet and a smaller , less stable , West Antarctic Ice Sheet . The West Antarctic Ice Sheet is drained into the sea by several large ice streams , most of which flow into either the Ross Ice Shelf , or the Filchner @-@ Ronne Ice Shelf . Pine Island and Thwaites Glaciers are two major West Antarctic ice streams which do not flow into a large ice shelf . They are part of an area called the Amundsen Sea Embayment . A total area of 175 @,@ 000 km2 ( 68 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , 10 percent of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet , drains out to the sea via Pine Island Glacier , this area is known as the Pine Island Glacier drainage basin .
= = Weak underbelly of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet = =
The Pine Island and Thwaites glaciers are two of Antarctica 's five largest ice streams . Scientists have found that the flow of these ice streams has accelerated in recent years , and suggested that if they were to melt , global sea levels would rise by 1 to 2 m ( 3 ft 3 in to 6 ft 7 in ) , destabilising the entire West Antarctic Ice Sheet and perhaps sections of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet .
In 1981 Terry Hughes proposed that the region around Pine Island Bay may be a " weak underbelly " of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . This is based on the fact that , unlike the majority of the large West Antarctic ice streams , those flowing into the Amundsen Sea are not protected from the ocean by large floating ice shelves . Also , although the surface of the glacier is above sea level , the base lies below sea level and slopes downward inland , this suggests that there is no geological barrier to stop a retreat of the ice once it has started .
= = Acceleration and thinning = =
The speed of Pine Island Glacier increased by 73 percent from 1974 to the end of 2007 , with an 8 percent increase over the last 16 months of this period alone . This speed up has meant that by the end of 2007 the Pine Island Glacier system had a negative mass balance of 46 gigatonnes per year , which is equivalent to 0 @.@ 13 mm ( 0 @.@ 0051 in ) per year global sea level rise . In other words , much more water was being put into the sea by PIG than was being replaced by snowfall . Measurements along the centre of the ice stream by GPS demonstrated that this acceleration is still high nearly 200 km ( 120 mi ) inland , at around 4 percent over 2007 . It has been suggested that this recent acceleration could have been triggered by warm ocean waters at the end of PIG , where it has a floating section ( ice shelf ) approximately 50 km ( 31 mi ) long . It has also been shown that PIG underwent rapid thinning during the Holocene , and that this process may continue for centuries after it is initiated .
As the ice stream accelerates it is also getting steeper . The rate of thinning within the central trunk has quadrupled from 1995 to 2006 . If the current rate of acceleration were to continue the main trunk of the glacier could be afloat within 100 years .
= = Subglacial volcano = =
In January 2008 the British Antarctic Survey ( BAS ) scientists , Hugh Corr and David Vaughan , reported that 2 @,@ 200 years ago a volcano erupted under the Antarctic ice sheet . This was the biggest Antarctic eruption in the last 10 @,@ 000 years . The volcano is situated in the Hudson Mountains , close to Pine Island Glacier . The eruption spread a layer of volcanic ash ( or tephra ) over the surface of the ice sheet . This ash was then buried under the snow and ice . Corr and Vaughan were able to map this ash layer using an airborne radar system and calculate the date of the eruption from the depth of burial of the ash . This method uses dates calculated from nearby ice cores . The presence of the volcano raises the possibility that volcanic activity could have contributed , or may contribute in the future , to increases in the flow of the glacier .
= = History of fieldwork = =
= = = On the ice = = =
Due to the remoteness of Pine Island Glacier , most of the information available on the ice stream comes from airborne or satellite @-@ based measurements .
The first expedition to visit the ice stream was a United States over @-@ snow traverse , where they spent around a week in the area of PIG during January 1961 . They dug snow pits to measure snow accumulation and carried out seismic surveys to measure ice thickness . One of the scientists on this traverse was Charles R. Bentley , who claims " we didn 't know we were crossing a glacier at the time . " This is not surprising , because PIG is around 50 km ( 31 mi ) wide at the point visited and at ground level cannot be visually distinguished from the surrounding ice . This expedition was called the Ellsworth Highland Traverse .
Then in the 2004 / 2005 field season a team of 9 using a British Antarctic Survey ( BAS ) Twin Otter aircraft , equipped with ice penetrating radar , completed an aerial survey of PIG and its adjacent ice sheet . The team of 7 British & 2 Americans led by Dave Vaughan & Hugh Corr flew 30 km grid patterns over the PIG until mid @-@ January 5 , mapping the sub @-@ glacial terrain of that area roughly equal to the size of the State of Nevada .
Due to the remoteness of PIG and the logistical difficulties of caching enough fuel for the 04 / 05 expedition and future project ( s ) , BAS used the resources of the United States Antarctic Program ( USAP ) and their ski @-@ equipped LC130 aircraft .
After many weeks of weather delays the first four men ( Ben Partan , Rob Smith , Dave Anderson & Martin Bell ) arrived from McMurdo on 11 / 9 / 04 and began to establish camp and build a skiway for the C130 ’ s . Camp was established on the upper end of the ice stream at S77.76973 x W095.12713. The remaining members of the team arrived from Rothera approximately 10 days later in the Twin Otter , flown by survey pilot Dave Leatherdale .
Because of unusually good weather in the area that season the survey completed flying their grids early ( mid @-@ January ) and began flying 15 km grids of Thwaites Glacier for a USAP expedition who had been experiencing unusually poor weather in their area that year . Flying over Antarctica ’ s Pine Island Glacier in a DC @-@ 8 research plane , scientists participating in NASA ’ s IceBridge mission made a startling discovery on October 14 , 2011 : a massive crack running about 29 kilometers ( 18 mi ) across the glacier ’ s floating tongue . The rift is 80 metres ( 260 feet ) wide on average and 50 to 60 meters ( 160 to 200 ft ) deep , and it marks the moment of creation for a new iceberg that will span about 880 square kilometers ( 340 square miles ) once it breaks loose from the glacier .
All survey grids having been completed by the end of January , the survey crew flew back to Rothera leaving the two Americans and two British to dismantle the camp . A week later the remaining team members flew back to McMurdo leaving a fuel cache for future expeditions .
Another team from the British Antarctic Survey arrived at the ice stream on 8 December 2006 for the first of two field seasons . In the second field season , they spent three months there from November 2007 to February 2008 . Work on the glacier included radar measurements and seismic surveys .
In January 2008 Bob Bindschadler ( NASA ) landed on the floating ice shelf of PIG , this is at the downstream end where it floats on the sea . This landing , by a Twin Otter plane fitted with skis , was the first ever landing on this ice shelf . The reason for landing on the ice shelf was for a reconnaissance mission to investigate the feasibility of drilling through around 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) of ice , to lower instruments into the ocean cavity below . It is hoped that this will provide important information on the link between the ocean and Pine Island Glacier . It was decided that the small crevasse free area was too hard for further landings and so further fieldwork had to be postponed . Therefore , two GPS units and a weather station were positioned as near as possible to PIG .
Since then , the National Science Foundation has decided to establish a helicopter camp for the scientists to safely study the ice @-@ ocean interaction . During the 2010 – 11 summer field season in Antarctica , it is planned that tractors and sleds will haul all of the equipment needed to establish a camp near the ice shelf . A tractor train traverse of about 700 km ( 430 mi ) is needed to deliver the materials . The plan over the following two field seasons , 2011 – 12 and 2012 – 13 , is for scientists to use helicopters to fly to sites on the ice shelf , where they will deploy specially designed profilers down through the ice shelf to measure various ocean properties .
2011 @-@ 2012 field season : after five weeks of delays , the camp staff was finally able to establish the Main Camp just before New Years . The following week Dr Bindschadler and his team were able to arrive . Due to additional weather delays , the helicopters weren 't able to arrive by the NSF ' drop dead ' date and the field season was essentially cancelled . Fortunately limited science was still accomplished by the team thanks to a series of flights by KBA back onto the glacier ; its seems that conditions had changed drastically since the last twin otter flights .
The British Antarctic Survey deployed a small team of four ( Dr Andrew Smith , Gabriel Chevailler , Ashly Fusiarski , Ian Hey ) during the 2011 @-@ 12 summer field season to carry out a series of seismic and radar surveys on PIG . They also installed a series of overwintering GPS stations . During this same field season , a separate BAS team ( Dr Mark Clilverd , Tom Stroud ) was inputted to the field parties location and they installed an overwintering autonomous VLF station . This was followed by a radar traverse upstream using skidoos . This survey linked previous radar lines .
= = = From the sea = = =
The first ship to reach Pine Island Glacier 's ice shelf , in Pine Island Bay , was the USS / USCGC Glacier in 1985 . This ship was an icebreaker operated by the U.S. Coast Guard . The mission , known as Deep Freeze , had scientists on board who took sediment samples from the ocean floor .
During the summer field season , over two months from January to February 2009 , researchers aboard the U.S. Antarctic Program research vessel Nathaniel B. Palmer reached the ice shelf . This was the second time that the Palmer had successfully made it up to the glacier , the first time being in 1994 . In collaboration with the British , the scientists used a robotic submarine to explore the glacier @-@ carved channels on the continental shelf as well as the cavity below the ice shelf and glacier . The submarine , known as Autosub 3 , was developed and built at the National Oceanography Centre in the UK . It completed six successful missions , travelling a total of 500 km ( 310 mi ) under the ice shelf . Autosub is able to map the base of the ice shelf as well as the ocean floor and take various measurements and samples of the water on the way . The success of Autosub 3 was particularly notable because its predecessor Autosub 2 was lost beneath the Fimbul Ice Shelf on only its second such mission .
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= Church Administration Building =
The Church Administration Building ( CAB ) is an administrative office building in Salt Lake City , Utah , serving as the headquarters of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints ( LDS Church ) , the fourth @-@ largest Christian denomination in the United States . Completed in 1917 , the building is adjacent to Temple Square , between the Joseph Smith Memorial Building and the Lion House , on South Temple Drive . It differs from the Church Office Building in that it is much smaller and furnishes offices for the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles . It also houses offices for other general authorities and their personal staff .
Only church officials and their guests are permitted to enter . The CAB has been used for meetings between church leaders and political and community leaders .
= = Use and special events = =
Initially , the Church Administration Building housed all administrative offices of the LDS Church , but as membership grew and leadership and staff expanded , the workers were scattered in office buildings throughout downtown Salt Lake City — some as far away as the Granite Mountain Vaults in Little Cottonwood Canyon and at Brigham Young University , forty miles to the south in Provo . With construction of the Church Office Building to the east , the Church Administration Building was freed up for offices exclusively for general authorities , and it continues to serve as the church 's headquarters .
The Church Administration Building furnishes offices for the president of the LDS Church , as well as for his counselors in the First Presidency , the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles , and other general authorities , along with their staff . The building is overseen by the Church Security Department , with only certain employees , church officers and their guests are permitted to enter .
A variety of events have been held at the CAB , as well as receiving distinguished visitors . As part of the festivities for the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City , the Olympic torch was passed through the hands of members of the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles on the steps of the CAB . It is also a tradition that funeral processions of past LDS Church presidents pass in front of the Church Administration Building . The building has hosted visitors including Michelle Obama and George W. Bush .
= = Construction = =
Constructed between 1914 and 1917 , the building is built of quartz monzonite from the same quarry in Little Cottonwood Canyon as the stone used for the Utah State Capitol and the nearby Salt Lake Temple . The Mt . Nebo Marble Company supplied marble and travertine for the interior of the CAB . According to the Utah Geological Survey , " the company quarried Birdseye marble in the Thistle area of Utah County , and travertine and onyx at Pelican Point near Utah Lake in Utah County and in the Cedar Mountains of Tooele County . "
Twenty @-@ four ionic columns form a colonnade around the structure , each weighing eight tons . The building 's exterior is constructed from 4 @,@ 517 granite blocks .
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= Stewie Loves Lois =
" Stewie Loves Lois " is the first episode of the fifth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy , an episode produced for Season 4 . It originally aired on Fox on September 10 , 2006 . The episode features Stewie after his teddy bear , which has been destroyed by an unfamiliar dog at the park , is repaired by his mother , Lois , causing him to become overly affectionate of her . Meanwhile , Peter gets a prostate exam from Dr. Hartman , but believes that he has been raped instead , and decides to prosecute his doctor in court .
The episode was written by Mark Hentemann and directed by Mike Kim . It received mostly mixed reviews from critics for its storyline , and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 9 @.@ 93 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Ellen Albertini Dow , Dave Boat , Phil LaMarr , Kevin Michael Richardson and Anne @-@ Michelle Seiler , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series .
= = Plot = =
Quahog becomes the subject of a flu epidemic , and Peter goes to see Dr. Hartman for a vaccine . Although the vaccines are in short supply and must be saved for the elderly , Peter manages to get one anyway ( by pretending to fall onto the syringe ) . While looking through Peter 's papers , Hartman realizes that Peter has not had a prostate exam . Peter agrees to get one , despite not knowing what it involves . Upon receiving the procedure , Peter feels sexually violated and proceeds to tell Lois about his ordeal , and she is rather unsupportive and finds it amusing , up to the point to calling him a " fucking idiot " . He then suffers a mental breakdown and tells his friends about the incident , at which point they reveal that Dr. Hartman also " raped " them . Peter decides to sue Hartman in a court of law , and Lois is unable to talk him out of it .
In the courtroom , Peter exaggerates the story . The judge is not convinced , and even recalls his own prostate exam being uneventful . However , after further prompting from Peter , the judge " remembers " being abused and declares Hartman guilty , revoking his license . As Peter celebrates his victory at The Drunken Clam , his frequent need to urinate causes concern among his friends , where Seamus informs him that his prostate may be infected . However , his lawsuit makes it unlikely that any doctor would treat him , and indeed , not one does . Peter visits Dr. Hartman in disguise and unsuccessfully tries to trick him into giving the exam , but the doctor decides that his Hippocratic Oath requires him to go ahead with the examination anyway . Peter 's constant urinating turns out to be due to a minor infection and blockage caused by Mr. Sulu somehow being up Peter 's rectum . In the epilogue , Dr. Hartman 's license is reinstated .
Meanwhile , Stewie plays at the park with his teddy , Rupert . A vicious dog grabs Rupert from him and tears it to shreds . Lois runs after the dog , retrieves Rupert , and repairs him , causing Stewie to rethink all the bad thoughts he 's had of Lois . Stewie becomes enamored with her , which she takes as refreshing at first , but eventually , she becomes exhausted and frustrated at his increased dependency and even has a nightmare of murdering him . Taking Brian 's advice , she starts ignoring his demands for attention ( faking he got sick from pills and claiming to be dying ) , until he injures himself falling down the stairs ; Lois tries to apologize for her behavior , but Stewie is so disgusted by it that it causes him to hate her once again .
= = Production = =
When Stewie is fantasizing about murdering and harming Lois , he performs several karate and kung @-@ fu moves . This is a reference to an individual whom Mark Hentemann , a writer for Family Guy , used to know . He was the boy who would come to school , car washes or other events and tell stories about the people who he had been in physical fights with . During the scene when Stewie describes Lois as being the female version of Bonnie Hunt , MacFarlane comments that he feels bad about that joke , as just before it was broadcast — Hunt telephoned him on his mobile phone and told him about how much she enjoyed the show , however the gag was not removed due to its expected airing date being so close to when the telephone call was made . On the uncut version of this episode , there is a scene where Peter sleepily mistakes Stewie 's mouth for Lois 's genitals , muttering , " Oh , you are so ready ! " The edited TV version does not have this part , but leaves in the first half , in which Peter sleepily mistakes Stewie 's nose for Lois 's nipple .
For a reason which was not specified , the sound of Lois 's footsteps when going down the basement stairs during her dream of killing Stewie , had to be overcome by Stewie talking more often . This line of Stewie making general conversation in the same scene , was altered several times due to lack of laughter from the audience . MacFarlane comments that the scene of Peter standing up to his teacher who was giving the class a test , is a reference to " 80 's TV bullshit " .
In addition to the regular cast , actress Ellen Albertini Dow , voice actors Dave Boat , Phil LaMarr and Kevin Michael Richardson , and actress Anne @-@ Michelle Seiler guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Lori Alan , Alex Breckenridge , writer Mike Henry , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin and writer John Viener also made minor appearances . Recurring cast members Adam West and Patrick Warburton guest starred in the episode as well .
= = Cultural references = =
During the scene when a car is about to fall off a cliff , Robin the Boy Wonder appears and attempts to save the people . However , upon arrival , he is criticized as he will not be able to save them : this is a reference to the portrayal of Robin from the 1960s Batman series . Throughout the episode , other references are made to fictitious super heroes . In total , three references were made to Star Trek , all of which involve Star Trek actor George Takei 's character , Mr. Sulu . When Peter has a flashback about passing his college test he is running around with the song " I 'm Free " by Kenny Loggins playing in the background . This is a reference to the movie Footloose . When Peter is recounting what Hartman did to him , he goes into a flashback in court , and everything turns black and white and grainy : this is a reference to The Accused , starring Jodie Foster . During one of the kitchen scenes , Brian teases Stewie singing " Stewie loves Lois ! " Stewie retorts by singing , " Brian loves Olympia Dukakis ! " To which he replies , " Oh yeah , I do . "
When Stewie imagines how a holiday in Hawaii would be with Rupert , he references the classic Calvin and Hobbes series .
Lois makes a reference to Barbara Bush after waking up from her dream of killing Stewie . She claims " I 'm just like that Texas woman who gave her son brain damage by holding him underwater , I 'm just like Barbara Bush " . When the fisherman is telling Peter about the serious consequences of not getting a prostate exam , he shows Peter a picture of band Primus , to which Peter asks him why he carries such random pictures around with him .
The closing credits are a reference to All in the Family , an American sitcom that originally aired on CBS in the 1970s . At the beginning of the credits , the voice of Peter says " Family Guy was recorded on tape before a live audience " as ' footage ' of the city of Quahog is shown .
= = Reception = =
IGN 's Dan Iverson commented that " the Stewie / Lois story was really kind of funny " , noting that the scene was " a nice window in on parenting " . He describes the scene of Stewie shouting at Brian in Spanish as being " very funny " . However , Iverson criticized the episode , noting that the scene of Peter giving his story in court went from just " creepy and awkward to just plain disturbing " . The episode received a final rating by Iverson of 4 @.@ 5 / 10 . 9 @.@ 93 million people watched this episode in the US on its first airing ranking # 2 on FOX that night behind The Simpsons , this episode was the highest rated of season five .
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= The Swarm ( roller coaster ) =
The Swarm ( officially stylized as " THE SWARM " ) is a steel Wing Coaster at Thorpe Park , a theme park in the United Kingdom . The Swarm was the world 's second Wing Coaster designed by Swiss roller coaster manufacturer Bolliger & Mabillard and the United Kingdom 's first Wing Coaster . Construction commenced in May 2011 , and the coaster opened on 15 March 2012 . Starting in 2013 , the last two rows of each train face backwards , while the first five rows face forward . This was removed in 2016 , with all riders facing forward once again .
The 775 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 2 @,@ 543 ft ) ride stands 39 metres ( 128 ft ) tall and features five inversions . On the one @-@ minute twenty @-@ five second ride , riders experience speeds of up to 59 miles per hour ( 95 km / h ) and 4 @.@ 5 times the force of gravity . A marketing campaign for the ride began 11 months before The Swarm was opened to the public . The ride has generally been well received , ranking highly amongst other roller coasters of its type .
= = History = =
= = = Planning and announcement = = =
In 2010 , planning for The Swarm began behind closed doors . The ride was codenamed LC12 in the early process of its planning and construction . On 31 January 2011 , Thorpe Park submitted a planning application for their 2012 ride to the Runnymede Borough Council . The website gave further information about the new ride 's theme , that of an apocalyptic battle .
= = = Construction and opening = = =
At the time of the ride 's announcement construction was already underway . The track for The Swarm was complete by 18 November 2011 . Clearance testing started almost immediately ; the first operational test run was completed on 17 January 2012 .
On 15 March 2012 , The Swarm officially opened to the public . In January 2013 , Thorpe Park announced that the last two rows on The Swarm would be rotated to face backwards for 2013 , a first for a Wing Coaster . The park 's tag line for this experience is ' THE SWARM- Brave It Backwards ' . The park additionally announced that they were adding a damaged , mangled billboard , which the train travels through . In 2016 the seats were returned to all facing forwards .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Location = = =
The Swarm is located on a reclaimed island adjacent to the Stealth roller coaster , with parts of the ride being built over water . A bridge links the core of Thorpe Park to an island which hosts the roller coaster station , merchandise outlet , a games zone and toilet buildings .
= = = Trains = = =
The Swarm features two 28 @-@ seat Bolliger & Mabillard Wing Coaster trains . Each train is made up of seven rows of four seats each . One pair of seats in each row is located on either side of the ride 's track and slightly lower than the track , as with all Wing Coasters . The trains are themed to resemble alien @-@ like creatures ( the ride 's eponymous " Swarm " ) , with a number of red LED lights placed across the train .
= = = Theme = = =
The area is designed to appear as if it has been partially destroyed by explosions associated with a major disaster . The ride recreates the experience of flying through a crash scene and features a crashed aeroplane , upturned ambulance , half @-@ submerged fire engine and a helicopter .
= = Ride experience = =
The roller coaster begins in the station , which is built to look like a partially destroyed church , and climbs up a 38 @.@ 7 @-@ metre ( 127 ft ) chain lift hill . Upon reaching the top of the lift hill , the track twists 180 degrees anticlockwise , so that riders are upside down , before plunging down the world 's first dive drop element . The train then proceeds to dive under the wing of a wrecked plane and into a zero @-@ g roll 30 @.@ 6 metres ( 100 ft ) above the ground before passing through a billboard and entering an inclined loop 23 metres ( 75 ft ) in height . It then enters a turnaround with a wrecked helicopter with slow @-@ spinning rotor blades in the centre . This is followed by a corkscrew , which passes through the inclined loop . Upon leaving the corkscrew , the train curves past a crashed fire engine with water and fire effects and proceeds through a keyhole : a partly destroyed church tower . The ride then flies over the station and enters into a last inline twist before a mid @-@ course brake run . Following this , the train makes a banked left @-@ hand turn into the final brakes . The train then goes back into the station . The ride previously featured an on @-@ ride video camera , filming riders and allowing the purchase of a DVD afterwards ; this was removed sometime in 2015 or 2016 .
= = Marketing = =
In late April 2011 , Thorpe Park began an advertising campaign for LC12 consisting of " The end is coming " posters in the park and a teaser website , LC12.net. The LC12.net website featured a brief description hinting at the possible theme of the ride alongside a countdown until 1 August 2011 . As the date of the ride 's announcement approached , Thorpe Park released a video via Facebook stating that " WAR is coming " .
On 25 January 2012 , it was reported that an incident occurred when testing The Swarm . Limbs of test dummies were broken off when the ride passed an object that was located too close to the track . The Daily Mail suggested that the incident might have been a publicity stunt .
In March 2012 , Thorpe Park announced it had contracted the band You Me at Six to create the world 's first roller coaster single for the launch of The Swarm . The song , " The Swarm " , was released on iTunes on 18 March 2012 , a few days after the opening of the roller coaster . The song entered the UK Singles Charts at number 23 .
= = Reception = =
The Swarm has generally been well received . Nick Sim of Theme Park Tourist praised the ride and its theme , saying that it packs " a number of incredible elements into its compact circuit " . Sim stated the ride had " fallen just short of our sky @-@ high expectations " mainly because of " its short ride time " . He rated the ride 4 out of 5 . Joanna Churchill of the Daily Mirror gave a review of the backwards ride , stating that it is " a whole new adrenaline @-@ pumped experience that is simply not for the faint @-@ hearted " . Churchill stated that her " blood pressure and heart rate went through the roof " , but " there was barely time to process what was happening before we were back on terra firma " .
In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll , The Swarm debuted at position 68 out of the 365 roller coasters in the poll . When compared with other Wing Coasters debuting in the 2012 poll , The Swarm performed fairly well ; X @-@ Flight at Six Flags Great America ranked 58 , Wild Eagle at Dollywood ranked 87 , and Raptor at Gardaland ranked 113 . It did not place in Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Awards in 2012 , 2013 and 2014 , but made its first appearance in 2015 ranked at 30 .
Despite the positive reviews however , The Swarm failed to increase attendance . In fact , park gate figures fell by 200 @,@ 000 following the addition of the coaster . The park as well as many others have blamed the parks branding from 2009 to 2012 as the issue .
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= Edmonton =
Edmonton / ˈɛdməntən / is the capital of Alberta , Canada . Edmonton is on the North Saskatchewan River and is the centre of the Edmonton Capital Region , which is surrounded by Alberta 's central region .
The city had a population of 877 @,@ 926 in the 2014 census , is Alberta 's second @-@ largest city and Canada 's fifth @-@ largest municipality . This population represents 66 percent of the total 2014 population of 1 @,@ 328 @,@ 300 within the Edmonton census metropolitan area ( CMA ) , Canada 's fifth @-@ largest CMA by population . Edmonton is the most northern North American city with a metropolitan population over one million . A resident of Edmonton is known as an Edmontonian .
Edmonton 's historic growth has been facilitated through the absorption of five adjacent urban municipalities ( Strathcona , North Edmonton , West Edmonton , Beverly and Jasper Place ) and a series of annexations ending in 1982 . Edmonton serves as the northern anchor of the Calgary – Edmonton Corridor . Known as the " Gateway to the North " , the city is a staging point for large @-@ scale oil sands projects occurring in northern Alberta and large @-@ scale diamond mining operations in the Northwest Territories .
Edmonton is a cultural , governmental and educational centre . It hosts a year @-@ round slate of festivals , reflected in the nickname " Canada 's Festival City " . It is home to North America 's largest mall , West Edmonton Mall ( the world 's largest mall from 1981 until 2004 ) , and Fort Edmonton Park , Canada 's largest living history museum .
= = History = =
The earliest known inhabitants settled in the area that is now Edmonton around 3 @,@ 000 BC and perhaps as early as 12 @,@ 000 BC , when an ice @-@ free corridor opened up as the last glacial period ended and timber , water , and wildlife became available in the region .
In 1754 , Anthony Henday , an explorer working for the Hudson 's Bay Company ( HBC ) , may have been the first European to enter the Edmonton area . His expeditions across the Canadian Prairies were mainly to seek contact with the aboriginal population for the purpose of establishing the fur trade , as competition was fierce between the Hudson 's Bay Company and the North West Company . By 1795 , Fort Edmonton was established on the north bank of the river , as a major trading post for the Hudson 's Bay Company . The name of the new fort was suggested by John Peter Pruden after Edmonton , London , the home town of both the HBC deputy governor Sir James Winter Lake , and Pruden .
The coming of the Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) to southern Alberta in 1885 helped the Edmonton economy , and the 1891 building of the Calgary and Edmonton ( C & E ) Railway resulted in the emergence of a railway townsite ( South Edmonton / Strathcona ) on the south side of the river , across from Edmonton . The arrival of the CPR and the C & E Railway facilitated the arrival of settlers and entrepreneurs from eastern Canada , Britain and continental Europe , U.S. and other parts of the world . The fertile soil and cheap land in the Edmonton area helped attract settlers , further establishing Edmonton as a major regional commercial and agricultural centre . Some people participating in the Klondike Gold Rush passed through South Edmonton / Strathcona in 1897 . Strathcona was the northernmost railway point in North America , but travel to the Klondike was still very difficult for the " Klondikers " , and a majority of them took a steamship north to the Yukon from Vancouver .
Incorporated as a town in 1892 with a population of 700 and then as a city in 1904 with a population of 8 @,@ 350 , Edmonton became the capital of Alberta when the province was formed a year later , on September 1 , 1905 . In November 1905 , the Canadian Northern Railway ( CNR ) arrived in Edmonton , accelerating growth .
During the early 1900s , Edmonton grew very rapidly , causing speculation in real estate . In 1912 , Edmonton amalgamated with the City of Strathcona , south of the North Saskatchewan River ; as a result , the city extended south of the North Saskatchewan River for the first time .
Just prior to World War I , the boom ended , and the city 's population declined sharply from more than 72 @,@ 000 in 1914 to less than 54 @,@ 000 only two years later . Many impoverished families moved to subsistence farms outside the city and others fled to greener pastures in other provinces . Recruitment to the Canadian army during the war also contributed to the drop in population . Afterwards , the city slowly recovered in population and economy during the 1920s and 1930s and took off again during and after World War II .
The Edmonton City Centre Airport opened in 1929 , becoming the first licensed airfield in Canada . Originally named Blatchford Field in honour of former mayor Kenny Blatchford , pioneering aviators such as Wilfrid R. " Wop " May and Max Ward used Blatchford Field as a major base for the distribution of mail , food , and medicine to Northern Canada ; hence Edmonton 's emergence as the " Gateway to the North " . World War II saw Edmonton becoming a major base for the construction of the Alaska Highway and the Northwest Staging Route .
= = Geography = =
Edmonton is located on the North Saskatchewan River , and sits at an elevation of 671 metres ( 2 @,@ 201 ft ) . Edmonton is the most northerly city in North America with a metropolitan population of over one million . It is at the same latitude as Hamburg ( Germany ) , Dublin ( Ireland ) , Manchester ( United Kingdom ) , and Magnitogorsk ( Russia ) . North as it is , it is south of the geographic centre of Alberta , which is located near the Hamlet of Fort Assiniboine . The terrain in and around Edmonton is generally flat to gently rolling , with ravines and deep river valleys , such as the North Saskatchewan River valley . The Canadian Rockies are located about 220 km ( 140 mi ) to the southwest .
The North Saskatchewan River originates at the Columbia Icefield in Jasper National Park and bisects the city . Before the construction of two reservoirs near the mountains , it would sometimes flood Edmonton 's river valley , most notably in the North Saskatchewan River flood of 1915 . It empties via the Saskatchewan River , Lake Winnipeg , and the Nelson River into Hudson Bay . It runs from the southwest to the northeast and is fed by numerous creeks throughout the city , such as Mill Creek , Whitemud Creek and Blackmud Creek ; this creates numerous ravines , some of which are used for urban parkland . Edmonton is within the Canadian Prairies Ecozone . Aspen parkland , surrounds the city and , acts a transitional area from the prairie to the south and boreal forest in the north . However , the aspen woods and forests in and around Edmonton have long since been reduced by farming and other human activities , such as oil and natural gas exploration .
= = = Climate = = =
Edmonton has a humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification Dfb ) It falls into the NRC Plant Hardiness Zone 4a .
The city has milder winters than either Regina or Winnipeg , both further south of Edmonton in latitude . Its average daily temperatures range from a low of − 10 @.@ 4 ° C ( 13 @.@ 3 ° F ) in January to a summer peak of 17 @.@ 7 ° C ( 63 @.@ 9 ° F ) in July . With average maximum of 23 @.@ 1 ° C ( 73 @.@ 6 ° F ) in July , and minimum of − 14 @.@ 8 ° C ( 5 @.@ 4 ° F ) in January . Annually , temperatures can exceed 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) for an average of four to five days anytime from late April to mid @-@ September and fall below − 20 ° C ( − 4 ° F ) for an average of 28 days . The highest temperature recorded within the City of Edmonton was 37 @.@ 2 ° C ( 99 @.@ 0 ° F ) , on June 29 , 1937 . On July 2 , 2013 , a record high humidex of 43 was recorded , due to an unusually humid day with a temperature of 33 @.@ 9 ° C ( 93 @.@ 0 ° F ) and a record high dew point of 23 ° C ( 73 @.@ 4 ° F ) . The lowest overall temperature ever recorded in Edmonton was − 49 @.@ 4 ° C ( − 56 @.@ 9 ° F ) , on January 19 and 21 , 1886 . On January 26 , 1972 , the temperature was recorded at − 48 @.@ 3 ° C ( − 54 @.@ 9 ° F ) and at -61 with the wind chill , making it the lowest temperature including the wind chill ever recorded in Edmonton .
Typically , summer lasts from late June until early September , and the humidity is seldom uncomfortably high . Winter lasts from November to March , and varies greatly in length and severity . Spring and autumn are both short and highly variable . Edmonton 's growing season is from May 9 to September 22 ; Edmonton averages 135 @-@ 140 frost free days a year . At the summer solstice , Edmonton receives seventeen hours and three minutes of daylight , with an hour and forty @-@ six minutes of civil twilight . On average Edmonton receives 2 @,@ 299 hours of bright sunshine per year and is one of Canada 's sunniest cities .
The summer of 2006 was a particularly warm one for Edmonton , as temperatures reached 29 ° C ( 84 ° F ) or higher more than 20 times during the year , from as early as mid @-@ May and again in early September . The winter of 2011 – 12 was particularly warm ; from December 22 , 2011 , till March 20 , 2012 , on 53 occasions Edmonton saw temperatures at or above 0 @.@ 0 ° C ( 32 @.@ 0 ° F ) at the City Centre Airport .
Edmonton has a fairly dry climate . On average , it receives 476 @.@ 9 millimetres ( 18 @.@ 78 in ) of precipitation , of which 365 @.@ 7 millimetres ( 14 @.@ 40 in ) is rain and 111 @.@ 2 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 38 in ) is the melt from 123 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 48 @.@ 6 in ) of snowfall per annum . Precipitation is heaviest in the late spring , summer , and early autumn . The wettest month is July , while the driest months are February , March , October , and November . In July , the mean precipitation is 91 @.@ 7 mm ( 3 @.@ 61 in ) . Dry spells are not uncommon and may occur at any time of the year . Extremes do occur , such as the 114 mm ( 4 @.@ 49 in ) of rainfall that fell on July 31 , 1953 . Summer thunderstorms can be frequent and occasionally severe enough to produce large hail , damaging winds , funnel clouds , and occasionally tornadoes . Twelve tornadoes had been recorded in Edmonton between 1890 and 1989 . The F4 tornado that struck Edmonton on July 31 , 1987 , killing 27 , was unusual in many respects , including severity , duration , damage , and casualties . It is commonly referred to as Black Friday due both to its aberrant characteristics and the emotional shock it generated . Then @-@ mayor Laurence Decore cited the community 's response to the tornado as evidence that Edmonton was a " city of champions , " which later became an unofficial slogan of the city .
A massive cluster of thunderstorms occurred on July 11 , 2004 , with large hail and over 100 mm ( 4 in ) of rain reported within the space of an hour in many places . This " 1 @-@ in @-@ 200 year event " flooded major intersections and underpasses and damaged both residential and commercial properties . The storm caused extensive damage to West Edmonton Mall ; a small glass section of the roof collapsed under the weight of the rainwater , causing water to drain onto the mall 's indoor ice rink . As a result , the mall was forced to undergo an evacuation as a precautionary measure .
= = = Parkland and environment = = =
Edmonton 's river valley constitutes the longest stretch of connected urban parkland in North America , and Edmonton has the highest amount of parkland per capita of any Canadian city ; the river valley is 22 times larger than New York City 's Central Park . The river valley is home to various parks ranging from fully serviced urban parks to campsite @-@ like facilities with few amenities . This main " Ribbon of Green " is supplemented by numerous neighbourhood parks located throughout the city , to give a total of 111 km2 ( 27 @,@ 400 acres ) of parkland . Within the 7 @,@ 400 ha ( 18 @,@ 000 acres ) , 25 km ( 16 mi ) -long river valley park system , there are 11 lakes , 14 ravines , and 22 major parks , and most of the city has accessible bike and walking trail connections . These trails are also part of the 235 km ( 146 mi ) Waskahegan walking trail . The City of Edmonton has named five parks in its River Valley Parks System in honour of each of " The Famous Five " .
Edmonton 's streets and parklands also contain one of the largest remaining concentrations of healthy American elm trees in the world , unaffected by Dutch elm disease , which has wiped out vast numbers of such trees in eastern North America . Jack pine , lodgepole pine , white spruce , white birch , aspen , mountain ash , Amur maple , Russian olive , green ash , basswood , various poplars and willows , flowering crabapple , Mayday tree and Manitoba maple are also abundant ; bur oak , silver maple , hawthorn and Ohio buckeye are increasingly popular . Other introduced tree species include white ash , blue spruce , Norway maple , red oak , sugar maple , common horse @-@ chestnut , McIntosh apple , and Evans cherry . Three walnut species – butternut , Manchurian walnut , and black walnut – have survived in Edmonton .
Several golf courses , both public and private , are also located in the river valley ; the long summer daylight hours of this northern city provide for extended play from early morning well into the evening . Golf courses and the park system become a winter recreation area during this season , and cross @-@ country skiing and skating are popular during the long winter . Four downhill ski slopes are located in the river valley as well , two within the city and two immediately outside .
A variety of volunteer opportunities exist for citizens to participate in the stewardship of Edmonton 's parkland and river valley . Volunteer programs include River Valley Clean @-@ up , Root for Trees , and Partner in Parks . River Valley Clean @-@ up engages volunteers to pick up hundreds of bags of litter each year .
= = = Neighbourhoods = = =
Edmonton is divided into 375 neighbourhoods within 7 geographic sectors – a mature area sector , which includes neighbourhoods that were essentially built out prior to 1970 , and 6 surrounding suburban sectors .
Edmonton 's Downtown is located within the city 's mature area or inner city . It and the surrounding Boyle Street , Central McDougall , Cloverdale , Garneau , McCauley , Oliver , Queen Mary Park , Riverdale , Rossdale , Strathcona and University of Alberta form Edmonton 's Central Core . Oliver and Garneau are the city 's most populated and most densely populated neighbourhoods respectively . The mature area sector also contains the five former urban municipalities annexed by the city over its history – Beverly , Jasper Place , North Edmonton , Strathcona and West Edmonton ( Calder ) .
Larger residential areas within Edmonton 's six suburban sectors , each comprising multiple neighbourhoods , include : Heritage Valley , Kaskitayo , Riverbend , Terwillegar Heights and Windermere ( southwest sector ) ; The Grange , Lewis Farms and West Jasper Place ( west sector ) ; Big Lake ( northwest sector ) ; Castle Downs , Lake District and The Palisades ( north sector ) ; Casselman @-@ Steele Heights , Clareview , Hermitage and Pilot Sound ( northeast sector ) ; and Ellerslie , The Meadows , Mill Woods and Southeast Edmonton ( southeast sector ) . Mill Woods is divided into a town centre community ( Mill Woods Town Centre ) and eight surrounding communities – Burnewood , Knottwood , Lakewood , Millbourne , Millhurst , Ridgewood , Southwood , and Woodvale – each having between two and four neighbourhoods .
Several transit @-@ oriented developments ( TOD ) have begun to appear along the LRT line at Clareview , with future developments planned at Belvedere ( part of the Old Town Fort Road Redevelopment Project ) . Another TOD , called Century Park , is being constructed at the site of what was once Heritage Mall , at the southern end of the LRT line . Century Park will eventually house up to 5 @,@ 000 residents .
The Edmonton City Centre Airport is planned to be redeveloped into a sustainable community of 30 @,@ 000 people comprising a transit @-@ oriented mixed use town centre , townhouses , low , medium and high rise apartments , neighbourhood retail and service uses , and a major park .
Edmonton has four major industrial districts – the Northwest Industrial District , the Northeast Industrial District , the Southeast Industrial District and the emerging Edmonton Energy and Technology Park , which is part of Alberta 's Industrial Heartland . The northwest , northeast and southeast districts each have smaller industrial areas and neighbourhoods within them .
The city has established 12 business revitalization zones – 124 Street and Area , Alberta Avenue , Beverly , Downtown , Chinatown and Little Italy , Fort Road and Area , Inglewood , Kingsway , North Edge , Northwest Industrial , Old Strathcona and Stony Plain Road .
= = = Metropolitan area = = =
Edmonton is at the centre of Canada 's sixth largest census metropolitan area ( CMA ) , which includes Edmonton and 34 other municipalities in the surrounding area . Larger urban communities include Sherwood Park ( an urban service area within Strathcona County ) , the cities of St. Albert , Leduc , Spruce Grove and Fort Saskatchewan , and the towns of Stony Plain , Beaumont , Morinville , and Devon . Major employment areas outside of Edmonton but within the CMA include the Nisku Industrial Business Park and the Edmonton International Airport ( including a planned inland port logistics support facility in support of the Port Alberta initiative ) in Leduc County , the Acheson Industrial Area in Parkland County , Refinery Row in Strathcona County and Alberta 's Industrial Heartland within portions of Fort Saskatchewan , Strathcona County and Sturgeon County . Alberta 's Industrial Heartland also extends beyond the CMA 's northeastern boundary into a portion of Lamont County .
The individual economic development interests and costs of service delivery in certain municipalities within the region has led to intermunicipal competition , strained intermunicipal relationships and overall fragmentation of the region . Although several attempts have been made by the City of Edmonton to absorb surrounding municipalities or annex portions of its neighbours , the city has not absorbed another municipality since the Town of Jasper Place joined Edmonton on August 17 , 1964 and the city has not annexed land from any of its neighbours since January 1 , 1982 . After years of mounting pressure in the early 21st century , the Province of Alberta formed the Capital Region Board ( CRB ) on April 15 , 2008 . The CRB consists of 24 member municipalities – 22 of which are within the Edmonton CMA and two of which are outside the CMA . The City of Edmonton subsequently announced in March 2013 its intent to annex 156 square kilometers of land ( including the Edmonton International Airport ) from Leduc County .
= = Demographics = =
The population of the City of Edmonton according to its 2014 municipal census is 877 @,@ 926 , a 7 @.@ 4 % change from its 2012 municipal census population of 817 @,@ 498 . The 2012 census captured more detailed demographic information on residents , including age and gender , marital status , employment status , length of residency , prior residence , employment transportation mode , citizenship and school residency , as well as dwellings and properties , including ownership , structure and status . Per its municipal census policy , the city 's next municipal census is scheduled for 2016 .
In the 2011 Census , the City of Edmonton had a population of 812 @,@ 201 living in 324 @,@ 756 of its 348 @,@ 672 total dwellings , an 11 @.@ 2 percent change from its 2006 population of 730 @,@ 372 . With a land area of 684 @.@ 37 km2 ( 264 @.@ 24 sq mi ) , it had a population density of 1 @,@ 186 @.@ 8 / km2 ( 3 @,@ 073 @.@ 8 / sq mi ) in 2011 . The census also reported that 50 @.@ 2 percent of the population ( 407 @,@ 325 ) was female while 49 @.@ 8 percent ( 404 @,@ 875 ) was male . The average age of the city 's population was 36 @.@ 0 years while there was an average 2 @.@ 5 people per household .
The Edmonton census metropolitan area ( CMA ) has the sixth @-@ greatest population of CMAs in Canada and the second @-@ greatest in Alberta , but has the largest land area in Canada . It had a population of 1 @,@ 159 @,@ 869 in the 2011 Census compared to its 2006 population of 1 @,@ 034 @,@ 945 . Its five @-@ year population change of 12 @.@ 1 percent was second only to the Calgary CMA between 2006 and 2011 . With a land area of 9 @,@ 426 @.@ 73 km2 ( 3 @,@ 639 @.@ 68 sq mi ) , the Edmonton CMA had a population density of 123 @.@ 0 / km2 ( 318 @.@ 7 / sq mi ) in 2011 . Statistics Canada 's latest estimate of the Edmonton CMA population , as of July 1 , 2013 , is 1 @,@ 289 @,@ 564 .
The Edmonton population centre is the core of the Edmonton CMA . This core includes the cities of Edmonton , Fort Saskatchewan and St. Albert , the Sherwood Park portion of Strathcona County , and portions of Parkland County and Sturgeon County . The Edmonton population centre , the fifth @-@ largest in Canada , had a population of 960 @,@ 015 in 2011 , an 11 @.@ 3 percent increase over its 2006 population of 862 @,@ 544 .
In 2006 , people of European ethnicities formed the largest cluster of ethnic groups in Edmonton . These included ethnicities mostly of English , Scottish , German , Irish , Ukrainian , Polish , and French origin . According to the 2006 census , the City of Edmonton was 71 @.@ 8 percent White and 5 @.@ 3 percent Aboriginal , while visible minorities accounted for 22 @.@ 9 percent of the population .
= = = Religion = = =
According to the 2001 census , 31 @.@ 2 percent of Edmonton residents are Protestant and 29 @.@ 4 percent are Catholic . 5 @.@ 5 percent belong to other Christian denominations , 2 @.@ 9 percent are Muslim , 0 @.@ 6 percent are Jewish , 5 @.@ 1 percent are adherents of other religions , and 24 @.@ 4 percent profess no religion . A Bahá 'í Centre is located in Edmonton . The first mosque established in Canada – the Al @-@ Rashid Mosque , founded by Abdullah Yusuf Ali – is situated in Edmonton . The Baitul Hadi Mosque is the only Ahmadiyya mosque in the city . Edmonton also hosts a Maronite Catholic church , on 76 Avenue / 98 Street , with services in English on Saturdays and Arabic on Sundays . The Lebanese community also has a Druze Community Centre on the north side of the city . The Edmonton Alberta Temple of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints was dedicated on December 11 , 1999 . The Hindu Community in Edmonton is served by the Hindu Society of Alberta ( North Indian Temple ) and the Maha Ganapathy Society of Alberta ( South Indian Temple ) . The Sikh community in Edmonton is served by four gurdwaras . The Jewish Community in Edmonton is served by Jewish Federation of Edmonton . The region is served by five synagogues . Edmonton is also home to two of Alberta 's five Unitarian Universalist congregations – the Unitarian Church of Edmonton and the Westwood Unitarian Congregation ; the other three are located in Calgary , Lethbridge , and Red Deer .
= = Economy = =
Edmonton is the major economic centre for northern and central Alberta and a major centre for the oil and gas industry . As of 2014 , the estimated value of major projects within the Edmonton Capital Region was $ 57 @.@ 8 @-@ billion , of which $ 34 @.@ 4 @-@ billion are within the oil and gas , oil sands and pipeline sectors .
Edmonton traditionally has been a hub for Albertan petrochemical industries , earning it the nickname " Oil Capital of Canada " in the 1940s . Supply and service industries drive the energy extraction engine , while research develops new technologies and supports expanded value @-@ added processing of Alberta 's massive oil , gas , and oil sands reserves . These are reported to be the second @-@ largest in the world , after Saudi Arabia .
Much of the growth in technology sectors is due to Edmonton 's reputation as one of Canada ’ s premier research and education centres . Research initiatives are anchored by educational institutions such as the University of Alberta ( U of A ) as well as government initiatives underway at the Alberta Research Council and Edmonton Research Park . The U of A campus is home to the National Institute for Nanotechnology .
During the 1970s and 1980s , Edmonton became a major financial centre , with both regional offices of Canada 's major banks and locally based institutions opening . However , the turmoil of the late @-@ 1980s economy radically changed the situation . Locally based operations such as Principal Trust and Canadian Commercial Bank would fail , and some regional offices were moved to other cities . The 1990s saw a solidification of the economy , and Edmonton is now home to Canadian Western Bank , the only publicly traded Schedule I chartered bank headquarters west of Toronto . Other major financial centres include ATB Financial , Servus Credit Union ( formerly Capital City Savings ) , TD Canada Trust and Manulife Financial .
Edmonton has been the birthplace of several companies that have grown to international stature . The local retail market has also seen the creation of many successful store concepts , such as The Brick , Katz Group , AutoCanada , Boston Pizza , Pizza 73 , Liquor Stores GP ( which includes Liquor Depot , Liquor Barn , OK Liquor , and Grapes & Grains ) , Planet Organic , Shaw Communications , Empire Design , Running Room , Booster Juice , Earl 's , Fountain Tire and XS Cargo .
Edmonton 's geographical location has made it an ideal spot for distribution and logistics . CN Rail 's North American operational facility is located in the city , as well as a major intermodal facility that handles all incoming freight from the port of Prince Rupert in British Columbia .
= = = Retail = = =
Edmonton is home to several shopping malls , including Canada 's first mall , Westmount Centre ; and the largest mall in North America , West Edmonton Mall , which is also considered to be the 10th largest mall in the world . Other mentionable malls include Bonnie Doon Shopping Centre , Edmonton City Centre ( a combination of the former Edmonton Centre and Eaton Centre malls ) , Southgate Centre , Kingsway Mall , Northgate Centre , Abbotsfield Mall , Londonderry Mall , and Mill Woods Town Centre .
Edmonton also has many big box shopping centres and power centres . Some of the major ones include South Edmonton Common ( North America 's largest open air retail development ) , Skyview Power Centre , Terra Losa Centre , Oliver Square , Southpark Centre , The Meadows , Christy 's Corner , and Westpoint . In 2008 , construction started on the Windermere power centre .
In contrast to suburban centres , Edmonton has many urban retail locations . The largest of them all , Old Strathcona , includes many independent stores between 99 Street and 109 Street on Whyte Avenue and area . In around the downtown of Edmonton , there are a small handful of shopping districts , such as previously mentioned Edmonton City Centre mall , Jasper Avenue and 104 Street . Near Oliver , 124 Street is home to a significant number of retail stores . Edmonton is the Canadian testing @-@ ground for many American retailers , such as Bath & Body Works and Calvin Klein .
= = Arts and culture = =
Many events are anchored in the downtown Arts District , centred around Churchill Square ( named in honour of Sir Winston Churchill ) . On the south side of the river , the University district and Whyte Avenue contain theatres , concert halls , and various live music venues .
= = = Performing arts = = =
The Francis Winspear Centre for Music was opened in 1997 after years of planning and fundraising . Described as one of the most acoustically perfect concert halls in Canada , it is home to the Edmonton Symphony Orchestra and hosts a wide variety of shows every year . It seats 1 @,@ 932 patrons and houses the $ 3 @-@ million Davis Concert Organ , the largest concert organ in Canada . Across 102 Avenue is the Citadel Theatre , named after The Salvation Army Citadel in which Joe Shoctor first started the Citadel Theatre Company in 1965 . It is now one of the largest theatre complexes in Canada , with five halls , each specializing in different kinds of productions . On the University of Alberta grounds is the 2 @,@ 534 @-@ seat Northern Alberta Jubilee Auditorium , which were undertaken over a year of heavy renovations carried out as part of the province 's 2005 centennial celebrations . Both it and its southern twin in Calgary were constructed in 1955 for the province 's golden jubilee and have hosted many concerts , musicals , and ballets . The Edmonton Opera uses the Jubilee as its base of operations . On the front of the building is a quote from Suetonius ' Life of Augustus : " He found a city built of brick – left it built of marble . "
The Old Strathcona neighbourhood is home to the Theatre District , which holds the ATB Financial Arts Barns ( headquarters of the Edmonton International Fringe Festival ) , The Walterdale Playhouse , Catalyst Theatre , and the Varscona Theatre ( base of operations for several theatre companies , including Teatro la Quindicina , Shadow Theatre , Die @-@ Nasty , and Oh Susanna ! ) . Edmonton was named cultural capital of Canada in 2007 . The Ukrainian Dnipro Ensemble of Edmonton , along with other Ukrainian choirs such as the Ukrainian Male Chorus of Edmonton , helps preserve the Ukrainian musical culture within the parameters of the Canadian multicultural identity in Edmonton .
= = = Festivals = = =
Edmonton plays host to several large festivals each year , contributing to its nickname , " Canada 's Festival City " . Downtown Edmonton 's Churchill Square host numerous festivals each summer . The Works Art & Design Festival , which takes place from late June to early July , showcases Canadian and international art and design from well @-@ known award @-@ winning artists as well as emerging and student artists . The Edmonton International Street Performer 's Festival takes place in mid @-@ July and showcases street performance artists from around the world .
Edmonton 's main summer festival is K @-@ Days , formerly Klondike Days , Capital Ex and originally the Edmonton Exhibition . Founded in 1879 , the Edmonton Exhibition was originally an annual fair and exhibition that eventually adopted a gold rush theme , becoming Klondike Days in the 1960s . Northlands , the operators , renamed the festival to " Edmonton 's Capital Ex " or " Capital Ex " in 2006 . In 2012 , Edmonton Northlands conducted a poll to rename the festival that resulted in changing the name to " K @-@ Days " . Activities include carnival rides and fairways , music , trade shows , and daily fireworks .
Since 1960 , the Sourdough Raft Races have also been a popular event . Later in November , Edmonton plays host to the Canadian Finals Rodeo and Farmfair ; this is a significant event in Canada 's rodeo circuit and second only to the National Finals Rodeo in Las Vegas in prestige .
The Edmonton International Fringe Festival , held in mid @-@ August , is the largest fringe theatre festival in North America and second only to the Edinburgh Fringe Festival worldwide . In August , Edmonton is also host to the Edmonton Folk Music Festival , one of the most successful and popular folk music festivals in North America . Another major summer festival is the Edmonton Heritage Festival , which is an ethnocultural festival that takes place in Hawrelak Park on the Heritage Day long weekend . Many other festivals exist , such as Interstellar Rodeo , the Free Will Shakespeare Festival , the Dragon Boat Festival , the Whyte Avenue Art Walk , and the Edmonton International Film Festival .
= = = Museums and galleries = = =
There are many museums in Edmonton of various sizes . The largest is the Royal Alberta Museum ( RAM ) , which was formerly known as the Provincial Museum of Alberta until it was renamed in honour of Queen Elizabeth II 's 2005 Alberta centennial visit . The RAM houses over 10 million objects in its collection and showcases the culture and practices of the diverse aboriginal tribes of the region . The main building , overlooking the river valley west of the city centre in the Glenora neighbourhood , was opened in 1967 and is now in the early stages of large @-@ scale redevelopment .
The Telus World of Science is located in the Woodcroft neighbourhood northwest of the city centre . It opened in 1984 and has since been expanded several times . It contains five permanent galleries , one additional gallery for temporary exhibits , an IMAX theatre , a planetarium , an observatory , and an amateur radio station . The Edmonton Valley Zoo is in the river valley to the southwest of the city centre .
The Alberta Aviation Museum , located in a hangar at the City Centre Airport , was built for the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan . Its collection includes both civilian and military aircraft , the largest of which are a Boeing 737 and two CF @-@ 101 Voodoos . It also has one of only 3 BOMARC missiles in Canada .
The Prince of Wales Armouries Heritage Centre is also home to the Loyal Edmonton Regiment Military Museum . The museum is dedicated to preserving the military heritage and the sacrifices made by the people of Edmonton and Alberta in general . The museum features two galleries and several smaller exhibits . The collection includes historic firearms , uniforms , souvenirs , memorabilia , military accoutrements , as well as a large photographic and archival collection spanning the pre @-@ World War One period to the present . The museum features an exhibit on the role of the 49th Battalion , CEF in Canada 's Hundred Days Offensive . The Telephone Historical Centre is a telephone museum also located in the Prince of Wales Armouries Heritage Centre in central Edmonton . In addition to a collection of artifacts tracing the history of the telephone , the museum has its own theatre featuring a brief film led by the robot Xeldon .
The Alberta Railway Museum is located in the rural northeast portion of the city . It contains a variety of locomotives and railroad cars from different periods , and includes a working steam locomotive . Since most of its exhibits are outdoors , it is only open between Victoria Day and Labour Day .
Fort Edmonton Park , Canada 's largest living history museum , is located in the river valley southwest of the city centre . Edmonton 's heritage is displayed through historical buildings ( many of which are originals moved to the park ) , costumed historical interpreters , and authentic artifacts . In total , it covers the region 's history from approximately 1795 to 1929 ( represented by Fort Edmonton ) , followed chronologically by 1885 , 1905 , and 1920 streets , and a recreation of a 1920s midway . A steam train , streetcars , automobiles and horse @-@ drawn vehicles may be seen in operation ( and utilized by the public ) around the park . The John Walter Museum and Historical Area ( c . 1875 to 1901 ) is on the Canadian Register of Historic Places . The University of Alberta operates its own internal Museums and Collections service .
The Art Gallery of Alberta ( AGA ) is the city 's largest single gallery . Formerly housed in an inconspicuous 1970s building downtown , the AGA collection had over 5 @,@ 000 pieces of art . The former AGA building was demolished in July 2007 to make way for construction of a new facility designed by Randall Stout . It was estimated to cost over $ 88 @-@ million and the amount that Edmonton City Council donated towards its construction was met with some controversy . The AGA officially opened on January 31 , 2010 . Independent galleries can be found throughout the city , especially along the 124 Street / Jasper Avenue corridor , known as the " gallery walk " .
= = = Music = = =
In the city 's early days , music was performed in churches and community halls . Edmonton has a history of opera and classical music performance ; both genres historically have been supported by a variety of clubs and associations . Edmonton 's first major radio station , CKUA , began broadcasting music in 1927 . The city is a centre for music instruction ; the University of Alberta began its music department in 1945 , and MacEwan University opened a jazz and musical theatre program in 1980 . Festivals of jazz , folk , and classical music are popular entertainment events in the city .
The Edmonton Symphony Orchestra has existed under various incarnations since 1913 . In 1952 , the Edmonton Philharmonic and the Edmonton Pops orchestras amalgamated to form the 60 @-@ member modern version . The Orchestra performs at the Francis Winspear Centre for Music .
The city also has a vibrant popular music scene , across genres including hip @-@ hop , reggae , R & B , rock , pop , metal , punk , country and electronica . Notable past and present local musicians include Robert Goulet , Tommy Banks , Tim Feehan , Cadence Weapon , Kreesha Turner , The Smalls , SNFU , Social Code , Stereos , Ten Second Epic , Tupelo Honey , Mac DeMarco , Shout Out Out Out Out , Purity Ring , The Wet Secrets , and numerous others .
= = = Nightlife = = =
There are several key areas of nightlife in the city of Edmonton . The most popular is the Whyte Avenue ( 82 Avenue ) strip , located between 109 Street and 99 Street ; it has the highest number of heritage buildings in Edmonton , and the nightlife ( bars , clubs , and restaurants ) are located throughout , but mostly west of Gateway Boulevard ( 103 Street ) . Once the heart of the town of Strathcona ( annexed by Edmonton on February 1 , 1912 ) , it fell into disrepair during the middle of the 20th century . Beginning in the 1970s , a coordinated effort to revive the area through the establishment of a business revitalization zone has produced an area rich with restored historical buildings and pleasant streetscapes . Its proximity to the University of Alberta has led to a high number of establishments ranging from restaurants and pubs to trendy clubs while hosting a wide variety of retail and specialty shops during the day . This area also contains two independent movie theatres : the Garneau and Princess theatres , as well as several live theatre , music , and comedy venues .
Downtown Edmonton has undergone a continual process of renewal and growth since the mid @-@ 1990s . Many buildings were demolished during the oil boom , starting in the 1960s and continuing into the 1980s , to make way for office towers . As such , there have always been numerous pub @-@ type establishments , as well as many hotel lounges and restaurants . The past decade has seen a strong resurgence in more mainstream venues . Edmonton also has a high demand for pub crawl tours in the city . Various clubs are also to be found along Edmonton 's main street , Jasper Avenue . The Edmonton City Centre mall also houses an Empire Theatres movie theatre , featuring nine screens . The nonprofit Metro Cinema shows a variety of alternative or otherwise unreleased films every week .
West Edmonton Mall holds several after @-@ hour establishments in addition to its many stores and attractions . Bourbon Street has numerous eating establishments ; clubs and casinos can also be found within the complex . Scotiabank Theatre ( formerly known as Silver City ) , at the west end of the mall , is a theatre that features twelve screens and an IMAX .
= = Sports and recreation = =
Edmonton has a number of professional sports teams , including the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League , Edmonton Oilers of the National Hockey League , Edmonton Energy of the International Basketball League , and FC Edmonton of the North American Soccer League . Junior sports clubs include the Edmonton Huskies and Edmonton Wildcats of the Canadian Junior Football League and the Edmonton Oil Kings of the Western Hockey League . Venues for Edmonton 's professional and junior sports teams include Commonwealth Stadium ( Eskimos ) , Argyll Velodrome , Rogers Place ( Oilers and Oil Kings ) , Edmonton Ballpark ( Prospects ) , the Universiade Pavilion ( Energy ) , and Clarke Stadium ( FC Edmonton , Huskies and Wildcats ) .
Edmonton 's teams have rivalries with Calgary 's teams and games between Edmonton and Calgary teams are often referred to as the Battle of Alberta .
Past notable hockey teams in Edmonton include : the original junior hockey incarnation of the Edmonton Oil Kings , with multiple league and national Memorial Cup championships playing in the Western Hockey League ; the Edmonton Flyers , with multiple Lester Patrick Cups and one national Allan Cup , and ; the Edmonton Roadrunners of the American Hockey League . Other past notable sports teams include ; the Edmonton Grads , a women 's basketball team with 108 local , provincial , national , and international titles and the world champions for 17 years in a row ; the Edmonton Trappers , a Triple @-@ A level baseball team with multiple division and league titles in the Pacific Coast League , and ; the Edmonton Rush , a box lacrosse team with one league championship .
Local university @-@ level sports teams include the U of A Golden Bears , the U of A Pandas , the NAIT Ooks , and the MacEwan Griffins . Local amateur teams , among others , include the Edmonton Gold of the Rugby Canada Super League and two flat track roller derby leagues : Oil City Roller Derby and E @-@ Ville Roller Derby .
From 2005 to 2012 , Edmonton hosted an annual circuit on the Indy Racing League known as the Edmonton Indy . In addition , Castrol Raceway hosts regular sprint car and a national IHRA events at their facility next to Edmonton International Airport .
Other past sporting events hosted by Edmonton include the 1978 Commonwealth Games , the 1983 World University Games ( Universiade ) , the 2001 World Championships in Athletics , the 2002 World Ringette Championships , the 2005 World Master Games , the 2006 Women 's Rugby World Cup , the 2007 and 2014 FIFA U @-@ 20 Women 's World Cup , the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup , and the CN Canadian Women 's Open . Edmonton shared hosting duties with Calgary for the 2012 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships .
= = Government = =
In 1892 Edmonton was incorporated as a town . The first mayor was Matthew McCauley , who established the first school board in Edmonton and Board of Trade ( later Chamber of Commerce ) and a municipal police service . Due to mayor McCauley 's good relationship with the federal Liberals this helped Edmonton to maintain political prominence over Strathcona , a rival settlement on the south bank of the North Saskatchewan River . Edmonton was incorporated as a city in 1904 and became the capital of Alberta in 1905 .
Unions and radical organizations such as the Industrial Workers of the World struggled for progressive social change through the early years , with the first reformer , James East , being elected in 1912 , followed by the first official Labour alderman , James Kinney , the following year . Many thousands of workers participated in the Edmonton general strike of 1919 and a strong block of Labour representatives were on council after the next election : James Kinney , James East , Sam McCoppen , Joe Clarke and Rice Sheppard .
Labour representation on city council would become a near @-@ majority in 1929 , and , during the Great Depression , a full majority from 1932 to 1934 . Jan Reimer became the city 's first female mayor , when she was elected in 1989 .
= = = Municipal politics = = =
Edmonton is represented by a mayor and 12 councillors — one for each of the 12 wards . On July 22 , 2009 City Council adopted an electoral system that divides Edmonton into 12 wards , instead of the previous two for each of six wards . This system came into effect with the following election in October 2010 . The most recent election was held in October 2013 , and elected members to a four @-@ year term .
= = = Provincial politics = = =
Edmonton is the capital of the province of Alberta and holds all main provincial areas of government such as the Provincial Legislature of Alberta . The Edmonton region is represented by 20 MLAs , one for each provincial electoral district . Many of these boundaries have been changed , adjusted and renamed while the city has grown . In the current 29th Alberta Legislature all of Edmonton 's districts are represented by members from the governing Alberta New Democratic Party . Six of these members are cabinet ministers while one of them is also the Premier of Alberta , Rachel Notley .
= = = Crime = = =
The city 's police force , the Edmonton Police Service , was founded in 1892 , and had approximately 1 @,@ 400 officers in 2012 . Edmonton experienced a decrease in crime in the 1990s , an increase in the early 2000s , and another downturn at the end of the decade .
The Edmonton census metropolitan area ( CMA ) had a crime severity index of 84 @.@ 5 in 2013 , which is higher than the national average of 68 @.@ 7 . Its crime severity index was the fifth @-@ highest among CMAs in Canada behind Regina , Saskatoon , Kelowna and Vancouver . Edmonton had the fourth @-@ most homicides in 2013 at 27 .
= = = Military = = =
Edmonton is home to 1 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group ( 1 CMBG ) , the Regular Force army brigade group of Land Force Western Area of the Canadian Army . Units in 1 CMBG include Lord Strathcona 's Horse ( Royal Canadians ) , 1 Combat Engineer Regiment , two of the three regular force battalions of Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry , and various headquarters , service , and support elements . Although not part of 1 CMBG , 408 Tactical Helicopter Squadron and 1 Field Ambulance are located with the brigade group . All of these units are located at Lancaster Park , immediately north of the city . From 1943 , as CFB Namao ( now CFB Edmonton / Edmonton Garrison ) , it was a major air force base . In 1996 , all fixed @-@ wing aviation units were transferred to CFB Cold Lake .
The Canadian Airborne Training Centre had been located in the city in the 1980s . The move of 1 CMBG and component units from Calgary occurred in 1996 in what was described as a cost @-@ saving measure . The brigade had existed in Calgary since the 1950s , and Lord Strathcona 's Horse had traditionally been a Calgary garrison unit dating back to before World War I.
Edmonton also has a large army reserve element from 41 Canadian Brigade Group ( 41 CBG ) , including The Loyal Edmonton Regiment ( 4th Battalion , Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry ) ; 41 Combat Engineer Regiment ; HQ Battery , 20th Field Artillery Regiment ; and B Squadron of The South Alberta Light Horse , one of Alberta 's oldest army reserve units . Despite being far from Canada 's coasts , Edmonton is also the home of HMCS Nonsuch , a naval reserve division . There are numerous cadet corps of the different elements ( naval , army and air force ) within Edmonton as well .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
= = = = Aviation = = = =
Edmonton is a major air transportation gateway to northern Alberta and northern Canada . The Edmonton International Airport ( EIA ) is the main airport serving the city .
The EIA provides passenger service to destinations in the United States , Europe , Mexico , and the Caribbean . The EIA is located within Leduc County , adjacent to the City of Leduc and the Nisku Industrial Business Park . With direct air distances from Edmonton to places such as London in Europe being shorter than to other main airports in western North America , Edmonton Airports is working to establish a major container shipping hub called Port Alberta .
= = = = Rail = = = =
Edmonton serves as a major transportation hub for Canadian National Railway , whose North American operations management centre is located at their Edmonton offices . It is also tied into the Canadian Pacific Railway network , which provides service from Calgary to the south and extends northeast of Edmonton to serve Alberta 's Industrial Heartland .
Inter @-@ city rail passenger rail service is provided by Via Rail 's premier train , the Canadian , as it travels between Vancouver , British Columbia , and Toronto , Ontario . Passenger trains stop at the Edmonton railway station three days a week in both directions . The train connects Edmonton to multiple stops in British Columbia , Alberta , Saskatchewan , Manitoba , and Ontario .
= = = = Public transit = = = =
The Edmonton Transit System ( ETS ) is the city 's public transit agency , operating the Edmonton Light Rail Transit ( LRT ) line as well as a fleet of buses . Approximately one @-@ third of people in the Edmonton Capital Region ( mostly from Edmonton proper ) use ETS per day ( 354 @,@ 440 out of 1 @,@ 034 @,@ 945 ) . There are approximately 280 @,@ 000 ETS bus riders on average per day .
From the 1990s to early 2009 , Edmonton was one of two cities in Canada still operating trolley buses , along with Vancouver . On June 18 , 2008 , City Council decided to abandon the Edmonton trolley bus system and the last trolley bus ran on May 2 , 2009 .
Scheduled LRT service began on April 23 , 1978 , with five extensions of the single line completed since . The original Edmonton line is considered to be the first " modern " light rail line in North America ( i.e. , built from scratch , rather than being an upgrade of an old system ) . It introduced the use of German @-@ designed rolling stock that subsequently became the standard light rail vehicle of the United States . The Edmonton " proof @-@ of @-@ payment " fare collection system adopted in 1980 – modelled after European ticket systems – became the North American transit industry 's preferred approach for subsequent light rail projects . The four @-@ year South LRT extension was opened in full on April 24 , 2010 , which sees trains travelling to Century Park ( located at 23 Avenue and 111 Street ) , making stops at South Campus and Southgate Centre along the way . A line to the Northern Alberta Institute of Technology in north @-@ central Edmonton using the same high floor technology of the existing system opened September 6 , 2015 . Edmonton is also expanding the LRT to Mill Woods ( the southeast ) by 2020 and to Lewis Farms ( the west ) thereafter using low floor technology .
= = = = Roads = = = =
A largely gridded system forms most of Edmonton 's street and road network . The address system is mostly numbered , with streets running south to north and avenues running east to west . In built @-@ up areas built since the 1950s , local streets and major roadways generally do not conform to the grid system . Major roadways include Kingsway , Yellowhead Trail ( Highway 16 ) , Whitemud Drive and Anthony Henday Drive , and the city is connected to other communities elsewhere in Alberta , British Columbia , and Saskatchewan via the Yellowhead Highway to the west and east and the Queen Elizabeth II Highway ( Alberta Highway 2 ) to the south .
= = = = Trail system = = = =
There is an extensive multi @-@ use trail system for bicycles and pedestrians throughout the city ; however , most of this is within the river valley parkland system .
= = = Electricity and water = = =
Edmonton 's first power company established itself in 1891 and installed streetlights along the city 's main avenue , Jasper Avenue . The power company was bought by the Town of Edmonton in 1902 and remains under municipal ownership today as EPCOR . Also in charge of water treatment , in 2002 EPCOR installed the world 's largest ultraviolet ( UV ) water treatment or ultraviolet disinfection system at its E.L. Smith Water Treatment Plant .
= = = Waste disposal = = =
The Edmonton Composting Facility , the largest of its type in the world , is also the largest stainless steel building in North America . By 2016 , the city anticipates that it will divert more than 90 percent of the city 's household waste from the landfills . Among the innovative uses for the city 's waste includes a Christmas tree recycling program . The trees are collected each January and put through a woodchipper ; this material is used as an addition to the composting process . In addition , the wood chips absorb much of the odour produced by the compost by providing a biofilter element to trap odour causing gaseous results of the process .
Together , the Waste Management Centre and Wastewater Treatment plant are known as the Edmonton Waste Management Centre of Excellence . Research partners include the University of Alberta , the Alberta Research Council , the Northern Alberta Institute of Technology , and Olds College .
= = = Health care = = =
There are four main hospitals serving Edmonton : University of Alberta Hospital , Royal Alexandra Hospital , Misericordia Community Hospital , and Grey Nuns Community Hospital . Other area hospitals include Sturgeon Community Hospital in St. Albert , Leduc Community Hospital in Leduc , Westview Health Centre in Stony Plain , and Fort Saskatchewan Community Hospital in Fort Saskatchewan . Dedicated psychiatric care is provided at the Alberta Hospital . The Northeast Community Health Centre offers a 24 @-@ hour emergency room with no inpatient ward services . The University of Alberta Hospital is the centre of a larger complex of hospitals and clinics located adjacent to the university campus which comprises the Stollery Children 's Hospital , Mazankowski Alberta Heart Institute , Cross Cancer Institute , Zeidler Gastrointestinal Health Centre , Ledcor Clinical Training Centre , and Edmonton Clinic . Several health research institutes , including the Heritage Medical Research Centre , Medical Sciences Building , Katz Group Centre for Pharmacy and Health Research , and Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Research Innovation , are also located at this site . A similar set @-@ up is also evident at the Royal Alexandra Hospital , which is connected to the Lois Hole Hospital for Women and Orthopaedic Surgery Centre . All hospitals are under the administration of Alberta Health Services , although Misericordia and Grey Nuns are run separately by Covenant Health .
= = Education = =
= = = Secondary = = =
Edmonton has three publicly funded school boards ( districts ) that provide kindergarten and grades 1 – 12 . The vast majority of students attend schools in the two large English language boards : Edmonton Public Schools , and the separate Edmonton Catholic School District . Also , since 1994 , the Francophone minority community has had their own school board based in Edmonton , the Greater North Central Francophone Education Region No. 2 , which includes surrounding communities . The city also has a number of public charter schools that are independent of any board . All three school boards and public charter schools are funded through provincial grants and property taxes .
Some private schools exist as well , including Edmonton Academy , Progressive Academy and Tempo School . The Edmonton Society for Christian Education and Millwoods Christian School ( not part of the former ) used to be private schools ; however , both have become part of Edmonton Public Schools as alternative programs .
Both the Edmonton Public Schools and the Edmonton Catholic School District provide support and resources for those wishing to homeschool their children .
= = = Post @-@ secondary = = =
Those post @-@ secondary institutions based in Edmonton that are publicly funded include Concordia University College of Alberta , MacEwan University , The King 's University College , NorQuest College , the Northern Alberta Institute of Technology ( NAIT ) and the University of Alberta ( U of A ) . The publicly funded Athabasca University and the University of Lethbridge also have campuses in Edmonton .
The U of A is a board @-@ governed institution that has an annual revenue of over one billion dollars . In 2011 / 12 , the university had over 38 @,@ 000 students enrolled within nearly 400 undergraduate , graduate and professional programs , as well as over 15 @,@ 000 students enrolled in its faculty of extension . The U of A is also home to the second @-@ largest research library system in Canada .
In 2010 / 11 , MacEwan University had a total student population of over 43 @,@ 000 students , including nearly 14 @,@ 000 full @-@ time students , enrolled in programs offering bachelor 's degrees , university transfers , diplomas and certificates . NAIT has an approximate total of 61 @,@ 200 students enrolled in more than 200 programs while NorQuest College has approximately 8 @,@ 500 students enrolled in various full @-@ time , part @-@ time and continuing education programs .
Other post @-@ secondary institutions within Edmonton include Taylor University College and Seminary and Yellowhead Tribal College , a First Nations college .
= = Media = =
Edmonton has seven local broadcast television stations shown on basic cable TV or over @-@ the @-@ air , with the oldest broadcasters in the city being CTV ( 1961 ) and CBC ( 1954 ) . Most of Edmonton 's conventional television stations have made the switch to over @-@ the @-@ air digital broadcasting . The cable television providers in Edmonton are Telus ( for IPTV ) and Shaw Cable . Twenty @-@ one FM and eight AM radio stations are based in Edmonton .
Edmonton has two large @-@ circulation daily newspapers , the Edmonton Journal and the Edmonton Sun . The Journal , established in 1903 and owned by the Postmedia Network , has a daily circulation of 112 @,@ 000 , while the Sun , established in 1978 and owned by Sun Media , has a circulation of 55 @,@ 000 . The Journal no longer publishes a Sunday edition as of July 2012 .
There is one free daily newspaper in the city , Metro . The magazine Vue Weekly is published on a weekly basis and focuses on alternative news . The Edmonton Examiner is a city @-@ wide community based paper also published weekly . There are also a number of smaller weekly and community newspapers .
= = Sister cities = =
Edmonton has five sister cities , with one American city listed by Sister Cities International .
Gatineau , Quebec , Canada , since 1967
Harbin , China , since 1985
Nashville , Tennessee , United States , since 1990
Wonju , South Korea , since 1998
Bergen op Zoom , the Netherlands , since 2013
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= Andy Harries =
Andrew D. M. Harries ( born 7 April 1954 ) is a British television and film producer . After graduating from Hull University in the 1970s , Harries began his television career on the Granada Television current affairs series World in Action , before moving on to freelance work . He directed and produced programmes for Jonathan Ross 's Channel X production company in the 1980s , before being appointed controller of the newly created comedy department at Granada in 1992 . Over the next decade he produced and executive produced several critically acclaimed series , including The Royle Family , Cold Feet and The Grimleys .
In 2000 his portfolio was expanded to include Granada 's drama productions . He worked on the revivals of Prime Suspect and Cracker , as well as the BAFTA @-@ winning television play The Deal . In 2004 he began work producing The Queen , which was released to critical acclaim in 2006 . Though he had spent 14 years with Granada , part of the ITV network , he became increasingly dissatisfied with the management of ITV after its corporate merger in 2003 , and publicly criticized the network in 2006 . He announced he would not be renewing his contract and departed in 2007 to form Left Bank Pictures . Since 2007 , Left Bank has produced the television series Wallander , Strike Back , Married Single Other , the feature film The Damned United , and has several more television series in development .
In addition to the awards won by programmes he has worked on , Harries was given a Special Achievement award by BAFTA in 2007 for his contributions to British television . The same year , he was ranked in The Guardian 's Media Top 100 , and Broadcast 's Top 100 Producers . He is married to novelist and director Rebecca Frayn .
= = Family = =
Rebecca Frayn ( Spouse ) , Emmy Harries ( Daughter ) , Jackson ( Jack ) Harries , Finnegan ( Finn ) Harries , Eliza Frayn ( Niece ) , Shayne Finn Zigich ( Nephew )
= = Early life and education = =
Andy Harries was born in Inverness , Scotland on 7 April 1954 and grew up in Peterborough , England , receiving primary education at West Town Primary School until 1961 , and secondary education at the public Oakham School . He grew up aspiring to be a war correspondent in Vietnam , or an investigative journalist ; his idols were Harold Evans , Jon Swain and John Pilger . He left college at the age of 17 with poor A Level results and became a trainee reporter on the Peterborough Evening Telegraph newspaper . His time on the newspaper raised his awareness of politics , and he sought to further his understanding of it by studying at university . He applied to various northern universities to break away from his southern middle @-@ class lifestyle , and was accepted at Hull University .
Harries stayed at Hull until he was 21 , though continued to work at the Evening Telegraph during holidays . At university he developed an interest in music journalism and found an outlet for this by writing reviews for Melody Maker .
= = Early career ( 1976 – 1981 ) = =
After leaving Hull , Harries moved to London to work for the Southern News Service news agency , writing diary pieces for the Daily Mail and News of the World from 1975 to 1976 . On the advice of a friend , he applied for a position as a researcher for Granada Television in Manchester . He did not understand the appeal of television production , and as a result he was turned away at two interviews before being hired in 1976 .
Shortly after being hired he was taken aside by the news producer and asked to read the on @-@ air bulletin for the nightly broadcast . He read the news for three months until one night when he condensed a six @-@ minute bulletin into three minutes . He attributed this to stage fright , which caused him to speak too fast . The rest of the production crew were not ready to move on to the next news items , leaving Harries standing in silence for several minutes . Harries recalled in a 2007 interview that Steve Morrison , the producer of the bulletin , called him into his office and berated him , telling him he did not deserve to be on television and that he would no longer be reading the news . Morrison 's remarks angered Harries to such a point that he assaulted the man . Aware that he was going to lose his job , he contacted a Granada colleague who got him a new job at Granada 's London centre , which he took up at the age of 23 .
Pursuing his interest in investigative journalism , Harries worked as a researcher on the current affairs programme World in Action , where he met Paul Greengrass . While Greengrass achieved success in exposing alleged corruption involving Manchester United F.C. chairman Louis Edwards , Harries investigated irregularities in the British Singles Chart . Greengrass 's investigation was a success , though Harries admits his own programme " didn 't make a blind bit of difference " .
= = Freelance and Channel X ( 1981 – 1992 ) = =
In 1981 , Harries left Granada and moved into freelance producing and directing . He directed the documentary series Africa in 1984 before beginning a collaboration with Paul Yule , with whom he made four films in Peru between 1985 and 1989 — Martin Chambi and the Heirs of the Incas , Our God the Condor , Iquitos , and Mario Vargas Llosa : The Novelist Who Would Be President — and working on editions of The South Bank Show and Arena . While directing a corporate video for BT he met Jonathan Ross , who was his assistant for the day . Ross invited Harries to direct a pilot for a chat show he and Alan Marke had developed that was based on Late Night with David Letterman . The pilot was a success and Ross found a television audience with The Last Resort with Jonathan Ross , which first aired in 1988 .
Harries formed a production company called Sleeping Partners with Greengrass in the latter part of the decade , which produced Ross 's The Incredibly Strange Film Show and comedian Lenny Henry 's Lenny Live and Unleashed film . The latter was directed by Harries and was edited together from a number of performances by Henry at the Hackney Empire in 1989 . The Guardian 's film critic called the direction " unobtrusive " .
The 1990s began with more direction and production for Ross and Marke 's Channel X production company ; in 1991 he made the documentary Viva Elvis ! and executive produced Middlemarch Films ' The Ghosts of Oxford Street , a musical about Oxford Street 's history . The script for Ghosts was written by Harries ' wife , Rebecca Frayn . The same year , he developed a script with Peter Morgan called Bhundu Beat , a film described by Variety as " a bizarre remake of A Hard Day 's Night featuring the briefly fashionable Zimbawean band the Bhundu Boys and Brit comic Lenny Henry " . With a development budget of £ 2 @,@ 000 , Harries sent Morgan on a research trip to Zimbabwe , taking a circuitous route that lasted for three days . Bhundu Beat was never made .
= = Second Granada career ( 1992 – 2007 ) = =
= = = Controller of Comedy = = =
At the 1991 Edinburgh Festival Fringe , Harries personally bought the television rights to An Evening with Gary Lineker , a comedy play written by Arthur Smith and Chris England based around a group of England fans at the 1990 FIFA World Cup . Smith bet Harries £ 100 that he would not be able to get the adaptation on television before the next World Cup . Harries tried selling Smith and England 's screenplay to the BBC , Channel 4 , LWT , Yorkshire Television and Central Independent Television to no avail . The BBC offered to produce it as a studio play but Harries wanted a full @-@ length film to distinguish it from the original play , which was by then playing at London 's West End . He was reluctant to offer the script to Granada because of his previous experience with the company . However , in 1992 he was accepted the position of controller of comedy at Granada and An Evening with Gary Lineker was made . Harries was disappointed that pressure from Granada 's management had forced him to replace so many of the original stage cast ; England was replaced by Paul Merton , leaving Caroline Quentin as the only original actor . The Edinburgh Fringe played an important role in Harries ' early commissions at Granada ; he was not fond of traditional styles of comedy and was always looking for alternative comedians . These included Caroline Aherne , Steve Coogan and John Thomson ( though Coogan " got away " from him after the BBC offered to produce his Alan Partridge shows ) . After the failure of Bhundu Beat , Harries commissioned Peter Morgan to write " Mickey Love " in 1993 , one of a series of short comedy films for the Rik Mayall series Rik Mayall Presents .
In 1994 , after turning down an offer for " the number three position " at Channel 4 and extending his contract with Granada to become controller of entertainment and comedy , he commissioned The Mrs Merton Show from Aherne . In negotiating a second series with the BBC a few years later , another series from Aherne was included ; The Royle Family , a sitcom featuring a working @-@ class northern family , aired on BBC One from 1998 to 2000 . The first two episodes were filmed with a studio audience , something Harries did not approve of . He scrapped these episodes and had them refilmed without a laugh track . The Royle Family returned for a one @-@ off special in 2006 , an achievement Harries described as giving him no greater pleasure . A spin @-@ off of The Mrs Merton Show was commissioned by Harries from Aherne in 1999 ; Mrs Merton and Malcolm was based around Mrs Merton and her son Malcolm , played by Craig Cash . The programme was Aherne 's first critical failure , which Harries blamed on the BBC One schedulers .
In 1995 he commissioned a comedy drama on spec from Mike Bullen , a BBC radio producer and first @-@ time writer . Like An Evening with Gary Lineker , The Perfect Match was based around football and received respectable reviews . Harries was interested in producing more comedy dramas , based on the success of American programmes like Thirtysomething , and assigned Granada producer Christine Langan to work with Bullen . Langan and Bullen developed Cold Feet , which was broadcast in 1997 and was commissioned for a full series in 1998 . It won the British Academy Television Award for Best Drama Series in 2002 , which Harries collected with Bullen and Spencer Campbell . Harries executive produced two more series of Bullen 's ; Life Begins ( 2004 – 2006 ) and All About George ( 2005 ) .
His first panel show produced came in 1999 with Mel and Sue 's Casting Couch . The show was Mel and Sue 's first programme made for ITV following the success of Light Lunch for Channel 4 . Casting Couch had low viewing figures and was not recommissioned . It was one of several comedies commissioned by Harries in 1999 that were produced by Justin Judd . Others included Dark Ages and My Wonderful Life . Judd and Harries began developing Dark Ages — a sitcom set at the turn of the 2nd millennium — in 1997 but could not make it work with the writer at the time . They proposed it to Red Dwarf writer Rob Grant , who liked the idea , and wrote all six episodes . Dark Ages aired nightly during the Christmas 1999 period . A second series was proposed — Harries said it would " hit its stride " then — but ITV did not recommission it . My Wonderful Life was another ratings disaster . Harries blamed ITV Network Centre and publicly criticised the network , courting the ire of its director of channels David Liddiment .
= = = Drama and film brief = = =
In September 2000 , Harries ' portfolio was significantly expanded when he was appointed Granada 's controller of drama , following the resignations of Sue Hogg and Simon Lewis . 2002 commissions included Doctor Zhivago and Henry VIII . ITV would provide only £ 750 @,@ 000 for each hour of the serials , so Harries approached US broadcaster WGBH to make up the remaining funds . Following the merging of Granada Films with Granada Productions in 2002 , Harries ' brief was expanded to include films .
2003 was a significant year for Harries ' drama output ; Peter Morgan approached Granada with an idea for a drama documenting the conjectured pact between Tony Blair and Gordon Brown before the Labour Party leadership election , 1994 . Granada 's chief executive Charles Allen was not keen on producing The Deal but Harries and John Whiston persuaded him otherwise . ITV initially agreed to show it but pulled out before filming began . Harries offered it to Channel 4 , who took it within 24 hours . The Deal was a critical success and won the British Academy Television Award for Best Single Drama . That same year Harries brought back the drama serial Prime Suspect , which had not been produced since the star Helen Mirren quit in 1995 . Mirren agreed to return for Prime Suspect : The Last Witness only if it was " about something " . Two years later it returned for the seventh and final serial , entitled The Final Act , in which Jane Tennison , Mirren 's character , confronts her alcoholism in a sub @-@ plot . Lynda La Plante , who created Prime Suspect in 1989 , was critical of the decision to " make [ Tennison ] a drunk " , though Harries rebutted , saying , " Lynda was the one who started Jane Tennison drinking heavily — it 's not out of character " . In 2004 , Harries was ranked number eleven on a list of the most powerful figures in British TV drama , compiled by industry experts for the Radio Times .
During the read @-@ throughs for The Last Witness Harries watched other actors and production staff react to Mirren as if she was " like the Queen " . Already in pre @-@ production was a follow @-@ up to The Deal that would focus on the royal family in the week following the death of Diana , Princess of Wales . Peter Morgan was due to return as the writer , Stephen Frears was signed on as director and Harries suggested to Mirren that she play the Queen . Mirren agreed and the film , co @-@ produced by Granada and Pathé , was released in September 2006 . Among the numerous awards for which it was nominated were the BAFTA Award for Best Film and the Academy Award for Best Picture ( the former it won ) . Despite the success of the film , Harries once again expressed disappointment with ITV for not giving enough backing . In an interview the month before The Queen was released he criticised the management of ITV for being deeply complacent and arrogant , and expressed disappointment that drama on the channel was not as good as it once was . At the end of the year he announced that he would not be renewing his contract with the company . Entertainment industry commentators suggested that he would set up his own independent production company .
= = Left Bank Pictures ( 2007 – present ) = =
Rumours that he would start his own company , possibly with Caroline Aherne , had circulated since the 1990s . The predictions came to fruition in May 2007 when Harries announced the formation of Left Bank Pictures , which BBC Worldwide immediately took a 25 % share in . Left Bank was the first British production house to receive investment from BBC Worldwide , and there was some concern that there was a conflict of interest for the publicly funded BBC ; in The Guardian , Steve Hewlett wrote that the deal was a " back @-@ door way of getting around the rules preventing the BBC producing programmes for its British rivals " . Hewlett also commented that the investment might limit Left Bank 's future prospects , as it was " tied to " the BBC . At Left Bank , Harries proposed to produce two features films per year , as well as several television series . The company 's first television commission is Wallander , a three @-@ part series based on Henning Mankell 's Kurt Wallander novels . The series was made in association with Swedish company Yellow Bird for the BBC . It was broadcast in November and December 2008 , and a second series followed in 2010 .
In 2009 , Left Bank 's first feature film , The Damned United ( adapted by Peter Morgan from the David Peace novel ) was released . Also broadcast in 2009 was the comedy series School of Comedy and the crime drama Father & Son . Comedy drama series Married Single Other was filmed for ITV and was broadcast in 2010 . Harries executive produced the third part of Peter Morgan 's " Blair trilogy " , The Special Relationship , for HBO Films and BBC Films . It was first broadcast on the HBO networks in the United States in May 2010 .
On 23 August 2012 , Sony Pictures Television acquired a majority stake in Left Bank .
= = Acclaim = =
Left Bank 's inception lead to Harries being listed in The Guardian 's Media Top 100 , making his entry at number 66 . At the end of the year he was listed in Broadcast 's Top 100 Producers , being described as " one of the UK 's most outstanding drama producers " . In May 2007 , the British Academy of Film and Television Arts awarded him the Special Award in Honour of Alan Clarke . In December 2009 , the Radio Times ranked him at number six in their " Faces of 2010 " feature , a compilation of " the biggest names and the coming stars in the year ahead " . In Broadcast 's Top 100 for 2010 , Harries was ranked at number two in the executive producers category . He received an Academy Award nomination as producer of The Queen which saw a run of six Academy Award nominations with Helen Mirren memorably winning Best Actress .
The Royal Television Society conferred a Fellowship on Harries on 23 May 2011 for outstanding contributions to the broadcasting industry .
= = Personal life = =
Harries has been married to writer and director Rebecca Frayn since July 1992 . The couple have three children ; Jack and Finn ( identical twins ) born in 1993 , and Emmy Lou . Emmy Lou was conceived through in vitro fertilisation ( IVF ) , an experience Harries worked into the storyline of Cold Feet and Frayn used as the basis for her novel One Life . Emmy Lou also had a cameo in The Queen as the little girl who hands flowers to the Queen outside Buckingham Palace . In 2008 , Jack appeared in the Channel 4 Comedy Lab pilot School of Comedy , and the subsequent E4 series , which was produced by Left Bank . Finn appears in a School of Comedy sketch entitled " Continuity Errors " , as a clone of Jack 's character . Jack and Finn also run a successful YouTube channel , JacksGap , which has attracted over 4 million subscribers . ( 3 @.@ 8 million subscribers , November 2014 )
After producing a South Bank Show profile and The Ghosts of Oxford Street , Harries remained good friends with Malcolm McLaren , and spoke at his funeral in April 2010 .
= = Filmography = =
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= St Mary 's Church , Nantwich =
St Mary 's Church is in the centre of the market town of Nantwich , Cheshire , England . The church is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building . It has been called the " Cathedral of South Cheshire " and it is considered by some to be one of the finest medieval churches , not only in Cheshire , but in the whole of England . The architectural writer Raymond Richards described it as " one of the great architectural treasures of Cheshire " , and Alec Clifton @-@ Taylor included it in his list of " outstanding " English parish churches .
The building dates from the 14th century , although a number of changes have since been made , particularly a substantial 19th @-@ century restoration by Sir George Gilbert Scott . The church and its octagonal tower are built in red sandstone . Features of the church 's interior include the lierne @-@ vaulted ceiling of the choir , the carved stone canopies of the sedilia in the chancel , and the intricately carved wooden canopies over the choirstalls together with the 20 misericords at the back of the stalls . The church is an active Anglican parish church in the diocese of Chester , the archdeaconry of Macclesfield and the deanery of Nantwich .
= = History = =
The first building on the site was a chapel of ease in the parish of Acton . In about 1130 both Acton church and Nantwich chapel came under control of the Cistercian abbey of Combermere . The building of the present church started in about 1340 in the Decorated style , which was the style most commonly used in English church building at that time . The masons , who came from Yorkshire , used local sandstone , probably from Eddisbury near Delamere . Building work was interrupted between 1349 and 1369 , probably due to an outbreak of the Black Death plague . By the 1380s the town 's prosperity had recovered and building work resumed . This phase of construction was carried out by master masons associated with Lichfield and Gloucester cathedrals , now building in the Perpendicular style . The south transept was endowed as a chantry chapel in 1405 . In the late @-@ 15th or early @-@ 16th century , the south porch was added , the nave roof was raised and the clerestory windows were added . Following the dissolution of the monasteries , six chantry chapels were removed in 1548 . Between 1572 and 1577 the transept ceilings were renewed , and between 1615 and 1633 the church floor was raised because of flooding , a west gallery was built , and the walls were painted white , with the addition of scriptural texts . The church was briefly used as a prison for Royalists captured at the battles of Nantwich and Preston during the Civil War .
Between 1727 and 1777 , the north and south galleries and a new west door were added , and windows were repaired . However , by 1789 the general structure of the church had deteriorated so much that it was said to be " so ruinous that the inhabitants cannot safely assemble " . In the 19th century Sir George Gilbert Scott was brought in to direct a very extensive restoration . Amongst other alterations , he removed the galleries , the box pews , and many old memorials ; the floor level was lowered and the transept roofs were pitched higher . Much of the eroded stone was replaced by sandstone from quarries at Runcorn , but not everyone was happy with the scale and nature of Scott 's restoration . The architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner complained about the replacement of a Decorated doorway and a Perpendicular window with corresponding structures in the style of the late @-@ 13th century . The local representative of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings at the time was of the opinion that " Very great injury was done to this Church in the Restoration ... " . Clifton @-@ Taylor complained about the way in which part of the church walls have subsequently been pointed . The last major work to be carried out on the church was in 1878 , under the direction of local architect Thomas Bower , when the south porch was restored at a cost of £ 900 ( equivalent to £ 80 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Exterior = = =
The church is built in red sandstone and is cruciform in shape . Its plan consists of a four @-@ bay nave with north and south aisles , a south porch with two storeys , a central tower , north and south transepts , and a three @-@ bay chancel , to the north of which is a two @-@ storey treasury . The tower is square below and octagonal above . Both transepts are of three bays and the northernmost bay of the north transept was formerly a Lady chapel . The other two bays were dedicated to Saint George . The south transept was known as the Kingsley Chapel . Pevsner , in addition to complaining about some aspects of Scott 's restoration , comments on the abrupt change from the Decorated to the Perpendicular style , no doubt the consequence of the interruption to building work caused by the Black Death . This is particularly so in the chancel where the side windows are " very rich Decorated " , with crocketed gables and highly decorated buttresses and pinnacles , while the seven @-@ light east window , also under a crocketed gable , is " pure Perpendicular " . The aisle windows and all the windows in the north transept are Decorated , while in the south transept one window is Decorated and all the others are Perpendicular . The bell @-@ openings in the tower are Decorated . Pevsner describes the tower as being the " crowning motif " of the church .
= = = Interior = = =
= = = = Nave , transepts and porch = = = =
The south wall of the nave shows the line of the original roof before it was raised , and contains faint remains of paintings dating from the 19th century , which consist of scriptural inscriptions . In the nave is a Jacobean pulpit , designed by Thomas Finch and made in 1601 , which was once part of a three @-@ decker pulpit . It was damaged in 1683 by a falling roof beam and was reduced in the 1855 restoration . Hanging on the wall of the nave are a number of Tudor boards which were taken from the ceiling of the south transept in 1964 ; one of these is dated 1577 . In the south aisle is a small painting of The Widow 's Mite by Jules Bouvier . A second pulpit , made of stone and dating from the late @-@ 14th century , is attached to the northeast pier of the crossing . This is designed to appear like a large chalice , and is decorated with panel tracery . The wooden crossing vault was designed by Scott . The roof of the north transept is also wooden , but of Tudor design . In the north wall of the transept is an aumbry and in the northeast corner is an oven with a chimney , which was used for baking Communion wafers . The transept contains an oak chest dated 1676 and a bench dated 1737 . In the east wall of north transept are a piscina and another aumbry .
There is another piscina in the south transept , although this is damaged , along with an alabaster effigy of Sir David Craddock , who died in about 1384 . The effigy was damaged in the Civil War , and was found buried under the chancel floor during the 19th @-@ century restoration . Sir David , who came from Nantwich , was once Mayor of Bordeaux , Justicar of Wales and a money @-@ lender to Richard II . The south transept also contains a tomb dated 1614 , which was transferred from the former St Chad 's Church , Wybunbury in 1982 . This is constructed of alabaster and limestone and includes effigies of Sir Thomas Smith , mayor and sheriff of Chester , and his wife , Anne . In addition the transept contains a number of brass memorials . At the back of the church along the west wall are the Jubilee curtains which were made by the church 's Tapestry Group to commemorate the silver jubilee of Elizabeth II in 1977 . In the porch the stone vaulting dates from 1879 and it contains the carving of a green man , while on the outside of the porch are carvings of the Four Evangelists . The room over the porch houses a library of theological books , including a complete edition ( which is thought to be unique ) of the Sarum Hymns and Sequences , printed in 1539 by Wynkyn de Worde .
= = = = Chancel = = = =
The ceiling of the chancel consists of a stone lierne vault with almost 70 carved bosses dating from the 14th century . The eastern bosses depict the life of Mary and the western ones Christ 's Passion and Resurrection . Over each choirstall is a carved wooden triple @-@ arched canopy . The canopies are described as having " a complexity unsurpassed in English medieval woodcarving " . Clifton @-@ Taylor considered that they are the finest in the country , although he complained that they have been stained nearly black . At the lower ends of the canopies are Victorian carvings of angels , grotesques and foliage and below these are carvings on corbels of subjects such as mermaids , centaurs , wyverns and musical angels . At the back of the choirstalls are 20 misericords which date from the early – mid 15th century . Under of each of these is a different carving ; the subjects include Saint George and the Dragon , the Virgin and a unicorn , and a pelican with her brood . At the ends of the choirstalls are carvings of poppyheads , wyverns and a green man . The altar table is Elizabethan and is dated 1638 . In the north wall of the sanctuary is an aumbry and on the opposite wall are a canopied piscina and a triple sedilia , also with canopies . These canopies are described as being " among the showpieces of the 14th century masons " . The reredos was dedicated in 1919 and contains carvings of Christ on the Cross , Mary and John , and the four national saints , Saints George , Andrew , Patrick and David . The canopies above them echo those of the choirstalls .
= = = = Stained glass and other features = = = =
The stained glass in the west window dates from 1875 ; it was made by Clayton and Bell and depicts the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple . Also by Clayton and Bell is a window at the west end of the north wall of the nave depicting Enoch , Noah , Job and Abel . To the east of this is a window designed by Michael Farrar @-@ Bell dated 1985 , to the memory of a local farmer , depicting the Creation . Beyond this is a window from 1901 made by Reuben Bennett which depicts the Good Shepherd with David and Miriam . On the south wall of the nave is a window from 1919 by Harry Clarke depicting Richard Coeur @-@ de @-@ Lion , saints and military emblems . In other windows on the south wall there are fragments of old glass . The north wall of the north transept contains a window with stained glass by Kempe which incorporates some pieces of medieval glass and depicts the Tree of Jesse . On the east wall of the transept are two windows by John Hardman which date from 1862 and 1864 . The south transept contains a window dating from 1855 with stained glass by William Wailes . The east window was reglazed in 1876 by Clayton and Bell ; it shows episodes from the life of Christ with figures of apostles and prophets . In the porch is more stained glass by Kempe , dating from 1878 .
The original organ was moved from its central position in the crossing to the north transept during Scott 's restoration . The instrument performed badly following the move , which was attributed to the cold and dampness of its new position . Consequently , it was moved to the south transept , but it performed no better there , and in 1889 it was sold to Haydock church . The present organ was built in 1890 by Forster and Andrews and partly rebuilt in about 1925 . It was again rebuilt in 1973 by Charles Whiteley and Company , who installed electro @-@ pneumatic action among other additions and repairs . Rushworth and Dreaper made further additions during their 1994 restoration . The parish registers date back to 1539 and contain much material relating to Nantwich 's history . There is a ring of eight bells , four of which were cast by Rudhall of Gloucester in 1713 , and the other four by John Taylor and Company in 1922 .
= = Present day = =
The church attracts large numbers each Sunday . It offers a range of services , from the traditional to the contemporary . During the week there are activities for children , young people and adults . The Rector is Canon Dr. Barry Wilson . Other clergy include the Revd Stephen Snelling and the Revd Tim Watson . The Director of Music is Tony Metcalfe . Various events , including concerts , are held in the church . Nantwich Choral Society perform in a number of venues and its " chosen venue " is St Mary 's because " its acoustics are superb " .
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= Monique Jeffries =
Detective Monique Jeffries is a fictional character played by Michelle Hurd in the American crime drama television series Law & Order : Special Victims Unit on NBC . A regular character during the first season , Jeffries is a tough and street @-@ wise detective with the New York City Police Department 's Special Victims Unit , and briefly the partner of John Munch ( Richard Belzer ) . After getting traumatized by a near @-@ death experience , Jeffries is relieved of active duty when she admits to having sex with a suspect in a previous rape case .
Hurd was cast after having appeared in other television shows by Law & Order creator Dick Wolf . Although Wolf promised her Jeffries would develop more over time , Hurd grew frustrated with the lack of material for her character . The show 's producers hesitated to keep her as Munch 's full @-@ time partner and considered eliminating the character from the show altogether . Hurd eventually departed herself to join the drama television series Leap Years . The actress earned some critical praise for her performance as Jeffries , but several commentators said the character was never properly fleshed out .
= = Character biography = =
Monique Jeffries is a tough and street @-@ wise detective with the Special Victims Unit of the New York City Police Department . After briefly partnering with Ken Briscoe ( Chris Orbach ) , she becomes the permanent partner of John Munch ( Richard Belzer ) after his previous partner , Brian Cassidy ( Dean Winters ) , leaves the unit . The two occasionally clash personalities and have a sarcastic rapport with each other . While chasing a rape suspect during one case , Jeffries is nearly killed when the suspect gets into a car that explodes . She initially appears traumatized by the incident , but later feels exhilarated over having survived and starts behaving recklessly . She begins having several one @-@ night stands and takes greater and greater risks at work , becoming something of a loose cannon at the Special Victims Unit . One night at a bar , she meets a man who had been a suspect in a previous rape case and has sex with him . When she reveals the incident during a session with a police therapist , she is taken out of active duty per One Police Plaza and works a desk job . She objects to the transfer and threatens to sue the department . Instead , she is transferred to the Vice department , and her old job in the Special Victims Unit is taken by Fin Tutuola ( Ice @-@ T ) .
= = Development = =
Michelle Hurd had appeared on the television series Law & Order , making a guest appearance on the seventh season episode " Entrapment " in 1997 . Hurd also previously appeared in the television shows New York Undercover and Players , both of which were produced by Law & Order creator Dick Wolf . When Wolf approached Hurd to play the part of Monique Jeffries , he warned her that the part was small at first but had the potential to develop , telling her , " Think of her as a flower , she 'll bloom later , but for the pilot she 's just got a scene . " The character also had less screen @-@ time than others in the series , in part so that Hurd could accept theater roles . However , Hurd felt the Jeffries character never received the development promised , claiming she " just read instructions " while playing the part . While she liked being part of the cast , Hurd said she was frustrated with the lack of material for her character , particularly when guest stars had more developed roles than Jeffries herself .
When Dean Winters departed from the show and a permanent replacement for the Brian Cassidy character was needed , Hurd had trouble convincing network officials she was correct for the part . Ted Kotcheff , the show 's co @-@ executive producer , said it was too redundant to have two man @-@ woman sets of partners , with protagonists Elliot Stabler and Olivia Benson already partnered together . Kotcheff felt Munch and Jeffries pairing diluted the relationship of Stabler and Benson because it was a " mirror image " of their partnership . Although Hurd felt more female characters should be part of a sex crimes unit , she said , " I understand the industry , and what networks want , and they wanted someone to have an impact , a rating . " The producers had discussions about removing Jeffries from the show so that Benson would be the only woman in the squad room , but no decisions were ever made .
Hurd ultimately departed from the series during the second season to join the Showtime drama series Leap Years . After her departure from the show , Hurd said , " I think it 's just sad they didn 't have faith to stick around with me . " However , she said she bore no ill feelings about her time on Law & Order : Special Victims Unit , but felt the casting on Leap Years was a " rare opportunity " . Roger Friedman , an entertainment journalist for Fox News , reported that Richard Belzer arranged for Hurd to be fired because her character was receiving too many story @-@ lines and distracting attention from him , but that report was never confirmed . Although Jeffries departed from the Special Victims Unit during the episode " Asunder " , her character was still present in the episode " Runaway " , which marked the character 's final appearance . " Runaway " was originally intended to air before " Asunder " but was broadcast out of order .
= = Reception = =
Gail Pennington of the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch said of the character , " her role was so marginal that her absence hardly registered " after she departed the series . Ken Parish Perkins of the Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram called Michelle Hurd a strong member of a " solid cast " . The South Florida Sun @-@ Sentinel said the character had " untapped potential " that appeared ready to be tapped after Dean Winters left the show , and the paper expressed disappointment it was never achieved . In an interview with Orlando Sentinel about the series , New York Police Department Detective Ted Sica said Jeffries ' wardrobe was too revealing for a detective , and that the real @-@ life department would not allow her tank tops and tight vests : " We don 't tolerate that , especially in a sex crimes unit . We 're trying to be a little dignified . "
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= Millennium Park =
Millennium Park is a public park located in the Loop community area of Chicago in Illinois , US , and originally intended to celebrate the second millennium . It is a prominent civic center near the city 's Lake Michigan shoreline that covers a 24 @.@ 5 @-@ acre ( 99 @,@ 000 m2 ) section of northwestern Grant Park . The area was previously occupied by parkland , Illinois Central rail yards , and parking lots . The park , which is bounded by Michigan Avenue , Randolph Street , Columbus Drive and East Monroe Drive , features a variety of public art . As of 2009 , Millennium Park trailed only Navy Pier as a Chicago tourist attraction . In 2015 , the park became the location of the city 's annual Christmas tree lighting .
Planning of the park began in October 1997 . Construction began in October 1998 , and Millennium Park was opened in a ceremony on July 16 , 2004 , four years behind schedule . The three @-@ day opening celebrations were attended by some 300 @,@ 000 people and included an inaugural concert by the Grant Park Orchestra and Chorus . The park has received awards for its accessibility and green design . Millennium Park has free admission , and features the Jay Pritzker Pavilion , Cloud Gate , the Crown Fountain , the Lurie Garden , and various other attractions . The park is connected by the BP Pedestrian Bridge and the Nichols Bridgeway to other parts of Grant Park . Because the park sits atop a parking garage and the commuter rail Millennium Station , it is considered the world 's largest rooftop garden .
Some observers consider Millennium Park to be the city 's most important project since the World 's Columbian Exposition of 1893 . It far exceeded its originally proposed budget of $ 150 million . The final cost of $ 475 million was borne by Chicago taxpayers and private donors . The city paid $ 270 million ; private donors paid the rest , and assumed roughly half of the financial responsibility for the cost overruns . The construction delays and cost overruns were attributed to poor planning , many design changes , and cronyism . Many critics have praised the completed park .
= = Background = =
From 1852 until 1997 , the Illinois Central Railroad owned a right of way between downtown Chicago and Lake Michigan , in the area that became Grant Park and used it for railroad tracks . In 1871 , Union Base @-@ Ball Grounds was built on part of the site that became Millennium Park ; the Chicago White Stockings played home games there until the grounds were destroyed in the Great Chicago Fire . Lake Front Park , the White Stockings ' new ball grounds , was built in 1878 with a short right field due to the railroad tracks . The grounds were improved and the seating capacity was doubled in 1883 , but the team had to move after the season ended the next year , as the federal government had given the city the land " with the stipulation that no commercial venture could use it " . Daniel Burnham planned Grant Park around the Illinois Central Railroad property in his 1909 Plan of Chicago . In 1997 , when the city gained airspace rights over the tracks , it decided to build a parking facility over them in the northwestern corner of Grant Park . Eventually , the city realized that a grand civic amenity might lure private dollars in a way that a municipal improvement would not , and thus began the effort to create Millennium Park . The park was originally planned under the name Lakefront Millennium Park .
The park was conceived as a 16 @-@ acre ( 65 @,@ 000 m2 ) landscape @-@ covered bridge over an underground parking structure to be built on top of the Metra / Illinois Central Railroad tracks in Grant Park . Originally , the park was to be designed by Skidmore , Owings & Merrill , but gradually additional architects and artists such as Frank Gehry and Thomas Beeby were incorporated into the plan . Sponsors were sought by invitation only .
In February 1999 , the city announced it was negotiating with Frank Gehry to design a proscenium arch and orchestra enclosure for a bandshell , as well as a pedestrian bridge crossing Columbus Drive , and that it was seeking donors to cover his work . At the time , the Chicago Tribune dubbed Gehry " the hottest architect in the universe " in reference to the acclaim for his Guggenheim Museum Bilbao , and they noted the designs would not include Mayor Richard M. Daley 's trademarks , such as wrought iron and seasonal flower boxes . Millennium Park project manager Edward Uhlir said " Frank is just the cutting edge of the next century of architecture , " and noted that no other architect was being sought . Gehry was approached several times by Skidmore architect Adrian Smith on behalf of the city . His hesitance and refusal to accept the commission was overcome by Cindy Pritzker , the philanthropist , who had developed a relationship with the architect when he won the Pritzker Prize in 1989 . According to John H. Bryan , who led fund @-@ raising for the park , Pritzker enticed Gehry in face @-@ to @-@ face discussions , using a $ 15 million funding commitment toward the bandshell 's creation . Having Gehry get involved helped the city realize its vision of having modern themes in the park ; upon rumors of his involvement the Chicago Sun @-@ Times proclaimed " Perhaps the future has arrived " , while the Chicago Tribune noted that " The most celebrated architect in the world may soon have a chance to bring Chicago into the 21st Century " .
Plans for the park were officially announced in March 1998 and construction began in September of that year . Initial construction was under the auspices of the Chicago Department of Transportation , because the project bridges the railroad tracks . However , as the project grew and expanded , its broad variety of features and amenities outside the scope of the field of transportation placed it under the jurisdiction of the city 's Public Buildings Commission .
In April 1999 , the city announced that the Pritzker family had donated $ 15 million to fund Gehry 's bandshell and an additional nine donors committed $ 10 million . The day of this announcement , Gehry agreed to the design request . In November , when his design was unveiled , Gehry said the bridge design was preliminary and not well @-@ conceived because funding for it was not committed . The need to fund a bridge to span the eight @-@ lane Columbus Drive was evident , but some planning for the park was delayed in anticipation of details on the redesign of Soldier Field . In January 2000 , the city announced plans to expand the park to include features that became Cloud Gate , the Crown Fountain , the McDonald 's Cycle Center , and the BP Pedestrian Bridge . Later that month , Gehry unveiled his new winding design for the bridge .
Mayor Daley 's influence was key in getting corporate and individual sponsors to pay for much of the park . Bryan , the former chief executive officer ( CEO ) of Sara Lee Corporation who spearheaded the fundraising , says that sponsorship was by invitation and no one refused the opportunity to be a sponsor . One Time magazine writer describes the park as the crowning achievement for Mayor Daley , while another suggests the park 's cost and time overages were examples of the city 's mismanagement . The July 16 – 18 , 2004 , opening gala was sponsored by J.P. Morgan Chase & Co .
The community surrounding Millennium Park has become one of the most fashionable residential addresses in Chicago . In 2006 , Forbes named the park 's 60602 zip code as the hottest in terms of price appreciation in the country , with upscale buildings such as The Heritage at Millennium Park ( 130 N. Garland ) leading the way for other buildings , such as Waterview Tower , The Legacy and Joffrey Tower . The median sale price for residential real estate was $ 710 @,@ 000 in 2005 according to Forbes , also ranking it on the list of most expensive zip codes . The park has been credited with increasing residential real estate values by $ 100 per square foot ( $ 1 @,@ 076 per m2 ) .
= = Features = =
Millennium Park is a portion of the 319 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 3 km2 ) Grant Park , known as the " front lawn " of downtown Chicago , and has four major artistic highlights : the Jay Pritzker Pavilion , Cloud Gate , the Crown Fountain , and the Lurie Garden . Millennium Park is successful as a public art venue in part due to the grand scale of each piece and the open spaces for display . A showcase for postmodern architecture , it also features the McCormick Tribune Ice Skating Rink , the BP Pedestrian Bridge , the Joan W. and Irving B. Harris Theater for Music and Dance , Wrigley Square , the McDonald 's Cycle Center , the Exelon Pavilions , the AT & T Plaza , the Boeing Galleries , the Chase Promenade , and the Nichols Bridgeway .
Millennium Park is considered one of the largest green roofs in the world , having been constructed on top of a railroad yard and large parking garages . The park , which is known for being user friendly , has a very rigorous cleaning schedule with many areas being swept , wiped down or cleaned multiple times a day . Although the park was unveiled in July 2004 , some features opened earlier , and upgrades continued for some time afterwards . Along with the cultural features above ground ( described below ) the park has its own 2218 @-@ space parking garage .
= = = Jay Pritzker Pavilion = = =
The centerpiece of Millennium Park is the Jay Pritzker Pavilion , a bandshell designed by Frank Gehry . The pavilion has 4 @,@ 000 fixed seats , plus additional lawn seating for 7 @,@ 000 ; the stage is framed by curving plates of stainless steel , characteristic of Gehry . It was named after Jay Pritzker , whose family is known for owning Hyatt Hotels and was a major donor . The Pritzker Pavilion is Grant Park 's outdoor performing arts venue for small events , and complements Petrillo Music Shell , the park 's older and larger bandshell . The pavilion is built partially atop the Harris Theater for Music and Dance , the park 's indoor performing arts venue , with which it shares a loading dock and backstage facilities . The pavilion is seen as a major upgrade from the Petrillo Music Shell for those events it hosts . Initially , the pavilion 's lawn seats were free for all concerts , but this changed when Tori Amos performed the first rock concert there on August 31 , 2005 .
The Pritzker Pavilion is the home of the Grant Park Symphony Orchestra and Chorus and the Grant Park Music Festival , the nation 's only remaining free , municipally supported , outdoor , classical music series . The Festival is presented by the Chicago Park District and the Chicago Department of Cultural Affairs . The Pavilion hosts a wide range of other music series and annual performing arts events . Performers ranging from mainstream rock bands to classical musicians and opera singers have appeared at the pavilion , which also hosts physical fitness activities such as yoga . All rehearsals at the pavilion are open to the public ; trained guides are available for the music festival rehearsals , which are well @-@ attended .
The construction of the pavilion created a legal controversy , given that there are historic limitations on the height of buildings in Grant Park . To avoid these legal restrictions , the city classifies the bandshell as a work of art rather than a building . With several design and assembly problems , the construction plans were revised over time , with features eliminated and others added as successful fundraising allowed the budget to grow . In the end , the performance venue was designed with a large fixed seating area , a Great Lawn , a trellis network to support the sound system , and a headdress fashioned from signature Gehry stainless steel . It features a sound system with an acoustic design that replicates an indoor concert hall sound experience . The pavilion and Millennium Park have received favorable recognition by critics , especially for their accessibility ; an accessibility award ceremony held at the pavilion in 2005 described it as " one of the most accessible parks — not just in the United States but possibly the world " .
= = = AT & T Plaza and Cloud Gate = = =
The AT & T Plaza is a public space that hosts the Cloud Gate sculpture . The plaza opened in July 2004 with the unveiling of the sculpture during the grand opening weekend of the park . Ameritech donated $ 3 million for the naming right for the plaza , but it was SBC Plaza when the park opened , as a merger had changed the company name to SBC Communications . The 2005 merger of SBC and AT & T Corporation led to the present name . The sculpture and the AT & T Plaza are located on top of Park Grill , between the Chase Promenade and McCormick Tribune Plaza & Ice Rink . The plaza has become a place to view the McCormick Tribune Plaza & Ice Rink . During the holiday season , the plaza hosts Christmas caroling . Cloud Gate is a three @-@ story steel sculpture that has been dubbed " The Bean " by Chicagoans , because of its legume @-@ like shape . The sculpture is the first public artwork in the United States by world @-@ renowned artist Anish Kapoor . The privately funded piece cost $ 23 million , considerably more than the original estimate of $ 6 million . Composed of 168 stainless steel plates welded together , its highly polished exterior has no visible seams . It is 33 by 66 by 42 feet ( 10 m × 20 m × 13 m ) and weighs 110 short tons ( 100 t ; 98 long tons ) .
After Kapoor 's design for the sculpture was selected during a design competition , numerous technological concerns regarding the design 's construction and assembly arose , in addition to concerns regarding the sculpture 's upkeep and maintenance . Experts were consulted , some of whom believed the design could not be implemented . Eventually , a feasible method was found , but the sculpture 's construction fell behind schedule . Cloud Gate was unveiled in an incomplete form during the Millennium Park grand opening celebration , as the grid of welds around each metal panel was still visible . The sculpture was concealed again while it was completed ; in early 2005 , workers polished out the seams . Cloud Gate was formally dedicated on May 15 , 2006 , and it has since gained considerable popularity , both domestically and internationally .
Cloud Gate ( also known as " the Bean " ) is a reflective steel sculpture that is inspired by liquid mercury ; the sculpture 's surface reflects and distorts the city 's skyline . The curved , mirror @-@ like surface of the sculpture provides striking reflections of visitors , the city skyline ( particularly the historic Michigan Avenue " streetwall " ) and the sky . Visitors are able to walk around and under Cloud Gate 's 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) high arch . On the underside is the " omphalos " ( Greek for " navel " ) , a concave chamber that warps and multiplies reflections . The sculpture builds upon many of Kapoor 's artistic themes and is popular with tourists as a photo @-@ taking opportunity for its unique reflective properties .
= = = Crown Fountain = = =
The Crown Fountain is an interactive work of public art and video sculpture , named in honor of Chicago 's Crown family and opened in July 2004 . It was designed by Catalan conceptual artist Jaume Plensa and executed by Krueck and Sexton Architects . The fountain is composed of a black granite reflecting pool placed between a pair of transparent glass brick towers . The towers are 50 feet ( 15 m ) tall , and use light @-@ emitting diodes behind the bricks to display digital videos on their inward faces . Construction and design of the Crown Fountain cost $ 17 million .
Weather permitting , the water operates from May to October , intermittently cascading down the two towers and spouting through a nozzle on each tower 's front face . To achieve the effect in which water appears to be flowing from subjects ' mouths , each video has a segment where the subject 's lips are puckered , which is then timed to correspond to the spouting water , reminiscent of gargoyle fountains ; this happens roughly every five minutes . The park and fountain are open to the public daily from 6 a.m. to 11 p.m.
Residents and critics have praised the fountain for its artistic and entertainment features . It highlights Plensa 's themes of dualism , light , and water , extending the use of video technology from his prior works . The fountain promotes physical interaction between the public and the water in an artistic setting . Both the fountain and Millennium Park are highly accessible because of their universal design .
The Crown Fountain has been the most controversial of all the Millennium Park features . Before it was built , some were concerned that the sculpture 's height violated the aesthetic tradition of the park . After construction , surveillance cameras were installed atop the fountain , which led to a public outcry ( and their quick removal ) . However , the fountain has survived its somewhat contentious beginnings to find its way into Chicago pop culture . It is a popular subject for photographers and a common gathering place . While some of the videos displayed are of scenery , most attention has focused on its video clips of local residents , in which almost a thousand Chicagoans randomly appear on two screens . The fountain is a public play area and offers people an escape from summer heat , allowing children to frolic in the fountain 's water .
= = = Lurie Garden = = =
The Lurie Garden is a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ acre ( 10 @,@ 000 m2 ) public garden located at the southern end of Millennium Park ; designed by Kathryn Gustafson , Piet Oudolf , and Robert Israel , it opened on July 16 , 2004 . The garden is a combination of perennials , bulbs , grasses , shrubs and trees . It is the featured nature component of the world 's largest green roof . The garden cost $ 13 @.@ 2 million and has a $ 10 million financial endowment for maintenance and upkeep . It was named after philanthropist Ann Lurie , who donated the $ 10 million endowment . The garden is a tribute to the city , whose motto is " Urbs in Horto " , Latin for " City in a Garden " . The Lurie Garden is composed of two " plates " . The dark plate depicts Chicago 's history by presenting shade @-@ loving plants , and has a combination of trees that will provide a shade canopy for these plants when they fill in . The light plate , which has no trees , represents the city 's future with sun @-@ loving perennials that thrive in heat and light .
= = = McCormick Tribune Plaza & Ice Rink and Park Grill = = =
The McCormick Tribune Plaza & Ice Rink is a multipurpose venue located along the western edge of Millennium Park opposite the streetwall of the Historic Michigan Boulevard District . On December 20 , 2001 , it became the first attraction in Millennium Park to open , a few weeks ahead of the Millennium Park underground parking garage . The $ 3 @.@ 2 million plaza was funded by a donation from the McCormick Tribune Foundation . For four months a year , it operates as McCormick Tribune Ice Rink , a free public outdoor ice skating rink . It is generally open for skating from mid @-@ November until mid @-@ March and hosts over 100 @,@ 000 skaters annually . It is known as one of Chicago 's better outdoor people watching locations during the winter months . The rink is operated by the Chicago Department of Cultural Affairs rather than the Chicago Park District , which operates most major public ice skating rinks in Chicago .
For the rest of the year , it serves as The Plaza at Park Grill or Park Grill Plaza , Chicago 's largest al fresco dining facility . The 150 @-@ seat outdoor restaurant offers scenic views of the park , and hosts various culinary events and musical performances during its months of operation . From June 21 to September 15 , 2002 , the plaza served as an open @-@ air exhibition space and hosted the inaugural exhibit in Millennium Park , Exelon Presents Earth From Above by Yann Arthus @-@ Bertrand , a French aerial photographer .
The Park Grill Plaza is affiliated with the 300 @-@ seat indoor Park Grill restaurant , located beneath the AT & T Plaza and Cloud Gate . The Park Grill is the only full @-@ service restaurant in Millennium Park and opened on November 24 , 2003 . It regularly places among the leaders in citywide best @-@ of competitions for best burger , and it is widely praised for its views . The restaurant has been the focus of controversies about the numerous associates of Mayor Daley who are investors , its exclusive location and lucrative contract terms . One of the most financially successful restaurants in Chicago , the Park Grill remains exempt from property taxes after a multi @-@ year litigation which reached the appellate courts in Illinois .
= = = BP Pedestrian Bridge = = =
The BP Pedestrian Bridge is a girder footbridge over Columbus Drive that connects Millennium Park with Maggie Daley Park ( formerly , Daley Bicentennial Plaza ) , both parts of the larger Grant Park . The pedestrian bridge is the first bridge Gehry designed to be built , and was named for BP plc , which donated $ 5 million to the construction of the park . It opened on July 16 , 2004 , along with the rest of Millennium Park . Gehry had been courted by the city to design the bridge and the neighboring Jay Pritzker Pavilion , and eventually agreed to do so after the Pritzker family funded the Pavilion . The bridge is known for its aesthetics , and Gehry 's style is seen in its biomorphic allusions and extensive sculptural use of stainless steel plates to express abstraction . The bridge is referred to as snakelike in character due to its curving form . The bridge 's design , which meets highway standards to accommodate rushes of pedestrian traffic simultaneously exiting Pritzker Pavilion events , enables it to bear a heavy load .
The pedestrian bridge serves as a noise barrier for the pavilion , blocking traffic sounds from Columbus Drive . It is a connecting link between Millennium Park and destinations to the east , such as the nearby lakefront , other parts of Grant Park and a parking garage . The BP Bridge uses a concealed box girder design with a concrete base , and its deck is covered by hardwood floor boards . It is designed without handrails , using stainless steel parapets instead . The total length is 935 feet ( 285 m ) , with a five percent slope on its inclined surfaces that makes it barrier @-@ free and accessible . It has won awards for its use of sheet metal . Although the bridge is closed in winter because ice cannot be safely removed from its wooden walkway , it has received favorable reviews for its design and aesthetics .
= = = Harris Theater = = =
The Joan W. and Irving B. Harris Theater for Music and Dance is a 1525 @-@ seat theater for the performing arts located along the northern edge of Millennium Park . Constructed in 2002 – 03 , it is the city 's premier performance venue for small- and medium @-@ sized performance groups , which had previously been without a permanent home and were underserved by the city 's performing venue options . The theater , which is largely underground due to Grant Park @-@ related height restrictions , was named for its primary benefactors , Joan and Irving Harris . It serves as the park 's indoor performing venue , a compliment to Jay Pritzker Pavilion , which hosts the park 's outdoor performances . Among the regularly featured local groups are the Joffrey Ballet , Hubbard Street Dance Chicago and Chicago Opera Theater . It provides subsidized rental , technical expertise , and marketing support for the companies using it , and turned a profit in its fourth fiscal year .
The Harris Theater has hosted notable national and international performers , such as the New York City Ballet , which made its first visit to Chicago in over 25 years ( in 2006 ) . The theater began offering subscription series of traveling performers in its 2008 – 09 fifth anniversary season . Performances through this series have included the San Francisco Ballet , Mikhail Baryshnikov , and Stephen Sondheim .
The theater has been credited as contributing to the performing arts renaissance in Chicago , and it has been favorably reviewed for its acoustics , sightlines , proscenium and for providing a home base for numerous performing organizations . Although it is seen as a high @-@ caliber venue for its music audiences , the theater is regarded as less than ideal for jazz groups , because it is more expensive and larger than most places where jazz is performed . The design has been criticized for traffic flow problems , with an elevator bottleneck . However , the theater 's prominent location and its underground design to preserve Millennium Park have been praised . Although there were complaints about high @-@ priced events in its early years , discounted ticket programs were introduced in the 2009 – 10 season .
= = = Wrigley Square = = =
Wrigley Square is a public square located in the northwest corner of Millennium Park near the intersection of East Randolph Street and North Michigan , across from the Historic Michigan Boulevard District . It contains the Millennium Monument , a nearly full @-@ sized replica of the semicircle of paired Greek Doric @-@ style columns ( called a peristyle ) that originally sat in this area of Grant Park between 1917 and 1953 . The square also contains a large lawn and a public fountain . The William Wrigley , Jr . Foundation contributed $ 5 million for the monument and square , which was named in its honor . The pedestal of the Millennium Monument 's peristyle is inscribed with the names of the 115 financial donors who made the 91 contributions of at least $ 1 million each to help pay for Millennium Park .
= = = McDonald 's Cycle Center = = =
The McDonald 's Cycle Center is a 300 @-@ space heated and air conditioned indoor bike station located in the northeast corner of Millennium Park . The facility provides lockers , showers , a snack bar with outdoor summer seating , bike repair , bike rental and other amenities for downtown bicycle commuters and utility cyclists . The bike station also accommodates runners and in @-@ line skaters , and provides space for a Chicago Police Department Bike Patrol Group . The city @-@ built center opened in July 2004 as the Millennium Park Bike Station ; since June 2006 , it has been sponsored by McDonald 's and several other partners , including city departments and bicycle advocacy organizations . Suburban Chicago @-@ based McDonald 's sponsorship of the Cycle Center fit in well with its efforts to help its customers become more healthy by encouraging " balanced , active lifestyles " . The Cycle Center is accessible by membership and day pass .
Planning for the Cycle Center was part of the larger " Bike 2010 Plan " , in which the city aimed to make itself more accommodating to bicycle commuters . This plan ( since replaced by the " Bike 2015 Plan " ) included provisions for front @-@ mounted two @-@ bike carriers on Chicago Transit Authority ( CTA ) buses , permitting bikes to be carried on Chicago ' L ' trains , installing numerous bike racks and creating bicycle lanes in streets throughout the city . Additionally , the Chicago metropolitan area 's other mass transit providers , Metra and Pace , have developed increased bike accessibility . Mayor Daley was an advocate of the plan , noting it is also an environmentally friendly effort to cut down on traffic . Environmentalists , urban planners and cycling enthusiasts around the world have expressed interest in the Cycle Center , and want to emulate what they see as a success story in urban planning and transit @-@ oriented development . Pro @-@ cycling and environmentalist journalists in publications well beyond Chicago have described the Cycle Center as exemplary , impressive , unique and ground @-@ breaking . The Toronto Star notes that it is revered as " a kind of Shangri @-@ La " , and describes it as " a jewel @-@ like glass building on the Chicago waterfront , [ that ] has many of the amenities of an upscale health club [ ... ] close to the heart of the city " , with the additional statement that " It 's not heaven , but it 's close " . A Vancouver official told The Oregonian that it was " the ultimate in bicycle stations " , and would be natural for bicycle friendly cities to emulate .
= = = Exelon Pavilions = = =
The Exelon Pavilions are a set of four solar energy @-@ generating structures in Millennium Park . The pavilions provide sufficient energy to power the equivalent of 14 Energy star @-@ rated energy @-@ efficient houses in Chicago . The pavilions were designed in January 2001 and construction began in January 2004 . The Southeast and Southwest Exelon Pavilions ( jointly the South Exelon Pavilions ) along Madison Street were completed and opened in July 2004 , and flank the Lurie Garden . The Northeast and Northwest Exelon Pavilions ( jointly the North Exelon Pavilions ) flank the Harris Theater along Randolph Street and were completed in November 2004 , with a grand opening on April 30 , 2005 . Besides producing energy , three of the four pavilions provide access to the park 's underground parking garages and the fourth serves as the park 's welcome center . Exelon , a company that generates the electricity transmitted by its subsidiary Commonwealth Edison , donated approximately $ 6 million for the pavilions .
= = = Boeing Galleries = = =
The Boeing Galleries are a pair of outdoor exhibition spaces within Millennium Park ; they are located along the south and north mid @-@ level terraces , above and east of Wrigley Square and the Crown Fountain . They were added after the park opened ; in March 2005 , Boeing President and Chief Executive Officer James Bell announced the firm would make a $ 5 million grant to fund construction of the spaces , and for an endowment to " help fund visual arts exhibitions " in them . The galleries , which were built between March and June 2005 , have hosted grand @-@ scale art exhibits , some of which have run for two full summers .
= = = Chase Promenade = = =
The Chase Promenade is an open @-@ air tree @-@ lined pedestrian walkway in Millennium Park that opened July 16 , 2004 . The promenade was made possible by a gift from the Bank One Foundation ; Bank One merged with JPMorgan Chase in 2004 , and the name became Chase Promenade . The 8 @-@ acre ( 32 @,@ 000 m2 ) walkway accommodates exhibitions , festivals and other family events . It also serves as a private @-@ event rental venue . The Chase Promenade hosted the 2009 Burnham Pavilions , which were the cornerstone of the citywide Burnham Plan centennial celebration .
= = = Nichols Bridgeway = = =
The Nichols Bridgeway , a pedestrian bridge that opened on May 16 , 2009 , connects the south end of Millennium Park with the Modern Wing of the Art Institute of Chicago . The bridge begins at the southwest end of the Jay Pritzker Pavilion 's Great Lawn and extends across Monroe Street , where it connects to the third floor of the Art Institute 's West Pavilion . The bridge design by Renzo Piano , the architect of the Modern Wing , was inspired by the hull of a boat .
The Nichols Bridgeway is approximately 620 ft ( 190 m ) long and 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide . The bottom of the bridge is made of white , painted structural steel , the floor is made of aluminum planking and the 42 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) tall railings are steel set atop stainless steel mesh . The bridge features anti @-@ slip walkways and heating elements to prevent the formation of ice . It meets standards for universal accessibility , as required by the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 ( ADA ) . The bridge is named after museum donors Alexandra and John Nichols .
= = Budget = =
During development and construction of the park , many structures were added , redesigned or modified . These changes often resulted in budget increases . For example , the bandshell 's proposed budget was $ 10 @.@ 8 million . When the elaborate , cantilevered Gehry design required extra pilings to be driven into the bedrock to support the added weight , the cost of the bandshell eventually spiraled to $ 60 @.@ 3 million . The cost of the park , as itemized in the following table , amounted to almost $ 500 million .
Mayor Daley at first placed much of the blame for the delay and cost overrun on Frank Gehry , who designed the pavilion and its connecting bridge ; Daley 's office later apologized to the architect . A 2001 investigative report by the Chicago Tribune described the park then under construction and its budget overruns as an " expensive public @-@ works debacle that can be traced to haphazard planning , design snafus and cronyism " . According to Lois Weisberg , commissioner of the Department of Cultural Affairs , and James Law , executive director of the Mayor 's Office of Special Events , once the full scope of the project was finalized the project was completed within the revised budget .
= = Use = =
Millennium Park had 3 million visitors in its first year ; annual attendance was projected to grow to between 3 @.@ 31 and 3 @.@ 65 million by 2010 . According to Crain 's Chicago Business , however , the park had about 4 million visitors in 2009 . In addition to the different uses detailed for each of the permanent features ( above ) , the park has hosted some other notable events , including the annual Grant Park Music Festival , and two temporary pavilions to mark the centennial of Daniel Burnham 's 1909 Plan of Chicago . Millennium Park has also been featured in several films and television shows .
= = = Grant Park Music Festival = = =
The Grant Park Music Festival ( formerly Grant Park Concerts ) is an annual 10 @-@ week classical music concert series , which features the Grant Park Symphony Orchestra and the Grant Park Chorus as well as guest performers and conductors . Since 2004 , the festival has been housed in the Jay Pritzker Pavilion in Millennium Park . On occasion , the festival has been held at the Harris Theater instead of the Pritzker Pavilion . The festival has earned non @-@ profit organization status , and claims to be the nation 's only free , outdoor classical music series .
The Grant Park Music Festival has been a Chicago tradition since 1931 , when Chicago Mayor Anton Cermak suggested free concerts to lift spirits of Chicagoans during the Great Depression . The tradition of symphonic Grant Park Music Festival concerts began in 1935 . The 2004 season , during which the festival moved to the Pritzker Pavilion , was the event 's 70th season . Formerly , the Grant Park Music Festival was held at the Petrillo Music Shell in Grant Park .
Over time the festival has had various financial supporters , three primary locations and one name change . At times it has been broadcast nationally on the National Broadcasting Corporation ( NBC ) and Columbia Broadcasting Service ( CBS ) radio networks , and many of the world 's leading classical musicians have performed there . In 2000 , the festival organizers agreed to release some of the concerts to the public via compact disc recordings .
= = = Installation of Burnham Pavilions in 2009 = = =
In 2009 , architects Zaha Hadid and Ben van Berkel were invited to design and build two pavilions on the Chase Promenade South , to commemorate the 100th anniversary of Daniel Burnham 's 1909 Plan of Chicago . The pavilions were privately funded and were designed to be temporary structures . They served as the focal point of Chicago 's year @-@ long celebration of Burnham 's Plan , and were meant to symbolize the city 's continued pursuit of the plan 's architectural vision .
The van Berkel Pavilion was composed of two parallel rectangular planes joined by curving scoops , all built on a steel frame covered with glossy white plywood . It was situated on a raised platform , which was sliced by a ramp entrance , making it ADA accessible . The Hadid Pavilion was a tensioned fabric shell fitted over a curving aluminum framework made of more than 7 @,@ 000 pieces . A centennial @-@ themed video presentation was projected on its interior fabric walls after dark .
Both pavilions were scheduled to be unveiled on June 19 , 2009 . However , Hadid 's pavilion was not ready in time ; it had construction delays and a construction team change , which led to coverage of the delay in The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal . Only its aluminum skeleton was available for public viewing on the scheduled date ; the work was completed and unveiled on August 4 , 2009 . The van Berkel pavilion was temporarily closed for repairs August 10 – 14 , due to unanticipated wear and tear . Both pavilions were dismantled after November 1 , 2009 ; the materials from van Berkel 's were recycled , while Hadid 's was stored for possible exhibition elsewhere .
= = = Christmas tree = = =
In October 2015 , the City announced that its official annual Christmas tree lighting , which had been held at Daley Center since 1966 ( except for 1982 ) , would be held at the park in order that the official Christmas tree of the city could be closer to ice skating at McCormick Tribune Plaza & Ice Rink , the annual Christmas caroling at Cloud Gate and to the new offerings of the nearby Maggie Daley Park . The annual lighting will occur near Michigan Avenue and Washington Street . Some parties opposed the move that separated the annual tree from the Christkindlmarket and the Chicago Picasso . The city 's first official tree lighting by Mayor Carter Harrison , Jr. in 1913 had been held in Grant Park on Michigan Avenue two blocks south of the new location .
= = = In popular culture = = =
Jeff Garlin claims that I Want Someone to Eat Cheese With was the first Hollywood movie to incorporate Millennium Park . The film was not released until 2006 , after the release of several other movies . These include the 2005 film The Weather Man , which starred Nicolas Cage and was filmed in part at the park 's McCormick Tribune Plaza & Ice Rink . The 2006 romantic comedy The Break @-@ Up shot scenes in the park , then had to reshoot some of them because Cloud Gate was under cover in some of the initial shots . Other movies which include scenes filmed in Millennium Park include the 2005 thriller Derailed , the 2006 romance The Lake House , and the 2007 thriller Butterfly on a Wheel . At least two television series have filmed in the park , including Leverage and Prison Break , which featured shots of the Crown Fountain in the first few episodes of its first season ( 2005 ) . In the ending scene of Source Code ( 2011 ) , Jake Gyllenhaal 's and Michelle Monaghan 's characters are seen walking through Millennium Park , and make their way to the Cloud Gate . In the 2012 romantic comedy , The Vow , the characters run from the Art Institute of Chicago across the Nichols Bridgeway to Millennium Park , where they kiss under Cloud Gate .
= = Criticism and controversy = =
= = = Height restrictions = = =
In 1836 , a year before Chicago was incorporated , the Board of Canal Commissioners held public auctions for the city 's first lots . Foresighted citizens , who wanted the lakefront kept as public open space , convinced the commissioners to designate the land east of Michigan Avenue between Randolph Street and Park Row ( 11th Street ) " Public Ground — A Common to Remain Forever Open , Clear and Free of Any Buildings , or Other Obstruction , whatever . " Grant Park has been " forever open , clear and free " since , protected by legislation that has been affirmed by four previous Illinois Supreme Court rulings . In 1839 , United States Secretary of War Joel Roberts Poinsett upon decommissioning the Fort Dearborn reserve , declared the land between Randolph Street and Madison Street east of Michigan Avenue " Public Ground forever to remain vacant of buildings " .
Aaron Montgomery Ward , who is known both as the inventor of mail order and the protector of Grant Park , twice sued the city of Chicago to force it to remove buildings and structures from Grant Park and to keep it from building new ones . In 1890 , arguing that Michigan Avenue property owners held easements on the park land , Ward commenced legal actions to keep the park free of new buildings . In 1900 , the Illinois Supreme Court concluded that all landfill east of Michigan Avenue was subject to dedications and easements . In 1909 , when Ward sought to prevent the construction of the Field Museum of Natural History in the center of the park , the courts affirmed his arguments .
As a result , the city has what are termed Montgomery Ward height restrictions on buildings and structures in Grant Park . However , the Crown Fountain and the 139 @-@ foot ( 42 m ) Pritzker Pavilion were exempt from the height restrictions , because they were classified as works of art and not buildings or structures . According to The Economist , the pavilion is described as a work of art to dodge the protections established by Ward , who is said to continue to rule and protect Grant Park from his grave . The Harris Theater , which is adjacent to Pritzker Pavilion , was built almost entirely underground to avoid the height restrictions . The height of the Crown Fountain , which is also exempted as a work of art , has been described as stemming from a " pissing contest " with other park feature artists .
= = = Financial issues = = =
The Millennium Park project has been the subject of some criticism since its inception . In addition to concerns about cost overruns , individuals and organizations have complained that the money spent on the park might have gone to other worthy causes , citing poverty in Chicago and problems in the city 's schools . Although the park 's design and architectural elements have won wide praise , there has been some criticism of its aesthetics . Other criticism has revolved around the larger issue of corruption and political favoritism in the city ; The New York Times reported in July 2004 that an inflated contract for park cleanup had gone to a company that made large contributions to Mayor Daley 's election campaign . The park 's only full service restaurant , Park Grill , has been criticized for its connection to numerous friends and associates of the mayor .
Concerns have also been raised over the mixed use of taxpayer and corporate funding and associated naming rights for sections of the park . While a monument in Wrigley Square honors the park 's many private and corporate donors , many park features are also named for their corporate underwriters , with the sponsors ' names prominently indicated with stone markers ( The Boeing Gallery , The Exelon Pavilion , The AT & T Plaza , The Wrigley Square ) . Some critics have deemed this to be inappropriate for a public space . Julie Deardorff , Chicago Tribune health and fitness reporter , described the naming of the McDonald 's Cycle Center as a continuation of the " ' McDonaldization ' of America " and as somewhat " insidious " because the company is making itself more prominent as the social sentiment is to move away from fast food . Timothy Gilfoyle , author of Millennium Park : Creating a Chicago Landmark , notes that a controversy surrounds the " tasteless " corporate naming of several of the Park 's features , including the BP Bridge , named for an oil company . Naming rights were sold for high fees , and Gilfoyle was not the only one who chastised park officials for selling naming rights to the highest bidder . Public interest groups have crusaded against commercialization of Chicago parks . However , many of the donors have a long history of local philanthropy and their funds were essential to provide necessary financing for several park features .
Ticket prices for both the Harris Theater and the Pritzker Pavilion have been controversial . John von Rhein , classical music critic for the Chicago Tribune , notes that the theater 's size poses a challenge to performers attempting to fill its seats , and feels that it overemphasizes high @-@ priced events . In 2009 – 2010 , the theater introduced two discounted ticket programs : a $ 5 lunchtime series of 45 @-@ minute dance performances , and a $ 10 ticket program for in @-@ person , cash @-@ only purchases in the last 90 minutes before performances . Once the pavilion was built , the initial plan was that the lawn seating would be free for all events . An early brochure for the Grant Park Music Festival said " You never need a ticket to attend a concert ! The lawn and the general seating section are always admission free . " However , when parking garage revenue fell short of estimates during the first year , the city charged $ 10 for lawn seating at the August 31 , 2005 , concert by Tori Amos . Amos , a classically trained musician who chose only piano and organ accompaniment for her concert , earned positive reviews as the inaugural rock and roll performer in a venue that regularly hosts classical music . The city justified the charge by contending that since the pavilion is an open @-@ air venue , there were many places in Millennium Park where people could have enjoyed the music or the atmosphere of the park without having to pay .
= = = Use restrictions = = =
When Millennium Park first opened in 2004 , Metra police stopped a Columbia College Chicago journalism student working on a photography project , and confiscated his film because of fears of terrorism . In 2005 , Cloud Gate attracted some controversy when a professional photographer without a paid permit was denied access to the piece . As is the case for all works of art currently covered by United States copyright law , the artist holds the copyright for the sculpture . The public may freely photograph Cloud Gate , but permission from Kapoor or the City of Chicago ( which has licensed the art ) is required for any commercial reproductions of the photographs . Initially the city charged photographers permit fees of $ 350 per day for professional still photographers , $ 1 @,@ 200 per day for professional videographers and $ 50 per hour for wedding photographers . The policy has been changed so permits are only required for large @-@ scale film , video and photography requiring 10 @-@ person crews .
Almost all of Millennium Park was closed for a day for corporate events in 2005 and 2006 . Closing a public park partly paid for with taxpayer money was controversial , as was the exclusion of commuters who walk through the park and tourists lured by its attractions . On September 8 , 2005 , Toyota Motor Sales USA paid $ 800 @,@ 000 to rent all park venues from 6 a.m. to 11 p.m , except Wrigley Square , the Lurie Garden , the McDonald 's Cycle Center and the Crown Fountain . The city said the money was used to fund day @-@ to @-@ day operations , and for free events in the park , including the Lurie Garden Festival , a Steppenwolf Theater production , musical performers along the Chase Promenade all summer long , a jazz series , and children 's concerts . The name of Toyota , one of the sponsors , was included on Millennium Park brochures , web site , and advertising signage . The closure provided a public relations opportunity for General Motors , which shuttled 1 @,@ 500 tourists from the park to see other Chicago attractions . Toyota said it considered $ 300 @,@ 000 a rental expense and $ 500 @,@ 000 a sponsoring donation . On August 7 , 2006 , Allstate , which paid $ 200 @,@ 000 as a rental expense and $ 500 @,@ 000 as a sponsoring donation , acquired the visitation rights to a different set of park features ( including Lurie Garden ) , and only had exclusive access to certain features after 4 p.m.
The park is closed from 11 p.m. to 6 a.m. daily . Chicago is a dog @-@ friendly city with a half dozen dog beaches , however the city does not permit dogs in the park . Only on @-@ duty service dogs for the disabled or visually impaired are permitted .
= = = Surveillance cameras = = =
In November 2006 , the Crown Fountain became the focus of a public controversy when the city added surveillance cameras atop each tower . Purchased with a $ 52 million Department of Homeland Security grant , the cameras augmented eight others covering all of Millennium Park . City officials had consulted the architects who collaborated with Plensa on the tower designs , but not Plensa himself . Public reaction was negative , as bloggers and the artistic community decried the cameras as inappropriate and a blight on the towers . The city said that the cameras would be replaced with permanent , less intrusive models in several months ; it contended that the cameras , similar to those used throughout Chicago in high @-@ crime areas and at traffic intersections , had been added largely for security reasons but also partly to help park officials monitor burnt @-@ out LED lights on the fountain . The Chicago Tribune published an article on the cameras and the public reaction ; the cameras were removed the next day , with Plensa 's support .
= = Reception and recognition = =
The Financial Times describes Millennium Park as " an extraordinary public park that is set to create new iconic images of the city " , and further notes that it is " a genuinely 21st @-@ century interactive park [ that ] could trigger a new way of thinking about public outdoor spaces " . Time magazine views both Cloud Gate and the Jay Pritzker Pavilion as part of a well @-@ planned visit to Chicago . Frommer 's lists exploring Millennium Park as one of the four best free things to do in the city , and it commends the park for its various artistic offerings . Lonely Planet recommends an hour @-@ long stroll to see the park 's playful art . The park is praised as a " showcase of art and urban design " by the San Francisco Chronicle , while Time refers to it as an " artfully re @-@ arranged [ ... ] civic phantasmagoria like Antonio Gaudí 's Park Güell in Barcelona , with the difference that this one is the product of an ensemble of creative spirits " . The book 1 @,@ 000 Places to See in the U.S.A. & Canada Before You Die describes Millennium Park as a renowned attraction .
The park was designed to be accessible ; it only needs a single wheelchair lift and its accessibility won its project director the 2005 Barrier @-@ Free America Award . The McCormick Tribune Plaza & Ice Rink and the Jay Pritzker Pavilion both provide accessible restrooms . The park opened with 78 women 's toilet fixtures and 45 for men , with heated facilities on the east side of the Pritzker Pavilion . It also had about six dozen park benches designed by Kathryn Gustafson , the landscape architect responsible for the Lurie Garden . In 2005 , the park won the Green Roof Award of Excellence in the Intensive Industrial / Commercial category from Green Roofs for Healthy Cities ( GRHC ) . GRHC considers the park to be one of the largest green roofs in the world ; it covers " a structural deck supported by two reinforced concrete cast @-@ in @-@ place garages and steel structures that span over the remaining railroad tracks " . In 2005 the park also received Travel + Leisure 's Design Award for " Best Public Space " , and the American Public Works Association 's " Project of the Year " Award . In its first year , the park , its features and associated people received over 30 awards .
Some mayors from other cities have admired the park as an example of successful urban planning . The mayor of Shanghai enjoyed his visit to the park , and San Francisco Mayor Gavin Newsom wished his city could create a similar type of civic amenity . Closer to home , Blair Kamin , the Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning architecture critic for the Chicago Tribune , concluded his 2004 review of Millennium Park with the following : " ... a park provides a respite from the city , yet it also reflects the city . In that sense , all of Millennium Park mirrors the rebirth of Chicago ... the ambition of its patrons , the creativity of its artists and architects , and the ongoing miracle of its ability to transform a no place into a someplace that 's extraordinary . " In 2009 Millennium Park won the Rudy Bruner Award for Urban Excellence silver medal .
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= Uppsala Cathedral =
Uppsala Cathedral ( Swedish : Uppsala domkyrka ) is a cathedral located between Uppsala University and the River Fyris in the centre of Uppsala , southeastern Sweden . Controlled by the Lutheran Church of Sweden , Uppsala Cathedral is the seat of the Archbishop of Uppsala , the primate of Sweden . The archbishop is Antje Jackelén and the current bishop is Ragnar Persenius .
The cathedral dates to the late 13th century and at a height of 118 @.@ 7 metres ( 389 ft ) , it is the tallest church in the Nordic countries . Originally built under Roman Catholicism , it was used for coronations of Swedish monarchs for a lengthy period following the Protestant Reformation . Several of its chapels were converted to house the tombs of Swedish monarchs , including Gustav Vasa and John III . Carl Linnaeus , Olaus Rudbeck , Emanuel Swedenborg , and several archbishops are also buried here .
The church was designed in the French Gothic style by French architects including Étienne de Bonneuil . It is in the form of a cross formed by the nave and transept . Most of the structure was built between 1272 and 1420 but the western end was completed only in the middle of the 15th century . Twin towers were built shortly afterwards on the west end of the church . High spires were added later , but after a fire in 1702 , they were adorned with low helms by Carl Hårleman in 1735 . They were completely redesigned by Helgo Zetterwall who undertook substantial changes to the building in the 1880s . The cathedral 's principal construction material is brick but the pillars and many details are of Gotland limestone .
The vaults were all built according to the original 13th @-@ century plan although some of them were erected as late as around 1440 . In addition to the artwork in the funeral chapels , several of the church 's older furnishings can be seen in the Treasury Museum . In 1702 , many features were destroyed in a major fire . During the renovation work carried out in the 1970s , many of the medieval frescoes which had been whitewashed over after the Reformation were uncovered and restored .
= = History = =
At the end of the Viking Era , the pagan temple at Gamla Uppsala ( Old Uppsala ) , about 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) to the north of today 's Uppsala , was replaced by a Christian church . Although the exact date of its construction is not known , in 1123 Siward was ordained Bishop of Uppsala by the Archbishop of Bremen @-@ Hamburg . It is however uncertain if Siward ever assumed office , as he had been expelled and was in Germany in the early 1130s . The catalogue of bishops mentions Severeinus as the first bishop , and he may have been the replacement for Siward . Henrik , ‘ Finland 's Apostle ’ , was the fourth bishop . In 1164 , Sweden became an archbishopric under the control of Lund . The first archbishop was the Cistercian monk Stefan of Alvastra .
After the cathedral in Gamla Uppsala was damaged by fire in 1204 , the Chapter sought permission from the Holy See to move the building to a larger site . Pope Alexander IV granted this request in 1258 on condition that the name of Uppsala be maintained . At a meeting in Söderköping in September 1270 , Archbishop Fulco Angelus and the cathedral chapter decided the site should be in Östra Aros . Formal authorization of the move was issued in 1271 by Bishop Carolus of Västerås whom the Pope had appointed to oversee the case .
About 1272 , work began on building a new cathedral in Östra Aros near the Fyris River to the south . It was constructed on the site of the earlier stone church dedicated to the Holy Trinity , located almost exactly where the cathedral 's chancel now stands . It was here that Sweden 's patron saint Eric Jedvardsson had attended mass before he was murdered in 1160 . The name of Uppsala was kept , and the surrounding town Östra Aros soon changed its name accordingly . The relics of Saint Eric , the treasure of Uppsala , were moved from Gamla Uppsala to the new site in 1273 , along with the formal move of the archbishopric . The church was designed by French architects although the name of the author of the detailed initial plans who supervised work until 1281 has not been recorded . In 1287 , a promissory note drawn up by the provost of Paris covers the expenses to be incurred by master builder Étienne de Bonneuil and his assistants in travelling to Sweden to work on the construction of a cathedral at Uppsala . Étienne is credited with work at the east and south chapels of the chancel , the transepts and probably the south portal , although in most of his work he appears to have meticulously followed the plans of his predecessor . Progress was slow as a result of the cold climate , the plague and many financial difficulties . It was not until the end of the 14th century that work on the initial plans was completed , thanks in particular to the contribution of the master builder Nikolaus från Västerås who began construction of the nave .
When consecrated in 1435 by Archbishop Olaus Laurentii , the cathedral still was not complete . It was dedicated to Saint Lawrence , highly cherished in all of Sweden at that time ; Saint Eric , the patron saint of Sweden ( though never canonised by the Roman Catholic Church ) ; and Saint Olaf , the patron saint of Norway . It was completed over the following decades . Although there are no documentary records of the consecration , there are several references from the same period to the cathedral 's chapels , including their altars which were dedicated to the Holy Cross , to the Virgin Mary or to other saints . The last main component of the cathedral , the towers , were built between 1470 and 1489 . The cathedral was damaged by fire on several occasions , especially during the great fire of 1702 which destroyed much of the city . Restoration work was not completed until the middle of the century .
The church was not the regular place of worship of laypeople until the Reformation . It was reserved for official services of the Catholic Church hierarchy ( by the cathedral 's canons ) . The parish churches in Uppsala were the Holy Trinity Church or Bondkyrkan , ‘ Peasant Church ’ , as it was often called ; Church of Saint Peter ; Church of Our Lady ; and a Franciscan friary . The last three had been built on the east side of the Fyris River , which was the central business district , and remains so to date . They were successively torn down during the Reformation . The Cathedral was also the coronation church for many of Sweden 's kings and queens until 1719 . It was the site of celebrating coronations from the Middle Ages until the end of the 17th century . Stockholm 's Cathedral Storkyrkan became the official coronation church .
From 1885 to 1893 , the architect Helgo Zettervall ( 1831 @-@ 1907 ) undertook comprehensive restoration work , seeking to give the cathedral a French High Gothic appearance although he has been criticized for not respecting the building 's original Baltic Gothic style . He also added pointed French spires to the towers , bringing the cathedral up to a height of 118 @.@ 7 m ( 389 ft ) , so making it as high as it was long . In an attempt to give the cathedral a slimmer appearance , Zettervall significantly altered large portions of the medieval outer brick walls and removed the decorative white @-@ washed ‘ blind windows ’ on the gables which had been similar to those on the nearby Holy Trinity Church .
Further renovation work in the early 1970s led to improvements in the building 's structure and included restoration of the walls and windows . Large portions of cement additions by Zettervall to the exterior structure of the cathedral were removed decades later as they adversely affected the building 's fabric . In 1989 , Pope John Paul II took part in an ecumenical service in Uppsala Cathedral with Archbishop Bertil Werkström . Fire protection equipment was installed in 2010 and the electrical and heating systems have been replaced .
= = Architecture = =
The cathedral is the tallest church building in Scandinavia . Its height of 118 @.@ 7 m ( 389 ft ) is the same as its length while it has a breadth of 45 m ( 148 ft ) . The height inside is 27 metres ( 89 ft ) . The church was designed in the French High Gothic style by French master builders including Étienne de Bonneuil . Built high on a gravel ridge southwest of the River Fyris , its Latin cross ground plan consists of a three @-@ aisled basilica ( a central nave flanked by two lateral aisles ) with single @-@ aisle transepts , and a four @-@ bay chancel with an ambulatory surrounded by five chapels . The seven @-@ bay nave is bordered by chantry chapels on either side . Starting with the eastern end of the church and the chapels surrounding the chancel , most of the structure was built between 1270 and 1420 but the western end of the nave was completed only in the middle of the 15th century while the towers took decades more to complete . The principal material is red brick but the cathedral was built on a stone foundation and the chancel pillars and many details are of Gotland limestone . ( The nave pillars were originally of brick but were replaced with limestone as part of the restoration work carried out under Helgo Zettervall from 1885 to 1893 . )
The twin towers at the west end of the church were first mentioned in 1563 . Several additions to both the interior and exterior of the church were made after a fire in 1572 under the leadership of Franciscus Pahr , known for his work on castles . The turret and pinnacles which can be seen in older drawings were added as well as the first spires on the west towers which were designed by Antonius Watz . In the 1690s , Nicodemus Tessin designed a new burial chapel to the east of the south transept , the most significant alteration to the plan of the cathedral since the Middle Ages . From the outside , his design respected the traditions of medieval architecture with tall Gothic windows but the interior was decorated in Tessin 's usual Classical Baroque style .
In the 17th century , the towers were redesigned in the Dutch Renaissance style but after the serious fire of 1702 they were temporarily replaced by low wooden tops . At the same time , the buttresses were removed giving the cathedral the rather plain look conveyed by pictures of the period . Only in 1740 were copper @-@ faced spires installed , designed by Carl Hårleman . At the same time , Hårleman carried out significant work on the west façade . Today 's towers are the work of Helgo Zettervall who completely rebuilt them in the 1880s , substantially increasing their height . After the serious fire of 1702 , the original flying buttresses were removed and a higher roof was built .
Although the cathedral was designed by French architects , it exhibits a number of differences from the cathedrals of northern France . Above all , it is essentially constructed of brick rather than stone . Brick could easily be produced locally but stone had to be imported from the distant quarries of Gotland . As bricks and mortar are not as strong as stone , the walls had to be thicker although the pillars needed to support the vaulted ceiling of the chancel were made of limestone ( although those in the nave are of brick ) . The north transept portal is also built of limestone , no doubt as it was needed to support the rose window , also structured in limestone itself . While the chancel and the transept are clearly of French design , the nave which was built somewhat later displays German and Swedish characteristics . Constructed in about 1330 , the rose window over the northeast portal is still entirely French . Nicolaus from Västerås , the Swede who directed work on the nave from the 1360s , appears to have slightly modified the original plans , adding confessional side @-@ chapels and including a few features of German origin . It is interesting to note that cross @-@ vaults were nevertheless installed , rather than star @-@ shaped vaults which were more common at the time . Work on the western end of the building began in 1431 with the construction of the west portal which was influenced by the style of Vadstena Abbey . The towers , however , still exhibited features typical of 13th @-@ century French architecture , indicating that the original plans were still in use at the time . Overall , despite minor differences , Uppsala Cathedral still reflects the style of the 13th @-@ century cathedrals of northern France .
= = Interior = =
The Coronation Vault stands 27 m ( 89 ft ) above the point at which the transept crosses the nave . It is where most of Sweden 's monarchs were crowned from the Middle Ages until 1719 . During the restoration in the 1880s , the interior ceiling and walls of the cathedral were decorated in the Neo @-@ Gothic style . Some depictions , such as one of the Reformation 's Martin Luther , added figures beyond the cathedral 's medieval heritage . During the renovation work carried out in the 1970s , many of the medieval frescoes which had been whitewashed over after the Reformation were uncovered and restored . The high altar is used for the cathedral 's services on the most important feast days in the church calendar . It is also here that all Swedish bishops are ordained . The silver chandelier is from 1647 . The large crucifix in silver and crystal from Orrefors was installed in 1976 .
= = = Chapels = = =
The cathedral 's largest chapel , the Vasa Chapel , at the eastern end of the chancel , was originally known as the Chapel of the Virgin Mary . It later became a burial monument for Gustav Vasa and his family . Completed in 1583 , it is decorated with the national arms of Sweden as well as with some of the oldest known Swedish and Finnish coats of arms . The Finsta Chapel or St Eric 's Chapel on the north @-@ west corner of the chancel houses the relics of Eric the Holy , the patron saint of Sweden , who was killed in 1160 on the site where Uppsala Cathedral was later built . His shrine was moved from the first cathedral in Gamla Uppsala as soon as work began on the new building . In 1580 , King John III melted his shrine down but replaced it with a new gold @-@ plated one which still contains Eric 's relics and crown . The name Finsta originates from the Uppland estate where Judge Birger Persson and his wife were born . They were entombed in the chapel in 1328 . A relic of their daughter Saint Bridget housed in a small gold @-@ plated shrine was donated by the Saint Bridget Order in 1990 .
Next to the Finsta Chapel , the Sture Chapel is the memorial tomb of the three members of the Sture family who were murdered in by King Eric XIV in 1567 . The reredos ( 1520 ) depicts the story of Mary 's parents , Anne and Joachim . At the end of the 16th century , the church 's sacristy was converted into a burial chapel for Queen Catherine Jagellon or Katarina Jagellonica , the wife of King John III , who is also entombed there . The Jagellonica Chapel takes its name from her . The monument , crowned by a marble vault , was designed by Willem Boy .
= = = Windows = = =
Several windows maintain their original shape and size . The original stained @-@ glass decorations were almost all lost in the 1702 fire and were simply replaced by normal glass . The current stained @-@ glass designs were added during the renovation at the end of the 19th century , most of them by the Gothenburg firm , Svenska Glasmåleri . The large windows above the portals depict the Trinity : God the Father over the west door , God the Son above the south door ( the largest in the church ) , and God the Holy Spirit above the north door . Crafted in limestone , the rose window at the north portal is the oldest , unchanged since the 13th century .
= = = Treasury and artefacts = = =
Located in the north tower , the cathedral Treasury Museum displays a number of gold and silver articles used in the religious services . There is also a collection of textiles including Queen Margaret 's golden gown . The burial regalia of Gustav Vasa , John III and their wives can also be seen .
Other artefacts in the cathedral include tapestries in the Chapel of Remembrance from 1976 which record important events in the cathedral 's history . The ornate pulpit ( 1710 ) , the largest in Sweden , was designed by Nicodemus Tessin and carved by Burchard Precht . It was a gift from Queen Hedvig Eleonora after the fire of 1702 . Decorations include John the Baptist preaching in the desert , Saint Paul in Athens and the parable of the Labourers in the Vineyard .
One of the new bells installed after the devastating fire of 1702 is called Thornan . It was taken from Toruń , Poland as war booty in 1703 by the Swedish forces of Carl XII during the Great Northern War .
In the Vasa Chapel , there are seven large fresco paintings executed by Johan Gustaf Sandberg ( 1782 – 1854 ) over a period of several years . They depict important events in the life of Gustav Vasa . One of the most famous is Talet till dalkarlarna vid Mora kyrka ( Speech to the people of Dalarna outside Mora Church ) . Frescos also decorate the vaults of the nave .
Initially , as in some of the continental cathedrals , the interior was decorated with designs emphasizing the arch ribs and portal components . Even the brick was painted with red and white stripes . In the 15th century , frescos of figures in the Late Gothic style with decorative vine leaves were painted in various parts of the church . Traces of these have been found in the chancel and in the chapel which was originally dedicated to St Eric and St Olaf . Unfortunately , they have now been heavily restored . The frescos in the chancel were probably painted by Albertus Pictor 's workshop .
= = Interred notables = =
A number of Swedish monarchs and other notable people were buried inside the cathedral :
Gustav Vasa , 16th @-@ century King of Sweden . Nearly a decade before his death , he had expressed a wish to be buried in the cathedral . He is buried with his three wives , although only two are depicted on the sarcophagus designed by Willem Boy . The king and his wives are interred in what was once the Chapel of the Virgin Mary . The only remaining indication of the original intention of the chapel are the painted yellow stars against a blue background on its vaulted ceiling , symbols of Saint Mary in Catholic tradition .
John III ( died 1592 ) , the second son of Gustav Vasa , and his second wife Gunilla Bielke are also buried in the Virgin Mary Chapel . His first wife , Catherine Jagiellon from Poland , has a burial chapel of her own on the north side of the chancel .
Princess Elizabeth ( died 1597 ) , Gustav Vasa 's youngest daughter is buried in the Finsta Chapel adjacent to Virgin Mary 's Chapel .
The noblemen Svante Sture ( 1517 – 1567 ) and his sons Nils ( 1543 – 1567 ) and Erik ( 1546 – 1567 ) who were all killed by Erik XIV in the Sture Murders are entombed in the Sture Chapel . The clothes they were wearing at the time of their death are displayed in the Treasury Museum .
Carl Linnaeus ( 1707 – 1778 ) , the 18th @-@ century world @-@ famous botanist and professor at Uppsala University , has a memorial designed by Tobias Sergel next to the Chapel of Remembrance .
Olaus Rudbeck , Swedish polymath and one of the discoverers of the lymphatic system .
Emanuel Swedenborg , 18th @-@ century scientist and mystic . He was not originally interred here , but his remains were transported to Uppsala from England in 1908 .
Nathan Söderblom ( 1866 – 1931 ) , archbishop of Uppsala and Nobel Peace Prize recipient . His tomb is at the foot of the steps to the high altar .
Eric the Saint , 12th @-@ century king and national saint , whose relics are in the Finsta Chapel .
Laurentius Petri ( 1499 – 1573 ) , Sweden 's first Lutheran archbishop , buried at the foot of the altar steps .
Relics of Saint Bridget or Heliga Birgitta ( 1303 – 1373 ) have been placed in a shrine in the Finsta Chapel inspired by the clothing of the Saint Bridget Order .
Folke Johansson Ängel , Archbishop of Uppsala ( 1267 – 1277 )
= = = Dag Hammarskjöld memorial = = =
In the cathedral there is a small memorial to Dag Hammarskjöld , former Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations , who was posthumously awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . A stone bears the inscription :
Icke jag
utan Gud i mig
Dag Hammarskjöld 1905 – 1961
The English translation is " Not I , but God in me . "
= = Open to visitors = =
The cathedral is located on Domkyrkoplan in the centre of Uppsala . It is open to visitors most days from 8 am to 6 pm . The Treasury Museum in the north tower is open from 10 am to 4 pm , Sundays from 12 @.@ 30 pm .
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= UFC 94 =
UFC 94 : St @-@ Pierre vs. Penn 2 was a mixed martial arts ( MMA ) pay @-@ per @-@ view event promoted by the Ultimate Fighting Championship ( UFC ) on January 31 , 2009 . The card featured five televised MMA bouts , as well as five un @-@ aired preliminary bouts . It was the second UFC event of 2009 and took place on the weekend of Super Bowl XLIII .
The main event featured the UFC Welterweight Champion , Georges St @-@ Pierre , defending his title against UFC Lightweight Champion and former UFC Welterweight Champion B.J. Penn . This represented the first time two current titleholders competed against each other in the UFC . The contest was heavily promoted , featuring a publicity tour to Canada and Hawaii , as well as the introduction of UFC Primetime , a preview show that cost $ 1 @.@ 7 million to produce . The co @-@ main event of the evening was a battle between two undefeated light heavyweights sporting 13 – 0 records in Lyoto Machida and Thiago Silva .
= = Background = =
The main event featured the UFC Welterweight Champion Georges St @-@ Pierre defending his championship against UFC Lightweight Champion B.J. Penn in a fight contested at the UFC welterweight limit of 170 pounds ( 77 @.@ 1 kg ) . The fight represented the first time two current title holders faced off in the UFC . Penn also sought to become the first fighter in the UFC to concurrently hold two championships in two separate weight classes . The UFC 94 main event was met with a high level of anticipation from both the media and the fans . Sherdog called the fight between St @-@ Pierre and Penn the most anticipated bout of 2009 , and NBC Sports described it as one of the most anticipated fights in MMA history . In an article previewing the fight , Dave Meltzer discussed the over @-@ usage of exaggerations to promote contests in combat sports , but argued that the January 31 match between St @-@ Pierre and Penn was " one of the true epic matches in the history of the sport . " The fans voiced their opinion in a poll conducted by Inside MMA , where 45 percent of the viewers voted the match up between St @-@ Pierre and Penn as the most anticipated fight to take place between December and February . The poll also featured ( in descending order according to the results ) Fedor Emelianenko vs. Andrei Arlovski , Wanderlei Silva vs. Quinton Jackson , and Rich Franklin vs. Dan Henderson .
St @-@ Pierre is a fighter with very strong wrestling , and trains with the Canadian Olympic team . His conditioning , strength and athleticism have also been identified as strong attributes . He became the undisputed UFC Welterweight Champion by winning the interim @-@ championship against Matt Hughes at UFC 79 , and successfully unifying the championship against Welterweight title holder Matt Serra at UFC 83 in Quebec , St @-@ Pierre 's home province . St @-@ Pierre 's fight prior to the UFC 94 event was a successful title defense against Jon Fitch at UFC 87 via unanimous decision , where he won every round on the judge 's scorecards . Penn is a fighter noted for his outstanding jiu @-@ jitsu , as he is the first non @-@ Brazilian to win the World Jiu @-@ Jitsu Championship at the black belt level . His other notable strengths include boxing , and wrestling / takedown defense . Penn captured the vacant UFC Lightweight Championship by defeating Joe Stevenson at UFC 80 . The belt was vacant as a result of the California State Athletic Commission stripping then @-@ champion Sean Sherk of the title for testing positive for anabolic steroid Nandrolone , or more commonly known as Decadurabolin , following a title defense . Penn entered the UFC 94 fight following a successful title defense as well , with a 3rd round TKO of former champion Sean Sherk at UFC 84 . St @-@ Pierre and Penn had fought once before in a welterweight number one contenders match at UFC 58 on March 4 , 2006 , where St @-@ Pierre won in a very evenly matched contest by split decision .
Promotion for the St @-@ Pierre and Penn contest began in November 2008 , with UFC President Dana White , and the two main event fighters embarking on publicity tours in Toronto , Canada and Honolulu , Hawaii . The fighters answered various fan questions , and signed autographs . In an effort to further promote the contest , the UFC introduced UFC Primetime , a three @-@ part series that cost $ 1 @.@ 7 million to produce . UFC Primetime detailed the final preparations of St @-@ Pierre and Penn 's before their fight . Spike aired the half @-@ hour episodes on the final three Wednesdays leading up to the fight , beginning on January 14 , 2009 and concluding on January 28 , 2009 . Camera crews spent twenty five days with each fighter rather than the three days for a standard UFC Countdown preview show , and episodes aired shortly after they were filmed . The episodes were aired quickly to provide weekly updates on each fighter 's current status . After the first episode aired , it was reported by MMAjunkie.com that B.J. Penn was unhappy with his portrayal in the program , and wanted to withdraw from the project . Penn made a subsequent appearance on TapouT radio to discuss this report and confirmed that he has taken issue with his portrayal on the show . He was adamant that he would not continue to allow filming unless his portrayal changed . In the end , UFC Primetime proved to be a ratings success , as it was announced by Spike that the program was the most watched UFC preview show ever , drawing 1 @.@ 4 million viewers for its first episode ( 880 @,@ 000 viewers for first airing and 614 @,@ 000 viewers for an immediate repeat ) . The second episode averaged 825 @,@ 000 viewers , while the third episode drew 662 @,@ 000 viewers .
The co @-@ main event featured a bout between two top contenders and undefeated light heavyweights , Lyoto Machida and Thiago Silva . The two were originally scheduled to meet at UFC 89 , but a back injury forced Silva to withdraw from the contest . UFC President Dana White indicated in the pre @-@ fight press conference that Machida would receive a title shot with a victory , while Silva would need to defeat Machida and win one more contest before earning the same opportunity . Machida is a fighter who prefers to counter @-@ strike , and combines Shotokan Karate , sumo wrestling and Brazilian jiu @-@ jitsu to form his own style . Silva is a Brazilian jiu @-@ jitsu black belt , but prefers to fight standing . Machida entered the UFC 94 fight following a unanimous decision victory over former UFC Light Heavyweight Champion Tito Ortiz at UFC 84 , where he won every round on the judge 's scorecards . Thiago Silva entered the contest with 1st round TKOs over Antonio Mendes at UFC 84 , and Houston Alexander at UFC 78 .
The event also featured the return of two more fighters from injury , in Karo Parisyan and Stephan Bonnar . Parisyan , a judo standout , had to withdraw from a scheduled fight against Yoshiyuki Yoshida at UFC 88 with a back injury just one day before the fight . His opponent for UFC 94 was undefeated South Korean welterweight Dong Hyun Kim . Bonnar , a light heavyweight , was to take on Matt Hamill at UFC Fight Night 13 , but a left knee injury during training forced him out of that bout . His opponent , the 21 @-@ year @-@ old Jon Jones was a national amateur wrestling champion and coming off a unanimous decision victory over Andre Gusmão at UFC 87 , where he took the fight on three weeks notice . Rounding out the main card was a lightweight contest between the winner of the fifth season of the UFC 's reality television series and MMA competition The Ultimate Fighter , Nate Diaz , and contender Clay Guida . The Ultimate Fighter is a single @-@ elimination reality series featuring fledging professional MMA fighters competing for the title of The Ultimate Fighter , and a six @-@ figure , multi @-@ fight contract with the UFC . Diaz is a Brazilian jiu @-@ jitsu brown belt under Cesar Gracie , and Guida is noted by MMA journalist Sam Caplan as one of the UFC 's most highly regarded fighters . The two were expected to fight in December 2008 , but the fight failed to materialize due to a foot injury to Guida .
= = Event = =
The event consisted of ten mixed martial arts bouts all sanctioned by the Nevada State Athletic Commission and contested under the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts . All bouts consisted of three five @-@ minute rounds except for the main @-@ event championship match between St @-@ Pierre and Penn which was five five @-@ minute rounds . Five of the bouts were part of the non @-@ televised preliminary card . The reported attendance was 14 @,@ 885 with a total gate of $ 4 @,@ 290 @,@ 020 . The UFC announced on January 14 , 2009 that the event was completely sold out , however MMAjunkie.com noted that at the time of announcement , it was still possible to find single tickets . The reported buyrate of the pay @-@ per @-@ view was 800 @,@ 000 .
= = = Preliminary card = = =
The event 's five preliminary fights all went the full three rounds , ending in decisions . In the first bout of the evening , Dan Cramer became the first fighter to be successful in a professional mixed martial arts debut at a UFC pay @-@ per @-@ view event since Marcio Cruz at UFC 55 . In his fight with Matt Arroyo , Cramer executed a takedown and attempted punches on the ground while avoiding the Brazilian Jiu @-@ Jitsu brown @-@ belt 's submissions during the first two rounds , while the third and final round saw Arroyo taking Cramer 's back on the ground and unsuccessfully going for a rear naked choke . Two of the three judges scored the bout 29 – 28 for Cramer while the remaining third judge saw it 28 – 29 for Arroyo , giving Cramer the split @-@ decision victory .
In the second bout of the event , Jake O 'Brien rebounded from two TKO losses in a row with a split @-@ decision win over Christian Wellisch . O 'Brien , a former wrestler at Purdue University , was able to take Wellisch down and control his opponent on the ground but was hurt on the feet in the first and second rounds . The judges saw it 29 – 28 , 28 – 29 and 29 – 28 in favor of O 'Brien . This was both fighters first fight at light heavyweight after dropping down from heavyweight .
In one of the two bouts being awarded " Fight of the Night " bonuses , John Howard defeated Chris Wilson by split decision in their welterweight contest . Howard was able to take down Wilson in all three rounds where he scored with ground @-@ and @-@ pound and once went for a rear naked choke . Wilson had some success on his feet , but Howard landed the harder strikes . The contest was scored twice 29 – 28 for Howard and once 28 – 29 for Wilson .
The only lightweight bout on the preliminary card saw Thiago Tavares defeating Manny Gamburyan by unanimous decision . Tavares went for ground @-@ and @-@ pound after takedowns , while the smaller Gamburyan tried to push the pace on the feet but was unable to counter Tavares ' more powerful strikes . All three judges scored it 29 – 28 in favor of Tavares .
In the last fight on the preliminary card , American Kickboxing Academy 's Jon Fitch faced Akihiro Gono . The bout saw Fitch continually taking down Gono and landing with ground @-@ and @-@ pound punches on the downed opponent . Fitch came close to submitting Gono in the first and second rounds when he went for a rear naked choke and an armbar respectively , but he was unable to finish the Japanese fighter . All three judges scored the bout in favor of Fitch , two scoring it 30 – 27 with one judge seeing it 30 – 26 giving Fitch the unanimous decision victory .
= = = Main card = = =
The first bout on the televised portion of the event saw Nate Diaz taking on Clay Guida in a lightweight contest . Diaz , who had an eight @-@ inch reach advantage on Guida , was able to frustrate him with punches on the feet while Guida has success with leg @-@ kicks followed by a right hand straight . After closing the distance , Guida used his wrestling experience to avoid submissions while controlling and pressuring Diaz both in the clinch and on the ground throughout the fight . Diaz rallied with punches in the final round but was unable to finish off Guida . The judges scored the bout 29 – 28 twice for Guida and once for Diaz for the split @-@ decision victory . The bout was awarded the event 's second " Fight of the Night " honor gaining both fighters a $ 65 @,@ 000 bonus .
The second bout saw two judo black belts fighting as Karo Parisyan went up against undefeated Dong Hyun Kim in a matchup at welterweight . Kim took Parisyan 's back in the first round and threatened with submissions as Parisyan attempted to regain position , while the second round saw Parisyian executing a judo @-@ throw and going for a kimura @-@ submission . The final round was mostly spent in the clinch with both fighters getting takedowns . Parisyian was awarded a split @-@ decision victory with the scores 29 – 28 , 28 – 29 and 29 – 28 . However , the result was later changed to a " no contest " after Parisyian tested positive for three banned painkillers in the post @-@ fight drug test also resulting in a nine months suspension and $ 32 @,@ 000 fine .
In only his second fight for the UFC , Jon Jones took on The Ultimate Fighter 1 runner @-@ up Stephan Bonnar at light heavyweight in the third fight on the main card . Jones was able to execute multiple throws and takedowns during the first two rounds , at one point suplexing Bonnar . Jones also had the most success striking and was able to knock down his opponent with a spinning elbow @-@ strike . Bonnar rallied with strikes against the tiring Jones in the third round , but the bout went the distance with the judges scoring it 29 – 28 once and 30 – 27 twice all in favor of Jones .
The fourth fight featured two undefeated Brazilians meeting at light heavyweight in Lyoto Machida and Thiago Silva . Machida was able to knock down Silva twice during the first round before ultimately knocking him out after tripping him and jumping in landing the knockout punch at 4 : 59 of the first round . The finish marked the first win for Machida by knockout , and netted him a $ 65 @,@ 000 bonus as it was awarded " Knockout of the Night " .
The fifth and final bout of the main card was the UFC Welterweight Championship match between Georges St @-@ Pierre and B.J. Penn , regulated by referee Herb Dean . The bout started out with the two fighters clinching and throwing knees . St @-@ Pierre dropped down for a single @-@ leg takedown but Penn defended while standing on one leg with his back to the cage . Unable to get the takedown , St @-@ Pierre let go and connected with a right hand punch . They met up and clinched in the middle of the cage with St @-@ Pierre pushing Penn towards the fence . There , St @-@ Pierre attempted a takedown but went back the clinch when he was unable to finish it . The two fighters continued trading punches to end the first round .
Round two started with two fighters throwing strikes with St @-@ Pierre landing a punch drawing blood from Penn 's nose . St @-@ Pierre then clinched up and tripped Penn to the ground . There Penn attempted to defend using the rubber guard , but St @-@ Pierre passed to half @-@ guard and eventually side @-@ control while landing punches . The two continued grappling with Penn taking several ground @-@ and @-@ pound punches from St @-@ Pierre until the round ended .
The third and fourth rounds saw St @-@ Pierre continue his ground @-@ and @-@ pound on a visibly discouraged Penn , and at the end of the fourth , Penn 's corner motioned for the cage @-@ side doctor to stop the fight . The referee waved off the contest , officially declaring St @-@ Pierre the winner , retaining his UFC Welterweight Championship , by TKO due to " referee stoppage on doctor 's advice " .
= = St @-@ Pierre greasing controversy = =
The contest between St @-@ Pierre and Penn was a source of significant controversy . In between rounds one and two , as well as round three , one of St @-@ Pierre 's cornermen , Phil Nurse , was seen applying petroleum jelly ( brand name Vaseline ) on the shoulder and the back of St @-@ Pierre by members of the Nevada State Athletic Commission ( NSAC ) . Vaseline is used to aid cuts in boxing as well as MMA , but applying it to parts of the body other than the face is illegal because of the element of grappling in the sport . A fighter that is " slippery " as a result of the vaseline will have an added advantage , because friction and grip are compromised . UFC President Dana White addressed the issue during a radio appearance in Boston , Massachusetts . He indicated that he did not believe the vaseline influenced the outcome of the fight , but still expected Nurse to be punished .
Penn 's brother revealed two days after the bout that the Penn camp would be making a formal complaint to the NSAC . In addition , Penn 's head coach , Rudy Valentino alleged that St @-@ Pierre also had an illegal substance on his body during his April 2008 rematch with Matt Serra . NSAC Executive Director Keith Kizer confirmed that improprieties had occurred in St @-@ Pierre 's corner . He witnessed St @-@ Pierre 's cornerman Phil Nurse apply Vaseline to St @-@ Pierre 's face and then immediately rub St @-@ Pierre 's shoulders and back before Nurse wiped his hands . Kizer had St @-@ Pierre 's back wiped down after the second round , and confirmed after the third round that no Vaseline was being applied . Kizer was critical of the cornerman 's action , but expressed doubts that the controversy would overturn St @-@ Pierre 's victory .
On March 12 , 2009 , B.J. Penn filed a formal request for investigation to the NSAC stating that St @-@ Pierre used an illegal " greasing " agent on his body during the fight . The formal , written complaint consisted of twenty pages . It began by stating that " other renowned fighters " have also had similar experiences with St @-@ Pierre , that his body was " unnaturally slippery . " It continued by accounting an apparent " pre @-@ bout warning " made by Penn 's camp to the NSAC that St @-@ Pierre will engage in the illegal application of vaseline . Next , a request to monitor St @-@ Pierre and members of the team to prevent future misconduct was made , namely a monitored shower of St @-@ Pierre and / or hygiene cleansing . The written statement concluded with Penn seeking fines against trainer Greg Jackson , Nurse , and " other unnamed individuals " of $ 250 @,@ 000 each . In addition , that St @-@ Pierre 's license be suspended or revoked , and that the result of the bout be changed to a no @-@ contest .
St @-@ Pierre 's trainer Greg Jackson denied any wrongdoing , stating that Nurse was rubbing and tapping on St @-@ Pierre 's body as part of a drill to aid in his breathing techniques . Jackson said that any Vaseline transferred from residue on Nurse 's fingers was accidental and wiped off when pointed out . Georges St @-@ Pierre spoke to Sports Illustrated with regard to the controversy stating , " I haven 't seen the fight yet , but I remember at some point something happened and the athletic commission was complaining . They used a towel to wet my back and wipe it off . I don 't mind . I didn 't put Vaseline on myself and I 'm not a cheater . " However , St @-@ Pierre offered Penn a rematch in the summer that Penn verbally accepted but is unlikely to happen due to the fact they have both since been scheduled for title defenses .
On March 17 , 2009 , the NSAC held a formal hearing about the matter . Penn , his mother Lorraine Shin , and his attorney were present to make statements . Greg Jackson , Phil Nurse , and St @-@ Pierre 's attorney participated in the hearing as the opposing side . St @-@ Pierre himself was not present . Shin read from a written statement , urging the NSAC to " do the right thing " , and punish St @-@ Pierre to the " fullest extent of authority . " Jackson and Nurse apologized for the incident , but maintained that they did not knowingly cheat . At the hearing 's conclusion , the NSAC Executive Director stated that St @-@ Pierre 's victory would not be changed to a no contest , nor would other sanctions , such as the loss of licenses be taken , unless a member of the NSAC files a disciplinary complaint against any of the accused . However , the committee left it ambiguous whether the matter was conclusively closed . Representatives from the Penn camp indicated that they were " unsure " of their next move .
= = Subsequent events = =
Following the main event at UFC 94 , top welterweight contender Thiago Alves made his way into the cage to congratulate St @-@ Pierre on the victory . After interviews with both fighters , it was announced that Alves would be next to challenge for St @-@ Pierre 's championship . This fight has since taken place and was the co @-@ main event of the UFC 100 card . St @-@ Pierre 's dominant victory also opened up discussion for a possible " superfight " with UFC Middleweight Champion Anderson Silva in 2010 . Dana White stated that this bout was a possibility , and he would like to see it . St @-@ Pierre has also expressed interest in the fight .
After Penn 's loss to St @-@ Pierre , reports surfaced that the UFC Lightweight Champion was contemplating retirement . However , during his first public appearance since the loss in Honolulu , Hawaii , he announced that he would continue to fight . He admitted that he was affected by the loss , and that " a lot of things were going through his head . " In regards to his next bout , Penn stated that he was in negotiation to fight top contender Kenny Florian in the summer of 2009 . Penn would go on and defeat Florian at UFC 101 , winning in the fourth round by rear naked choke .
In the wake of the Vaseline controversy , the UFC responded by implementing immediate rule changes on February 7 , 2009 . These changes were discussed by longtime cutman Jacob " Stitch " Duran . According to Duran , under the new rules , only cutmen who are independent of both corners will be allowed to apply Vaseline to the fighter 's faces . However , Duran was not able to confirm whether the rules will apply at all UFC events or just the events that take place in Nevada .
Despite Lyoto Machida 's knockout of Thiago Silva , Dana White indicated that he was not the number one contender for a title shot . Instead , a scheduled fight between former UFC Light Heavyweight Champion Quinton Jackson and Keith Jardine would determine Machida 's title fate . A victory for Jackson would earn him a fight with champion Rashad Evans , but a win for Jardine would mean Machida will be awarded with a title shot . Jackson won the fight via unanimous decision , but torn ligaments in his jaw forced the former champion out of the bout . Instead , Machida will challenge Evans for the UFC Light Heavyweight Championship at UFC 98 . Jackson will retain his title shot against the winner of that match upon returning from injury . Following the loss to Machida , Thiago Silva was scheduled to return to action against former champion Forrest Griffin at UFC 101 , but his opponent was later changed to Keith Jardine .
Karo Parisyan 's next fight was to be against American Kickboxing Academy 's Josh Koscheck at UFC 98 . However , due to Parisyan 's nine @-@ month suspension from the NSAC for a failed drug test due to painkillers , the future of this fight is uncertain .
= = Results = =
= = Bonus awards = =
The UFC awarded some fighters $ 65 @,@ 000 bonuses for their performance .
Fights of the Night : Clay Guida vs. Nate Diaz and John Howard vs. Chris Wilson
Knockout of the Night : Lyoto Machida
Submission of the Night : Not awarded as no matches ended by submission
= = Reported payout = =
The following is the reported payout to the fighters as reported to the Nevada State Athletic Commission . It does not include sponsor money or " locker room " bonuses often given by the UFC .
George St @-@ Pierre ( $ 400 @,@ 000 – includes $ 200 @,@ 000 win bonus ) def . B.J. Penn ( $ 125 @,@ 000 )
Lyoto Machida ( $ 120 @,@ 000 – includes $ 60 @,@ 000 win bonus ) def . Thiago Silva ( $ 29 @,@ 000 )
Jon Jones ( $ 14 @,@ 000 – includes $ 7 @,@ 000 win bonus ) def . Stephan Bonnar ( $ 22 @,@ 000 )
Karo Parisyan ( $ 80 @,@ 000 – includes $ 40 @,@ 000 win bonus ) def . Dong Hyun Kim ( $ 26 @,@ 000 )
Clay Guida ( $ 40 @,@ 000 – includes $ 20 @,@ 000 win bonus ) def . Nate Diaz ( $ 20 @,@ 000 )
Jon Fitch ( $ 68 @,@ 000 – includes $ 34 @,@ 000 win bonus ) def . Akihiro Gono ( $ 28 @,@ 000 )
Thiago Tavares ( $ 26 @,@ 000 – includes $ 13 @,@ 000 win bonus ) def . Manny Gamburyan ( $ 14 @,@ 000 )
John Howard ( $ 6 @,@ 000 – includes $ 3 @,@ 000 win bonus ) def . Chris Wilson ( $ 15 @,@ 000 )
Dan Cramer ( $ 16 @,@ 000 – includes $ 8 @,@ 000 win bonus ) def . Matt Arroyo ( $ 8 @,@ 000 )
Jake O 'Brien ( $ 22 @,@ 000 – includes $ 11 @,@ 000 win bonus ) def . Christian Wellisch ( $ 12 @,@ 000 )
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= Tropical Storm Arlene ( 2011 ) =
Tropical Storm Arlene , the first named storm of the 2011 Atlantic hurricane season , brought blustery conditions to much of eastern Mexico in late June to early July 2012 . Arlene originated from an Atlantic tropical wave , which crossed the Yucatán Peninsula before emerging over warm waters in the Bay of Campeche . Despite moderate wind shear , the disturbance strengthened and developed a surface circulation , prompting the National Hurricane Center to declare it a tropical storm on June 28 . Arlene remained vigorous for most of its existence ; the storm peaked in intensity with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) on June 30 , just before making landfall on the coast of Veracruz . Crossing the mountains of eastern Mexico , Arlene weakened to a depression before dissipating early on July 1 .
The precursor disturbance to Arlene brought significant rainfall to parts of Central America , killing three people and triggering widespread flooding and landslides . Throughout Mexico , prolonged rains from Arlene and subsequent flooding affected hundreds of homes and several roads , causing many residents to seek shelter . At the height of the storm , power was lost to 285 @,@ 000 homes . At least 22 people in Mexico were killed by Arlene . Elsewhere , rainfall from the storm alleviated ongoing drought conditions in southern Texas and Florida .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Tropical Storm Arlene can be traced to a distinct tropical wave , embedded within an area of deep atmospheric moisture , that emerged off the coast of Africa on June 13 , 2011 . The wave tracked westward across the Atlantic for several days , reaching the western Caribbean Sea in late June . By June 24 , it began interacting with the extension of a monsoon trough in the region , generating broad cyclonic flow and scattered convection in conjunction with an upper trough to its northwest . The amplified wave slowly proceeded west @-@ northwestward along Central America , bringing heavy rainfall to the area . Initially , the disturbance 's development was impeded by the trough aloft and adjacent land , though the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) noted favorable conditions for tropical cyclogenesis over the Bay of Campeche , coupled with abating wind shear . On June 26 , the disturbance moved inland over the Yucatán Peninsula , emerging into the bay the next day as it produced a surface low . Despite moderate shear , a Hurricane Hunters flight into the system revealed that a closed wind circulation had formed at sea level . Thunderstorm activity became more concentrated , and the NHC initiated advisories on Tropical Storm Arlene at midnight June 29 , after the cyclone 's surface winds increased to 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) about 280 mi ( 450 km ) south @-@ southeast of Tampico , Tamaulipas .
Over the following hours , deep convection increased around the broad storm , though its circulation center continued to lack in organization . Arlene curved to the west in response to a ridge of high pressure to its north and northwest . As the shear over the region further decreased , the large storm began to strengthen gradually , developing spiral convective bands closer to its center . Although forecast models supported intensification to hurricane status , significant development was compromised by a lack of distinguishable central features . On June 30 , just before Arlene made landfall , Dvorak satellite estimates indicated the storm had reached a peak intensity of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) while accelerating off the coast of Veracruz . Arlene moved ashore near Cabo Rojo as a strong tropical storm by 09 : 00 UTC , with the severest winds confined to the north of the center .
Farther inland , Arlene turned to the west @-@ southwest along the building ridge . The storm decreased in strength upon doing so ; its mid- and low @-@ level circulations became increasingly decoupled , with the latter turning elongated and ill @-@ defined . Early on July 1 , the NHC downgraded Arlene to a tropical depression , and the cyclone dissipated over the high terrain of the Sierra Madre Mountains shortly thereafter . Arlene 's remnants continued to produce heavy precipitation over central Mexico , and with high air pressures offshore a tight pressure gradient generated a strong easterly breeze along the country 's Pacific coastlines .
= = Preparations = =
Due to the threat of heavy rainfall from Arlene 's precursor , authorities issued a green alert in Honduras for 13 departments on the afternoon of June 24 , which remained in effect for 72 hours . In El Salvador , the departments of La Unión , Ahuachapán , and Sonsonate were put under green alerts on June 26 after rains persisted over the region . Across the Yucatán Peninsula , officials and emergency workers braced for heavy rains as the system developed . Marine and fishing operations were suspended , while schools in Benito Juárez were closed on June 28 .
In response to Arlene 's formation , the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning for coastal areas from Barra de Nautla northward to Bahia Algodones on June 29 . Later that day , a hurricane watch was put into effect for the area extending from Tuxpan to La Cruz , after the storm showed signs of strengthening . They were both extended shortly after , with the watch then reaching to Barra de Nautla and the warning further southward to Palma Sola , though the latter was simultaneously discontinued for areas to the north of La Pesca . Prior to landfall , the Mexican Social Security Institute ( IMSS ) activated a contingency plan for risk zones in the states of Veracruz and Tamaulipas . Emergency crews and medical teams were subsequently dispatched to the area in order to supply medical care to possible victims and manage power plant water pumps in case of flooding . An alert was declared for Pemex — a major oil company within the storm 's projected path — in consideration of possible impact to refineries and other facilities .
Over 50 temporary shelters were made available in flood @-@ prone areas across various municipalities in Veracruz . Authorities in Tamaulipas prepared five shelters and mobilized of 10 emergency teams to evacuate up to 20 @,@ 000 people in anticipation of adverse weather conditions . In Hidalgo , 250 shelters were opened and emergency workers were dispatched as a safety measure . At the risk of flash flooding , public storm shelters were made available in parts of Oaxaca .
= = Impact = =
= = = Central America = = =
For several days , the precursor disturbance to Arlene dropped significant amounts of rain along coastal Central America and the Yucatán Peninsula . In Honduras , floods killed one person and collapsed a major bridge near the Goascorán River , leaving about 600 families isolated from surrounding areas . Elsewhere in the country , a rockslide occurred along a road to San José de Colinas , and several rivers overflowed due to the effects of the storm . In neighboring El Salvador , maximum rainfall amounts totaled 8 @.@ 34 in ( 212 mm ) . Two people drowned in San Miguel , while 25 others were displaced in La Unión due to the floods . Scattered moderate showers also affected several parts of Nicaragua , triggering mudslides and overflowing a river in Cuapa . Along the riverside , 30 homes suffered inundations and 94 people evacuated the area .
= = = Mexico = = =
Tropical Storm Arlene and its remnants produced hours of prolonged rainfall over much of northeastern and south @-@ central Mexico . Widespread floods and landslides impacted multiple states , prompting evacuations and causing copious damage to property and infrastructure . At the height of the storm , about 285 @,@ 000 households lost power throughout Mexico , though service was quickly restored to 210 @,@ 000 homes . Schools remained closed in the morning throughout Hidalgo , as well as in parts of San Luis Potosí , Guerrero , Puebla , and Oaxaca . Throughout the country , Arlene resulted in 22 confirmed fatalities and left one person missing .
= = = = La Huasteca Region = = = =
Arlene brought strong thunderstorms and showers to much of eastern Mexico , with gale @-@ force winds along adjacent coastlines . Upon landfall in Veracruz , Arlene produced wind speeds to 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) and up to 9 @.@ 11 in ( 231 @.@ 5 mm ) of rainfall . The winds and rain uprooted trees and caused extensive flooding , prompting at least 1 @,@ 786 people throughout the state to evacuate their homes . A total of 67 landslides took place in the state ; one such landslide collapsed two houses in Tlalnelhuayocan , killing one inhabitant and injuring 10 others . Mudslides and rockfall also uprooted trees and damaged eight cars in Banerilla , though no injuries were linked to the incident . In Tihuatlán , a rescue worker was killed during the passage of the storm . Overall , Arlene affected 3 @,@ 358 residences across 50 municipalities in Veracruz ; about 2 @,@ 000 homes were damaged in El Higo . Continued downpours brought on the overflow of 28 rivers , as well as the isolation of 116 communities statewide . Other effects in Veracruz included considerable infrastructural failure , localized land subsidence , and three damaged schools in Coacoatzintla . The costs of road reconstructions totaled Mex $ 126 million ( US $ 10 @.@ 2 million ) . In response to the devastation , the government declared a state of emergency for 65 percent of the state ; by July 5 , 62 municipalities remained under alert .
Heavy rains fell over Taumalipas , with 348 @.@ 8 mm measured along the Tamesí River . Widespread flooding forced some 400 families to evacuate throughout the state ; 70 trapped families in El Mante had to be rescued from their flooded homes . At the height of the storm , high @-@ voltage electrocutions due to downed power lines caused two deaths in the municipalities of Tampico and Reynosa while critically injuring two workers in Matamoros . By July 4 , two more deaths were reported in the state , though their causes remain unspecified . Approximately 40 @,@ 000 residents suffered property damage to their homes . A state of emergency was declared in the municipalities of Tampico , Ciudad Madero , Altamira , and González in light of the damage . Broken drains and sewers in the storm 's wake increased the risk of cholera through contaminated water . Damage estimates in Tamaulipas exceeded Mex $ 67 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 8 million ) . In neighboring San Luis Potosí , Arlene dropped 12 @.@ 18 in ( 309 @.@ 4 mm ) of rain and claimed the lives of five people , two due to drownings . Landslides left dozens of communities isolated , and more than 600 residents fled from flooded areas , particularly in Ciudad Valles , Tamazunchale , El Naranjo , and Xilitla .
Farther inland , in Hidalgo , about 100 families required evacuation across the municipalities of Tlanchinol and Orizatlán due to heavy rain , with 7 @.@ 09 in ( 180 @.@ 1 mm ) recorded in the latter . The rainfall triggered more than 80 landslides statewide , and two were killed in a rockslide near the town of Jacala . Swollen rivers in El Arenal and Huejutla caused two drownings . Total damage from Arlene reached Mex $ 2 @.@ 6 billion ( US $ 207 @.@ 4 million ) across Hidalgo . In response , the state government allocated a total Mex $ 17 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 45 million ) for rehabilitation works . Downpours in the state of Puebla triggered landslides that cut off roads to traffic . Toppled trees struck a home in the municipality of Zihuateutla , killing its inhabitant . In Tlacotepec municipality , a girl was left missing after falling into a rushing stream ; by July 4 , officials confirmed she had drowned . After hours of prolonged rainfall , concerns arose over the potential overflow of a dam in the municipality of Tlatlauquitepec . Three houses sustained damage in Eloxochitlán as a consequence of excessively saturated soils , and another collapsed in Atempan . Elsewhere in Puebla , mud and flood waters reached 1 @.@ 6 ft ( 0 @.@ 5 m ) in a school after a nearby river overflowed .
= = = = Elsewhere = = = =
Upon moving ashore near Quintana Roo , the system spread cloudiness and precipitation across much of the Yucatán Peninsula , resulting in widespread flooding . In southern Mexico , Chiapas received rainfall amounts of 9 @.@ 3 in ( 237 mm ) in Tapachula and Soconusco over a 36 @-@ hour time span . Floods , landslides , and strong winds damaged more than 450 homes in the state . Emergency workers evacuated about 150 families after two rivers in the region reached dangerous water levels . In the wake of Arlene , one fatality was confirmed in Chiapas . Rainfall in Oaxaca inflicted damage to multiple roads and collapsed one bridge ; communication was lost with over 12 @,@ 000 people from Mixe – Zapotec communities . The storm 's remnants caused a landslide that overturned a taxi , killing one of its nine passengers . Weather conditions in Michoacán — which was still recovering from the impact of Pacific Hurricane Beatriz — deteriorated significantly ; 1 @,@ 600 homes sustained additional damage , while damaged roads and bridges secluded multiple coastal communities in Aquila . In Guerrero , three people were killed in traffic accidents due to inclement weather . Torrential rainfall throughout the state flooded 210 homes and left one person missing , with some uprooted trees and rockfall occurring along mountainous areas .
= = = United States = = =
In Florida , moisture tracing behind Arlene produced showers , alleviating ongoing extreme drought conditions in the state . The National Weather Service warned for the potential of flooding rains in the drought @-@ stricken region of southern Texas . Officials in Cameron County ordered the preparation of sandbags , as well as the inspection of water pumps and vehicles to deal with floodwaters . In Hidalgo County , the storm spawned a weak tornado that damaged roofs , toppled vehicles , and injured one person prior to moving into Mexico .
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= Cento vergilianus de laudibus Christi =
Cento vergilianus de laudibus Christi ( Latin : [ kʰɛn.toː vɛr.ɡɪl.ɪ.aː.nʊs deː lau ̯ .dɪ.bʊs kʰrs.tiː ] ; A Virgilian Cento Concerning the Glory of Christ ) , also known as De laudibus Christi and Cento Probae , is the title of a fourth century AD poem of the Roman Empire . It was arranged by Faltonia Betitia Proba c . AD 350 – 360 following the author 's conversion to Christianity .
A cento is a poetical work wholly composed of verses or passages taken from other authors , disposed in a new form or order . Reworking verses extracted from the works of Virgil , one of the greatest poets of Latin literature , Proba 's poem details several stories from the Old and New Testament of the Christian Bible , with the crux of the work focusing on the story of Jesus Christ .
The impetus for its creation is unknown , although several hypotheses have been put forward , namely that Proba was trying to circumvent a law put in place by the Roman Emperor Julian that forbade Christians from teaching classical Greek and Latin literature which they themselves did not believe in , or that Proba was responding to and rebutting the rather unflattering and demonizing descriptions of Jesus put forth by Julian in his works Caesares and Contra Galilaeos . The work was circulated heavily , although it was deemed apocryphal by Pope Gelasius I. Furthermore , many scholars believe that St. Jerome disliked the work . However , the likes of Isidore of Seville , Petrarch , and Giovanni Boccaccio praised Proba . In the 19th and 20th centuries , the work was criticized for being of poor quality , but recently , scholars have taken a renewed interest in it .
= = Origin and style = =
Faltonia Betitia Proba , the cento 's author , was born around AD 322 . Proba was married to Clodius Celsinus Adelphius , who was a prefect of Rome in AD 351 . Proba was a noted poet , and her first work ( which is now lost ) was called the Constantini bellum adversus Magnentium ; this poem dealt with the war between Roman Emperor Constantius II and the usurper Magnentius . At some point in her life , Proba converted from paganism to Christianity . De laudibus Christi , was written following her conversion , probably sometime c.AD 350 – 360 , and was an attempt by the poet to “ turn away from battle and slayings in order to write holy things . ”
The majority of the work takes the form of a Virgilian cento , or a patchwork of verses extracted from several works of the Roman poet Virgil ( although the work 's proemium and invocation section is composed of several original lines of Latin , in addition to lines borrowed from or alluding to Virgil , the Silver Age poet Lucan , and the 4th century poet Juvencus ) . This creative choice on the part of Proba seems to have been made for two reasons . First , Virgil was an extremely influential poet , having been commissioned by the first Roman emperor Caesar Augustus to write the epic poem the Aeneid . Virgil ’ s influence was felt well in to late antiquity , and was imitated by others , such as Juvencus and Prudentius . The respect that was given to Virgil eventually manifested in the form of the aforementioned centos , which reached their acme in the fourth century AD . Second , Virgil was often appropriated by Christian authors , due to a popular interpretation of his fourth Eclogue , which many believed to be a prophecy concerning the birth of Jesus .
= = Contents = =
The cento 's 694 lines are divided into a proemium with invocation ( lines 1 – 55 ) , episodes from the Old Testament ( Genesis , lines 56 – 318 ; Exodus , lines 319 – 332 ) , episodes from the New Testament ( The Gospels , lines 333 – 686 ) , and an epilogue ( lines 687 – 694 ) . At the beginning of the poem , Proba references her earlier poetry , before rejecting it in the name of Christ . She then describes herself as a prophet , calls upon both God and the Holy Spirit ( scorning the help of the Muses ) , and announces her intentions to record the story of Jesus . At the conclusion of the poem 's invocation , Proba states her poem 's main purpose : to " tell how Virgil sang the offices of Christ . "
The Old Testament episodes concern the creation of the world , the Fall of Man , the Great Flood , and the Exodus out of Egypt . Proba 's presentation of Creation — which is largely based on rewordings of Virgil 's Georgics — reorganizes what is found in Genesis to more closely align the biblical account with then @-@ contemporary Greco @-@ Roman beliefs concerning the origin of the world . Consequently , " some stages of creation are abbreviated while others are amplified or even transposed " to " avoid repetitions and contradictory elements " , such as the double creation of man ( cf . Genesis 1 : 25 – 27 and Genesis 2 : 18 – 19 ) . During the presentation of the events leading to the Fall of Man , Eve 's actions are largely based around the story of Dido , ( cf . Book IV , Aen . ) . The Serpent is described using lines describing Laocoön 's death ( cf . Book II , Aen . ) , as well as the snake sent by the fury Alecto to enrage Amata ( cf . Book VII , Aen . ) To describe human life after the Fall , Proba makes heavy use of the first two books of the Georgics , specifically the sections that discuss the Iron Age of Man ; in this way , Proba is able to connect the Greco @-@ Roman concept of the " Ages of Man " with the Christian concept of the " Fall of Man " .
Directly after the Old Testament stories , Proba once again appeals to God , before discussing the birth of Jesus . The following New Testament episodes then deal with the life of Jesus , his crucifixion , and the coming of the Holy Spirit . While Jesus is often described using language befitting a hero ( see below ) , Mary is described using lines that originally related to Venus and Dido . Curiously , Joseph is omitted entirely . Furthermore , Mary 's role has been interpreted by many scholars as either Proba 's representing : Mary alone as a " heroic protagonist " , or conversely as a character lacking any female attributes who is thus " impersonal " . The Sermon on the Mount is notable in that it begins by borrowing the Sibyl of Cumae 's description of punishment for the unrighteous ( cf . Book VI , Aen . ) . This has led some scholars to contend that this portion of De laudibus Christi is the first account of Hell in Christian poetry . Christ 's deeds are telescoped down to three events : Jesus calming the sea , walking on water , and calling his first disciples . Proba conveys the cruxifixction by using , most notably , several lines describing Hadean punishment ( cf . Book VI , Aen . ) , among others . Following Christ 's death , Proba uses various lines that reference the erotic love between Dido and Aeneas , which are transformed to signify " the sacred love of Christ and his followers . " After Christ is resurrected , he addresses his followers , describing the world to come via the prophecy delivered by Celaeno and the Oracle of Delos ( cf . Book III , Aen . ) . Finally , the ascension , is represented using language that originally described Mercury .
Due to the heavy borrowing from Virgil , Proba 's Christ is very similar to the Virgilian epic hero , in that he is : seeking a goal that is greater than merely his human happiness , initiating a realm in which there would exist " dominion without end " , and projecting an aura of divinity . Proba 's entire purpose , argue Clark and Hatch , was therefore to " imbue the Christ with heroic virtues " akin to the Virgilian hero . She does this in three major ways . First , Proba physically describes Jesus as being remarkably beautiful , as well as having " a magnificent and commanding presence " similar to Aeneas . Second , Proba recasts the entire crucifixion episode so that Jesus does not go meekly to his death , but rather lashes out angrily at his persecutors . Proba 's reconfiguration of Jesus 's crucifixion is therefore more in line with Aeneas ' " vengeful action " against Turnus at the end of book twelve of the Aeneid . Finally , Proba transfers unto Jesus parts of the various prophecies scattered throughout the Aeneid that detail the future glory of Aeneas and Rome , recasting these oracular episodes in a Christian light .
= = Proba 's motivation = =
R. P. H. Green argues that Proba ’ s work was a reaction to Roman Emperor Julian ’ s law that forbade Christian from teaching classical Greek and Latin mythological literature in which they themselves did not believe . Proba ’ s goal , Green argues , was to present “ Vergil without [ pagan ] gods , and [ thus ] a Vergil no longer vulnerable to Christian criticism . ” In this way , a Christian teacher could use this text to discuss Virgil without compromising their moral integrity . Another related hypothesis later emerged , put forth by scholar Aurelio Amatucci , which suggested that Proba had created the cento in order to teach her children stories from the Bible . However , there is no direct evidence implying that the work was created by Proba to be a teaching tool .
Clark and Hatch postulate that the distinctly Virgilian nature of Jesus in the cento could very well have been Proba 's attempt at responding to and rebutting the rather unflattering and demonizing descriptions of Jesus put forth by Julian in his works Caesares and Contra Galilaeos . Clark and Hatch , however , concede that while the hypothesis is intriguing , it is largely unfalsifiable due to lack of information about Proba , the date of the cento 's creation , and her intentions .
= = Reception = =
Around the time of its creation , Proba ’ s cento was immensely popular ; it is attested not only in manuscript records , but also the records of claustral libraries . The work was also heavily used in schools alongside St. Augustine ’ s De Doctrina Christiana ( with Proba ’ s work often eclipsing Augustine ’ s in popularity ) . Cătălina Mărmureanu et al. argue that the work was so popular because of its accessible Virgilian style , and because Proba presented herself as “ meek ” female , which appealed to the “ misogynistic views of the general public ” .
The work did have its early detractors . It is believed by many that Jerome criticized this work , for in a letter written from Bethlehem to Paulinus of Nola in which he criticized Virgilian centos , he warned against following an " old chatterbox " ( garrula anus ) , and those who think of calling " the Christless Maro [ i.e. Virgil ] a Christian " ( non [ ... ] Maronem sine Christo possimus dicere Christianum ) . According to historian James Westfall Thompson , Jerome “ strongly inveighed against this method of destroying the sense of a pagan author [ and ] his love of the classics and his Christian piety were alike offended . ” Another critic of the poem was Pope Gelasius I ( 492 – 496 ) , who declared the De laudibus Christi apocryphal , and he added it to his decretal " Of books to be received and not to be received " . This meant that while the poem was not considered heretical , it was forbidden for it to be read in public .
Despite these criticisms , Roman Emperor Arcadius ( AD 395 – 408 ) received a copy of the poem , and his version contains a fifteen line dedication noting that Proba 's work is " Maro changed for the better in a sacred meaning ” ( Maronem mutatum in melius divino [ ... ] sensu ) . It was also presented to Aelia Eudocia , the wife of Emperor Theodosius II ( AD 408 – 450 ) . During Late Antiquity , Archbishop Isidore of Seville ( AD 560 – 636 ) wrote highly of Proba , calling her the “ only woman among the men of the church ” ( Proba [ ... ] femina inter viros ecclesiasticos [ ... ] posita sola ) , and while he argued that the work was not worth much praise , her ingenuity in regards to its creation indeed was ( Cuius quidem non miramur studium sed laudamus ingenium ) . In the Middle Ages , Proba and her work would go on to be praised as examples of learnedness . Petrarch implicitly referenced De laudibus Christi in a letter discussing female geniuses , and in AD 1374 Giovanni Boccaccio included Proba on his list of famous women . In AD 1472 , the poem was first printed ; this means that Faltonia Betitia Proba may very well have been the first female author to have her work duplicated via the printing press .
Scholarship in the 19th and 20th centuries was much more critical of the work , with William Smith 's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology referring to the poem as " trash " worthy of " no praise " . It was also used by classicists and philologists of the era as an example of " late antiquity 's ' poverty of ideas ' " . Despite the disgust directed at the work during the 19th and 20th centuries , scholars have recently begun to re @-@ examine the work in a more positive light , seeing it as an interesting piece of literature worthy of study . Exemplifying such an opinion , Cullhed considers the work " of considerable historical and cultural importance [ for ] it belongs to the small number of ancient texts with a female author and stands out as one of our earliest extant Christian Latin poems . "
= = Authorship controversy = =
The work is traditionally ascribed to Faltonia Betitia Proba , based largely on the assertion of Isidore , who notes that the work was the product of a woman named Proba who was the wife of a man named Adelphus ( Proba , uxor Adelphi , centonem ex Vergilio [ ... ] expressit ) . However , classicist and medievalist Danuta Shanzer argued that the work was not actually created by Faltonia Betitia Proba , but rather her granddaughter , Anicia Faltonia Proba , a noblewoman who lived at the end of the fourth and beginning of the fifth centuries AD . Shanzer and others who agree with her developed several arguments as to why they believed that the work was not Faltonia Betitia Proba ’ s . First , they argue that lines 13 – 17 of De laudibus Christi bear a resemblance to lines 20 – 24 of the later poem Carmen contra paganos which is purported to have been penned after Faltonia Betitia Proba 's death . Second , they believe that the poem must have been written after AD 387 , because it alludes to a debate about the date of Easter , which only took place in 387 . Third , they see Jerome ’ s allusion to the poem ( discussed above ) as a reference to a living individual ( i.e. Anicia Proba ) . Fourth , they contend that Faltonia Betitia Proba had actually died during the war between Magnentius and Consantius , a war alluded to in the invocation of De laudibus Christi . Fifth and finally , they argue that Anicia Proba must have written the work since the author is referred to as “ mother of the Anicians ” in a later manuscript , as well as the “ eminent Roman Mistress ” in another ; these are titles only Anicia Proba would have received .
Sigrid Cullhed , in her 2015 book Proba the Prophet , collects various counterpoints to Shanzer et al . ’ s claims . First , Cullhed disputes the first argument , noting that “ there are no ‘ grounds for determining priority ’ ” of the lines . In regards to the second point , Cullhed notes that the supposed reference to the AD 387 debate about Easter could have easily referred to an earlier dispute . Countering the third point , Cullhed notes out that many other scholars feel that Jerome would have never insulted Anicia Proba since he praised her as “ the richest , noblest and most powerful woman in Rome ” in another letter ( this opinion is reiterated by Green ) . In regards to the fourth argument , Cullhed notes that Faltonia Betitia Proba ’ s supposed death in AD 351 may very well be unfounded . Opposing the fifth point , Cullhed argues that the titles used to refer to the author could have been inserted after the fact , sometime in the Middle Ages . Finally , Cullhed brings forth new evidence , arguing that if Anicia Proba had penned De laudibus Christi , it is likely that the Latin poet Claudian would have mentioned her poetic skills in his panegyric that celebrated the joint consulship of Anicia Proba 's two sons , Anicius Hermogenianus Olybrius and Anicius Probinus in AD 395 . Cullhed summarizes her argument by saying : “ The evidence for discrediting Isidore ’ s attribution [ of Faltonia Betitia Proba as the cento 's author ] is not sufficient , and so , I will assume that the cento was written in the mid @-@ fourth century by Faltonia Betitia Proba . ” Likewise , Karl Schenkl argues that scholars should accept the testimony of Isidore , who clearly attributes De laudibus Christi to Faltonia Betitia Proba . The general consensus of classicists and scholars today is that De laudibus Christi was indeed arranged by Faltonia Betitia Proba .
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= Zhang Heng =
Zhang Heng ( Chinese : 張衡 ; AD 78 – 139 ) , formerly romanized as Chang Heng , was a Han Chinese polymath from Nanyang who lived during the Han dynasty . Educated in the capital cities of Luoyang and Chang 'an , he achieved success as an astronomer , mathematician , scientist , engineer , inventor , geographer , cartographer , artist , poet , statesman , and literary scholar .
Zhang Heng began his career as a minor civil servant in Nanyang . Eventually , he became Chief Astronomer , Prefect of the Majors for Official Carriages , and then Palace Attendant at the imperial court . His uncompromising stance on historical and calendrical issues led to his becoming a controversial figure , preventing him from rising to the status of Grand Historian . His political rivalry with the palace eunuchs during the reign of Emperor Shun ( r . 125 – 144 ) led to his decision to retire from the central court to serve as an administrator of Hejian in Hebei . Zhang returned home to Nanyang for a short time , before being recalled to serve in the capital once more in 138 . He died there a year later , in 139 .
Zhang applied his extensive knowledge of mechanics and gears in several of his inventions . He invented the world 's first water @-@ powered armillary sphere to assist astronomical observation ; improved the inflow water clock by adding another tank ; and invented the world 's first seismometer , which discerned the cardinal direction of an earthquake 500 km ( 310 mi ) away . He improved previous Chinese calculations for pi . In addition to documenting about 2 @,@ 500 stars in his extensive star catalog , Zhang also posited theories about the Moon and its relationship to the Sun : specifically , he discussed the Moon 's sphericity , its illumination by reflected sunlight on one side and the hidden nature of the other , and the nature of solar and lunar eclipses . His fu ( rhapsody ) and shi poetry were renowned in his time and studied and analyzed by later Chinese writers . Zhang received many posthumous honors for his scholarship and ingenuity ; some modern scholars have compared his work in astronomy to that of the Greco @-@ Roman Ptolemy ( AD 86 – 161 ) .
= = Life of Zhang Heng = =
= = = Early life = = =
Born in the town of Xi 'e in Nanyang Commandery ( north of the modern Nanyang City in Henan province ) , Zhang Heng came from a distinguished but not very affluent family . His grandfather Zhang Kan had been governor of a commandery and one of the leaders who supported the restoration of the Han by Emperor Guangwu ( r . 25 – 57 ) , following the death of the usurping Wang Mang of the Xin ( AD 9 – 23 ) . At age ten , Zhang 's father died , leaving him in the care of his mother and grandmother . An accomplished writer in his youth , Zhang left home in the year 95 to pursue his studies in the capitals of Chang 'an and Luoyang . While traveling to Luoyang , Zhang passed by a hot spring near Mount Li and dedicated one of his earliest fu poems to it . This work , entitled " Fu on the Hot Springs " ( Wēnquán fù 溫泉賦 ) , describes the throngs of people attending the hot springs , which later became famous as the " Huaqing Hot Springs " , a favorite retreat of imperial concubine Yang Guifei during the Tang dynasty . After studying for some years at Luoyang 's Taixue , he was well @-@ versed in the classics and friends with several notable persons , including the mathematician and calligrapher Cui Yuan ( 78 – 143 ) , the official and philosophical commentator Ma Rong ( 79 – 166 ) , and the philosopher Wang Fu ( 78 – 163 ) . Government authorities offered Zhang appointments to several offices , including a position as one of the Imperial Secretaries , yet he acted modestly and declined . At age twenty @-@ three , he returned home with the title " Officer of Merit in Nanyang " , serving as the master of documents under the administration of Governor Bao De ( in office from 103 – 111 ) . As he was charged with composing inscriptions and dirges for the governor , he gained experience in writing official documents . As Officer of Merit in the commandery , he was also responsible for local appointments to office and recommendations to the capital of nominees for higher office . He spent much of his time composing rhapsodies on the capital cities . When Bao De was recalled to the capital in 111 to serve as a minister of finance , Zhang continued his literary work at home in Xi 'e . Zhang Heng began his studies in astronomy at the age of thirty and began publishing his works on astronomy and mathematics .
= = = Official career = = =
In 112 , Zhang was summoned to the court of Emperor An ( r . 106 – 125 ) , who had heard of his expertise in mathematics . When he was nominated to serve at the capital , Zhang was escorted by carriage — a symbol of his official status — to Luoyang , where he became a court gentleman working for the Imperial Secretariat . He was promoted to Chief Astronomer for the court , serving his first term from 115 – 120 under Emperor An and his second under the succeeding emperor from 126 – 132 . As Chief Astronomer , Zhang was a subordinate of the Minister of Ceremonies , one of Nine Ministers ranked just below the Three Excellencies . In addition to recording heavenly observations and portents , preparing the calendar , and reporting which days were auspicious and which ill @-@ omened , Zhang was also in charge of an advanced literacy test for all candidates to the Imperial Secretariat and the Censorate , both of whose members were required to know at least 9 @,@ 000 characters and all major writing styles . Under Emperor An , Zhang also served as Prefect of the Majors for Official Carriages under the Ministry of Guards , in charge of receiving memorials to the throne ( formal essays on policy and administration ) as well as nominees for official appointments .
When the government official Dan Song proposed the Chinese calendar should be reformed in 123 to adopt certain apocryphal teachings , Zhang opposed the idea . He considered the teachings to be of questionable stature and believed they could introduce errors . Others shared Zhang 's opinion and the calendar was not altered , yet Zhang 's proposal that apocryphal writings should be banned was rejected . The officials Liu Zhen and Liu Taotu , members of a committee to compile the dynastic history Dongguan Hanji ( 東觀漢記 ) , sought permission from the court to consult Zhang Heng . However , Zhang was barred from assisting the committee due to his controversial views on apocrypha and his objection to the relegation of Emperor Gengshi 's ( r . 23 – 25 ) role in the restoration of the Han Dynasty as lesser than Emperor Guangwu 's . Liu Zhen and Liu Taotu were Zhang 's only historian allies at court , and after their deaths Zhang had no further opportunities for promotion to the prestigious post of court historian .
Despite this setback in his official career , Zhang was reappointed as Chief Astronomer in 126 after Emperor Shun of Han ( r . 125 – 144 ) ascended to the throne . His intensive astronomical work was rewarded only with the rank and salary of 600 bushels , or shi , of grain ( mostly commuted to coin cash or bolts of silk ) . To place this number in context , in a hierarchy of twenty official ranks , the lowest @-@ paid official earned the rank and salary of 100 bushels and the highest @-@ paid official earned 10 @,@ 000 bushels during the Han . The 600 @-@ bushel rank was the lowest the emperor could directly appoint to a central government position ; any official of lower status was overseen by central or provincial officials of high rank .
In 132 , Zhang introduced an intricate seismometer to the court , which he claimed could detect the precise cardinal direction of a distant earthquake . On one occasion his device indicated that an earthquake had occurred in the northwest . As there was no perceivable tremor felt in the capital his political enemies were briefly able to relish the failure of his device , until a messenger arrived shortly afterwards to report that an earthquake had occurred about 400 km ( 248 mi ) to 500 km ( 310 mi ) northwest of Luoyang in Gansu province .
A year after Zhang presented his seismometer to the court , officials and candidates were asked to provide comments about a series of recent earthquakes which could be interpreted as signs of displeasure from Heaven . The ancient Chinese viewed natural calamities as cosmological punishments for misdeeds that were perpetrated by the Chinese ruler or his subordinates on earth . In Zhang 's memorial discussing the reasons behind these natural disasters , he criticized the new recruitment system of Zuo Xiong which fixed the age of eligible candidates for the title " Filial and Incorrupt " at age forty . The new system also transferred the power of the candidates ' assessment to the Three Excellencies rather than the Generals of the Household , who by tradition oversaw the affairs of court gentlemen . Although Zhang 's memorial was rejected , his status was significantly elevated soon after to Palace Attendant , a position he used to influence the decisions of Emperor Shun . With this prestigious new position , Zhang earned a salary of 2 @,@ 000 bushels and had the right to escort the emperor .
As Palace Attendant to Emperor Shun , Zhang Heng attempted to convince him that the court eunuchs represented a threat to the imperial court . Zhang pointed to specific examples of past court intrigues involving eunuchs , and convinced Shun that he should assume greater authority and limit their influence . The eunuchs attempted to slander Zhang , who responded with a fu rhapsody called " Fu on Pondering the Mystery " , which vents his frustration . Rafe de Crespigny states that Zhang 's rhapsody used imagery similar to Qu Yuan 's ( 340 – 278 BC ) poem " Li Sao " and focused on whether or not good men should flee the corrupted world or remain virtuous within it .
= = Literature and poetry = =
While working for the central court , Zhang Heng had access to a variety of written materials located in the Archives of the Eastern Pavilion . Zhang read many of the great works of history in his day and claimed he had found ten instances where the Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian ( 145 – 90 BC ) and the Book of Han by Ban Gu ( AD 32 – 92 ) differed from other ancient texts that were available to him . His account was preserved and recorded in the 5th century text of the Book of Later Han by Fan Ye ( 398 – 445 ) . His rhapsodies and other literary works displayed a deep knowledge of classic texts , Chinese philosophy , and histories . He also compiled a commentary on the Taixuan ( 太玄 , " Great Mystery " ) by the Daoist author Yang Xiong ( 53 BC – AD 18 ) .
Xiao Tong ( 501 – 531 ) , a crown prince of the Liang Dynasty ( 502 – 557 ) , immortalized several of Zhang 's works in his literary anthology , Selections of Refined Literature ( Wen xuan 文選 ) . Zhang 's rhapsodies ( 賦 , fu ) include " Western Metropolis Rhapsody " ( 西京賦 ) , " Eastern Metropolis Rhapsody " ( 東京賦 ) , " Southern Capital Rhapsody " ( 南都賦 ) , " Rhapsody on Contemplating the Mystery " ( 思玄賦 ) , and " Rhapsody on Returning to the Fields " ( 歸田賦 ) . The latter fuses Daoist ideas with Confucianism and was a precursor to later Chinese metaphysical nature poetry , according to Liu Wu @-@ chi . A set of four short lyric poems ( shi 詩 ) entitled " Lyric Poems on Four Sorrows " ( 四愁詩 ) , is also included with Zhang 's preface . This set constitutes some of the earliest heptasyllabic shi Chinese poetry written . While still in Luoyang , Zhang became inspired to write his " Western Metropolis Rhapsody " and " Eastern Metropolis Rhapsody " , which were based on the " Rhapsody on the Two Capitals " by the historian Ban Gu . Zhang 's work was similar to Ban 's , although the latter fully praised the contemporaneous Eastern Han regime while Zhang provided a warning that it could suffer the same fate as the Western Han if it too declined into a state of decadence and moral depravity . These two works satirized and criticized what he saw as the excessive luxury of the upper classes . Zhang 's " Southern Capital Rhapsody " commemorated his home city of Nanyang , home of the restorer of the Han Dynasty , Guangwu .
In Zhang Heng 's poem " Four Sorrows " , he laments that he is unable to woo a beautiful woman due to the impediment of mountains , snows and rivers . Rafe de Crespigny , Tong Xiao , and David R. Knechtges claim that Zhang wrote this as an innuendo hinting at his inability to keep in contact with the emperor , hindered by unworthy rivals and petty men . This poem is one of the first in China to have seven words per line . His " Four Sorrows " reads :
In another poem of his called " Stabilizing the Passions " ( 定情賦 ) — preserved in a Tang Dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) encyclopedia , but referred to earlier by Tao Qian ( 365 – 427 ) in praise of Zhang 's lyrical minimalism — Zhang displays his admiration for an attractive and exemplary woman . This simpler type of fu poem influenced later works by the prominent official and scholar Cai Yong ( 132 – 192 ) . Zhang wrote :
Zhang 's long lyrical poems also revealed a great amount of information on urban layout and basic geography . His rhapsody " Sir Based @-@ On @-@ Nothing " provides details on terrain , palaces , hunting parks , markets , and prominent buildings of Chang 'an , the Western Han capital . Exemplifying his attention to detail , his rhapsody on Nanyang described gardens filled with spring garlic , summer bamboo shoots , autumn leeks , winter rape @-@ turnips , perilla , evodia , and purple ginger . Zhang Heng 's writing confirms the size of the imperial hunting park in the suburbs of Chang 'an , as his estimate for the circumference of the park 's encircling wall agrees with the historian Ban Gu 's estimate of roughly 400 li ( one li in Han times was equal to 415 @.@ 8 m , or 1 @,@ 364 ft , making the circumference of the park wall 166 @,@ 320 m , or 545 @,@ 600 ft ) . Along with Sima Xiangru ( 179 – 117 BC ) , Zhang listed a variety of animals and hunting game inhabiting the park , which were divided in the northern and southern portions of the park according to where the animals had originally came from : northern or southern China . Somewhat similar to the description of Sima Xiangru , Zhang described the Western Han emperors and their entourage enjoying boat outings , water plays , fishing , and displays of archery targeting birds and other animals with stringed arrows from the tops of tall towers along Chang 'an 's Kunming Lake . The focus of Zhang 's writing on specific places and their terrain , society , people , and their customs could also be seen as early attempts of ethnographic categorization . In his poem " Xijing fu " , Zhang shows that he was aware of the new foreign religion of Buddhism , introduced via the Silk Road , as well as the legend of the birth of Buddha with the vision of the white elephant bringing about conception . In his " Western Metropolis Rhapsody " ( 西京賦 ) , Zhang described court entertainments such as juedi ( 角抵 ) , a form of theatrical wrestling accompanied by music in which participants butted heads with bull horn masks .
With his " Responding to Criticism " ( Ying jian 應間 ) , a work modeled on Yang Xiong 's " Justification Against Ridicule " , Zhang was an early writer and proponent of the Chinese literary genre shelun , or hypothetical discourse . Authors of this genre created a written dialogue between themselves and an imaginary person ( or a real person of their entourage or association ) ; the latter poses questions to the author on how to lead a successful life . He also used it as a means to criticize himself for failing to obtain high office , but coming to the conclusion that the true gentleman displays virtue instead of greed for power . In this work , Dominik Declercq asserts that the person urging Zhang to advance his career in a time of government corruption most likely represented the eunuchs or Empress Liang 's ( 116 – 150 ) powerful relatives in the Liang clan . Declercq states that these two groups would have been " anxious to know whether this famous scholar could be lured over to their side " , but Zhang flatly rejected such an alignment by declaring in this politically charged piece of literature that his gentlemanly quest for virtue trumped any desire of his for power .
Zhang wrote about the various love affairs of emperors dissatisfied with the imperial harem , going out into the city incognito to seek out prostitutes and sing @-@ song girls . This was seen as a general criticism of the Eastern Han emperors and their imperial favorites , guised in the criticism of earlier Western Han emperors . Besides criticizing the Western Han emperors for lavish decadence , Zhang also pointed out that their behavior and ceremonies did not properly conform with the Chinese cyclical beliefs in yin and yang . In a poem criticizing the previous Western Han Dynasty , Zhang wrote :
= = Achievements in science and technology = =
= = = Astronomy and mathematics = = =
For centuries the Chinese approximated pi as 3 ; Liu Xin ( d . AD 23 ) made the first known Chinese attempt at a more accurate calculation of 3 @.@ 1457 , but there is no record detailing the method he used to obtain this figure . In his work around 130 , Zhang Heng compared the celestial circle to the diameter of the earth , proportioning the former as 736 and the latter as 232 , thus calculating pi as 3 @.@ 1724 . In Zhang 's day , the ratio 4 : 3 was given for the area of a square to the area of its inscribed circle and the volume of a cube and volume of the inscribed sphere should also be 42 : 32 . In formula , with D as diameter and V as volume , D3 : V = 16 : 9 or V = <formula> D3 ; Zhang realized that the value for diameter in this formula was inaccurate , noting the discrepancy as the value taken for the ratio . Zhang then attempted to remedy this by amending the formula with an additional <formula> D3 , hence V |
= <formula> D3 + <formula> D3 =
<formula> D3 . With the ratio of the volume of the cube to the inscribed sphere at 8 : 5 , the implied ratio of the area of the square to the circle is √ 8 : √ 5 . From this formula , Zhang calculated pi as the square root of 10 ( or approximately 3 @.@ 162 ) . Zhang also calculated pi as <formula> = 3 @.@ 1466 in his book Ling Xian ( 靈憲 ) . In the 3rd century , Liu Hui made the calculation more accurate with his π algorithm , which allowed him to obtain the value 3 @.@ 14159 . Later , Zu Chongzhi ( 429 – 500 ) approximated pi as <formula> or 3 @.@ 141592 , the most accurate calculation for pi the ancient Chinese would achieve .
In his publication of AD 120 called The Spiritual Constitution of the Universe ( 靈憲 , Ling Xian , lit . " Sublime Model " ) , Zhang Heng theorized that the universe was like an egg " as round as a crossbow pellet " with the stars on the shell and the Earth as the central yolk . This universe theory is congruent with the geocentric model as opposed to the heliocentric model . Although the ancient Warring States ( 403 – 221 BC ) Chinese astronomers Shi Shen and Gan De had compiled China 's first star catalogue in the 4th century BC , Zhang nonetheless catalogued 2 @,@ 500 stars which he placed in a " brightly shining " category ( the Chinese estimated the total to be 14 @,@ 000 ) , and he recognized 124 constellations . In comparison , this star catalogue featured many more stars than the 850 documented by the Greek astronomer Hipparchus ( c . 190 – c.120 BC ) in his catalogue , and more than Ptolemy ( AD 83 – 161 ) , who catalogued over 1 @,@ 000 . Zhang supported the " radiating influence " theory to explain solar and lunar eclipses , a theory which was opposed by Wang Chong ( AD 27 – 97 ) . In the Ling Xian , Zhang wrote :
The Sun is like fire and the Moon like water . The fire gives out light and the water reflects it . Thus the moon 's brightness is produced from the radiance of the Sun , and the Moon 's darkness is due to ( the light of ) the sun being obstructed . The side which faces the Sun is fully lit , and the side which is away from it is dark . The planets ( as well as the Moon ) have the nature of water and reflect light . The light pouring forth from the Sun does not always reach the moon owing to the obstruction of the earth itself — this is called ' an @-@ xu ' , a lunar eclipse . When ( a similar effect ) happens with a planet ( we call it ) an occultation ; when the Moon passes across ( the Sun 's path ) then there is a solar eclipse .
Zhang Heng viewed these astronomical phenomena in supernatural terms as well . The signs of comets , eclipses , and movements of heavenly bodies could all be interpreted by him as heavenly guides on how to conduct affairs of state . Contemporary writers also wrote about eclipses and the sphericity of heavenly bodies . The music theorist and mathematician Jing Fang ( 78 – 37 BC ) wrote about the spherical shape of the Sun and Moon while discussing eclipses :
The Moon and the planets are Yin ; they have shape but no light . This they receive only when the Sun illuminates them . The former masters regarded the Sun as round like a crossbow bullet , and they thought the Moon had the nature of a mirror . Some of them recognized the Moon as a ball too . Those parts of the Moon which the Sun illuminates look bright , those parts which it does not , remain dark .
The theory posited by Zhang and Jing was supported by later pre @-@ modern scientists such as Shen Kuo ( 1031 – 1095 ) , who expanded on the reasoning of why the Sun and Moon were spherical .
= = = Extra tank for inflow clepsydra = = =
The outflow clepsydra was a timekeeping device used in China as long ago as the Shang Dynasty ( c . 1600 – c . 1050 BC ) , and certainly by the Zhou Dynasty ( 1122 – 256 BC ) . The inflow clepsydra with an indicator rod on a float had been known in China since the beginning of the Han Dynasty in 202 BC and had replaced the outflow type . The Han Chinese noted the problem with the falling pressure head in the reservoir , which slowed the timekeeping of the device as the inflow vessel was filled . Zhang Heng was the first to address this problem , indicated in his writings from 117 , by adding an extra compensating tank between the reservoir and the inflow vessel . Zhang also mounted two statuettes of a Chinese immortal and a heavenly guard on the top of the inflow clepsydra , the two of which would guide the indicator rod with their left hand and point out the graduations with their right . Joseph Needham states that this was perhaps the ancestor of all clock jacks that would later sound the hours found in mechanical clocks by the 8th century , but he notes that these figures did not actually move like clock jack figurines or sound the hours . Many additional compensation tanks were added to later clepsydras in the tradition of Zhang Heng . In 610 the Sui Dynasty ( 581 – 618 ) engineers Geng Xun and Yuwen Kai crafted an unequal @-@ armed steelyard balance able to make seasonal adjustments in the pressure head of the compensating tank , so that it could control the rate of water flow for different lengths of day and night during the year . Zhang mentioned a " jade dragon 's neck " , which in later times meant a siphon . He wrote of the floats and indicator @-@ rods of the inflow clepsydra as follows :
Bronze vessels are made and placed one above the other at different levels ; they are filled with pure water . Each has at the bottom a small opening in the form of a ' jade dragon 's neck ' . The water dripping ( from above ) enters two inflow receivers ( alternately ) , the left one being for the night and the right one for the day . On the covers of each ( inflow receiver ) there are small cast statuettes in gilt bronze ; the left ( night ) one is an immortal and the right ( day ) one is a policeman . These figures guide the indicator @-@ rod ( lit. arrow ) with their left hands , and indicate the graduations on it with their right hands , thus giving the time .
= = = Water @-@ powered armillary sphere = = =
Zhang Heng is the first person known to have applied hydraulic motive power ( i.e. by employing a waterwheel and clepsydra ) to rotate an armillary sphere , an astronomical instrument representing the celestial sphere . The Greek astronomer Eratosthenes ( 276 – 194 BC ) invented the first armillary sphere in 255 BC . The Chinese armillary sphere was fully developed by 52 BC , with the astronomer Geng Shouchang 's addition of a permanently fixed equatorial ring . In AD 84 the astronomers Fu An and Jia Kui added the ecliptic ring , and finally Zhang Heng added the horizon and meridian rings . This invention is described and attributed to Zhang in quotations by Hsu Chen and Li Shan , referencing his book Lou Shui Chuan Hun Thien I Chieh ( Apparatus for Rotating an Armillary Sphere by Clepsydra Water ) . It was likely not an actual book by Zhang , but a chapter from his Hun I or Hun I Thu Chu , written in 117 AD . His water @-@ powered armillary influenced the design of later Chinese water clocks and led to the discovery of the escapement mechanism by the 8th century . The historian Joseph Needham ( 1900 – 1995 ) states :
What were the factors leading to the first escapement clock in China ? The chief tradition leading to Yi Xing ( AD 725 ) was of course the succession of ' pre @-@ clocks ' which had started with Zhang Heng about 125 . Reason has been given for believing that these applied power to the slow turning movement of computational armillary spheres and celestial globes by means of a water @-@ wheel using clepsydra drip , which intermittently exerted the force of a lug to act on the teeth of a wheel on a polar @-@ axis shaft . Zhang Heng in his turn had composed this arrangement by uniting the armillary rings of his predecessors into the equatorial armillary sphere , and combining it with the principles of the water @-@ mills and hydraulic trip @-@ hammers which had become so widespread in Chinese culture in the previous century .
Zhang did not initiate the Chinese tradition of hydraulic engineering , which began during the mid Zhou Dynasty ( c . 6th century BC ) , through the work of engineers such as Sunshu Ao and Ximen Bao . Zhang 's contemporary , Du Shi , ( d . AD 38 ) was the first to apply the motive power of waterwheels to operate the bellows of a blast furnace to make pig iron , and the cupola furnace to make cast iron . Zhang provided a valuable description of his water @-@ powered armillary sphere in the treatise of 125 , stating :
The equatorial ring goes around the belly of the armillary sphere 91 and 5 / 19 ( degrees ) away from the pole . The circle of the ecliptic also goes round the belly of the instrument at an angle of 24 ( degrees ) with the equator . Thus at the summer solstice the ecliptic is 67 ( degrees ) and a fraction away from the pole , while at the winter solstice it is 115 ( degrees ) and a fraction away . Hence ( the points ) where the ecliptic and the equator intersect should give the north polar distances of the spring and autumn equinoxes . But now ( it has been recorded that ) the spring equinox is 90 and 1 / 4 ( degrees ) away from the pole , and the autumn equinox is 92 and 1 / 4 ( degrees ) away . The former figure is adopted only because it agrees with the ( results obtained by the ) method of measuring solstitial sun shadows as embodied in the Xia ( dynasty ) calendar .
Zhang Heng 's water @-@ powered armillary sphere had profound effects on Chinese astronomy and mechanical engineering in later generations . His model and its complex use of gears greatly influenced the water @-@ powered instruments of later astronomers such as Yi Xing ( 683 – 727 ) , Zhang Sixun ( fl . 10th century ) , Su Song ( 1020 – 1101 ) , Guo Shoujing ( 1231 – 1316 ) , and many others . Water @-@ powered armillary spheres in the tradition of Zhang Heng 's were used in the eras of the Three Kingdoms ( 220 – 280 ) and Jin Dynasty ( 265 – 420 ) , yet the design for it was temporarily out of use between 317 and 418 , due to invasions of northern Xiongnu nomads . Zhang Heng 's old instruments were recovered in 418 , when Emperor Wu of Liu Song ( r . 420 – 422 ) captured the ancient capital of Chang 'an . Although still intact , the graduation marks and the representations of the stars , Moon , Sun , and planets were quite worn down by time and rust . In 436 , the emperor ordered Qian Luozhi , the Secretary of the Bureau of Astronomy and Calendar , to recreate Zhang 's device , which he managed to do successfully . Qian 's water @-@ powered celestial globe was still in use at the time of the Liang Dynasty ( 502 – 557 ) , and successive models of water @-@ powered armillary spheres were designed in subsequent dynasties .
= = = Zhang 's seismograph = = =
From the earliest times , the Chinese were concerned with the destructive force of earthquakes . It was recorded in Sima Qian 's Records of the Grand Historian of 91 BC that in 780 BC an earthquake had been powerful enough to divert the courses of three rivers . It was not known at the time that earthquakes were caused by the shifting of tectonic plates in the Earth 's crust ; instead , the people of the ancient Zhou Dynasty explained them as disturbances with cosmic yin and yang , along with the heavens ' displeasure with acts committed ( or the common peoples ' grievances ignored ) by the current ruling dynasty . These theories were ultimately derived from the ancient text of the Yijing ( Book of Changes ) , in its fifty @-@ first hexagram . There were other early theories about earthquakes , developed by those such as the ancient Greeks . Anaxagoras ( c . 500 – 428 BC ) believed that they were caused by excess water near the surface crust of the earth bursting into the Earth 's hollows ; Democritus ( c . 460 – 370 BC ) believed that the saturation of the Earth with water caused them ; Anaximenes ( c . 585 – c . 525 BC ) believed they were the result of massive pieces of the Earth falling into the cavernous hollows due to drying ; and Aristotle ( 384 – 322 BC ) believed they were caused by instability of vapor ( pneuma ) caused by the drying of the moist Earth by the Sun 's rays .
During the Han Dynasty , many learned scholars — including Zhang Heng — believed in the " oracles of the winds " . These oracles of the occult observed the direction , force , and timing of the winds , to speculate about the operation of the cosmos and to predict events on Earth . These ideas influenced Zhang Heng 's views on the cause of earthquakes . Against the grain of earlier theories proposed by his fellow Chinese and contemporary Greeks , Zhang Heng believed that earthquakes were caused by wind and air , writing :
The chief cause of earthquake is air , an element naturally swift and shifting from place to place . As long as it is not stirred , but lurks in a vacant space , it reposes innocently , giving no trouble to objects around it . But any cause coming upon it from without rouses it , or compresses it , and drives it into a narrow space ... and when opportunity of escape is cut off , then ' With deep murmur of the Mountain it roars around the barriers ' , which after long battering it dislodges and tosses on high , growing more fierce the stronger the obstacle with which it has contended .
In 132 , Zhang Heng presented to the Han court what many historians consider to be his most impressive invention , the first seismometer . It was named " earthquake weathervane " ( houfeng didongyi 候風地動儀 , lit. instrument for measuring the seasonal winds and the movements of the Earth ) , and it was able to roughly determine the direction ( out of eight directions ) where the earthquake came from . According to the Book of Later Han ( compiled by Fan Ye in the 5th century ) , his bronze urn @-@ shaped device , with a swinging pendulum inside , was able to detect the direction of an earthquake hundreds of miles / kilometers away . This was essential for the Han government in sending quick aid and relief to regions devastated by this natural disaster . The Book of Later Han records that , on one occasion , Zhang 's device was triggered , though no observer had felt any seismic disturbance ; several days later a messenger arrived from the west and reported that an earthquake had occurred in Longxi ( modern Gansu Province ) , the same direction that Zhang 's device had indicated , and thus the court was forced to admit the efficacy of the device .
To indicate the direction of a distant earthquake , Zhang 's device dropped a bronze ball from one of eight tubed projections shaped as dragon heads ; the ball fell into the mouth of a corresponding metal object shaped as a toad , each representing a direction like the points on a compass rose . His device had eight mobile arms ( for all eight directions ) connected with cranks having catch mechanisms at the periphery . When tripped , a crank and right angle lever would raise a dragon head and release a ball which had been supported by the lower jaw of the dragon head . His device also included a vertical pin passing through a slot in the crank , a catch device , a pivot on a projection , a sling suspending the pendulum , an attachment for the sling , and a horizontal bar supporting the pendulum . Wang Zhenduo ( 王振鐸 ) argued that the technology of the Eastern Han era was sophisticated enough to produce such a device , as evidenced by contemporary levers and cranks used in other devices such as crossbow triggers .
Later Chinese of subsequent periods were able to reinvent Zhang 's seismometer . They included the 6th @-@ century mathematician and surveyor Xindu Fang of the Northern Qi Dynasty ( 550 – 577 ) and the astronomer and mathematician Lin Xiaogong of the Sui Dynasty ( 581 – 618 ) . Like Zhang , Xindu Fang and Lin Xiaogong were given imperial patronage for their services in craftsmanship of devices for the court . By the time of the Yuan Dynasty ( 1271 – 1368 ) , it was acknowledged that all devices previously made were preserved , except for that of the seismometer . This was discussed by the scholar Zhou Mi around 1290 , who remarked that the books of Xindu Fang and Lin Xiaogong detailing their seismological devices were no longer to be found . Horwitz , Kreitner , and Needham speculate if Tang Dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) era seismographs found their way to contemporary Japan ; according to Needham , " instruments of apparently traditional type there in which a pendulum carries pins projecting in many directions and able to pierce a surrounding paper cylinder , have been described . "
Hong @-@ sen Yan states that modern replicas of Zhang 's device have failed to reach the level of accuracy and sensitivity described in Chinese historical records . Wang Zhenduo presented two different models of the seismometer based on the ancient descriptions of Zhang 's device . In his 1936 reconstruction , the central pillar ( du zhu ) of the device was a suspended pendulum acting as a movement sensor , while the central pillar of his second model in 1963 was an inverted pendulum . According to Needham , while working in the Seismological Observatory of Tokyo University in 1939 , Akitsune Imamura and Hagiwara made a reconstruction of Zhang 's device . While it was John Milne and Wang Zhenduo who argued early on that Zhang 's " central pillar " was a suspended pendulum , Imamura was the first to propose an inverted model . He argued that transverse shock would have rendered Wang 's immobilization mechanism ineffective , as it would not have prevented further motion that could knock other balls out of their position . On June 13 , 2005 , modern Chinese seismologists announced that they had successfully created a replica of the instrument .
Anthony J. Barbieri @-@ Low , a Professor of Early Chinese History at the University of California , Santa Barbara , names Zhang Heng as one of several high @-@ ranking Eastern @-@ Han officials who engaged in crafts that were traditionally reserved for artisans ( gong 工 ) , such as mechanical engineering . Barbieri @-@ Low speculates that Zhang only designed his seismometer , but did not actually craft the device himself . He asserts that this would most likely have been the job of artisans commissioned by Zhang . He writes : " Zhang Heng was an official of moderately high rank and could not be seen sweating in the foundries with the gong artisans and the government slaves . Most likely , he worked collaboratively with the professional casters and mold makers in the imperial workshops . "
= = = Cartography = = =
The Wei ( 220 – 265 ) and Jin Dynasty ( 265 – 420 ) cartographer and official Pei Xiu ( 224 – 271 ) was the first in China to describe in full the geometric grid reference for maps that allowed for precise measurements using a graduated scale , as well as topographical elevation . However , map @-@ making in China had existed since at least the 4th century BC with the Qin state maps found in Gansu in 1986 . Pinpointed accuracy of the winding courses of rivers and familiarity with scaled distance had been known since the Qin and Han Dynasty , respectively , as evidenced by their existing maps , while the use of a rectangular grid had been known in China since the Han as well . Historian Howard Nelson states that , although the accounts of Zhang Heng 's work in cartography are somewhat vague and sketchy , there is ample written evidence that Pei Xiu derived the use of the rectangular grid reference from the maps of Zhang Heng . Rafe de Crespigny asserts that it was Zhang who established the rectangular grid system in Chinese cartography . Needham points out that the title of his book Flying Bird Calendar may have been a mistake , and that the book is more accurately entitled Bird 's Eye Map . Historian Florian C. Reiter notes that Zhang 's narrative " Guitian fu " contains a phrase about applauding the maps and documents of Confucius of the Zhou Dynasty , which Reiter suggests places maps ( tu ) on a same level of importance with documents ( shu ) . It is documented that a physical geography map was first presented by Zhang Heng in 116 AD , called a Ti Hsing Thu .
= = = Odometer and south @-@ pointing chariot = = =
Zhang Heng is often credited with inventing the first odometer , an achievement also attributed to Archimedes ( c . 287 – 212 BC ) and Heron of Alexandria ( fl . AD 10 – 70 ) . Similar devices were used by the Roman and Han @-@ Chinese empires at about the same period . By the 3rd century , the Chinese had termed the device the ji li gu che , or " li @-@ recording drum carriage " ( the modern measurement of li = 500 m / 1640 ft ) .
Ancient Chinese texts describe the mechanical carriage 's functions ; after one li was traversed , a mechanically driven wooden figure struck a drum , and after ten li had been covered , another wooden figure struck a gong or a bell with its mechanically operated arm . However , there is evidence to suggest that the invention of the odometer was a gradual process in Han Dynasty China that centered on the " huang men " — court people ( i.e. eunuchs , palace officials , attendants and familiars , actors , acrobats , etc . ) who followed the musical procession of the royal " drum @-@ chariot " . There is speculation that at some time during the 1st century BC the beating of drums and gongs was mechanically driven by the rotation of the road wheels . This might have actually been the design of Luoxia Hong ( c . 110 BC ) , yet by at least 125 the mechanical odometer carriage was already known , as it was depicted in a mural of the Xiao Tang Shan Tomb .
The south @-@ pointing chariot was another mechanical device credited to Zhang Heng . It was a non @-@ magnetic compass vehicle in the form of a two @-@ wheeled chariot . Differential gears driven by the chariot 's wheels allowed a wooden figurine ( in the shape of a Chinese state minister ) to constantly point to the south , hence its name . The Song Shu ( c . AD 500 ) records that Zhang Heng re @-@ invented it from a model used in the Zhou Dynasty era , but the violent collapse of the Han Dynasty unfortunately did not allow it to be preserved . Whether Zhang Heng invented it or not , Ma Jun ( 200 – 265 ) succeeded in creating the chariot in the following century .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Science and technology = = =
Zhang Heng 's mechanical inventions influenced later Chinese inventors such as Yi Xing , Zhang Sixun , Su Song , and Guo Shoujing . Su Song directly named Zhang 's water @-@ powered armillary sphere as the inspiration for his 11th @-@ century clock tower . The cosmic model of nine points of Heaven corresponding with nine regions of earth conceived in the work of the scholar @-@ official Chen Hongmou ( 1696 – 1771 ) followed in the tradition of Zhang 's book Spiritual Constitution of the Universe . The seismologist John Milne , who created the modern seismograph in 1876 alongside Thomas Gray and James A. Ewing at the Imperial College of Engineering in Tokyo , commented in 1886 on Zhang Heng 's contributions to seismology . The historian Joseph Needham emphasized his contributions to pre @-@ modern Chinese technology , stating that Zhang was noted even in his day for being able to " make three wheels rotate as if they were one . " More than one scholar has described Zhang as a polymath . However , some scholars also point out that Zhang 's writing lacks concrete scientific theories . Comparing Zhang with his contemporary , Ptolemy ( 83 – 161 ) of Roman Egypt , Jin Guantao , Fan Hongye , and Liu Qingfeng state :
Based on the theories of his predecessors , Zhang Heng systematically developed the celestial sphere theory . An armillary constructed on the basis of his hypotheses bears a remarkable similarity to Ptolemy 's earth @-@ centered theory . However , Zhang Heng did not definitely propose a theoretical model like Ptolemy 's earth @-@ centered one . It is astonishing that the celestial model Zhang Heng constructed was almost a physical model of Ptolemy 's earth @-@ centered theory . Only a single step separates the celestial globe from the earth @-@ centered theory , but Chinese astronomers never took that step .
Here we can see how important the exemplary function of the primitive scientific structure is . In order to use the Euclidean system of geometry as a model for the development of astronomical theory , Ptolemy first had to select hypotheses which could serve as axioms . He naturally regarded circular motion as fundamental and then used the circular motion of deferents and epicycles in his earth @-@ centered theory . Although Zhang Heng understood that the sun , moon and planets move in circles , he lacked a model for a logically structured theory and so could not establish a corresponding astronomical theory . Chinese astronomy was most interested in extracting the algebraic features of planetary motion ( that is , the length of the cyclic periods ) to establish astronomical theories . Thus astronomy was reduced to arithmetic operations , extracting common multiples and divisors from the observed cyclic motions of the heavenly bodies .
= = = Poetic literature = = =
Zhang 's poetry was widely read during his life and after his death . In addition to the compilation of Xiao Tong mentioned above , the Eastern Wu official Xue Zong ( d . 237 ) wrote commentary on Zhang 's poems " Dongjing fu " and " Xijing fu " . The influential poet Tao Qian wrote that he admired the poetry of Zhang Heng for its " curbing extravagant diction and aiming at simplicity " , in regards to perceived tranquility and rectitude correlating with the simple but effective language of the poet . Tao wrote that both Zhang Heng and Cai Yong " avoided inflated language , aiming chiefly at simplicity " , and adding that their " compositions begin by giving free expression to their fancies but end on a note of quiet , serving admirably to restrain undisciplined and passionate nature " .
= = = Posthumous honors = = =
Zhang was given great honors in life and in death . The philosopher and poet Fu Xuan ( 217 – 278 ) of the Wei and Jin dynasties once lamented in an essay over the fact that Zhang Heng was never placed in the Ministry of Works . Writing highly of Zhang and the 3rd @-@ century mechanical engineer Ma Jun , Fu Xuan wrote , " Neither of them was ever an official of the Ministry of Works , and their ingenuity did not benefit the world . When ( authorities ) employ personnel with no regard to special talent , and having heard of genius neglect even to test it — is this not hateful and disastrous ? "
In honor of Zhang 's achievements in science and technology , his friend Cui Ziyu ( Cui Yuan ) wrote a memorial inscription on his burial stele , which has been preserved in the Guwen yuan . Cui stated , " [ Zhang Heng 's ] mathematical computations exhausted ( the riddles of ) the heavens and the earth . His inventions were comparable even to those of the Author of Change . The excellence of his talent and the splendour of his art were one with those of the gods . " The minor official Xiahou Zhan ( 243 – 291 ) of the Wei Dynasty made an inscription for his own commemorative stele to be placed at Zhang Heng 's tomb . It read : " Ever since gentlemen have composed literary texts , none has been as skillful as the Master [ Zhang Heng ] in choosing his words well ... if only the dead could rise , oh I could then turn to him for a teacher ! "
Several things have been named after Zhang in modern times , including the lunar crater Chang Heng , the asteroid 1802 Zhang Heng , and the mineral Zhanghengite .
= = = Citation = = =
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= Kawakita v. United States =
Kawakita v. United States , 343 U.S. 717 ( 1952 ) , [ 1 ] is a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court ruled that a dual U.S. / Japanese citizen could be convicted of treason against the United States for acts performed in Japan during World War II . Tomoya Kawakita , born in California to Japanese parents , was in Japan when the war broke out and stayed in Japan until the war was over . After returning to the United States , he was arrested and charged with treason for having mistreated American prisoners of war . Kawakita claimed he could not be found guilty of treason because he had lost his U.S. citizenship while in Japan , but this argument was rejected by the courts ( including the Supreme Court ) , which ruled that he had in fact retained his U.S. citizenship during the war . Originally sentenced to death , Kawakita 's sentence was commuted to life imprisonment , and he was eventually released from prison , deported to Japan , and barred from ever returning to the United States .
= = Background = =
Tomoya Kawakita ( 川北 友弥 , Kawakita Tomoya ) was born in Calexico , California , on September 26 , 1921 , of Japanese @-@ born parents . He was born with U.S. citizenship due to his place of birth , and also Japanese nationality via his parents . After finishing high school in Calexico in 1939 , Kawakita traveled to Japan with his father ( a grocer and merchant ) . He remained in Japan and enrolled in Meiji University in 1941 . In 1943 , he registered officially as a Japanese national .
Kawakita was in Japan when the attack on Pearl Harbor drew the United States and Japan into World War II . In 1943 , he took a job as an interpreter at a mining and metal processing plant which used Allied prisoners of war ( POWs ) as laborers . By early 1945 , the population of the POW camp included about four hundred captured American troops . After the end of the war , Kawakita renewed his U.S. passport , explaining away his having registered as a Japanese national by claiming he had acted under duress . He returned to the U.S. in 1946 and enrolled at the University of Southern California .
In October 1946 , a former POW saw Kawakita in a Los Angeles department store and recognized him from the war . He reported this encounter to the FBI , and in June 1947 , Kawakita was arrested and charged with multiple counts of treason arising from alleged abuse of American POWs .
= = Trial and appeal = =
At Kawakita 's trial , presided over by U.S. District Judge William C. Mathes , the defense conceded that Kawakita had acted abusively toward American POWs , but argued that his actions were relatively minor , and that in any event , they could not constitute treason against the United States because Kawakita was not a U.S. citizen at the time , having lost his U.S. citizenship when he confirmed his Japanese nationality in 1943 . The prosecution argued that Kawakita had known he was still a U.S. citizen and still owed allegiance to the country of his birth — citing the statements he had made to consular officials when applying for a new passport as evidence that he had never intended to give up his U.S. citizenship .
Judge Mathes 's instructed the jury that if they found that Kawakita had genuinely believed he was no longer a U.S. citizen , then he must be found not guilty of treason . During the course of their deliberations , the jury reported several times that they were hopelessly deadlocked , but the judge insisted each time that they continue trying to reach a unanimous verdict . In the end — on September 2 , 1948 — the jury found Kawakita guilty of eight of the thirteen counts of treason against him , and he was sentenced to death . As a consequence of his conviction for treason , Kawakita 's U.S. citizenship was also revoked . In passing sentence , Mathes said : " Reflection leads to the conclusion that the only worthwhile use for the life of a traitor , such as this defendant has proved to be , is to serve as an example to those of weak moral fiber who may hereafter be tempted to commit treason against the United States . "
Kawakita appealed to a three @-@ judge panel of the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals , which unanimously upheld the verdict and death sentence . Certiorari was granted by the United States Supreme Court , and oral arguments before the Supreme Court were heard on April 3 , 1952 .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
In a 4 – 3 decision issued on June 2 , 1952 , the Supreme Court upheld Kawakita 's treason conviction and death sentence . The Court 's opinion was written by Associate Justice William O. Douglas , joined by Associate Justices Stanley F. Reed , Robert H. Jackson , and Sherman Minton .
The Court 's majority held that the jury in Kawakita 's trial had been justified in concluding that he had not lost or given up his U.S. citizenship while he was in Japan during the war . The Court added that an American citizen owed allegiance to the United States , and could be found guilty of treason , no matter where he lived — even for actions committed in another country that also claimed him as a citizen . Further , given the flagrant nature of Kawakita 's actions , the majority found that the trial judge had not acted arbitrarily in imposing a death sentence .
= = = Dissent = = =
Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson authored a dissenting opinion , which was joined by Associate Justices Hugo Black and Harold H. Burton . The dissent concluded that " for over two years , [ Kawakita ] was consistently demonstrating his allegiance to Japan , not the United States . As a matter of law , he expatriated himself as well as that can be done . " On this basis , the dissenting justices would have reversed Kawakita 's treason conviction .
= = Subsequent developments = =
On October 29 , 1953 , President Dwight D. Eisenhower commuted Kawakita 's sentence to life imprisonment plus a $ 10 @,@ 000 fine . After the commutation of his sentence , Kawakita was transferred to the Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary . Ten years later , on October 24 , 1963 , President John F. Kennedy — in what would be one of his last official acts before his assassination — ordered Kawakita released from prison on the condition that he leave the United States and be banned from ever returning . Kawakita flew to Japan on December 13 , 1963 and reacquired Japanese citizenship upon his arrival . In 1978 , Kawakita sought permission to travel to the United States to visit his parents ' grave , but his efforts were unsuccessful . As of late 1993 , he was living quietly with relatives in Japan .
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= Flexible @-@ fuel vehicles in Brazil =
The fleet of flexible @-@ fuel vehicles in Brazil is the largest in the world , and since their inception in 2003 , a total of 20 million flex fuel cars and light trucks have been manufactured in the country by June 2013 , and over 3 million flexible @-@ fuel motorcycles by October 2013 . Registrations of flex @-@ fuel autos and light trucks represented 87 @.@ 0 % of all passenger and light duty vehicles sold in 2012 , while flexible @-@ fuel motorcycles represented a 48 @.@ 2 % of the domestic motorcycle production in 2012 . There are over 80 flex car and light truck models available in the market manufactured by 14 major carmakers , and five flex @-@ fuel motorcycles models available as of December 2012 .
Brazilian flexible @-@ fuel vehicles are optimized to run on any mix of E20 @-@ E25 gasoline and up to 100 % hydrous ethanol fuel ( E100 ) . Flex vehicles in Brazil are built @-@ in with a small gasoline reservoir for cold starting the engine when temperatures drop below 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) . An improved flex motor generation was launched in 2009 which eliminated the need for the secondary gas tank .
According to two separate research studies conducted in 2009 , 65 % of the flex @-@ fuel registered vehicles regularly use ethanol fuel , and use climbs to 93 % of flex car owners in São Paulo , the main ethanol producer state where local taxes are lower , and prices are more competitive than gasoline . However , as a result of higher ethanol prices caused by the Brazilian ethanol industry crisis that began in 2009 , by November 2013 only 23 % flex @-@ fuel car owners were using ethanol regularly , down from 66 % in 2009 .
= = History = =
After the 1973 oil crisis , the Brazilian government made mandatory the use of ethanol blends with gasoline , and neat ethanol @-@ powered cars ( E100 only ) were launched to the market in 1979 , after testing with several prototypes developed by four carmakers . Brazilian carmakers modified gasoline engines to support ethanol characteristics and changes included compression ratio , amount of fuel injected , replacement of materials that would get corroded by the contact with ethanol , use of colder spark plugs suitable for dissipating heat due to higher flame temperatures , and an auxiliary cold @-@ start system that injects gasoline from a small tank in the engine compartment to help starting when cold .
Flexible @-@ fuel technology started being developed only by the end of the 1990s by Brazilian engineers and in March 2003 Volkswagen do Brasil launched in the market the Gol 1 @.@ 6 Total Flex , the first commercial flexible fuel vehicle capable of running on any blend of gasoline and ethanol .
= = Technology = =
The Brazilian flexible fuel car is built with an ethanol @-@ ready engine and one fuel tank for both fuels . The small gasoline reservoir for starting the engine with pure ethanol in cold weather , used in earlier ethanol @-@ only vehicles , was kept in the first generation of Brazilian flexible @-@ fuel cars , mainly for users of the central and southern regions , where winter temperatures normally drop below15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) . An improved flex motor generation was launched in 2009 that allowed for the elimination of this secondary gas reservoir tank .
A key innovation in the Brazilian flex technology was avoiding the need for an additional dedicated sensor to monitor the ethanol @-@ gasoline mix , which made the first American M85 flex fuel vehicles too expensive . This was accomplished through the lambda probe , used to measure the quality of combustion in conventional engines , is also required to tell the engine control unit ( ECU ) which blend of gasoline and alcohol is being burned . This task is accomplished automatically through software developed by Brazilian engineers , called " Software Fuel Sensor " ( SFS ) , fed with data from the standard sensors already built @-@ in the vehicle . The technology was developed by the Brazilian subsidiary of Boschin 1994 , but was further improved and commercially implemented in 2003 by the Italian subsidiary of Magneti Marelli , located in Hortolândia , São Paulo . A similar fuel injection technology was developed by the Brazilian subsidiary of Delphi Automotive Systems , and it is called " Multifuel " , based on research conducted at its facility in Piracicaba , São Paulo . This technology allows the controller to regulate the amount of fuel injected and spark time , as fuel flow needs to be decreased and also self @-@ combustion needs to be avoided when gasoline is used because ethanol engines have compression ratio around 12 : 1 , too high for gasoline .
Brazilian flex engines are being designed with higher compression ratios , taking advantage of the higher ethanol blends and maximizing the benefits of the higher oxygen content of ethanol , resulting in lower emissions and improving fuel efficiency . The following table shows the evolution and improvement of the different generations of flex engines developed in Brazil .
Brazilian flex cars are capable of running on just hydrated ethanol ( E100 ) , or just on a blend of gasoline with 20 to 25 % anhydrous ethanol , or on any arbitrary combination of both fuels . Pure gasoline is no longer sold in the country because these high ethanol blends are mandatory since 1993 . Therefore , all Brazilian automakers have optimized flex vehicles to run with gasoline blends from E20 to E25 , so these FFVs are unable to run smoothly with pure gasoline with the exception of two models are specifically built with a flex @-@ fuel engine optimized to operate also with pure gasoline ( E0 ) , the Renault Clio Hi @-@ Flex and the Fiat Siena Tetrafuel .
The flexibility of Brazilian FFVs empowers the consumers to choose the fuel depending on current market prices . As ethanol fuel economy is lower than gasoline because of ethanol 's energy content is close to 34 % less per unit volume than gasoline , flex cars running on ethanol get a lower mileage than when running on pure gasoline . However , this effect is partially offset by the usually lower price per liter of ethanol fuel . As a rule of thumb , Brazilian consumers are frequently advised by the media to use more alcohol than gasoline in their mix only when ethanol prices are 30 % lower or more than gasoline , as ethanol price fluctuates heavily depending on the result of seasonal sugar cane harvests .
= = Production and market share = =
After the market launch of the Gol 1 @.@ 6 Total Flex , the first commercial flexible fuel vehicle capable of running on any blend of gasoline and ethanol , GM do Brasil followed three months later with the Chevrolet Corsa 1 @.@ 8 Flexpower , using an engine developed by a joint @-@ venture with Fiat called PowerTrain . As of July 2013 , the following 14 carmakers build and sell flexible fuel vehicles in Brazil : Citroën , Chery , Fiat , Ford , GM do Brasil ( Chevrolet ) , Honda , Hyundai , Kia Motors , Mitsubishi , Nissan , Peugeot , Renault , Toyota and Volkswagen .
Flexible fuel vehicles were 22 % of the new car sales in 2004 , 73 % in 2005 , 87 @.@ 6 % in July 2008 , and reached a record 94 % in August 2009 . The production of flex @-@ fuel cars and light commercial vehicles since 2003 reached 10 million vehicles in March 2010 , and 15 million in January 2012 . Registrations of flex @-@ fuel cars and light trucks represented 87 @.@ 0 % of all passenger and light duty vehicles sold in the country in 2012 . Production passed the 20 million @-@ unit mark in June 2013 . By the end of 2014 , flex @-@ fuel cars represented 54 % of the Brazilian registered stock of light @-@ duty vehicles , while gasoline only vehicles represented 34 @.@ 3 % . As of June 2015 , flex @-@ fuel light @-@ duty vehicle sales totaled 25 @.@ 5 million units .
The rapid success of flex vehicles was made possible by the existence of 33 @,@ 000 filling stations with at least one ethanol pump available by 2006 , a heritage of the early Pró @-@ Álcool ethanol program . These facts , together with the mandatory use of E25 blend of gasoline throughout the country , allowed Brazil in 2008 to achieve more than 50 % of fuel consumption in the gasoline market from sugar cane @-@ based ethanol .
According to two separate research studies conducted in 2009 , at the national level 65 % of the flex @-@ fuel registered vehicles regularly used ethanol fuel , and use climbed to 93 % in São Paulo , the main ethanol producer state where local taxes are lower , and E100 prices at the pump are usually more competitive than gasoline . However , as a result of higher ethanol prices caused by the Brazilian ethanol industry crisis that began in 2009 , combined with government subsidies set to keep gasoline price lower than the international market value , by November 2013 only 23 % flex @-@ fuel car owners were using ethanol regularly , down from 66 % in 2009 .
= = Latest developments = =
= = = Flex @-@ fuel motorcycles = = =
The latest innovation within the Brazilian flexible @-@ fuel technology , is the development of flex @-@ fuel motorcycles . In 2007 Magneti Marelli presented the first motorcycle with flex technology , adapted on a Kasinski Seta 125 , and based on the Software Fuel Sensor ( SFS ) the firm developed for flex @-@ fuel cars in Brazil . Delphi Automotive Systems also presented in 2007 its Multifuel injection technology for motorcycles . Besides the flexibility in the choice of fuels , a main objective of the fuel @-@ flex motorcycles is to reduce CO2 emissions by 20 percent , and savings in fuel consumption in the order of 5 % to 10 % are expected . AME Amazonas Motocicletas announced that sales of its motorcycle AME GA ( G stands for gasoline and A for alcohol ) were scheduled for 2009 , but the first flex @-@ fuel motorcycle was actually launched by Honda in March 2009 . Produced by its Brazilian subsidiary Moto Honda da Amazônia , the CG 150 Titan Mix is sold for around US $ 2 @,@ 700 .
Because the CG 150 Titan Mix does not have a secondary gas tank for a cold start like the Brazilian flex cars do , the tank must have at least 20 % of gasoline to avoid start up problems at temperatures below 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) . The motorcycle ’ s panel includes a gauge to warn the driver about the actual ethanol @-@ gasoline mix in the storage tank . In September 2009 , Honda launched a second flexible @-@ fuel motorcycle , the on @-@ off road NXR 150 Bros Mix . During the first eight months after its market launch the CG 150 Titan Mix sold 139 @,@ 059 motorcycles , capturing a 10 @.@ 6 % market share , and ranking second in sales of new motorcycles in the Brazilian market by October 2009 , and by year 's end , both Honda flexible @-@ fuel motorcycles sold a total of 183 @,@ 375 units , representing an 11 @.@ 4 % market share of the Brazilian new motorcycle sales in that year . Cumulative sales of both flex fuel motorcycles reached 515 @,@ 726 units in 2010 , and sales in that year represented 18 @.@ 15 % of all motorcycle produced .
Two other flex @-@ fuel motorcycles manufactured by Honda were launched in October 2010 and January 2011 , the GC 150 FAN and the Honda BIZ 125 Flex . During 2011 a total of 956 @,@ 117 flex @-@ fuel motorcycles were produced , raising its market share to 56 @.@ 7 % . Cumulative production of the four available flex fuel models since 2009 reached 1 @.@ 48 million units in December 2011 . The 2 million mark was reached in August 2012 . Flexible @-@ fuel motorcycle production passed the 3 million @-@ unit milestone in October 2013 , and the 4 million mark in March 2015 .
= = = Next generation of flex engines = = =
The Brazilian subsidiaries of Magneti Marelli , Delphi and Bosch have developed and announced the introduction in 2009 of a new flex engine generation that eliminates the need for the secondary gasoline tank by warming the ethanol fuel during starting , and allowing flex vehicles to do a normal cold start at temperatures as low as − 5 ° C ( 23 ° F ) , the lowest temperature expected anywhere in the Brazilian territory . Another improvement is the reduction of fuel consumption and tailpipe emissions , between 10 % to 15 % as compared to flex motors sold in 2008 . In March 2009 Volkswagen do Brasil launched the Polo E @-@ Flex , the first flex fuel model without an auxiliary tank for cold start . The Flex Start system used by the Polo was developed by Bosch .
= = = Direct injection = = =
In 2013 , Ford launched the first flex fuel car with direct injection : the Focus 2 @.@ 0 Duratec Direct Flex .
= = List of currently produced flexible @-@ fuel vehicles = =
The following is a list of flex @-@ fuel automobiles and light @-@ duty vehicles available in Brazil as of December 2013 .
BMW
BMW 3 Series ( F30 ) ActiveFlex , BMW X1 ActiveFlex .
Chevrolet
Astra , Blazer , Celta , Classic , Corsa , Montana , Meriva , Prisma , S10 , Vectra , Zafira .
Citroën
C3 , C4 , C4 Pallas , Xsara Picasso .
Fiat
Doblò , Linea , Idea , Mille , Palio , Palio Fire , Palio Weekend , Punto , Siena , Stilo , Strada , Uno .
Ford
Courier , EcoSport , Fiesta , Focus , Fusion , Ka , Ford Ranger CD .
Honda
City , Civic , Fit , CR @-@ V , and four motorcycles CG Titan Mix , NXR 150 Bros Mix , GC 150 Fan Flex and the BIZ 125 Flex .
Hyundai
Hyundai HB20
Kia Motors
Kia Soul , Picanto , Soul , Sportage
Mitsubishi
Pajero TR4 , Pajero Sport , Pajero L200 Triton ,
Nissan
Livina , Sentra , Tiida
Peugeot
206 , 307
Renault
Clio , Duster , Fluence , Kangoo , Grand Tour , Mégane , Scénic , Logan , Sandero , Symbol .
Toyota
Toyota Corolla , Etios
Volkswagen
Bora , CrossFox , Fox , Gol , Golf , Kombi , Parati , Polo , Saveiro , SpaceFox , Up , Voyage .
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= Rachel Chiesley , Lady Grange =
Rachel Chiesley , usually known as Lady Grange ( 1679 – 1745 ) , was the wife of Lord Grange , a Scottish lawyer with Jacobite sympathies . After 25 years of marriage and nine children , the Granges separated acrimoniously . When Lady Grange produced letters that she claimed were evidence of his treasonable plottings against the Hanoverian government in London , her husband had her kidnapped in 1732 . She was incarcerated in various remote locations on the western seaboard of Scotland , including the Monach Isles , Skye and the distant islands of St Kilda .
Lady Grange 's father was convicted of murder and she is known to have had a violent temper ; initially her absence seems to have caused little comment . News of her plight eventually reached her home town of Edinburgh however , and an unsuccessful rescue attempt was undertaken by her lawyer , Thomas Hope of Rankeillor . She died in captivity , after being in effect imprisoned for 13 years . Her life has been remembered in poetry , prose and plays .
= = Early years = =
Rachel Chiesley was one of ten children born to John Chiesley of Dalry and Margaret Nicholson . The marriage was unhappy and Margaret took her husband to court for aliment . She was awarded 1 @,@ 700 merks by Sir George Lockhart of Carnwath , the Lord President of the Court of Session . Furious with the result , John Chiesley shot Lockhart dead on the High Street of Edinburgh as he walked home from church on Easter Sunday , 31 March 1689 . The assailant made no attempt to escape and confessed at his trial , held before the Lord Provost the next day . Two days later he was taken from the Tolbooth to the Mercat Cross on the High Street . His right hand was cut off before he was hanged , and the pistol he had used for the murder was placed round his neck . Rachel Chiesley 's birthday is unknown but she was baptised on 4 February 1679 and was probably born shortly before then , making her about ten years old at the time of her father 's execution .
= = Marriage and children = =
The date of Chiesley 's marriage to James Erskine is uncertain : based on the text of a letter she wrote much later in life , it may have been in 1707 when she was about 28 . Erskine was the younger son of Charles Erskine , Earl of Mar and in 1689 his older brother John Erskine , became Earl of Mar on their father 's death . These were politically troubled times ; the Jacobite cause was still popular in many parts of Scotland , and the younger Earl was nicknamed " Bobbing John " for his varied manoeuverings . After playing a prominent role in the Jacobite rebellion of 1715 he was stripped of his title , sent into exile , and never returned to Scotland .
The young Lady Grange has been described as a " wild beauty " , and it is likely the marriage only took place after she became pregnant . This uncertain background notwithstanding , Lord and Lady Grange led a superficially uneventful domestic life . They divided their time between a town house at the foot of Niddry 's Wynd off the High Street in Edinburgh and an estate at Preston ( near Prestonpans in East Lothian ) , where Lady Grange was the factor ( or supervisor ) for a time . Her husband was a successful lawyer , becoming Lord Justice Clerk in 1710 , and the marriage produced nine children :
Charlie , born August 1709 .
Johnie , born March 1711 , died age two months .
James , born March 1713 . He married his uncle " Bobbing " John 's daughter Frances . Their son John eventually became Earl of Mar after the title was restored .
Mary , born July 1714 , who married John Keith the 3rd Earl of Kintore in August 1729 .
Meggie , who died young in May 1717 .
Fannie , born December 1716 .
Jeannie , born in December 1717 .
Rachel .
John .
In addition , Lady Grange miscarried twice and one of the above children is known to have died in 1721 .
= = Acrimony and separation = =
There was evidently an element of discord in the marriage that eventually became public knowledge . In late 1717 or early 1718 , Erskine received warnings from a friend that he had enemies in the government . At about the same time one of the children 's tutors recorded in his diary that Lady Grange was " imperious with an unreasonable temper " . Her outbursts were evidently also capable of frightening her younger daughters and after Lady Grange 's kidnapping , no action was ever taken on her behalf by any of her children , the eldest of whom would have been in their early twenties when she was abducted . Macaulay writes that " [ t ] he calm acceptance by the family of their mother 's disappearance would persuade many that it need not be a matter of concern to them either " . This restraint may have been influenced by the fact their mother had previously disinherited all of them when the youngest were still infants , an outcome described as " unnatural " by the Sobieski Stuarts , two English brothers who claimed descent from Prince Charles Edward Stuart .
As the Erskines ' marriage trouble increased , Lady Grange 's behaviour became increasingly unpredictable . In 1730 , the factorship of the Preston estate was removed from her , further increasing her angst . Her discovery of an affair her husband was conducting with coffeehouse owner Fanny Lindsay can only have made matters worse . In April of that year , she threatened suicide and to run naked through the streets of Edinburgh . She may have kept a razor under her pillow and attempted to intimidate her husband by reminding him whose daughter she was . On 27 July , she signed a formal letter of separation from James Erskine but things did not improve . For example , she barracked her husband in the street and in church and he and one of their children were forced to hide from her in a tavern for two hours or more on one occasion . She intercepted one of his letters and took it to the authorities alleging it was evidence of treason . She is also said to have stood outside the house in Niddry 's Wynd , waving the letter and shouting obscenities on at least two occasions . In January 1732 she booked a stagecoach to London and James Erskine and his friends , afraid her presence there would cause them further trouble , decided it was time to take decisive action .
= = Kidnap = =
Lady Grange was abducted from her home on the night of 22 January 1732 by two Highland noblemen , Roderick MacLeod of Berneray and Macdonald of Morar , and several of their men . After a bloody struggle , she was taken out of the city in a sedan chair and then on horseback to Wester Polmaise near Falkirk , where she was held until 15 August on the ground floor of an uninhabited tower . She was by then over fifty years old .
From there she was taken west by Peter Fraser ( a page of Lord Lovat ) and his men through Perthshire . At Balquhidder , according to MacGregor tradition , she was entertained in the great hall , provided with a meal of venison , and slept on a heather bed covered with deerskins . The existence of St Fillan 's Pool on the River Fillan near Tyndrum would have provided useful cover for her captors : it was regularly used as a cure for insanity , which would have helped to explain her presence to the curious . The details of the onward route from there are not clear but it is likely she was taken through Glen Coe to Loch Ness and then through Glen Garry to Loch Hourn on the west coast . After a short delay she was then put on board ship to the Monach Isles . The difficulty of her position must have quickly become evident . She was in the company of men whose loyalty was to clan chieftains rather than the law , and few of them spoke any English at all . Their native Gaelic would have been incomprehensible to her , although as her years of captivity wore on she slowly learned something of the language . She complained that young members of the local aristocracy visited her as she waited by the shores of Loch Hourn , but that " they came with design to see me , but not to relieve me " .
= = Monach Isles = =
The Monach Isles , also known as Heisker , lie 8 kilometres ( 5 mi ) west of North Uist in the Outer Hebrides , an archipelago itself lying off the western coast of Scotland . The main islands are Ceann Ear , Ceann Iar and Shivinish , which are all linked at low tide and have a combined area of 357 hectares ( 880 acres ) . The islands are low @-@ lying and fertile , and their population in the 18th century may have been about 100 . At the time they were owned by Sir Alexander MacDonald of Sleat , and Lady Grange was housed with his tacksman , another Alexander MacDonald , and his wife . When she complained about her condition , she was told by her host that he had no orders to provide her with either clothes , or food other than the normal fare he and his wife were used to . She lived in isolation for two years , not even being told the name of the island where she was living , and it took her some time to find out who her landlord was . She was there until June 1734 , when John and Norman MacLeod from North Uist arrived to move her on . They told her they were taking her to Orkney , but instead set sail for the Atlantic outliers of St Kilda .
= = St Kilda = =
One of the more poignant ruins on the island of Hirta in the St Kilda archipelago is the site of Lady Grange 's House . The " house " is in fact a large cleit or stone storage hut in the Village meadows that is said to resemble " a giant Christmas pudding " . Some authorities believe it was rebuilt on the site of a larger blackhouse where she lived during her incarceration , although in 1838 the grandson of a St Kildan who had assisted her quoted the dimensions as being " 20 feet by 10 feet " ( 7 metres by 3 metres ) , which is roughly the size of the cleit .
Hirta is more remote than the Monach Isles , lying 66 kilometres ( 41 mi ) west @-@ northwest of Benbecula in the North Atlantic Ocean and the predominant theme of life on St Kilda was isolation . When Martin Martin visited the islands in 1697 , the only means of making the journey was by open longboat , which could take several days and nights of rowing and sailing across the open ocean and was next to impossible in autumn and winter . In all seasons , waves up to 12 metres ( 40 ft ) high lash the beach of Village Bay , and even on calmer days landing on the slippery rocks can be hazardous . Cut off by distance and weather , the natives knew little of the rest of the world .
Lady Grange 's circumstances were correspondingly more uncomfortable and no @-@ one on the island spoke any English . She described Hirta as " a viled neasty , stinking poor Isle " and insisted that " I was in great miserie in the Husker but I 'm ten times worse and worse here " . Her lodgings were very primitive . They had an earthen floor , rain ran down the walls and in winter snow had to be scooped out in handfuls from behind the bed . She spent her days asleep , drank as much whisky as was available to her , and wandered the shore at night bemoaning her fate . During her sojourn on Hirta she wrote two letters relating her story , which eventually reached Edinburgh . One , dated 20 January 1738 , found its way to Thomas Hope of Rankeillor , her lawyer , in December 1740 . Some sources state that the first letter had been hidden in some yarn that was collected as part of a rent payment and taken to Inverness and thence to Edinburgh . The idea of the letter 's concealment in yarn is also mentioned by James Boswell in his Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides ( 1785 ) . However , Macaulay states that this method for the delivery of the letter ( s ) has " no basis in reality " and that both letters were smuggled off Hirta by Roderick MacLennan , the island 's minister . Whatever its route , the letter caused a sensation in Edinburgh although James Erskine 's friends managed to block attempts by Hope to obtain a warrant to search St Kilda .
In the second letter , addressed to Dr Carlyle , minister of Inveresk , Lady Grange writes bitterly of the roles of Lord Lovat and Roderick MacLeod in her capture and bemoans being described by Sir Alexander MacDonald as " the cargo " . Hope had known of Lady Grange 's removal from Edinburgh but had assumed she would be well cared for . Appalled by her condition , he paid for a sloop with twenty armed men on board to go to St Kilda at his own expense . It had already set sail by 14 February 1741 , but it arrived too late . Lady Grange had been removed from the island , probably in the summer of 1740 .
After the Battle of Culloden in 1746 , it was rumoured that Prince Charles Edward Stuart and some of his senior Jacobite aides had escaped to St Kilda . An expedition was launched , and in due course British soldiers were ferried ashore to Hirta . They found a deserted village , as the St Kildans , fearing pirates , had fled to caves to the west . When they were persuaded to come down , the soldiers discovered that the isolated natives knew nothing of the Prince and had never heard of King George II either . Paradoxically , Lady Grange 's letters and her resultant evacuation from the island may have prevented her being found by this expedition .
= = Skye = =
By 1740 Lady Grange was 61 years old . Removed from St Kilda in haste , she was transported to various locations in the Gàidhealtachd including possibly Assynt in the far north west of mainland Scotland and the Outer Hebridean locations of Harris and Uist before arriving at Waternish on Skye in 1742 . Local folklore suggests she may have been kept for 18 months in a cave either at Idrigill on the Trotternish peninsula or on the Duirinish coast near the stacks known as a " Macleod 's Maidens " . She was certainly later housed with Rory MacNeil at Trumpan in Waternish . She died there on 12 May 1745 , and MacNeil had her " decently interred " the following week in the local churchyard . For reasons unknown a second funeral was held at nearby Duirinish some time thereafter , where a large crowd gathered to watch the burial of a coffin filled with turf and stones .
It is sometimes stated that this was her third funeral , Lord Grange having conducted one in Edinburgh shortly after her kidnapping . However , this story first appears in writing in 1845 and no other evidence of its veracity has emerged .
= = Motivations = =
Lady Grange 's story is a remarkable one and various issues have been raised by Macaulay ( 2009 ) as requiring explanation . These include : what drove James Erskine to these extraordinary lengths ? ; why were so many individuals willing to participate in this illegal and dangerous kidnapping of his wife ? ; and how was she held for so long without rescue ?
The first and second of these issues are related . Erskine 's brother had already been exiled for his support of the Jacobites . Simon Fraser , Lord Lovat , a key figure in Lady Grange 's abduction was himself executed for his part in the Jacobite Rising of 1745 . No concrete evidence of Erskine 's plotting against the crown or government has ever emerged , but any threat of such exposure , whether based in fact or fantasy would certainly have been taken very seriously by all concerned . It was thus relatively easy for Erskine to find accomplices amongst the Highland gentry . In addition to Simon Fraser and Alexander Macdonald of Sleat , the Sobieski Stuarts listed Norman MacLeod of Dunvegan — who became known as " The Wicked Man " — as the senior accomplices . Erskine himself was a " singular compound of good and bad qualities " . In addition to his legal career he was elected to Parliament in 1734 and he survived the vicissitudes of the Jacobite rebellions unscathed . He was a philanderer and over @-@ partial to claret , whilst at the same time deeply religious . This last quality would have been instrumental in any decision not to have his wife assassinated , and he did not marry his long @-@ term partner Fanny Lindsay until after he had heard of the first Lady Grange 's death .
The reason no successful rescue was ever effected lies in the remoteness of the Hebrides from the anglophone world in the early 18th century . No reliable naval charts of the area became available until 1776 . Without local assistance and knowledge , finding a captive in this wilderness would have required a significant expeditionary force . Nonetheless , the lack of action taken by Edinburgh society in general and her children in particular to retrieve one of their own is remarkable . The Kirk hierarchy , for example , made no attempt to contact her or convey news of her condition to the capital , yet they could easily have done so . Whatever the call of morality and natural justice may have suggested , John Chiesley 's daughter evidently did not command a sympathetic audience in her home town .
In her account of the affair , Margaret Macaulay explores 18th @-@ century attitudes to women in general as a significant factor and notes that although numerous documents from the hands of Lord Grange 's friends and supporters are still extant , not a single contemporary female view of the affair has survived , save that of Lady Grange herself . Divorces were complex and divorced mothers were rarely given custody of children . Furthermore , Lord Grange 's powerful friends in both the church and the legal profession might have made this a risky endeavour . Something of James Erskine 's attitude to these matters may perhaps be gleaned from the fact that for his first speech in the House of Commons he chose to oppose the repeal of various laws relating to witchcraft . Even in his day this appeared unduly conservative and his perorations were met with laughter , which effectively ended his political career before it had begun . Writing in the mid @-@ 19th century the Sobieski Stuarts told the tale from the perspective of the descendants of the Highland aristocrats who had been responsible for Chiesley 's kidnap and imprisonment . They emphasise Lady Grange 's personal shortcomings , although to modern sensibilities these hardly seem good reasons for a judge and Member of Parliament and his wealthy friends to organise an illegal kidnapping and life sentence .
As for Lady Grange herself , her vituperative outbursts and indulgence in alcohol were clearly important factors in her undoing . Alexander Carlyle described her as " stormy and outrageous " , whilst noting that it was in her husband 's interests to exaggerate the nature of her violent emotions . Macaulay ( 2009 ) takes the view that the ultimate cause of her troubles was her reaction to her husband 's infidelity . In an attempt to end his relationship with Mrs Lindsay , ( who owned a coffee house in Haymarket , Edinburgh ) , Rachel threatened to expose him as a Jacobite sympathiser . Perhaps she did not understand the magnitude of this accusation and the danger it posed to her husband and his friends , or how ruthless their instincts of self @-@ preservation were likely to be .
= = In literature and the arts = =
Rachel Chiesley 's tale inspired a romantic poem called " Epistle from Lady Grange to Edward D — Esq " written by William Erskine in 1798 and a 1905 novel entitled The Lady of Hirta , a Tale of the Isles by W. C. Mackenzie . Edwin Morgan also published a sonnet in 1984 called " Lady Grange on St Kilda " . The Straw Chair is a two @-@ act play by Sue Glover , also about the time on St Kilda , first performed in Edinburgh in 1988 . Burdalane is a play about these same events by Judith Adams performed in 1996 at the Battersea Arts Centre , London and on BBC Radio 4 .
Boswell and Johnson discussed the subject in their 1773 tour of the Hebrides . Boswell wrote : " After dinner to @-@ day , we talked of the extraordinary fact of Lady Grange 's being sent to St Kilda , and confined there for several years , without any means of relief . Dr Johnson said , if M 'Leod would let it be known that he had such a place for naughty ladies , he might make it a very profitable island . "
There are portraits of both James Erskine and Rachel Chiesley in the Scottish National Portrait Gallery in Edinburgh , by William Aikman and Sir John Baptiste de Medina respectively . When the writer Margaret Macaulay sought them out she discovered they had been placed together in the same cold store .
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= Bad Pharma =
Bad Pharma : How Drug Companies Mislead Doctors and Harm Patients is a book by British physician and academic Ben Goldacre about the pharmaceutical industry , its relationship with the medical profession , and the extent to which it controls academic research into its own products . It was published in the UK in September 2012 by the Fourth Estate imprint of HarperCollins , and in the United States in February 2013 by Faber and Faber .
Goldacre argues in the book that " the whole edifice of medicine is broken , " because the evidence on which it is based is systematically distorted by the pharmaceutical industry . He writes that the industry finances most of the clinical trials into its own products and much of doctors ' continuing education , that clinical trials are often conducted on small groups of unrepresentative subjects and negative data is routinely withheld , and that apparently independent academic papers may be planned and even ghostwritten by pharmaceutical companies or their contractors , without disclosure . Describing the situation as a " murderous disaster , " he makes suggestions for action by patients ' groups , physicians , academics and the industry itself .
Responding to the book 's publication , the Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry issued a statement in 2012 arguing that the examples the book offers were historical , that the concerns had been addressed , that the industry is among the most regulated in the world , and that it discloses all data in accordance with international standards .
In January 2013 Goldacre joined the Cochrane Collaboration , British Medical Journal and others in setting up AllTrials , a campaign calling for the results of all past and current clinical trials to be reported . The British House of Commons Public Accounts Committee expressed concern in January 2014 that drug companies were still only publishing around 50 percent of clinical @-@ trial results .
= = Author = =
After graduating in 1995 with a first @-@ class honours degree in medicine from Magdalen College , Oxford , Goldacre obtained an MA in philosophy from King 's College London , then undertook clinical training at UCL Medical School , qualifying as a medical doctor in 2000 and as a psychiatrist in 2005 . As of 2014 he was Wellcome Research Fellow in Epidemiology at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine .
Goldacre is known for his " Bad Science " column in the Guardian , which he has written since 2003 , and for his first book , Bad Science ( 2008 ) . This unpicked the claims of several forms of alternative medicine , and criticized certain physicians and the media for a lack of critical thinking . It also looked at the MMR vaccine controversy , AIDS denialism , the placebo effect and the misuse of statistics . Goldacre was recognized in June 2013 by Health Service Journal as having done " more than any other single individual to shine a light on how science and research gets distorted by the media , politicians , quacks , PR and the pharmaceutical industry . "
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Introduction = = =
Goldacre writes in the introduction of Bad Pharma that he aims to defend the following :
Drugs are tested by the people who manufacture them , in poorly designed trials , on hopelessly small numbers of weird , unrepresentative patients , and analysed using techniques which are flawed by design , in such a way that they exaggerate the benefits of treatments . Unsurprisingly , these trials tend to produce results that favour the manufacturer . When trials throw up results that companies don 't like , they are perfectly entitled to hide them from doctors and patients , so we only ever see a distorted picture of any drug 's true effects . Regulators see most of the trial data , but only from early on in a drug 's life , and even then they don 't give this data to doctors or patients , or even to other parts of government . This distorted evidence is then communicated and applied in a distorted fashion .
In their forty years of practice after leaving medical school , doctors hear about what works through ad hoc oral traditions , from sales reps , colleagues or journals . But those colleagues can be in the pay of drug companies – often undisclosed – and the journals are too . And so are the patient groups . And finally , academic papers , which everyone thinks of as objective , are often covertly planned and written by people who work directly for the companies , without disclosure . Sometimes whole academic journals are even owned outright by one drug company . Aside from all this , for several of the most important and enduring problems in medicine , we have no idea what the best treatment is , because it 's not in anyone 's financial interest to conduct any trials at all .
= = = Chapter 1 : " Missing Data " = = =
In " Missing Data , " Goldacre argues that the clinical trials undertaken by drug companies routinely reach conclusions favourable to the company . For example , in a 2007 journal article published in PLOS Medicine , researchers studied every published trial on statins , drugs prescribed to reduce cholesterol levels . In the 192 trials they looked at , industry @-@ funded trials were 20 times more likely to produce results that favoured the drug .
He writes that these positive results are achieved in a number of ways . Sometimes the industry @-@ sponsored studies are flawed by design ( for example by comparing the new drug to an existing drug at an inadequate dose ) , and sometimes patients are selected to make a positive result more likely . In addition , the data is analysed as the trial progresses . If the trial seems to be producing negative data it is stopped prematurely and the results are not published , or if it is producing positive data it may be stopped early so that longer @-@ term effects are not examined . He writes that this publication bias , where negative results remain unpublished , is endemic within medicine and academia . As a consequence , he argues , doctors may have no idea what the effects are of the drugs they prescribe .
An example he gives of the difficulty of obtaining missing data from drug companies is that of oseltamivir ( Tamiflu ) , manufactured by Roche to reduce the complications of bird flu . Governments spent billions of pounds stockpiling this , based in large part on a meta @-@ analysis that was funded by the industry . Bad Pharma charts the efforts of independent researchers , particularly Tom Jefferson of the Cochrane Collaboration Respiratory Group , to gain access to information about the drug .
= = = Chapter 2 : " Where Do New Drugs Come From ? " = = =
In the second chapter , the book describes the process as new drugs move from animal testing through phase 1 ( first @-@ in @-@ man study ) , phase 2 , and phase 3 clinical trials . Phase 1 participants are referred to as volunteers , but in the US are paid $ 200 – $ 400 per day , and because studies can last several weeks and subjects may volunteer several times a year , earning potential becomes the main reason for participation . Participants are usually taken from the poorest groups in society , and outsourcing increasingly means that trials may be conducted in countries with highly competitive wages by contract research organizations ( CROs ) . The rate of growth for clinical trials in India is 20 percent a year , in Argentina 27 percent , and in China 47 percent , while trials in the UK have fallen by 10 percent a year and in the US by six percent .
The shift to outsourcing raises issues about data integrity , regulatory oversight , language difficulties , the meaning of informed consent among a much poorer population , the standards of clinical care , the extent to which corruption may be regarded as routine in certain countries , and the ethical problem of raising a population 's expectations for drugs that most of that population cannot afford . It also raises the question of whether the results of clinical trials using one population can invariably be applied elsewhere . There are both social and physical differences : Goldacre asks whether patients diagnosed with depression in China are really the same as patients diagnosed with depression in California , and notes that people of Asian descent metabolize drugs differently from Westerners .
There have also been cases of available treatment being withheld during clinical trials . In 1996 in Kano , Nigeria , the drug company Pfizer compared a new antibiotic during a meningitis outbreak to a competing antibiotic that was known to be effective at a higher dose than was used during the trial . Goldacre writes that 11 children died , divided almost equally between the two groups . The families taking part in the trial were apparently not told that the competing antibiotic at the effective dose was available from Médecins Sans Frontières in the next @-@ door building .
= = = Chapter 3 : " Bad Regulators " = = =
Chapter three describes the concept of " regulatory capture , " whereby a regulator – such as the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency ( MHRA ) in the UK , or the Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) in the United States – ends up advancing the interests of the drug companies rather than the interests of the public . Goldacre writes that this happens for a number of reasons , including the revolving door of employees between the regulator and the companies , and the fact that friendships develop between regulator and company employees simply because they have knowledge and interests in common . The chapter also discusses surrogate outcomes and accelerated approval , and the difficulty of having ineffective drugs removed from the market once they have been approved . He argues that regulators do not require that new drugs offer an improvement over what is already available , or even that they be particularly effective .
= = = Chapter 4 : " Bad Trials " = = =
" Bad Trials " examines the ways in which clinical trials can be flawed . Goldacre writes that this happens by design and by analysis , and that it has the effect of maximizing a drug 's benefits and minimizing harm . There have been instances of fraud , though he says these are rare . More common are what he calls the " wily tricks , close calls , and elegant mischief at the margins of acceptability . "
These include testing drugs on unrepresentative , " freakishly ideal " patients ; comparing new drugs to something known to be ineffective , or effective at a different dose or if used differently ; conducting trials that are too short or too small ; and stopping trials early or late . It also includes measuring uninformative outcomes ; packaging the data so that it is misleading ; ignoring patients who drop out ( i.e. using per @-@ protocol analysis , where only patients who complete the trial are counted in the final results , rather than intention @-@ to @-@ treat analysis , where everyone who starts the trial is counted ) ; changing the main outcome of the trial once it has finished ; producing subgroup analyses that show apparently positive outcomes for certain tightly defined groups ( such as Chinese men between the ages of 56 and 71 ) , thereby hiding an overall negative outcome ; and conducting " seeding trials , " where the objective is to persuade physicians to use the drug .
Another criticism is that outcomes are presented in terms of relative risk reduction to exaggerate the apparent benefits of the treatment . For example , he writes , if four people out of 1 @,@ 000 will have a heart attack within the year , but on statins only two will , that is a 50 percent reduction if expressed as relative risk reduction . But if expressed as absolute risk reduction , it is a reduction of just 0 @.@ 2 percent .
= = = Chapter 5 : " Bigger , Simpler Trials " = = =
In chapter five Goldacre suggests using the General Practice Research Database in the UK , which contains the anonymized records of several million patients , to conduct randomized trials to determine the most effective of competing treatments . For example , to compare two statins , atorvastatin and simvastatin , doctors would randomly assign patients to one or the other . The patients would be followed up by having data about their cholesterol levels , heart attacks , strokes and deaths taken from their computerized medical records . The trials would not be blind – patients would know which statin they had been prescribed – but Goldacre writes that they would be unlikely to hold such firm beliefs about which one is preferable to the extent that it could affect their health .
= = = Chapter 6 : " Marketing " = = =
In the final chapter , Goldacre looks at how doctors are persuaded to prescribe " me @-@ too drugs , " brand @-@ name drugs that are no more effective than significantly cheaper off @-@ patent ones . He cites as examples the statins atorvastatin ( Lipitor , made by Pfizer ) and simvastatin ( Zocor ) , which he writes seem to be equally effective , or at least there is no evidence to suggest otherwise . Simvastatin came off patent several years ago , yet there are still three million prescriptions a year in the UK for atorvastatin , costing the National Health Service ( NHS ) an annual £ 165 million extra .
He addresses the issue of medicalization of certain conditions ( or , as he argues , of personhood ) , whereby pharmaceutical companies " widen the boundaries of diagnosis " before offering solutions . Female sexual dysfunction was highlighted in 1999 by a study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association , which alleged that 43 percent of women were suffering from it . After the article appeared , the New York Times wrote that two of its three authors had worked as consultants for Pfizer , which at the time was preparing to launch UK @-@ 414 @,@ 495 , known as female Viagra . The journal 's editor said that the failure to disclose the relationship with Pfizer was the journal 's mistake .
The chapter also examines celebrity endorsement of certain drugs , the extent to which claims in advertisements aimed at doctors are appropriately sourced , and whether direct @-@ to @-@ consumer advertising ( currently permitted in the US and New Zealand ) ought to be allowed . It discusses how PR firms promote stories from patients who complain in the media that certain drugs are not made available by the funder , which in the UK is the NHS and the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence ( NICE ) . Two breast @-@ cancer patients who campaigned in the UK in 2006 for trastuzumab ( Herceptin ) to be available on the NHS were being handled by a law firm working for Roche , the drug 's manufacturer . The historian Lisa Jardine , who was suffering from breast cancer , told the Guardian that she had been approached by a PR firm working for the company .
The chapter also covers the influence of drug reps , how ghostwriters are employed by the drug companies to write papers for academics to publish , how independent the academic journals really are , how the drug companies finance doctors ' continuing education , and how patients ' groups are often funded by industry .
= = = Afterword : " Better Data " = = =
In the afterword and throughout the book , Goldacre makes suggestions for action by doctors , medical students , patients , patient groups and the industry . He advises doctors , nurses and managers to stop seeing drug reps , to ban them from clinics , hospitals and medical schools , to declare online and in waiting rooms all gifts and hospitality received from the industry , and to remove all drug company promotional material from offices and waiting rooms . ( He praises the website of the American Medical Student Association – www.amsascorecard.org – which ranks institutions according to their conflict @-@ of @-@ interest policies , writing that it makes him " feel weepy . " ) He also suggests that regulations be introduced to prevent pharmacists from sharing doctors ' prescribing records with drug reps .
He asks academics to lobby their universities and academic societies to forbid academics from being involved in ghostwriting , and to lobby for " film credit " contributions at the end of every academic paper , listing everyone involved , including who initiated the idea of publishing the paper . He also asks for full disclosure of all past clinical trial results , and a list of academic papers that were , as he puts it , " rigged " by industry , so that they can be retracted or annotated . He asks drug company employees to become whistleblowers , either by writing an anonymous blog , or by contacting him .
He advises patients to ask their doctors whether they accept drug @-@ company hospitality or sponsorship , and if so to post details in their waiting rooms , and to make clear whether it is acceptable to the patient for the doctor to discuss his or her medical history with drug reps . Patients who are invited to take part in a trial are advised to ask , among other things , for a written guarantee that the trial has been publicly registered , and that the main outcome of the trial will be published within a year of its completion . He advises patient groups to write to drug companies with the following : " We are living with this disease ; is there anything at all that you 're withholding ? If so , tell us today . "
= = Reception = =
The book was generally well received . The Economist described it as " slightly technical , eminently readable , consistently shocking , occasionally hectoring and unapologetically polemical . " Helen Lewis in the New Statesman called it an important book , while Luisa Dillner , writing in the Guardian , described it as a " thorough piece of investigative medical journalism . "
Andrew Jack wrote in the Financial Times that Goldacre is " at his best in methodically dissecting poor clinical trials . ... He is less strong in explaining the complex background reality , such as the general constraints and individual slips of regulators and pharma companies ' employees . " Jack also argued that the book failed to reflect how many lives have been improved by the current system , for example with new treatments for HIV , rheumatoid arthritis and cancer .
Max Pemberton , a psychiatrist , wrote in the Daily Telegraph that " this is a book to make you enraged ... because it 's about how big business puts profits over patient welfare , allows people to die because they don 't want to disclose damning research evidence , and the tricks they play to make sure doctors do not have all the evidence when it comes to appraising whether a drug really works or not . "
The Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry ( ABPI ) replied in the New Statesman that Goldacre was " stuck in a bygone era where pharmaceutical companies wine and dine doctors in exchange for signing on the dotted line . " The ABPI issued a press release , writing that the pharmaceutical industry is responsible for the discovery of 90 percent of all medicines , and that it takes an average of 10 – 12 years and £ 1.1bn to introduce a medicine to the market , with just one in 5 @,@ 000 new compounds receiving regulatory approval . This makes research and development an expensive and risky business . They wrote that the industry is one of the most heavily regulated in the world , and is committed to ensuring full transparency in the research and development of new medicines . They also maintained that the examples Goldacre offered were " long documented and historical , and the companies concerned have long addressed these issues . " Goldacre argues in the book that " the most dangerous tactic of all is the industry 's enduring claim that these problems are all in the past . "
Humphrey Rang of the British Pharmacological Society wrote that Goldacre had chosen his target well and had produced some shocking examples of secrecy and dishonesty , particularly the nondisclosure of data on the antidepressant reboxetine ( chapter one ) , in which only one trial out of seven was published ( the published study showed positive results , while the unpublished trials suggested otherwise ) . He argued that Goldacre had gone " over the top " in devoting a whole chapter ( chapter five ) to recommending large clinical trials using electronic patient data from general practitioners , without fully pointing out how problematic these can be ; such trials raise issues , for example , about informed consent and regulatory oversight . Rang also criticized Goldacre 's style , describing the book as too long , repetitive , hyperbolic , and in places too conversational . He particularly objected to the line , " medicine is broken , " calling it a " foolish remark . "
= = AllTrials = =
Following the book 's publication , Goldacre co @-@ founded AllTrials with David Tovey , editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the Cochrane Library , together with the British Medical Journal , the Centre for Evidence @-@ based Medicine , and others in the UK , and Dartmouth College 's Geisel School of Medicine and the Dartmouth Institute for Health Policy and Clinical Practice in the US . Set up in January 2013 , the group campaigns for all past and current clinical trials to be registered and reported , for all treatments in use .
The British House of Commons Public Accounts Committee produced a report in January 2014 , after hearing evidence from Goldacre , Fiona Godlee , editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the British Medical Journal , and others , about the stockpiling of Tamiflu and the withholding of data about the drug by its manufacturer , Roche . The committee said it was " surprised and concerned " to learn that information from clinical trials is routinely withheld from doctors , and recommended that the Department of Health take steps to ensure that all clinical @-@ trial data be made available for currently prescribed treatments .
= = Publication details = =
Bad Pharma : How drug companies mislead doctors and harm patients , Fourth Estate , 2012 ( UK ) . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 00 @-@ 735074 @-@ 2
Faber and Faber , 2013 ( US ) . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 86547 @-@ 800 @-@ 8
Signal , 2013 ( Canada ) . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7710 @-@ 3629 @-@ 3
As of December 2012 foreign rights had been sold for Brazil , the Czech Republic , Netherlands , Germany , Israel , Italy , Korea , Norway , Poland , Portugal , Spain and Turkey .
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= The Secret River ( Rawlings book ) =
The Secret River is a children 's fantasy book by Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings , author of the The Yearling . Published in 1955 , The Secret River received a Newbery Honor Award . The first edition , illustrated by Caldecott Medal winner Leonard Weisgard , was issued after Rawlings ' death . The book was revised and reissued in 2009 with illustrations by Caldecott Medalists Leo and Diane Dillon . The new edition received an international children 's book design award in 2012 . The Secret River is the only book Rawlings wrote specifically for children . The story of young Calpurnia , who goes on a quest to find a magical river and catch fish for her starving family and friends , it has two themes common in Rawlings ' writing , the magic of childhood and the struggle of people to survive in a harsh environment .
= = Plot = =
The Secret River is a story of Magical realism , blending real life and fantasy . Young Calpurnia is an aspiring poet living in rural Central Florida during the Great Depression . Hard times have come to her people ; the animals have disappeared , her father is unable to catch fish to sell , and everyone in the community is too weak from hunger to work . Calpurnia bravely leaves home with her little dog , Buggy @-@ Horse , to find the secret river that her neighbor Mother Albirtha has told her about . She intends to catch fish for her father to sell in his shop . When she finds the river she politely asks it to allow her to catch some fish and uses her creativity , and the pink ribbons from her hair , to catch them . On her way home , an owl , a bear and a panther each challenge her , and she has to give away some of her catch to get home . She also shares some fish with Mother Albirtha and takes the rest to her father , who gives them to the starving people in return for future payment . Strengthened by the fish , people begin working again . When the crisis is past Calpurnia searches for the river again , but cannot find it , as she no longer really needs it . Still , she realizes nothing is lost to us forever , and the book ends with one of her poems , expressing this sentiment :
Secret River is in my mind .
I can go there any time .
Everything Mother Albirtha says is true .
The sky is gold and the river is blue .
Secret River , I love you .
= = Background = =
The Secret River is Rawlings ' only book intended for children . According to Murray Laurie , the idea for the book came from something Rawlings had written in Cross Creek : “ some day a poet will write a sad and lovely story of a Negro child . ” She discussed the idea with her Scribner 's editor , Maxwell Perkins , who encouraged her to follow it up . While working on the manuscript she told Perkins she " deliberately avoided Negro dialect . ' No Uncle Remus or Little Black Sambo sort of stuff ' " . At one point she thought about making the story into a full @-@ length novel . Helen Masten , writing for The Saturday Review , commented " Had this happened this little masterpiece of the imagination of childhood might never have reached children , to whom it rightly belongs . " Rawlings also talked about her ideas with Bob Camp , an illustrator and friend . From that conversation , Camp produced a series of paintings to illustrate the idea . In 1947 Rawlings sent The Secret River 's manuscript to Perkins , and Camp visited his office in New York with the paintings . When Perkins responded with suggestions , Rawlings confessed to him that she was not completely pleased with Camp 's illustrations . By June of that year , Perkins ' death from pneumonia and Rawlings ' own personal problems had derailed the project . After Rawlings ' death in 1953 , the manuscript for The Secret River was the only complete manuscript found among her papers .
In Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings ' Rivers Lamar York says that Rawlings ' settings are an essential part of her plots , and that she did not choose to write about a river by accident . At a low time in her life she had taken time off and traveled the length of the St. Johns River with a friend . Later she wrote about the boat trip in " Hyacinth Drift " , a chapter of Cross Creek . The trip , she said , cured her depression and allowed her to live in peace , as The Secret River did for Calpurnia and her community . The river , York writes , expresses Rawlings ' belief that " man must know or discover a relationship to a suitable physical setting " in order to survive the harshness of the world , as she herself did on the St. Johns .
= = Themes = =
The Secret River 's primary theme revolves around Calpurnia 's desire to help her family and friends survive tough times . As Barbara Elleman wrote in School Library Journal , " Overriding the adventure is the determination and spirited effort of the child to help her family in need . " The struggle to live in the face of difficult circumstances was a common theme for Rawlings . In The Secret River this struggle means Calpurnia must find her way to the river , convince it to yield its precious fish , then overcome danger from starving wild animals to return with the fish to her father . Calpurnia 's courage and determination enable her to overcome every obstacle and save her community .
Juxtaposed against the struggle to survive is the enchanting but short beauty of childhood . The magic in the plot reinforces the sense of enchantment and gives the book a fairy @-@ tale like quality , leading the BolognaRagazzi Awards jury to speak of " the great Secret ( that ) lurks in the story " . It is the child Calpurnia who follows the magic to find the river and save the adults from starvation . The contrast of an idealized and protected childhood with the harsh realities that adults must face is another theme common to Rawlings ' writings , expressed in the famous speech about adult reality Ezra " Penny " Baxter delivers to his son Jody at the end of The Yearling : " Ever ’ man wants life to be a fine thing , and a easy . ’ Tis fine , boy , powerful fine , but ’ tain ’ t easy . Life knocks a man down and he gits up and it knocks him down again . . . . What ’ s he to do then ? . . . Why , take it for his share and go on . " Unlike Jody , who realizes the magic of his childhood is " gone forever " with the death of his fawn , Calpurnia retains the secret river and the magic in her mind .
= = Editions , awards = =
The Secret River appeared two years after Rawlings ' death with illustrations by the 1948 Caldecott Medal winner Leonard Weisgard , who used coffee @-@ coloured paper as an innovative way to circumvent a taboo of the era against portraying dark @-@ skinned characters . In his book In the Company of Writers , Charles Scribner discusses The Secret River 's publication , noting Rawlings never mentions Calpurnia 's race . Since the book went into production after her death Rawlings could not be consulted about her final intentions . At this time the depiction of black children in American children 's literature had decreased until it was almost non @-@ existent . While a few books were still appearing , " White ( children 's ) publishers were still not open to books with Black themes " , according to Joyce Braden Harris on " African and African @-@ American Traditions in Language Arts " . Scribner pointed out that " Whatever our decision , we could land on the wrong side of the school boards " , and claims the idea for using dark paper in the book as a way to suggest Calpurnia 's race was his , calling it " one of my silent contributions to dissolving the color barrier in the 1950s . " The book received a Newbery Honor Award in 1956 for " the most distinguished contribution to American literature for children " , and was honored by the American Society of Graphic Arts .
Atheneum Books for Young Readers reissued a revised version of the book in 2009 . The story was shortened by cutting some descriptive passages and allowing the illustrations to convey the setting . Calpurnia 's final poem was also eliminated . New illustrations in acrylics were created by Leo and Diane Dillon , who went on to win two Caldecott Awards . Unlike the more realistic illustrations by Weisgard , the Dillons emphasized the magical reality of the story , as in the cover picture , where Calpurnia 's profile is almost hidden inside a stylized blue fish . Mary Harris Russell , writing for The Chicago Tribune , felt modern audiences would appreciate the way " the fantasy side to this land of cypress trees and silent rivers is amplified and contrasted with the realistic background of little Calpurnia 's life . " The Dillon 's version of The Secret River received one of two honorable mentions in the fiction category of the 2012 BolognaRagazzi Awards , an international children 's book award that honors the art and design of illustrated books worldwide . In the words of the Bologna jury , " It is only fitting that Marjorie Rawlings , the great American writer loved by so many generations of readers , is finally paid such a refined and sensitive tribute . "
= = Critical reception = =
When The Secret River first appeared in 1955 , Saturday Review called it a " little masterpiece of the imagination of childhood ... so real and appealing one regrets that this is the only book the author wrote for children ... Leonard Weisgard has done some of his most sensitive work in drawings that have a feeling for character and place and are quite perfect for the text . " Decades later the book continued to receive strong reviews , with words like " Magical " and " timeless " . Reviewers appreciated the message of hope conveyed in the simple story .
The new edition of The Secret River also received positive reviews . Publishers Weekly gave it a starred review , as did Kirkus Reviews , calling it a " classic tale ... Rawlings ’ voice is warm and tender , employing lilting syntax and descriptive language that resonates with warmth and humor . Calpurnia is a sweet delight ... filled with love and compassion " , and the Dillon 's illustrations are , " glorious , glowing ... nothing short of breathtaking " . Monica and Hannah McRae Young , in their article " Books do justice to subjects of civil rights , racism " , praise The Secret River as " A rare picture book depicting everyday black life " . They believe modern readers will enjoy Calpunia and Buggy @-@ horse as much as the original audience . Children 's Literature agreed that the reissue would renew interest in the book .
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= Henry Dewar ( rugby ) =
Henry " Norkey " Dewar ( 13 October 1883 – 9 August 1915 ) was a New Zealand rugby union forward , who played for the All Blacks , and represented Taranaki and Wellington provinces .
Playing for the Melrose Club in Wellington , he was selected in 1908 for the provincial team that played and defeated the Anglo @-@ Welsh team on tour in New Zealand . After moving to Taranaki in 1910 , he was soon selected to represent the province . Coming close to winning the Ranfurly Shield in 1912 , a subsequent challenge the following year was successful against the longtime holders Auckland . He earned selection to the North Island team for the annual Inter @-@ Island match and thereafter was picked to play for the All Blacks , first to play Australia and then for the tour of North America , in which he played 14 of the 16 games , including the 51 – 3 defeat of the All America team .
Soon after the British Empire declared war on Germany on 5 August 1914 , Dewar signed up to the New Zealand Expeditionary Force , and took part in the expedition to occupy German Samoa , departing the day after he played for Taranaki defending a challenge from Wairarapa . On his return , he volunteered again for active service and enlisted in the Wellington Mounted Rifles , joining the machine gun section . After promotion to sergeant , he departed in October for Egypt . There , he captained his regiment 's rugby team in matches against other New Zealand and Australian regiments . He landed at Anzac Cove on 8 August 1915 and participated in the action to capture Chunuk Bair in the Gallipoli Campaign . The following day he was killed in action .
= = Early life = =
Henry Dewar , born 13 October 1883 in Foxton , New Zealand , was the son of Alexander and Lydia Dewar . He spent most of his early years in Wellington until moving to Taranaki in 1910 where he worked as an iron moulder for B. Harkness of Stratford .
= = Rugby career = =
Dewar first played for the Melrose Club in Wellington and was selected for Wellington province in 1907 . In 1908 , he was a member of the Wellington team that defeated the touring Anglo @-@ Welsh 19 – 13 on 27 May . The visitors played much of the game with fourteen players , only six forwards , after an injury in the first half : the captains , before the game , had agreed that there would be no substitutions for injury . Dewar and Rush , in particular , as well as Harding and Cracroft Wilson , bore the " heat and burden of a truly Homeric struggle . "
Later in the year , on 15 August , he took part in a Ranfurly Shield challenge , which resulted in a heavy 24 – 3 defeat for Wellington at the hands of Auckland . The challengers , away to Auckland , were the underdogs but it was expected to be a close game , and at half @-@ time Auckland were just leading by a conversion , 5 – 3 . In the second half , Auckland 's forwards imposed themselves on Wellington , who struggled to maintain the pace and were unable to respond to Auckland 's scoring .
Dewar moved to Taranaki in 1910 , where he played his club rugby for Stratford ; he captained the team in 1913 . He was first selected for Taranaki that year and continued to represent the club until the outbreak of the First World War . In 1912 , Taranaki , with Dewar in the team , came close to winning the Ranfurly Shield from Auckland , losing 6 – 5 . In front of a 12 @,@ 000 @-@ spectator home crowd , Auckland dominated in the first half , scoring six points through a try and a penalty kick . The second half saw Taranaki 's forwards take control for long periods , resulting in a converted try , but despite ongoing attacks , the visitors were unable to add to their score and lost by just one point .
= = = 1913 Season = = =
1913 saw Dewar 's best season . His provincial form saw him selected for the North Island in the annual Inter @-@ Island match , having been nominated for inclusion the previous year but not selected . In the event , the North was beaten 25 – 0 . He was then part of the Taranaki team that ended Auckland 's long tenure of the Ranfurly Shield , in a game described as " the finest match ... and the most exciting ... ever witnessed in the history of the Ranfurly Shield " . Taranaki controlled the first half , with the forwards stronger than their opponents in every aspect , scoring the first points . The visitors ' lead of 0 – 3 , however , changed to a half @-@ time score of 5 – 3 in Auckland 's favour after an injury temporarily reduced the opposition to fourteen men . Soon after the break , Taranaki took the lead through a try , and then a second — scored by Dewar , who was continuously " in the thick of it " — took them four points ahead , 5 – 9 . The home side responded with two tries of their own to take back a two @-@ point lead . Towards the end of the game , Taranaki scored one more try , which was converted and gave them a 14 – 11 victory to win the Shield for the first time : Auckland was the first team to be awarded the Shield in 1902 and , after Wellington won it in 1904 , regained it and held on to it continuously from 1906 .
He also played in the Taranaki side that was only narrowly beaten by the touring Australians in 1913 . His form in these games earned him a place with the All Blacks . On 6 September 1913 , he played in the 30 – 5 first test win over Australia at Athletic Park : Albert Downing and George Sellars played alongside him and were also later killed in action in the First World War . Dewar was then selected , along with four other Taranaki players , for the tour of North America , playing in 14 of the 16 games , including the 51 – 3 victory over the All America team for his second test cap . He received particular mention in the test match for a cunning dummy pass to Downing on his right , drawing the defence and passing to five @-@ eighths McKenzie on his left to run in for a try . He scored just one try . There was little interest in the American press about the tour . A single short paragraph in the New @-@ York Tribune reports on the 51 – 3 defeat of the USA team on 15 November .
In 1914 , Dewar participated in Taranaki 's defence of the Shield against Wellington on 24 June , winning 14 – 10 ; Wanganui , on 27 June , winning 17 – 3 ; Manawatu , on 23 July , winning 11 – 3 , with Dewar " prominent " ; Horowhenua ; and Wairarapa , on 14 August , winning 22 – 3 . Within days of this last game , a number of Taranaki 's players , including Dewar , left to join the New Zealand Expeditionary Force : " a brilliant forward ... who would almost certainly have gone to Australia this season [ on the All Blacks tour ] if he had been available for selection " . Although defeating Canterbury on 20 August , Taranaki 's pack was particularly weakened by Dewar 's absence , and only managed to win 6 – 5 with a last minute try . Against a second challenge from Wellington on 10 September , the conspicuous absence of this " fine leader of forwards " contributed to the loss of the Shield .
His obituary in The Sun described him as " one of the best forwards in the New Zealand team which visited California ... he was fast and very clever , and always gave of his best . He was a good all @-@ round athlete — an excellent boxer and no mean cricketer . "
= = = International appearances = = =
= = Military career = =
Dewar enlisted early , joining the New Zealand Expeditionary Force leaving on 15 August 1914 for German Samoa . On his return he volunteered again , joining the 9th Wellington Mounted Rifles as a machine gunner and was based at Awapuni Racecourse , Palmerston North ; he was promoted quickly to sergeant . On 16 October 1914 , after training , Dewar embarked on the Orari at Wellington en route for Egypt . There , Dewar captained the Wellington Mounted Rifles rugby team in several matches against other regiments — beating the First Australian Light Horse , the Canterbury Mounted Rifles , and the Auckland Mounted Rifles — before his regiment landed on 8 August 1915 at Anzac Cove , Gallipoli . Twenty @-@ four hours later , on 9 August 1915 , Dewar lost his life in the assault on Chunuk Bair — Albert Downing was killed in the same action , the first All Black to be killed in the war . Sergeant Henry Dewar is commemorated on the Chunuk Bair ( NZ ) Memorial Turkey ( Panel 4 ) .
His mother , sister and brother published these words in memoriam :
Our thoughts they ever wander to a soldier 's honoured grave ,
Never will we forget the noble sacrifice you made ;
For our hearts arc still united in that same fond love for you ,
And loving thoughts are cherished of one so brave and true .
Your cheery , sunny countenance will not from memory fade ,
For we see you in the photo , in the home you died to save ;
And when our hearts are sore for you we seem to hear you say ,
Break not your heart , dear mother , we will meet on that Eternal Day .
So widely known ; so highly esteemed .
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= Kandahar massacre =
The Kandahar massacre , more precisely identified as the Panjwai massacre , occurred in the early hours of 11 March 2012 , when United States Army Staff Sergeant Robert Bales murdered sixteen civilians and wounded six others in the Panjwayi District of Kandahar Province , Afghanistan . Nine of his victims were children , and eleven of the dead were from the same family . Some of the corpses were partially burned . Bales was taken into custody later that morning when he told authorities , " I did it " . On 23 August 2013 , a jury at Joint Base Lewis @-@ McChord in Fort Lewis , Washington sentenced him to life in prison without parole .
American and International Security Assistance Force ( ISAF ) authorities apologized for the deaths . Afghan authorities condemned the act , describing it as " intentional murder " . The National Assembly of Afghanistan passed a resolution demanding a public trial in Afghanistan , but then @-@ U.S. Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta said the soldier would be tried under U.S. military law . Bales pleaded guilty on 5 June 2013 to 16 counts of premeditated murder in exchange for the prosecution not seeking the death penalty . At the time of the plea , he stated that he did not know why he committed the murders .
United States authorities concluded that the killings were the act of a single individual . On 15 March 2012 , an Afghan parliamentary probe team made up of several members of the National Assembly of Afghanistan had speculated that up to 20 American soldiers were involved in the killings . The team later said they could not confirm claims that multiple soldiers took part in the killings .
= = Background = =
= = = The ' Surge ' in southern Afghanistan = = =
Panjwai is the birthplace of the Taliban movement and has traditionally been a stronghold of the Taliban . It has been an area of heavy fighting and was the focus of a military surge in 2010 , which brought a more than two @-@ fold increase in airstrikes , night raids into Afghan homes , insurgent casualties , and a six @-@ fold increase in special forces operations throughout Afghanistan . Fighting in Panjwai and adjacent Zhari , Arghandab and Kandahar districts was particularly intense . Conflict between the civilian population and U.S. forces was exacerbated by the wholesale destruction of some villages by American forces , mass arrests , murder of civilians by rogue units , and high casualties from improvised explosive devices ( IEDs ) .
One of the families targeted in the Kandahar shootings had returned to the area in 2011 after previously being displaced by the surge . Fearing the Taliban but encouraged by the U.S. government , the Army , and the Afghan government , they settled near the American military base because they thought it would to be a safe place to live .
Approximately three weeks before the incidents , U.S. – Afghan relations were strained by an incident where copies of the Quran were burnt at the Bagram Air Base . A couple of months before the shootings , U.S. Marines were videotaped urinating on dead Taliban fighters .
= = = Allegations of issues at Fort Lewis = = =
The shooter , Robert Bales , was based at Joint Base Lewis @-@ McChord ( JBLM ) . The primary medical treatment facility at the base , Madigan Army Medical Center , has come under investigation for downgrading diagnoses of soldiers with PTSD to lesser ailments . Military support groups around the base have alleged that base commanders did not give returning troops sufficient time to recover before sending them on further deployments , and that the base 's medical unit is understaffed and overwhelmed by the numbers of returning veterans with deployment @-@ related medical and psychological trauma .
Soldiers from the base have been linked to other atrocities and crimes . The 2010 Maywand District murders involved JBLM @-@ based soldiers . Also in 2010 , a recently discharged AWOL soldier from JBLM shot a police officer in Salt Lake City . In April 2011 , a JBLM soldier killed his wife and 5 @-@ year @-@ old son before killing himself . In January 2012 , a JBLM soldier murdered a Mount Rainier National Park ranger . In two separate incidents , unrelated JBLM soldiers have been charged with waterboarding their children .
Jorge Gonzalez , executive director of a veterans resource center near Fort Lewis , said that the Kandahar killings offer more proof that the base is dysfunctional : " This was not a rogue soldier . JBLM is a rogue base , with a severe leadership problem " , he said in a statement . Base officials responded , saying that the crimes committed by its soldiers were isolated events which do not " reflect on the work and dedication of all service members . " Robert H. Scales , a retired U.S. Army major general and former commandant of the Army War College , suggested that the major factor in the shootings was the overuse of infantry personnel in the last ten years for close combat in Iraq , Afghanistan , and elsewhere .
= = = 8 March roadside bombing = = =
Residents of Mokhoyan , a village about 500 metres east of Camp Belamby , stated that a bomb had exploded in their vicinity on 8 March , destroying an armored vehicle and wounding several U.S. soldiers . They recounted that U.S. soldiers afterwards lined many of the male villagers against a wall , threatening to " get revenge for this incident by killing at least 20 of your people , " and threatening that " you and your children will pay for this " . One Mokhoyan resident told The Associated Press " It looked like they were going to shoot us , and I was very afraid . " American officials from The Pentagon declared that they had " no evidence " that villagers had been lined up against a wall and threatened in Mokhoyan . U.S. officials refused to confirm or deny that American soldiers were wounded outside the village on 8 March .
Bales ' lawyer , John Henry Browne , later stated that his client was upset because a fellow soldier had lost a leg in an explosion on 9 March . It is unclear whether the bombing cited by Browne was the same as the one described by the villagers .
= = Incident = =
= = = Killings = = =
According to official reports , Bales left combat outpost Camp Belamby at 3 : 00 a.m. local time wearing night vision goggles . Bales was wearing traditional Afghan clothing over his ISAF fatigues .
According to government officials with knowledge of the investigation , the killings were carried out in two phases , with Bales returning to base in between . An Afghan guard reported a soldier returning to base at 1 : 30 am , and another guard reported a soldier leaving at 2 : 30 am . Bales is believed to have first gone to Alkozai , about 1 / 2 mile north of Camp Belambay , then to Najiban ( called Balandi in earlier reports ) , located 1 1 / 2 miles south of the base . Four people were killed and six wounded in Alkozai , and twelve people were killed in Najiban . American sentries at the base heard gunshots in Alkozai , but did not take action besides attempting to view Alkozai from their post inside the base . Until 22 March , U.S. authorities recognized 16 people killed , including nine children , four men , and three women . On 22 March that number was revised to 17 , but later reduced back to 16 . It was initially reported that five others were injured , and that number was eventually increased to six .
Four members of the same family were killed in Alkozai . According to a 16 @-@ year @-@ old boy who was shot in the leg , Bales woke up his family members before shooting them . Another witness said she saw the man drag a woman out of her house and repeatedly hit her head against a wall .
The first victim in Najiban appears to have been Mohammad Dawood . According to Dawood 's brother , Bales shot Dawood in the head , but spared Dawood 's wife and six children after the wife screamed at him .
Eleven members of Abdul Samad 's family were killed in a house in Najiban village , including his wife , four girls between the ages of two and six , four boys between eight and twelve , and two other relatives . According to a witness , " he dragged the boys by their hair and shot them in the mouth " . At least three of the child victims were killed by a single shot to the head of each . Their bodies were then set on fire . Then another civilian , Mohammad Dawoud , age 55 , was killed in another house in this village . Witnesses reported that Bales was wearing a headlamp and / or a spotlight attached to his weapon .
Bales burned some of the victims ' bodies , an act considered desecration under Islamic law . Witnesses said that the eleven corpses from one family were shot in the head , stabbed , then gathered into one room and set on fire . A pile of ashes was found on the floor of one victims ' house ; at least one child 's body was found partially charred . A reporter for The New York Times inspected the children 's bodies taken to a nearby American military base and reported seeing burns on some of the legs and heads .
= = = Surrender and confession = = =
Following the events at Alkozai and Balandi , Bales handed himself over into ISAF custody . Afghan forces spotted him leaving his outpost before the killings and U.S. commanders on base assembled their troops for a head count when it was discovered that the soldier was missing . A patrol was dispatched to find the missing soldier , but did not find him before he returned to base after the killings . He was reportedly taken into custody without incident . There were no military operations being conducted in the area at the time of the shootings .
The surveillance video from the base reportedly shows " the soldier walking up to his base covered in a traditional Afghan shawl . The soldier removes the shawl and lays his weapon on the ground , then raises his arms in surrender . " The video has not been released to the public .
American investigators suspect that Bales may have departed the base before midnight , committed the murders in Alkozai , then returned to the base around 1 : 30 a.m. Bales may have then departed the base at 2 : 30 a.m. and committed the murders in Najiban . It was apparently the second departure which caused the alert and the commencement of the patrol to locate the missing soldier .
According to U.S. defense officials , upon his return to the base Bales said three words : " I did it " and then told individuals what happened . Later he retained a lawyer and refused to speak further with investigators . The United States flew Bales out of Afghanistan to Kuwait on 14 March 2012 , then to the United States Disciplinary Barracks at Fort Leavenworth in Kansas on 16 March . A Pentagon spokesman said the move was done because of a " legal recommendation " .
= = = The number of assailants = = =
According to U.S. authorities , a single soldier – Staff Sergeant Robert Bales – conducted the attack . The U.S. military showed Afghan authorities the footage from the surveillance video at the base as proof that there was only one perpetrator of the shootings .
According to Reuters , some neighbors and relatives of the dead saw a group of U.S. soldiers arrive at their village at about 2 a.m. , enter homes and open fire . " They were all drunk and shooting all over the place , " said neighbor Agha Lala . According to The New York Times , one of the attack 's survivors and " at least five other villagers " described seeing a number of soldiers , while some other Afghan residents described seeing only one gunman . One mother @-@ of @-@ six , whose husband was killed during the incident , reported involvement of a large number of people : " When they shot dead my husband , I tried to drag him into the house ... I saw more than 20 people when I looked out the house . The Americans pointed their guns at me and threatened me , telling me not to leave the house or they 'd kill me . " An eight @-@ year @-@ old girl named Noorbinak , whose father was killed reported that " one man entered the room and the others were standing in the yard , holding lights . " The brother of another victim claimed his nephews and nieces had seen " numerous soldiers " with headlamps and lighted guns . Some elected officials said that they believed the attack was planned , claiming that one soldier could not have carried out such an act without help . In response , Afghan President Hamid Karzai appointed General Sher Mohammad Karimi to investigate the claims .
On 15 March 2012 , an Afghan parliamentary probe team made up of several members of the National Assembly of Afghanistan announced that up to 20 American soldiers were involved in the killings , with support from two helicopters . They had spent two days in the province on site , interviewing the survivors and collecting evidence . One of the members of the probe team , Hamizai Lali , said : " We closely examined the site of the incident , talked to the families who lost their beloved ones , the injured people and tribal elders ... The villages are one and a half kilometre from the American military base . We are convinced that one soldier cannot kill so many people in two villages within one hour ... [ the victims ] have been killed by the two groups . " Lali asked the Afghan government , the United Nations and the international community to ensure the perpetrators were punished in Afghanistan . While visiting one of the affected villages , Hamid Karzai pointed to one of the villagers and said : " In his family , in four rooms people were killed – children and women were killed – and then they were all brought together in one room and then set on fire . That , one man cannot do . " However , the team later said they could not confirm that multiple soldiers took part in the killings .
= = = Financial payments to victims ' families = = =
On 25 March 2012 at the office of the governor of Kandahar province , the United States gave the equivalent of US $ 860 @,@ 000 to the victims ' families , allocated as $ 50 @,@ 000 for each person killed and $ 10 @,@ 000 for each person injured . The official who disbursed payments to the families said the money was not compensation , but rather the U.S. government 's offering to help the victims and their families . A member of the Kandahar provincial council described the payments as assistance , but not as the kind of legal compensation that would absolve the accused .
= = Robert Bales = =
The Army concluded that Robert Bales , a 38 @-@ year @-@ old U.S. Army staff sergeant stationed at Camp Belambay , was the only person responsible for the shootings . According to Defense Secretary Leon Panetta , immediately after being captured , Bales acknowledged the killings and " told individuals what happened " . He then asked for an attorney and refused to speak with investigators about his motivations .
According to officials , Bales may have been having marital problems , and the investigation of the shootings is looking into the possibility that an e @-@ mail about marriage problems might have provoked Bales . His wife wrote on her blog about her disappointment after he was passed over for a promotion to Sergeant First Class ( E @-@ 7 ) . The family was also struggling with finances , and three days before the shootings Bales ' wife put their home up for sale , as they had fallen behind with mortgage payments .
On 23 March 2012 , the U.S. government charged Bales with 17 counts of murder , six counts of attempted murder , and six counts of assault . On 24 March 2012 , American investigators said they believe Bales split the killings in the villages of Balandi and Alkozai into two attacks , returning to Camp Belamby after the first attack before slipping out again an hour later . No other U.S. military personnel were disciplined for having any role in the incident .
On 22 August 2013 , Bales pleaded guilty at his General Court @-@ martial , apologized for his killing spree , and described the massacre as an " act of cowardice . " The plea spared Bales from the death penalty . On 23 August 2013 , Bales was sentenced to life in prison without parole by the court . He was also demoted to Private ( E @-@ 1 ) , the lowest possible rank , dishonorably discharged , and ordered to forfeit all pay and allowances . A commanding general overseeing the court @-@ martial has the option of reducing the sentence to life with the possibility of parole . Afghan villagers and the families of Bales ' victims were upset by the decision , saying he deserved death .
= = Reactions = =
= = = Reaction from family members and Afghan society = = =
A woman who lost four family members in the incident said , " We don 't know why this foreign soldier came and killed our innocent family members . Either he was drunk or he enjoyed killing civilians . " Abdul Samad , a 60 @-@ year @-@ old farmer who lost eleven family members , eight of whom were children , spoke about the incident : " I don 't know why they killed them . Our government told us to come back to the village , and then they let the Americans kill us . " One grieving mother , holding a dead baby in her arms , said , " They killed a child , was this child the Taliban ? Believe me , I haven 't seen a two @-@ year @-@ old member of the Taliban yet . "
" I don 't want any compensation . I don 't want money , I don 't want a trip to Mecca , I don 't want a house . I want nothing . But what I absolutely want is the punishment of the Americans . This is my demand , my demand , my demand and my demand , " said one villager , whose brother was killed .
More than 300 Panjwai locals gathered around the military base to protest the killings . Some brought burned blankets to represent those killed . In one house , an elderly woman screamed : " May God kill the only son of Karzai , so he feels what we feel . " On 13 March , hundreds of university students protested in Afghanistan 's eastern city of Jalalabad , shouting " Death to America – Death to Obama " and burning effigies of the U.S. president and a Christian cross . On 15 March about 2 @,@ 000 people took part in another protest , in the southern province of Zabul .
= = = Reaction from Afghan authorities = = =
The President of Afghanistan , Hamid Karzai , called the incident " intentional murder " and stated " this [ was ] an assassination , an intentional killing of innocent civilians and cannot be forgiven . " He said the United States must now pull back its troops from village areas and allow Afghan security forces to take the lead in an effort to reduce civilian deaths . On 16 March Karzai said the U.S. was not fully co @-@ operating with a probe into the killings . He also said the problem of civilian casualties at the hands of NATO forces " has been going on for too long ... It is by all means the end of the rope here " . A spokesperson for the Afghan Interior Ministry condemned the act " in the strongest possible terms . "
Afghan politicians wanted Bales to face an Afghan court . The National Assembly of Afghanistan insisted that the U.S. soldier be put on public trial in Afghanistan : " We seriously demand and expect that the government of the United States punish the culprits and try them in a public trial before the people of Afghanistan . " It also condemned the killings as " brutal and inhuman " and declared that " people are running out of patience over the ignorance of foreign forces . " Abdul Rahim Ayobi , a member of parliament from Kandahar , said the shooting " gives us the message that now the American soldiers are out of the control of their generals . " Kamal Safai , a member from Kunduz , said that while it was the act of a single man , " the public reaction will blame the government of America , not the soldier . "
= = = Reaction from U.S. and NATO = = =
American and ISAF forces apologized and promised a full investigation , with Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta stating that the soldier " will be brought to justice and be held accountable " and that the death penalty " could be a consideration . " U.S. president Barack Obama called the incident " absolutely tragic and heartbreaking " but noted that he was " proud generally " of what U.S. troops have accomplished in Afghanistan . Obama said the incident did not represent the " exceptional character " of the American military and the respect that the United States had for the people of Afghanistan . On 13 March , he said , " the United States takes this as seriously as if it were our own citizens and our own children who were murdered . We ’ re heartbroken over the loss of innocent life . The killing of innocent civilians is outrageous and it ’ s unacceptable . " In response to a reporter asking whether the killings could be likened to the 1968 My Lai massacre of civilians by U.S. forces in South Vietnam , Obama replied , " It 's not comparable . It appeared you had a lone gunman who acted on his own . "
General John R. Allen , commander of the ISAF , issued an apology as well . Adrian Bradshaw , the deputy commander of the NATO forces in Afghanistan , apologized " I wish to convey my profound regrets and dismay ... I cannot explain the motivation behind such callous acts , but they were in no way part of authorised ISAF military activity . " A " rapid and thorough " inquiry was promised . U.S. officials said the killings would not affect their strategies in the area .
= = = Response from the Taliban = = =
The Taliban said in a statement on its website that " sick @-@ minded American savages " committed the " blood @-@ soaked and inhumane crime . " The militant group promised the families of the victims that it would take revenge " for every single martyr " . The Taliban also accused Afghan security officials of being complicit in the attack . The militant group called off peace talks in the wake of the deadly rampage . On 13 March , the Taliban launched an attack on an Afghan government delegation which was visiting the site of the killings , killing one government soldier and injuring three .
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= Władysław II Jagiełło =
Jogaila , later Władysław II Jagiełło ( Polish pronunciation : [ vwadɨˈswaf jaˈgʲɛwwɔ ] ) ( c . 1352 / 1362 – 1 June 1434 ) was Grand Duke of Lithuania ( 1377 – 1434 ) , King of Poland ( 1386 – 1399 ) alongside his wife Jadwiga , and then sole King of Poland . He ruled in Lithuania from 1377 . Born a pagan , in 1386 he converted to Catholicism and was baptized as Władysław in Kraków , married the young Queen Jadwiga , and was crowned King of Poland as Władysław II Jagiełło . In 1387 he converted Lithuania to Christianity . His own reign in Poland started in 1399 , upon death of Queen Jadwiga , and lasted a further thirty @-@ five years and laid the foundation for the centuries @-@ long Polish – Lithuanian union . He was a member of the Jagiellonian dynasty in Poland that bears his name and was previously also known as the Geminid dynasty in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . The dynasty ruled both states until 1572 , and became one of the most influential dynasties in the late medieval and early modern Central and Eastern Europe . During his reign , the Polish @-@ Lithuanian state was the largest state in the Christian world .
Jogaila was the last pagan ruler of medieval Lithuania . After he became King of Poland , as a result of the Union of Krewo , the newly formed Polish @-@ Lithuanian union confronted the growing power of the Teutonic Knights . The allied victory at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410 , followed by the Peace of Thorn , secured the Polish and Lithuanian borders and marked the emergence of the Polish – Lithuanian alliance as a significant force in Europe . The reign of Władysław II Jagiełło extended Polish frontiers and is often considered the beginning of Poland 's Golden Age .
= = Early life = =
= = = Lithuania = = =
Little is known of Jogaila 's early life , and even his year of birth is not certain . Previously historians assumed he was born in 1352 , but some recent research suggests a later date — about 1362 . He was a descendant of the Gediminid dynasty and was probably born in Vilnius . His parents were Algirdas , Grand Duke of Lithuania , and his second wife , Uliana , daughter of Alexander I , Grand Prince of Tver .
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania to which Jogaila succeeded as Grand Duke in 1377 was a political entity composed of two leading , but very different nationalities and two political systems : ethnic Lithuania in the north @-@ west and the vast Ruthenian territories of former Kievan Rus ' , comprising the lands of modern Ukraine , Belarus , and parts of western Russia . At first , Jogaila — like his father — based his rule in the southern and eastern territories of Lithuania , while his uncle , Kęstutis , the Duke of Trakai , continued to rule the north @-@ western region . Jogaila 's succession , however , soon placed this system of dual rule under strain .
At the start of his reign , Jogaila was preoccupied with unrest in the Lithuanian Rus ' lands . In 1377 – 78 , Andrei of Polotsk , the eldest son of Algirdas , challenged Jogaila 's authority and sought to become Grand Duke . In 1380 , Andrei and another brother , Dmitry , sided with Prince Dmitri of Moscow against Jogaila 's alliance with emir Mamai , de facto khan of the Golden Horde . Jogaila failed to support Mamai , lingering in the vicinity of the battlefield , which led to Mamai 's army 's significant defeat at the hands of Prince Dmitri in the Battle of Kulikovo . The Muscovites ' Pyrrhic victory over the Golden Horde , in the long term , signified , however , the beginning of a slow climb to power by the Grand Duchy of Moscow , which became within a century the most serious rival and threat to the integrity , well @-@ being and survival of Lithuania . However , in 1380 Muscovy was greatly weakened by tremendous losses suffered during the battle and thus , in the same year , Jogaila was free to begin a struggle for supremacy with Kęstutis .
In the north @-@ west , Lithuania faced constant armed incursions from the Teutonic Knights — founded after 1226 to fight and convert the pagan Baltic tribes of Prussians , Yotvingians and Lithuanians . In 1380 , Jogaila secretly concluded the secret Treaty of Dovydiškės , directed against Kęstutis . When Kęstutis discovered the plan , the Lithuanian Civil War began . He seized Vilnius , overthrew Jogaila , and pronounced himself grand duke in his place . In 1382 , Jogaila raised an army from his father 's vassals and confronted Kęstutis near Trakai . Kęstutis and his son Vytautas entered Jogaila 's encampment for negotiations but were tricked and imprisoned in the Kreva Castle , where Kęstutis was found dead , probably murdered , a week later . Vytautas escaped to the Teutonic fortress of Marienburg and was baptised there under the name Wigand .
Jogaila formulated the Treaty of Dubysa , which rewarded the Knights for their aid in defeating Kęstutis and Vytautas by promising Christianisation and granting them Samogitia west of the Dubysa river . However , when Jogaila failed to ratify the treaty , the Knights invaded Lithuania in the summer of 1383 . In 1384 , Jogaila reconciled with Vytautas promising to return his patrimony in Trakai . Vytautas then turned against the Knights , attacking and looting several Prussian castles .
= = = Baptism and marriage = = =
Jogaila 's Russian mother Uliana of Tver urged him to marry Sofia , daughter of Prince Dmitri of Moscow , who required him first to convert to Orthodoxy . That option , however , was unlikely to halt the crusades against Lithuania by the Teutonic Knights , who regarded Orthodox Christians as schismatics and little better than heathens . Jogaila chose therefore to accept a Polish proposal to become a Catholic and marry the eleven @-@ year @-@ old Queen Jadwiga of Poland . The nobles of Malopolska made this offer to Jogaila for many reasons . They wanted to neutralize the dangers posed by Lithuania itself and to secure the fertile territories of Galicia – Volhynia . The Polish nobles saw the offer as an opportunity for increasing their privileges and avoiding Austrian influence , brought by Jadwiga 's previous fiancé William , Duke of Austria .
On 14 August 1385 in Kreva Castle , Jogaila confirmed his prenuptial promises in the Union of Krewo ( Union of Kreva ) . The promises included the adoption of Christianity , repatriation of lands " stolen " from Poland by its neighbours , and terras suas Lithuaniae et Russiae Coronae Regni Poloniae perpetuo applicare , a clause interpreted by historians to mean anything from a personal union between Lithuania and Poland to a complete incorporation of Lithuania into Poland . The agreement at Kreva has been described both as far @-@ sighted and as a desperate gamble .
Jogaila was duly baptised at the Wawel Cathedral in Kraków on 15 February 1386 and from then on formally used the name Władysław or Latin versions of it . The marriage took place three days later , and on 4 March 1386 Jogaila was crowned King Władysław by archbishop Bodzanta . He was also to be legally adopted by Jadwiga 's mother , Elizabeth of Bosnia , so retaining the throne in the event of Jadwiga 's death . The royal baptism triggered the conversion of most of Jogaila 's court and noblemen , as well as mass baptisms in Lithuanian rivers , a beginning of the final Christianization of Lithuania . Though the ethnic Lithuanian nobility were the main converts to Catholicism — both paganism and the Orthodox rite remained strong among the peasants — the king 's conversion and its political implications created lasting repercussions for the history of both Lithuania and Poland .
= = Ruler of Lithuania and Poland = =
= = = Accession = = =
Władysław II Jagiello and Queen Jadwiga reigned as co @-@ monarchs ; and though Jadwiga probably had little real power , she took an active part in Poland 's political and cultural life . In 1387 , she led two successful military expeditions to Red Ruthenia , recovered lands her father Louis I of Hungary had transferred from Poland to Hungary , and secured the homage of Petru I , Voivode of Moldavia . In 1390 , she also personally opened negotiations with the Teutonic Order . Most political responsibilities , however , fell to Jagiello , with Jadwiga attending to the cultural and charitable activities for which she is still revered .
Soon after Jagiello 's accession to the Polish throne , Jagiello granted Vilnius a city charter like that of Kraków , modeled on the Magdeburg Law ; and Vytautas issued a privilege to a Jewish commune of Trakai on almost the same terms as privileges issued to the Jews of Poland in the reigns of Boleslaus the Pious and Casimir the Great . Władysław 's policy of unifying the two legal systems was partial and uneven at first but achieved a lasting influence . By the time of the Union of Lublin in 1569 , there was not much difference between the administrative and judicial systems in force in Lithuania and Poland .
One effect of Jagiello 's measures was to be the advancement of Catholics in Lithuania at the expense of Orthodox elements ; in 1387 and 1413 , for example , Lithuanian Catholic boyars were granted special judicial and political privileges denied to the Orthodox boyars . As this process gained momentum , it was accompanied by the rise of both Rus ' and Lithuanian identity in the fifteenth century .
= = = Challenges = = =
Jagiello 's baptism failed to end the crusade of the Teutonic Knights , who claimed his conversion was a sham , perhaps even a heresy , and renewed their incursions on the pretext that pagans remained in Lithuania . From then on , however , the Order found it harder to sustain the cause of a crusade and faced the growing threat to its existence posed by the Kingdom of Poland and a genuinely Christian Lithuania alliance . Władysław sponsored the creation of the diocese of Vilnius under bishop Andrzej Wasilko , the former confessor of Elisabeth of Hungary . The bishopric , which included Samogitia , then largely controlled by the Teutonic Order , was subordinated to the see of Gniezno and not to that of Teutonic Königsberg . The decision may not have improved Władysław 's relations with the Order , but it served to introduce closer ties between Lithuania and Poland , enabling the Polish church to freely assist its Lithuanian counterpart .
In 1389 , Władysław 's rule in Lithuania faced a revived challenge from Vytautas , who resented the power given to Skirgaila in Lithuania at the expense of his own patrimony . Vytautas started a civil war in Lithuania , aiming to become the Grand Duke . On 4 September 1390 , the joint forces of Vytautas and the Teutonic Grand Master , Konrad von Wallenrode , laid siege to Vilnius , which was held by Władysław 's regent Skirgaila with combined Polish , Lithuanian and Ruthenian troops . Although the Knights lifted the siege of the castle after a month , they reduced much of the outer city to ruins . This bloody conflict was eventually brought to a temporary halt in 1392 with the Treaty of Ostrów , by which Władysław handed over the government of Lithuania to his cousin in exchange for peace : Vytautas was to rule Lithuania as the Grand Duke ( magnus dux ) until his death , under the overlordship of the Supreme Duke ( dux supremus ) in the person of the Polish monarch . Skirgaila was moved from the Duchy of Trakai to become prince of Kiev . Vytautas initially accepted his status but soon began to pursue Lithuania 's independence from Poland .
The protracted period of war between the Lithuanians and the Teutonic Knights was ended on 12 October 1398 by the Treaty of Salynas , named after the islet in the Neman River where it was signed . Lithuania agreed to cede Samogitia and assist the Teutonic Order in a campaign to seize Pskov , while the Order agreed to assist Lithuania in a campaign to seize Novgorod . Shortly afterwards , Vytautas was crowned as a king by local nobles ; but the following year his forces and those of his ally , Khan Tokhtamysh of the White Horde , were crushed by the Timurids at the Battle of the Vorskla River , ending his imperial ambitions in the east and obliging him to submit to Władysław 's protection once more .
= = King of Poland = =
= = = Early actions = = =
On 22 June 1399 , Jadwiga gave birth to a daughter , baptised Elizabeth Bonifacia , but within a month the mother and daughter died , leaving Władysław sole ruler of the Kingdom of Poland and without an heir nor much legitimacy to rule the kingdom . Jadwiga 's death undermined Władysław 's right to the throne , and as a result old conflicts between the nobility of Lesser Poland , generally sympathetic to Władysław , and the gentry of Greater Poland began to surface . In 1402 , Władysław answered the rumblings against his rule by marrying Anna of Celje , a granddaughter of Casimir III of Poland , a political match that re @-@ legitimised his reign .
The Union of Vilnius and Radom of 1401 confirmed the status of Vytautas as grand duke under Władysław 's overlordship , while assuring the title of grand duke to the heirs of Władysław rather than those of Vytautas : should Władysław die without heirs , the Lithuanian boyars were to elect a new monarch . Since no heir had yet been produced by either monarch , the implications of the union were unforeseeable , but it forged bonds between the Polish and Lithuanian nobility and a permanent defensive alliance between the two states , strengthening Lithuania 's hand for a new war against the Teutonic Order in which Poland officially took no part . While the document left the liberties of the Polish nobles untouched , it granted increased power to the boyars of Lithuania , whose grand dukes had till then been unencumbered by checks and balances of the sort attached to the Polish monarchy . The Union of Vilnius and Radom therefore earned Władysław a measure of support in Lithuania .
In late 1401 , the new war against the Order overstretched the resources of the Lithuanians , who found themselves fighting on two fronts after uprisings in the eastern provinces . Another of Władysław 's brothers , the malcontent Švitrigaila , chose this moment to stir up revolts behind the lines and declare himself grand duke . On 31 January 1402 , he presented himself in Marienburg , where he won the backing of the Knights with concessions similar to those made by Jogaila and Vytautas during earlier leadership contests in the Grand Duchy .
= = = Against the Teutonic Order = = =
The war ended in the Treaty of Raciąż on 22 May 1404 . Władysław acceded to the formal cession of Samogitia and agreed to support the Order 's designs on Pskov ; in return , Konrad von Jungingen undertook to sell Poland the disputed Dobrzyń Land and the town of Złotoryja , once pawned to the Order by Władysław Opolski , and to support Vytautas in a revived attempt on Novgorod . Both sides had practical reasons for signing the treaty at that point : the Order needed time to fortify its newly acquired lands , the Poles and Lithuanians to deal with territorial challenges in the east and in Silesia .
Also in 1404 , Władysław held talks at Vratislav with Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia , who offered to return Silesia to Poland if Władysław supported him in his power struggle within the Holy Roman Empire . Władysław turned the deal down with the agreement of both Polish and Silesian nobles , unwilling to burden himself with new military commitments in the west .
= = = Polish – Lithuanian – Teutonic war = = =
In December 1408 , Władysław and Vytautas held strategic talks in Navahrudak Castle , where they decided to foment a Samogitian uprising against Teutonic rule to draw German forces away from Pomerelia . Władysław promised to repay Vytautas for his support by restoring Samogitia to Lithuania in any future peace treaty . The uprising , which began in May 1409 , at first provoked little reaction from the Knights , who had not yet consolidated their rule in Samogitia by building castles ; but by June their diplomats were busy lobbying Władysław 's court at Oborniki , warning his nobles against Polish involvement in a war between Lithuania and the Order . Władysław , however , bypassed his nobles and informed new Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen that if the Knights acted to suppress Samogitia , Poland would intervene . This stung the Order into issuing a declaration of war against Poland on 6 August , which Władysław received on 14 August in Nowy Korczyn .
The castles guarding the northern border were in such bad condition that the Knights easily captured those at Złotoryja , Dobrzyń and Bobrowniki , the capital of Dobrzyń Land , while German burghers invited them into Bydgoszcz ( German : Bromberg ) . Władysław arrived on the scene in late September , retook Bydgoszcz within a week , and came to terms with the Order on 8 October . During the winter , the two armies prepared for a major confrontation . Władysław installed a strategic supply depot at Płock in Masovia and had a pontoon bridge constructed and transported north down the Vistula .
Meanwhile , both sides unleashed diplomatic offensives . The Knights dispatched letters to the monarchs of Europe , preaching their usual crusade against the heathens ; Władysław countered with his own letters to the monarchs , accusing the Order of planning to conquer the whole world . Such appeals successfully recruited many foreign knights to each side . Wenceslas IV of Bohemia signed a defensive treaty with the Poles against the Teutonic Order ; his brother , Sigismund of Luxembourg , allied himself with the Order and declared war against Poland on 12 July , though his Hungarian vassals refused his call to arms .
= = = Battle of Grunwald = = =
Main article : Battle of Grunwald
When the war resumed in June 1410 , Władysław advanced into the Teutonic heartland at the head of an army of about 20 @,@ 000 mounted nobles , 15 @,@ 000 armed commoners , and 2 @,@ 000 professional cavalry mainly hired from Bohemia . After crossing the Vistula over the pontoon bridge at Czerwińsk , his troops met up with those of Vytautas , whose 11 @,@ 000 light cavalry included Lithuanians , Ruthenians , and Tatars . The Teutonic Order 's army numbered about 18 @,@ 000 cavalry , mostly Germans and 5 @,@ 000 infantry . On 15 July , at the Battle of Grunwald after one of the largest and most ferocious battles of the Middle Ages , the allies won a victory so overwhelming that the Teutonic Order 's army was virtually annihilated , with most of its key commanders killed in combat , including Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen and Grand Marshal Friedrich von Wallenrode . Thousands of troops were reported to have been slaughtered on either side .
The road to the Teutonic capital Marienburg now lay open , the city undefended ; but for reasons the sources do not explain , Władysław hesitated to pursue his advantage . On 17 July , his army began a laboured advance , arriving at Marienburg only on 25 July , by which time the new Grand Master , Heinrich von Plauen , had organised a defence of the fortress . The apparent half @-@ heartedness of the ensuing siege , called off by Władysław on 19 September , has been ascribed variously to the impregnability of the fortifications , to high casualty figures among the Lithuanians , to Władysław 's unwillingness to risk further casualties , or to his desire to keep the Order weakened but undefeated as to not upset the balance of power between Poland ( which would most likely acquire most of the Order possessions if it was totally defeated ) and Lithuania ; but a lack of sources precludes a definitive explanation .
= = = Dissent = = =
The war ended in 1411 with the Peace of Thorn , in which neither Poland nor Lithuania drove home their negotiating advantage to the full , much to the discontent of the Polish nobles . Poland regained Dobrzyń Land , Lithuania regained Samogitia , and Masovia regained a small territory beyond the Wkra river . Most of the Teutonic Order 's territory , however , including towns that had surrendered , remained intact . Władysław then proceeded to release many high @-@ ranking Teutonic Knights and officials for apparently modest ransoms . The cumulative expense of the ransoms , however , proved a drain on the Order 's resources . This failure to exploit the victory to his nobles ' satisfaction provoked growing opposition to Władysław 's regime after 1411 , further fuelled by the granting of Podolia , disputed between Poland and Lithuania , to Vytautas , and by the king 's two @-@ year absence in Lithuania .
In an effort to outflank his critics , Władysław promoted the leader of the opposing faction , bishop Mikołaj Trąba , to the archbishopric of Gniezno in autumn 1411 and replaced him in Kraków with Wojciech Jastrzębiec , a supporter of Vytautas . He also sought to create more allies in Lithuania . In the Union of Horodło , signed on 2 October 1413 , he decreed that the status of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was " tied to our Kingdom of Poland permanently and irreversibly " and granted the Catholic nobles of Lithuania privileges equal to those of the Polish szlachta . The act included a clause prohibiting the Polish nobles from electing a monarch without the consent of the Lithuanian nobles , and the Lithuanian nobles from electing a grand duke without the consent of the Polish monarch .
= = = Last conflicts = = =
In 1414 , a sporadic new war broke out , known as the " Hunger War " from the Knights ' scorched @-@ earth tactics of burning fields and mills ; but both the Knights and the Lithuanians were too exhausted from the previous war to risk a major battle , and the fighting petered out in the autumn . Hostilities did not flare up again until 1419 , during the Council of Constance , when they were called off at the papal legate 's insistence .
The Council of Constance proved a turning point in the Teutonic crusades , as it did for several European conflicts . Vytautas sent a delegation in 1415 , including the metropolitan of Kiev and Samogitian witnesses ; they arrived at Constance at the end of that year to express their preference for being " baptised with water and not with blood " . The Polish envoys , among them Mikołaj Trąba , Zawisza Czarny , and Paweł Włodkowic , lobbied for an end to the forced conversion of heathens and to the Order 's aggression against Lithuania and Poland . As a result of the Polish – Lithuanian diplomacy , the council , though scandalised by Włodkowic 's questioning of the legitimacy of the monastic state , denied the Order 's request for a further crusade and instead entrusted the conversion of the Samogitians to Poland – Lithuania .
The diplomatic context at Constance included the revolt of the Bohemian Hussites , who looked upon Poland as an ally in their wars against Sigismund , the emperor elect and new king of Bohemia . In 1421 , the Bohemian Diet declared Sigismund deposed and formally offered the crown to Władysław on condition that he accept the religious principles of the Four Articles of Prague , which he was not prepared to do . After Władysław 's refusal , Vytautas was postulated ( elected in absentia ) as Bohemian king , but he assured the pope that he opposed the heretics . Between 1422 and 1428 , Władysław 's nephew , Sigismund Korybut , attempted a regency in war @-@ torn Bohemia , with little success . Vytautas accepted Sigismund 's offer of a royal crown in 1429 — apparently with Władysław 's blessing — but Polish forces intercepted the crown in transit and the coronation was cancelled .
In 1422 , Władysław fought another war , known as the Gollub War , against the Teutonic Order , defeating them in under two months before the Order 's imperial reinforcements had time to arrive . The resulting Treaty of Melno ended the Knights ' claims to Samogitia once and for all and defined a permanent border between Prussia and Lithuania . Lithuania was given the province of Samogitia , with the port of Palanga , but the city of Klaipėda was left to the Order . This border remained largely unchanged for roughly 500 years , until 1920 . The terms of this treaty have , however , been seen as turning a Polish victory into defeat , as a result of Władysław 's renunciation of Polish claims to Pomerania , Pomerelia , and Chełmno Land , for which he received only the town of Nieszawa in return . The Treaty of Melno closed a chapter in the Knights ' wars with Lithuania but did little to settle their long @-@ term issues with Poland . Further sporadic warfare broke out between Poland and the Knights between 1431 and 1435 .
Cracks in the cooperation between Poland and Lithuania after the death of Vytautas in 1430 had offered the Knights a revived opportunity for interference in Poland . Władysław supported his brother Švitrigaila as grand duke of Lithuania , but when Švitrigaila , with the support of the Teutonic Order and dissatisfied Rus ' nobles , rebelled against Polish overlordship in Lithuania , the Poles , under the leadership of Bishop Zbigniew Oleśnicki of Kraków , occupied Podolia , which Władysław had awarded to Lithuania in 1411 , and Volhynia . In 1432 , a pro @-@ Polish party in Lithuania elected Vytautas 's brother Žygimantas as grand duke , leading to an armed struggle over the Lithuanian succession which stuttered on for years after Władysław 's death .
= = = Succession = = =
Władysław 's second wife , Anna of Celje , had died in 1416 , leaving a daughter , Jadwiga . In 1417 , Władysław married Elisabeth of Pilica , who died in 1420 without bearing him a child , and two years later , Sophia of Halshany , who bore him two surviving sons . The death in 1431 of Princess Jadwiga , the last heir of Piast blood , released Władysław to make his sons by Sophia of Halshany his heirs , though he had to sweeten the Polish nobles with concessions to ensure their agreement , since the monarchy was elective . Władysław finally died in 1434 , leaving Poland to his elder son , Władysław III , and Lithuania to his younger , Casimir , both still minors at the time . The Lithuanian inheritance , however , could not be taken for granted . His death in 1434 ended the personal union between the two realms , and it was not clear what would take its place .
= = Family tree ( incomplete ) = =
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= Kawachi @-@ class battleship =
The Kawachi class ( 河内型戦艦 , Kawachi @-@ gata senkan ) was a two @-@ ship class of dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the first decade of the 20th century . Both ships bombarded German fortifications at Tsingtao during the Battle of Tsingtao in 1914 , but saw no other combat in World War I. Kawachi sank in 1918 after an explosion in her ammunition magazine with the loss of over 600 officers and crewmen . Settsu was disarmed in 1922 and converted into a target ship two years later to meet the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty and served until she was sunk in 1945 by American carrier aircraft . The ship was refloated after the war and scrapped in 1946 – 47 .
= = Background = =
The Kawachi class was ordered on 22 June 1907 under the 1907 Warship Supplement Program after the Russo @-@ Japanese War as Japan 's first dreadnoughts , although their construction was delayed by a severe depression . They were one of the first steps in the fulfillment of the recently adopted Eight @-@ Eight Fleet Program that required a fleet of eight dreadnoughts and armored cruisers . Their design was based on the Aki with a uniform 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) main @-@ gun armament in the hexagonal layout used by the German dreadnoughts of the Nassau and Helgoland classes .
The first iteration of the design had six twin @-@ gun turrets , with two pairs of superfiring turrets fore and aft of the superstructure and the two other turrets amidships " en echelon " to maximize end @-@ on fire . This layout was rejected as it exceeded the informal 20 @,@ 000 long tons ( 20 @,@ 321 t ) limit . The design was then revised with the turrets in the hexagonal layout using the same 45 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ inch guns used in the preceding battleships . In early 1908 , the IJN received reports that the Royal Navy 's latest battleships used longer 50 @-@ caliber guns . The Chief of the Naval General Staff , Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō , pushed to use these guns ; cost considerations prevented all the guns from having the same barrel length , so they were used only in the fore and aft turrets .
= = Description = =
The two ships had different bow designs for comparison purposes ; Settsu 's clipper bow was longer than Kawachi 's vertical stem . Otherwise the two ships were externally virtually identical . The ships had an overall length of 526 – 533 feet ( 160 @.@ 3 – 162 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 84 feet 3 inches ( 25 @.@ 7 m ) , and a normal draft of 27 – 27 @.@ 8 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 – 8 @.@ 5 m ) . They displaced 20 @,@ 823 – 21 @,@ 443 long tons ( 21 @,@ 157 – 21 @,@ 787 t ) at normal load and had a metacentric height of 5 feet 3 inches ( 1 @.@ 59 m ) . Their crew ranged from 999 to 1100 officers and enlisted men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Kawachi @-@ class vessels were fitted with a pair of license @-@ built Curtis steam turbine sets , each set driving one propeller , using steam from 16 Miyabara water @-@ tube boilers with a working pressure of 17 @.@ 5 bar ( 1 @,@ 750 kPa ; 254 psi ) . The turbines were rated at a total of 25 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) for a design speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . During testing , the turbines of both ships proved to be significantly more powerful than designed , 30 @,@ 399 shp ( 22 @,@ 669 kW ) for Kawachi and 32 @,@ 200 shp ( 24 @,@ 000 kW ) for Settsu , although the speeds attained on sea trials are unknown . The ships carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 300 long tons ( 2 @,@ 300 t ) of coal and 400 long tons ( 410 t ) of fuel oil which gave them a range of 2 @,@ 700 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 000 km ; 3 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The Kawachi class carried four 50 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ inch guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . Settsu 's guns were ordered from Vickers and Kawachi 's were built in Japan . The fore and aft turrets could each traverse 270 ° . They fired 850 @-@ pound ( 386 kg ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 3 @,@ 000 ft / s ( 910 m / s ) ; this gave a maximum range of 24 @,@ 000 yards ( 22 @,@ 000 m ) . The eight 45 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ inch 41st Year Type were mounted in four twin @-@ gun wing turrets , two on each side . Each turret could traverse 160 ° . The 45 @-@ caliber guns fired the same shell as the longer guns , although muzzle velocity was reduced to 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ( 850 m / s ) and range to 21 @,@ 872 yards ( 20 @,@ 000 m ) . Each 12 @-@ inch gun was provided with 80 rounds , normally loaded at an elevation of + 5 ° , although they could be loaded at any angle up to + 13 ° . The guns had an elevation range of -5 ° to + 25 ° .
Their secondary armament consisted of ten 45 @-@ caliber 6 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns , mounted in casemates in the sides of the hull , and eight 40 @-@ caliber quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns . The 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) gun fired a 100 @-@ pound ( 45 kg ) AP shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 706 ft / s ( 825 m / s ) and the ships carried 150 rounds for each gun . The shell of the 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) gun weighed 45 pounds ( 20 @.@ 4 kg ) and was fired at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 150 ft / s ( 660 m / s ) . Each gun was also provided with 150 rounds .
The ships were also equipped with a dozen 40 @-@ caliber QF 3 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns for defense against torpedo boats and four shorter 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) guns were used as saluting guns or mounted on the ships ' boats . Both of these guns fired 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 67 kg ) shells with muzzle velocities of 2 @,@ 300 ft / s ( 700 m / s ) and 1 @,@ 500 feet per second ( 450 m / s ) respectively . They carried a total of 1 @,@ 200 rounds for the longer guns and another 1 @,@ 200 for the shorter guns .
In addition , they were fitted with five submerged 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedo tubes , two on each broadside and one in the stern . Two of the ships ' boats could carry torpedoes and the ships carried a total of 24 Type 43 torpedoes . These had a 209 @-@ pound ( 95 kg ) warhead and a maximum range of 5 @,@ 500 yards ( 5 @,@ 000 m ) at a speed of 26 knots ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) .
= = = Armor = = =
The waterline main belt of the Kawachi @-@ class ships consisted of Krupp cemented armor that had a maximum thickness of 12 inches ( 305 mm ) amidships and tapered to a thickness of 5 inches ( 127 mm ) inches at the ends of the ship . Approximately 6 feet 4 inches ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) of the belt was above the waterline and 6 feet 5 inches ( 1 @.@ 95 m ) below it . Above the belt was a strake of armor 8 inches ( 203 mm ) thick that covered the side of the hull up to the height of the middle deck . Above that was a 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) strake that protected the casemates . The barbettes for the main guns were 11 inches ( 280 mm ) thick above the weather deck and 9 inches ( 229 mm ) below it . The armor of all the 12 @-@ inch gun turrets had a maximum thickness of 11 inches with a 3 @-@ inch roof . The deck armor was 1 @.@ 1 inches ( 29 mm ) thick and the conning tower was protected by 10 inches ( 254 mm ) of armor .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
Following the Japanese ship @-@ naming conventions , Kawachi and Settsu were named after ancient Japanese provinces , both now a part of Osaka prefecture . The only significant action performed by either ship during World War I was when they bombarded German fortifications in October – November 1914 during the final stage of the Battle of Tsingtao . They were both assigned to the First Squadron until they were refitted in 1917 and 1916 respectively . Upon their completion of their refits , both ships were assigned to the Second Squadron . On 12 July 1918 , Kawachi was sunk in an accidental magazine explosion in Tokuyama Bay that killed over 600 crewmen . Stricken from the Navy List on 21 September 1918 , the wreck was later partially dismantled although most of the hull was abandoned in place to serve as an artificial reef .
Settsu was reassigned to the First Squadron later that month . By this time , the dozen 40 @-@ caliber 3 @-@ inch 4th Year Type guns had been removed and four 3 @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft guns were added . Two of the torpedo tubes were also removed . The ship served as the flagship for Emperor Taishō for the naval reviews held in 1918 and 1919 . She was placed in reserve in late 1919 and reboilered during an overhaul that lasted until 1921 . Settsu was disarmed in 1922 under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty and stricken from the Navy List on 1 October 1923 . The following year , the ship was converted into a target ship with her armor reinforced to withstand hits .
In 1935 – 1937 , the ship was converted to radio @-@ control which allowed her to be maneuvered by operators aboard another ship and additional armor was added . At the beginning of the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War in 1937 , she transported a battalion of naval troops to the Shanghai area . Settsu simulated the radio traffic of eight aircraft carriers at the beginning of the Pacific War in an effort to deceive Allied intelligence as to the locations and activities of the Japanese carriers . For the rest of the war she served as a target for carrier pilots . Settsu was badly damaged when Allied carrier aircraft attacked the IJN base at Kure in July 1945 and was forced to beach herself lest she sink . The ship was stricken from the Navy List on 20 November and her hulk was raised and broken up in 1946 – 1947 .
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= HMS Escort ( H66 ) =
HMS Escort was an E @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the early 1930s . Although assigned to the Home Fleet upon completion , the ship was attached to the Mediterranean Fleet in 1935 – 36 , during the Abyssinia Crisis . During the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 1939 , she spent considerable time in Spanish waters , enforcing the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides of the conflict . Escort was assigned to convoy escort and anti @-@ submarine patrol duties in the Western Approaches , when World War II began in September 1939 . During the Norwegian Campaign , the ship escorted ships of the Home Fleet , although she did tow her sister HMS Eclipse after the latter ship had been badly damaged by German air attack . Escort was assigned to Force H in late June , and participated in the Attack on Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir in early July . She was torpedoed a few days later , by an Italian submarine , but was towed for three days towards Gibraltar before she foundered .
= = Description = =
The E @-@ class ships were slightly improved versions of the preceding D class . They displaced 1 @,@ 405 long tons ( 1 @,@ 428 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 940 long tons ( 1 @,@ 970 t ) at deep load . The ships had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet 3 inches ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . They were powered by two Parsons geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by three Admiralty three @-@ drum boilers . The turbines developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 35 @.@ 5 knots ( 65 @.@ 7 km / h ; 40 @.@ 9 mph ) . Escort carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 6 @,@ 350 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 760 km ; 7 @,@ 310 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ships ' complement was 145 officers and ratings .
The ships mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , they had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . The E class was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
= = Service = =
Escort was ordered from Scotts Shipbuilding and Engineering Company , at Greenock , Scotland on 1 November 1932 , under the 1931 Construction Programme . She was laid down on 30 March 1933 , and launched on 29 March 1934 . She was commissioned on 30 October 1934 , at a total cost of £ 249 @,@ 587 , excluding government @-@ furnished equipment like the armament . Upon commissioning the ship was assigned to the 5th Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet , aside from a brief deployment in the West Indies between January and March 1935 . Afterwards , she was refitted in Sheerness from 27 March to 30 April . Escort was attached to the Mediterranean Fleet from September 1935 to March 1936 , during the Abyssinian Crisis . She struck a lock while at Sheerness and required seven weeks of repairs that were not completed until 5 September . The ship patrolled Spanish waters during the Spanish Civil War , enforcing the edicts of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee until 24 March 1939 , when she returned to the United Kingdom . Escort became tender to the light cruiser HMS Caledon of the Reserve Fleet upon her return , and was not recommissioned until 2 August , when she was assigned to the 12th Destroyer Flotilla .
On 3 September , Escort and her sister HMS Electra rescued some 300 @-@ odd survivors from the ocean liner SS Athenia , which had been torpedoed by the German submarine U @-@ 30 . The ship was assigned to convoy escort and anti @-@ submarine duties in the Western Approaches Command . She was transferred to Rosyth in December , for similar duties in the North Sea . Escort was refitted at Falmouth between 10 January and 12 February 1940 , and resumed her duties afterwards . Together with the destroyers HMS Inglefield and HMS Imogen , she sank the German submarine U @-@ 63 on 25 February , after the German vessel had been spotted by the submarine HMS Narwhal some 90 miles ( 140 km ) east of the Orkney Islands .
When the Norwegian Campaign began in early April , Escort was transferred to the Home Fleet , and was screening the capital ships when they sortied into the North Sea looking for the German ship on 9 April . After her sister Eclipse was damaged by air attack on 11 April , Escort towed her to Sullom Voe . The ship escorted the aircraft carriers HMS Glorious and HMS Ark Royal from 25 April , as their aircraft attacked German targets in Norway . She accompanied Glorious when that ship returned to Scapa Flow to refuel and replenish her aircraft on 27 April . The ship was slightly damaged in a collision with the Polish ocean liner Chrobry on 11 May . Escort was based in Scapa Flow as part of the Home Fleet until 26 June , when she sailed for Gibraltar to join Force H. It is uncertain if her rear set of torpedo tubes were replaced by a 3 @-@ inch ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) ( 12 @-@ pounder ) AA gun at this time . She arrived on 2 July , and joined Force H in attacking ships of the French Navy at Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir the next day . During Operation MA 5 , a planned air attack on Italian airfields in Sardinia , Escort was torpedoed by the Italian submarine Guglielmo Marconi on 11 July after the attack had been cancelled due to lack of surprise . The torpedo blew a hole 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) wide between the two boiler rooms , but only killed two members of the crew . Later that morning she foundered .
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= Typhoon Pamela ( 1976 ) =
Typhoon Pamela was a powerful typhoon that struck the U.S. territory of Guam in May 1976 , causing about $ 500 million in damage ( USD ) . The sixth named storm and third typhoon of the 1976 Pacific typhoon season , Pamela developed on May 14 from a trough in the Federated States of Micronesia in the area of the Nomoi Islands . It executed a counterclockwise loop and slowly intensified , bringing heavy rains to the islands in the region . Ten people died on Chuuk due to a landslide . After beginning a steady northwest motion toward Guam , Pamela attained its peak winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) .
On May 21 , the large eye of the typhoon crossed Guam , producing typhoon @-@ force winds ( greater than 118 km / h or 73 mph ) for a period of 18 hours . An estimated 80 % of the buildings on the island were damaged to some degree , including 3 @,@ 300 houses that were destroyed . Pamela 's slow motion produced 856 mm ( 33 @.@ 7 in ) of rainfall , making May 1976 the wettest on record in Guam . Despite the high damage , well @-@ executed warnings kept the death toll to only one . After affecting the island , the typhoon weakened and turned northeastward , passing near Iwo Jima before becoming an extratropical cyclone .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Typhoon Pamela were from a tropical disturbance that persisted in the eastern end of the equatorial trough on May 13 . At the time , it was located about 425 km ( 265 mi ) north of Chuuk in the Federated States of Micronesia . The disturbance was initially difficult to locate as it tracked generally to the south and southwest , a motion caused by a southward @-@ moving tropical upper tropospheric trough . On May 14 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) indicated that the system developed into a tropical cyclone . That same day , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) followed suit and classified it as Tropical Depression 06W . The next day , data from the Typhoon Chasers indicated that the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Pamela . It was able to intensify after the trough receded northward , developing outflow . The storm turned to the south and east , gradually executing a counterclockwise loop through the FSM . This was due to a building ridge between Pamela and Typhoon Olga to its west . On May 16 , observations from Satawan in the Caroline Islands indicated that Pamela attained typhoon status , which is a tropical cyclone with maximum sustained winds of at least 118 km / h ( 74 mph ) . This was confirmed the next day by the Typhoon Chasers .
Upon attaining typhoon status , Pamela was a small tropical cyclone with a central dense overcast spanning 280 km ( 175 mi ) in diameter . After completing its counterclockwise loop , the typhoon began a slow motion to the northwest , once the ridge to its west diminished . On May 18 , it passed within 95 km ( 60 mi ) of Chuuk , and around that time Pamela developed a circular eye about 18 km ( 12 mi ) in diameter . The typhoon steadily intensified as it began a more steady northwest movement due to a ridge to its east , and on May 19 Pamela attained peak winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) about 485 km ( 300 mi ) southeast of Guam . At that time , it had gusts to 295 km / h ( 185 mph ) .
Typhoon Pamela maintained peak intensity for about 18 hours , during which the Typhoon Chasers reported an atmospheric pressure of 921 millibars ( 27 @.@ 2 inHg ) ; the aircraft also reported concentric eyewalls . The JMA estimated the minimum pressure was slightly lower at 920 millibars ( 27 inHg ) . A trough passing to its north caused the typhoon to turn more to the north @-@ northwest . Around 0400 UTC on May 21 , the eyewall of Pamela struck southeastern Guam with winds of about 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) . Over a three @-@ hour period , the 37 km ( 23 mi ) wide eye crossed the island . After leaving the island , Pamela continued steadily northwestward for two days while maintaining its intensity . On May 23 , it turned to the north and northeast due to a break in the subtropical ridge . The typhoon passed 28 km ( 17 mi ) east of Iwo Jima with winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . As Pamela accelerated over cooler waters and into an area of higher wind shear , it rapidly weakened and was downgraded to a tropical storm on May 25 . The next day , the storm became extratropical , which lasted until June 1 before dissipating over the Bering Sea .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Pamela first presented a threat to Guam on May 16 when it first attained typhoon status . All subsequent forecasts anticipated the typhoon would pass within 185 km ( 115 mi ) . In response to Pamela 's approach , Guam was placed under Typhoon Condition of Readiness III ( TCCOR 3 ) on May 18 . This was upgrade to TCCOR II on later that day , and TCCOR I the next day . The Navy and Air Force evacuated assets . Before the typhoon 's arrival , officials advised residents to store water prior to the storm 's arrival . About 2 @,@ 100 people in vulnerable wooden homes were evacuated to storm shelters set up in schools and public offices .
= = = Chuuk islands = = =
While passing between the Losap and Namoluk atolls in the Mortlock Islands , Pamela produced winds of over 102 km / h ( 63 mph ) . Different communities experienced differing levels of damage from the storm . The islands of Etal , Namoluk , and Kutu received the most damage as storm waves submerged these islands for over 15 to 18 hours . Across these islands , the typhoon left heavy crop and reef damage . Islands such as Satawan and Lukunor received more moderate damage from the storm . No deaths were reported in the Morlock Islands .
From May 17 to 18 , at the Weather Service on Chuuk , Pamela dumped 14 @.@ 59 in ( 371 mm ) of rain . The rains resulted in mudslide that killed 10 people on Moen , many of whom lived in a single buried house ; several people were also injured . Winds reached 91 km / h ( 56 km / h ) .
= = = Mariana Islands = = =
The typhoon produced tropical @-@ storm force gusts and 10 in ( 250 mm ) of rain on Saipan . The impact there was minor .
While slowly crossing Guam , Pamela produced winds of over 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) across the entire island over a six @-@ hour period , causing widespread heavy damage . Typhoon @-@ force winds were reported for 18 hours , and tropical storm @-@ force winds were reported for 30 hours . As the eye was crossing the island , the winds rapidly vacillated between gusts of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) to calmness in the span of a few minutes ; this created a large pressure gradient that caused additional damage . The typhoon dropped a total of 856 mm ( 33 @.@ 7 in ) of rainfall , including 690 mm ( 27 in ) in a 24 @-@ hour period , on the island . This contributed to May 1976 being Guam 's wettest month on record .
In Apra Harbor , ten ships or tugs were sunk , as were numerous smaller vessels . One of the ships that survived in the harbor was the cutter Basswood of the Coast Guard , which recorded a wind gust of 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) . Pamela 's damage prevented regular flights in and out of the island .
The typhoon left extensive damage to military and civilian properties on the island , estimated at around $ 500 million ( 1976 USD ) . Trees were also uprooted throughout the island . Although Pamela was not as strong as Typhoon Karen in 1962 , it proved more costly due to its slow movement . Concrete buildings largely survived the storm , but power lines and wooden structures were devastated . The typhoon cut off all public utilities on the island as well as Guam 's two radio stations . The American Red Cross estimated that Pamela destroyed 3 @,@ 300 houses and significantly damaged another 3 @,@ 200 . Government officials preliminarily estimated that 80 % of the buildings were damaged to some degree , of which half were destroyed . Overall , 14 @,@ 000 families sustained damage during the storm . About 300 people on the island were injured , and although the Red Cross reported three fatalities , the JTWC reported only one death in Guam in the year @-@ end report . The low death total was attributed to timely warnings and forecasts .
= = Aftermath = =
The disruption on Guam was significant enough that the JTWC 's backup location at Yokota Air Base in Japan assumed forecasting and warning responsibilities for five days starting on May 20 . The cleanup and recovery took months , assisted by military personnel . During the aftermath , food shortages resulted in long lines for aid at Andersen Air Force Base . Due to Pamela as well as the occurrence of other disasters in 1976 , the American Red Cross went into debt , after providing about $ 10 million in assistance to 16 @,@ 000 families . The agency set up 29 shelters for 2 @,@ 600 people .
On May 22 , a day after the typhoon struck the island , U.S. President Gerald Ford declared Guam a major disaster area . In September 1976 , the United States Senate passed a bill that included aid for the storm victims . Ultimately , the U.S. government provided $ 200 million in aid and reconstruction funding in the two years following the typhoon 's passage . This included about $ 80 million to repair Guam 's military facilities , which took several years to complete . Following the typhoon 's passage and through the 1980s , the island 's wooden homes underwent the process of being replaced by safer concrete homes .
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= District Railway =
The Metropolitan District Railway ( commonly known as the District Railway ) was a passenger railway that served London from 1868 to 1933 . Established in 1864 to complete the inner circle , an underground railway in London , the first part of the line opened using gas @-@ lit wooden carriages hauled by steam locomotives . The Metropolitan Railway operated all services until the District introduced its own trains in 1871 . The railway was soon extended westwards through Earl 's Court to Fulham , Richmond , Ealing and Hounslow . After completing the inner circle and reaching Whitechapel in 1884 , it was extended to Upminster in Essex in 1902 .
To finance electrification at the beginning of the 20th century , American financier Charles Yerkes took it over and made it part of his Underground Electric Railways Company of London ( UERL ) group . Electric propulsion was introduced in 1905 , and by the end of the year electric multiple units operated all of the services . On 1 July 1933 , the District Railway and the other UERL railways were merged with the Metropolitan Railway and the capital 's tramway and bus operators to form the London Passenger Transport Board .
Today , former District Railway tracks and stations are used by the London Underground 's District , Piccadilly and Circle lines .
= = History = =
= = = Origins , 1863 – 1886 = = =
= = = = Inner Circle = = = =
In 1863 , the Metropolitan Railway ( also known as the Met ) opened the world 's first underground railway . The line was built from Paddington beneath the New Road , connecting the main line railway termini at Paddington , Euston and King 's Cross . Then it followed Farringdon Road to a station at Farringdon Street in Smithfield , near the capital 's financial heart in the City .
The Met 's early success prompted a flurry of applications to parliament in 1863 for new railways in London , many competing for similar routes . The House of Lords established a select committee that recommended an " inner circuit of railway that should abut , if not actually join , nearly all of the principal railway termini in the Metropolis " . For the 1864 parliamentary session , railway schemes were presented that met the recommendation in varying ways and a joint committee composed of members of both Houses of Parliament reviewed the options .
Proposals to extend west and then south from Paddington to South Kensington and east from Moorgate to Tower Hill were accepted and received Royal Assent on 29 July 1864 . To complete the circuit , the committee encouraged the amalgamation of two schemes proposed to run via different routes between Kensington and the City and a combined proposal under the name Metropolitan District Railway was agreed on the same day . Initially , the District and the Met were closely associated and it was intended that they would soon merge . The Met 's chairman and three other directors were on the board of the District , John Fowler was the engineer of both companies and the construction works for all of the extensions were let as a single contract . The District was established as a separate company to enable funds to be raised independently of the Met .
Unlike the railway the Metropolitan had opened in 1863 , the route did not follow an easy alignment under existing roads and land values were higher , so compensation payments for property were much higher . To ensure ventilation , the line west of Gloucester Road was carried in open cuttings , the rest mainly in a cut and cover tunnel 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) wide and 15 feet 9 inches ( 4 @.@ 80 m ) deep ; at the stations the platform ends were left open . Construction costs and compensation payments were so high that the cost of the first section of the District from South Kensington to Westminster was £ 3 million , almost three times the cost of the Met 's original , longer line . On 24 December 1868 , the District opened its line from South Kensington to Westminster , with stations at South Kensington , Sloane Square , Victoria , St. James 's Park and Westminster Bridge ( now Westminster ) , the Met extending eastwards from Brompton to a shared station at South Kensington on the same day .
The District also had parliamentary permission to extend westward from Brompton ( Gloucester Road ) station and , on 12 April 1869 , it opened a single track line from there to West Brompton on the West London Railway . There were no intermediate stations and this service initially operated as a shuttle . By summer 1869 additional tracks had been laid between South Kensington to Brompton ( Gloucester Road ) and from Kensington ( High Street ) to a junction with the line to West Brompton . During the night of 5 July 1870 the District secretly built the disputed Cromwell curve connecting Brompton ( Gloucester Road ) and Kensington ( High Street ) . East of Westminster , the next section ran in the newly constructed Victoria Embankment built by the Metropolitan Board of Works along the north bank of the River Thames . The line was opened from Westminster to Blackfriars on 30 May 1870 with stations at Charing Cross ( now Embankment ) , The Temple ( now Temple ) and Blackfriars .
The Met initially operated all services , receiving 55 per cent of the gross receipts for a fixed level of service . The District were also charged for any extra trains and the District 's share of the income dropped to about 40 per cent . The District 's level of debt meant that merger was no longer attractive to the Met and its directors resigned from the District 's board . To improve its finances , the District gave the Met notice to terminate the operating agreement . Struggling under the burden of high construction costs , the District was unable to continue with the original scheme to reach Tower Hill and made a final extension of its line one station further east from Blackfriars to a previously unplanned City terminus at Mansion House .
On Saturday 1 July 1871 , an opening banquet was attended by the Prime Minister William Gladstone , who was also a shareholder . The following Monday , Mansion House opened and the District began running its own trains . From this date , the two companies operated a joint inner circle service between Mansion House and Moorgate Street via South Kensington and Edgware Road that ran every ten minutes . This was supplemented by a District service every ten minutes between Mansion House and West Brompton , and Hammersmith & City Railway and Great Western Railway ( GWR ) suburban services between Edgware Road and Moorgate Street . The permissions for the railway east of Mansion House were allowed to lapse . At the other end of the line , the District part of South Kensington station opened on 10 July 1871 and Earl 's Court station opened on the West Brompton extension on 30 October 1871 .
= = = = West to Putney Bridge , Richmond , Ealing and Hounslow = = = =
The District Railway 's main expansion was to the west . A small station at Earl 's Court , between Gloucester Road and West Brompton , opened on 31 October 1871 with three platforms . Lillie Bridge depot , opened in 1872 , was built parallel to the West London Joint Railway and initially accessed by a curve onto the West London Line . This curve allowed , from 1 February 1872 , the London & North Western Railway ( L & NWR ) to run a half @-@ hourly outer circle service from Broad Street to Mansion House via Willesden Junction , Addison Road and Earls Court . From 1 October 1872 , the GWR also ran a half @-@ hourly middle circle service from the Met 's Moorgate Street station to Mansion House via Paddington and Earl 's Court .
Permission to build a railway 1 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) long to Hammersmith was granted on 7 July 1873 the independent Hammersmith Extension Railway having been formed to raise the necessary capital . The new line started from a junction on the curve to Addison Road and also allowed easier access to Lillie Bridge depot . It opened on 9 September 1874 with one intermediate station at North End ( Fulham ) ( renamed West Kensington in 1877 ) and a terminus at Hammersmith , and was served by through trains to Mansion House . West Brompton was now served by a shuttle to Earl 's Court . Earl 's Court station burnt down in 1875 and a larger replacement with four tracks and two island platforms opened on 1 February 1878 . This was sited to the west of the original station ; to the east of the station a flying junction was built to separate traffic to Kensington ( High Street ) and from Gloucester Road .
In December 1876 , six trains per hour ran on the inner circle between Mansion House and Aldgate . The District operated four trains per hour from Mansion House to Hammersmith . Also leaving every hour from Mansion House were two GWR middle circle services to Aldgate via Addison Road and two L & NWR services to Broad Street via Willesden Junction . Three services an hour travelled between West Brompton and Earl 's Court .
In 1864 the London and South Western Railway ( L & SWR ) had obtained permission for a railway to serve Richmond . The route headed north from Addison Road on the West London Railway before curving round to serve Hammersmith at a station at Hammersmith ( Grove Road ) ( linked to the Hammersmith & City Railway station by footbridge ) , Turnham Green , Brentford Road ( Gunnersbury from 1871 ) and Kew Gardens and Richmond . The line opened on 1 January 1869 , the L & SWR running services from Waterloo and Ludgate Hill via Addison Road , and the L & NWR running services from Broad Street to Richmond from a link at Brentford Road to the North London Line at South Action . Stations opened on the line at Shaftesbury Road ( Ravenscourt Park from 1888 ) and Shepherds Bush on 1 May 1874 .
In 1875 permission was given for a 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) link from the District station at Hammersmith to a junction just east of Ravenscourt Park . As the L & SWR line was on a viaduct and the District line in a cutting , the line rose steeply . On 1 June 1877 , the Hammersmith branch was extended to Richmond , initially with a service of one train an hour to Mansion House . The Met and GWR Hammersmith & City line had access by a link just north of their Hammersmith station and diverted a service to Richmond from 1 October 1877 .
From 1 May 1878 to 30 September 1880 , the Midland Railway operated a circular service from St Pancras to Earl 's Court via Dudding Hill , Acton and the L & SWR to Hammersmith . In 1879 the District opened a junction west of L & SWR 's Turnham Green station for a 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) line to Ealing . With stations at Acton Green ( now Chiswick Park ) , Mill Hill Park ( now Acton Town ) , Ealing Common and Ealing Broadway , the Ealing station was built just north of the GWR station . On 4 July 1878 , permission was granted to extend the West Brompton branch as far as the Thames . Stations opened at Walham Green ( now Fulham Broadway ) , Parsons Green . The line terminated at Putney Bridge & Fulham ( now Putney Bridge ) . The line opened on 1 March 1880 , in time for the University Boat Race held that year on 22 March . Initially the service was two trains an hour to Mansion House , supplemented from 1 April by two trains an hour to High Street Kensington .
In 1866 , permission had been granted to landowners in the Hounslow area for a Hounslow and Metropolitan Railway to connect to a proposed Acton & Brentford Railway . However , this had never been built , but with the District now at Acton there was an alternative . Permission was granted in 1880 for a nearly 5 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) railway from Mill Hill Park station to Hounslow Barracks , with stations at South Ealing , Boston Road and Spring Grove , and agreement reached for the District to work the line . On 1 May 1883 the District started a service to Hounslow Town , calling at South Ealing , Boston Road ( now Boston Manor ) and Osterley & Spring Grove ( now Osterley ) . A single @-@ track line from junction near Hounslow Town to Hounslow Barracks ( now Hounslow West ) opened a year later in 1884 . Traffic was light and Hounslow Barracks was initially served by a shuttle to Osterley & Spring Grove that connected to an off @-@ peak Hounslow Town to Mill Hill Park train . Hounslow Town station closed in 1886 and Heston Hounslow station ( now Hounslow Central ) opened .
From 1 March 1883 to 30 September 1885 , via a connection to the GWR tracks at Ealing , the District ran a service to Windsor .
= = = Expansion , 1874 – 1900 = = =
= = = = Completing the circle = = = =
Conflict between the Met and the District and the expense of construction delayed the completion of the inner circle . In 1874 , frustrated City financiers formed the Metropolitan Inner Circle Completion Railway Company with the aim of finishing the route . The company was supported by the District railway and obtained parliamentary authority on 7 August 1874 , but struggled with funding . The time allowed was extended in 1876 . A meeting between the District and Metropolitan was held in 1877 , the Met now wishing to access the South Eastern Railway ( SER ) via the East London Railway ( ELR ) . Both companies promoted and obtained an Act of Parliament in 1879 for the extension and a link to the ELR . The Act also ensured future co @-@ operation by allowing both companies access to the whole circle . A large contribution was made by authorities for road and sewer improvements . In 1882 the Met extended its line from Aldgate to a temporary station at Tower of London . Two contracts to build joint lines were placed , one from Mansion House to the Tower in 1882 and a second from the circle north of Aldgate to Whitechapel with a curve onto the ELR in 1883 . From 1 October 1884 the District and Metropolitan began local services from St Mary 's via this curve onto the East London Railway to SER 's New Cross station . After an official opening ceremony on 17 September and trial running , a circular service started on Monday 6 October 1884 . On the same day the District extended its services to Whitechapel and over the ELR to New Cross , calling at new joint stations at Aldgate East and St Mary 's . Joint stations opened on the circle line at Cannon Street , Eastcheap ( Monument from 1 November 1884 ) and Mark Lane . The Met 's Tower of London station closed on 12 October 1884 after the District refused to sell tickets to the station . After opening the District service from New Cross four trains an hour ran alternately to Hammersmith or Putney , but as passenger demand was low after a month this was reduced to two trains an hour to Ealing . Four trains an hour went from Whitechapel , two to Putney , one to Hammersmith and one to Richmond . The middle and outer circle services continued operating from Mansion House at two per hour each . Initially the inner circle service was eight trains an hour , completing the 13 miles ( 21 kilometres ) circuit in 81 – 84 minutes , but this proved impossible to maintain and service was reduced to six trains an hour with a 70 @-@ minute timing in 1885 . Initially guards were permitted no relief breaks during their shift until September 1885 when they were permitted three 20 @-@ minute breaks .
= = = = South to Richmond and east to East Ham = = = =
Several schemes to cross the Thames at Putney Bridge to Guildford , Surbiton or Wimbledon had been proposed and received approval from Parliament , although the District had been unable to raise the necessary funding . In 1886 the L & SWR replaced these plans with the Wimbledon and Fulham Railway that started on the west side of Wimbledon and crossing Thames to meet the District 's Putney Bridge station . The line had intermediate stations at Wimbledon Park , Southfields and East Putney and a junction connected the line to the L & SWR 's Waterloo to Reading Line just north of East Putney station . The District had running rights and extended some Putney services to Wimbledon on 3 June 1889 .
In 1897 the nominally independent Whitechapel & Bow Railway received permission for a link from the District Railway at Whitechapel to the London , Tilbury and Southend Railway ( LT & SR ) at an above @-@ ground junction at Bow , to the west of Bromley station . The LT & SR and District jointly took over the company the following year and the line opened on 2 June 1902 with new stations at Stepney Green , Mile End and Bow Road . Some District services were extended from Whitechapel to East Ham and one train each morning and evening ran through to Upminster . In July 1902 four trains an hour ran from Bow Road ( 2 to 3 from East Ham ) to Ealing or Wimbledon and two trains an hour from New Cross served Hammersmith or Richmond . The outer circle continued to run from Mansion House , the GWR 's middle circle having started at Earl 's Court from 1900 .
The District sought to serve Harrow and Uxbridge and in 1892 a route from Ealing to Roxeth ( South Harrow ) was surveyed and a bill presented in the name of the nominally independent Ealing and South Harrow Railway ( E & SHR ) . Construction started in 1897 and by the end of 1899 it was largely complete , but with low traffic prospects remained unopened . To reach Uxbridge a line from South Harrow via Ruislip was authorised in 1897 . The District had problems raising the finance and the Metropolitan offered a rescue package whereby they would build a branch from Harrow to Rayners Lane and take over the line to Uxbridge , with the District retaining running rights for up to three trains an hour . The Metropolitan built the railway to Uxbridge and began running services on 4 July 1904 .
= = = Electrification , 1900 – 1906 = = =
= = = = Development = = = =
At the start of the 20th century the District and Metropolitan railways faced increased competition in central London from new , electric , deep @-@ level tube lines . The City & South London Railway had been a great success when it opened in 1890 . After the opening of the Central London Railway in 1900 from Shepherd 's Bush to the City with a flat rate fare of 2d , the District and Metropolitan together lost four million passengers between the second half of 1899 and the second half of 1900 . The use of steam propulsion led to smoke @-@ filled stations and carriages that were unpopular with passengers and electrification was seen as the way forward . However , electric traction was still in its infancy and agreement would be needed with the Metropolitan because of the shared ownership of the inner circle . A jointly owned train of six coaches successfully ran an experimental passenger service on the Earl 's Court to High Street Kensington section for six months in 1900 . Tenders were then requested and in 1901 a Metropolitan and District joint committee recommended the Ganz three @-@ phase AC system with overhead wires . Initially this was accepted by both parties .
The District found an investor to finance the upgrade in 1901 , American Charles Yerkes . On 15 July 1901 , Yerkes established the Metropolitan District Electric Traction Company with himself as managing director and raised £ 1 million to carry out the electrification , including construction of the generating station and supplying the new rolling stock . Yerkes soon had control of the District Railway and his experiences in the United States led him to favour DC with a track level conductor rail similar to that in use on the City & South London Railway and Central London Railway . After arbitration by the Board of Trade , the DC system was adopted .
The District had permission for a deep @-@ level tube beneath the sub @-@ surface line between Earl 's Court and Mansion House and in 1898 bought the Brompton and Piccadilly Circus Railway with authority for a tube from South Kensington to Piccadilly Circus . These plans were combined with those of the Great Northern and Strand Railway , a tube railway with permission to build a line from Strand to Wood Green , to create the Great Northern , Piccadilly and Brompton Railway ( GNP & BR ) . The section of the District 's deep @-@ level tube from South Kensington to Mansion house was dropped from plans . In April 1902 , the Underground Electric Railways Company of London ( UERL ) was established , with Yerkes as chairman , to control these companies and manage the planned works . On 8 June 1902 , the UERL took over the Traction Company and paid off the company 's shareholders with cash and UERL shares .
The UERL built a large power station that would be capable of providing power for the District lines and the underground lines planned . Work began in 1902 at Lots Road , by Chelsea Creek and in February 1905 Lots Road Power Station began generating electricity at 11 kV 33 1 ⁄ 3 Hz , conveyed by high voltage cables to substations that converted this to approximately 550V DC .
While the power station was being built , the District electrified the Ealing to Harrow line that was not yet open . It was equipped with automatic signalling using track circuits and pneumatic semaphore signals , and trials were run with two seven car trains . In August 1903 , an order was placed for 420 cars and a new maintenance depot was built west of Mill Hill Park ( now Acton Town ) .
After the trials , the line to South Harrow opened in June 1903 , from 23 June with a shuttle to Park Royal & Twyford Abbey ( now Park Royal ) for that year 's Royal Agricultural Show . The rest of the line to South Harrow opened the following week on 28 June , with stations at North Ealing , Park Royal & Twyford Abbey , Perivale @-@ Alperton ( now Alperton ) , Sudbury Town , Sudbury Hill and South Harrow .
= = = = Electric services = = = =
Electric services began on 13 June 1905 between Hounslow and South Acton , using the line from Mill Hill Park to South Acton for a passenger service for the first time . Hounslow Town station was reopened , trains reversing at the station before continuing to Hounslow Barracks using a new single track curve . On 1 July 1905 electric trains began running from Ealing to Whitechapel , and on the same day the Metropolitan and District railways both introduced electric units on the inner circle . However , a Metropolitan multiple unit overturned the positive current rail on the District Railway , and investigation showed an incompatibility between the way the shoe @-@ gear was mounted on the Met trains and the District Railway track , and the Met trains were withdrawn from the District lines . After modification the Met returned and electric trains took over on 24 September , reducing the travel time around the circle from seventy to fifty minutes . By September , after withdrawing services over the unelectrified East London Line and the LT & SR east of East Ham , the District were running electric services on all remaining routes . From December 1905 the L & NWR service was hauled by electric locomotives from Mansion House to Earl 's Court , where a L & NWR steam locomotive took over .
In 1907 the weekday off @-@ peak service was four trains per hour from East Ham to Ealing Broadway , four per hour from Mansion House to alternately Richmond and Wimbledon and two per hour from Wimbledon to High Street Kensington and Ealing Broadway to Whitechapel . Four trains per hour ran from Putney Bridge to Earl 's Court , two continuing to High Street Kensington . From South Harrow there were two trains per hour to Mill Hill Park , and four trains per hour from Hounslow Barracks to Mill Hill Park , two of these continuing to South Acton .
Meanwhile , the UERL 's GNP & BR tube railway was under construction , surfacing west of West Kensington and entering two terminal platforms on the north side of the District 's Hammersmith station . A new station , Barons Court , was built with two island platforms , one for each railway . As there was space at Lillie Bridge Depot after the District had moved to Mill Hill Park , the GNP & BR took over part of the site for its depot . Barons Court opened 9 October 1905 and the tube railway opened as the Piccadilly line on 15 December 1906 .
= = = London Underground , 1908 – 1933 = = =
= = = = Running an electric railway = = = =
In 1908 the UERL and the other underground railway companies in London came to a joint marketing arrangement that included maps , joint publicity and combined ticketing . UNDERGROUND signs were used outside stations in Central London . The UERL eventually controlled all underground railways in London except the Waterloo & City Railway , the Metropolitan Railway and its subsidiary the Great Northern & City Railway , and introduced station name boards with a red disc and a blue bar .
'Non @-@ stop ' working was introduced on the District in December 1907 . Usually just a few stations were missed ; trains were marked NON STOP or ALL STATIONS as appropriate and panels beside the doors listed the stations the train would skip . East of Bow Road station the District shared the tracks with LT & SR steam engines and widening the railway to East Ham was considered essential . Four tracks were laid and two electrified as far as Barking , where the Tilbury and Upminster routes separated . On 1 April 1908 District trains were extended through to Barking and the work was largely finished in July 1908 . After 2 May 1909 trains no longer reversed at Hounslow Town after the station was closed and a new Hounslow Town station opened on the direct route .
Since 1904 , after the District had notified the Met that it would not use its running rights on the Uxbridge line with steam trains , it had not run services , although it paid the £ 2 @,@ 000 a year that was due under the enabling Act . When the District suggested running as far as Rayners Lane , the Met responded with a proposal to rebuild the station as a District terminus . The District proposed running trains through to Uxbridge , leading to negotiations about the charges for traction current before District services were extended to Uxbridge on 1 March 1910 . In 1910 a platform was built at Mill Hill Park for the Hounslow and Uxbridge shuttles and a flying junction built north of the station to separate the Ealing and Hounslow traffic . The station was renamed Acton Town on 1 March 1910 .
Between Turnham Green and Ravenscourt Park the District shared tracks with L & SWR steam trains to Richmond , a GWR steam service from Richmond to Ladbroke Grove and Midland coal trains . The District and L & SWR agreed to quadruple the tracks to allow a pair for the District 's sole use and build a station on the District tracks at Stamford Brook . The line was first used on 3 December 1911 and Stamford Brook opened on 1 February 1912 . However , the GWR had already withdrawn their service and L & SWR was to withdraw in 1916 . A flying junction separating the Richmond and Hammersmith routes west of Earl 's Court opened in January 1914 .
From 1910 the LT & SR ran through trains from Ealing Broadway to Southend or Shoeburyness , hauled to Barking by the District 's electric locomotives that were no longer needed for the L & NWR 's outer circle service , then pulled by steam locomotive . From 1912 two specially built sets of saloon coaches with retention toilets were used . In the 1920s the off @-@ peak weekday service was a train every ten minutes from Wimbledon and Ealing and every fifteen minutes from Richmond . Six trains per hour ran from Putney Bridge to High Street Kensington . Trains from Hounslow left every 6 – 8 minutes , terminating at Acton Town or South Acton . Six trains per hour left Hammersmith for South Harrow , three continuing to Uxbridge . In 1925 the inner circle service was ten trains per hour in each direction , but this frequency of service caused problems . A reduction to eight would leave the Kensington High Street to Edgware Road section with too few trains . However the Metropolitan had recently rebuilt it with four platforms as part of an abandoned plan for a tube to Kilburn . The District extended its Putney to High Street service to Edgware Road and the Metropolitan provided all inner circle trains at a frequency of eight trains per hour .
In 1923 the London , Midland and Scottish Railway had inherited the LT & SR line to Barking , and in 1929 proposed quadrupling the line to Upminster and electrifying one pair of tracks for use by the District . On 12 September 1932 services started with new stations at Upney and Heathway ( now Dagenham Heathway ) with platforms only on the District tracks .
= = = = Piccadilly line extension = = = =
In November 1912 a bill was published that included a plan to extend the Piccadilly tube tracks westwards from Hammersmith to connect to the L & SWR 's Richmond branch tracks . The bill passed as the London Electric Railway Act , 1913 on 15 August 1913 , although the advent of World War I prevented work on the extension .
Powers were renewed in 1926 for four tracks from Hammersmith to west of Acton Town , with the concept of the Piccadilly running non @-@ stop on the inner pair . The proposed service split , with the Piccadilly running through to Harrow and Hounslow , was clarified by 1929 . District services would run mainly through to Wimbledon , Richmond , Hounslow and Ealing , with shuttles from South Harrow to Uxbridge and Acton Town to South Acton .
With finance guaranteed by the Development ( Loan Guarantees and Grants ) Act of 1929 , construction started in 1930 . Four tracks were built from Studland Road junction to Northfields on the Hounslow branch . At the junction at Turnham Green for Richmond eastbound freight loops were built for coal trains to Kensington . Acton Town was rebuilt with five platforms , and a depot was built west of Northfields station .
Several stations were rebuilt in a Modernist style influenced or designed by Charles Holden , who was inspired by examples of Modernist architecture in mainland Europe . This influence can be seen in the bold vertical and horizontal forms , which were combined with the use of traditional materials like brick . Holden called them ' brick boxes with concrete lids ' . Today , several of these Holden @-@ designed stations are listed buildings , including the prototype Sudbury Town listed as Grade II * .
On 4 July 1932 the District service from Acton Town to South Harrow was withdrawn and one in three Piccadilly trains extended from Hammersmith to South Harrow , the District continuing to run a shuttle from South Harrow to Uxbridge . On 18 December 1932 all four tracks to Northfields opened and from 9 January 1933 Piccadilly trains started to run to Northfields , continuing to Hounslow West from 13 March 1933 . District trains continued to run through to Hounslow off @-@ peak , with a shuttle from South Acton .
= = = London Passenger Transport Board , 1933 = = =
The UERL 's ownership of the highly profitable London General Omnibus Company ( LGOC ) since 1912 had enabled the UERL group , through the pooling of revenues , to use profits from the bus company to subsidise the less profitable railways . However , competition from numerous small bus companies during the early 1920s eroded the profitability of the LGOC and had a negative impact on the profitability of the group .
To protect the UERL group 's income , its chairman Lord Ashfield lobbied the government for regulation of transport services in the London area . Starting in 1923 , a series of legislative initiatives were made in this direction , with Ashfield and Labour London County Councillor ( later MP and Minister of Transport ) Herbert Morrison , at the forefront of debates as to the level of regulation and public control under which transport services should be brought . Ashfield aimed for regulation that would give the UERL group protection from competition and allow it to take control of the LCC 's tram system ; Morrison preferred full public ownership . After seven years of false starts , a bill was announced at the end of 1930 for the formation of the London Passenger Transport Board ( LPTB ) , a public corporation that would take control of the UERL , the Metropolitan Railway and all bus and tram operators within an area designated as the London Passenger Transport Area . The Board was a compromise – public ownership but not full nationalisation – and came into existence on 1 July 1933 . On this date , ownership of the assets of the District and the other Underground companies transferred to the LPTB .
= = = Legacy = = =
The railway became the District line of London Transport . From 23 October 1933 a Piccadilly line service replaced the Harrow to Uxbridge District shuttle . In 1923 the London , Midland and Scottish Railway ( LMS ) had taken over the L & NWR railway 's outer circle service from Earl 's Court and by the Second World War this had been cut back to an electrified Earl 's Court to Willesden Junction shuttle . Following bombing of the West London Line in 1940 the LMS and the Metropolitan line services to Addison Road were both suspended . After the war , to serve the Kensington exhibition halls a District line shuttle service started from Earl 's Court to Addison Road , now renamed Kensington Olympia .
The off @-@ peak District Hounslow branch shuttle to South Acton was discontinued on 29 April 1935 and replaced by an Acton Town to South Acton shuttle . This shuttle was withdrawn on 28 February 1959 , and the peak hour District line through service to Hounslow was withdrawn on 9 October 1964 . In the 1970s the Hounslow branch became the Heathrow branch when it was extended to serve Heathrow Airport , first on 19 July 1975 to serve Hatton Cross and then on 16 December 1977 when Heathrow Central opened .
= = Rolling stock = =
= = = Steam locomotives = = =
When in 1871 the District Railway needed its own locomotives , they ordered twenty four condensing steam locomotives from Beyer Peacock similar to the A Class locomotives the Metropolitan Railway was using on the route . As they were intended for an underground railway , the locomotives did not have cabs , but had a weatherboard with a bent @-@ back top . The back plate of the bunker was raised to provide protection when running bunker first . A total of fifty four locomotives were purchased . They were still in service in 1905 when the line was electrified , and all but six were sold the following year .
= = = Electric locomotives = = =
In 1905 the District bought ten bogie box cab locomotives that looked similar to their multiple units but were only 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) long . They were manufactured by the Metropolitan Amalgamated Carriage and Wagon Company and most had a single cab at one end . Consequently , they were operated in pairs , coupled back to back with the cabs at the outer end .
The locomotives were used to haul L & NWR passenger trains on the electrified section of the Outer Circle route between Earl 's Court and Mansion House . After December 1908 these services terminated at Earl 's Court . The locomotives were used to haul District trains , one coupled to each end of a rake of four trailer cars . From 1910 the locomotives were used on London , Tilbury and Southend Railway ( LT & SR ) trains extended over the District line , taking over from steam locomotives at Barking .
= = = Carriages = = =
The steam carriages were four wheeled , 29 feet 2 inches ( 8 @.@ 89 m ) long over the buffers . First , second and third class compartments were available . First class carriages had four compartments , the others five . Lighting was initially provided by burning coal gas held in bags on the roof , later by a pressurised oil gas system . At first they were fitted with a chain brake . This was replaced by the simple Westinghouse brake and then a fully automatic Westinghouse brake .
Initially trains were made up of eight carriages , but after 1879 nine became the standard . At the end of 1905 the District replaced 395 carriages with electric multiple units . A preserved carriage at the Kent and East Sussex Railway was thought to be a District Railway first class , but now thought likely to be a cutdown Metropolitan Railway eight wheeler .
= = = Electric multiple units = = =
In 1903 the District tested two seven @-@ car trains with different control and brake systems on its unopened line between Ealing and South Harrow . Access to the car was by platforms with lattice gates at their ends and hand operated sliding doors on the car sides . Later some trailer cars were fitted with driving controls and two and three car trains operated from Mill Hill Park to Hounslow and South Harrow and later Uxbridge until they were withdrawn in 1925 .
The District Railway ordered 60 x 7 @-@ car electric trains in 1903 . A third of the vehicles were made in England , the rest in Belgium and France and electrical equipment was installed on arrival at Ealing Common Works . Access was by sliding doors , double doors in the centre and single doors at either end . First and third class accommodation were provided in open saloons with electric lighting . The seats were covered with rattan in third class and plush in first . From 1906 the standard formation was six cars , with an equal number of motor and trailer cars running in either two or four car formations off @-@ peak . By 1910 the District required additional rolling stock and ordered cars largely constructed of steel . The first batch arrived in 1911 , followed by more in 1912 from a different manufacturer but to a similar design . Further cars arrived in 1914 with an elliptical roof instead of the clerestory roof on the earlier designs . In 1920 the District took delivery of new cars , incompatible with the existing fleet , with three hand @-@ operated double sliding doors on each side .
In 1923 fifty motor car bodies were ordered to allow some of the original 1904 – 05 car bodies to be scrapped . From 1926 two stock pools were created . Main line trains were formed from 101 new motor cars supplemented by motor cars rebuilt from the steel bodied cars originally constructed in 1910 – 14 and 1923 , and trailers modified from the original wooden bodied cars . A small pool of unmodified ' local stock ' worked the shuttles from Acton Town to South Acton , South Harrow and Hounslow .
In 1932 the line to Upminster was electrified and new vehicles were purchased . After the District Railway became part of London Underground , similar cars were ordered to allow the Metropolitan line be extended to Barking and replace some of the rapidly deteriorating original wooden trailers . The 1935 – 40 New Works Programme fitted electro @-@ pneumatic brakes and air @-@ operated doors to most of the District line stock and allowed the remaining wooden cars to be scrapped . A number of motor cars were not suitable for conversion and so some trains retained their hand @-@ worked doors and these ran until 1957 .
As of March 2015 a driving motor car built in 1923 is a static exhibit at London Transport Museum at Covent Garden .
= = = Other publications = = =
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= Göttingen Seven =
The Göttingen Seven ( German : Göttinger Sieben ) were a group of seven professors from Göttingen . In 1837 , they protested against the abolition or alteration of the constitution of the Kingdom of Hanover by Ernest Augustus and refused to swear an oath to the new king of Hanover . The company of seven was led by Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann , who himself was one of the key advocates of the unadulterated constitution . The other six were the Germanist brothers Wilhelm and Jacob Grimm ( famed fairy tale and folk tale writers and storytellers , known together as the Brothers Grimm ) , jurist Wilhelm Eduard Albrecht , historian Georg Gottfried Gervinus , physicist Wilhelm Eduard Weber , and theologian and orientalist Heinrich Georg August Ewald .
= = Background = =
The constitution that Ernst Augustus opposed came into effect in 1833 , while the King was still heir presumptive to the Hanoverian throne . Historian and politician Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann contested Ernest Augustus ' plans to change the constitution to his liking , as Dahlman himself had contributed to the constitution 's framing . Additionally , Dahlmann existed as the representative of the University of Göttingen , in the second chamber of the noble court .
The death of King William IV on June 20 , 1837 had a great impact on Hanover 's political positioning , relations , and union with the group of constitutional states in the German Confederation . With William 's death , the personal union ended between Hanover and the United Kingdom , and William 's brother ( Ernest Augustus ) took over as ruler of the kingdom of Hanover . Augustus ' niece Victoria acceded to the throne of the United Kingdom , but could not inherit Hanover due to the provision of Salic Law in force in Hanover , which barred females from ruling .
About one month after he succeeded to the throne , King Ernest addressed the matter of the Constitution . He stated that he was not bound by it , as his consent had not been asked to it . He also indicated that it would have been different , or perhaps even non @-@ existent , had he been in power at the time of its composition . He declared that it was his aim and ambition to make the necessary changes to the constitution and rewrite it to reflect his values .
Hearing this , Dahlmann made an attempt to persuade his colleagues at the University of Göttingen senate to disapprove of the king 's intent to change the constitution , and take some form of action . None of his over 40 different colleagues were willing to support Dahlmann 's view and possibly cause public conflict or unrest during ongoing festivities of the 100th anniversary of the Georg @-@ August University of Göttingen .
= = Protest and aftermath = =
On November 1 of the same year , Ernest Augustus annulled the constitution . This move was met with political criticism from some German states . The move also provoked Dahlmann to again appeal to the university and to compose a protestation opposing Augustus ' decision . This time , he received a better response : six other professors were now willing to sign as opposers . These six plus Dahlmann became known as the Göttingen Seven . Dahlmann 's document was published on November 18 and it met with an explosive influence — the students at the university produced many hundreds or even thousands of copies and disseminated them across Germany .
The protest 's impact forced the king to take action , and the seven defiant professors were questioned before the university court on December 4 . Ten days later , the seven were relieved of their posts at the university , and three of them ( Dahlmann , Jacob Grimm , and Gervinus ) were given three days to leave the country . The university viewed the dismissal as a great loss to the university , confirmed in writings about the event during the time .
The direct effects of the protest were limited , but public sensation and media interest was high in Germany and much of Europe , and the seven were popular among the general public . Each of the seven had his own personal reasons for defying the king , but the fact that they had done so was the central catalyst for the media and public attention . The efforts of the Göttingen Seven outlived each of them , and the creation of a liberal republic in Germany can in part be traced back to their protest .
= = = Literature = = =
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= Operation Bodenplatte =
Operation Bodenplatte ( Baseplate ) , launched on 1 January 1945 , was an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries during the Second World War . The goal of Bodenplatte was to gain air superiority during the stagnant stage of the Battle of the Bulge so that the German Army and Waffen @-@ SS forces could resume their advance . The operation was planned for 16 December 1944 , but was delayed repeatedly due to bad weather until New Year ’ s Day , the first day that happened to be suitable .
Secrecy for the operation was so tight that not all German ground and naval forces had been informed of the operation and some units suffered casualties from friendly fire . British signals intelligence ( Ultra ) recorded the movement and buildup of German air forces in the region , but did not realise that an operation was imminent .
The operation achieved some surprise and tactical success , but was ultimately a failure . A great many Allied aircraft were destroyed on the ground but replaced within a week . Allied aircrew casualties were quite small , since the majority of Allied losses were empty planes sitting on the ground . The Germans , however , lost many pilots that they could not readily replace .
Post @-@ battle analysis suggests only 11 of the Luftwaffe 's 34 air combat Gruppen made attacks on time and with surprise . The operation failed to achieve air superiority , even temporarily , while the German ground forces continued to be exposed to Allied air attack . Bodenplatte was the last large @-@ scale strategic offensive operation mounted by the Luftwaffe during the war .
= = Background = =
The armies of the Western Allies were supported by the Allied Air Forces as they advanced across Western Europe in 1944 . The Royal Air Force ( RAF ) and its Second Tactical Air Force — under the command of Air Marshal Arthur Coningham — moved No. 2 Group RAF , No. 83 Group RAF , No. 84 Group RAF and No. 85 Group RAF to continental Europe in order to provide constant close air support . The RAF harassed the German air , sea and ground forces by hitting strong points and interdicting their supply lines while reconnaissance units apprised the Allies of German movements . With Allied air superiority , the German Army could not operate effectively . The Luftwaffe , however , found it difficult to provide effective air cover for the German Army . Although German aircraft production peaked in 1944 the Luftwaffe was critically short of pilots and fuel , and lacked experienced combat leaders .
The land battles moved towards the River Rhine , to the east of which lay the German heartland . Most of France had been liberated , as had the Belgian cities Brussels and Antwerp . Although Operation Market Garden had failed in 1944 , by 1945 the Allies had overrun most of the southern Netherlands and the Scheldt Estuary . As the ground forces moved across Europe , the Allied tactical air forces moved into new bases on the continent , to continue providing close support . The only limiting factor for the Allies was the weather . As winter came , the rains and mud turned airfields into quagmires , so large @-@ scale air and land operations came to a halt .
The situation might well have continued until the spring thaw had the German High Command ( Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ) not launched Unternehmen Wacht am Rhein ( Operation Watch on the Rhine ) on 16 December 1944 . The land offensive was to improve the German military position by capturing Antwerp and separating the British Army from United States Army forces . Part of the planning for the German land operation required the attack to be conducted under the cover of bad winter weather , which kept the main Allied asset , the Tactical Air Forces , on the ground . It initially succeeded , but the weather also grounded the Luftwaffe for the most part . Nevertheless , the Luftwaffe did manage to put 500 aircraft into the air on 16 December , more than had been achieved for a long time . This first day had been the originally planned date for the strike against Allied airfields , named Operation Bodenplatte . However , the weather proved particularly bad and operations were shut down .
The offensive achieved surprise and much initial success . To counter the attack from the air , the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) handed operational control of its XXIX Tactical Air Command and part of its Ninth Air Force , under the command of Major General Hoyt Vandenberg , to the RAF and Arthur Coningham . On 23 December , the RAF Second Tactical Air Force provided the American forces with much needed support , and helped prevent a German capture of Malmedy and Bastogne . This left the Germans with only the logistical bottleneck of St. Vith to support their operations . The German attack faltered .
The Luftwaffe had been far from absent over the front in December . It flew several thousand sorties over the theatre . Its encounters with the RAF and USAAF had meant heavy losses in matériel and pilots . On the eight days of operations between 17 and 27 December 1944 , 644 fighters were lost and 227 damaged . This resulted in 322 pilots killed , 23 captured and 133 wounded . On the three days of operations 23 – 25 December , 363 fighters were destroyed . None of the Geschwaderkommodore ( Wing Commanders ) expected any large @-@ scale air operations by the end of the month .
= = Plan = =
In September 1944 , Adolf Hitler resolved to recover Germany ′ s deteriorating fortunes by launching an offensive in the West . On 16 September , Hitler directed Generalleutnant Werner Kreipe — Chief of the General Staff — to prepare the necessary aircraft for the offensive . On 21 October , Kreipe ordered the air fleet defending the Greater German Reich ( Luftflotte Reich ) to hand over seven Jagdgeschwader and Schlachtgeschwader to Air Command West ( Luftwaffenkommando West ) for a future offensive .
On 14 November , Hermann Göring — Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Luftwaffe — ordered the 2 . Jagddivision and the 3 . Jagddivision to prepare their units for a large @-@ scale ground attack operation in the Ardennes . Preparations were to be complete by 27 November . The attack was to be carried out on the first day of the offensive .
Generalmajor Dietrich Peltz was to plan the operation having been appointed C @-@ in @-@ C of II . Fliegerkorps on 8 December . Luftwaffenkommando West had ordered all units — except Jagdgeschwader 300 and 301 — to attend the main planning meeting in Flammersfeld on 5 December . On 14 December , Peltz officially initiated plans for a major blow against the Allies in northwest Europe . Peltz was not a fighter pilot ; his combat record was as a dive bomber pilot , flying the Junkers Ju 87 Stuka . His experiences in Poland , in France , and during the early campaigns on the Eastern Front had moulded him into an outstanding ground attack specialist , making him an ideal candidate for planning Bodenplatte .
On 15 December , this plan was worked out with the help of the Luftwaffe ′ s Jagd @-@ Geschwaderkommodore , among them Gotthard Handrick ( Jagdabschnittsführer Mittelrhein ; Fighter Sector Leader Middle Rhein ) , Walter Grabmann and Karl Hentschel , commanders of 3 @.@ and 5 . Jagddivision respectively . It was originally scheduled to support the Battle of the Bulge , the German Army ′ s offensive , which began 16 December 1944 . However , the same bad weather that prevented the RAF and USAAF from supporting their own ground forces also prevented the Luftwaffe from carrying out the operation . It was therefore not launched until 1 January 1945 . By this time , the German Army had lost momentum owing to Allied resistance and clearing weather , which allowed Allied Air Forces to operate . The German Army attempted to restart the attack by launching Operation Northwind ( Unternehmen Nordwind ) . The Luftwaffe was to support this offensive through Bodenplatte .
The plan of Bodenplatte called for a surprise attack against 16 Allied air bases in Belgium , the Netherlands and France . The object was to destroy or cripple as many Allied aircraft , hangars and airstrips as possible . Every fighter and fighter @-@ bomber Geschwader ( Wing ) currently occupied with air defence along the Western Front was redeployed . Additional night @-@ fighter units ( Nachtjagdgeschwader ) and medium bomber units ( Kampfgeschwader ) acted as pathfinders . The strike formations themselves were mostly single @-@ engine Messerschmitt Bf 109 and Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 fighters .
However , in a blunder , the planners had set flight paths that took many units over some of the most heavily defended areas on the continent , namely the V2 launch sites around The Hague . These sites were protected by large numbers of German anti @-@ aircraft artillery ( AAA ) units . At the turn of 1944 / 45 Air Command West had 267 heavy and 277 medium or light AAA batteries , and in addition to this there were 100 Kriegsmarine AAA batteries along the Dutch coast . Most of these lay in the sector of the 16th AAA Division , with its control station at Doetinchem , 15 mi ( 24 km ) northeast of Arnhem . Some of the AAA units been warned about the air operation but were not kept up to date with developments about changing timetables and the flight plan of German formations . As a result , many of the German fighter units lost aircraft to " friendly fire " before the attacks could be initiated .
After five years of war and heavy attrition many of the Luftwaffe 's pilots were inexperienced and poorly trained , deficient in marksmanship and flight skills . There was a shortage of experienced instructors , and many of the training units were forced to fly front @-@ line operations in order to bolster the front @-@ line Jagdgeschwader . Long @-@ range Allied fighters exacerbated this situation by shooting down many training aircraft . By late 1944 there were no safe areas in which pilots could be trained without the possibility of air attack . Allied personnel who witnessed the attacks frequently remarked on the poor aim of the strafing aircraft , and many of the Luftwaffe aircraft shot down by Allied anti @-@ aircraft fire were caught because they were flying too slowly and too high . Aviation fuel supplies were also at a premium .
The plan called for the units to maintain strict radio silence and secrecy in order to maintain surprise . Maps were also only half complete , identified only enemy installations , and left out flight paths , lest the document fall into Allied hands enabling them to trace the whereabouts of German fighter bases . Most commanders were also refused permission to brief their pilots until moments before take @-@ off . This created operational confusion . Commanders only managed to get across the bare essentials of the plan . When the operation got under way , many German pilots still did not understand what the operation was about , or what exactly was required of them . They were convinced it was just a reconnaissance in force over the front , and were happy to follow their flight leaders on this basis .
= = = Targets and order of battle = = =
It is unclear whether all of the following were deliberately targeted . Evidence suggests that Grimbergen , Knocke and Ophoven were targeted in error , as was Heesch . In all , the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe ( OKL ) deployed 1 @,@ 035 aircraft from several Jagdgeschwader ( JG — fighter wings ) Kampfgeschwader ( KG — bomber wings ) , Nachtjadggeschwader ( NJG — night fighter wings ) and Schlachtgeschwader ( SG — ground attack wings ) ; of these , 38 @.@ 5 % were Bf 109s , 38 @.@ 5 % Fw 190As , and 23 % Fw 190Ds .
Below is the German target list :
= = = Codenames = = =
Following the Unternehmen Bodenplatte raids , the Allies retrieved several log @-@ books from crashed German aircraft . In several of these , the entry " Auftrag Hermann 1 @.@ 1 . 1945 , Zeit : 9 @.@ 20 Uhr " was translated as " Operation Hermann to commence on 1 January 1945 , at 9 : 20am . " This led the Allies to believe the operation itself was named Hermann for Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring . Four further different codes were used for the attack :
Varus : Indicating that the operation was " a go " and that it would take place within 24 hours of the Varus order being given .
Teutonicus : Authority to brief the pilots and to arrange for the aircraft to be armed and ready at the edge of the airfield .
Hermann : Giving the exact date and time of the attack .
Dorothea : Indicating a delay in the attack .
Spätlese : Cancelling of the attack after formations are airborne .
= = = Allied intelligence = = =
Allied intelligence failed to detect the German intention . In Ultra transcripts , there are only a few indications of what was happening on the other side of the front . On 4 December 1944 , II Jagdkorps had ordered stockpiling for navigational aids , such as " golden @-@ rain " flares and smoke bombs . Allied intelligence made no written observations of this communication . They also disregarded communications to Junkers Ju 88 groups regarding the use of flares when leading formations . Intelligence concluded that these instructions were designed for a ground support mission rather than an interception operation . This was reasonable , but no indications of possible ground targets were given .
On 20 December , a 3 . Jagddivision message was intercepted confirming that the locations for emergency landing grounds during a " special undertaking " had remained unchanged . This was a clear indication that something was amiss , but Allied intelligence did not comment on it . It also ignored more messages indicating that low @-@ level attacks were being practised . Allied intelligence , by 16 December , had monitored the reshuffling of both German Army and Luftwaffe formations opposite the American @-@ held front at the Ardennes . Yet nothing major was suspected .
= = Battle = =
= = = Maldegem , Ursel and St. Denijs Westrem = = =
Jagdgeschwader 1 ( JG 1 ) was responsible for the attack on the Ursel and Maldegem airfields . Oberstleutnant Herbert Ihlefeld led the Geschwader . The formation was mixed ; Stab . , ( headquarters flight or Stabschwarm , attached to every Geschwader ) , I. and II . / JG 1 operated the Fw 190 while the III . / JG 1 flew the Bf 109 . I. / JG 1 lost four of their number to friendly anti @-@ aircraft fire . Three of the four pilots were killed .
The attacks at Maldegem and Ursel began at 08 : 30 . Both I and II . / JG 1 became involved in intense dogfights . III . / JG 1 had lost only one aircraft over the target ( and not to enemy fire ) . I. / JG lost a further Fw 190 to friendly anti @-@ aircraft fire as it made its way to Ursel . III . / JG 1 lost at least two further Fw 190s to friendly anti @-@ aircraft fire . Casualties could have been heavier , had the British anti @-@ aircraft defences of Maldegem airfield not been removed in December .
Stab. and I. / JG 1 lost 13 Fw 190s and nine pilots were missing ; five were killed and four were captured . Thus the loss rates in personnel and matériel were 39 and 56 % , respectively . III . / JG 1 lost only three Bf 109s with one pilot dead and two captured . I. / JG 1 claimed 30 British Spitfires on the ground and two shot down over Maldegem . At Maldegem , 16 aircraft were destroyed , and at Ursel only six were lost . The claims of I. / JG 1 were actually more in line with British total losses at both Maldegem and Ursel . No. 131 Wing RAF / Polish Wing lost 13 Spitfires plus two damaged beyond repair , a total of 15 lost . At Ursel , six aircraft were destroyed , including , a B @-@ 17 , two Lancasters and a Mosquito . I. and III . / JG 1 lost a total of 16 aircraft and 12 pilots — not a good return .
II . / JG 1 attacked the airfield at St. Denis Westrem . Of the 36 II . / JG 1 Fw 190s that took off , 17 were shot down , a staggering 47 % loss rate . Among the pilots lost were several experienced fliers . In exchange , the Germans shot down two Spitfires , and seven forced @-@ landed . At St. Denis 18 Spitfires were destroyed on the ground .
Altogether JG 1 lost 25 pilots and 29 aircraft . This return for around 60 enemy aircraft ( 54 on the ground ) cannot be considered a complete success , although the damage at St. Denijs Westrem and Maldegem had been significant . Just nine of the fighters lost by JG 1 are confirmed to have been shot down in combat with Spitfires . It is possible a further three more were shot down by Spitfires , or perhaps ground fire . Two Spitfires were shot down and destroyed , with two more damaged . One pilot of each Squadron ( 308 and 317 ) was killed . The total Spitfire losses were perhaps 32 .
= = = Sint @-@ Truiden = = =
Schlachtgeschwader 4 and Jagdgeschwader 2 ( SG 4 and JG 2 ) were to strike at Sint @-@ Truiden airfield . JG 2 was commanded by Kurt Bühligen . I. / JG 2 's ground crews managed to make ready 35 of 46 Fw 190s , 29 of which were Fw 190D . Only 33 pilots were fit for operations . So the Gruppe reported only 33 Fw 190s ready . II . / JG 2 could field 20 of 29 Bf 109s . Stab . / JG 2 had three Fw 190s ready for the mission . It is not clear whether Bühligen took part in the mission . III . / JG 2 reported 40 Fw 190s operational , 34 of them Fw 190Ds . However , only 28 of the 43 pilots in the unit were fit for operations and the formation fielded only 28 fighters . In total , 84 aircraft were ready on 31 December , including 28 Fw 190D @-@ 9s .
SG 4 was led by Alfred Druschel . It had 152 machines on strength , of which just 60 were operational , yet the 129 pilots were fit for action . Stab . / SG 4 had three Fw 190s and two pilots . I. / SG 4 had 21 Fw 190s operational and 27 pilots ready . II . / SG reported 27 Fw 190s ready , but pilot strength is unknown . III . / SG reported 24 Fw 190s , but only 16 were available at the forward airfields . Pilot strength is unknown . Best estimations make it around 60 Fw 190s operational , of which 55 took part .
At 09 : 12 , JG 2 crossed the front line at Malmedy and was greeted by an enormous volume of Allied ground fire . The entire area was heavily defended by anti @-@ aircraft artillery , since the area had been the scene of heavy fighting , but also had been attacked by V @-@ 1 and V @-@ 2 missiles . I. / JG 2 lost at least seven fighters to ground fire alone . III . / JG 2 lost 10 fighters . A possible seven Bf 109s from II . / JG 2 were also lost to ground fire . JG 2 attacked Asch and Ophoven airfields by mistake .
JG 2 ′ s mission was a disaster . I. / JG 2 lost 18 Fw 190s and six more were damaged by ground fire and enemy aircraft . This represented 73 % of their force . Of the 15 pilots missing , six would survive as POWs . II . / JG 2 lost five Bf 109s and three were damaged a loss rate of 40 % . Pilot losses were three missing , one dead and one wounded . III . / JG 2 lost 19 Fw 190s and three were damaged , a loss rate of 79 % . Nine pilots were killed , two were wounded and four were captured . JG 2 losses , according to another source , amounted to 40 % of its force . Pilot losses were 24 killed or posted missing , 10 captured and four wounded . Another source asserts that pilot losses stood at 23 killed or missing .
SG 4 ′ s mission was also a disaster . During the assembly phase , they flew across JG 11 ′ s flight path , and the formation was broken up . Some of the pilots joined JG 11 in the confusion . Unable to recover the formation , I and II . / SG 4 then decided to head home . The Kommodore , Druschel , had continued with five other pilots from III . / SG 4 who had lost contact with their Gruppe . They crossed the front near Hürtgenwald around 09 : 10 . As they did so , American anti @-@ aircraft batteries opened fire , claiming seven aircraft in the next 30 minutes . Only six of the 50 Fw 190s of SG 4 carried out an attack , against airfields near Aachen and the Asch aerodrome . Of these six , four did not return . Druschel himself was reported missing .
= = = Volkel and Heesch = = =
The target of Jagdgeschwader 6 ( JG 6 ) was Volkel . I and III . / JG 6 were to attack while II . / JG 6 was to provide cover against Allied fighters . I. / JG 6 managed to get 29 of its 34 Fw 190s ready , while 25 of II . / JG 6 ′ s fighters took part . Overall , most of the 99 Fw 190s were made available for the operation . III . / JG 6 received orders to target petrol installations on the airfield only . Only 78 Fw 190s took off .
While on course , JG 6 approached the airfield of Heesch and some of its pilots assumed it to be Volkel airfield . It is unlikely that the Heesch strip , built in October 1944 , was known to the Luftwaffe . No. 126 Wing RCAF was based there and had dispatched its 411 and 442 Squadrons on recce missions early that morning so the majority of its units were airborne . Its 401 Squadron was readying for takeoff when JG 6 appeared at 09 : 15 . Most of the German pilots had failed to notice the airfield , concentrating on keeping formation at low altitude . 401 Squadron scrambled . Some of the German fighters were authorised to engage , while the main body continued to search for Volkel . Stab . , and II . / JG 6 stumbled on another strip at Helmond , which contained no aircraft . Several German pilots believed it to be Volkel and attacked , losing several of their number to ground fire . II . / JG 6 suffered severely from Spitfire and Tempests based at Helmond . Very little damage was done at Heesch or Helmond .
In the event , all four Gruppen failed to find Volkel and its Hawker Tempests remained untouched . The only success JG 6 had was I. / JG ′ s erroneous attack on Eindhoven , which claimed 33 fighters and six medium bombers . Like Volkel , Helmond and Heesch had escaped damage . In the dogfights over Helmond , JG 6 claimed six kills . In fact , only two Spitfires were shot down and one badly damaged . Only one further fighter , a Hawker Typhoon , was shot down . Stab . / JG 6 lost the Kommodore , Kogler , as a POW . Of I. / JG ′ s 29 Fw 190s , seven were lost and two damaged ; of II . / JG 6 ′ s 25 Fw 190s , eight were destroyed and two damaged ; III . / JG 6 lost 12 out 20 Bf 109s . In total , JG 6 lost 43 % of its strength and suffered 16 pilots killed or missing and seven captured . As well as Kogler , one other commanding officer was lost — Gruppenkommandeure Helmut Kühle . Three Staffelkapitane were lost : Hauptmann Ewald Trost was captured , Hauptmann Norbert Katz was killed and Lothar Gerlach was posted missing presumed killed .
= = = Antwerp @-@ Deurne and Woensdrecht = = =
Deurne airfield was to be destroyed by Jagdgeschwader 77 ( JG 77 ) . Antwerp housed the largest Allied contingent of nine Squadrons . It had been incessantly attacked by V1 and V2 flying bombs and had been given a strong anti @-@ aircraft defence .
At 08 : 00 , two formations 18 Bf 109s of I and III . / JG 77 took off with their pathfinders . At the same time 23 Bf 109s of II . / JG 77 took off . Around the Bocholt area they formed up with the other two Gruppen . Heading south and still north of Antwerp , JG 77 passed Woensdrecht airfield . It was home to No. 132 Wing RAF and its five Spitfire squadrons ; No. 331 Squadron RAF , No. 332 Squadron RAF ( Norwegian ) , No. 66 Squadron RAF and No. 127 Squadron RAF , and No. 322 Squadron RAF ( Dutch ) . Some pilots from II . / JG 77 either mistakenly believed it to be Antwerp , or thought the opportunity was too good to pass up . Two German fighters were claimed shot down , and one pilot captured . However , none of the JG 77 casualties fit this description .
The main body continued to Antwerp . Some 12 – 30 German fighters attacked the airfield from 09 : 25 to 09 : 40 . The ground defences were alert and the German formations attacked in a disorganised manner . 145 Wing RAF was missed completely and considering the large number of targets the destruction was light ; just 12 Spitfires were destroyed .
In total , 14 Allied aircraft were destroyed and nine damaged . JG 77 lost 11 Bf 109s and their pilots were lost . Six were killed and five captured according to Allied sources . However , German records show the loss of only 10 pilots . Four are listed as captured .
= = = Metz @-@ Frescaty = = =
Jagdgeschwader 53 ( JG 53 ) was tasked with the operation against the USAAF airfield at Metz @-@ Frescaty Air Base . Stab . , II . , III . , and IV . / JG 53 were available . III . / JG 53 was to destroy anti @-@ aircraft installations in the Metz area , while the other Gruppen knocked out the airfields .
The USAAF XIX Tactical Air Command had established a strong presence in northeast France and was supporting the U.S. 3rd Army . JG 53 was to knock out its airfields . Some 26 Bf 109s took off but were intercepted by 12 P @-@ 47s of the 367th Fighter Squadron , 358th Fighter Group . The P @-@ 47s claimed 13 destroyed , one probable and six damaged for no losses . On the way home at 09 : 20 , III . / JG 53 were intercepted by 366th Fighter Squadron . Altogether , III . / JG 53 lost 10 Bf 109s and one damaged to the 358th Fighter Group . Of the 25 III . / JG 53 Bf 109s that took part , 11 were shot down representing 40 % of the attacking force . The 358th Fighter Group received the Distinguished Unit citation for preventing the attack on the 362nd Fighter Groups airfield .
Although III . / JG 53 failed , the main attack was a success by comparison . Stab , . II. and IV . / JG 53 encountered no difficulties on the outward leg . The Germans caused significant damage among the parked USAAF fighters on the field . When the attack against the Metz airfield was over , the three JG 53 Gruppen reported the loss of 20 Bf 109s and seven damaged . This represented more than 50 percent of the attacking 52 fighters . Some 13 pilots were missing ; three were killed , six remain missing as of today , and four were captured . A further three were wounded . JG 53 claimed 27 USAAF fighters on the ground and eight damaged . Added to this total is four aerial victories . In total JG 53 lost 30 Bf 109s and eight damaged in the two operations . This was a total loss of 48 % . The losses of the USAAF were 22 destroyed , 11 damaged ( all P @-@ 47ts ) . However , the negative effects of Bodenplatte on JG 53 outweighed any advantages gained .
= = = Le Culot and Ophoven = = =
Le Culot airfield ( later known as Beauvechain ) was 45 km ( 28 mi ) northeast of Charleroi and was the target of Jagdgeschwader 4 ( JG 4 ) target . The main strip ( A @-@ 89 ) was known locally as Beauvechain , and an auxiliary field known as Le Culot East ( Y @-@ 10 ) , known to the locals as Burettes , was nearby . It was known to the Luftwaffe because several of its units had operated there .
Geschwaderkommodore Major Gerhard Michalski commanded the force . Five pilots were shot down by ground fire . Another pilot got lost during the flight and ended up near Eindhoven where he was shot down and killed . Reduced in number , 8 – 10 fighters of IV . / JG 4 continued to their target . After 10 minutes , they located a fairly large airfield and attacked , believing it to be Le Culot . It was in fact Sint @-@ Truiden .
The mistake was easy to make , Le Culot was located nearby . Sint @-@ Truiden housed the 48th Fighter Group and 404th Fighter Group . The 492nd Fighter Squadron was readying to take off at 09 : 20 . JG 4 hit the airfield at 09 : 15 . Several P @-@ 47s taxiing out were abandoned by pilots and strafed to destruction . The small @-@ scale attack by JG had achieved considerable damage . Total American losses were 10 destroyed and 31 damaged . The Germans lost eight fighters , including seven Bf 109s , and three damaged . No damage was done at Le Culot airfield .
II ( Sturm ) . / JG 4 took off for Le Culot at 08 : 08 . Getting lost , they stumbled upon Asch airfield and claimed one P @-@ 47 destroyed and two twin @-@ engine aircraft damaged , as well as two trains and trucks destroyed . The unit claimed an Auster reconnaissance aircraft shot down . The machine was probably a Stinson L @-@ 1 Vigilant of the 125th Liaison Squadron , U.S. Army . However , virtually the entire Gruppe of 17 Fw 190s was wiped out .
I. and III . / JG 4 were to strike Le Culot together . Taking off at 08 : 20 and heading northwest , they comprised a force of 35 Bf 109s ( nine from III . / JG 4 ) . Two Ju 88G @-@ 1s of II . / NJG 101 lead as pathfinders . Some of I. / JG 4 attacked No. 125 Wing RAF Spitfires at Ophoven airfield . Spitfire losses are unclear . Two P @-@ 47s and a B @-@ 17 were destroyed . I. / JG 4 reported two Bf 109s missing , one damaged and one destroyed . Just a hangar , one P @-@ 47 and several vehicles were claimed , and the anti @-@ aircraft battery was silenced . The attack on the Spitfires at Ophoven and the mentioned B @-@ 17 and two P @-@ 47s are not included in the total . Another source suggests two Spitfires destroyed and 10 damaged at Ophoven .
According to one source , JG 4 ′ s losses were 25 fighters of the 55 that took part . With 17 pilots killed or missing and seven captured , JG 4 suffered a 42 % loss rate . A more recent source claims a total of 75 aircraft of JG 4 took part , with only 12 attacking ground targets . Two Ju 88 pathfinders were lost , as well as 26 fighters with six more damaged .
= = = Asch = = =
The Asch Airfield had been constructed in November 1944 and was home to the 352nd Fighter Group , 8th Air Force , and the 366th Fighter Group , Ninth Air Force . Jagdgeschwader 11 ( JG 11 ) was to destroy the airfield . I. / JG 11 had only 16 Fw 190s on strength and only six fit and operational pilots . Only six of I. / JG 1 ′ s pilots took part , and just four of Stab . / JG 1 ′ s pilots participated . III . / JG 11 had more aircraft than pilots , and so other Staffel made up the numbers . Just 41 Fw 190s of JG 11 took part in Bodenplatte ; four from the Stab . , six from I Gruppe and 31 of III Gruppe . The 20 fighters from II . Gruppe were Bf 109s .
The plan called for a low @-@ level strike by I and III . / JG 11 , while II . / JG 11 flew as top cover against USAAF fighters . The pilots were shown maps and photographs of the airfield , but were not told the targets ' identity until the morning of the attack . After crossing Allied lines , four fighters were lost to AAA fire . The course of JG 11 took it directly over Ophoven . Large formations of JG 11 attacked , in the mistaken belief it was Asch . The other half continued to Asch . Ophoven housed No. 125 Wing RAF , just 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) north of Asch . About half , or some 30 Fw 190s and Bf 109s attacked the airfield .
Asch was notable for a chance event . The 390th Squadron of the 366th Fighter Group had launched two fighter sweeps that morning , which played a crucial role in the failure of JG 11 ′ s attack . The leader of the 487th squadron , 352nd Fighter Group , John Charles Meyer , anticipated German activity and had a flight of 12 P @-@ 51s about to take off on a combat patrol when the attack began . They took off under fire .
Several pilots made " Ace " status that day . No P @-@ 51s were lost ; two were damaged and one was damaged on the ground . The 336th Fighter Group lost one P @-@ 47 . The 366th was credited with eight kills , and AAA claimed seven more . However , overclaiming is likely . Luftwaffe records indicate JG 11 lost 28 fighters . Four German pilots ( two wounded ) made it back to German @-@ held territory , while four were captured and the remaining twenty were killed . Some 24 of the Bf 109s and Fw 190s lost were lost over enemy lines . German ace Günther Specht was among those German pilots killed .
Little is known about the claims of JG 11 . According to one German document , 13 fighters , two twin @-@ engine and one four @-@ engine aircraft were claimed destroyed . Five fighters were claimed damaged on " Glabbeek airfield " — in reality it was Ophoven . Ten aerial victories and one probable were also claimed . But U.S. Fighter Group losses indicate these claims are excessive .
The Americans claimed 35 kills . Only 14 can be judged with a degree of certainty to have been shot down by USAAF fighters , and possibly two more . Four are confirmed to have been shot down by AAA fire . Total JG 11 losses were 28 . The air battle over Asch had lasted 45 minutes .
= = = Brussels @-@ Evere / Grimbergen = = =
Jagdgeschwader 26 ( JG 26 ) and the III . Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 54 ( JG 54 ) were to strike at Brussels @-@ Evere . At the end of December , II . / JG 26 had 39 D @-@ 9s and III . / JG 26 had 45 Bf 109s . Records of available aircraft indicate 110 aircraft of JG 26 flew that day ; all but 29 were Fw 190s , the remainder were Bf 109s . 17 Fw 190s from III . / JG 54 took part with JG 26 .
Unknown to the Luftwaffe the Grimbergen Airfield was almost completely abandoned . The Evere airfield was located to the south . It was one of the most densely populated airfields in Belgium and had plenty of targets . The main force consisted of 60 Spitfire XVIs of No. 127 Wing RAF . Also present were B @-@ 17s and B @-@ 24s of the Eighth Air Force . Overall , well over 100 aircraft were on the field .
At 08 : 13 , the first formations took off . In total , 64 Fw 190D @-@ 9s participated . Before the target was reached , some 14 D @-@ 9s were forced to turn back due to AAA damage or mechanical difficulties . Three Fw 190s were lost to German AAA fire . At 09 : 10 , when the front was reached , Allied heavy AAA units began to engage the formation and another five were shot down . Most of the fire was from British Naval AAA defences defending the Scheldt Estuary . As the formation crossed the Dutch and Belgian border , I. / JG 26 and III . / JG 54 were intercepted by Spitfires . Five of the Fw 190s were shot down . I. / JG 26 destroyed or damaged the few aircraft at the airfield . AAA defences claimed five kills and I. / JG 26 reported two Fw 190s lost to Spitfires . Several others were lost over the airfield . Other losses occurred against friendly fire again on the return flight .
The raid was a disaster . Just six machines were destroyed at Grimbergen for the loss of 21 Fw 190s and two damaged . Another eight sustained minor damage . Some 17 pilots were missing , eight of whom would survive as prisoners .
Only II. and III . / JG 26 hit Evere . Between 44 and 52 Fw 190s from these units took off . II. and III . / JG 26 knocked out the flak towers and destroyed anything combustible : hangars , trucks , fuel dumps and aircraft . 127 Wing RCAF lost one Spitfire in the air and 11 on the ground ; 11 vehicles were damaged and one was destroyed . A total of 60 – 61 Allied aircraft were destroyed at Evere . A large number of transports were located there and attracted the attention of German pilots , which left many more Spitfires undamaged . Given the number of Spitfires on the field , the Canadian wing suffered " low " losses . The Canadian Wing Commander — Johnnie Johnson — blamed the poor marksmanship of German pilots for failing to achieve further success .
Allied losses are given at Evere as 32 fighters , 22 twin @-@ engine aircraft and 13 four @-@ engine aircraft destroyed , plus another nine single , six twin and one four @-@ engine aircraft damaged . In total , II . / JG 26 losses included 13 Fw 190s destroyed and two damaged . Nine of its pilots were missing ; five were killed and four captured . III . / JG 26 lost six Bf 109s and four pilots . Only one of them was captured , the remainder were killed . The amount of damage the Germans inflicted made up for the losses ; the Evere strike was a success .
= = = Brussels @-@ Melsbroek = = =
Jagdgeschwader 27 and IV . / Jagdgeschwader 54 ( JG 27 and JG 54 ) targeted Melsbroek airfield . On 31 December , JG 27 could only muster the following operational pilots and aircraft : 22 ( 22 ) from I. , 19 ( 13 ) from II . , 13 ( 15 ) from III . , and 16 ( 17 ) from IV . Gruppe . Geschwaderkommadore Wolfgang Späte had rebuilt IV . / JG 54 . It had only 21 pilots and 15 of its 23 Fw 190s were operational . Altogether 28 Bf 109s of JG 27 and 15 Fw 190s of JG 54 took off . Seven fighters were lost to enemy aircraft and friendly AAA fire before they reached the target .
The Germans hit Melsbroek hard . According to Emil Clade ( leading III . / JG 27 ) , the AAA positions were not manned , and aircraft were bunched together or in lines , which made perfect targets . The attack caused considerable damage among the units based there and was a great success . The Recce Wings had lost two entire squadrons worth of machines . No. 69 Squadron RAF lost 11 Vickers Wellingtons and two damaged . No. 140 Squadron RAF lost four Mosquitoes , the losses being made good the same day . At least five Spitfires from No. 16 Squadron RAF were destroyed . No. 271 Squadron RAF lost at least seven Harrow transports " out of action " . A further 15 other aircraft were destroyed . 139 Wing reported five B @-@ 25s destroyed and five damaged . Some 15 to 20 USAAF bombers were also destroyed . Another source states that 13 Wellingtons were destroyed , as were five Mosquitoes , four Auster and five Avro Ansons from the Tactical Air Forces 2nd Communications Squadron . Three Spitfires were also lost and two damaged . At least one RAF Transport Command Douglas Dakota was destroyed .
The pilots of JG 27 and 54 claimed 85 kills and 40 damaged . German reconnaissance was able to confirm 49 kills . JG 27 suffered unacceptable losses ; 17 Bf 109s , 11 pilots killed , one wounded and three captured . IV . / JG 54 lost two killed and one captured . Three Fw 190s were lost and one damaged .
= = = Gilze @-@ Rijen and Eindhoven = = =
Jagdgeschwader 3 ( JG 3 ) and Kampfgeschwader 51 ( KG 51 ) were tasked with eliminating the Allied units at the Eindhoven base and Gilze @-@ Rijen airfield . The field contained three Spitfire Squadrons and eight Typhoon units of the RAF and RCAF . Some 22 Bf 109s of I. / JG 3 took off , along with four from Stab . / JG 3 , 15 from III . / JG 3 and 19 Fw 190s from IV . / JG 3 . KG 51 contributed some 21 of their 30 Messerschmitt Me 262 jets to the action . Some histories mistakenly include Kampfgeschwader 76 ( KG 76 ) on the order of battle , but KG 76 did not take part in the mission .
Each staffel was expected to make at least three firing passes . I. / JG 3 took off and joined the lead Gruppe , IV Sturm . / JG 3 , with III . / JG 3 following in the rear . The Bf 109s and Fw 190s of the Geschwader reached the area at about 09 : 20 . Geschwaderkommodore Heinrich Bär led the attack . Some pilots made four passes , destroying AAA emplacements , fuel storage stations and vehicles . Nearly 300 aircraft were on the field , along with huge stores of equipment and fuel . The attack caused fires all over the airfield .
JG 3 claimed 53 single @-@ engine and 11 twin @-@ engine aircraft destroyed . Five fighters and one four @-@ engine bomber were also claimed damaged . Four Typhoons , three Spitfires , one Tempest and another unidentified aircraft were claimed shot down . All in all , JG 3 managed to destroy 43 aircraft according to British records , and damage a further 60 , some seriously . The Geschwader believed it had destroyed 116 . JG 3 did not come away unscathed . I. / JG 3 lost nine of its aircraft and pilots , a 50 % loss rate . Damage to the returning Gruppe aircraft meant the entire unit was unserviceable . RAF AAA were credited with shooting down five . JG 3 lost , altogether , 15 of the 60 fighters sent , a 25 % loss rate . Some 15 pilots were missing ; nine were killed and five captured , and another pilot was posting as missing in action and his fate remains unknown . Another source says 16 pilots ; ten killed or missing and six captured .
The damage done to Eindhoven was significant and can be considered a victory for JG 3 . It was also assisted by elements of JG 6 which had misidentified Eindhoven as one their targets . The greatest losses were amongst the Recce Wing and the Canadian 124 Wing RCAF , which suffered 24 aircraft destroyed or damaged . The visiting 39 Wing RAF lost 30 aircraft destroyed or damaged . 143 Wing RCAF lost 29 damaged or destroyed . It is likely that I. / JG 3 was responsible for about 2 / 3 of the damage . Another source gives 47 aircraft destroyed and 43 damaged .
= = = Possible V @-@ 2 missile launch attempts = = =
At least one V @-@ 2 missile on a mobile Meillerwagen launch trailer was observed being elevated to launch position by a USAAF 4th Fighter Group pilot over the northern German attack route near the town of Lochem on 1 January 1945 . Possibly , from the potential sighting of the American fighter by the missile 's launch crew , the rocket was quickly lowered from a near launch @-@ ready 85 ° elevation to 30 ° .
= = Results of raid = =
The results of the raid are difficult to judge given the confusion over loss records . It is likely more aircraft were destroyed than listed . The Americans failed to keep a proper record of their losses and it appears the U.S. 8th Air Force losses were not included in loss totals . When these estimates and figures are added to the losses listed in the table below , it is likely that the correct figures are 232 destroyed ( 143 single @-@ engine , 74 twin @-@ engine and 15 four @-@ engine ) and 156 damaged ( 139 single @-@ engine , 12 twin @-@ engine and five four @-@ engine ) . Researching individual squadron records confirms the destruction of even more USAAF aircraft . This suggests at least a further 16 B @-@ 17s , 14 B @-@ 24s , eight P @-@ 51s , and at least two P @-@ 47s were destroyed on top of that total . A total of 290 destroyed and 180 damaged seems a more realistic summation than the conservative figures given by the USAAF , RAF , and RCAF . Including the 15 Allied aircraft shot down and 10 damaged in aerial combat , 305 destroyed and 190 damaged is the sum total of the attack .
Number can 't hide the fact that it was a disaster for Germans . Both sides had many backup planes so the main limiting factor for air forces was the number of trained pilots . The Allies lost , most of the time , empty fighters on the gound while the Germans lost crewed fighters . As a consequence pilot losses were completely different . Allies : 12 pilots KIA in planes and 12 KIA or wounded on the ground Germans : 238 pilots KIA or POW . This total does not include wounded .
The results of the attacks are listed : little to no damage light damage medium damage heavy damage
= = Aftermath and casualties = =
The operation achieved tactical surprise , but it was undone by poor execution and low pilot skill ( owing to poor training ) . The operation failed to achieve its aim and that failure was very costly to German air power . Some of the units of the RAF , RCAF and USAAF on the receiving end of Bodenplatte had been badly hit , others not so badly , but most had sustained some losses . The Germans , however , launched Bodenplatte under a set of conditions , such as poor planning and low pilot skill , which clearly indicated any advantage gained would be outweighed by possible losses . Bodenplatte weakened the Jagdwaffe past any hope of rebuilding . General der Jagdflieger Adolf Galland said , " We sacrificed our last substance " .
The Luftwaffe lost 143 pilots killed and missing , while 70 were captured and 21 wounded including three Geschwaderkommodore , five Gruppenkommandeure , and 14 Staffelkapitäne — the largest single @-@ day loss for the Luftwaffe . Many of the formation leaders lost were experienced veterans , which placed even more pressure on those who were left . Thus , Bodenplatte was a very short @-@ term success but a long @-@ term failure . Allied losses were soon made up , while lost Luftwaffe aircraft and especially pilots were irreplaceable . German historian Gerhard Weinberg wrote that it left the Germans " weaker than ever and incapable of mounting any major attack again " .
In the remaining 17 weeks of war the Jagdwaffe struggled to recover sufficiently from the 1 January operation to remain an effective force . In strategic terms , German historian Werner Girbig wrote , " Operation Bodenplatte amounted to a total defeat " . The exhausted German units were no longer able to mount an effective defence of German air space during Operation Plunder and Operation Varsity , the Allied crossing of the Rhine River , or the overall Western Allied invasion of Germany . Subsequent operations were insignificant as a whole , and could not challenge Allied air supremacy . The only service in the Luftwaffe capable of profitable sorties was the night fighter force . In the last six weeks of the war the Luftwaffe was to lose another 200 pilots killed . Girbig wrote , " it was not until the autumn of 1944 that the German fighter forces set foot down the sacrificial path ; and it was the controversial Operation Bodenplatte that dealt this force a mortal blow and sealed its fate . What happened from then on was no more than a dying flicker " .
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= Shahid Kapoor =
Shahid Kapoor ( pronounced [ ʃaːɦɪd ̪ kəˈpuːr ] ; born 25 February 1981 ) , also known as Shahid Khattar , is an Indian actor who appears in Hindi films . The son of actors Pankaj Kapur and Neelima Azeem , Kapoor was born in New Delhi . His parents separated when he was three , and he continued living with his mother . They moved to Mumbai when has was 10 , where he joined Shiamak Davar 's dance academy . Kapoor appeared as a background dancer in a few films of the 1990s , and was later featured in music videos and television commercials .
Kapoor made his film debut in 2003 with a leading role in the romantic comedy Ishq Vishk , a sleeper hit for which he won a Filmfare Award for Best Male Debut . He followed it with roles in several commercial failures before starring opposite Amrita Rao in Sooraj Barjatya 's top @-@ grossing family drama Vivah ( 2006 ) . Kapoor earned nominations for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor for portraying a troubled businessman in Imtiaz Ali 's romantic comedy Jab We Met ( 2007 ) and twin brothers in Vishal Bhardwaj 's caper thriller Kaminey ( 2009 ) . After appearing in another series of box office flops , he starred in the action film R ... Rajkumar ( 2013 ) — his highest @-@ grossing release . In 2014 , Kapoor portrayed the Hamlet character in Bhardwaj 's acclaimed drama Haider , for which he won the Best Actor award at Filmfare , and in 2016 , he played a drug abusing singer in the crime drama Udta Punjab .
Cited in the media as one of the most attractive Indian celebrities , Kapoor maintains his popularity despite a fluctuating career trajectory . Initially recognised for portraying romantic roles , Kapoor has since taken on parts in action films and thrillers . He is the recipient of several awards , including two Filmfare Awards . In addition to acting , Kapoor supports charities , hosts award ceremonies , and has featured as a talent judge on the dance reality show Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa Reloaded ( 2015 ) . Following a romantic relationship with the actress Kareena Kapoor , he married Mira Rajput , a student from New Delhi , in 2015 .
= = Early life = =
Shahid Kapoor was born in New Delhi on 25 February 1981 to actor Pankaj Kapur and actor @-@ dancer Neelima Azeem . His parents divorced when he was three years old ; his father shifted to Mumbai ( and married the actress Supriya Pathak ) and Kapoor continued living in Delhi with his mother and maternal grandparents . His grandparents were journalists for the Russian magazine Sputnik , and Kapoor was particularly fond of his grandfather : " He would walk me to school every single day . He would talk to me about dad , with whom he shared a great relationship , and read out his letters to me . " His father , who was then a struggling actor in Mumbai , would visit Kapoor only once a year on his birthday . When Kapoor was 10 , his mother , who was working as a dancer , moved to Mumbai to work as an actress .
In Mumbai , Azeem went on to marry the actor Rajesh Khattar . Kapoor continued living with his mother and Khattar , until they separated in 2001 . Kapoor continues to use the last name Khattar on his passport . He has a maternal half @-@ brother from his mother 's marriage to Khattar . From his father 's marriage to Pathak , he has two paternal half @-@ siblings . Kapoor was educated at the Gyan Bharati School in Delhi and Rajhans Vidyalaya in Mumbai . He later attended Mumbai 's Mithibai College for three years .
Kapoor was interested in dance from an early age , and at the age of 15 , he joined Shiamak Davar 's dance institute . As a student there , Kapoor appeared as a background dancer in the films Dil To Pagal Hai ( 1997 ) and Taal ( 1999 ) , in which Davar served as choreographer . During a stage show at the institute , Kapoor performed in the songs " Vogue " and " GoldenEye " to a positive response from the audience ; he described the experience as the first time that he " felt like a star " . He later became an instructor at the institute . During this time , Kapoor accompanied a friend to an audition for a Pepsi commercial featuring the stars Shah Rukh Khan , Kajol and Rani Mukerji , but wound up with the part himself . He appeared in television commercials for the brands Kit Kat and Close @-@ Up , among others , and featured in music videos for several performers , including the band Aryans and the singer Kumar Sanu . Kapoor also took on the job of an assistant director to his father on the 1998 television series Mohandas B.A.L.L.B.
= = Acting career = =
= = = Early work ( 2003 – 05 ) = = =
Having noticed Kapoor in the Aryans ' music video " Aankhon Mein " , the producer Ramesh Taurani was keen to cast him in a film . However , upon meeting him , Taurani thought Kapoor , who was 20 years old at the time , to be too young and underweight to become an actor , and encouraged him to wait for a few years . Kapoor , meanwhile , turned down a lead role in N. Chandra 's sex comedy Style in hopes of working with Taurani . Taurani found a suitable project for Kapoor in the teenage romance Ishq Vishk ( 2003 ) , which Ken Ghosh was directing for his company . Kapoor , who trained extensively for a bulkier physical build , was eventually hired . Before beginning work on the film , he attended acting workshops with Naseeruddin Shah and Satyadev Dubey .
Ishq Vishk tells the story of Rajiv Mathur ( Kapoor ) , a high @-@ school student who engages in a romantic affair with two classmates of contrasting personalities ( played by Amrita Rao and Shenaz Treasurywala ) . Kapoor was attracted to the idea of playing an unlikable lead since it was a departure from the traditional portrayal of teenage heroes in Indian films . Writing for The Hindu , the critic Ziya Us Salam did not find him to be " hero material " , adding that " boyhood seems to have overstayed on his face – but he is not necessarily bad in the acting department . " The film , however , proved to be a sleeper hit at the box office and won Kapoor the Filmfare Award for Best Male Debut .
Following his debut , Kapoor reunited with Ghosh in a film he considered to be drastically different from Ishq Vishk . The thriller Fida ( 2004 ) featured him as a love @-@ struck student who is manipulated by a woman ( Kareena Kapoor ) and her lover ( Fardeen Khan ) to rob a bank . Despite criticising the film , Rama Sharma of The Tribune wrote that Kapoor " shines in his role . He looks fresh . As an impulsive emotional and innocent guy , who is sucked into crime because of these very qualities , he manages to evoke your sympathies . " Later that year , Kapoor appeared in the romantic comedy Dil Maange More in which he was paired opposite three women : Soha Ali Khan , Tulip Joshi , and Ayesha Takia . Patcy N of Rediff.com praised his dancing skills but was wary of his imitation of Shah Rukh Khan 's acting style . Both his 2004 releases were commercially unsuccessful .
The series of poorly received films continued in 2005 , when all three of Kapoor 's films failed at the box office . His first two releases that year were the comedies Deewane Huye Paagal and Vaah ! Life Ho Toh Aisi ! , both of which were largely panned . The former was plagiarised from the Hollywood film There 's Something About Mary in which Kapoor played one of Rimi Sen 's love interests ; the critic Khalid Mohamed found Kapoor to be " the only likeable element in this travesty " but Namrata Joshi of Outlook labelled him " colourless " and criticised his pairing with Sen. His final role was that of a righteous teenager drawn towards a life of indulgence in John Matthew Matthan 's drama Shikhar , co @-@ starring Ajay Devgan , Bipasha Basu and Amrita Rao . The critic Sukanya Verma found Kapoor to be miscast as a village boy in the film , but noted that he was " never short of spontaneity and youthful exuberance " .
= = = Breakthrough ( 2006 – 09 ) = = =
In 2006 , Kapoor played opposite Kareena Kapoor in two films — the thriller 36 China Town and the comedy Chup Chup Ke . In 36 China Town , a murder mystery from the director duo Abbas – Mustan , Kapoor starred as one of the seven suspects in the murder of an heiress , and in the Priyadarshan @-@ directed Chup Chup Ke , he played a depressed man who pretends to be deaf and mute . The former was his first commercial success since Ishq Vishk . Greater success came to Kapoor later that year when he starred alongside Amrita Rao in Sooraj Barjatya 's romantic drama Vivah , a film depicting an arranged marriage . Made on a shoestring budget of ₹ 100 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 5 million ) , the film earned over ₹ 530 million ( US $ 7 @.@ 9 million ) worldwide , and proved to be Kapoor 's highest @-@ grossing film to that point . Reviews of the film , however , were negative ; Raja Sen termed the film a " nightmare " and wrote that Kapoor " isn 't offensively bad , doesn 't ham it up like crazy , or speak in a weird accent . Having said that , he isn 't an actor at all , standing around working on his boyish grin , simply chewing up the scenery . No screen presence at all . "
Kapoor found no success in his first release of 2007 — the ensemble comedy Fool & Final . However , his second release that year , the Imtiaz Ali @-@ directed romantic comedy Jab We Met proved to be one of the top @-@ grossing films of the year . The film tells the story of a troubled businessman ( Kapoor ) whose life undergoes a series of changes after he encounters a loquacious girl ( Kareena Kapoor ) on a train ride . Ali thought that Kapoor 's previous roles failed to justify his acting potential , and thus approached him to portray a more complex character . The BBC noted on how " endearing " he was in the film and Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ IBN wrote that he left an " indelible impression with a performance that is understated and mature " in a film he thought primarily belonged to Kareena Kapoor . For his performance , Kapoor received his first nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor .
After featuring opposite Vidya Balan in the romantic comedy Kismat Konnection ( 2008 ) , Kapoor played twin brothers , one with a lisp and the other with a stutter , in Vishal Bhardwaj 's critically acclaimed caper thriller Kaminey ( 2009 ) . In preparation , Kapoor met speech specialists and researched on the medical and mental aspects of the two conditions . To create a lean physique for one of the brothers , a look he considered to be " radically different " from his personal appearance , Kapoor practiced functional training and followed a rigorous diet . Writing for Variety , critic Joe Leydon reviewed that Kapoor " impressively displays sufficiently variegated degrees of emotional intensity to sustain the illusion of two distinct characters . Just as important , he provides each sibling an appropriately elevated hunkiness quotient . " Rediff.com listed Kapoor 's performance as the best by a Bollywood actor in 2009 and he received a second Best Actor nomination at Filmfare . Kaminey earned over ₹ 700 million ( US $ 10 million ) worldwide . Kapoor 's final release of 2009 was as a cricketer in Dil Bole Hadippa ! , a romantic comedy co @-@ starring Rani Mukerji . It was screened at the Toronto International Film Festival , but was a financial failure .
= = = Commercial fluctuations ( 2010 – 13 ) = = =
In 2010 , Kapoor reteamed with Ken Ghosh in Chance Pe Dance , a comedy @-@ drama about a struggling actor , in which Kapoor 's performance was described as " uneven " by Aniruddha Guha of Daily News and Analysis . He had a supporting role in Paathshaala , a drama about the education system in India , starring Nana Patekar , following which he starred in Yash Raj Films ' Badmaash Company , a comedy @-@ drama about a group of overambitious youngsters who become con men . Rachel Saltz of The New York Times praised Kapoor 's look in the film , though Tushar Joshi of Mid Day thought that he was miscast . Kapoor 's fourth and final release that year was Satish Kaushik 's romantic comedy Milenge Milenge , which marked his fourth collaboration with Kareena Kapoor . Plagiarised from the Hollywood film Serendipity , the production was delayed since 2005 . During its production in December 2004 at Phuket , Kapoor requested a delay in filming to attend the premiere of Dil Maange More . The delay may have saved the lives of the crew , since the hotel booked for them was destroyed during the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami . With the exception of Badmaash Company , none of these films performed well commercially .
Kapoor next appeared in his father 's directorial Mausam ( 2011 ) ; co @-@ starring Sonam Kapoor , the star @-@ crossed romance set over a decade , took two years to complete . Considering the film to be his " dream project " , Kapoor did not take on additional work while filming for it . For his role as an unambitious village boy who becomes an air force pilot , Kapoor trained to fly the F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon . Rajeev Masand reviewed that " while he doesn ’ t quite cut it as a convincing IAF pilot , Shahid Kapoor is terrific as the small @-@ town brat " . The film was a box office flop and Kapoor was later regretful for spending so much time on the project .
The following year , Kapoor took on another romantic role in Kunal Kohli 's Teri Meri Kahaani ( 2012 ) , co @-@ starring Priyanka Chopra . It tells the story of a pair of star @-@ crossed lovers who are reincarnated in three different eras . Filmfare reviewed that " Shahid and Priyanka give it their best shot , but their charm doesn ’ t make up for the absence of a genuine kahani [ story ] " . The comedy Phata Poster Nikhla Hero from director Rajkumar Santoshi was Kapoor 's first release of 2013 . His role was that of Vishwas Rao , a struggling actor who masquerades as a policeman . Critical reviews on the film were negative , though Kapoor 's performance was praised . As with his last few releases , the film earned little at the box office leading trade analysts to question his commercial appeal . This changed later that year , when he starred in Prabhu Deva 's action film R ... Rajkumar ; despite a negative critical reception , the film earned over ₹ 995 million ( US $ 15 million ) worldwide , becoming Kapoor 's highest @-@ grossing release . In a scathing review , Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV called the film a " massive mess " and wrote that Kapoor " ends up looking more moronic than macho " in it . Kapoor suffered from burn injuries on his back and hands while filming a stunt sequence in R ... Rajkumar .
= = = Awards success ( 2014 – present ) = = =
Kapoor next reunited with director Vishal Bhardwaj to film Haider ( 2014 ) , an adaptation of William Shakespeare 's tragedy Hamlet set during the Kashmir conflict of 1995 , in which he played the titular role opposite Tabu and Shraddha Kapoor . Kapoor described the film as the " toughest " of his career , and waived his fees to star in it . For the role , he shaved his head and learned to speak in a Kashmiri dialect . Haider garnered critical acclaim , though was controversial among Indian nationalists for its portrayal of the conflict in Kashmir . Sanjukta Sharma of Mint found the film to be an " immensely effective reimagination of Shakespeare " and particularly praised Kapoor for playing his part with " impressive zest and inventiveness " . Writing for Hindustan Times , critic Anupama Chopra wrote that Kapoor initially seemed uncomfortable in the complex central role , but added that he " slowly [ ... ] comes to inhabit Haider , veering from rage to jealousy to madness in a heartbeat . " Kapoor won several awards for the role , including the Screen Award , Producers Guild Film Award and Filmfare Award for Best Actor .
The year 2015 saw Kapoor feature as a talent judge on the dance reality show Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa Reloaded . His sole film release that year was opposite Alia Bhatt in Vikas Bahl 's Shaandaar , a romantic comedy about two insomniacs who fall in love during a destination wedding . Despite high expectations from trade analysts , the film earned negative reviews and emerged as a commercial failure .
Kapoor next took on the role of a drug abusing rock star in Udta Punjab ( 2016 ) , a crime drama from the director Abhishek Chaubey that documents the substance abuse endemic in the Indian state of Punjab . Kapoor , a teetotaler , found it challenging to play a character who he deemed to be " all about addiction " . He based the role on several pop stars , and was particularly interested in bringing out the character 's hidden vulnerability despite his obnoxious actions . Udta Punjab generated controversy when the Central Board of Film Certification demanded extensive censorship before its theatrical release , citing that the portrayal of Punjab in it was negative . The demands sparked a broad debate about the freedom of expression in India . After the producers of the film filed lawsuit against the board , the Bombay High Court cleared the film for exhibition with a single scene cut , in which Kapoor 's character is shown urinating on people . In a highly positive review , Sukanya Verma took note of the film 's anti @-@ drug message ; in addition , she considered Kapoor to be " spectacularly unbridled " in his part and added that " the believability he brings to his complex transition while preserving his inherent flakiness deserves all the praise " .
As of June 2016 , Kapoor he has completed filming the part of a soldier in Rangoon , a romantic drama set during World War II , co @-@ starring Saif Ali Khan and Kangana Ranaut , which marks his third collaboration with Vishal Bhardwaj .
= = Personal life and off @-@ screen work = =
Kapoor 's personal life is the subject of fervent tabloid reporting in India . During the filming of Fida in 2004 , he began dating Kareena Kapoor and they both publicly spoke of the relationship . They were involved in a well @-@ publicised scandal when Mid Day published a set of pictures of them kissing in public . Despite claims by the couple that the pictures were fabricated , the newspaper denied any wrongdoing . The couple separated in 2007 during the filming of Jab We Met . Since their split , Kapoor decided to keep his personal life away from media attention . However , tabloids speculated on his relationship with several other actresses , including Vidya Balan and Priyanka Chopra .
In March 2015 , Kapoor spoke of his impending marriage to Mira Rajput , a student from New Delhi , who is 13 years his junior . The Times of India reported that Kapoor met Rajput through the religious group Radha Soami Satsang Beas . The couple married at a private ceremony in Gurgaon on 7 July 2015 . They are expecting their first child in fall 2016 .
In addition to acting in films , Kapoor performs on stage and hosts award ceremonies . In 2006 , he participated in a world tour , entitled RockStars , in which he performed alongside Kareena Kapoor , John Abraham , Salman Khan and three other celebrities . From 2010 – 12 , Kapoor has co @-@ hosted three Screen Awards ceremonies with Shah Rukh Khan , and from 2012 – 14 he co @-@ hosted three International Indian Film Academy Awards with either Khan or Farhan Akhtar .
Kapoor practices vegetarianism , and credits the author Brian Hines ' book Life is Fair for influencing the lifestyle choice . He also supports charitable organisations for various causes . In 2010 , he took part in a charity event named Superstars Ka Jalwa , which helped generate money for the employees of the Cine and Television Artists Association ( CINTAA ) . Also that year , he lent his support to the NGO Swayamsiddh , which helps children with special needs . The following year , he adopted three villages in support of NDTV 's Greenathon , an initiative to support environmental consciousness and improve electricity supplies to rural areas . In 2012 , Kapoor helped revive the Victory Arts Foundation NGO , founded by Shiamak Davar , which helps underprivileged children through dance therapy programs . Also that year , he appeared alongside other Bollywood celebrities in Because My World Is Not The Same , a short film by Zoya Akhtar , to generate awareness on breast cancer . He supports the People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals organisation through advertisement campaigns .
= = In the media = =
The journalist Dave Besseling of GQ , in 2014 , described Kapoor as " friendly , chirpy , affable frat @-@ boy type . Someone you ’ d want to play video games with on a Sunday , but keep the hell away from your sister " . However , certain media publications have labelled Kapoor a recluse and described him as arrogant and temperamental . Vickey Lalwani of Mumbai Mirror wrote in 2012 that this perceived media image hindered certain filmmakers from approaching him for roles . Addressing this image , Kapoor remarked , " I just don ’ t socialise much , I don ’ t party too much , I don ’ t know what to say to the media if I ’ m not talking about a film that I am doing , so yeah , maybe I am perceived as a snob . "
Analysing his career , the entertainment portal Bollywood Hungama published that his " boy next door persona " was initially perceived by critics as a weakness , but credited him for turning it into a trademark . Jitesh Pillai of Filmfare wrote that after gaining recognition in urban romantic roles , Kapoor defied typecasting by taking on diverse parts in crime dramas and action films . He noted that Kapoor 's refusal to be " slotted under any kind of tag " led to a fluctuating career trajectory . Following the success of Jab We Met ( 2007 ) and Kaminey ( 2009 ) , Kapoor 's career went through a decline ; he described the phase as a series of " wrong choices " and said that taking on a challenging role in Haider ( 2014 ) helped him reinvent himself . Sonal Gera of The Indian Express opined that the film established him in Bollywood . In her book Power of a Common Man , the author Koral Dasgupta writes that Kapoor does not " [ conform ] to any fixed rules of the trade " , and notes that despite having a lopsided success ratio at the box office , he remains popular among the audiences .
A popular celebrity , Kapoor has a significant following on Twitter and Instagram . Considered one of the most attractive male celebrities in India , he regularly features in the British magazine Eastern Eye 's listing of the " 50 Sexiest Asian Men in the World " . In 2012 and 2013 he was ranked fourth , and in 2014 he came in fifth . He was ranked fifth on The Times of India 's list of the 50 most @-@ desirable men in 2014 ; he was placed among the top 10 in 2012 , 2013 and 2015 . Kapoor was named the sexiest vegetarian man of India and Asia @-@ Pacific in 2009 and 2011 , respectively , by PETA . From 2012 – 15 , he featured among the top 50 in the Indian edition of the Forbes ' " Celebrity 100 , " a list based on the income and popularity of India 's celebrities , peaking at the 15th position in 2015 . Kapoor is the celebrity ambassador for several brands and products , including Samsung , Elf Aquitaine and Colgate .
= = Filmography and awards = =
= = = Selected filmography = = =
= = = Awards = = =
Kapoor has been the recipient of two Filmfare Awards : Best Male Debut for Ishq Vishk ( 2003 ) and Best Actor for Haider ( 2014 ) . He has received two more Best Actor nominations at the ceremony for Jab We Met ( 2007 ) and Kaminey ( 2009 ) .
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= Manny Harris =
Corperryale L 'Adorable " Manny " Harris ( born September 21 , 1989 ) is an American professional basketball player for the Anhui Wenyi of the Chinese NBL . He has previously played for the Los Angeles Lakers , Cleveland Cavaliers , Los Angeles D @-@ Fenders , Canton Charge , Texas Legends , BC Azovmash and NSK Eskişehir Basket . He is a former All @-@ Big Ten Conference guard who played three seasons for the Michigan Wolverines team .
He decided to forgo his final year of collegiate eligibility and declare himself eligible for the 2010 NBA draft , but went undrafted . He signed with the Cavaliers of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He began his second year injured and rehabbed for two months in the NBA D @-@ League with Cavaliers ' affiliate , the Canton Charge , before being re @-@ signed by the Cavaliers . He signed with BC Azovmash of Ukraine in September 2012 and spent 2012 – 13 playing in the Ukrainian Basketball SuperLeague . For the following two seasons he split time in the NBA , NBA D @-@ League and in the Turkish Basketball League . He is an NBA D @-@ League All @-@ star and five @-@ time D @-@ League performer of the week . He holds the single @-@ game scoring records for both the Charge and D @-@ Fenders franchises .
At Michigan , he was a 2008 – 09 first team All @-@ Big Ten Conference selection , a 2007 – 08 second team All @-@ Big Ten selection and a 2009 – 10 third team All @-@ Big Ten selection . Harris also earned Big Ten Academic All @-@ Conference honors as both a sophomore and a junior after the 2008 – 09 and 2009 – 10 Big Ten Conference regular seasons . Harris began the 2009 – 10 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season by recording the second triple double in school history .
Harris previously attended Redford High School in Detroit , Michigan , where he won the state 's Mr. Basketball award as a senior . Harris is one of only five Big Ten Conference basketball players to have finished in the top ten in the conference in scoring , rebounding , and assist average in the same season and prior to Evan Turner 's 2009 – 10 season , Harris ' 2008 – 09 season was the only time a player had finished in the top six of all three categories .
= = High school = =
Born in Detroit , Michigan , Harris was a 2005 Class A All @-@ State fifth team selection as a sophomore by The Detroit News . He was an Associated Press Class A All @-@ State first team selection in each of the next two seasons . Harris was selected as the 2007 Mr. Basketball of Michigan . That season he led the Redford to the Michigan High School Athletic Association Class A championship game , which it lost to Saginaw High School . During his high school basketball career , he became the first player to start for three consecutive Detroit Public School League championship teams since Jalen Rose and Voshon Lenard had done so from 1989 to 1991 . At Redford , Harris once recorded 52 points and 15 rebounds . During the 2006 – 07 season , his last at Redford , Harris averaged 33 @.@ 5 points , 11 @.@ 5 rebounds and 5 @.@ 5 assists . Harris was highly recruited , receiving offers from Tennessee , UCLA , Wisconsin , George Washington , and Indiana before committing to the University of Michigan . He was ranked by Rivals.com as the sixth @-@ best shooting guard in the country in the 2007 high school class , while Scout.com ranked him the twelfth @-@ best shooting guard . ESPN ranked him # 7 , but they listed him as a point guard . When Michigan announced that it would replace Tommy Amaker with John Beilein as head coach , Harris was initially unsure if he would honor his signed letter of intent , but when Michigan re @-@ signed assistant coach Mike Jackson , he again decided to attend the school .
= = College = =
= = = Freshman year = = =
Prior to the 2007 – 08 basketball season , Freshman Harris was selected as a second team pre @-@ season All @-@ Big Ten Conference selection . He started every game for the 2007 – 08 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team . He scored 13 points and tallied 4 steals in his debut on November 9 against Radford . After the 2007 – 08 NCAA basketball season , Harris was selected as a second team All @-@ Big Ten Conference selection and an All @-@ Freshman team selection . He led the Wolverines in scoring ( 16 @.@ 4 ) , assists ( 2 @.@ 8 ) , steals ( 1 @.@ 5 ) , minutes ( 32 @.@ 9 ) and free throw percentage ( 82 @.@ 0 ) . Among his highlights during the season were being named to the Great Alaska Shootout tournament team , becoming the fourth U @-@ M freshman to score over 500 points in first season ( 516 ) , and setting the U @-@ M freshman record for free throws made in a season while playing at least 20 minutes and starting every game . During the season , he keyed the first three @-@ game winning streak of the season for the team , which earned him his first Big Ten Player of the Week Award .
= = = Sophomore year = = =
As a 2008 – 09 first team pre @-@ season All @-@ Big Ten player , he was the first Wolverine to earn the honor since Daniel Horton in 2004 . Although he was the leading returning scorer and top draft prospect , Purdue 's Robbie Hummel was named Big Ten Preseason Player of the Year . Preseason All @-@ Big Ten status has not always led to regular season honors . In both 2005 and 2007 , only two preseason selections made the regular season team . Harris opened the 2008 – 09 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball season with a career @-@ high 30 points in a 77 – 55 victory over Michigan Tech on November 11 . The following night in the second game of the Coaches vs. cancer classic , Harris nearly posted a triple double when he posted 26 points , and career @-@ highs with 10 rebounds and 8 assists in a 76 – 56 win against Northeastern University . This quick start earned Harris the November 17 , 2008 Big Ten Player of the Week Award . Harris led the Big Ten Conference in scoring until the second to last game of the preconference schedule when he snapped a ten @-@ game double digit scoring streak . Throughout the season , he continued to battle with fellow sophomores Evan Turner and Talor Battle for the Big Ten scoring leadership . On February 5 , Harris was selected along with Kalin Lucas as one of only two Big Ten John R. Wooden Award 2008 – 09 Midseason Top 30 Candidates . On March 5 , the National Association of Basketball Coaches honored Harris as a District 7 ( Big Ten ) first @-@ team selection along with four other sophomores ( Lucas , Turner , Battle , and JaJuan Johnson ) . On March 9 after the conclusion of the 2008 – 09 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season , he was named to the first team All @-@ Big Ten by both the Big Ten coaches and the Big Ten media along with the same four sophomores . He was also chosen on March 10 by the U.S. Basketball Writers Association for its 2008 – 09 Men 's Division I District V ( OH , IN , IL , MI , MN , WI ) Team , based on voting from its national membership . On March 26 Harris was honored as one of four Michigan men 's basketball Winter Sports Big Ten Academic All @-@ Conference selections .
Iowa Hawkeyes freshman Matt Gatens completed the 2008 – 2009 season with 75 / 83 90 @.@ 4 % Free Throw shooting percentage in 32 games . However , a common threshold for eligibility for such a statistical championship is 2 @.@ 5 free throws made per game and 75 % of team games played , leaving him five free throws short of eligibility . Thus , Harris , at 86 @.@ 3 % ( 176 / 204 ) , was the Big Ten leader among those with a qualifying number of attempts according to some sources . However , the Big Ten Conference recognizes only two Free Throws made per game as the threshold . Nonetheless , the NCAA recognizes a 2 @.@ 5 attempts per game minimum . Thus , according to the Big Ten Gatens is the Conference Free Throw Champion and according to the NCAA Harris is the champion . Harris led the Wolverines in points , minutes , assists and steals . Additionally , Harris finished one behind teammate DeShawn Sims for the team leadership rebounds . In the Big Ten , Harris ranked first ( or second depending on the source ) in free throw percentage , first in free throws made , second in points per game , fifth in assists per game , and sixth in rebounds per game . Harris and Evan Turner ( who led the Big Ten in scoring ) were the only Big Ten players to finish in the conference 's top 10 in total points , rebounds , assists , and steals . They are the 4th and 5th players in conference history to finish in the top ten in average points , rebounds , and assists since assists became a statistic in 1983 – 84 , following Steve Smith , Jim Jackson , and Brian Evans . Of these five , Harris was the only one to finish in the top six in each stat prior to Turner 's 2009 @-@ 10 season .
= = = Junior year = = =
Entering the 2009 – 10 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season for the 2009 – 10 Michigan Wolverines , Harris was regarded by some as the most highly rated player in the Big Ten . E.g. , the FOX Sports preseason All @-@ American list included him on its second team . No other Big Ten player was listed above the third team . However , ESPN chose both Lucas and Turner to its preseason second @-@ team All @-@ American list , while Harris was not shown on a single ballot . Harris and Sims were named among the 50 preseason Wooden Award watch list nominees . Harris was also named to the preaseason Naismith College Player of the Year watchlist . The 24 @-@ member Big Ten media panel selected Harris as a first team preseason All @-@ Big Ten team member .
Harris opened the season by recording the second triple double in school history ( Gary Grant was the first ) against Division II Northern Michigan . This earned him his third Big Ten player of the week honor and marked the second consecutive season he earned the honor in the first week of the year . Harris was suspended prior to the January 23 game against # 13 Purdue due to unsportsmanlike conduct in one of the team 's practices . Harris was named as a finalist for the 2010 Bob Cousy Award and a Midseason Top @-@ 30 finalist for the 2010 John Wooden Award . At the conclusion of the regular season , he was named a third @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten selection by both the conference coaches and the media . He was recognized as an All @-@ District second @-@ team selection by the National Association of Basketball Coaches making him eligible for the State Farm Division I All ‐ America teams . Since the Big Ten Conference was its own district , this is equivalent to being named second team All @-@ Big Ten by the NABC . Harris concluded his junior season with 484 free throws made . Cazzie Russell holds the official Michigan career record with 486 with Louis Bullock 's 505 total having been vacated due to the University of Michigan basketball scandal . He joined Jalen Rose and Mike McGee as the only Wolverines to amass 1600 points over a three @-@ year period . Harris finished the season among the Big Ten Conference leaders in several statistical categories including : fourth in scoring , tenth in rebounds , fifth in assists , seventh in free throw percentage , second in steals ( 1 @.@ 83 to 1 @.@ 81 ) , and eighth in minutes played .
= = = 2010 NBA draft = = =
Harris told Coach John Beilein he would not be returning to the team for his senior season on March 26 , 2010 . He was set hire an agent soon thereafter . Although these were rumors reported by The Detroit News , Harris held a press conference on March 29 to announce his intentions to enter the NBA draft . ESPN had him ranked at 76 . Draft Express , projected him as the 25th pick of the 2nd round . Another source had him listed as the 22nd pick of the 2nd round . Two days after the announcement , Harris was recognized as an Academic All @-@ Conference performer again . Harris ' name remained on the draft eligible list at the time of the April 25 deadline . Harris endured a hamstring injury shortly before the draft , which hampered his draft workouts and draft potential . Harris was undrafted in the 2010 NBA draft on June 24 , 2010 .
= = = College Statistics = = =
= = Professional career = =
= = = 2010 – 11 season = = =
Harris played for the Cleveland Cavaliers in the NBA Summer League in 2010 . He saw limited action due to the same ankle injury that impaired his draft status . After being an undrafted player from Michigan for about 31 ⁄ 2 months , Harris joined the Cleveland Cavaliers with a # 6 jersey number as a non @-@ guaranteed free agent member of the 20 @-@ man preseason roster . The Cavaliers reduced their roster to 15 by October 19 without cutting Harris , which meant that Harris made the final roster . On opening night of the 2010 – 11 NBA season for the Cavaliers , Harris was on the active twelve @-@ man roster , but was not one of the nine players to see action in the October 27 game versus the Boston Celtics . However , in the subsequent October 29 game against the Toronto Raptors , Harris debuted with an eight @-@ point performance that included two @-@ for @-@ two three point shooting . According to ESPN data , Harris ' rookie salary was $ 473 @,@ 604 , which is the lowest on the roster . Harris ' agent is Henry Thomas . Harris has been deep on the 15 @-@ man roster and in some games has not been one of the members of the 12 @-@ man active roster to dress for games . However , after compiling a 7 – 14 record in the first 21 games , head coach Byron Scott shuffled the lineup on December 8 , and Harris played twenty @-@ one minutes that night . In subsequent games , he saw significant action .
On December 29 , Harris made his first start when Mo Williams was recovering from an injury and Harris earned the surprise start instead of Ramon Sessions , scoring 8 points . Harris started again on New Years Day 2011 alongside Sessions and posted his first double digit scoring night with eleven points and his first three @-@ assist night . In his fourth start on January 7 against the Golden State , Harris posted his first double @-@ double with career highs of 16 points and 10 rebounds and added 3 steals and 4 assists , too . Then , on January 9 , he posted a new career @-@ high 27 points against the Phoenix Suns . He finished January by scoring 20 points on back @-@ to @-@ back nights against the Orlando Magic and Miami Heat on January 30 and 31 . He scored 19 in his next game against Indiana on February 2 , but then with the return of Daniel Gibson and Anthony Parker to the lineup he saw little action until Gibson was unavailable against Houston on February 23 and Harris scored 21 .
= = = 2011 – 12 season = = =
Harris was waived by the Cavaliers on December 22 , 2011 . The transaction came as the 2011 – 12 Cavaliers made their final cuts from 17 to 15 players . The move , which surprisingly left Mychel Thompson on the roster , was attributed to a freezer burn that Harris suffered on his foot during the 2011 NBA lockout in a cooling chamber designed to augment recuperation from injuries at the Nike facility in Oregon . Harris had been unable to practice with the team , but was expected to be claimed by another team . The injury has been described as the result of a cryotherapy wet sock . After clearing waivers on December 24 , Harris became an unrestricted free agent .
On December 28 , 2011 , Harris signed with the Canton Charge of the NBA Development League ( D @-@ League ) . The Charge are the D @-@ League affiliate of the Cavaliers , but the Cavaliers have no exclusive rights to Harris . He was signed under the NBA Development League 's player affiliate rule allowing " . . .D @-@ League teams to acquire up to three players that were waived from their affiliate 's NBA training camp that do not otherwise have their rights held by another team . " After about a week of rehab with the Charge , he was getting close to returning to the court with the Charge . Technically , he was waived by the team , but the Charge retained their rights to him during his rehab . On January 9 , he was readded to the roster by the Charge , and he scored 15 points for the team on the 10th in his debut .
On January 18 against the Austin Toros , he posted a game @-@ high 24 points . He entered the starting lineup on January 20 against the Texas Legends and posted a team @-@ high 17 points and added a game @-@ high 19 points and 9 rebounds in a rematch the following night . On January 24 , he contributed a game @-@ high 32 @-@ point effort against the Springfield Armor , surpassing both his professional career @-@ high of 27 set on January 9 , 2011 with Cleveland and his post @-@ secondary career @-@ high 30 set on November 11 , 2008 with Michigan . On January 27 , he had his first D @-@ league double @-@ double with 22 points and 10 rebounds , in addition to a team @-@ high 7 assists against the Bakersfield Jam . He continued his scoring binge on January 28 against the Los Angeles D @-@ Fenders with a team @-@ high 21 points . He earned the NBA Development League Performer of the Week for games played from January 23 – 29 for his three @-@ game performance in which he averaged 25 @.@ 0 points , 7 @.@ 3 rebounds , 4 @.@ 3 assists and 2 @.@ 0 steals in 34 @.@ 3 minutes per contest . On February 3 , Harris logged his professional career @-@ high 14 rebounds along with 21 points on his way to his second D @-@ League double @-@ double against the Austin Toros . Harris posted his third double @-@ double on February 11 against the Sioux Falls Skyforce with 24 points and 13 rebounds . On February 16 , Harris posted a new career high 46 points along with 9 rebounds , 6 assists and 4 steals against the Rio Grande Valley Vipers . This is a Charge record for the franchise since its move to Canton . In the rematch two nights later , he added 36 points , 9 rebounds , 6 assists and 3 steals . He became the first player to earn two player of the week awards in the 2011 – 12 season when the league recognized him for his performance for the week of February 13 – 19 . In 17 games for Canton , he had averages of 21 @.@ 4 points , 7 @.@ 9 rebounds , 3 @.@ 3 assists and 1 @.@ 6 blocks per game , while shooting 47 @.@ 0 % from the field and 40 @.@ 9 % on three @-@ point shots . On February 21 , the Cleveland Cavaliers announced they had signed Harris to a 10 @-@ day contract . He was re @-@ signed on March 2 to a second 10 @-@ day contract . After the second 10 @-@ day contract expired on March 11 and with the trade deadline approaching on March 15 , the Cavaliers opted not to sign Harris to a guaranteed contract for the rest of the season ( which would be required to re @-@ sign him after two 10 @-@ day contracts ) . Rather than report to the D @-@ League Canton Charge , Harris opted to remain a free agent while teams made roster moves .
On March 17 , 2012 , the Cavaliers re @-@ signed Harris for the remainder of the season . On March 21 , Harris moved into the main rotation and began playing about 20 minutes or more per game . On March 25 , against the Phoenix Suns , Harris posted a game @-@ high 9 rebounds . On April 6 with Parker , Kyrie Irving and Gibson all injured , Harris made his first start of the season and 16th of his career against the Toronto Raptors . On April 20 , Harris posted his first NBA double @-@ double of the season with 19 points and a game @-@ high and career @-@ high 12 rebounds against the New York Knicks . In two seasons with the Cavaleiers , Harris averaged 6 @.@ 2 points , 2 @.@ 6 rebounds and 1 @.@ 5 assists in 17 @.@ 4 minutes in 80 games ( including 20 starts ) .
= = = 2012 – 13 season = = =
On July 2 , 2012 , the Cavaliers waived Harris . Harris then joined the Houston Rockets for the 2012 NBA Summer League . On September 13 , 2012 , Harris signed with BC Azovmash in Ukraine .
= = = 2013 – 14 season = = =
On September 27 , 2013 , Harris signed with the Orlando Magic for training camp . NBA.com 's John Denton evaluated Harris as a long shot to make the 15 @-@ man roster saying that " he will likely have to beat out E 'Twaun Moore or Doron Lamb at shooting guard " . Meanwhile , the Bleacher Report 's Justin Hussong listed Harris 4th on the pre @-@ training camp shooting guard depth chart behind Arron Afflalo , Victor Oladipo , and Lamb . He was later waived on October 25 . On December 7 , Harris ' rights were acquired by Los Angeles D @-@ Fenders in a trade with the Canton Charge . In his D @-@ Fenders debut on December 14 , 2013 against the Santa Cruz Warriors , he scored 41 points . He also had a professional career @-@ high 5 steals , 4 rebounds and 3 assists . The next night , Harris scored 24 points along with 4 rebounds and 3 assists . On December 16 , he was one of the top D @-@ League players of the week . On December 23 , he was again one of the top D @-@ league players of the week , based on a pair of 20 + -point performances . He was also a finalist for D @-@ League Player of the Month . Harris averaged 29 @.@ 3 points per game for the week ending January 5 , leading his team in scoring and to victory in each of the three games . As a result , he earned his first D @-@ League player of the week award of the season and third of his career . On January 10 , Harris posted 49 points along with 6 rebounds , 3 steals , 3 assists and a block against the Idaho Stampede . The 49 points was a Los Angeles D @-@ Fenders franchise record ( surpassing the old 43 @-@ point record ) and tied the 2013 @-@ 14 NBADL season high set earlier by Pierre Jackson . The record was eclipsed exactly three weeks later by Terrence Williams , who scored 50 for the D @-@ Fenders against the same team . On January 11 , against the Stampede , Harris posted 38 points and 10 rebounds , but the D @-@ Fenders ' six @-@ game winning streak was snapped . On January 13 , Harris earned his second consecutive NBA Development League Performer of the Week award . On January 13 , Harris scored 42 against the Maine Red Claws to improve his season scoring average to 30 @.@ 6 , taking the league lead from Jackson . In 13 games with the D @-@ Fenders , Harris averaged a league @-@ leading 30 @.@ 6 points , league @-@ leading 8 @.@ 9 free throws made and a league @-@ leading 10 @.@ 2 free throws attempted . He also averaged 6 @.@ 5 rebounds , 3 @.@ 7 assists and 2 @.@ 1 steals ( 6th in the league ) , while shooting 48 @.@ 5 % .
On January 16 , 2014 , Harris signed a 10 @-@ day contract with the Los Angeles Lakers . In his debut with the Lakers the next day , he had 7 points , 3 rebounds and an assist in a 107 @-@ 104 win over the Boston Celtics . On January 26 , he signed a second 10 @-@ day contract after averaging 6 @.@ 4 points , 3 @.@ 6 rebounds and 1 @.@ 6 assists in 20 @.@ 9 minutes in 5 games . The Lakers were enduring injuries of guards Kobe Bryant , Steve Nash , Steve Blake , Jordan Farmar , and Xavier Henry . After re @-@ signing , Harris posted a season high 18 points that night against the New York Knicks .
On February 3 , 2014 , Harris was named to the Futures All @-@ Star roster for the 2014 NBA D @-@ League All @-@ Star Game . At the time of the announcement , Harris was one of at five players on an NBA roster ( along with Malcolm Thomas , Isaiah Canaan , Robert Covington , and Chris Johnson ) that were selected , but who had played over half of their D @-@ League team 's games through January 26 , which is the D @-@ League All @-@ Star eligibility requirement . He must be on a D @-@ League team roster as of February 15 to play in the game . On February 4 , the eve of the end of Harris ' second 10 @-@ day contract , the Lakers appeared to be returning to good health , with the return of Nash , Blake and Farmar to the lineup imminent . That night , although Nash and Blake returned to the starting lineup against Minnesota , Jodie Meeks and Jordan Hill were injured in the first quarter and Harris contributed 19 points and 8 rebounds even though he had been told before the game he would not be re @-@ signed . On February 7 , 2014 , he was re @-@ acquired by the D @-@ Fenders . On February 8 , 2014 , Harris again set a new D @-@ Fenders franchise scoring record , this time with 56 points , while adding 15 rebounds against the Santa Cruz Warriors . It was two points shy of the league record set by Jackson four days earlier . He was a nominee for D @-@ League Player of the Week , but Jackson won . Harris only played 12 minutes in the February 15 D @-@ League All @-@ Star game . Afterwards , he missed some games due to an ankle injury . He returned to the lineup ont February 24 . He was a finalist for player of the week on March 3 and March 10 . After playing a total of 22 games in the NBA D @-@ League for the D @-@ Fenders and averaging 31 @.@ 6 points , 7 @.@ 9 rebounds and 3 @.@ 7 assists , Harris signed with Türk Telekom B.K. of the Turkish Basketball League on March 13 .
= = = 2014 – 15 season = = =
On November 1 , 2014 , Harris was reacquired by the Los Angeles D @-@ Fenders . On December 6 , Harris posted a triple @-@ double with 23 points , 12 assists and 10 rebounds to help the D @-@ fenders defeat the Reno Bighorns . On December 20 , Harris recorded his second triple @-@ double of the season with 39 points , 13 assists and 10 rebounds in an historic win . The D @-@ Fenders set new NBA Development League records of most points scored in a single quarter , half and game en route to a 175 @-@ 152 win over Reno . On December 22 , Harris earned his first D @-@ League Performer of the Week of the season and fifth of his career . On December 30 , Harris left Los Angeles in order to sign with NSK Eskişehir Basket of the Turkish Basketball League the following day .
= = = 2015 – 16 season = = =
On October 31 , 2015 , Harris returned to the Los Angeles D @-@ Fenders for a third stint . He began the season as a finalist for performer of the week during the first week and a half of the season . On December 14 , he was traded to the Texas Legends in exchange for the returning player rights to Damion James . On January 26 , 2016 , he left Texas and signed with Türk Telekom for a second stint .
In May 2016 , Harris signed in China with the Anhui Wenyi for the 2016 NBL season .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = NBA = = =
= = = = Regular season = = = =
= = = NBA D @-@ League = = =
= = = = Regular Season = = = =
= = = International Leagues = = =
= = = = Regular season = = = =
= = Personal = =
His name , Corperryale , is a combination of the names of his cousin ( Corrine ) , an uncle ( Perry ) and the " ale " of his immediate siblings — Janelle , Jerrelle and Al . He has a total of nine brothers and sisters and is the son of Merrick ( Harris @-@ Carter ) and James Carter . His nickname , " Manny " , was given to him by his father after the character Manny Ribera in Scarface . During the 2013 @-@ 14 season , the @ DFenders and @ nbadleague Twitter accounts occasionally referred to Harris using the hashtag # MichiganMamba . Upon being called up to the NBA , @ LakerNation used the nickname once .
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= Atlantic hurricane =
An Atlantic hurricane or tropical storm is a tropical cyclone that forms in the Atlantic Ocean , usually in the summer or fall . Tropical cyclones can be categorized by intensity . Tropical storms have one @-@ minute maximum sustained winds of at least 39 mph ( 34 knots , 17 m / s , 63 km / h ) , while hurricanes have one @-@ minute maximum sustained winds exceeding 74 mph ( 64 knots , 33 m / s , 119 km / h ) . Most North Atlantic tropical storms and hurricanes form between June 1 and November 30 . The United States National Hurricane Center monitors the basin and issues reports , watches , and warnings about tropical weather systems for the North Atlantic Basin as one of the Regional Specialized Meteorological Centers for tropical cyclones , as defined by the World Meteorological Organization .
In recent times , tropical disturbances that reach tropical storm intensity are named from a predetermined list . Hurricanes that result in significant damage or casualties may have their names retired from the list at the request of the affected nations in order to prevent confusion should a subsequent storm be given the same name . On average , in the North Atlantic basin ( from 1966 to 2009 ) 11 @.@ 3 named storms occur each season , with an average of 6 @.@ 2 becoming hurricanes and 2 @.@ 3 becoming major hurricanes ( Category 3 or greater ) . The climatological peak of activity is around September 11 each season .
In March 2004 , Catarina was the first hurricane @-@ intensity tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Southern Atlantic Ocean . Since 2011 , the Brazilian Navy Hydrographic Center has started to use the same scale of the North Atlantic Ocean for tropical cyclones in the South Atlantic Ocean and assign names to those which reach 35 kn ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) .
= = Steering factors = =
Tropical cyclones are steered by the surrounding flow throughout the depth of the troposphere ( the atmosphere from the surface to about eight miles ( 12 km ) high ) . Neil Frank , former director of the United States National Hurricane Center , used the analogies such as " a leaf carried along in a stream " or a " brick moving through a river of air " to describe the way atmospheric flow affects the path of a hurricane across the ocean . Specifically , air flow around high pressure systems and toward low pressure areas influence hurricane tracks .
In the tropical latitudes , tropical storms and hurricanes generally move westward with a slight tend toward the north , under the influence of the subtropical ridge , a high pressure system that usually extends east @-@ west across the subtropics . South of the subtropical ridge , surface easterly winds ( blowing from east to west ) prevail . If the subtropical ridge is weakened by an upper trough , a tropical cyclone may turn poleward and then recurve , or curve back toward the northeast into the main belt of the Westerlies . Poleward ( north ) of the subtropical ridge , westerly winds prevail and generally steer tropical cyclones that reach northern latitudes toward the east . The westerlies also steer extratropical cyclones with their cold and warm fronts from west to east .
= = Intensity = =
Generally speaking , the intensity of a tropical cyclone is determined by either the storm 's maximum sustained winds or lowest barometric pressure . The following table lists the most intense Atlantic hurricanes in terms of their lowest barometric pressure . In terms of wind speed , Hurricane Allen ( in 1980 ) was the strongest Atlantic tropical cyclone on record , with maximum sustained winds of 190 mph ( 310 km / h ) . However , these measurements are suspect since instrumentation used to document wind speeds at the time would likely succumb to winds of such intensity . Nonetheless , their central pressures are low enough to rank them among the strongest recorded Atlantic hurricanes .
Owing to their intensity , the strongest Atlantic hurricanes have all attained Category 5 classification . Hurricane Opal , the strongest Category 4 hurricane recorded , intensified to reach a minimum pressure of 916 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 05 inHg ) , a pressure typical of Category 5 hurricanes . Nonetheless , the pressure remains too high to list Opal as one of the ten strongest Atlantic tropical cyclones . Presently , Hurricane Wilma is the strongest Atlantic hurricane ever recorded , after reaching an intensity of 882 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 05 inHg ) in October 2005 ; this also made Wilma the strongest tropical cyclone worldwide outside of the West Pacific , where seven tropical cyclones have been recorded to intensify to lower pressures . However , this was later superseded by Hurricane Patricia in 2015 in the east Pacific , which had a pressure reading of 872 mbar . Preceding Wilma is Hurricane Gilbert , which had also held the record for most intense Atlantic hurricane for 17 years . The 1935 Labor Day hurricane , with a pressure of 892 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 34 inHg ) , is the third strongest Atlantic hurricane and the strongest documented tropical cyclone prior to 1950 . Since the measurements taken during Wilma and Gilbert were documented using dropsonde , this pressure remains the lowest measured over land .
Hurricane Rita is the fourth strongest Atlantic hurricane in terms of barometric pressure and one of three tropical cyclones from 2005 on the list , with the others being Wilma and Katrina at first and sixth , respectively . However , with a barometric pressure of 895 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 43 inHg ) , Rita is the strongest tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Gulf of Mexico . Hurricanes Camille , Mitch , and Dean share intensities for the seventh strongest Atlantic hurricane at 905 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 73 inHg ) . Sharing tenth place for most intense Atlantic tropical cyclone are Hurricane Ivan and an unnamed hurricane from 1932 , which both are listed to have deepened to a pressure as low as 910 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 88 inHg ) .
Many of the strongest recorded tropical cyclones weakened prior to their eventual landfall or demise . However , three of the storms remained intense enough at landfall to be considered some of the strongest landfalling hurricanes – three of the eleven hurricanes on the list constitute the three most intense Atlantic landfalls in recorded history . The 1935 Labor Day hurricane made landfall at peak intensity , making it the most intense Atlantic landfall . Though it weakened slightly before its eventual landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula , Hurricane Gilbert maintained a pressure of 900 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 58 inHg ) at landfall , making its landfall the second strongest . Similarly , Hurricane Dean made landfall on the peninsula , though it did so at peak intensity and with a higher barometric pressure ; its landfall marked the third strongest in Atlantic hurricane history .
= = Climatology = =
Climatology does serve to characterize the general properties of an average season and can be used as one of many other tools for making forecasts . Most storms form in warm waters several hundred miles north of the equator near the Intertropical convergence zone from tropical waves . The Coriolis force is usually too weak to initiate sufficient rotation near the equator . Storms frequently form in the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico , the Caribbean Sea , and the tropical Atlantic Ocean as far east as the Cape Verde Islands , the origin of strong and long @-@ lasting Cape Verde @-@ type hurricanes . Systems may also strengthen over the Gulf Stream off the coast of the eastern United States , wherever water temperatures exceed 26 @.@ 5 ° C ( 79 @.@ 7 ° F ) .
Although most storms are found within tropical latitudes , occasionally storms will form further north and east from disturbances other than tropical waves such as cold fronts and upper @-@ level lows . These are known as baroclinically induced tropical cyclones . There is a strong correlation between Atlantic hurricane activity in the tropics and the presence of an El Niño or La Niña in the Pacific Ocean . El Niño events increase the wind shear over the Atlantic , producing a less @-@ favorable environment for formation and decreasing tropical activity in the Atlantic basin . Conversely , La Niña causes an increase in activity due to a decrease in wind shear .
According to the Azores High hypothesis by Kam @-@ biu Liu , an anti @-@ phase pattern is expected to exist between the Gulf of Mexico coast and the North American Atlantic coast . During the quiescent periods ( 3000 – 1400 BC , and 1000 AD to present ) , a more northeasterly position of the Azores High would result in more hurricanes being steered toward the Atlantic coast . During the hyperactive period ( 1400 BC to 1000 AD ) , more hurricanes were steered towards the Gulf coast as the Azores High was shifted to a more southwesterly position near the Caribbean . Such a displacement of the Azores High is consistent with paleoclimatic evidence that shows an abrupt onset of a drier climate in Haiti around 3200 14C years BP , and a change towards more humid conditions in the Great Plains during the late @-@ Holocene as more moisture was pumped up the Mississippi Valley through the Gulf coast . Preliminary data from the northern Atlantic coast seem to support the Azores High hypothesis . A 3000 @-@ year proxy record from a coastal lake in Cape Cod suggests that hurricane activity has increased significantly during the past 500 – 1000 years , just as the Gulf coast was amid a quiescent period of the last millennium .
= = = Seasonal variation = = =
Climatologically speaking , approximately 97 percent of tropical cyclones that form in the North Atlantic develop between the dates of June 1 and November 30 – dates which delimit the modern @-@ day Atlantic hurricane season . Though the beginning of the annual hurricane season has historically remained the same , the official end of the hurricane season has shifted from its initial date of October 31 . Regardless , on average once every few years a tropical cyclone develops outside the limits of the season ; as of January 2016 there have been 66 tropical cyclones in the off @-@ season , with the most recent being Hurricane Alex in 2016 . The first tropical cyclone of the 1938 Atlantic hurricane season , which formed on January 3 , became the earliest forming tropical storm and hurricane after reanalysis concluded on the storm in December 2012 .
Hurricane Able in 1951 was initially thought to be the earliest forming major hurricane – a tropical cyclone with winds exceeding 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) – however following post @-@ storm analysis it was determined that Able only reached Category 1 strength which made Hurricane Alma of 1966 the new record holder ; as it became a major hurricane on June 8 . Though it developed within the bounds of the Atlantic hurricane season , Hurricane Audrey in 1957 became the earliest developing Category 4 hurricane on record after it reached the intensity on June 27 . The earliest @-@ forming Category 5 hurricane , Emily , reached the highest intensity on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale on July 17 , 2005 .
Though the official end of the Atlantic hurricane season occurs on November 30 , the dates of October 31 and November 15 have also historically marked the official end date for the hurricane season . December , the only month of the year after the hurricane season , has featured the cyclogenesis of fourteen tropical cyclones . Tropical Storm Zeta in 2005 was the latest tropical cyclone to attain tropical storm intensity as it did so on December 30 . However , the second Hurricane Alice in 1954 was the latest forming tropical cyclone to attain hurricane intensity . Both Zeta and Alice were the only two storms to exist in two calendar years – the former from 1954 to 1955 and the latter from 2005 to 2006 . No storms have been recorded to exceed Category 1 hurricane intensity in December . In 1999 , Hurricane Lenny reached Category 4 intensity on November 17 as it took an unprecedented west to east track across the Caribbean ; its intensity made it the latest developing Category 4 hurricane , though this was well within the bounds of the hurricane season . Hurricane Hattie ( October 27 @-@ November 1 , 1961 ) was initially thought to have been the latest forming Category 5 hurricane ever documented , though reanalysis indicated that a devastating hurricane in 1932 reached such an intensity at a later date . Consequently , this made the hurricane the latest developing tropical cyclone to reach all four Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale classifications past Category 1 intensity .
= = = = June = = = =
The beginning of the hurricane season is most closely related to the timing of increases in sea surface temperatures , convective instability , and other thermodynamic factors . Although June marks the beginning of the hurricane season , generally little activity occurs during the month with an average of 1 tropical cyclone every 2 years . Tropical systems usually form in the Gulf of Mexico or off the east coast of the United States .
Since 1851 , a total of 81 tropical storms and hurricanes formed in the month of June . During this period , two of these systems developed in the deep tropics east of the Lesser Antilles . Since 1870 , three major hurricanes have formed during June , most notably Hurricane Audrey in 1957 . Audrey ranks as the earliest forming Category 4 hurricane in the Atlantic basin . Audrey attained an intensity greater than that of any Atlantic tropical cyclone during June or July until Hurricanes Dennis and Emily of 2005 . The easternmost forming storm during June , Tropical Storm Ana in 1979 , formed at 45 ° W.
= = = = July = = = =
Not much tropical activity occurs during the month of July , but the majority of hurricane seasons see the formation of one tropical cyclone during July . From an average of Atlantic tropical cyclone seasons from 1944 to 1996 , the first tropical storm in half of the seasons occurred by 11 July , and a second formed by 8 August .
Formation usually occurs in the eastern Caribbean Sea around the Lesser Antilles , in the northern and eastern parts of the Gulf of Mexico , in the vicinity of the northern Bahamas , and off the coast of The Carolinas and Virginia over the Gulf Stream . Storms travel westward through the Caribbean and then either move towards the north and curve near the eastern coast of the United States or stay on a north @-@ westward track and enter the Gulf of Mexico .
Since 1851 , a total of 105 tropical storms have formed during the month of July . Since 1870 , ten of these storms reached major hurricane intensity . Only Hurricane Emily of 2005 , the strongest July tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin , attained Category 5 hurricane status during July , making it the earliest Category 5 hurricane on record . The easternmost forming storm and longest lived during the month of July , Hurricane Bertha in 2008 , formed at 22 @.@ 9 ° W and lasted 17 days .
= = = = August = = = =
Decrease in wind shear from July to August contributes to a significant increase of tropical activity . An average of 2 @.@ 8 Atlantic tropical storms develop annually in August . On average , four named tropical storms , including one hurricane , occur by August 30 , and the first intense hurricane develops by 4 September .
= = = = September = = = =
The peak of the hurricane season occurs in September and corresponds with low wind shear and the warmest sea surface temperatures . The month of September sees an average of 3 storms a year . By 24 September , the average Atlantic season features 7 named tropical storms , including 4 hurricanes . In addition , two major hurricanes occur on average by 28 September . Relatively few tropical cyclones make landfall at these intensities .
= = = = October = = = =
The favorable conditions found during September begin to decay in October . The main reason for the decrease in activity is increasing wind shear , although sea surface temperatures are also cooler than in September . Activity falls markedly with 1 @.@ 8 cyclones developing on average despite a climatological secondary peak around 20 October . By 21 October , the average season features 9 named storms with 5 hurricanes . A third major hurricane occurs after 28 September in half of all Atlantic tropical cyclone seasons . In contrast to mid @-@ season activity , the mean locus of formation shifts westward to the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico , reversing the eastward progression of June through August .
= = = = November = = = =
Wind shear from westerlies increases substantially through November , generally preventing cyclone formation . On average , one tropical storm forms during every other November . On rare occasions , a major hurricane occurs . The few intense hurricanes in November include Hurricane " Cuba " in late October and early November 1932 ( the strongest November hurricane on record peaking as a Category 5 hurricane ) , Hurricane Lenny in mid @-@ November 1999 , Hurricane Kate in late November 1985 ( the latest major hurricane on record ) , and Hurricane Paloma in early November 2008 .
= = = = December to May = = = =
Although the hurricane season is defined as beginning on June 1 and ending on November 30 , there have been several off @-@ season storms . Since 1870 , there have been 32 off @-@ season cyclones , 18 of which occurred in May . In the same time span , nine storms formed in December , two in April , and one each in January , February and March . During five years ( 1887 , 1953 , 2003 , 2007 , and 2012 ) , tropical cyclones formed in the North Atlantic Ocean both during or before May and during December . In 1887 , four storms occurred outside the season , the most in a single year . High vertical wind shear and low sea surface temperatures generally preclude tropical cyclone formation during the off @-@ season .
Tropical cyclones have formed in all months . Four tropical cyclones existed during the month of January , two of which formed during late December : the second Hurricane Alice in 1954 / 1955 , and Tropical Storm Zeta in 2005 / 2006 . The only two hurricanes to form in January are a Category 1 hurricane in the 1938 season , and Hurricane Alex in the 2016 season . A subtropical storm in January also began the 1978 Atlantic hurricane season . No major hurricanes have occurred in the off @-@ season .
= = Extremes = =
The season in which the most tropical storms formed on record was the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season ( 28 ) . That season was also the one in which the most hurricanes formed on record ( 15 ) .
The 2005 Atlantic hurricane season had the most major hurricanes on record ( 7 ) . The 1950 Atlantic hurricane season was once thought to have 8 , but a re @-@ analysis showed that several storms were weaker than thought , and thus the record is now held by the 2005 season .
The least active season on record since 1946 ( when the database is considered more reliable ) was the 1983 Atlantic hurricane season , with one tropical storm , two hurricanes , and one major hurricane . Overall , the 1914 Atlantic hurricane season remains the least active , with only one documented storm .
The most intense hurricane ( by barometric pressure ) on record to form in the North Atlantic basin was Hurricane Wilma ( 2005 ) ( 882 mbar ) .
The largest hurricane ( in gale diameter ) on record to form in the North Atlantic was Hurricane Sandy ( 2012 ) with a gale diameter of 1 @,@ 100 miles .
The longest @-@ lasting hurricane was the San Ciriaco 's Hurricane of 1899 , which lasted for 27 days and 18 hours as a tropical cyclone .
The longest @-@ tracked hurricane was Hurricane Faith , which travelled for 6 @,@ 850 miles as a tropical cyclone . Faith is also the northern most moving tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin .
The most tornadoes spawned by a hurricane was 127 by Hurricane Ivan ( 2004 season ) .
The strongest landfalling hurricane was the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935 ( 892 hPa ) .
The deadliest hurricane was the Great Hurricane of 1780 ( 22 @,@ 000 fatalities ) .
The deadliest hurricane to make landfall on the continental United States was the Galveston Hurricane in 1900 which may have killed up to 12 @,@ 000 people .
The most damaging hurricane ( adjusted for inflation ) was Hurricane Katrina of the 2005 season which caused $ 108 billion in damages ( 2005 USD ) .
The quickest forming hurricane was Hurricane Humberto in 2007 . It was a minimal hurricane that formed and intensified faster than any other tropical cyclone on record before landfall . Developing on September 12 , 2007 , in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico , the cyclone rapidly strengthened and struck High Island , Texas , with winds of about 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) early on September 13 .
= = Trends = =
While the number of storms in the Atlantic has increased since 1995 , there is no obvious global trend . The annual number of tropical cyclones worldwide remains about 87 ± 10 . However , the ability of climatologists to make long @-@ term data analysis in certain basins is limited by the lack of reliable historical data in some basins , primarily in the Southern Hemisphere . In spite of that , there is some evidence that the intensity of hurricanes is increasing . In 2006 , Kerry Emanuel stated , " Records of hurricane activity worldwide show an upswing of both the maximum wind speed in and the duration of hurricanes . The energy released by the average hurricane ( again considering all hurricanes worldwide ) seems to have increased by around 70 % in the past 30 years or so , corresponding to about a 15 % increase in the maximum wind speed and a 60 % increase in storm lifetime . " At the time , Emanuel theorized that increased heat from global warming was driving this trend , however , some argue that Emanuel 's own research in 2008 refuted this theory . Others contend that the trend does not exist at all , but instead is a figment created by faulty readings from primitive 1970s @-@ era measurement equipment . Vecchi and Knutson ( 2008 ) found a weakly positive , although not statistically @-@ significant trend in the number of North Atlantic tropical cyclones for 1878 – 2006 , but also a surprisingly strong decrease in cyclone duration over this period .
On May 15 , 2014 , the journal Nature published a peer @-@ reviewed submission from October 2013 by James P. Kossin , Kerry A. Emanuel , and Gabriel A. Vecchi that suggests that a poleward migration exists for the paths of maximum intensity of tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic . The focus of the report is on the latitude at which recent tropical cyclones in the Atlantic are reaching maximum intensity . Their data indicates that during the past thirty years , the peak intensity of these storms has shifted poleward in both hemispheres at a rate of approximately 60 km per decade , amounting to approximately one degree of latitude per decade .
Atlantic storms are becoming more destructive financially , since five of the ten most expensive storms in United States history have occurred since 1990 . According to the World Meteorological Organization , “ recent increase in societal impact from tropical cyclones has largely been caused by rising concentrations of population and infrastructure in coastal regions . ” Pielke et al . ( 2008 ) normalized mainland U.S. hurricane damage from 1900 – 2005 to 2005 values and found no remaining trend of increasing absolute damage . The 1970s and 1980s were notable because of the extremely low amounts of damage compared to other decades . The decade 1996 – 2005 has the second most damage among the past 11 decades , with only the decade 1926 – 1935 surpassing its costs . The most damaging single storm is the 1926 Miami hurricane , with $ 157 billion of normalized damage .
Often in part because of the threat of hurricanes , many coastal regions had sparse population between major ports until the advent of automobile tourism ; therefore , the most severe portions of hurricanes striking the coast may have gone unmeasured in some instances . The combined effects of ship destruction and remote landfall severely limit the number of intense hurricanes in the official record before the era of hurricane reconnaissance aircraft and satellite meteorology . Although the record shows a distinct increase in the number and strength of intense hurricanes , therefore , experts regard the early data as suspect . Christopher Landsea et al. estimated an undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 and zero to four per year between 1886 and 1910 . These undercounts roughly take into account the typical size of tropical cyclones , the density of shipping tracks over the Atlantic basin , and the amount of populated coastline .
The number and strength of Atlantic hurricanes may undergo a 50 – 70 year cycle , also known as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation . Nyberg et al. reconstructed Atlantic major hurricane activity back to the early eighteenth century and found five periods averaging 3 – 5 major hurricanes per year and lasting 40 – 60 years , and six other averaging 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 major hurricanes per year and lasting 10 – 20 years . These periods are associated with the Atlantic multidecadal oscillation . Throughout , a decadal oscillation related to solar irradiance was responsible for enhancing / dampening the number of major hurricanes by 1 – 2 per year .
Although more uncommon since 1995 , few above @-@ normal hurricane seasons occurred during 1970 – 94 . Destructive hurricanes struck frequently from 1926 – 60 , including many major New England hurricanes . Twenty @-@ one Atlantic tropical storms formed in 1933 , a record only recently exceeded in 2005 , which saw 28 storms . Tropical hurricanes occurred infrequently during the seasons of 1900 – 25 ; however , many intense storms formed during 1870 – 99 . During the 1887 season , 19 tropical storms formed , of which a record 4 occurred after November 1 and 11 strengthened into hurricanes . Few hurricanes occurred in the 1840s to 1860s ; however , many struck in the early 19th century , including an 1821 storm that made a direct hit on New York City . Some historical weather experts say these storms may have been as high as Category 4 in strength .
These active hurricane seasons predated satellite coverage of the Atlantic basin . Before the satellite era began in 1960 , tropical storms or hurricanes went undetected unless a reconnaissance aircraft encountered one , a ship reported a voyage through the storm , or a storm hit land in a populated area . The official record , therefore , could miss storms in which no ship experienced gale @-@ force winds , recognized it as a tropical storm ( as opposed to a high @-@ latitude extra @-@ tropical cyclone , a tropical wave , or a brief squall ) , returned to port , and reported the experience .
Proxy records based on paleotempestological research have revealed that major hurricane activity along the Gulf of Mexico coast varies on timescales of centuries to millennia . Few major hurricanes struck the Gulf coast during 3000 – 1400 BC and again during the most recent millennium . These quiescent intervals were separated by a hyperactive period during 1400 BC and 1000 AD , when the Gulf coast was struck frequently by catastrophic hurricanes and their landfall probabilities increased by 3 – 5 times . This millennial @-@ scale variability has been attributed to long @-@ term shifts in the position of the Azores High , which may also be linked to changes in the strength of the North Atlantic Oscillation .
According to the Azores High hypothesis , an anti @-@ phase pattern is expected to exist between the Gulf of Mexico coast and the Atlantic coast . During the quiescent periods , a more northeasterly position of the Azores High would result in more hurricanes being steered towards the Atlantic coast . During the hyperactive period , more hurricanes were steered towards the Gulf coast as the Azores High was shifted to a more southwesterly position near the Caribbean . Such a displacement of the Azores High is consistent with paleoclimatic evidence that shows an abrupt onset of a drier climate in Haiti around 3200 14C years BP , and a change towards more humid conditions in the Great Plains during the late @-@ Holocene as more moisture was pumped up the Mississippi Valley through the Gulf coast . Preliminary data from the northern Atlantic coast seem to support the Azores High hypothesis . A 3000 @-@ year proxy record from a coastal lake in Cape Cod suggests that hurricane activity increased significantly during the past 500 – 1000 years , just as the Gulf coast was amid a quiescent period of the last millennium .
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= Griffith Rutherford =
Griffith Rutherford ( c . 1721 – August 10 , 1805 ) was an officer in the American Revolutionary War , a political leader in North Carolina , and an important figure in the early history of the Southwest Territory and the state of Tennessee .
During the French and Indian War , Rutherford became a captain of a local British colonial militia . He continued serving in the militia until the start of the revolution in 1775 , at which time he enlisted in the North Carolina militia as a colonel . He was appointed to the post of brigadier general of the " Salisbury District " in May 1776 , and participated in the initial phases of the Cherokee – American wars against the Cherokee Indians along the frontier . In June 1780 , he was partly responsible for the Loyalist defeat in the Battle of Ramsour 's Mill . Rutherford was present at the Battle of Camden on August 16 , 1780 , where he was taken prisoner by the British . After being exchanged in 1781 , Rutherford participated in several other campaigns , including further attacks on the Chickamauga faction of the Cherokee .
Originally from Ireland , Rutherford immigrated with his parents to Philadelphia , Pennsylvania Colony , at the age of eighteen . In 1753 he moved to Rowan County , in the Province of North Carolina , where he married Elizabeth Graham . An active member of his community , Rutherford served in multiple civil occupations . He was a representative of both houses of the North Carolina House of Commons , as well as an unsuccessful candidate for governor . Rutherford was an advocate of the anti @-@ federalist movement , and was appointed President of the Legislative Council of the Southwest Territory in 1794 . Rutherford retired to Sumner County , Tennessee , where he died on August 10 , 1805 , at the age of 84 .
= = Early life = =
Little is known about Griffith Rutherford 's early life . Born in Ireland in either 1721 or 1731 to John Rutherford , who was of Ulster Scots descent , and Elizabeth ( née Griffin ) , who was of Welsh descent , he appears clearly in records after his immigration to Philadelphia at the age of eighteen . His parents died during the voyage from Ireland , and for a while he worked on a relative 's farm , where he was taught how to survey land . Around 1753 , he moved to Rowan County , North Carolina Colony , and bought a tract of land about seven miles ( 11 km ) from Salisbury ; this was the first of several land purchases he made during the 1750s . The following year Rutherford married his neighbor 's sister , Elizabeth Graham , who eventually bore him ten children . One of their sons , James Rutherford , later became a major during the Revolutionary War , dying at the Battle of Eutaw Springs . Rutherford also became friends with Daniel Boone during this time , with whom he often went on hunting and surveying expeditions . After the French and Indian War , Rutherford became increasingly active in community affairs . He was listed as a member of the North Carolina General Assembly in 1766 , a sheriff and justice of the peace of Rowan County from 1767 to 1769 , and a tax collector .
= = French @-@ Indian War = =
Rutherford began his extensive military career in 1760 during the French and Indian War . He was a participant in several battles and skirmishes , most notably the Battle of Fort Duquesne ( 1758 ) ; the battle at Fort Dobbs ( 1760 ) ; and James Grant 's campaign against the Cherokee in the southern Appalachians ( 1761 ) . By the war 's end , he had achieved the rank of captain . Between 1769 and 1771 , he embraced the cause against the rebels during the Regulator Movement , commanding a local militia which participated in the Battle of Alamance ( May 16 , 1771 ) . The following month , Rutherford retired to Salem to recover from an acute attack of gout .
= = Revolutionary War = =
Rutherford entered the war in 1775 as a colonel in the North Carolina militia following his appointment to the Rowan County Committee of Safety . Throughout that year , his regiment helped to disarm and disperse Loyalist groups in the South Carolina back country , most notably during the Snow Campaign in Ninety Six , South Carolina . Rutherford represented Rowan County at the Fourth Provincial Congress in Halifax from April 4 to May 14 , 1776 , during which he helped develop and write the North Carolina Constitution and was promoted to brigadier general of the Salisbury District . In the summer following the conference , he raised an army of 2 @,@ 400 men to campaign against local Cherokee Indians , who had been attacking colonists on the western frontier since their alliance with the British .
= = = Campaign against the Cherokee = = =
Rutherford 's regiment rendezvoused at Fort McGahey with the Guilford and Surry regiments under Colonels James Martin and Martin Armstrong on July 23 . From there , the three groups traveled through the Blue Ridge Mountains at the Swannanoa Gap , passed up the valley of Hominy Creek , and crossed the Pigeon River . They then passed through Richland Creek , near the present day town of Waynesville , North Carolina , and crossed the Tuckasegee River near an Indian settlement . They moved further onwards towards the Cowee Gap , where they had a small engagement with a band of Cherokee , in which one of Rutherford 's men was wounded . After that conflict , they marched to the Overhill Cherokee " Middle Towns " ( on the Tennessee River ) , where he met General Andrew Williamson of South Carolina on September 14 . Williamson was on a similar mission and readily joined forces with the original three regiments .
The now four regiments skirmished with hostile Indians at Valley Town , Ellijay , and near the southern Watauga settlements ( present day northeast Tennessee ) . Eventually , the Indian tribes were subdued at the cost of three fatalities to Rutherford 's regiment . Casualties to the Indians , however , were severe . By the end of the conflict , the four regiments had destroyed 36 Indian towns , decimated acres of corn farms , and chased off most of the Indians ' cattle . Afterward , Rutherford returned home by the same route . He arrived back in Salisbury in early October , where he disbanded his troops . Later that month , Rutherford authorized another punitive expedition of a recently raised cavalry force , led by Captain William Moore , to attack the Middle Towns .
= = = Southern theater = = =
British strategists viewed the Southern colonies , especially lightly populated Georgia , as the most vulnerable of all . Despite early victories won by the Patriots at Charleston and other settlements , the South became the focus of English attack starting in 1778 . Governor Richard Caswell of North Carolina identified this threat and immediately ordered militia to regroup . Rutherford , who had been checking on Loyalists since his return to Salisbury in 1776 , received word of this by October . Governor Caswell and Rutherford met in Kinston , North Carolina , on November 25 to discuss the specifics of Rutherford 's assignment . Apparently a fleet of British ships were en route from New York , heavily endangering key coastal cities . Rutherford was able to amass a force which reached the border of South Carolina by early December . They proceeded to establish headquarters near Savannah in Purrysburg , South Carolina , the following month .
With the cities of Savannah and Augusta taken by February , the campaign was severely weakened . Rutherford moved his troops near Augusta , where he supported General John Ashe during the Battle of Brier Creek on March 3 . Soldiers ' enlistments soon began expiring ; by April 10 most of Rutherford 's forces returned to North Carolina .
The loss of Charleston in 1780 was a huge blow to the Patriot cause and posed a significant threat to neighboring North Carolina , which lacked adequate defenses due to expiring enlistments . Rutherford saw this danger , calling back his remaining troops stationed in South Carolina and ordering all soldiers from Salisbury to rally near Charlotte , North Carolina . A force of 900 had accumulated by early June .
= = = = Battle of Ramsour 's Mill = = = =
After rallying troops at Charlotte , Rutherford received information that Loyalists were gathering at arms at Ramsour 's Mill — near present @-@ day Lincolnton , North Carolina — and issued orders for local officers to disperse the group before they evolved into an even greater threat . After collecting troops from Rowan and Mecklenburg counties , Rutherford moved his men to the Catawba River and crossed it at the Tuckasegee Ford on June 19 . He sent word to Colonel Francis Locke of Rowan County , to rendezvous with him about 16 miles ( 26 km ) from Ramsour 's Mill , near the forks of the Catawba . Locke accumulated a force of 400 men and encamped at Mountain Creek , which was 35 miles ( 56 km ) away from Rutherford 's position , though still approximately the same distance from Ramsour 's Mill as Rutherford 's position was . It was resolved by Locke and his officers that a junction with Rutherford was unrealistic given the distance between the two regiments and the limited amount of time before the Loyalist group grew too large to safely engage . Therefore , it was decided Locke 's forces would attack the Loyalist 's position immediately . Colonel Johnson , one of Locke 's subordinates , informed Rutherford of the new situation by 10 : 00 pm .
Locke 's forces left their encampment late in the evening of June 19 ; arriving at the Loyalist position by early morning , June 20 . The Patriots took the Loyalists by surprise . While at first bewildered and confused , the Loyalists retaliated by firing at Locke 's cavalry , who were forced to fall back . The Patriots eventually forced the Loyalists to retreat to their camp , though it was discovered that they were regrouping on the other side of the mill stream . At this point , since an immediate attack from the Loyalists was expected , messages were sent to Rutherford , who had advanced to within six miles ( 9 @.@ 6 km ) of Ramsour 's , to immediately move forward . Rutherford met Locke within 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of Ramsour 's , where he was informed that the Loyalists were in full retreat .
= = = = Battle of Camden = = = =
The losses at Savannah , Charleston and the Battle of Waxhaws had practically driven the Continental Army from the South , with State defenses reduced to a number of locally @-@ lead partisan militias . In response to the loss of military presence , Congress sent Horatio Gates , who had distinguished himself at Saratoga , to reform the Continental Army in Charlotte , North Carolina . Against the advice of his officers and without knowing the capabilities of his troops — some of which were untested in battle — Gates marched toward South Carolina on July 27 with over 4 @,@ 000 men . He aimed to capturing the crossroads town of Camden , North Carolina , which would have been strategically important for control over the South Carolina backcountry . Lord Rawdon , who was stationed there with 1 @,@ 000 men , alerted Lord Cornwallis of Gates 's movements on August 9 . Cornwallis arrived at Camden by August 13 with reinforcements , increasing the British presence there to over 2 @,@ 000 men .
The battle ensued at dawn on August 16 , 1780 . Rutherford was positioned in the center of the Continental formation with other North Carolina militia . During the battle , he was wounded and taken prisoner . He was detained for ten months at Castillo de San Marcos in St. Augustine , Florida , and was later exchanged for another prisoner in 1781 .
= = = Later war = = =
Rutherford returned to Salisbury in September 1781 after his release to find his home ransacked by British troops . After a short reunion with his family , Rutherford trained and took command of 1 @,@ 400 men and allegedly began to brutally attack Tory militias and communities according to several reports sent to his superior , General Greene . Greene disagreed with Rutherford 's tactics , warning Rutherford that these methods would only encourage the Loyalist cause . While these reports were later found to be false , Rutherford decided to redirect his forces towards the British encampment and surrounding militias at Wilmington , North Carolina , beginning with the Loyalist force at Raft Swamp . During October and November , Rutherford continued to force the Loyalists into Wilmington , and eventually surrounded the city , successfully cutting off British communications and supply lines . The commanding British officer , Major Craig , was soon afterward informed of Cornwallis 's surrender at Yorktown , and his forces at Wilmington were hastily evacuated .
After Wilmington , Rutherford again fought the Chickamauga in the west in 1782 . He followed the same route he had taken seven years before . No known accounts were written of the campaign , though it was reportedly successful .
= = Later life = =
Rutherford was elected to North Carolina 's senate during the War in 1779 and continued to serve in this position until 1789 . He opposed the restoration of Loyalist lands , supporting and assisting in their confiscation while serving in the Council of State . Rutherford ran unsuccessfully for governor in 1783 . He was an ardent anti @-@ federalist during the national debate on the recently created United States Constitution . At a Constitutional Convention held at Hillsborough , North Carolina in 1788 , he had reservations about the Constitution — as did other anti @-@ federalists at the meeting . Rutherford requested if he could challenge some of the clauses . While each clause was challenged individually despite opposition from federalist Samuel Johnston and others , Rutherford rarely contributed to discussion . His final decision to vote against the ratification of the Constitution resulted in him losing his seat in the state senate . However , his reputation with his colleagues was relatively unaffected , and he was subsequently elected Councilor of the State .
Rutherford acquired nearly 13 @,@ 000 acres of Washington District land through trading off his 700 acres in Salisbury , government grants and purchasing Continental soldier 's tracts . With his family and eight slaves Rutherford relocated to this area , in what is today Sumner County , Tennessee , in September 1792 . Two years later , he was appointed President of the Legislative Council of the Southwest Territory .
Rutherford died in Sumner County , Tennessee , on August 10 , 1805 .
= = Legacy = =
These areas are all namesakes of Griffith Rutherford :
Rutherfordton , North Carolina
Rutherford County , North Carolina
Rutherford County , Tennessee
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= Atherton , Greater Manchester =
Atherton ( pop . 20 @,@ 300 ) is a town within the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan , in Greater Manchester , England and historically a part of Lancashire . It is 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) east of Wigan , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of Leigh , and 10 @.@ 7 miles ( 17 @.@ 2 km ) northwest of Manchester . For about 300 years from the 17th century Atherton was referred to as Chowbent , which was frequently shortened to Bent , the town 's old nickname .
Along with neighbouring Shakerley , Atherton has been associated with coal mining and nail manufacture since the 14th century , encouraged by its outcrops of coal . At the beginning of the 20th century the town was described as " the centre of a district of collieries , cotton mills and iron @-@ works , which cover the surface of the country with their inartistic buildings and surroundings , and are linked together by the equally unlovely dwellings of the people " . Atherton 's last deep coal mine closed in 1966 , and the last working cotton mills closed in 1999 . Today the town is the third largest retail centre in the Borough of Wigan ; almost 20 % of those employed in the area work in the wholesale and retail trade , although there is still some significant manufacturing industry in the town .
Evidence has been discovered of a Roman road passing through the area , on the ancient route between Coccium ( Wigan ) and Mamucium ( Manchester ) . Following the Anglo @-@ Saxon invasion of England , Atherton , which is built on and around seven brooks , became part of the manor of Warrington until the Norman conquest , when it became a township or vill in the ancient parish of Leigh . Since 1974 the town has been part of the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan , a local government district of the Metropolitan County of Greater Manchester .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
Atherton was recorded as Aderton in 1212 and 1242 , and Atherton in 1259 . Opinions differ as to the derivation of the name . One is the farmstead or village of a man named Aethelhere , an Old English personal name and the suffix tun , meaning an enclosure , farmstead or manor estate ; another is adre , Saxon for little brook with the suffix tun . Either is possible as Atherton is bounded by brooks to the west and south , and crossed by several others . The western boundary is Hindsford Brook , originally named Goderic Brook after a Saxon saint .
The Chow – also recorded as Chew , Cholle and Chowl – family were tenants of the Athertons living at the valley by Chanters Brook . This part of the township became known as Chow 's Bent but the meaning of Bent has been lost , perhaps a bend or slope . It was referred to in the 14th century as Chollebynt or Shollebent . Chowbent , or Bent , was the name given to the built @-@ up part of Atherton from the mid @-@ 17th century for at least 300 years . As the population grew , the resulting town was called Atherton , although the names Chowbent or Bent are used by locals .
= = = Early history = = =
Evidence of a Roman road and Bronze Age settlement have been found in the area . The Roman road between Manchester and Wigan is shown on the 1849 6 " OS map crossing Miller 's Lane at 90 degrees about halfway down . The site of Gadbury Brickworks at the Gibfield Colliery site has been excavated , and evidence of Roman and possibly earlier settlements found .
= = = Manor = = =
The manor was held by the Atherton family from the de Botelers , whose chief manor was at Warrington . William and Nicholas Atherton fought at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 . The manor house was situated towards the south of the ancient township . Christopher Saxton 's map shows that there was a medieval deer park in the time of Elizabeth I. " Mad " Richard Atherton , the last direct male descendant of the Athertons is remembered for two events ; his expulsion of the congregation from the first Atherton Chapel in 1721 , and building Atherton Hall on a grand scale , to designs by architect William Wakefield . Work on the hall started in 1723 and was not finished until 1743 . The carriage drive from the hall led over Lion 's Bridge down an avenue to gates which faced the parish church in Leigh where the Atherton 's had a chapel . Richard Vernon Atherton was the last of the Atherton male line . He married Elizabeth Farington and had a daughter Elizabeth .
The Atherton family 's association with the township ended with Richard Atherton 's death in 1726 . His daughter , Elizabeth , married Robert Gwillym and their son , Robert Vernon Atherton , married Henrietta Maria Legh . They had five children , the sons died young , their eldest daughter Henrietta Maria Atherton married Thomas Powys , 2nd Baron Lilford whose father was ennobled by Pitt the Younger in 1797 , taking the title of Baron Lilford . He left his estates to his son , Thomas Atherton Powys . The Atherton estate was inherited by Lord Lilford , who preferred to live at his family seat , Lilford Hall in Northamptonshire . Lord Lilford could not afford the upkeep of another house and Atherton Hall was put up for sale but , after failing to sell , it was demolished in 1824 . Some of the outbuildings were left standing and are private property still known as Atherton Hall . This portion of Atherton was incorporated into Leigh in 1894 and the area became a public park .
= = = Two battles = = =
The area was divided in its allegiance during the Civil War , in 1642 men of Chowbent were on their way to Leigh Church when word came that James Stanley , 7th Earl of Derby 's Royalist troops were marching through Leigh probably en route for Manchester . The men of Chowbent armed themselves and drove the Earl 's men back to Lowton Common , killing some , wounding others and taking prisoner about 200 men : " ... we are all upon our guard , and the Naylors of Chowbent , instead of making Nayles , have busied themselves making Bills and Battle Axes . " ( Civil War tracts of Lancashire , Chetham Society Series , vol II ) .
In 1715 , during the Jacobite Uprising the supporters of the Old Pretender were marching on Preston . General Charles Wills wrote to Minister Wood of Atherton Chapel asking him to raise a force to be at Cuerden Green the following day , 12 November . Minister Wood led a force of Chowbent men who were given the job of guarding the bridge over the River Ribble at Walton @-@ le @-@ Dale and a ford at Penwortham , which they defended successfully . The Highlanders were routed , and for his efforts Parson James Wood was given £ 100 annuity ( equivalent to £ 14 @,@ 100 in 2015 ) by Parliament and the title " The General " by his congregation .
= = = Industrial history = = =
Atherton , along with neighbouring Shakerley , was associated with coal mining and nail manufacture . Alexander Naylor was taxed on his goods in 1332 , showing the industry was present for at least 600 years . Encouraged by the proximity of outcrops of coal , iron was brought from Derbyshire , Yorkshire and Spain . A variety of nails were made , lath nails , slate nails , thatching nails and sparrowbills . The nail smithies manufactured ploughs and scythes ; their products were taken by pack horse to be sold in Manchester , Denbigh , Clitheroe and Kendal . The nail industry developed into the manufacture of nuts and bolts . Thomas Blakemore was the first in 1843 and by 1853 there were eight makers of nuts and bolts including James Prestwich and Robert Parker . Some manufacturers of nuts and bolts made spindles and flyers for spinning machinery . Collier Brook Bolt Works on Bag Lane dating from 1856 survives and is a Grade II listed building .
Coal had been mined for several hundred years in numerous shallow shafts and adits , but took on greater importance when in 1776 Robert Vernon Atherton leased the coal rights to Thomas Guest from Leigh and John Fletcher from Bolton . In 1845 the era of deep mining arrived with the sinking of Fletcher 's Lover 's Lane pit at Howe Bridge . The Crombouke Day @-@ Eye , a drift mine accessing the shallow Brassy and Crombouke mines , opened in 1870 and closed in 1907 . ( A coal seam was referred to as a " mine " in this part of Lancashire . ) By the early 1870s Fletcher , Burrows and Company 's Howe Bridge Colliery , the biggest of the three Howe Bridge pits , was sunk to the Black & White , or Seven Foot mine . It pit closed in 1959 . Gibfield Colliery , situated alongside the Bolton and Leigh Railway , was working in 1829 , coal was mined from the Trencherbone mine . Forty years later a 1 @,@ 169 @-@ foot ( 356 m ) shaft was sunk to Arley Mine . The pit closed in 1963 . In September 1913 the first pit head baths in the country were opened at Gibfield . Chanters Colliery was in Hindsford , where 1 @,@ 120 @-@ foot ( 340 m ) shafts were sunk to the Trencherbone mine in 1854 . In the late 1890s shafts were deepened to 1 @,@ 800 feet ( 550 m ) to reach the Arley mine . Atherton had its share of mining disasters , on 11 February 1850 five men died in a gas explosion caused by a lighted candle at Gibfield and 27 men died at Lovers Lane Colliery after a firedamp explosion caused by blown @-@ out shot on 28 March 1872 . On 6 March 1957 eight men died at Chanters Colliery after an explosion of gas . Chanters closed in 1966 bringing the era of deep coal mining in the town to an end . In 1908 , the Lancashire and Cheshire Coal Owners Association opened Howe Bridge Mines Rescue Station .
The cotton mills grew out of a cottage spinning and weaving industry that was widespread across the district . As industrialisation gathered pace , local weavers felt threatened by the advent of powered looms , and in April 1812 a mob smashed the machines and burnt down a new factory , Westhoughton Mill , in neighbouring Westhoughton . For this , the Luddites , three men and a boy of 14 , were tried at Lancaster Assizes and hanged . Fustian was woven and after 1827 silk also was brought from Manchester . In 1938 James Burton had built cotton mills on both sides of the Hindsford Brook including Lodge Mill . Dan Lane Spinning and Doubling Mills were built in the 1840s and lasted until the 1950s . Howe Bridge Spinning Mills , the largest complex in Atherton was started in 1868 and the last mill built in 1919 . It closed as a textile factory in early 1999 . Mills built in the 20th century were Laburnum Mills in 1905 ( closed 1980 ) , and Ena Mill in 1908 which closed in 1999 . The Ena Mill , now converted for other uses , is a Grade II listed building .
= = Governance = =
Atherton forms an electoral ward of the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan . The ward elects three councillors to the 75 @-@ member metropolitan borough council , Wigan 's local authority . As of 2009 , two ward councillors of Atherton are Independents and one is a member of the Labour Party . Historically , Atherton formed part of the Hundred of West Derby , a judicial division of southwest Lancashire . Atherton was one of the six townships or vills that made up the ancient parish of Leigh . The townships existed before the parish . The manor of Atherton was held by the Atherton family from the de Botelers , whose chief manor was at Warrington .
Under the terms of the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 the townships formed part of the Leigh Poor Law Union which was established on 26 January 1837 comprising an area covering the whole of the ancient parish of Leigh and part of Winwick . There were workhouses in existence in Pennington , Culcheth , Tyldesley , Lowton and Hag Fold in Atherton but Leigh Union workhouse at Atherleigh replaced these in the 1850s . In 1863 the Local Government Act 1858 was adopted for the township , meaning it was governed by a local board of health , a type of regulatory body responsible for standards of hygiene and sanitation in the township . In 1894 part of the township was added to Leigh Urban District ; the remainder became Atherton Urban District . The urban district was abolished in 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972 , when the area became part of the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan , a local government district of the metropolitan county of Greater Manchester .
Following a review of parliamentary representation in Greater Manchester , Atherton is part of the Bolton West Parliamentary constituency . It is the only ward in the borough to be represented outside a Wigan borough seat ( the remainder of the borough is represented by Leigh , Makerfield or Wigan ) . Atherton 's MP is Julie Hilling who won the parliamentary seat for Bolton West at the 2010 General Election . Howe Bridge is in the Leigh constituency represented by Andy Burnham .
= = Geography = =
At 53 ° 31 ′ 23 ″ N 2 ° 29 ′ 44 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 5231 ° , − 2 @.@ 4955 ° ) , and 171 miles ( 275 km ) northwest of central London , Atherton is situated 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) east of Wigan and 10 @.@ 7 miles ( 17 @.@ 2 km ) west @-@ northwest of the city of Manchester , at the eastern end of the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan .
Atherton , which includes Hindsford to the southeast , Howe Bridge in the southwest , and Hag Fold in the north , is generally low lying . The soil is clay in much of the township . The southwest of the town is 100 feet ( 30 m ) above sea level , rising to 250 feet ( 76 m ) in the north . Atherton is built around seven brooks : the Shakerley Brook forms the western boundary with Tyldesley ; Chanters Brook flows through the area known as " The Valley " ; Knight 's Brook ( Bag Lane ) ; Colliers Brook ; Small Brook is the boundary with Westleigh ; Westhoughton Brook forms the boundary with Daisy Hill ; and Red Waters Brook . The underlying rocks are the coal measures of the Manchester Coalfield .
Atherton 's climate is generally temperate , like the rest of Greater Manchester . The mean highest and lowest temperatures ( 13 @.@ 2 ° C ( 55 @.@ 8 ° F ) and 6 @.@ 4 ° C ( 43 @.@ 5 ° F ) ) are slightly above the national average , while the annual rainfall ( 806 @.@ 6 millimetres ( 31 @.@ 76 in ) ) and average hours of sunshine ( 1394 @.@ 5 hours ) are respectively above and below the national averages .
The town is situated on the old high road , now the A579 from Bolton to Leigh . The A577 runs from the town to Tyldesley in one direction and to Wigan in the other .
= = Demography = =
At the time of the United Kingdom Census 2001 , according to the Office for National Statistics , the Urban Subdivision of Atherton was part of the Greater Manchester Urban Area and had a total resident population of 20 @,@ 302 , of which 9 @,@ 908 ( 48 @.@ 8 % ) were male and 10 @,@ 394 ( 51 @.@ 2 % ) were female , living in 8 @,@ 745 households . The settlement occupied 429 hectares ( 1 @.@ 66 sq mi ) , compared with 431 hectares ( 1 @.@ 66 sq mi ) in the 1991 census . Its population density was 47 @.@ 32 people per hectare compared with an average of 40 @.@ 20 across the Greater Manchester Urban Area . The median age of the population was 40 , compared with 36 within the Greater Manchester Urban Area and 37 across England and Wales .
The majority of the population of Atherton were born in England ( 96 @.@ 29 % ) ; 1 @.@ 56 % were born elsewhere within the United Kingdom , 0 @.@ 89 % within the rest of the European Union , and 1 @.@ 26 % elsewhere in the world .
Data on religious beliefs across the town in the 2001 census show that 86 @.@ 6 % declared themselves to be Christian , 7 @.@ 2 % said they held no religion , and 0 @.@ 3 % reported themselves as Hindu .
= = = Population change = = =
= = Economy = =
The northern part of Atherton is within the Bolton Travel to Work Area , whilst the southern part is within the Manchester TTWA . The town is within the Manchester Larger Urban Zone .
At the time of the 2001 Census , there were 8 @,@ 755 people ( 43 @.@ 1 % ) in employment who were resident in Atherton . Of these , 19 @.@ 65 % worked in the wholesale and retail trade , including repair of motor vehicles ; 19 @.@ 28 % worked within manufacturing industry ; and 10 @.@ 27 % worked within the health and social work sector . The census recorded the economic activity of residents aged 16 – 74 as 36 @.@ 7 % in full @-@ time employment , 11 @.@ 0 % in part @-@ time employment , 6 @.@ 8 % self @-@ employed , 4 @.@ 0 % unemployed , 1 @.@ 7 % students with jobs , 3 @.@ 2 % students without jobs , 14 @.@ 6 % retired , 6 @.@ 5 % looking after home or family , 11 @.@ 8 % permanently sick or disabled , and 3 @.@ 8 % economically inactive for other reasons . The 4 @.@ 0 % unemployment rate was high compared with the national rate of 3 @.@ 3 % . According to the Office for National Statistics estimates , during the period between April 2001 and March 2002 , the average gross income of households was £ 380 per week ( £ 19 @,@ 760 per year ) , substantially less than the £ 470 per week ( £ 24 @,@ 440 ) for the rest of the North West . The average car ownership per household was 1 @.@ 01 , compared with 0 @.@ 93 across the Greater Manchester Urban Area ; 43 @.@ 74 % of households owned a single car or van , and 30 @.@ 76 % owned none .
Atherton , the third largest retail centre in the Wigan Borough , has a small pedestrian shopping centre . Most shops front onto Market Street and date from late Victorian times , the majority operated by small independent retailers , although there is a supermarket that brings customers into the town centre . Older , low cost , mostly terraced housing , surrounds the centre of town . Bolts and fastenings are still manufactured in Atherton by Smith Bullough , one of a few remaining bolt and nut manufacturers in the UK . As of 2009 , a business park is planned for the former Gibfield Colliery site .
= = Landmarks = =
There are several historic buildings in and around Atherton , some , but not all , in the area referred to as Chowbent . They include the 17th @-@ century Alder House , Chowbent Chapel , St John the Baptist 's Church ( 1879 ) , and Chanters Farmhouse , all of which are listed buildings . The name " Chanters " derives from a chantry granted by the Bishop of Lichfield in 1360 to Sir William de Atherton . The name is also given to a bridge over the Hindsford Brook and a former colliery .
A pseudo @-@ Egyptian obelisk near the south @-@ east corner of the parish church , similar to one in Leigh , was probably built for Robert Vernon Atherton in 1781 . It was restored in 1867 twelve years before the church was finished . It is a Grade II listed structure .
Between 1873 and 1875 , mineowners Fletcher Burrows built a small model village at Howe Bridge , comprising cottages , shops , a village club , and a bath house for their employees . This Victorian village on either side of Leigh Road , together with St Michael and All Angel 's Church , is a conservation area . The Ena Mill , one of Atherton 's large spinning mills , complete with chimney , survives as a reminder of the textile industry .
Atherton 's war memorial is a cenotaph at the intersection of Leigh Road and Hamilton Street was designed by architect Arthur John Hope and constructed of Darley Dale stone . It was unveiled in January 1922 by Private J. Roylance , a soldier blinded in action during the First World War .
= = Transport = =
The Bolton to Leigh road was turnpiked in about 1770 and a toll gate was installed on the Atherton boundary on Bolton Road . Shakerley Lane toll road emerged near Green Hall on Bolton Road , and was built to get coal from the Shakerley pits to the turnpike road .
In 1825 , the Bolton and Leigh Railway received Royal Assent and the single track railway was opened in 1828 bringing the railway to the western side of the township where it was close to the coal mines at Howe Bridge and Gibfield . There was a railway station at Atherton Bag Lane and one further south at Atherleigh This line was connected to the Liverpool and Manchester Railway by the Kenyon and Leigh Junction Railway in 1831 . It was connected to the Tyldesley – Wigan line in 1883 , and a station on that line was opened at Chowbent renamed Howe Bridge in 1901 . The Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway 's line from Manchester to Southport passes to the north of Atherton and Atherton Station which was opened in 1887 – 88 remains open .
In 1900 , a Bill authorising the South Lancashire Tramways Company to construct over 62 miles ( 100 km ) of tramway in southern Lancashire was given Royal Assent . However , by November 1900 the South Lancashire Electric Traction and Power Company had acquired the shares . The first section of tramway opened on 20 October 1902 between Lowton and Four Lanes Ends via Leigh and Atherton . The company got into financial difficulty and in turn became Lancashire United Tramways later Lancashire United Transport ( LUT ) . LUT had headquarters and a large depot in Howe Bridge . On 16 December 1933 , the last tram ran from Leigh to Four Lane Ends . The following day trolley buses took over .
Public transport in Atherton is co @-@ ordinated by the Transport for Greater Manchester . There are public transport links by rail from Atherton and Hag Fold stations to Wigan and Manchester operated by Northern Rail , and by bus to Bolton , Leigh , Wigan , Manchester , the Trafford Centre and Middlebrook Retail and Leisure Complex operated by Diamond Bus North West of Atherton , Stagecoach Manchester and First Greater Manchester .
= = Education = =
The first school in Atherton was Chowbent Grammar School founded before 1654 and followed by Chowbent Chapel School in 1734 . Lane Top National School opened in 1840 and Chowbent Unitarian School and Hindsford St Anne 's in 1860 . Howe Bridge School opened in 1869 and St Philip 's a year later . An undenominational school in Lee Street opened in 1871 followed by St George 's and Sacred Heart School in Hindsford in 1873 . In the 1890s , the technical school originally opened as a school for science and art , followed by St Richard 's in 1891 and Flapper Fold Higher Grade School in 1893 . Green Hall Special School opened in 1957 , and a new infant school was opened on Lodge Lane for Sacred Heart . Meadowbank Primary School can also be found on Flapper Fold Lane , marking the boundary between Atherton and Hag Fold . Hesketh Fletcher Senior School opened in 1967 and closed on 31 August 2011 . Atherton Community School opened in 2012 .
= = Religion = =
There have been three chapels or churches on the site of the Parish Church of St John the Baptist . A chapel was built in 1645 by John Atherton . It is sometimes referred to as the Old Bent Chapel . It remained unconsecrated and was used by the Presbyterians . In 1721 Richard Atherton expelled the dissenters and the chapel was consecrated in 1723 by the Bishop of Sodor and Man . A new chapel on the site was consecrated by the Bishop of Chester in 1814 . The present church dedicated to St John the Baptist was consecrated in 1879 . The church , designed by Austin and Paley , is built in Runcorn stone . It is 60 feet ( 18 m ) wide , 127 feet ( 39 m ) long , and the 24 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) square tower rises to 120 feet ( 37 m ) . The fabric of the church has suffered from mining subsidence .
The New Bent or Chowbent Chapel , the earliest Nonconformist chapel in Atherton , was built in 1721 and opened in 1722.The chapel was built by the Presbyterian congregation after it was expelled from the first chapel .
St Anne 's Church , Hindsford was originally a mission occupying a barn which was replaced in 1901 by a church designed by Austin and Paley on Tyldesley Road . It has since been converted to residential use . St Michael and All Angels at Howe Bridge was built in 1877 . There are chapels of the Wesleyan , Baptist , Independent Methodist , and Primitive Methodist denominations ; a Congregational church at Howe Bridge was opened in 1904 . Roman Catholics celebrated mass in a loft behind the Star and Garter public house on Tyldesley Square until Sacred Heart Church opened in Hindsford in 1869 . The site was given by Lord Lilford with building materials donated by John Holland , manager of Yew Tree Colliery in Tyldesley . It served the growing Catholic population in Hindsford and Tyldesley . Sacred Heart closed in 2004 and its parish together with those of St Richard 's in Mayfield Street which opened in 1928 , Holy Family in Boothstown , St Ambrose Barlow in Astley , St Gabriel 's , Higher Folds in Leigh are now united as a single community with St Margaret Clitherow as its patron .
= = Sport = =
Swimming baths opened in Mayfield Street in 1902 and a swimming club was formed , the baths closed in 2005 and the Atherton & Leigh Amateur Swimming Club moved to the new Leigh Sports Village facility in 2008 .
Atherton has three amateur football teams , the oldest of which is Atherton Collieries A.F.C. , formed in 1916 , who play in the North West Counties League . Others are Atherton Laburnum Rovers F.C. , also members of the North West Counties Football League and Atherton Town FC .
Atherton Cricket Club was formed in 1872 and has played in the Bolton and District Cricket Association since 1921 .
= = Public services = =
Atherton is policed by the Greater Manchester Police force from Atherton Police Station , which covers Atherton , Tyldesley , Astley and Mosley Common , it is one of 5 subdivisions within the Wigan division . It is part of the L division , which covers the entirety of Wigan borough . The statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the Greater Manchester Fire and Rescue Service , from Atherton fire station .
Health services in the Wigan borough are provided by the Wigan Borough Clinical Commissioning Group . Hospital services are provided by the Wrightington , Wigan and Leigh NHS Foundation Trust who provide an Accident and Emergency service at Wigan 's Royal Albert Edward Infirmary and outpatient clinics at Leigh Infirmary .
Waste management is co @-@ ordinated by the Wigan Authority , which is a statutory waste disposal authority in its own right . Atherton 's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is Electricity North West Ltd . United Utilities manages Atherton 's drinking and waste water .
= = Culture = =
The Atherton Botanical Garden Club , which is today a social club , was formed in 1850 , and organised lectures , study groups and rambles on Chat Moss for its members . A public library was opened in 1905 with an Andrew Carnegie grant . Bent Chapel already had a library in the Chowbent School , and donated 4 @,@ 000 books to the new town library . Central Park , a 10 @-@ acre ( 4 @.@ 0 ha ) public park , was created in 1912 . Other parks were later provided in Lodge Lane , Hindsford and Devonshire Place . The urban district council also acquired the grounds belonging to Howe Bridge Welfare in 1963 . In the early and mid @-@ 20th century Atherton had three cinemas , the Gem in Bullough Street , the Savoy and the Palace on Market Street . An amateur photographic society was formed in 1938 . Formby Hall plays host to the Bent ' n ' Bongs Beer Festival over the last weekend of every January .
= = Notable residents = =
There were several ministers of note of Chowbent Chapel including James Wood , the " General " , 1672 – 1759 , who distinguished himself at the Battle of Preston in 1715 . Thomas Walker Horsfield ( 1792 – 1837 ) was a historian and topographer . Joseph Nightingale ( 1775 – 1824 ) , born in Chowbent , was a prolific English writer and preacher who subsequently became a Unitarian . Eric Roberts Laithwaite ( 1921 – 1997 ) was an engineer , principally known for his development of the linear induction motor and Maglev rail system . Chess grandmaster , Nigel Short grew up in Atherton and attended St Philip 's School . Architect Arthur John Hope ( 1875 – 1960 ) , a partner in Bradshaw Gass & Hope was born and lived in Atherton . Edward Ormerod , mining engineer at Gib Field Colliery , invented the Ormerod detaching hook , an important mining safety device .
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= Girl Gone Wild =
" Girl Gone Wild " is a song by American recording artist Madonna from her twelfth studio album , MDNA ( 2012 ) . She co @-@ wrote the song with Benny Benassi , his cousin Alle Benassi ( known together as the Benassi Bros. ) , and songwriter Jenson Vaughan , while the Benassi Bros. co @-@ produced the track with Madonna . Vaughan had worked on the lyrics before sending them to Madonna , who developed the demo into the final version of " Girl Gone Wild " . The song was confirmed by Madonna as the second single from the album and was released on March 2 , 2012 , by Interscope Records .
Musically , " Girl Gone Wild " is a mid @-@ tempo electropop party track that is influenced by four @-@ on @-@ the @-@ floor . The song opens with a prayer and features electronic music elements . After the song was released , Joe Francis , the creator of Girls Gone Wild franchise , threatened to sue Madonna for copyright infringement if she sang the song during her performance at Super Bowl XLVI halftime show . Madonna 's representatives stated that she was not aware of either Francis or the lawsuit , and that several songs with the same name had already been released by other artists .
The song received mixed reviews from critics , who praised its composition as a return to dance music for Madonna , but criticized its lyrics and believed it failed as album opener on MDNA . " Girl Gone Wild " reached the top @-@ ten of the charts in Hungary , Israel , Italy , Russia , South Africa , South Korea and Spain , along with the Billboard digital charts in Greece . It debuted and peaked at number 38 on US Pop Songs due to radio airplay . It also became Madonna 's 42nd number @-@ one hit on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart .
A black @-@ and @-@ white music video for the song , directed by Mert and Marcus , was released on March 20 , 2012 . The video features Madonna and a number of male models in different looks , dancing with Ukrainian group Kazaky . It received critical acclaim for the editing and the visuals , while reviewers noted that it took inspiration from Madonna 's older videos , such as " Erotica " , " Justify My Love " , " Human Nature " and " Vogue " . " Girl Gone Wild " was performed as the opening song during The MDNA Tour ( 2012 ) , in a Gothic cathedral setting showing religious iconography , and Madonna and her dancers executing choreography in high @-@ heels .
= = Background and release = =
In December 2010 , Madonna posted a message on her Facebook page exclaiming that she was on the lookout for " maddest , sickest , most badass people " as collaborators for making new dance music . On July 4 , 2011 , her manager Guy Oseary announced that the singer had entered the studio for recording her then unnamed twelfth studio album . Among the collaborators enlisted for the project was Italian record producer Benny Benassi , who at that time was working on the release of his fourth studio album Electroman . His label Ultra Records ' head Patrick Moxey felt that the producer 's " aggressive " sounds would " work well with some of the major American superstar artists " . Moxey asked for some additional tracks from him , and his longtime production partner and cousin , Alle ( Allessandro ) Benassi .
A few demos produced by them were sent to songwriter Jenson Vaughan , who liked the lyrics and the " bass @-@ driven " sound . Vaughan added the top @-@ line on a demo and returned it to Moxey , who shared it with Benassi 's European co @-@ manager Paul Sears , who in @-@ turn shared the demo with Oseary . Upon listening , Madonna was impressed with the demos and requested the Benassi Bros. to come to London for a recording session . Moxey commented that the singer " loved [ the producer ] . Benny is such a quality person ; I think that made it all flow so much easier . " Two tracks from those sessions , " Girl Gone Wild " and " I 'm Addicted " , were included on the final track list of the album , named MDNA . Madonna spoke about her experience of collaborating with the Benassi Bros. :
Benny was a tricky one because he doesn 't speak English very well . I ended up kind of using his cousin Allessandro as an interpreter . It was a little bit frustrating at first but eventually we found a way to communicate . You figure out a way . With music it 's so much about the vibe and the energy and you know when things are working and when they ’ re not . When you 're working with someone for the first time , there 's a kind of shyness that everybody has , so with Benny it was more challenging because of that but we figured it out and by the end I felt like I knew him very well .
A day after Madonna 's halftime show performance on the Super Bowl XLVI , the singer confirmed to Ryan Seacrest that " Girl Gone Wild " would be released as the second single from the album . A lyric video for the song was released on February 27 , 2012 , while it was available for digital download from March 2 , 2012 at the iTunes Store . The cover art for the single was released on February 29 , 2012 . Shot by fashion photographers Mert and Marcus , who had also created the covers for MDNA , the " Girl Gone Wild " artwork showed Madonna wearing lingerie by English retailer Agent Provocateur . She had chosen the brand 's " Raphaella " padded bra , made from French corded lace and pleated tulle . Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly praised the artwork saying that the singer " still wears underwear in public better than most women half her age " . Billboard writer Gregory DelliCarpini , Jr. felt that Madonna portrayed having fun in " racy undies " on the cover , in spite of being a mother . " Is this the 21st century version of her infamous cone bra ? Nah , but it made you look [ at her ] , " he concluded .
= = Threatened lawsuit = =
On February 4 , 2012 , Joe Francis , the creator of the Girls Gone Wild video franchisee , threatened to sue Madonna if she sang the song during her halftime show performance . His representatives said that " [ Madonna ] violated Federal and State trademark laws by making unauthorized use of Mr. Francis ' trademark Girls Gone Wild in not only the title , but subject line of her various advertisements in order to lure potential consumers to purchase her latest musical effort . " The National Football League ( NFL ) revealed in their magazine that the song would not be performed at the Super Bowl . On hearing about the allegations , Moxey commented that Francis only wanted attention from the press , adding : " When I looked at ASCAP , I noticed there were approximately 50 records called ' Girls Gone Wild ' . This guy just thinks too much of himself . "
The song title was slightly modified to the singular " Girl Gone Wild " to which Francis again commented : " Clearly her label was trying to avoid legal action surrounding the song ... But [ the new title ] is still infringement as far as the law is concerned , and we have been in touch with Madonna 's people in an effort to resolve this issue . " He added that he would pursue new legal action if more changes were not made to the track . Francis ' lawyer also said that his client had made a federal trademark for the singular form of the title . Oseary denied that the song 's title was changed because of Francis , explaining that Madonna had been completing the final version of MDNA and the renamed title was chosen due to the singular word " girl " in the lyrics . He stated that there are several songs titled " Girls Gone Wild " on iTunes , and that Madonna was not aware of a lawsuit or about Francis . Oseary concluded by saying that the singer was not restricted from performing the song at the Super Bowl , though she did not .
= = Recording and composition = =
" Girl Gone Wild " was recorded at MSR Studios , New York City and Sarm West Studios , Notting Hill , London . It was written by Madonna , Vaughan and the Benassi Bros. , and was produced by the Benassis and Madonna . Demacio " Demo " Castellon recorded and mixed the track . Philippe Weiss and Graham Archer assisted Castellon on the recording , while Angie Teo assisted on the mixing . Stephen " The Koz " Kozmeniuk did the additional editing of the song and arranged the vocoder . Benny Benassi recalled that Madonna would arrive in the studio around 3 – 4 pm and would work till 11 : 30 pm in the night . Together they fixed the production of the song , including the layering and stacking of the track . They added more vocals to the composition and during the chorus , decided on how many voices should be duplicated . According to Alle Benassi , Madonna " has clear idea . She knows very well what she wants : where put something , how , why . It 's surreal but impressive . "
" Girl Gone Wild " is as a mid @-@ tempo party track , drawing influence from four @-@ on @-@ the @-@ floor and has a similar sound to tracks from the singer 's tenth studio album , Confessions on a Dance Floor ( 2005 ) . Kerri Mason of Billboard described it as mostly a dance track with more of electro influence in it rather than house . Jason Lipshutz from the same publication relegated it in the electropop genre , adding that it has a " driving beat " and " propulsive hook " reminiscent of Madonna 's 2005 single , " Hung Up " . The song opens with a prayer , and Madonna uttering " Oh my God , I 'm heartily sorry " , which was a spoken rendition of the last track , " Act of Contrition " , from Madonna 's fourth studio album , Like a Prayer ( 1989 ) . During the middle eight , Madonna talks about how " good girls " should not misbehave . NME contributor Ailbhe Malone noted that the composition featured elements from the singer 's previous singles , " Music " ( 2000 ) and " Jump " ( 2006 ) . As she sings " forgive me " , the beat drops completely with the music disintegrating . Madonna 's vocals are processed to appear thin and stretched out .
According to the sheet music of the song published online by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Girl Gone Wild " is set in the time signature of common time , with a moderate tempo of 127 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of A minor with Madonna 's vocals ranging from Gm to Dm . The song follows a sequence of G ♯ m – C ♯ m – E during the opening prayer verse and Am – Em – G – F for the rest as its chord progression . Mike Senior from Sound on Sound magazine found that along with the predominant synth sounds , there was " a lot " of double tracking present in the song which made the vocals unclear . He felt that this was not pose a problem in stereo sound , but with mono sounds the combined vocals appeared double tracked while the vocal level decreased . The mixing for " Girl Gone Wild " was done mainly for stereo speakers and around the 1 : 45 – 2 : 00 mark , the vocal levels fluctuate with the backing music being dwarfed . Senior also observed that Madonna put the stresses of the words on the beats of the song , hence some of the enunciation are lost with the drum sounds , especially on the title hook .
Lyrically , the song addresses a " good girl gone wild " singing about her " burning hot desire " to have some fun . It contains references to singer Cyndi Lauper 's " Girls Just Want to Have Fun " ( 1983 ) , with lyrics like " Girls , they just wanna have some fun " and " The room is spinning / It must be the Tanqueray / I 'm about to go astray / My inhibitions gone away " . In the intermediate verses , Madonna utters " forgive me " , which is a Catholic term used as a sexual reference . The lyrics , once placed in the context of Madonna 's career " attains a new meaning " according to Josh Haigh from Attitude magazine . Explaining it , he said that the meaning behind the lyrics was how Madonna , being a Catholic girl herself , decided that she would not be tied down by anyone else 's rules , and consequently became one of the most recognizable musical artists .
= = Critical reception = =
The song has received mixed reviews from music critics . Keith Caulfied of Billboard deemed it as a " very dance @-@ by @-@ the @-@ numbers with Madonna " song , and further assessed that the chorus made " Girl Gone Wild " a memorable song . Robbie Daw from Idolator said that " Madge [ is ] doing what she does best : turning up the heat on the dance floor , " but that " the song is packed with tried @-@ but @-@ true sexual pop cliches . " Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone rated it three out of five stars . He commended the singer for the electro and Europop composition of the track , describing it as " buoyant and warm @-@ rinse soothing . It 's the sound of a woman who hits the dance @-@ floor for restoration more than craziness . " Haigh from Attitude believed that " Girl Gone Wild " should have been released as the lead single from MDNA . He felt that the track " screams " early 1990s Madonna 's work , and complimented it for being a " basic , balls @-@ to @-@ the @-@ wall night out anthem " , adding " why does that have to be something that 's considered ' below ' Madonna ? " In a pre @-@ release screening of MDNA , Matthew Todd from the same magazine praised the " pop stomper " track , writing : " The production might sound like she 's been listening to a fair bit of Rihanna , but who 's counting . Madonna brings her own authority , creating the kind of anthemic party song that she does best , the kind where everyone from your three @-@ year @-@ old niece to your 60 @-@ year @-@ old mother gets up on the dancefloor . " MTV News journalist Bradley Stern felt that the composition emulated her single " Celebration " ( 2009 ) .
A writer for Virgin Media gave the song four out of five stars , writing : " It sounds a tad familiar , not to mention inappropriate in a track named after a US porn @-@ movie series , but Benny Benassi then lifts ' Girl Gone Wild ' into a fantastic throbbing Kelis @-@ style dancefloor @-@ filler . " Nick Levine , writing for The National , praised the composition saying that it " gets better the more ( and louder ) you play it " . Michael Cragg from The Guardian felt that the song was " more interesting musically " , especially during the middle eight . " A signal we 're back in Confessions on a Dance Floor territory following the relative misstep of Hard Candy , " Cragg concluded . Laurence Green from musicOMH believed that with its nod to Confessions on a Dance Floor and " Get Together " , the song was commercial enough to represent the current sound . In a review of MDNA , Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph praised the track calling it a " lean , sleek , electro stomper , balancing the twin requirements of radio friendly hooks and dance floor drive " . Aidin Vaziri of the San Francisco Chronicle called it " insistent and sleek " but hoped that Madonna would have found different lyrical references than Lauper 's song . Matthew Parpetua from Pitchfork Media praised the Benassis ' production , adding that it was worthy of " competing with singers like Kesha , Britney Spears , and Katy Perry on pop radio " . Senior from Sound on Sound was pleased with the synth sounds and the departure from the " brightness " of Confessions on a Dance Floor tracks , making it more " palatale " .
Slant Magazine 's Eric Henderson wrote that " Girl Gone Wild " sounds like a " Tumblr @-@ meme version " of the singer 's 2006 single , " Get Together " . He added that the release " may not be the nadir of Madonna 's career so far , but I can think of few moments that feel as much a betrayal of her legacy than the way she deadpans ' It 's so erotic ' right before chirping ' This feeling can 't be beat ' . " Robert Copsey of Digital Spy felt the production credits for MDNA had fueled " over @-@ inflated expectations " for the single . Copsey found it was not " forward @-@ thinking " like Madonna 's past records and cited the lyrics " Girls they just wanna have some fun / Get fired up like a smoking gun " as an example of this , although he concluded his review writing " we defy anyone who isn 't singing this back to themselves immediately after . " The New York Observer journalist Daniel D 'Addario compared it to " Music " , but added that " Madonna was twelve years younger at that time and thus perhaps a more convincing ' bad girl ' , so too was our culture ... maybe it 's time for her to try something totally different ? " In another article for The Guardian , Gareth Grundy proclaimed " Girl Gone Wild " to be a " clumsy rave @-@ pop " , while Amanda Dobbins from New York panned it as a " paint @-@ by @-@ numbers , 808- and Tanqueray @-@ referencing dance track that falls even flatter when compared to its source material " . Malone from NME found no innovation in the track , writing , " combined with earlier single ' Give Me All Your Luvin ' it points to an uneasy mix for album MDNA . " Margaret Wappler from Los Angeles Times felt that Madonna would have been better re @-@ releasing " Music " again as a single , instead of " Girl Gone Wild " . She added that " There 's something very attractive about a song this militaristic and precise , but in Madge 's too @-@ capable hands it 's also suffocatingly professional . "
Brad O 'Mancey from Popjustice believed that the song failed as an " album opener " , but sounds " slightly better " after one finished the whole record . Chicago Tribune journalist Greg Kot believed that unlike Madonna 's 80s Catholic imagery , " Girl Gone Wild " does not venture into new territory with its sound . Bernard Zuel of The Sydney Morning Herald found the song " laughable " , calling it a " yawning Catholic @-@ girl @-@ in @-@ heat " . In another review of the album for BBC News , Levine called it " charmless genero @-@ banger " . Alex Macpherson from Fact panned the track , saying that the " rote , lifeless singing on [ ' Girl Gone Wild ' ] sounds as though a guide track was mistakenly kept on the finished song , and arguably marks the worst vocal performance Madonna has ever committed to record . " Robert Leedham from Drowned in Sound website felt that the song did not represent the album 's sound , hence failed as a single to promote it . Jon Pareles from The New York Times called it " shallow , effective club fodder " , describing it as containing " blippy stereo @-@ hopping synthesizers and generic title " . This view was shared by Emily Mackay of The Quietus , who felt that the song would have been better off for other artist and was below Madonna 's level .
= = Chart performance = =
" Girl Gone Wild " debuted at number six on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles and at number 33 on the Pop Digital Songs charts on the issue dated March 17 , 2012 , with 22 @,@ 000 downloads sold according to Nielsen SoundScan . The song debuted at number 86 on the Canadian Hot 100 , peaking at 42 on the chart and was present for a total of nine weeks . " Girl Gone Wild " also debuted at number 46 on Hot Dance Club Songs , eventually reaching the top of the chart . It was the second Dance Club Songs chart topper from MDNA , following first single , " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " , which had peaked at number @-@ one three weeks ago . Madonna also had her quickest span of back @-@ to @-@ back number @-@ ones since 1990 , when " Vogue " reached the top of the charts just seven weeks after " Keep It Together " . With " Girl Gone Wild " reaching the top , Madonna achieved a record 73rd week atop the ranking . At the 2012 Year @-@ end tabulation of the top Hot Dance Club Songs , " Girl Gone Wild " was ranked at number 44 . The song debuted at number 38 on the US Mainstream Top 40 chart due to radio airplay , becoming her first album since Music ( 2000 ) to have two singles enter that chart . She is also the fifth artist to score a song on the list as far back as the 90s .
After the CD release in the United Kingdom , " Girl Gone Wild " sold 1 @,@ 221 copies of the CD single and 699 copies of the 12 @-@ inch single , thereby entering the CD sales chart at number two . However , overall it sold only 3 @,@ 557 copies and entered the UK Singles Chart at number 73 . It was the third single from MDNA to chart there , following " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " and " Masterpiece " . It also had a low peak on the Irish Singles Chart , entering and peaking at number 93 . On the South Korea Gaon Digital Chart , " Girl Gone Wild " debuted and peaked at number seven , with sales of 30 @,@ 512 copies . It went on to sell 54 @,@ 198 copies in the nation . " Girl Gone Wild " also reached the top @-@ ten of the charts in Greece , Hungary , Italy , Russia , Spain , South Africa and the IFPI charts in Slovakia . It received a Platinum certification from the Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana ( FIMI ) for sales of over 30 @,@ 000 digital downloads .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and development = = =
During her interview with Ryan Seacrest , Madonna confirmed that a music video for " Girl Gone Wild " would be filmed during the week of February 17 , 2012 . Oseary confirmed through Twitter that Mert and Marcus were enlisted as the video directors . The singer also recruited Ukrainian dance group Kazaky to appear with her in the video . Madonna was inspired by the androgynous portrayal of the group , since they danced in high @-@ heels but appeared masculine in their appearance with muscular bodies . According to Mark Johansen from International Business Times , the group achieved popularity in 2010 for their " techno beats , tiny outfits , sky @-@ high stilettos " and " highly stylized videos " . Tabitha , the choreographer of the video , recalled that since Madonna was a professional dancer , she added elements of her own characteristic routines in the choreography . " Madonna is a mover , so there were definitely moments that wasn 't choreographed and was her being raw , " Tabitha added .
Madonna also enlisted male models Brad Alphonso , Jon Kortajarena , Rob Evans , Sean O 'Pry and Simon Nessman . In the video , Madonna sported a brassiere designed by Agent Provocateur . The singer 's stilettos , which were custom @-@ made by footwear designer Paola Bay , consisted of black silk embroidered with silver threading . " She wanted them as high as possible and to be able to dance with them on , " stated Bay . " We did three fittings to make sure they were like second skin . " Arianne Phillips , dress designer for the video , recalled that she had to create custom @-@ made high @-@ heeled stilettos for Kazaky , because of unavailability of shoes in their size . Artur Gaspar from the band recalled that " By the end of the day on set , our feet were bleeding and we had blisters ... But if Madonna can repeat the dancing for the 50th time , why can 't we ? " Phillips explained that they had created three different looks for Madonna in the video . The first was called a " super vixen " look for which she created short tops that could be worn as brassiere . Hairstylist Andy Lecompte wanted to go for a 1960s style with it . The second look portrayed was called " rockstar " for which designer Michael Smith created t @-@ shirts out of metal mesh , while Lecompte cut the singer 's hair short , so that it would resemble her early look . The final look was called the " platinum bombshell " , and was inspired by Marilyn Monroe .
= = = Release and synopsis = = =
A 30 second teaser video was released on March 9 , 2012 . The full video debuted on E ! News on March 20 , 2012 , and became available on their website shortly afterwards . Shot completely in black @-@ and @-@ white , the music video is polar opposite to the colorful , football @-@ themed video for previous single " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " . Instead of having a plot , the video is an assortment of imagery referring to the singer 's early works .
The video opens with Madonna in the " platinum bombshell " look uttering the opening prayers of the song . As the music starts she is shown in the other looks , performing yoga poses , while intercepting scenes show the male models in provocative poses . Other scenes show Madonna dancing against a wall , smoking a cigarette , and being bound to a chain . Kazaky appears during the first chorus and perform a dance routine in the heels . While Madonna sings the second verse , she is surrounded by the male models , who are almost nude . The singer joins Kazaky during the chorus emulating the choreography with them . Interspersed are scenes of Madonna playing with a fog machine billowing smoke .
During the intermediate break , one of the male models is shown nude and wearing a crown of thorns on his head , while Madonna gets caressed by the others . The final sequence of the video shows the singer dancing energetically with Kazaky , with the fog machine and the male models who grind against each other . " Girl Gone Wild " ends with Madonna dropping the fog machine and a final scene showing the singer 's face with black colored tears pouring from her eyes .
= = = Analysis and reception = = =
John Mitchell from MTV News observed five main influences from Madonna 's past behind the video . He explained that references from the singer 's music video for the 1992 song " Erotica " are present with Madonna 's " platinum bombshell " look as well as scenes of leather @-@ underwear wearing men and S & M. The choreography had direct references to the " Vogue " ( 1990 ) music video , and the gay eroticism was also displayed in both of them . For Mitchell , the video for " Human Nature " ( 1995 ) is referenced with Madonna 's latex clothing and portions showing the singer against a white background . The " Justify My Love " ( 1990 ) video had scenes of orgy in it , similar to the scenes of Madonna being caressed by her dancers in " Girl Gone Wild " , towards the end . Mitchell concluded by saying that the crown of thorns directly referenced the religious iconography in the singer 's " Like a Prayer " ( 1989 ) video .
In another article , Jocelyn Vena from MTV News thought that the video was " the perfect homage " to the singer 's Sex book and her Erotica ( 1992 ) days , describing it as " crunchy , sexy and edgy " . Idolator 's X. Alexander compared the concept of the video , along with its scenes of homoeroticism , to her 1990 music videos for " Vogue " and " Justify My Love " . Sophie A. Schillaci of The Hollywood Reporter noted references to the music video for " Like a Prayer " ( 1989 ) . E ! contributor Nathalie Finn commented : " Madonna doesn 't need a song to tell us she 's ready to dance all night — just one look at her and you figure she could outlast the average partyer under any circumstances " . She added that the references to her old work , as well as the half @-@ nude men indicated that " it isn 't just the girls ' who wanna have some fun ' . "
Ethan Sack from New York Daily News said that " it 's a tossup over who looks better in tights and high @-@ heels , the 53 @-@ year @-@ old Material Girl or the bevy of shirtless male dancers who gyrate around her . " Lanford Beard of Entertainment Weekly praised the video saying that it " shows Madonna looking the best she has since at least 2005 's video for ' Hung Up ' . Of course there is the requisite writhing , hip grinding , a rousing dance sequence , and a smoldering mantourage . It is , in a word , awesome " . HitFix 's Melinda Newman praised the direction by Mert and Marcus , feeling that " the clip is a luscious collection of erotic images : two men biting an apple together , backlit men dancing in high heels , and Madge , looking as if she ’ s a dewy 25 @-@ year old . " A review in The Week praised the video for being self @-@ referential with its " dark , dominatrix @-@ y " visuals . Amanda Dobbins from New York magazine gave a positive review for the appearance of Kazaky and Madonna 's look in the video . Caryn Ganz from Spin noticed that along with her old videos , Madonna also referenced her contemporary releases , like the videos for " Give It 2 Me " ( 2008 ) and " Celebration " , with the scenes showing her " incredible " dancing alone .
The video was chosen by fans , in a Billboard poll for Madonna 's best videos , as her sixth best effort of all time , in honor of her 54th birthday . At the 2013 International Dance Music Awards , the video was nominated in the categories of Best Dance Music Video and Best Pop Music Video , but failed to win either of them . Shortly after " Girl Gone Wild " ' s release to YouTube on March 21 , 2012 , the video was rated by many viewers as inappropriate . This caused YouTube to set an age restriction , only allowing those of age 18 or older to view the video . According to the website , the video was labeled explicit because of the " raunchy " and " orgy " scenes , thereby blocking it from getting uploaded to the singer 's Vevo account . YouTube also asked Madonna 's representative to upload a more PG @-@ rated version . Madonna later commented , " What 's wrong with ... what grinding ? I 'm supposed to be a ' girl gone wild ' in the video — how can I go wild and not grind ? This is the question that people should be asking . " During her interview with Jimmy Fallon on Facebook , Madonna jokingly confessed that if she were president , " There would be no restrictions whatsoever on any of my videos , ever " . Jane Martinson of The Guardian expressed her disappointment with the ban , since she felt there were far more provocative content in YouTube than Madonna 's video . Martinson also noted that the semi @-@ nudity in question came from the men featured in the clip , and felt that Madonna had turned Francis ' concept of girls going wild , to " [ girls who ] can also be the ones in control . I watched the video ready to slate her and came away thinking , after 30 years Madonna can still show Rihanna how sex and music can subvert expectations . "
= = Live performance = =
Madonna 's first performance of " Girl Gone Wild " was on The MDNA Tour ( 2012 ) as the concert 's opening track . The performance was choreographed by Jason Young and Alison Faulk , along with dancer Derrell Bullock , who assisted as supervisor . According to Faulk , Madonna asked Bullock to experiment with the concept of " girl gone wild " , and come up with a routine and style of his own . He wanted to find a story with the dancing and presented his moves to Madonna the next day . The singer also wanted to experiment with the concept of Catholic church , along with monks and gargoyles . Her message behind it was that of freedom , " people getting to do whatever they wanted to " . Four dancers from Brooklyn , adept at bone breaking dance , were enlisted as backup crew for the performance . Young recalled that they could " create these abstract , very animalistic shapes . What they can do with their arms is unbelievable . Anything that most people can do in front of their bodies , they do it behind their bodies . " The dancing required the boys to put on heels like Kazaky in the music video . Most of them refused to abide by it , resulting in Madonna giving them a choice to put the heels and dance or leave the show . The dancers complied and learned the choreography .
The show began with a gothic cathedral setting , which was developed by Tait Towers , a production management company . They used ScreenWorks 10mm video screens with an integrated active cooling system designed to dissipate captured heat from LED tiles . The main screens could move up and down , thus creating a moving cathedral setting and steps . Onstage several dancers wearing buddhist and Christian monks ' robes swung a giant thurible back and forth , as it burnt incense and appeared to cleanse the venue . The Kalakan Trio then appeared dressed in religious robes with huge head dresses , chanting excerpts from " Lekhah Dodi " , as the backdrop screens showed a huge cross with the letters MDNA . The religious chants eventually morph into chants of Madonna 's name , as the two main backdrop screens split open to reveal a giant confessional , covered by a scrim at the front . Madonna was present inside kneeling down and praying , while the confessional was lowered to the stage with the song 's opening monologue in the background . The singer was decked in a gold crown with a black veil , a tight black shirt with a leopard @-@ printed bra peeking out from the top , leather arm bands and black skinny jeans and black high @-@ heel boots . Madonna pretended to smash and break through the glass window of the confessional with a large rifle and proceeded to perform the song accompanied by a troupe of shirtless dancers wearing high heels , doing a choreography similar to the song 's music video . The song was arranged to include musical elements of " Material Girl " ( 1985 ) and " Give It 2 Me " ( 2008 ) . Moving blocks and contortionist dancers dressed up as gargoyles were also present in the performance . " Girl Gone Wild " ended with Madonna grabbing another rifle and pretending to shoot at the crowd , giving way to the second performance of the show , " Revolver " . The performance of the song at the November 19 – 20 , 2012 shows in Miami , at the American Airlines Arena , were recorded and released in Madonna 's fourth live album , MDNA World Tour .
Shawn Kellner from the Chicago Music Magazine praised the costumes and the dancing , while Jodi Duckett from The Morning Call felt that the " characters that looked like Tibetan monks [ ... ] , the gonging of bells and Madonna arriving in a gilded cage " made the performance seem " very ' Da Vinci Code ' like " . Kitty Empire from The Guardian received the usage of guns negatively , saying that Madonna 's son Rocco would be " perfectly blasé about the prospect of the former Mrs. Ritchie shooting her way out of a confessional booth with a machine gun , as she does on the set opener " . Barry Walters from MuuMuse called the opening sequence as " manic " and called it a " power punch " sequence along with " Revolver " . Barbara Vandenburgh from The Arizona Republic called the performance as " raucous " . Shirley Halperin from The Hollywood Reporter was confused as how the religious iconography portrayed during the performance was tied to the song 's theme of a " girl gone wild " . San Jose Mercury News editor Jim Harrington called the selection of " Girl Gone Wild " as " commonplace " . Jim Farber from New York Daily News described the performance as transitioning from a girl gone wild to " girl gone bloodthirsty " with the subsequent violence depictions . Ben Crandell from Florida 's Sun @-@ Sentinel newspaper observed that Madonna turned around the " solemn " introduction to a dance number with " Girl Gone Wild " . According to her the performance portrayed Madonna as " fashionable , powerful , but vulnerable sex toy " , which became " an ongoing theme for the night " .
= = Track listing and formats = =
CD Single / 12 " Picture Disc
" Girl Gone Wild " ( Album Version ) – 3 : 43
" Girl Gone Wild " ( Justin Cognito Extended Remix ) – 4 : 48
CD Maxi @-@ Single / iTunes Digital Remixes
" Girl Gone Wild " ( Madonna vs Avicii – Avicii 's UMF Mix ) – 5 : 16
" Girl Gone Wild " ( Dave Audé Remix ) – 8 : 05
" Girl Gone Wild " ( Justin Cognito Remix ) – 4 : 48
" Girl Gone Wild " ( Kim Fai Remix ) – 6 : 33
" Girl Gone Wild " ( Lucky Date Remix ) – 5 : 06
" Girl Gone Wild " ( Offer Nissim Remix ) – 6 : 49
" Girl Gone Wild " ( Dada Life Remix ) – 5 : 15
" Girl Gone Wild " ( Rebirth Remix ) – 6 : 49
= = Credits and personnel = =
Management
Recorded at MSR Studios , New York City and Sarm West Studios , Notting Hill , London
Benny and Alle Benassi appear on behalf of Spaceship Management and Ultra Empire
Webo Girl Publishing , Inc . ( ASCAP ) , Ultra Tunes ( ASCAP ) , Def Jam Music Publishing ( ASCAP ) , Ultra Empire ( BMI ) , Basic Studio ( SIAE ) and Cock an Ear Productions ( SIAE )
Personnel
Madonna – lead vocals , songwriter , producer
Jenson Vaughan – songwriter
Alessandro " Alle " Benassi – songwriter , producer
Marco " Benny " Benassi – songwriter , producer
Demacio " Demo " Castellon – recording , mixing for The Demolition Crew
Philippe Weiss – recording
Graham Archer – recording
Angie Teo – recording
Stephen " The Koz " Kozmeniuk – editing , vocoder for The Demolition Crew
Mert and Marcus – cover art photographer
Credits and personnel adapted from MDNA album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = = Certifications = = =
= = Release history = =
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= ( You Drive Me ) Crazy Tour =
The You Drive Me Crazy Tour ( also known as Crazy 2k Tour ) was the second concert tour by American recording artist Britney Spears . It was launched in support of her studio albums ... Baby One More Time ( 1999 ) and Oops ! ... I Did It Again ( 2000 ) . The tour was designed as a continuation of the ... Baby One More Time Tour and a prelude to the Oops ! ... I Did It Again Tour . It was sponsored by Got Milk ? and Polaroid .
The tour was divided into various segments , with each segment being followed by an interlude to the next segment , and it ended with an encore . The set list consisted of nine songs , seven from ... Baby One More Time and two unreleased songs from Oops ! ... I Did It Again , her then @-@ upcoming album . During the tour , Spears was accused of lip synching , although she denied these claims . The show was recorded and broadcast on Fox . A DVD entitled Live and More ! was also released .
= = Background and development = =
On December 17 , 1999 , during the premiere of the music video for " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " on Total Request Live , Spears called the show to announce March US tour dates . The tour was designed as a continuation of the ... Baby One More Time Tour and a prelude to her future world tour . The leg 's main sponsor was Got Milk ? . Media director Peter Gardiner explained , " Britney is magic with teen @-@ age girls , and that 's an absolutely crucial target for milk " . Spears shot an advertising campaign to be shown before her performances began . The secondary sponsor was Polaroid and the corporation released the Polaroid I @-@ Zone as the official camera of the tour . Spears also used the I @-@ Zone onstage to take pictures of the audience and further promote the product .
The stage of the ( You Drive Me ) Crazy Tour was similar to that of the ... Baby One More Time Tour , although much bigger . There were many special effects , including smoke machines and fireworks that erupted during the show . There was a giant projection screen that resembled the magical mirror from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) . Also present was a mechanical magic carpet in which Spears sat and flew over the first 100 feet above the crowd . Spears , who had five costumes changes during the show , was joined on stage by eight dancers . The setlist consisted of nine songs , seven from her debut album and two unreleased songs from her then upcoming album , Oops ! ... I Did It Again ( 2000 ) .
= = Concert synopsis = =
The show opened with a skit in which the dancers came out of lockers and stayed in the stage until a bell rang . They all sat until a female teacher voice started calling their names . After the teacher called Spears , she emerged at the top of the staircase in a cloud of smoke , wearing a top and white stretch pants , to perform a short dance mix of " ... Baby One More Time " . She then entered one of the lockers and appeared in another one on the opposite side of the stage to perform " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " . Spears briefly talked to the audience , the segment continued with performances of " Born to Make You Happy " and " I Will Be There " . After a dance interlude , Spears appeared onstage sitting on the magic carpet and flew over the audience while singing " Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " . When she returned to the stage , she performed another song from her upcoming album , " Oops ! ... I Did It Again " . Spears addressed the audience again before the " Who is the Ultimate Heartbreaker ? " interlude , in which her dancers picked a boy from the audience and invited him onstage . Spears took to the stage again wearing a jacket and dedicated the performance of " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " to the boy . She took off her jacket to reveal a pair of black pants that featured a sequined red heart in the back and performed " The Beat Goes On " . After two interludes that presented her dancers and band , Spears appeared onstage to perform " Sometimes " . The encore consisted of a dance @-@ oriented performance of " ... Baby One More Time " .
= = Critical response = =
Jae @-@ Ha Kim of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times said that Spears " showed why she has got a leg up on blonder competitors such as Christina Aguilera , Jessica Simpson and Mandy Moore . Aguilera may have a better voice ( and a Grammy to validate it ) , but Spears has that ' it ' factor that worked for pinup queens of the past , such as Farrah Fawcett " . Adam Graham of Central Michigan Life commented that " although the show was only about 10 songs long and the authenticity of her voice was in question throughout , it was really truly hard to walk away feeling anything but completely gratified " . Dave Tianen of the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel believed that the show " was energetic , good @-@ humored , fast @-@ paced and bright " .
During the tour , accusations of lip synching arose . Spears talked to Rolling Stone about the accusations , saying ,
" There 's a delay in the screen above me , so if you listen to the music and watch the screen , they don 't sync up . I think that confuses people . But I 'm singing every song . I 'm singing my ass off . [ ... ] There are times during the show , when I 'm dancing so much , where I get out of breath , and we have a signal where I 'm dying and they 'll help me out . Believe me , I 'd give anything to do a show where I just sit there and sing " .
= = Broadcasts and recordings = =
On April 20 , 2000 , the concert at Hilton Hawaiian Village in Honolulu , Hawaii was taped . On June 5 , 2000 , it was broadcast in a special in Fox . On November 21 , 2000 , Jive Records released the Britney Spears : Live and More ! DVD , which included the Fox special . It was certified three @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of 300 @,@ 000 copies in DVD units .
= = Opening acts = =
LFO ( North America ) ( select venues )
Bosson ( North America ) ( select venues )
Destiny 's Child ( Honolulu )
= = Setlist = =
" School Roll Call " ( Performance Introduction )
" ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " ( contains elements from " ... Baby One More Time " )
" Born to Make You Happy "
" I Will Be There "
" Hand Jive " ( Dance Interlude )
" Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know "
" Oops ! ... I Did It Again "
" Who is the Ultimate Heartbreaker ? " ( Performance Interlude )
" From the Bottom of My Broken Heart "
" The Beat Goes On "
" Meet the Dancers " ( Dance Interlude )
" Meet the Band " ( Performance Interlude )
" Sometimes "
" ... Baby One More Time "
Source :
= = Tour dates = =
Cancellations and rescheduled shows
= = = Box office score data = = =
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= Barbarian : The Ultimate Warrior =
Barbarian : The Ultimate Warrior is a video game first released for Commodore 64 personal computers in 1987 ; the title was developed and published by Palace Software , and ported to other computers in the following months . The developers licensed the game to Epyx , who published it as Death Sword in the United States . Barbarian is a fighting game that gives players control over sword @-@ wielding barbarians . In the game 's two @-@ player mode , players pit their characters against each other . Barbarian also has a single @-@ player mode , in which the player 's barbarian braves a series of challenges set by an evil wizard to rescue a princess .
Instead of using painted artwork for the game 's box , Palace Software used photos of hired models . The photos , also used in advertising campaigns , featured Michael Van Wijk ( who would later become famous as ' Wolf ' in the TV series Gladiators ) as the hero and bikini @-@ clad Maria Whittaker , a model who was then associated with The Sun tabloid 's Page Three topless photo shoots . Palace Software 's marketing strategy provoked controversy in the United Kingdom , with protests focused on the sexual aspects of the packaging rather than decapitations and other violence within the game . The ensuing controversy boosted Barbarian 's profile , helping to make it a commercial success . Game critics were impressed with its fast and furious combat , and dashes of humour . The game was Palace Software 's critical hit ; boosted by Barbarian 's success , Palace Software expanded its operations and started publishing other developers ' work . In 1988 , the company released a sequel , Barbarian II : The Dungeon of Drax .
= = Gameplay = =
Barbarian : The Ultimate Warrior is a fighting game that supports one or two players . Players assume the roles of sword @-@ wielding barbarians , who battle in locales such as a forest glade and a " fighting pit " . The game 's head @-@ to @-@ head mode lets a player fight against another or the computer in time @-@ limited matches . The game also features a single @-@ player story mode , which comprises a series of plot @-@ connected challenges .
Using joysticks or the keyboard , players move their characters around the arena , jumping to dodge low blows and rolling to dodge or trip the opponent . By holding down the fire button and moving the controller , players direct the barbarians to kick , headbutt , or attack with their swords . Each barbarian has 12 life points , which are represented as 6 circles in the top corners of the interface . A successful attack on a barbarian takes away one of his life points ( half a circle ) . The character dies when his life points are reduced to zero . Alternatively , a well @-@ timed blow to the neck decapitates the barbarian , killing him instantly , upon which a goblin enters the arena , kicks the head , and drags the body away .
If the players do not input any commands for a time , the game attempts a self @-@ referencing action to draw their attentions : the barbarians turn to face the players , shrug their shoulders , and say " C 'mon " . The game awards points for successful attacks ; the more complex the move , the higher the score awarded . A score board displays the highest points achieved for the game .
= = = Single @-@ player story mode = = =
In the single @-@ player story mode , the player controls a nameless barbarian who is on a quest to defeat the evil wizard Drax . Princess Mariana has been kidnapped by Drax , who is protected by 8 barbarian warriors . The protagonist engages each of the other barbarians in single combat to the death . Overcoming them , he faces the wizard . After the barbarian has killed Drax , Mariana drops herself at her saviour 's feet and the screen fades to black . The United States version of the game names the protagonist Gorth .
= = Development = =
In 1985 , Palace Software hired Steve Brown as a game designer and artist . He thought up the concept of pitting a broom @-@ flying witch against a monster pumpkin , and created Cauldron and Cauldron II : The Pumpkin Strikes Back . The two games were commercial successes and Brown was given free rein for his third work . He was inspired by Frank Frazetta 's fantasy paintings to create a sword fighting game that was " brutal and as realistic as possible " .
Brown based the game and its characters on the Conan the Barbarian series , having read all of Robert E Howard 's stories of the eponymous warrior . He conceptualised 16 moves and practiced them with wooden swords , filming his sessions as references for the game 's animation . One move , the Web of Death , was copied from the 1984 sword and sorcery film Conan the Destroyer . Spinning the sword like a propeller , Brown " nearly took [ his ] eye out " when he practiced the move . Playing back the videos , the team traced each frame of action onto clear plastic sheets laid over the television screen . The tracings were transferred on a grid that helped the team map the swordplay images , pixel by pixel , to a digital form . Brown refused to follow the convention of using small sprites to represent the fighters in the game , forcing the coders to conceive a method to animate larger blocks of graphics : Palace Software 's co @-@ founder Richard Leinfellner said they " multiplexed the sprites and had different look @-@ up tables for different frames . "
Feeling that most of the artwork on game boxes at that time were " pretty poor " , Brown suggested that an " iconic fantasy imagery with real people would be a great hook for the publicity campaign . " His superiors agreed and arranged a photo shoot , hiring models Michael Van Wijk and Maria Whittaker to pose as the barbarian and princess . Whittaker was a topless model , who frequently appeared on Page 3 of the tabloid , The Sun . She wore a tiny bikini for the shoot while Van Wijk , wearing only a loincloth , posed with a sword . Palace Software also packaged a poster of Whittaker in costume with the game . Just before release , the company discovered that fellow developer Psygnosis was producing a game also titled Barbarian , albeit of the platform genre . After several discussions , Palace Software appended the subtitle " The Ultimate Warrior " to differentiate the two products .
The sounds of the characters are taken from the 1985 film Red Sonja . Most notably the " EEY @-@ ECH ! " sound that plays when the player attempts to decapitate an opponent . This particular sound can be found near the beginning of the movie when Arnold 's character is ambushed after pulling an arrow out of the lady 's back .
= = = Releases = = =
Barbarian was released in 1989 for the Commodore 64 and in the months that followed , most other home computers . These machines were varied in their capabilities , and the software ported to them was modified accordingly . The version for the 8 @-@ bit ZX Spectrums is mostly monochromatic , displaying the outlines of the barbarians against single @-@ colour backgrounds . The sounds are recorded at a lower sampling rate . Conversely , the version for the Atari ST , which has 16- and 32 @-@ bit buses , presents a greater variety of backgrounds and slightly higher quality graphics than the original version . Its story mode also pits 10 barbarians against the player instead of the usual 8 . Digitised sound samples are used in the Atari ST and 32 @-@ bit Amiga versions ; the latter also features digitised speech . Each fight begins with the announcement of " Prepare to die ! " , and metallic sounding thuds and clangs ring out as swords clash against each other .
After the initial releases , Barbarian was re @-@ released several times ; budget label Kixx published these versions without Whittaker on the covers . Across the Atlantic , video game publisher Epyx acquired the license to Barbarian and released it under the title Death Sword as part of their " Maxx Out ! " video game series .
= = Reception and legacy = =
During the 1980s , the prevalent attitude was that video games were for children . Barbarian 's advertisements , showing a scantily dressed model known for topless poses , triggered significant outcries of moral indignity . Electron User magazine received letters from readers and religious bodies , who called the image " offensive and particularly insulting to women " and an " ugly pornographic advertisement " . Chris Jager , a writer for PC World , considered the cover " a trashy controversy @-@ magnet featuring a glamour @-@ saucepot " and a " big bloke [ in leotard ] " . According to Leinfellner , the controversy did not negatively affect Barbarian , but boosted the game 's sales and profile tremendously . Video game industry observers Russell DeMaria and Johnny Wilson commented that the United Kingdom public were more concerned over scantily clad Whittaker than the gory contents in the game . Conversely , Barbarian was banned in Germany by the Bundesprüfstelle für jugendgefährdende Medien for its violent contents . The ban forbade promotion of the game and its sale to customers under the age of 18 . A censored version of the game , which changed the colour of the blood to green , was later permitted to be freely sold in the country . Barbarian 's mix of sex and violence was such that David Houghton , writer for GamesRadar , said the game would be rated " Mature " by the Entertainment Software Rating Board if it was published in 2009 .
Reviewers were impressed with Barbarian 's gory gameplay . Zzap ! 64 's Steve Jarratt appreciated the " fast and furious " action and his colleague Ciaran Brennan said Barbarian should have been the licensed video game to the fantasy action film Highlander ( which had a lot of sword fights and decapitations ) instead . Amiga Computing 's Brian Chappell enjoyed " hacking the foe to bits , especially when a well aimed blow decapitates him . " Several other reviewers express the same satisfaction in lopping the heads off their foes . Although shocked at the game 's violence , Antic 's reviewer said the " sword fight game is the best available on the ST . " According to Jarratt , Barbarian represented " new heights in bloodsports " . Equally pleasing to the reviewers at Zzap ! 64 and Amiga User International 's Tony Horgan was the simplicity of the game ; they observed that almost anyone could quickly familiarise themselves with the game mechanics , making the two @-@ player mode a fun and quick pastime .
Although the barbarian characters use the same basic blocky sprites , they impressed reviewers at Zzap ! 64 and Amiga Computing with their smooth animation and lifelike movements . Reviewers of the Amiga version , however , expressed disappointment with the port for failing to exploit the computer 's greater graphics capability and implement more detailed character sprites . Its digitised sounds , however , won praise from Commodore User 's Gary Penn . Advanced Computer Entertainment 's reviewers had similar thoughts over the Atari ST port .
Reviewing for Computer and Video Games , Paul Boughton was impressed by the game 's detailed gory effects , such as the aftermath of a decapitation , calling them " hypnotically gruesome " . It was these little touches that " [ makes ] the game worthwhile " , according to Richard Eddy in Crash . Watching " the head [ fall ] to the ground [ as blood spurts from the ] severed neck , accompanied by a scream and satisfying thud as the torso tumbles " proved to be " wholesome stuff " for Chappell , and the scene was a " great retro gaming moment " for Retro Gamer 's staff . The cackling goblin , which drags off the bodies , endeared him to some reviewers ; the team at Retro Gamer regretted that the creature did not have his own game . The actions of the barbarian also impressed them to nominate him as one of their top 50 characters from the early three decades of video gaming .
Barbarian proved to be a big hit , and Palace started planning to publish a line of sequels ; Leinfellner said he received royalty cheques for approximately seven years , the first of which was for £ 20 @,@ 000 . Barbarian II : The Dungeon of Drax was released in 1988 , and Barbarian III was in the works . Van Wijk and Whittaker were hired again to grace the box cover and advertisements . After the success with Barbarian , Palace Software began to expand its portfolio by publishing games that were created by other developers . Barbarian , however , remained its most popular game , best remembered for its violent sword fights and Maria Whittaker .
In 2011 , Anuman Interactive ( French publisher ) launched a remake of the game , adapted to mobile devices and computers : Barbarian - The Death Sword .
In 2012 , the Italian guitarist Marco Sfogli included a cover of the main theme on his album reMarcoble .
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= Oliver Bosbyshell =
Oliver Christian Bosbyshell ( January 3 , 1839 – August 1 , 1921 ) was Superintendent of the United States Mint at Philadelphia from 1889 to 1894 . He also claimed to have been the first Union soldier wounded by enemy action in the Civil War , stating that he received a bruise on the forehead from an object thrown by a Confederate sympathizer while his unit was marching through Baltimore in April 1861 .
Bosbyshell was born in Mississippi . His parents were of old Philadelphia stock , and he was raised in Schuylkill County , Pennsylvania . After briefly working on the railroad and then studying law , Bosbyshell enlisted in the Union cause on the outbreak of war . Following a brief period of service in the 25th Pennsylvania Volunteer Regiment , he joined the 48th Pennsylvania , remaining in that regiment for three years . He saw action in such battles as Second Bull Run and Antietam . He rose to the rank of major and led his regiment , but was mustered out upon the expiration of his term of service in October 1864 , having been refused a leave of absence .
After leaving the army , Bosbyshell returned to Pennsylvania and worked in two unsuccessful businesses ; he also involved himself in Republican politics and in the activities of the Grand Army of the Republic , a veterans ' group . He was appointed to a post at the Philadelphia Mint in 1869 , and became chief coiner in 1876 and superintendent in 1889 , serving for four years . One of Bosbyshell 's underlings at the mint stole gold bars and , as they were not all recovered when the culprit was arrested , Bosbyshell was held responsible for the loss by virtue of his office . He was absolved of this liability by act of Congress in 1899 . In his later years , he was an officer of an insurance company ; he died in 1921 .
= = Early life and Civil War = =
Oliver Christian Bosbyshell was born in Vicksburg , Mississippi , on January 3 , 1839 , the son of Oliver Christian and Mary Ann ( Whitney ) Bosbyshell . Both his parents were from old Philadelphia families ; the couple had taken up temporary residence in Vicksburg . The senior Oliver Bosbyshell was engaged in the commission business . He contracted bronchitis while fighting a fire that destroyed his warehouse , and died in Philadelphia after a sea voyage taken in the hope of recovering his health . Eight weeks later , his son was born , and Mary Bosbyshell returned from Mississippi with him to her father 's house in Schuylkill County , Pennsylvania . Young Oliver grew up there , and attended local public schools . At age 15 , he left school to become a telegraph messenger and for the next three years took various jobs in that field before deciding to pursue a career in the law . He first studied with attorney Francis W. Hugbee , then with his uncle , William Whitney ; both were in Pottsville . He was still engaged as a student in 1861 , when the Civil War broke out .
On April 15 , 1861 , President Abraham Lincoln called for 50 @,@ 000 volunteers to fight to preserve the Union . The following day , Bosbyshell joined the Washington Artillerists , a local militia company , which quickly set out for Washington . En route , the company had to march through the streets of Baltimore on April 17 . A hostile crowd of Confederate sympathizers gathered ; according to accounts in his lifetime , he was struck by a missile variously described as a stone or a brick . Although it gave him a large bruise and momentarily stunned him , the object drew no blood ; Private Bosbyshell was purportedly the first man wounded in the Union cause , while an African @-@ American servant , hit a few minutes later by a missile which broke the skin , was deemed the first man to have shed his blood for the Union . However , official records do not list Bosbyshell among the casualties of the Baltimore riots .
In Washington , the company was quartered in the Ladies ' Gallery of the Senate Chamber , in the Capitol . The 350 Pennsylvania troops who first reached Washington on April 18 became known as the First Defenders and , after the war , the survivors formed an association with that name . While they were lodged at the Capitol , President Lincoln , Secretary of State William H. Seward , and Secretary of War Simon Cameron visited . Bosbyshell recalled Lincoln , " yes , here , towering over all in the room was the great central figure of the war . I remember how I was impressed by the kindliness of his face and awkward hanging of his arms and legs , his apparent bashfulness in the presence of these first soldiers of the Republic , and with it all a grave , rather mournful bearing in his attitude . "
The Washington Artillerists were redesignated as Company H of the 25th Pennsylvania Volunteers , and were sent down the Potomac River to Fort Washington , where the company spent three months strengthening the fortifications . Bosbyshell was offered a first lieutenancy in the regular Army , which he declined , stating that he preferred volunteer service . When the company 's term of enlistment expired , Bosbyshell rejoined Union forces as a second lieutenant in Company G , 48th Pennsylvania Volunteers , to serve a three @-@ year term from October 1 , 1861 .
For about a month after his re @-@ enlistment , Bosbyshell was regimental recruiting officer in Harrisburg , but on November 11 , sailed with his regiment from Fortress Monroe , Virginia , to Hatteras , North Carolina . There he served as acting adjutant of his regiment , and as judge advocate for courts @-@ martial . When General Ambrose Burnside launched an attack on New Bern , he took six companies of the 48th with him , as well as Bosbyshell , though Company G was not included among the Union forces . In April and May 1862 , Bosbyshell received successive promotions to first lieutenant and captain and was assigned to command his company , which he did at such battles as Second Bull Run , Antietam , and Fredericksburg . After Fredericksburg , he was again assigned to serve in courts @-@ martial ; when the regiment was moved west in early 1863 , Bosbyshell was assigned as provost marshal of Louisville , Kentucky . While stationed at Louisville , he returned home to Pennsylvania on leave of absence to marry Martha Stem , daughter of a minister .
When the regiment was ordered to Tennessee in September 1863 to take part in Union actions there , Bosbyshell was made Acting Assistant Adjutant @-@ General for the First Brigade of the Ninth Corps , of which the 48th was part . He fought at Blue Springs and Campbell 's Station , and took part in the siege of Knoxville . In 1864 , he returned to Pennsylvania again to help bring the regiment up to strength . Returning to his brigade post , he commanded African @-@ American troops in the Wilderness Campaign .
On July 10 , 1864 , Bosbyshell was promoted to major and ordered to command the 48th , though he remained at his brigade post temporarily . At this time , Union forces were besieging Petersburg , south of the Confederate capital , Richmond , Virginia . The acting commander of the 48th , Lieutenant Colonel Henry Pleasants , in civilian life a mining engineer , conceived the idea of digging under the Confederate lines and exploding a giant bomb . After weeks of preparation , the bomb was exploded on July 30 , creating a huge pit in the ground and a hole in the Confederate lines . After initial shock , the Confederates rallied and repulsed the attempt to break the lines , aided by Union bungling . Bosbyshell led African @-@ American troops into action in the Battle of the Crater ; they suffered over 400 casualties . With Pleasants promoted to General Robert B. Potter 's staff , Bosbyshell took command of the 48th on August 2 , 1864 .
Bosbyshell led his command at Globe Tavern and at Peebles 's Farm . In September 1864 , he sought leave of absence to return to Pennsylvania on personal business . When this was refused , and with his three @-@ year term of service having expired , he was mustered out on October 1 , 1864 .
= = Return to Pennsylvania = =
Having returned to Pottsville , Bosbyshell entered first the banking business , and then the book and stationary trade , each time with " disastrous " results . A Republican , he ran for prothonotary of Schuylkill County in 1866 , but was defeated .
Shortly after the war , the Grand Army of the Republic ( GAR ) , a Union veteran 's group , was founded . During Bosbyshell 's campaign to become prothonotary , he was asked to organize the Schuylkill County branch , but declined because of his status as a candidate . The following year , however , he joined the GAR , organizing Post 24 in Pottsville . He became Schuylkill County district commander of the GAR soon after , and in 1869 was elected Pennsylvania 's GAR department commander .
In 1869 , Bosbyshell was hired as Register of Deposits of the Philadelphia Mint , and moved to that city . The Chief Coiner , A. Loudon Snowden , was impressed by Bosbyshell , and promoted him to Assistant Coiner in 1872 . When Snowden left the Mint to accept a position as postmaster in 1876 , President Ulysses Grant promoted Bosbyshell in his place . Grant nominated Bosbyshell on December 14 , 1876 ; he was confirmed by the Senate on December 26 . According to numismatic historian Q. David Bowers , Bosbyshell , while serving as Chief Coiner , used Mint facilities and out @-@ of @-@ date dies to strike rare three @-@ dollar pieces , including the 1873 , 1875 , and 1876 issues . During Bosbyshell 's tenure , quantities of pattern coins , restrikes , and pieces struck in different metals flowed to well @-@ connected collectors and dealers , and Bosbyshell sold a large personal collection of such pieces shortly after leaving office .
Bosbyshell served as Chief Coiner until early 1885 ; with the approaching advent of the first Cleveland administration , Democrats would be appointed as Mint officials , and Bosbyshell secured a position as chief clerk in the Philadelphia City Controller 's office . Bosbyshell was hired , despite the fact that he was a Republican in a Democratic @-@ run municipal administration , because of his friendship with Controller Robert Dechert .
Having maintained his involvement in the GAR , Bosbyshell was in charge of the committee on arrangements for the Tenth National Encampment of the GAR , at Philadelphia in 1876 . In 1879 , he was elected as commander of Post 2 in that city . He also joined the Second Regiment of the Pennsylvania National Guard , and was elected major in 1878 and lieutenant colonel in 1880 .
= = Mint superintendent ( 1889 – 1894 ) = =
On October 17 , 1889 , President Benjamin Harrison commissioned Bosbyshell as superintendent of the Philadelphia Mint . As the Senate was not sitting , Bosbyshell received a recess appointment . Bosbyshell filed his oath of office on November 1 , 1889 . On his first day on the job , he was greeted with a bouquet of flowers and a large pile of mail from office @-@ seekers . He gave receipts for the Mint property he was now responsible for , and found no errors in the accounts of his predecessor . On December 16 , 1889 , with the Senate in session , Harrison nominated Bosbyshell . The following day , Vermont Senator Justin Morrill , on behalf of the Senate Finance Committee , to which Bosbyshell 's nomination had been referred , recommended that he be confirmed . The Senate did so on December 19 .
In 1890 , Bosbyshell deposited $ 4 @,@ 200 of federal funds in the Keystone National Bank , which then went bankrupt . Bosbyshell was responsible for the debt , which was only $ 300 less than his annual salary , and paid it off by stages , completing the payments in 1894 . In August 1890 , Bosbyshell was elected colonel of his National Guard regiment ; the vote was unexpectedly close , as he was disliked by some of his fellow officers . Following the Homestead Riots in July 1892 , Pennsylvania Governor Robert E. Pattison ordered militia to the strike @-@ torn town to restore order . Bosbyshell led his guard regiment to Homestead , where the strikers offered no resistance . In August 1893 , he resigned from the regiment .
Before Congress abolished the practice in 1873 , the government made silver legal tender alongside gold . This led to one of the great political controversies of the late 1800s , as many called for a return to pre @-@ 1873 laws , which would require the government to take all the silver offered it and then return it , struck into silver dollars . On January 3 , 1891 , two " free silver " advocates called at the Philadelphia Mint with a large ingot of silver , and asked for it to be coined . When the weighing clerk declined , they asked to see Bosbyshell , who received them , but refused their demand . He did , however , write at their request a letter stating that the laws forbade coinage of silver provided by the public .
Bosbyshell was Mint Superintendent while the Mint created new coin designs , including the Barber coinage , Columbian half dollar , and Isabella quarter . In the case of the quarter , issued in 1893 , Bosbyshell was involved in the consultations within the Mint over the design , and sent a letter to Caroline Peddle , who was initially hired to design the piece , requiring that the image of Queen Isabella on the coin not wear a crown . Soon after , Peddle withdrew from the project .
Cleveland was elected for a second non @-@ consecutive term in November 1892 . With the Democrats in power again , new Mint Director Robert Preston in late March 1894 ordered Bosbyshell to turn over the Philadelphia Mint to his successor , Dr. Eugene Townsend . This required the counting of every coin in the facility , including cents and nickels . After consulting with the sureties on his bond as superintendent , Bosbyshell objected to resigning until the count ( expected to take three months ) was complete , but nevertheless left office as directed on March 31 , 1894 .
= = Later years , interests , and death = =
Bosbyshell had been elected vice @-@ president of the Fidelity National Life Insurance Company in February 1893 ; in December of that year he was elected treasurer instead , a post he still held as of 1908 . President McKinley appointed him a member of the 1898 Assay Commission .
In September 1893 , a major theft at the Philadelphia Mint had been discovered . Henry Cochran , weighing clerk , had been surreptitiously extracting gold bars from a vault sealed in 1887 , not with a solid door but with a latticed one that was somewhat loose . Bosbyshell , in taking custody of the Philadelphia Mint 's assets from his predecessor , Daniel Fox , had not asked for the gold to be weighed . When the gold was taken out to be converted into coin in 1893 , the shortage was discovered . Although some of the gold was recovered , there was still a shortage of $ 12 @,@ 810 @.@ 82 , and the government brought suit against Bosbyshell after he left office in 1894 , securing judgment against him and the sureties on his bond . Bosbyshell appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit , which ruled against him . The district court had ruled for Bosbyshell on the matter of 733 silver dollars said to be missing , leaving only the question of the gold . Bosbyshell asked for review by the Supreme Court , but also sought legislative relief , and on February 2 , 1899 , Congress absolved him of the debt , making the court case moot .
With the outbreak of the Spanish – American War in 1898 , Bosbyshell organized and served as colonel of the Nineteenth Pennsylvania National Guard Regiment , which was used for homeland defense . He remained in that capacity from August 1898 until November 1899 .
As well as the GAR , Bosbyshell had many interests and activities . An Episcopalian , he was a vestryman of the Church of the Savior in Philadelphia ; for many years he conducted the choir and involved himself in Sunday school work , often as superintendent . He memorialized his regiment 's wartime experiences with The 48th in the War , published in 1895 , and was a member of several other veterans societies . He was also chairman of the Board of Trustees of the University Lodge of Masons . Taking an interest in genealogy , around 1910 he published Descendants of Christian and Elizabeth ( Oliver ) Bosbyshell 1782 – 1910 .
Oliver Bosbyshell died on August 1 , 1921 , after suffering a stroke . He was survived by one of his children , Oliver , and by several grandchildren . He had four sons with his wife Martha , who died in 1914 ; their eldest son Nathan died in Los Angeles in 1888 at age 23 .
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= Der Herr ist mein getreuer Hirt , BWV 112 =
Der Herr ist mein getreuer Hirt ( The Lord is my faithful Shepherd ) , BWV 112 , is a cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach , a church cantata for the second Sunday after Easter . Bach composed the chorale cantata in Leipzig and first performed it on 8 April 1731 . It is based on the hymn by Wolfgang Meuslin , a paraphrase of Psalm 23 written in 1530 , sung to a melody by Nikolaus Decius .
Bach , the Thomaskantor in Leipzig from May 1723 , composed this cantata to complete his second cantata cycle of chorale cantatas , begun in 1724 . He used the lyrics of the hymn unchanged , which reflect the psalm and Jesus as the Good Shepherd . Bach structured the work in five movements . The outer choral movements are a chorale fantasia and a four @-@ part closing chorale , both on the hymn tune . Bach set the inner stanzas as aria – recitative – aria , with music unrelated to the hymn tune . He scored the cantata for four vocal soloists , a four @-@ part choir and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of two horns , two oboes d 'amore , strings and continuo . Bach scholars agree that the brass instruments , normally reserved for Feast days , could come from an earlier chorale fantasia of the same melody with the text of the German Gloria .
= = History and words = =
In his second year as Thomaskantor in Leipzig , Bach composed chorale cantatas between the first Sunday after Trinity of 1724 and Palm Sunday of 1725 , but for Easter he returned to cantatas on more varied texts . He had not composed a chorale cantata yet for the occasion Misericordias Domini , the second Sunday after Easter . The prescribed readings for that Sunday were from the First Epistle of Peter ( Christ as a model – 1 Peter 2 : 21 – 25 ) , and from the Gospel of John , ( the Good Shepherd – John 10 : 11 – 16 ) .
During the cycle of 1724 / 25 , the text of the inner stanzas of a hymn was paraphrased by a contemporary poet with whom Bach collaborated . In this cantata however , Bach used the hymn text unchanged , a 1530 hymn in five stanzas written by Wolfgang Meuslin as a paraphrase of Psalm 23 . The hymn is sung to the melody of " Allein Gott in der Höh sei Ehr " , the German Goria , by Nikolaus Decius ( 1522 ) . Meusin 's hymn is different from the one with the same opening line by Cornelius Becker , but sung to the same melody , which Bach had used in his other two cantatas for the same occasion , Du Hirte Israel , höre , BWV 104 and Ich bin ein guter Hirt , BWV 85 . The hymn 's topic , the Lord as the Good Shepherd , has traditionally been used for Jesus and is thus related to the gospel .
Bach first performed the cantata at the Nikolaikirche on 8 April 1731 .
= = Structure and scoring = =
Bach structured the cantata in five movements . The text and tune of the hymn are kept in the outer choral movements , a chorale fantasia and a four @-@ part closing chorale , which frame a alternating arias and a recitative . Bach scored the work for four vocal soloists ( soprano , alto , tenor , bass ) , a four @-@ part choir and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of two horns ( Co ) , two oboes d 'amore ( Oa ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) and basso continuo .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
In the opening chorus , a chorale fantasia , the melody of the German Gloria " Allein Gott in der Höh sei Ehr " is embedded in an orchestral concerto . The movement opens with calls derived from the chorale tune played on the two horns , leading to a free concerto with the strings and oboes . The cantus firmus is sung by the soprano in long notes , while the lower voices engage in imitation . John Eliot Gardiner compares the movement to the openings of the two former cantatas for the same occasion : " The presence of two horns ... reveals a much more regal portrait of the Good Shepherd than we have previously met . " Both Alfred Dürr and Klaus Hofmann assume that the music was not originally composed for this pastoral text , but previously , for the Gloria . Bach had composed a different chorale fantasia on the same melody in Auf Christi Himmelfahrt allein , BWV 128 , with similar instrumentation .
The inner three movements quote the text of the hymn without change , but their music is not related to the hymn tune . The alto aria is accompanied by an obbligato oboe . It is structured in two similar parts , and is in pastoral 6 / 8 time . The steady flow of the oboe can be seen as depicting the " pure water " mentioned in the text , the steps in the continuo as " the steps made on this significant journey " " on the pathway of the righteousness of His commandments " .
The central movement begins as an arioso , accompanied by the continuo , illustrating the walk through the " valley of darkness " . The second part is a dramatic recitative with strings , first expressing " Verfolgung , Leiden , Trübsal " ( persecution , sorrow , trouble ) in a broken melodic line against sustained string chords , then " Thy rod and Thy staff comfort me " , where the " first violins weave a comforting little melody " .
The following duet expresses enjoyment at God 's table in a dance , a bourrée .
The cantata closes with a four @-@ part chorale , most instruments playing colla parte , while the horns play different parts because of their limited range .
= = Selected recordings = =
The selection is taken from the listing on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs and orchestras are roughly marked as large by red background ; instrumental groups playing period instruments in historically informed performances are highlighted green under the header Instr ..
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= Alejandro Sanz =
Alejandro Sanz ( Spanish pronunciation : [ aleˈxandɾo ˈsanθ ] ; born Alejandro Sánchez Pizarro ; December 18 , 1968 ) is a Spanish singer @-@ songwriter and musician . For his work , Sanz has won a total of fifteen Latin Grammy Awards and three Grammy Awards . He has won the Latin Grammy for Album of the Year three times , more than any other artist . The singer is notable for his flamenco @-@ influenced ballads , but he has also experimented with rock , funk , electronic , jazz and many genres from latin music .
Born in Madrid , Sanz began playing guitar at age seven , taking influence from his family 's flamenco roots . Sanz released his debut album at age nineteen , although he did not gain commercial success in Spain until his second release , Viviendo Deprisa . His next two records , Si Tú Me Miras ( 1993 ) and 3 ( 1995 ) also fared well commercially , but it was his 1997 breakthrough album Más that garnered international success . El Alma al Aire followed in 2000 , selling more than a million copies in its first week . In 2002 , he became the first Spanish artist to record an MTV Unplugged album . En 1991 , for the album Viviendo Deprisa , made song in English called " Blowfish "
His collaboration with Shakira on the 2005 single " La Tortura " reached number one on several charts worldwide . His albums No Es lo Mismo ( 2003 ) and El Tren de los Momentos ( 2006 ) showed Sanz experimenting with more diverse styles of music , while his most recent release , Paraíso Express ( 2009 ) served as a return to form for the musician . He signed to Universal Music Group in 2011 and released his tenth studio album , La Música No Se Toca , on September 25 , 2012 , followed by Sirope on May 4 , 2015 .
= = Early life = =
Sanz was born in Madrid , Spain , on December 18 , 1968 , the youngest son of María Pizarro and Jesús Sánchez . He grew up in the neighborhood of Moratalaz in eastern Madrid . Sanz recalled that " Back then , kids grew up on the street ... I was a bit like the group troubadour ; the one who played the guitar and sang . That kept me out of a lot of trouble . " Sanz 's father , a door @-@ to @-@ door book salesman , played guitar professionally , which inspired seven @-@ year @-@ old Sanz to learn to play the instrument . He pursued the instrument with an intensity that eventually frustrated his mother , who broke his guitar one morning after his playing kept the family from sleeping .
He was exposed to traditional flamenco music as a child while vacationing each summer in his parents ' native Andalusia in southern Spain . Originally , Sanz intended to become a flamenco performer , but he found the music teachers to be overly strict . Commenting on his early experiences , Sanz explained , " Flamenco can be very hard on beginners . If you lose the rhythm , they toss you out with , ' You 're no good , boy ! ' They 're very strict and very cruel . But it 's also a marvelous education , because you either learn to play or else . " He felt that he could not compete with his peers , and decided to focus on creating pop music with flamenco influences , viewing flamenco to be a " lifestyle " better suited to others .
= = Recording career = =
= = = 1989 – 96 : First four albums = = =
As a teenager , Sanz performed in various venues in his hometown . He became acquainted with Miguel Ángel Arenas , a music industry executive who had signed several popular Spanish groups such as Mecano . Arenas helped Sanz find work , eventually leading to a record deal with the Spanish label Hispavox . In 1989 Sanz released his debut album , Los Chulos Son Pa ' Cuidarlos under the name of Alejandro Magno ( Spanish for " Alexander the Great " ) . The record , which fused techno and flamenco , was met with critical and commercial indifference , and today Sanz views the record to be " insignificant " . However , the album is now considered to be a collector 's item . In an attempt to promote Los Chulos Son Pa ' Cuidarlos , he performed at strip clubs , playing short sets between acts . This proved to be unsuccessful and Sanz took a break from music , choosing to study business administration . He also took a job at a recording studio in which he wrote material for other artists . He persuaded Arenas to send demos of his songs to record companies , which led to being signed by Warner Music Latina . At this time , he began performing under his current name .
Sanz 's rise to fame began in 1991 , when he released his first album from Warner , Viviendo Deprisa . The record and the songs " Pisando Fuerte " and " Se le Apagó la Luz " helped him gain a dedicated fan base in Spain . In 1993 , he released Si Tú Me Miras shortly followed by a live album , titled Básico . That same year , he recorded a song entitled " Mi Primera Canción " with flamenco pioneer Paco de Lucía , whom Sanz idolized as a child . He released his third studio album since changing his stage name , 3 , in 1995 . In addition to Spanish , 3 was also released in Italian and Portuguese . " La Fuerza del Corazón " , the first single released from 3 , was his first song to chart internationally . All three albums proved to be successful , reaching multi @-@ platinum status in Spain .
= = = 1997 – 2002 : Más , El Alma al Aire , and MTV Unplugged = = =
Sanz spent two years in Milan , Italy to work on a follow @-@ up for 3 . For the album , he wished to create a " true fusion " of many different sounds , and began studying the saxophone and piano in addition to guitar . In 1997 , Sanz released his fifth studio album , Más , a record containing ballads strongly influenced by flamenco , pop , and tropical rhythms . Driven by the singles " Corazón Partío " , " Y , ¿ Si Fuera Ella ? " , " Amiga Mía " , " Aquello Que Me Diste " , and " Siempre Es de Noche " , Más sold more than two million copies in Spain and was certified 22 × Platinum in the country , making it the best @-@ selling album in Spanish history . The album remained on the Billboard Latin Albums chart for 74 weeks , and one year after the record 's release , Sanz was granted an Ondas Award for Best Song for " Corazón Partío " . According to David Cazares of the South Florida Sun @-@ Sentinel , the album " made Sanz an international star on the strength of the pop @-@ salsa hit ' Corazón Partío ' , a song on the lips of fans from Spain to Cuba and the United States . " Following the success of the album , Sanz began touring in United States for the first time .
His fifth album , El Alma al Aire , released September 26 , 2000 , featured Sanz exploring a wider array of musical genres , including jazz , R & B , soul and tango . In Spain , the album sold more than one million copies in the first week , breaking the record of one million copies sold in four months , also set by Sanz with his previous album , Más . At the 2001 Latin Grammy Awards , Sanz walked away with four awards : Best Pop Male Vocal Album and Album of the Year for El Alma al Aire , and Record of the Year and Song of the Year for the title track from the album . Later that year , El Alma al Aire was released in a special edition including Sanz 's duets with Irish band The Corrs . In October 2001 , Sanz collaborated with Michael Jackson and various other artists on the Spanish version of the charity single " What More Can I Give " , which benefited the victims of the September 11 attacks .
In 2002 , Sanz recorded MTV Unplugged at the Gusman Center for the Performing Arts in Miami , Florida . He was the first Spanish artist to record and release an MTV Unplugged album . For Sanz , the recording of the album " changed the way I do my music . It was a rediscovery of how to perform , and also how to record , music with live musicians . That was the spirit of the music in its pure form , though [ it is ironic ] that the more people who are playing , the more simple it is . " With the MTV Unplugged , he garnered three Latin Grammy Awards ( Album of the Year , Recording of the Year and Song of the Year for " Y Sólo Se Me Ocurre Amarte " ) .
= = = 2003 – 07 : No Es lo Mismo and El Tren de los Momentos = = =
On September 2 , 2003 , Sanz released his sixth studio album , No Es lo Mismo . On this record , Sanz took a more political approach than he had on previous releases . The song " Sandy a Orilla do Mundo " discusses oil spills on the Spanish coast , while " Labana " tells the story of people fleeing from Cuba on makeshift rafts . The album won four awards at the 2004 Latin Grammy Awards , including Album of the Year and Record of the Year . Sanz was unable to attend the event and his awards were accepted by presenters and colleagues . Also in 2004 , he became the first Spanish musician to give a lecture at Harvard University , speaking about Hispanic culture at the David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies .
In 2005 , Sanz collaborated with Shakira on her song " La Tortura " . Co @-@ written by Sanz , the song became an international hit , breaking the record for the most weeks at the number one spot on the Hot Latin Songs chart . The song exposed Sanz to a more diverse audience , and helped build anticipation for his next release . The first single from the album El Tren de los Momentos , " A la Primera Persona " , became his first song to enter the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number 100 on the chart . The record was also noted for its guest appearances , which featured Shakira , Juanes , Alex González of Maná , and Residente of Calle 13 .
In the spring of 2007 , Sanz suffered a mental breakdown and took two months off in the middle of a world tour at the request of his doctor . The breakdown was caused by several events in his personal life , including the death of his father in 2005 , his separation with Mexican model and actress Jaydy Mitchel , and his announcement that he had a three @-@ year @-@ old son outside of his marriage with Mitchel . He commented on the situation , saying " You have to put things in perspective . It was stress , something that had never affected me , but this time , yes , it did . So I had to pay . A doctor told me to stop for a couple of months to recuperate completely . " Sanz spent time in therapy , a time which " helped [ him ] a lot " and gave him " more power " to perform .
In a press conference in late 2007 , he criticized Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez , calling him " undemocratic " in the wake of a petition made by Venezuelan citizens to prevent Chávez from running for re @-@ election . Sanz further stated " If they gave me 3 million signatures to stop singing , I would stop singing immediately . " Supporters of Chávez subsequently gathered 230 @,@ 000 signatures in response to Sanz ' comments .
= = = 2008 – present : Paraíso Express , La Música no se Toca , and Sirope = = =
To promote his new record , Paraíso Express , Sanz started a campaign in which fans could create a video about their definition of paradise and upload it to his YouTube channel . Artists such as Shakira , Laura Pausini and Paulina Rubio also participated . On November 10 , 2009 , Sanz released Paraíso Express . This record was described as a return to form for Sanz , focusing more on melody as opposed to the experimentation he pursued on his previous two albums . He commented that " On this album , I first composed the melody and then the lyrics . It is more of a rock album than my past releases , with more elegant and positive lyrics and a happier and more rhythmic spirit . " The bilingual single " Looking for Paradise " featuring Alicia Keys reached number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . At the 2010 Latin Grammy Awards , the album was nominated Album of the Year and Best Male Pop Vocal Album , while the single " Desde Cuándo " received both Record and Song of the Year nominations .
On February 15 , 2011 , Sanz announced that he would be signing with Universal Music Group after twenty years with Warner . In the same year , Sanz received the Latin Heritage Award by the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) in recognition of his contributions to Latin music . On September 2 , 2012 , the singer unveiled the official artwork of his upcoming ninth studio album , La Música No Se Toca on his official site . Sanz released La Música No Se Toca , featuring the single " No Me Compares " and based on the opening theme song in the telenovela Amores Verdaderos , on September 25 , 2012 . On August 21 , 2012 , Sanz released his new single " Irrepetível ( Me Sumerjo ) " , a duet with Brazilian singer @-@ songwriter Ana Carolina . The song is a Portuguese @-@ Spanish song and it 's only available in Brazil 's iTunes . On September 17 , he released the album 's second single , " Se Vende " . In 2013 , Sanz was recognized as the Pop Male Artist of the Year and was the recipient of the Excellence Award at the 26th Lo Nuestro Awards for his achievements in the music industry .
On November 6 , 2013 Sanz received an honorary doctor of music degree from Berklee College of Music . “ It is a great honor for me to receive this doctorate degree from one of the most prestigious music schools in the world , ” Sanz said of the Berklee recognition . “ I will continue to work every day of my life to deserve this honor . ” Sanz released his eleventh studio album , Sirope , featuring the single " A Que No Me Dejas " , a collaboration with Alejandro Fernandez and used as the opening theme song in the telenovela A Que No Me Dejas , on May 4 , 2015 . The album took a year and one month to record , and features an " eclectic sound " in Sanz 's words , containing elements of flamenco , R & B , and folk music . He worked with producer Sebastian Krys , who helped him " enrich what was there but [ not lose ] the essence " of the songs .
= = Musical style = =
Early in his career , Sanz ' music generally consisted of romantic ballads . However , in the late 1990s , his collaborations with other artists greatly expanded his musical style . On No Es lo Mismo , he experimented with rock , salsa , and hip hop . While recording the album , Sanz noted that he often entered the studio with a rough idea for a song and the guest artists would " contaminate it with their rhythms ... in a good way . " El Tren de los Momentos continued this pattern of musical experimentation , featuring diverse genres such as funk , jazz , and country . Despite this , Jason Birchmeier of Allmusic described his musical evolution by saying " Even as Sanz broadened his style over the years , he never ventured far from his strength : romantic songs , generally ballads , tinged with flamenco and sung wholeheartedly with his distinct voice . "
Sanz is known for his distinctive raspy vocals , which he attributes to his flamenco roots , crediting singer Camarón de la Isla as a major influence . His song " Sí , He Cantado Mal " ( Yes , I Have Sung Badly ) from No Es lo Mismo references this , with Sanz saying " I 'm laughing a little at myself so that I can laugh at other things . Sometimes , I 'm harder on myself than any music critic can be . I 'm laughing at that . " Throughout his youth , Sanz was heavily influenced by English @-@ language heavy metal groups such as Iron Maiden and Dio , referring to himself as a " heavy metal radical " . He also feels that living in the city of Cadiz had a major impact on his musical style , where " Any 7 @-@ year @-@ old kid you find knows how to play guitar , play the cajón , knows how to sing . When the family comes together we start to sing . In a way it 's not just music , it 's culture . "
= = Personal life = =
Sanz married Mexican fashion model and actress Jaydy Michel in Bali on December 30 , 1999 , but this marriage was never legally recognized in either of their home countries . Sanz felt that having a legally recognized marriage was unnecessary : " My wife is my wife and I am her husband . For me , that has enough validity ... I am married with the heart . " The couple separated in 2005 . Their daughter , Manuela Sánchez Michel , was born on July 28 , 2001 . Sanz later had a son named Alexander with Valeria Rivera , a Puerto Rican fashion designer .
Sanz welcomed his third child in New York , a boy named Dylan ( b . July 2011 ) , the first child from his relationship with girlfriend and former assistant , Raquel Perera . Sanz chose flamenco guitarist Paco de Lucía to be the godfather to his son . Sanz and Perera are godparents to David Bisbal 's daughter , Ella . On May 23 , 2012 , Sanz married Raquel Perera in a private ceremony in Sabadell ( Barcelona ) . Sanz had a second child ( a daughter ) with wife Raquel Perera in Madrid on the 24th of June , 2014 . They named her Alma .
In addition to music , Sanz enjoys painting , which he often does while trying to create ideas for new songs . He explains that painting " teaches you that taking risks rarely leads to failure . In fact , from the moment you assume a risk , you have succeeded . "
= = Filmography = =
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
1989 : Los Chulos Son Pa ' Cuidarlos
1990 : De Vuelta a Casa
1991 : Viviendo Deprisa
1993 : Si Tú Me Miras
1995 : 3
1997 : Más
2000 : El Alma al Aire
2003 : No Es lo Mismo
2006 : El Tren de los Momentos
2009 : Paraíso Express
2012 : La Música No Se Toca
2015 : Sirope
= = Tours = =
( 1991 @-@ 1992 ) Viviendo Deprisa Tour
( 1993 @-@ 1994 ) Si Tú Me Miras Tour
( 1995 @-@ 1996 ) 3 Tour
( 1997 @-@ 1998 ) Más Tour
( 2001 @-@ 2002 ) El Alma Al Aire Tour
( 2003 @-@ 2004 ) No Es Lo Mismo Tour
( 2007 @-@ 2008 ) El Tren De Los Momentos Tour
( 2009 @-@ 2011 ) Paraiso Tour
( 2012 @-@ 2014 ) La Música No Se Toca Tour
( 2015 ) Sirope Tour
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= I Love Bacon ! =
I Love Bacon ! is a cookbook with over fifty recipes devoted to bacon and bacon dishes , many of them from celebrity chefs . The book was written by Jayne Rockmill and photography was provided by Ben Fink . Broken down into eight sections , the book covered how to make homemade bacon and moves onto " brunch " and " small bites " before covering soups , salads and sides , pasta , fish , meat , and desserts . I Love Bacon ! was published in October 2010 by Andrews McMeel Publishing and met with favorable reviews for its unique dishes and helpful culinary tips for novices .
= = Background = =
The book 's author , Jayne Rockmill , is a literary agent based in New York City whose clients include Tony Caputo , François Halard , and the professional photographer and storm chaser , Jim Reed . Rockmill had also become involved in producing charity food and wine events , and is a longtime supporter of the New York City Food Bank and Share Our Strength , which focuses on ending childhood hunger . She conceived the book as a way to help raise money for their work , and a portion of the proceeds from I Love Bacon will be donated to the two charities . Rockmill began by asking chefs she knew personally to donate bacon recipes , and then contacted others across the United States . In some cases , she adapted the original recipes in collaboration with the chefs .
The book 's illustrator is the well @-@ known food photographer , Ben Fink , whose photographs appear in Food & Wine , Bon Appétit , Saveur and publications of the Culinary Institute of America . A native of Memphis , Tennessee now based in New York , Fink illustrated Jacques Pépin 's , Fast Food My Way ( 2004 ) and Maggie Glezer 's Artisan Baking Across America ( 2000 ) for which he won a James Beard Foundation Award in 2001 . Some of Fink 's more unusual food photographs are those for Martha Hopkins and Randall Lockridge 's 1997 InterCourses : An Aphrodisiac Cookbook , where the food is photographed against the background of a naked human body .
= = Contents = =
I Love Bacon ! contains over 50 recipes from celebrity chefs including Cat Cora , John Besh , Ming Tsai , and Chris Cosentino , as well as brief biographies of the chefs themselves . It presents basic bacon recipes as well as dishes with bacon as one of the chief ingredients . The recipes are grouped into eight sections beginning with Make Your Own Bacon which has recipes for " Classic Cured Bacon " , " Spicy Braised Bacon " , " Soy @-@ Ginger Braised Bacon " , " Crispy Pork Belly " , and " Chinese Style Pork Belly " . The remaining seven sections ( Brunch ; Small Bites ; Soups , Salads and Sides , Pasta , Fish , Meat and Desserts ) contain recipes for dishes using bacon as one of the main ingredients .
The Brunch section begins with a recipe from Seattle @-@ based Black Rock Spirits for " Bakon Bloody Mary " , a variant on the traditional Bloody Mary cocktail using bacon infused vodka with the glass rim dipped in lime juice and finely crumbled grilled bacon . Although the majority of recipes in this section feature bacon with its traditional brunch partner , eggs , there is also a recipe for " Mediterranean BLTs " . This version of the classic BLT sandwich pairs the bacon , lettuce and tomato with toasted focaccia bread and red @-@ pepper aioli in place of mayonnaise . Another version of the BLT using toasted brioche and sun @-@ dried tomatoes cut into mini @-@ sandwiches appears in the Small Bites section which is devoted to bacon @-@ based hors d 'oeuvres .
Among the recipes in Soups , Salads and Sides are " Egg Chowder with Bacon and New Potatoes " , " Grilled Bacon and Cucumber Salad with Chili Caramel Dressing " , and " Spicy Braised Bacon with Spagna Beans and Treviso Radicchio " which uses thickly sliced pork belly bacon . The Pasta section has a recipe for " Bacon Mac and Cheese " from Julie Taras Wallach , the chef and co @-@ owner of the Tipsy Parson and Little Giant restaurants in New York City . Her variant on the traditional macaroni and cheese uses cavatelli pasta seasoned with dijon mustard , thyme , rosemary , garlic , and nutmeg and incorporates sauteed onion and pieces of grilled bacon . One of the recipes in the Meat section , " Veal and Foie Gras Meatloaf Wrapped in Bacon " , comes from Mark Allen , who in 1997 became the youngest chef , and the first American , to have headed The Dining Room at the Ritz @-@ Carlton in Boston . Allen also contributed a recipe for the Fish section , " Whole Roasted Branzino with Carrots and Bacon " . Other dishes in that section include " Pancetta @-@ Wrapped Monkfish with Cauliflower Flan " and " Bluefish with Corn , Avocado , and Bacon Salad " .
Like its somewhat lengthier predecessors , Sara Perry 's Everything Tastes Better with Bacon ( 2002 ) , Pruess and Lape 's Seduced by Bacon ( 2006 ) , and James Villas 's The Bacon Cookbook ( 2007 ) , Rockmill 's I Love Bacon ! includes sweet dishes using bacon . Among the recipes in the Desserts section are " Bacon Panna Cotta with Huckleberries " , " Cane Sugar and Bacon @-@ Iced Cupcakes " , and Cat Cora 's " Pig Candy Ice Cream " . Cora 's recipe uses a pound ( .454 kilograms ) of chopped applewood @-@ smoked bacon per quart ( .946 litres ) of brown sugar @-@ sweetened vanilla ice cream .
= = Reception = =
Carol Johnson writing in the Kansas City Star described I Love Bacon ! as both a cookbook with " inventive " recipes and " a mini @-@ course in some of the country 's top restaurants . " Johnson noted that not all recipes were for beginners , but found the accompanying notes for many of the recipes with information about techniques and ingredients to be helpful . She described Ben Fink 's photography as " vivid and mouth @-@ watering , if a little spare . " The Republic of Bacon website favorably reviewed the cookbook for its ability to go beyond the standard classic cured bacon dishes and the added biographies of the leading industry chefs which contributed recipes to the book .
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= Entrada ( Fringe ) =
" Entrada " is the eighth episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 51st episode overall . The first part of the third season spent much of its time alternating between the prime and parallel universes , and " Entrada " was the first episode of the season to have time evenly divided between both . In the episode , both Olivia and her doppelganger " Fauxlivia " attempt to journey back to their respective universes . John Cassini , Seth Gabel , Ryan McDonald , Stefan Arngrim , and Karen Holness guest starred .
Showrunners J. H. Wyman and Jeff Pinkner wrote the episode as the " culmination of a lot of things that [ they ] had been working on for quite a while . " Calling it one of their favorite episodes , they believed it was a good entry point for new viewers to the series . Frequent Fringe collaborator Brad Anderson returned to direct the episode . " Entrada " first aired on December 2 , 2010 in the United States to an estimated 5 @.@ 13 million viewers . It has been selected for " best episode " lists by various television critics . Both Anna Torv and John Noble submitted the episode for consideration at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards , but both failed to garner a nomination .
= = Plot = =
At the end of the previous episode , Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) was able to cross over back to her universe long enough to warn Peter Bishop ( Joshua Jackson ) she is trapped in the parallel universe . After receiving the message , Peter tests the Olivia from the other dimension , " Fauxlivia " , by telling her the Greek phrase Na einai kalytero anthropo apo ton patera tou ( roughly , " May he be a better person than his father " ) , which Olivia told Peter in the " New Day in the Old Town " . When Fauxlivia fails to recognize the phrase , Peter confirms his suspicions . Realizing she has been exposed , Fauxlivia forces Peter to inject himself with a paralyzing agent . She then goes to a typewriter store in the Bronx to contact the parallel universe to request an extraction .
After Peter recovers , the Fringe team starts a search for Fauxlivia . Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) is distressed that he has no idea how to find Fauxlivia and no idea how to bring Olivia back . However , Astrid Farnsworth ( Jasika Nicole ) discovers Fauxlivia brought Walter malasadas from a bakery in the Bronx . Peter , Walter , Farnsworth and Phillip Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) search the nearby area , Peter finds the typewriter store and the team finds the typewriter used to contact the other universe ( a " quantum entanglement " device ) . There , the team realizes that Fauxlivia is going to a train station in Newark for a 4 : 00 PM pick @-@ up .
Meanwhile , in the parallel universe , " Walternate " ( Noble ) plans on using Olivia 's body in order for her alternate self to return home , as it would require a person of Olivia 's mass to complete the transfer . However , Walternate arranges for Olivia 's brain to be removed for further study on how to traverse universes safely . Before she is to start the operation , Olivia receives a visit from Colonel Broyles ( the alternate universe 's counterpart to her FBI supervisor ) , who is still grateful to Olivia for helping his son . Olivia convinces him that her universe is not at war with theirs ; the troubles started not from any hostile action , but only as an accidental side @-@ effect of Walter 's initial crossing to save Peter . Broyles later talks with his wife and then returns to Liberty Island to save Olivia . Together , the two reach the immersion tank that Olivia used earlier , but find it empty . As a back @-@ up plan , the two travel to Walternate 's long abandoned lab at Harvard to use the sensory deprivation tank . Broyles reveals there is a GPS tracker in him , but manages to buy Olivia enough time to successfully return to her universe .
As this transpires , Fauxlivia meets with a shapeshifter at the station to inject her with resonating rods . By that time , Broyles and Peter arrive at the station . To ensure her escape , Fauxlivia holds a hostage . However , Peter realizes the hostage is the shapeshifter when the hostage is unable to state the name of " her " nearby daughter . Peter shoots the shapeshifter in the head , killing it , and Fauxlivia is arrested . Later , the team learns that their own Olivia has returned . However , Fauxlivia still manages to escape back to her universe , leaving behind the mutilated body of the alternate counterpart of Broyles to make up for her mass . While Peter and Olivia reunite at a hospital , the typewriter store owner trades a piece of the doomsday device in exchange for the restoration of his paralyzed legs .
= = Production = =
" Entrada " was written by executive producers Jeff Pinkner and J. H. Wyman . Filmmaker and frequent Fringe collaborator Brad Anderson returned to direct the episode , shooting it in September 2010 on New Westminster 's Front Street in Vancouver and in a train station . The special effects crew used a prosthetic body resembling actor Lance Reddick , minus a certain amount of mass equal to Anna Torv ; they did research to find out how much a human leg typically weighs , finding the number to be around 20 percent of a body 's mass .
The third season spent much of its time alternating between the prime and parallel universes , and " Entrada " was the first episode of the season to have time divided between both . This was reflected in the opening credits , which were red and blue in a season that had previously differentiated each universe with one exclusive color .
Pinkner and Wyman revealed in a conference call interview that the episode was the " culmination of a lot of things that [ they ] had been working on for quite a while " . Though they loved all of their episodes , the two stated that " Entrada " was a particular favorite of theirs , with Pinker elaborating that " if the only episode of Fringe you ever tune into watch is this one , sure , it ’ s going to take you five minutes to catch up , but you will feel what ’ s going on , and you will understand the relationships ... [ It 's ] a great entry point " . The producers considered making " Entrada " the mid @-@ season finale , but instead selected " Marionette " , the following week 's episode .
The episode featured appearances by recurring guest stars Karen Holness as Phillip Broyles ' wife Diane , John Cassini as the Store Owner , and Ryan McDonald as scientist Brandon Fayette . Seth Gabel also returned to guest star as Lincoln Lee , an agent from the parallel universe .
In a departure from previous Fringe trailers , Fox created and premiered a " grandiose movie @-@ style " trailer at Entertainment Weekly 's website to celebrate the airing of " Entrada " . Pinkner explained that the trailer idea did not come from his production team , but rather was produced by a Fox division called Special Ops , who came up with the idea in order to platform Fringe to the audience in a way they had not seen before . As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children , focusing on the science seen in " Entrada " , with the intention of having " students learn about scientific intuition and how it can facilitate the scientific method of collecting data through experimentation and observation in order to formulate and test a hypothesis " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The original broadcast of " Entrada " occurred on December 2 , 2010 in the United States . According to Nielsen ratings , it was watched by an estimated 5 @.@ 13 million viewers , earning a 3 @.@ 2 / 5 share among all households and a 1 @.@ 8 / 5 share among viewers aged 18 – 49 . This latter demographic was down five percent from the previous episode that aired on November 18 . Entertainment Weekly writer Lynette Rice remarked of the low ratings , " If this genre series were on AMC ( or featured zombies ) , the media world would be calling it a monster hit . Sadly , the threshold for success is far different on broadcast TV , so Fringe will always be viewed as a niche performer with a small but rabid fan base . "
Seven days after its broadcast on time shifted viewings , " Entrada " was seen by an additional 1 @.@ 7 million , pushing the total viewership up to 6 @.@ 87 million with a 2 @.@ 6 rating among those 18 – 49 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received critical acclaim . James Poniewozik of Time Magazine wrote , " While it may not have been the high point that the emotional " Peter " from earlier this year was , " Entrada " was a pretty excellent action @-@ focused episode , in which the dimensional swap between Fauxlivia and Realivia came to a head . In the process , it demonstrated that Fringe 's writers have made a compelling world out of Over There in a relative few episodes — and it was another example of what a strong series Fringe has become since its committed fully to its clash @-@ of @-@ the @-@ universes storyline ... All in all , a satisfying hour and a good demonstration of how Fringe — one of the most improved shows of the past season or so — has grown into one of TV 's most entertaining dramas " .
Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly noted that the episode " closed a Fringe chapter in bringing Olivia back , while opening up all sorts of fresh new possibilities for the future . Both Olivias are changed women with new amounts of information about their opposing universes , and thus will be able to influence their Walters in how to proceed henceforth . The series can resume plot threads that have been given scant attention in recent weeks , such as Walter ’ s takeover of Massive Dynamic , and what I ’ m hoping will be an increased presence by Nina Sharp , whose role in the interuniverse machinations is ripe for exploration " .
Writing for SFScope , Sarah Stegall praised Reddick 's performance as both Colonel Broyles , and Torv 's " tour @-@ de @-@ force " performance as Olivia and her doppelganger . She also noted how strong of a show Fringe has evolved into , lauding the producers ' decision to focus on the show 's " strongest and most innovative plot " : the parallel universe . Stegall expressed hope that Fauxlivia 's experiences in the prime universe would lead her to challenge Walternate 's more militant actions to destroy it . Stegall further recognized the episode 's editing , as " a complicated story like this one could have been endlessly confusing , with multiple versions of the same character , two extremely similar universes , and plot points reaching back to the first season . Yet the writing and direction kept it all sorted out , without resorting to voice @-@ overs , flashbacks , or other lame expository devices . This is classy , tight writing , and my hat 's off to the entire team " . Television Without Pity graded the episode an A + , . Noel Murry at The A.V. Club gave it an A- highlighting Torv 's performance .
It topped several " best episode of 2010 " lists , including Den of Geek , Give Me My Remote , and TV.com. Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly named " Entrada " the fifth best episode of the series , calling it " the sensational climax to season 3 's sensational Olivia / Fauxlivia parallel universe interplay , which seemed to bring out the best in both the writers of Fringe as well as its actors , especially Anna Torv , who rocked the tricky material and created a convincingly distinct and unique doppelganger iteration of Olivia . She deserved an Emmy nomination for her work this season . Oh , well . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Anna Torv submitted " Entrada " , along with the season three episodes " Olivia " , " Marionette " , and " Bloodline " for consideration in the " Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series " category at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards . She failed to receive a nomination . John Noble also submitted " Entrada " , along with episodes " The Firefly " and " The Day We Died " , for consideration in the " Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series category " , but did not receive a nomination .
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= Gypsy ( Shakira song ) =
" Gypsy " is a song by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira , from her eighth studio album She Wolf ( 2009 ) . The song was chosen as the fourth and final single from the album by Epic Records . It was released internationally on 26 March 2013 ; in the United States , " Gypsy " was released as a CD single on 12 April 2010 . The Spanish @-@ language version " Gitana " was released as a digital promotional single on 1 March 2010 . Written by Shakira , Amanda Ghost , Carl Sturken and Evan Rogers , the lyrics of the song describe one 's life travelling as a " gypsy " . The song draws heavy influences from Indian and Middle Eastern music .
Upon its release , " Gypsy " received generally positive reviews from music critics , many of whom complimented its production . The single was commercially successful and peaked within the top 10 of the charts of countries including Germany , Hungary , Mexico and Spain . In the United States , " Gypsy " peaked at number 65 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , while " Gitana " reached number six on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . " Gypsy " was certified platinum and gold in Spain and Mexico , respectively .
An accompanying music video for the song was directed by Jaume de Laiguana , and stars Spanish professional tennis player Rafael Nadal as Shakira 's love interest . The music video also generated a favourable response from critics , and was praised for the chemistry between Shakira and Nadal . Shakira appeared on a number of television shows , such as German @-@ language entertainment show Wetten , dass .. ? and The Ellen DeGeneres Show , and award ceremonies to promote the song . It was also a part of the setlist of her Sun Comes Out World Tour .
= = Background and composition = =
" Gypsy " was released as the fourth and final single from Shakira 's eighth studio album , She Wolf ( 2009 ) . " Gypsy " was written by Shakira , Amanda Ghost , Ian Dench , Carl Sturken and Evan Rogers , and produced by Shakira , Ghost , Lukas Burton and Future Cut . Written in a ballad @-@ like form , the lyrics of the song describe life travelling on the road as a " gypsy " . Shakira explained the song , saying " ( The song represents my ) way of living and seeing life . I 've been on the road since I was very young so that 's where the gypsy metaphor comes from . " Musically , " Gypsy " is heavily influenced by Indian and Middle Eastern music , and features instrumentation from the mandolin , banjo , sitar and tabla . According to the music sheet published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Gypsy " is a midtempo song written in the key of C major , with a metronome of 100 beats per minute . Shakira 's vocal range on the song spans from A3 to C5 .
The original English version of the song was released worldwide on 26 March 2013 . In the United States , it was released as a CD single on 12 April 2010 . A Spanish @-@ language version of the song titled " Gitana " features additional lyrical contributions from Jorge Drexler and was released on 1 March 2010 , as a digital promotional single .
= = Critical response = =
" Gypsy " received generally positive reviews from music critics . While reviewing the album , Ayala Ben @-@ Yehuda from Billboard singled out the song as an album highlight and called it " the closest thing to an acoustic song on the album " . Fraser McAlpine from the BBC Chart Blog also reviewed the song positively and praised its versatility , claiming it manages to be both " conservative acoustic music " and " radical exotic world music " at the same time . Robert Copsey from Digital Spy appreciated the acoustic @-@ instrumentation of " Gypsy " , noting it to be " by far the most organic @-@ sounding offering from her She Wolf LP " , but he also felt that the song is not " as instantly infectious as some of her classic singles " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic felt the song was representative of the entire album , picking it as an album highlight . Evan Sawdey from PopMatters , however , disliked the concept of the " Gypsy " , saying the " metaphors don 't work very well " on the song .
The song was nominated for " Top Latin Song " at the 2011 Billboard Music Awards . Two other songs by Shakira , " Loca " and " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " , were also nominated , and the award was won by the latter song . At the 2011 Annual Latin Music Awards hosted by ASCAP , Jorge Drexler won an award in the " Pop / Ballad " category for his composition of " Gitana " .
= = Commercial performance = =
" Gypsy " attained international chart success . In Austria , it entered and peaked at number 11 on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 chart , spending a total of 10 weeks on the chart . In the Dutch @-@ speaking Flanders region of Belgium , the song peaked at number four on the Ultratip chart , spending a total of six weeks on the chart . In the French @-@ speaking Wallonia region of Belgium , the song entered and peaked at number 40 on the Ultratop 50 chart , spending a total of one week on the chart . In Germany , the song peaked at number seven on the Media Control Charts , remaining on the position for one week . In Spain , the song entered the Spanish Singles chart at number 47 and peaked at number three , spending a total of 38 weeks on the chart . " Gypsy " was certified platinum by the Productores de Música de España ( PROMUSICAE ) for sales of 40 @,@ 000 units . In Switzerland , the song entered and peaked at number 12 on the Schweizer Hitparade chart , spending a total of 18 weeks on the chart . In Mexico , " Gitana " topped the Monitor Latino chart . It was certified gold by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas ( AMPROFON ) after it shipped 30 @,@ 000 units in the country .
In the United States , " Gypsy " peaked at number 65 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , spending a total of three weeks on the chart . On the Hot Digital Songs chart , the song peaked at number 48 , and remained on the chart for a total of one week . " Gitana " peaked at number six on the US Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart , and stayed on the chart for a total of 20 weeks . On the Latin Pop Airplay chart , the song peaked at number one , and remained on the chart for a total of 25 weeks . On the Tropical Songs chart , the song peaked at number 18 , and remained on the chart for a total of 20 weeks . In Canada , the song peaked at number 80 on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 chart , and remained on it for a total of one week .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Gypsy " was directed by Jaume de Laiguana , who had previously worked with Shakira on the videos for songs such as " No " . The video stars Spanish professional tennis player Rafael Nadal , who portrays Shakira 's love interest in the video . When asked about the reason for starring Nadal in the video , Shakira said she " thought that maybe I needed someone I could in some way identify with . And Rafael Nadal is a person who has been totally committed to his career since he was very young , since he was 17 , I believe . " The music videos for " Gypsy " and the Spanish @-@ language version " Gitana " were released on 27 February 2010 . The video begins with Shakira playing the harmonica , dressed in a black halter top and a long black skirt . The next scenes mainly consist of Shakira interacting with Nadal in different ways , such as dancing for him and laying together on the ground . The video ends with the duo sharing a kiss .
The video received positive reviews from critics . Melanie Bertoldi from Billboard praised Shakira 's appearance in the video , saying " the Colombian firebird looks hotter than ever " . The Huffington Post review of the video labelled it as a " steamy affair " . Alek & Steph from OhlalaMag praised the chemistry between Shakira and Nadal , calling it " flirtatious and playful " . Jocelyn Vena from MTV praised the video for its " organic vibe " and commented that " while she ( Shakira ) claims that she 's willing to wear her lover 's clothes if they fit , she looks much hotter in the sheer black halter top and long black skirt that she sports at one point in the clip " . The PopEater review of the video complimented the duo 's chemistry and called them both " equally @-@ stunning " .
= = Live performances = =
On 29 September 2009 , Shakira appeared on the Later ... with Jools Holland show to promote her album She Wolf and performed " Gypsy " , along with " She Wolf " and " Why Wait " . On 16 November , Shakira performed " Gypsy " live on the show The View , accompanied by a tabla and sitar . On 24 November 2009 , she performed " Gypsy " on The Rachael Ray Show . On 23 December 2009 , she appeared on A Home for the Holidays With Faith Hill to perform the song .
On 27 March 2010 , Shakira performed " Gypsy " on the German @-@ language entertainment show Wetten , dass .. ? in Salzburg , Austria . On 28 April 2010 , Shakira performed " Gypsy " on the The Ellen DeGeneres Show . The same day , she performed the song as a duet with Rascal Flatts lead @-@ vocalist Gary LeVox on American Idol . Shakira opened and closed the performance while playing the harmonica . Shakira also performed " Gypsy " in Rock in Rio Lisboa and Madrid on 21 May 2010 and 5 June 2010 . On 15 July 2010 , Shakira performed the song at the opening of the 2010 Premios Juventud awards ceremony , along with her smash hit " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " . " Gypsy " and " She Wolf " were the only two singles from the album to be included in the setlist of The Sun Comes Out World Tour . The song was performed with a " folk lilt " and Shakira 's vocals were backed by " accordion , fiddles and the rhythm section " .
= = Usage in media = =
Shakira guest @-@ starred as herself in the eighth episode of the season four of Ugly Betty titled " The Bahamas Triangle " , which aired on 4 December 2009 . The episode featured the songs " Gypsy " and " Give It Up to Me " running in the background . She sang " Gypsy " in a duet with Selena Gomez in the twelfth episode of the season three of Wizards of Waverly Place , titled " Dude Looks Like Shakira " . In the episode , the main characters of the show , Alex ( Gomez ) , Justin ( David Henrie ) , and Max ( Jake T. Austin ) , are shocked to find out that Shakira is no one but their Uncle Kelbo , who is abusing one of the magic laws concerning fame and fortune . The episode aired on 16 April 2010 .
= = Formats and track listings = =
CD Single ( " Gypsy " )
" Gypsy " - 3 : 16
" Gypsy " ( Freemasons Remix ) - 3 : 26
Digital download ( " Gitana " )
" Gitana " - 3 : 26
Digital download EP
" Gypsy " - 3 : 18
" Gypsy " ( Freemasons Remix ) - 3 : 26
" Gypsy " ( DMC Radio Mix ) - 3 : 17
" Gitana " - 3 : 26
= = Charts = =
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= Nebular hypothesis =
The nebular hypothesis is the most widely accepted model in the field of cosmogony to explain the formation and evolution of the Solar System . It suggests that the Solar System formed from nebulous material . The theory was developed by Immanuel Kant and published in his Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels ( " Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens " ) , published in 1755 . Originally applied to the Solar System , this process of planetary system formation is now thought to be at work throughout the Universe . The widely accepted modern variant of the nebular hypothesis is the solar nebular disk model ( SNDM ) or simply solar nebular model . This nebular hypothesis offered explanations for a variety of properties of the Solar System , including the nearly circular and coplanar orbits of the planets , and their motion in the same direction as the Sun 's rotation . Some elements of the nebular hypothesis are echoed in modern theories of planetary formation , but most elements have been superseded .
According to the nebular hypothesis , stars form in massive and dense clouds of molecular hydrogen — giant molecular clouds ( GMC ) . These clouds are gravitationally unstable , and matter coalesces within them to smaller denser clumps , which then rotate , collapse , and form stars . Star formation is a complex process , which always produces a gaseous protoplanetary disk around the young star . This may give birth to planets in certain circumstances , which are not well known . Thus the formation of planetary systems is thought to be a natural result of star formation . A Sun @-@ like star usually takes approximately 1 million years to form , with the protoplanetary disk evolving into a planetary system over the next 10 – 100 million years .
The protoplanetary disk is an accretion disk that feeds the central star . Initially very hot , the disk later cools in what is known as the T tauri star stage ; here , formation of small dust grains made of rocks and ice is possible . The grains eventually may coagulate into kilometer @-@ sized planetesimals . If the disk is massive enough , the runaway accretions begin , resulting in the rapid — 100 @,@ 000 to 300 @,@ 000 years — formation of Moon- to Mars @-@ sized planetary embryos . Near the star , the planetary embryos go through a stage of violent mergers , producing a few terrestrial planets . The last stage takes approximately 100 million to a billion years .
The formation of giant planets is a more complicated process . It is thought to occur beyond the frost line , where planetary embryos mainly are made of various types of ice . As a result , they are several times more massive than in the inner part of the protoplanetary disk . What follows after the embryo formation is not completely clear . Some embryos appear to continue to grow and eventually reach 5 – 10 Earth masses — the threshold value , which is necessary to begin accretion of the hydrogen – helium gas from the disk . The accumulation of gas by the core is initially a slow process , which continues for several million years , but after the forming protoplanet reaches about 30 Earth masses ( M ⊕ ) it accelerates and proceeds in a runaway manner . Jupiter- and Saturn @-@ like planets are thought to accumulate the bulk of their mass during only 10 @,@ 000 years . The accretion stops when the gas is exhausted . The formed planets can migrate over long distances during or after their formation . Ice giants such as Uranus and Neptune are thought to be failed cores , which formed too late when the disk had almost disappeared .
= = History = =
There is evidence that parts of the nebular hypothesis were first proposed in 1734 by Emanuel Swedenborg . Immanuel Kant , who was familiar with Swedenborg 's work , developed the theory further in 1755 , when Kant published his Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens , wherein he argued that gaseous clouds , nebulae , slowly rotate , gradually collapse and flatten due to gravity , eventually forming stars and planets .
A similar model was developed independently and proposed in 1796 by Pierre @-@ Simon Laplace. in his Exposition du systeme du monde . He envisioned that the Sun originally had an extended hot atmosphere throughout the volume of the Solar System . His theory featured a contracting and cooling protosolar cloud — the protosolar nebula . As this cooled and contracted , it flattened and spun more rapidly , throwing off ( or shedding ) a series of gaseous rings of material ; and according to him , the planets condensed from this material . His model was similar to Kant 's , except more detailed and on a smaller scale . While the Laplacian nebular model dominated in the 19th century , it encountered a number of difficulties . The main problem was angular momentum distribution between the Sun and planets . The planets have 99 % of the angular momentum , and this fact could not be explained by the nebular model . As a result , this theory of planet formation was largely abandoned at the beginning of the 20th century .
A major critique came during the 19th century from James Clerk Maxwell who maintained that different rotation between the inner and outer parts of a ring could not allow condensation of material . It was also rejected by astronomer Sir David Brewster who stated that " those who believe in the Nebular Theory consider it as certain that our Earth derived its solid matter and its atmosphere from a ring thrown from the Solar atmosphere , which afterwards contracted into a solid terraqueous sphere , from which the Moon was thrown off by the same process . " He argued that under such view , " the Moon must necessarily have carried off water and air from the watery and aerial parts of the Earth and must have an atmosphere . " Brewster claimed that Sir Isaac Newton 's religious beliefs had previously considered nebular ideas as tending to atheism , and quoted him saying that " the growth of new systems out of old ones , without the mediation of a Divine power , seemed to him apparently absurd . "
The fall of the Laplacian model stimulated scientists to find a replacement for it . During the 20th century many theories were proposed including the planetesimal theory of Thomas Chamberlin and Forest Moulton ( 1901 ) , tidal model of Jeans ( 1917 ) , accretion model of Otto Schmidt ( 1944 ) , protoplanet theory of William McCrea ( 1960 ) and finally capture theory of Michael Woolfson . In 1978 Andrew Prentice resurrected the initial Laplacian ideas about planet formation and developed the modern Laplacian theory . None of these attempts was completely successful and many of the proposed theories were descriptive .
The birth of the modern widely accepted theory of planetary formation — the solar nebular disk model ( SNDM ) — can be traced to the Soviet astronomer Victor Safronov . His book Evolution of the protoplanetary cloud and formation of the Earth and the planets , which was translated to English in 1972 , had a long @-@ lasting effect on the way scientists think about the formation of the planets . In this book almost all major problems of the planetary formation process were formulated and some of them solved . Safronov 's ideas were further developed in the works of George Wetherill , who discovered runaway accretion . While originally applied only to the Solar System , the SNDM was subsequently thought by theorists to be at work throughout the Universe ; as of 15 July 2016 , 3 @,@ 472 extrasolar planets have since been discovered in our galaxy .
= = Solar nebular model : achievements and problems = =
= = = Achievements = = =
The star formation process naturally results in the appearance of accretion disks around young stellar objects . At the age of about 1 million years , 100 % of stars may have such disks . This conclusion is supported by the discovery of the gaseous and dusty disks around protostars and T Tauri stars as well as by theoretical considerations . Observations of these disks show that the dust grains inside them grow in size on short ( thousand @-@ year ) time scales , producing 1 centimeter sized particles .
The accretion process , by which 1 km planetesimals grow into 1 @,@ 000 km sized bodies , is well understood now . This process develops inside any disk where the number density of planetesimals is sufficiently high , and proceeds in a runaway manner . Growth later slows and continues as oligarchic accretion . The end result is formation of planetary embryos of varying sizes , which depend on the distance from the star . Various simulations have demonstrated that the merger of embryos in the inner part of the protoplanetary disk leads to the formation of a few Earth @-@ sized bodies . Thus the origin of terrestrial planets is now considered to be an almost solved problem .
= = = Current issues = = =
The physics of accretion disks encounters some problems . The most important one is how the material , which is accreted by the protostar , loses its angular momentum . One possible explanation suggested by Hannes Alfvén was that angular momentum was shed by the solar wind during its T Tauri phase . The momentum is transported to the outer parts of the disk by viscous stresses . Viscosity is generated by macroscopic turbulence , but the precise mechanism that produces this turbulence is not well understood . Another possible process for shedding angular momentum is magnetic braking , where the spin of the star is transferred into the surrounding disk via that star 's magnetic field . The main processes responsible for the disappearance of the gas in disks are viscous diffusion and photo @-@ evaporation .
The formation of planetesimals is the biggest unsolved problem in the nebular disk model . How 1 cm sized particles coalesce into 1 km planetesimals is a mystery . This mechanism appears to be the key to the question as to why some stars have planets , while others have nothing around them , not even dust belts .
The formation timescale of giant planets is also an important problem . Old theories were unable to explain how their cores could form fast enough to accumulate significant amounts of gas from the quickly disappearing protoplanetary disk . The mean lifetime of the disks , which is less than ten million ( 107 ) years , appeared to be shorter than the time necessary for the core formation . Much progress has been done to solve this problem and current models of giant planet formation are now capable of forming Jupiter ( or more massive planets ) in about 4 million years or less , well within the average lifetime of gaseous disks .
Another potential problem of giant planet formation is their orbital migration . Some calculations show that interaction with the disk can cause rapid inward migration , which , if not stopped , results in the planet reaching the " central regions still as a sub @-@ Jovian object . " More recent calculations indicate that disk evolution during migration can mitigate this problem .
= = Formation of stars and protoplanetary disks = =
= = = Protostars = = =
Stars are thought to form inside giant clouds of cold molecular hydrogen — giant molecular clouds roughly 300 @,@ 000 times the mass of the Sun ( M ☉ ) and 20 parsecs in diameter . Over millions of years , giant molecular clouds are prone to collapse and fragmentation . These fragments then form small , dense cores , which in turn collapse into stars . The cores range in mass from a fraction to several times that of the Sun and are called protostellar ( protosolar ) nebulae . They possess diameters of 0 @.@ 01 – 0 @.@ 1 pc ( 2 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 AU ) and a particle number density of roughly 10 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 cm − 3 .
The initial collapse of a solar @-@ mass protostellar nebula takes around 100 @,@ 000 years . Every nebula begins with a certain amount of angular momentum . Gas in the central part of the nebula , with relatively low angular momentum , undergoes fast compression and forms a hot hydrostatic ( not contracting ) core containing a small fraction of the mass of the original nebula . This core forms the seed of what will become a star . As the collapse continues , conservation of angular momentum means that the rotation of the infalling envelop accelerates , which largely prevents the gas from directly accreting onto the central core . The gas is instead forced to spread outwards near its equatorial plane , forming a disk , which in turn accretes onto the core . The core gradually grows in mass until it becomes a young hot protostar . At this stage , the protostar and its disk are heavily obscured by the infalling envelope and are not directly observable . In fact the remaining envelope 's opacity is so high that even millimeter @-@ wave radiation has trouble escaping from inside it . Such objects are observed as very bright condensations , which emit mainly millimeter @-@ wave and submillimeter @-@ wave radiation . They are classified as spectral Class 0 protostars . The collapse is often accompanied by bipolar outflows — jets — that emanate along the rotational axis of the inferred disk . The jets are frequently observed in star @-@ forming regions ( see Herbig – Haro ( HH ) objects ) . The luminosity of the Class 0 protostars is high — a solar @-@ mass protostar may radiate at up to 100 solar luminosities . The source of this energy is gravitational collapse , as their cores are not yet hot enough to begin nuclear fusion .
As the infall of its material onto the disk continues , the envelope eventually becomes thin and transparent and the young stellar object ( YSO ) becomes observable , initially in far @-@ infrared light and later in the visible . Around this time the protostar begins to fuse deuterium . If the protostar is sufficiently massive ( above 80 Jupiter masses ( MJ ) ) , hydrogen fusion follows . Otherwise , if its mass is too low , the object becomes a brown dwarf . This birth of a new star occurs approximately 100 @,@ 000 years after the collapse begins . Objects at this stage are known as Class I protostars , which are also called young T Tauri stars , evolved protostars , or young stellar objects . By this time the forming star has already accreted much of its mass : the total mass of the disk and remaining envelope does not exceed 10 – 20 % of the mass of the central YSO .
At the next stage the envelope completely disappears , having been gathered up by the disk , and the protostar becomes a classical T Tauri star . This happens after about 1 million years . The mass of the disk around a classical T Tauri star is about 1 – 3 % of the stellar mass , and it is accreted at a rate of 10 − 7 to 10 − 9 M ☉ per year . A pair of bipolar jets is usually present as well . The accretion explains all peculiar properties of classical T Tauri stars : strong flux in the emission lines ( up to 100 % of the intrinsic luminosity of the star ) , magnetic activity , photometric variability and jets . The emission lines actually form as the accreted gas hits the " surface " of the star , which happens around its magnetic poles . The jets are byproducts of accretion : they carry away excessive angular momentum . The classical T Tauri stage lasts about 10 million years . The disk eventually disappears due to accretion onto the central star , planet formation , ejection by jets and photoevaporation by UV @-@ radiation from the central star and nearby stars . As a result , the young star becomes a weakly lined T Tauri star , which slowly , over hundreds of millions of years , evolves into an ordinary Sun @-@ like star .
= = = Protoplanetary disks = = =
Under certain circumstances the disk , which can now be called protoplanetary , may give birth to a planetary system . Protoplanetary disks have been observed around a very high fraction of stars in young star clusters . They exist from the beginning of a star 's formation , but at the earliest stages are unobservable due to the opacity of the surrounding envelope . The disk of a Class 0 protostar is thought to be massive and hot . It is an accretion disk , which feeds the central protostar . The temperature can easily exceed 400 K inside 5 AU and 1 @,@ 000 K inside 1 AU . The heating of the disk is primarily caused by the viscous dissipation of turbulence in it and by the infall of the gas from the nebula . The high temperature in the inner disk causes most of the volatile material — water , organics , and some rocks to evaporate , leaving only the most refractory elements like iron . The ice can survive only in the outer part of the disk .
The main problem in the physics of accretion disks is the generation of turbulence and the mechanism responsible for the high effective viscosity . The turbulent viscosity is thought to be responsible for the transport of the mass to the central protostar and momentum to the periphery of the disk . This is vital for accretion , because the gas can be accreted by the central protostar only if it loses most of its angular momentum , which must be carried away by the small part of the gas drifting outwards . The result of this process is the growth of both the protostar and of the disk radius , which can reach 1 @,@ 000 AU if the initial angular momentum of the nebula is large enough . Large disks are routinely observed in many star @-@ forming regions such as the Orion nebula .
The lifespan of the accretion disks is about 10 million years . By the time the star reaches the classical T @-@ Tauri stage , the disk becomes thinner and cools . Less volatile materials start to condense close to its center , forming 0 @.@ 1 – 1 μm dust grains that contain crystalline silicates . The transport of the material from the outer disk can mix these newly formed dust grains with primordial ones , which contain organic matter and other volatiles . This mixing can explain some peculiarities in the composition of Solar System bodies such as the presence of interstellar grains in the primitive meteorites and refractory inclusions in comets .
Dust particles tend to stick to each other in the dense disk environment , leading to the formation of larger particles up to several centimeters in size . The signatures of the dust processing and coagulation are observed in the infrared spectra of the young disks . Further aggregation can lead to the formation of planetesimals measuring 1 km across or larger , which are the building blocks of planets . Planetesimal formation is another unsolved problem of disk physics , as simple sticking becomes ineffective as dust particles grow larger .
One hypothesis is formation by the gravitational instability . Particles several centimeters in size or larger slowly settle near the middle plane of the disk , forming a very thin — less than 100 km — and dense layer . This layer is gravitationally unstable and may fragment into numerous clumps , which in turn collapse into planetesimals . However , the differing velocities of the gas disk and the solids near the mid @-@ plane can generate turbulence which prevents the layer from becoming thin enough to fragment due to gravitational instability . This may limit the formation of planetesimals via gravitational instabilities to specific locations in the disk where the concentration of solids is enhanced .
Another possible mechanism for the formation of planetesimals is the streaming instability in which the drag felt by particles orbiting through gas creates a feedback effect causing the growth of local concentrations . These local concentration push back on the gas creating a region where the headwind felt by the particles is smaller . The concentration is thus able to orbit faster and undergoes less radial drift . Isolated particles join these concentrations as they are overtaken or as they drift inward causing it to grow in mass . Eventually these concentrations form massive filaments which fragment and undergo gravitational collapse forming planetesimals the size of the larger asteroids .
Planetary formation can also be triggered by gravitational instability within the disk itself , which leads to its fragmentation into clumps . Some of them , if they are dense enough , will collapse , which can lead to rapid formation of gas giant planets and even brown dwarfs on the timescale of 1 @,@ 000 years . If these clumps migrate inward as the collapse proceeds tidal forces from the star can result in a significant mass loss leaving behind a smaller body . However it is only possible in massive disks — more massive than 0 @.@ 3 M ☉ . In comparison , typical disk masses are 0 @.@ 01 – 0 @.@ 03 M ☉ . Because the massive disks are rare , this mechanism of the planet formation is thought to be infrequent . On the other hand , this mechanism may play a major role in the formation of brown dwarfs .
The ultimate dissipation of protoplanetary disks is triggered by a number of different mechanisms . The inner part of the disk is either accreted by the star or ejected by the bipolar jets , whereas the outer part can evaporate under the star 's powerful UV radiation during the T Tauri stage or by nearby stars . The gas in the central part can either be accreted or ejected by the growing planets , while the small dust particles are ejected by the radiation pressure of the central star . What is finally left is either a planetary system , a remnant disk of dust without planets , or nothing , if planetesimals failed to form .
Because planetesimals are so numerous , and spread throughout the protoplanetary disk , some survive the formation of a planetary system . Asteroids are understood to be left @-@ over planetesimals , gradually grinding each other down into smaller and smaller bits , while comets are typically planetesimals from the farther reaches of a planetary system . Meteorites are samples of planetesimals that reach a planetary surface , and provide a great deal of information about the formation of the Solar System . Primitive @-@ type meteorites are chunks of shattered low @-@ mass planetesimals , where no thermal differentiation took place , while processed @-@ type meteorites are chunks from shattered massive planetesimals .
= = Formation of planets = =
= = = Rocky planets = = =
According to the solar nebular disk model , rocky planets form in the inner part of the protoplanetary disk , within the frost line , where the temperature is high enough to prevent condensation of water ice and other substances into grains . This results in coagulation of purely rocky grains and later in the formation of rocky planetesimals . Such conditions are thought to exist in the inner 3 – 4 AU part of the disk of a Sun @-@ like star .
After small planetesimals — about 1 km in diameter — have formed by one way or another , runaway accretion begins . It is called runaway because the mass growth rate is proportional to R4 ~ M4 / 3 , where R and M are the radius and mass of the growing body , respectively . It is obvious that the specific ( divided by mass ) growth accelerates as the mass increases . This leads to the preferential growth of larger bodies at the expense of smaller ones . The runaway accretion lasts between 10 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 years and ends when the largest bodies exceed approximately 1 @,@ 000 km in diameter . Slowing of the accretion is caused by gravitational perturbations by large bodies on the remaining planetesimals . In addition , the influence of larger bodies stops further growth of smaller bodies .
The next stage is called oligarchic accretion . It is characterized by the dominance of several hundred of the largest bodies — oligarchs , which continue to slowly accrete planetesimals . No body other than the oligarchs can grow . At this stage the rate of accretion is proportional to R2 , which is derived from the geometrical cross @-@ section of an oligarch . The specific accretion rate is proportional to M − 1 / 3 ; and it declines with the mass of the body . This allows smaller oligarchs to catch up to larger ones . The oligarchs are kept at the distance of about 10 · Hr ( Hr = a ( 1 @-@ e ) ( M / 3Ms ) 1 / 3 is the Hill radius , where a is the semimajor axis , e is the orbital eccentricity , and Ms is the mass of the central star ) from each other by the influence of the remaining planetesimals . Their orbital eccentricities and inclinations remain small . The oligarchs continue to accrete until planetesimals are exhausted in the disk around them . Sometimes nearby oligarchs merge . The final mass of an oligarch depends on the distance from the star and surface density of planetesimals and is called the isolation mass . For the rocky planets it is up to 0 @.@ 1 M ⊕ , or one Mars mass . The final result of the oligarchic stage is the formation of about 100 Moon- to Mars @-@ sized planetary embryos uniformly spaced at about 10 · Hr. They are thought to reside inside gaps in the disk and to be separated by rings of remaining planetesimals . This stage is thought to last a few hundred thousand years .
The last stage of rocky planet formation is the merger stage . It begins when only a small number of planetesimals remains and embryos become massive enough to perturb each other , which causes their orbits to become chaotic . During this stage embryos expel remaining planetesimals , and collide with each other . The result of this process , which lasts for 10 to 100 million years , is the formation of a limited number of Earth sized bodies . Simulations show that the number of surviving planets is on average from 2 to 5 . In the Solar System they may be represented by Earth and Venus . Formation of both planets required merging of approximately 10 – 20 embryos , while an equal number of them were thrown out of the Solar System . Some of the embryos , which originated in the asteroid belt , are thought to have brought water to Earth . Mars and Mercury may be regarded as remaining embryos that survived that rivalry . Rocky planets , which have managed to coalesce , settle eventually into more or less stable orbits , explaining why planetary systems are generally packed to the limit ; or , in other words , why they always appear to be at the brink of instability .
= = = Giant planets = = =
The formation of giant planets is an outstanding problem in the planetary sciences . In the framework of the solar nebular model two theories for their formation exist . The first one is the disk instability model , where giant planets form in the massive protoplanetary disks as a result of its gravitational fragmentation ( see above ) . The second possibility is the core accretion model , which is also known as the nucleated instability model . The latter scenario is thought to be the most promising one , because it can explain the formation of the giant planets in relatively low @-@ mass disks ( less than 0 @.@ 1 M ☉ ) . In this model giant planet formation is divided into two stages : a ) accretion of a core of approximately 10 M ⊕ and b ) accretion of gas from the protoplanetary disk . Either method may also lead to the creation of brown dwarfs . Searches as of 2011 have found that core accretion is likely the dominant formation mechanism .
Giant planet core formation is thought to proceed roughly along the lines of the terrestrial planet formation . It starts with planetesimals that undergo runaway growth , followed by the slower oligarchic stage . Hypotheses do not predict a merger stage , due to the low probability of collisions between planetary embryos in the outer part of planetary systems . An additional difference is the composition of the planetesimals , which in the case of giant planets form beyond the so @-@ called snow line and consist mainly of ice — the ice to rock ratio is about 4 to 1 . This enhances the mass of planetesimals fourfold . However , the minimum mass nebula capable of terrestrial planet formation can only form 1 – 2 M ⊕ cores at the distance of Jupiter ( 5 AU ) within 10 million years . The latter number represents the average lifetime of gaseous disks around Sun @-@ like stars . The proposed solutions include enhanced mass of the disk — a tenfold increase would suffice ; protoplanet migration , which allows the embryo to accrete more planetesimals ; and finally accretion enhancement due to gas drag in the gaseous envelopes of the embryos . Some combination of the above @-@ mentioned ideas may explain the formation of the cores of gas giant planets such as Jupiter and perhaps even Saturn . The formation of planets like Uranus and Neptune is more problematic , since no theory has been capable of providing for the in situ formation of their cores at the distance of 20 – 30 AU from the central star . One hypothesis is that they initially accreted in the Jupiter @-@ Saturn region , then were scattered and migrated to their present location . Another possible solution is the growth of the cores of the giant planets via pebble accretion . In pebble accretion objects between a cm and a meter in diameter falling toward a massive body are slowed enough by gas drag for them to spiral toward it and be accreted . Growth via pebble accretion may be as much as 1000 time faster than by the accretion of planesimals .
Once the cores are of sufficient mass ( 5 – 10 M ⊕ ) , they begin to gather gas from the surrounding disk . Initially it is a slow process , increasing the core masses up to 30 M ⊕ in a few million years . After that , the accretion rates increase dramatically and the remaining 90 % of the mass is accumulated in approximately 10 @,@ 000 years . The accretion of gas stops when the supply from the disk is exhausted . This happens gradually , due to the formation of a density gap in the protoplanetary disk and to disk dispersal . In this model ice giants — Uranus and Neptune — are failed cores that began gas accretion too late , when almost all gas had already disappeared . The post @-@ runaway @-@ gas @-@ accretion stage is characterized by migration of the newly formed giant planets and continued slow gas accretion . Migration is caused by the interaction of the planet sitting in the gap with the remaining disk . It stops when the protoplanetary disk disappears or when the end of the disk is attained . The latter case corresponds to the so @-@ called hot Jupiters , which are likely to have stopped their migration when they reached the inner hole in the protoplanetary disk .
Giant planets can significantly influence terrestrial planet formation . The presence of giants tends to increase eccentricities and inclinations ( see Kozai mechanism ) of planetesimals and embryos in the terrestrial planet region ( inside 4 AU in the Solar System ) . If giant planets form too early , they can slow or prevent inner planet accretion . If they form near the end of the oligarchic stage , as is thought to have happened in the Solar System , they will influence the merges of planetary embryos , making them more violent . As a result , the number of terrestrial planets will decrease and they will be more massive . In addition , the size of the system will shrink , because terrestrial planets will form closer to the central star . The influence of giant planets in the Solar System , particularly that of Jupiter , is thought to have been limited because they are relatively remote from the terrestrial planets .
The region of a planetary system adjacent to the giant planets will be influenced in a different way . In such a region , eccentricities of embryos may become so large that the embryos pass close to a giant planet , which may cause them to be ejected from the system . If all embryos are removed , then no planets will form in this region . An additional consequence is that a huge number of small planetesimals will remain , because giant planets are incapable of clearing them all out without the help of embryos . The total mass of remaining planetesimals will be small , because cumulative action of the embryos before their ejection and giant planets is still strong enough to remove 99 % of the small bodies . Such a region will eventually evolve into an asteroid belt , which is a full analog of the asteroid belt in the Solar System , located from 2 to 4 AU from the Sun .
= = Meaning of accretion = =
Use of the term accretion disk for the protoplanetary disk leads to confusion over the planetary accretion process . The protoplanetary disk is sometimes referred to as an accretion disk , because while the young T Tauri @-@ like protostar is still contracting , gaseous material may still be falling onto it , accreting on its surface from the disk 's inner edge . In an accretion disk , there is a net flux of mass from larger radii toward smaller radii .
However , that meaning should not be confused with the process of accretion forming the planets . In this context , accretion refers to the process of cooled , solidified grains of dust and ice orbiting the protostar in the protoplanetary disk , colliding and sticking together and gradually growing , up to and including the high @-@ energy collisions between sizable planetesimals .
In addition , the giant planets probably had accretion disks of their own , in the first meaning of the word . The clouds of captured hydrogen and helium gas contracted , spun up , flattened , and deposited gas onto the surface of each giant protoplanet , while solid bodies within that disk accreted into the giant planet 's regular moons .
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= HMS Gorgon ( 1914 ) =
HMS Gorgon and her sister ship Glatton were two monitors originally built as coastal defence ships for the Royal Norwegian Navy , as HNoMS Nidaros and Bjørgvin respectively , by Armstrong Whitworth at Elswick . She was purchased from Norway at the beginning of the First World War , but was not completed until 1918 although she had been launched over three years earlier . She engaged targets in Occupied Flanders for the last several months of the war and fired the last shots of the war against such targets on 15 October 1918 . She was used as a target ship after several attempts to sell her had fallen through before being sold for scrap in 1928 .
= = Background = =
Nidaros was ordered by Norway in 1913 to supplement the older Eidsvold class and Tordenskjold class classes of coastal defense ships . She would have been known in Norway as P / S Nidaros ; P / S stands for Panserskip ( " armoured ship " ) , while Nidaros was the old name for the Norwegian city of Trondheim . However , when the First World War broke out , the Royal Navy requisitioned most warships under construction in Britain for foreign powers and refunded the two @-@ thirds of the Bjørgvin 's £ 370 @,@ 000 purchase price already paid by the Norwegians .
= = Construction and description = =
Nidaros was laid down by Armstrong Whitworth at Elswick on 11 June 1913 and launched on 9 June 1914 . She was renamed as Gorgon , after an earlier breastwork monitor of 1871 . Her completion was greatly delayed by the modifications made by the British , which included modifying the boilers to use both oil and coal and conversion of 12 double @-@ bottom tanks to carry oil . This work began on 9 January 1915 , but was suspended the following May , when it was estimated that only another 10 – 12 months of work remained , to allow for faster progress to be made on the large light cruisers Furious and Courageous that were building in Armstrong 's Naval Yard downriver . In September 1917 , work was resumed on a new design that added a large anti @-@ torpedo bulge along about 75 % of the hull 's length , suppression of the torpedo tubes and the 100 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns planned by the Norwegians , and a large tripod mast was fitted behind the single funnel to carry the directors for both the 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) and 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 230 mm ) guns . Both of these guns had to be relined to use standard British ammunition and the mount for the 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch gun was modified to give a maximum elevation of 40 ° which gave the gun a maximum range of 39 @,@ 000 yards ( 36 @,@ 000 m ) . Addition of the bulges cost 2 knots ( 3 @.@ 7 km / h ; 2 @.@ 3 mph ) in speed , but prevented the extra weight resulting from all of these changes from deepening her draft . She was finally completed on 4 June 1918 .
Gorgon displaced 5 @,@ 700 long tons ( 5 @,@ 800 t ) at deep load as built , with a length of 310 feet ( 94 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 73 feet 7 inches ( 22 @.@ 4 m ) at maximum , although her main hull only had a beam of 55 feet ( 16 @.@ 8 m ) and a draught of 16 feet 4 inches ( 5 @.@ 0 m ) . She was powered by two vertical triple expansion steam engines , which developed a total of 4 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 000 kW ) from four Yarrow watertube boilers and gave a maximum speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) .
She was armed with two 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch guns arranged in two single @-@ gun turrets , one turret each fore and aft . Her secondary armament consisted of four six @-@ inch guns , also in single gun turrets , two of which superfired over the 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch turrets and the others were positioned on each side of the superstructure . One 3 in ( 76 mm ) anti @-@ aircraft gun was mounted on each center @-@ line six @-@ inch turret . She also carried four 3 @-@ pounder and four 2 @-@ pounder guns on high @-@ angle mounts .
= = Service = =
Gorgon arrived at Dover on 6 June 1918 where she spent the next five weeks working up . Her first engagement was on 26 July when she fired eight rounds at a range of 33 @,@ 000 yards ( 30 @,@ 000 m ) at a German howitzer battery to calibrate her guns and fire control system , which provoked a response from the German 380 @-@ millimetre ( 15 in ) gun of Batterie Pommern south of Ostende . Three days later , she accompanied Marshal Soult on a bombardment of Batterie " Tirpitz " . She spent the next month and a half either out on patrol in the English Channel or preparing for the bombardment scheduled for the end of September in support of a major offensive along the coast .
At daybreak on 28 September 1918 , Gorgon , in company with General Wolfe , anchored about 7 mi ( 6 @.@ 1 nmi ; 11 km ) off De Panne , Belgium and opened fire about 7 : 15 on a bridge at Snaeskerke , Belgium at a range of 36 @,@ 000 yd ( 33 @,@ 000 m ) . Conditions were not good as both wind and tide were against her . Gorgon 's stern anchor cable parted and she swung around on her bow anchor so that only her rear turret could bear on the target . No aircraft were made available to spot for her so there was little chance of a hit and she only fired eleven rounds . She , and the other monitors , were attacked several times during the day by German aircraft with little effect and several coast defense batteries attempted to engage them through the smokescreen put up by the motor launches supporting the operation . She fired thirteen shells the next day in another attempt to destroy the bridge and claimed one hit although this was not confirmed by subsequent observations .
On 14 October , she repeated the experience , except that her target was now the Middelkerke batteries . She fired 41 rounds during the morning at a range of 26 @,@ 000 yards ( 24 @,@ 000 m ) , but she accompanied Vice @-@ Admiral Keyes in the destroyer Termagant in a reconnaissance mission to see if the Germans were still holding the coast in strength . The fire of the Tirpitz and Raversyde Batteries soon disabused them of any notions to the contrary and Gorgon was forced to turn away at maximum speed ( 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) ) , which was faster than she 'd made on trials , when they straddled her and hit her with splinters from the near @-@ misses . The following day she returned to her original target and fired 30 rounds in 20 minutes . These were the last shots of the war fired against German batteries on the Belgian coast .
She was sent to Portsmouth after the end of the war where she was made available to investigate the cause of her sister ship Glatton 's magazine explosion . She was moved to Devonport as a temporary tender to the stone frigate Vivid in April 1919 . She was paid off on 31 August and joined the Reserve Fleet in September . She was offered back to the Norwegians , but they rejected her as unsuitable to their requirements , especially since she was now too broad for their dock at Horten . Several attempts were made to sell her , but she was disarmed in 1922 and used as a target ship to evaluate the effects of bombs bursting underwater near a ship and the effects of six @-@ inch gunfire . She was finally sold for scrap on 26 August 1928 and broken up at the former naval dockyard at Pembroke .
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= Battle of Sedan ( 1940 ) =
The Battle of Sedan or Second Battle of Sedan ( 12 – 15 May 1940 ) was a Second World War battle fought during the French Campaign . The battle was part of the German Wehrmacht 's operational plan codenamed Fall Gelb ( Case Yellow ) for an offensive through the hilly and heavily forested Ardennes , to encircle the Allied armies in Belgium and north @-@ eastern France . German Army Group A crossed the Meuse river with the intention of capturing Sedan and pushing northwards towards the Channel coast , in order to entrap the Allied forces that were advancing east into Belgium , as part of the Allied Dyle Plan strategy .
Sedan was situated on the east bank of the Meuse River . Its capture would give the Germans a base from which to capture the Meuse bridges and cross the river . Should this occur , the German divisions could then advance across the open and undefended French countryside , beyond Sedan , and to the English Channel . On 12 May , Sedan was captured without resistance . In the following days , the Germans defeated the French defences surrounding Sedan on the west bank of the Meuse . This was largely achieved by the Luftwaffe . As a result of German bombing and low morale , the French defenders were unable to mount a coherent defence . The Germans captured the Meuse bridges at Sedan allowing them to pour forces including armour across the river . On 14 May , the Allied air forces , the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) and Armée de l 'Air ( French Air Force ) tried to destroy the bridges , and prevent German reinforcements reaching the west bank . The Luftwaffe prevented them from doing so . In large air battles , the Allies suffered high losses which depleted Allied bomber strength in the campaign .
The crossing of the Meuse enabled the Germans to break into the strategic depths , or undefended rear , of the Allied front and to advance to the English Channel without significant opposition . The French attempted to launch counter @-@ attacks against the German @-@ held bridgeheads , from 15 – 17 May , but the offensives fell victim to delay and confusion . Five days after consolidating their bridgeheads at Sedan , on 20 May , the German Army reached the Channel . The victory at Sedan achieved the operational goal of Fall Gelb and encircled the strongest Allied armies , including the British Expeditionary Force . The resulting battles destroyed the remaining French army as an effective fighting force , and expelled the British Army from the continent , leading to the defeat of France in June 1940 . The battle at Sedan was instrumental in the fall of France .
= = Background = =
= = = German plan = = =
On 10 May 1940 , the Wehrmacht invaded Luxembourg , Netherlands and Belgium . In the Netherlands the Germans made steady progress . By 12 May , parts of the German Army Group B was closing on Rotterdam and Amsterdam , while in central Belgium the Germans were close to reaching the Dyle river east of Brussels . In response to the invasions , the Allied First Army Group , under the command of Gaston Billotte , containing the French Seventh Army , French Ninth Army , French First Army and the British Expeditionary Force , advanced to the Dyle river in order to form a solid front line as part of the Dyle Plan , a defensive strategy to halt the German advances in Belgium . However , the offensive by Army Group B was a diversion . The main thrust of Fall Gelb was to be conducted by Army Group A through the Ardennes in Luxembourg and southern Belgium . Once these lightly defended areas were negotiated , Army Group A 's XIX . Panzerkorps ( 19th Tank Corps ) , under the command of Heinz Guderian , was to strike into France at Sedan , located on the Meuse river . Its capture would enable a German advance into the undefended depths of France and to the English Channel , into the rear of the Allied mobile forces advancing into Belgium . The result would be a strategic @-@ level encirclement .
For the offensive , the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ( German High Command ) gave Army Group A the most powerful concentration of German armour and motorised forces . Although Army Group B was allocated 808 tanks , over 1 ⁄ 4 of the total German tanks , they were largely light tanks such as the Panzer I and Panzer II , as opposed to the Panzer III and Panzer IV . The heavier tanks were handed over to Army Group A as it required the best machines to conduct the critical operation at Sedan . Army Group A contained 1 @,@ 753 tanks of the heavier types .
= = = ' Impenetrable ' Ardennes = = =
Following the First World War , the French General Staff had ruled out the idea of a future German thrust through the Ardennes – Sedan sector . The French were certain such terrain could not be crossed by tanks . Marshal Philippe Pétain described them as " impenetrable " . Maurice Gamelin described the geographical feature as " Europe 's best tank obstacle " . The " barrier " of the Meuse and Ardennes appeared to be a sound strategic defence feature that a future enemy could not get through or go around . The French concluded that at best , a German assault through the Ardennes towards Sedan would not reach the Meuse until two weeks after the start of any German offensive , taking between five and nine days to penetrate the Ardennes alone .
The French assessments were less credible in the light of military exercises carried out in 1938 . That year , General André @-@ Gaston Prételat took command of manoeuvres which created a scenario whereby the German Army launched an assault with seven divisions , including four motorised infantry divisions and two tank brigades ( the type of the remaining three are not given ) . The " French " side 's defences collapsed . " The result was a defeat of so comprehensive a nature that the wisdom of publishing it was questioned lest morale be damaged . " As late as March 1940 , a French report to Gamelin named the defences at Sedan , the last " fortified " position on the Meuse , and the last before the open country of France , as " entirely inadequate . " Prételat had correctly identified the landscape as relatively easy terrain for armour to cross . At most , he concluded , the Germans would take 60 hours to reach the Meuse and take one day to cross it . This estimate to was to prove only three hours too late . The Germans achieved the Meuse crossing after just 57 hours .
The French Army authorised fresh attempts to increase the strength of the fortifications in the autumn of 1939 , but severe winter weather prevented the pouring of concrete and the delivery of the necessary materials . On 11 April 1940 , General Charles Huntziger asked for another four divisions to work on the defences but was refused .
= = = French defences at Sedan = = =
The French defences at Sedan were weak and neglected . The French had long believed that the German Army would not attack through the Sedan sector as part of their concentrated effort , and only Brigadier General Pierre Lafontaine 's French 55th Infantry Division , a category B division , was allocated to this sector . The Maginot Line ended 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) east of Sedan at La Ferté , where Fort No. 505 constituted its most westerly position . Sedan was a part of the extended Maginot Line that ran north behind the Meuse river . Between Sedan and La Ferté lay the Stenay gap , which was a stretch of unprotected terrain not covered by French defences or natural obstacles . This was the reason a significant number of French generals insisted on strengthening this sector , while ignoring Sedan .
As the French constructed further fortifications , Luftwaffe reconnaissance aircraft picked up the activity and reported it . The steep slopes on the banks of the Meuse , added to what appeared in photographic reconnaissance to be a formidable barrier of bunkers and defence lines , caused Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt , the commander in chief of Army Group A , to question the wisdom of Guderian in choosing Sedan as the point of maximum effort . To identify how strong these fortifications were , a team of photographic specialists were called in to evaluate the pictures . Their analysis concluded that what appeared to be strong fortified positions were just the construction sites of half @-@ built bunkers that were , to all intents and purposes , empty shells . The contribution of the specialists tilted the Sedan attack plan into Guderian 's favour .
General Huntziger was happy to rely on " concrete " to ensure the safety of Sedan as he rejected the idea that the Germans would attack through the Ardennes . The Second Army built 52 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of concrete fortifications along its front , but very little in the Sedan sector . Only 42 bunkers protected the Sedan bridgeheads on the outbreak of war in September 1939 and an additional 61 were built by 10 May . However , by 10 May , most of the bunkers were incomplete , lacking gun port shutters for the artillery casemates . Some of the bunkers lacked rear doors , making them vulnerable to infiltration by infantry . To the north of Sedan , on the northern bend of the Meuse , the town of Glaire overlooked the crossing points on the river , which was to be where the German armour would deliver its heaviest blow . There was a gap of 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) between Bunker 305 at Glaire and Bunker 211 next to the Pont Neuf bridge . This allowed an attacker coming from the north to use the good road routes through the Fleigneux – Saint @-@ Menges – Glaire axis to enter Sedan from the north .
The defences at Sedan also lacked any mines . The French Second Army was guarding a front of 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) , and was given only 16 @,@ 000 mines . Of that number , 7 @,@ 000 were given to the cavalry divisions that were intended to delay a German advance through southern Belgium as well as to blockhouse points along the Franco – Belgian border . That left 2 @,@ 000 for the defence of the river Meuse . Of those , the 55th Infantry Division got 422 . Not all of these were laid , and some barriers were moved during the bunker construction in the Sedan sector .
= = = German approach = = =
As the German Army advanced through southern Belgium on 12 May , General Ewald von Kleist and Guderian clashed over where the main point of effort should fall . Kleist was Guderian 's immediate superior , commanding Panzergruppe von Kleist , consisting of XLI Panzer Corps and XIX Panzer Corps ( under Guderian ) . Kleist pressed for the main point to come at Flize , further west than Sedan . Kleist argued that the blow would avoid a double river crossing at the Meuse ( at Sedan ) and Ardennes canal ( to the west of Sedan ) . Moreover , the blow would strike at the dividing line between the French Ninth Army and the French Second Army . Guderian saw things differently , and pointed out that a thrust along the lines of Kleist 's plan would put the flank of the advance within range of the fortress artillery at Charleville @-@ Mézières , some 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) north west of Sedan . The shift of operations further north would also disperse concentration ( or Schwerpunkt ) and disrupt the intense planning of the German tactical units , who had been in training for the Sedan attack and an advance north @-@ west , for months . He also felt that a regrouping period in front of Sedan would delay the assault for 24 hours and allow the French to bring up reinforcements . Kleist agreed that such a delay was unacceptable , so he agreed to Guderian 's plan .
Nevertheless , while Kleist accepted the folly of the Flize detour , he insisted the offensive concentration point should be made west of the Ardennes Canal . Kleist reaffirmed this in a letter to Guderian on 18 April , but when operations began Guderian ignored this completely . Guderian had wanted a large , 20 @-@ kilometre ( 12 mi ) bridgehead at Sedan and the rapid occupation of Stonne and the high ground surrounding Sedan .
Guderian 's plan for 13 May was straightforward . The 2nd Panzer Division in the north was to form the right flank of the assaulting force when it reached the Meuse near Donchery . The 1st Panzer Division , reinforced by the Infantry Regiment Großdeutschland , a battalion of assault engineers , and divisional artillery of the 2nd and 10th Panzer Divisions , was to make the main attack by crossing the Meuse just north of Sedan and seizing the Heights of la Marfee overlooking the city . The 10th Panzer Division was to cross the Meuse south of Sedan and protect the southern flank of the corps . Throughout the day , large masses of troops and equipment assembled north of the Meuse in preparation for the river crossing .
= = Forces involved = =
= = = German forces = = =
The German forces consisted of the 1st , 2nd and 10th Panzer Divisions . The 1st Panzer Division under the command of General @-@ Major ( Major General ) Friedrich Kirchner , had on strength 52 Panzer IIs , 98 Panzer III , 58 Panzer IV , 40 Panzer 35 ( t ) and eight SdKfz 265 Panzerbefehlswagens . The 2nd Panzer Division , under the command of Generalleutnant ( Lieutenant General ) Rudolf Veiel , had to hand 45 Panzer I , 115 Panzer II , 59 Panzer III and 32 Panzer IVs . It also had 16 SdKfz 265 . The 10th Panzer Division , under the command of Generalleutnant Ferdinand Schaal , had 44 Panzer I , 113 Panzer II , 58 Panzer III , 32 Panzer IV and 18 SdKfz 265 . In total Guderian could muster 60 @,@ 000 men , 22 @,@ 000 vehicles , 771 tanks and 141 artillery pieces . He could also call upon 1 @,@ 470 aircraft .
Part of Guderian 's problem was the lack of mobile artillery . He had no intention of halting the breakout in order to wait for additional artillery units to be moved into place to assault Sedan . Instead , Guderian requested maximum support from the Luftwaffe . For the first few days the German air arm would be used mostly in support of Army Group B. Most of the air support over Sedan was to be provided by Luftflotte 3 ( Air Fleet 3 ) . Initially , only limited numbers of air units were to be used , but the Luftwaffe 's workload was greatly increased nearer the time of the battle . The Luftwaffe was to commit I. Fliegerkorps ( 1st Air Corps under Ulrich Grauert ) , II . Fliegerkorps ( under Bruno Loerzer ) , V. Fliegerkorps ( under Robert Ritter von Greim ) , and VIII . Fliegerkorps ( under Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen ) . These units came from Luftflotte 2 and Jagdfliegerführer 3 ( Fighter Leader 3 ) . The most significant unit was VIII . Fliegerkorps , nicknamed the Nahkampf @-@ Fliegerkorps ( Close Support Air Corps ) , which contained Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 ( Dive bomber Wing 77 ) , a powerful concentration of dive @-@ bomber units equipped with the Junkers Ju 87 Stuka precision ground attack aircraft . This powerful air concentration numbered some 1 @,@ 470 aircraft ; 600 Heinkel He 111 and Junkers Ju 88 medium bombers and Dornier Do 17 light bombers , 250 Ju 87s , 500 Messerschmitt Bf 109s and 120 Messerschmitt Bf 110s .
= = = French forces = = =
In the sector of Longwy , Sedan and Namur , where the Ardennes and the River Meuse meet , the French Ninth Army and French Second Army were made up chiefly of poor quality divisions . Reinforcements were minimal , and those units were equipped with obsolete weapons . The resources at the disposal of the two Series B divisions , the 55th and later 71s Infantry Divisions , who were to bear the brunt of the attack , were weak . They had almost no Regular officers and they had not been broken @-@ in to war conditions by being in contact with the enemy .
The 55th Infantry Division guarding Sedan had little time for combat training , as its time had been spent in construction work . The division consisted mainly of reservists , most of who were over the age of 30 . Little attempt was made to improve the poor combat quality of the division . One officer , First Lieutenant Delas of the 1st Battalion 147th Fortress Infantry Regiment was arrested and confined for 15 days for ordering firing practice with a 25mm anti @-@ tank gun in a nearby quarry . The division 's commanding officer , General Lafontaine , put more faith into fortifications than training , as he believed it would compensate for the weakness of the division . The men of the division lacked the confidence and will to fight when the battle took place .
The organisation of the French 55th Infantry Division was chaotic . Most units had been involved in construction work and were constantly moved to different tactical positions . Of the nine companies in position by 10 May , only a few had been holding their respective positions for even a few days and were not familiar with them . One of the premier infantry regiments , the 213th Infantry Regiment , was removed from the line altogether and was replaced with the 331st Regiment . In some cases , Infantry regiments were made up of several different companies from several different battalions from different regiments . For example , the 295th Infantry Regiment 's 6th Company , 2nd Battalion , was made up of four different companies which were drawn from three different battalions belonging to three different regiments .
Such actions damaged the cohesion of the units that were initially strong . The 147th Fortress Regiment was the backbone of the 55th Infantry Division and was to occupy the bunker positions on the Meuse . At the start of mobilisation , the unit had high morale and very good cohesion . Because of the constant changes in organisation , however , the unit 's battalions were " torn apart again and again " .
To relieve the 55th Infantry Division , the French 71st Infantry Division was ordered out of reserve and into the frontline . The presence of the 71st Infantry shortened the front from 20 to 14 kilometres ( 12 @.@ 4 to 8 @.@ 7 mi ) along the Meuse . This would increase the density of fighting strength in the immediate area , but such a move was only partially complete by 10 May , as it was scheduled to be completed on 13 – 14 May , three days after the German attack . Although the two divisions had 174 artillery pieces , more than the German forces opposing them , they had to share that force between them . Both divisions were short of anti @-@ tank and anti @-@ aircraft guns , a critical short @-@ coming .
= = Crossing the Meuse = =
= = = Capture of Sedan = = =
The main problem confronting Guderian and his Sedan method was inadequate artillery support . Several batteries were stuck in traffic in the Ardennes and he could not rely on the artillery batteries of his Panzer Divisions only . Everything depended on the support of the Luftwaffe . General der Flieger Hugo Sperrle , commander of Luftflotte 3 , had planned a conventional method of a brief bombardment before the ground forces moved in . After preparatory raids , the medium and dive @-@ bombers were to smash the French defences in a concentrated blow lasting 20 minutes . The raid was planned for 16 : 00 before the infantry crossed the Meuse . In collaboration , Bruno Loerzer 's II . Fliegerkorps had developed the concept of the rolling raid with Guderian . The idea of a single massed strike was abandoned , and the German air units were to attack in small formations but constantly , through the day . It was deemed the effect would be threefold ; the French artillery would be eliminated , the effect of continuous raids would damage enemy morale , and smaller formations would be more systematic and accurate against targets such as bunkers .
Unknown to Guderian , von Kleist , his immediate superior , had contacted Loerzer and banned Guderian 's proposed long systematic approach in favour of one big assault . Guderian complained . Kleist ignored him . Yet , the following morning , Loerzer rejected Kleist 's method and went ahead with the agreed rolling bombing as discussed with Guderian . Loerzer would later say that the official order from Hugo Sperrle had arrived too late to make changes .
By nightfall on 12 May , Guderian 's XIX . Panzerkorps rolled into Sedan . Guderian reported there was no sign of the enemy . With the city itself secured , Guderian would now have to strike south , across the defended rear behind Sedan , which in turn was protected by a large bunker complex located on Marfee ridge , a piece of high ground covering the Sedan @-@ Meuse river to the south . But there were three fundamental choices . He could obey tactical necessity and protect the bridgeheads against a French counter @-@ attack from the south ; he could strike west towards Paris with his Corps ; or he could carry out the dash to the Channel . Remembering the Chief of Operations , 1st Panzer Division , Walther Wenck 's saying , " Hit with your fists , don 't feel with your fingers ! " , Guderian decided on the last option .
= = = Lack of German artillery = = =
In the early hours of 13 May , the 10th Panzer Division slipped into position upstream to the north @-@ east of Sedan , ready to strike at its designated crossing point near the town of Wadelincourt . Downstream , the 2nd Panzer Division moved into position to cross at Donchery . The 1st Panzer Division prepared to strike at the Gaulier bridgehead , in the centre of Sedan 's tactical front . It was on the northern bend of the Sedan Meuse loop that the Luftwaffe was to make its maximum effort , between Gaulier and Wadelincourt . To supplement his air support , Guderian stripped most of his Panzer Divisions of their artillery , which he then positioned directly opposite Gaulier . However , the artillery regiments lacked ammunition . Sustained and damaging bombardment through shelling was impossible . The Luftwaffe was going to have to do most of the work . Guderian reported that his Corps had only 141 artillery pieces against the French 174 . To the north and south of Sedan , the French X Corps and French XXXXI Corps ( at the artillery fortress at Charleville @-@ Mézières ) could also add their artillery and shell Guderian 's Panzer units as they crossed the bridgeheads . The slow advance of artillery units to the front added to the German numerical inferiority , which was now 1 : 3 against . Only in the afternoon did the German artillery make an appearance , but with little effect . The 2nd Panzer Division was forced to attack without artillery support . For these reasons , Guderian had decided the outcome depended on the quality of air support , acting as flying artillery .
= = = Luftwaffe assault = = =
Luftflotte 3 ( commanded by Hugo Sperrle ) , supported by Luftflotte 2 ( commanded by Albert Kesselring ) , executed the heaviest air bombardment the world had yet witnessed and the most intense by the Luftwaffe during the war . The Luftwaffe committed two Sturzkampfgeschwader ( dive bomber wings ) to the assault , flying 300 sorties against French positions , with Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 alone flying 201 individual missions . A total of 3 @,@ 940 sorties were flown by nine Kampfgeschwader ( Bomber Wing ) units often in Gruppe strength .
The planned aerial assault would last for eight hours , from 08 : 00 @-@ 16 : 00 . Loerzer and Richthofen committed two Stuka units to the attack . Loerzer 's Ju 87s flew some 180 missions against Sedan 's bunkers whilst Richthofen 's managed 90 . The nine Kampfgruppen ( bomber wings ) of Bruno Loerzer 's II . Fliegerkorps flew 900 missions against the 360 of Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen 's VIII . Fliegerkorps . VIII . Fliegerkorps 's total mission count on the Meuse front was 910 compared to II . Fliegerkorps 1 @,@ 770 missions .
The Luftwaffe 's target was the Marfee heights which lay behind Sedan to the south east . They contained the fortified artillery positions and dominated the approaches to the strategic and operational depths beyond Sedan and the Meuse . The Luftwaffe was two hours late in appearing but the effort made was considerable . The attacks were made in Gruppe ( group ) strength and against the line of maximum resistance along the enemy gun line . To restrict enemy movements and communications , German fighters swept the area to cut land @-@ lines and strafe fortifications , with some shooting of radio antennae off command posts . The attacks isolated the forward defence lines . Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 struck first in the morning of 13 May . In just five hours , 500 Ju 87 sorties had been flown .
The Luftwaffe cowed the defenders , breaking them psychologically . The gunners , the backbone of the defences , had abandoned their positions by the time the German ground assault had begun . The cost to the Luftwaffe was just six aircraft , three of which were Ju 87s .
The French 55th Infantry Division was not prepared for such an attack . French soldiers had commented on the massive psychological effect of the bombardment , in particular the siren of the Ju 87 . However , after the war , it was discovered that none of the bunkers had been destroyed by direct hits . Moreover , just 56 French casualties were suffered . It was the indirect effect that did the damage . The telecommunication cables were destroyed ( most had been laid out in the open ) through bombing , paralysing the division 's communications , and the psychological damage crippled its defensive capacity .
The ensuing psychological damage contributed to " the panic of Bulson " . At about 19 : 00 on 13 May , a report by a French artillery observer was passed on incorrectly . There was a rumour that German tanks were approaching the town of Bulson . The false reports spread and the French 55th Infantry Division deserted their positions . German sources say that the first German tank crossed the Meuse River 12 hours later . By the time the error was realised , most of the artillerymen and infantrymen had abandoned their heavy equipment .
= = = 1st Panzer at Gaulier = = =
The central ground assault was to be conducted by the 1st Panzer Division and supported by the Infantry Regiment Großdeutschland and the Sturmpionier @-@ Battalion 43 ( 43rd Assault Engineer Battalion ) as the 1st Panzer only had a single rifle regiment . The Großdeutschland would be attached to the 1st Panzer Division for the remainder of the campaign and it was the first unit to breach the defences on Hill 247 , the high ground dominating Gaulier . The regiment , much to their surprise , discovered the Luftwaffe had failed to destroy the enemy bunkers . Enemy small arms fire ensured that crossing the river at Pont Neuf bridge could not be done in rubber assault boats as intended . The Regiment retreated . Reconnaissance found an enemy Bunker , No. 211 , was still active . Its location guarded the bridgehead , making it dangerous for German infantry attempting a crossing . A platoon of infantry guns ( 75 mm short barrel artillery ) failed to knock it out . An 8 @.@ 8 cm FlaK dual purpose gun ( 88 mm ) was brought in to do the job . It succeeded , but the following crossing failed as machine gun fire came from another flanking position that had not been spotted . Once this was dealt with by the 2nd Battalion , the remainder of the regiment crossed the river . Throughout the rest of the day , the regiment moved up and into the French defences , the 2nd Battalion 's 6th , 7th and 8th Companies gradually knocking out each bunker . Despite the other two battalions being held up further south , by 20 : 00 the central Hill 247 had been taken . The Großdeutschland Regiment had now penetrated 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) into the French defences .
On Hill 301 , further west , the First Rifle Regiment under Col. Hermann Balck had helped take the position by nightfall . With help from two platoons of the 3rd Company of the 34th Assault Engineer Battalion , it had succeeded in knocking out the bunker positions . The regiment inched westward and was able to see the 2nd Panzer Division on the extreme west flank of the 1st Panzer , attacking the bunker position near Donchery . Several Panzers were knocked out . The First Rifle Regiment , 1st Panzer , had crossed the boundary into the 2nd Panzer 's territory . They eased the 2nd Panzer 's passage by knocking out several bunkers on their eastern flank and succeeded in cutting the Donchery @-@ Sedan road . The infantry also succeeded in knocking out most of the casemates in the area using flamethrower teams to destroy the bunkers whose infantry failed to surrender quickly . The last bunker to surrender did so at 22 : 40 hours on 13 May . By that time , elements of the 1st and 2nd Panzer Divisions had negotiated the Meuse river .
= = = 2nd Panzer at Donchery = = =
The 2nd Panzer had been given the most difficult job . Its advance through the Ardennes trapped and delayed it in nearly 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) of traffic . Consequently , it arrived late at Donchery , after the 1st and 10th Panzer Divisions had initiated their assaults across the Meuse . Due to a combination of its being late and the attacks of its sister units , the enemy defences were alerted in advance of the 2nd Panzer 's offensive . Crossing at the extreme western end of the Sedan sector on the Donchery axis , it was forced to advance across open terrain for the last 3 km before reaching the bridgehead . This subjected the division to fire from Donchery and the Bellevue Castle 's 75mm artillery casemates , located slightly to the east of the town . Several boats were tied to the Panzers and dragged across , but the tanks were knocked out . The bulk of the 174 artillery pieces available to the French at Sedan were concentrated on the 2nd Panzer Division 's front . Most were located in the bunkers on the south side of the river Meuse @-@ Donchery sector . Some of the French 102nd Infantry division 's batteries also joined in from the north west , at Charleville . The only way to respond was with howitzers . However , 2nd Panzer Division had handed its heavy howitzers over to the 1st Panzer Division , and now had only 24 guns and they did not arrive on the battlefield until 17 : 00 . When they arrived , they had only had a couple of shells per gun owing to the logistical tailback in the Ardennes .
All attempts to land on the southern side of the Meuse failed . Fortunately , the 1st Panzer Division succeeded in crossing the Meuse in the centre ( see above ) . Once completed , it headed into the right ( eastern ) flank of the French at Donchery . Some of its units cleared the Meuse bend . Assault Engineers and 1st Panzer Division neutralised the guns at Bellevue Castle , and cleared the bunker positions along the Meuse River from the rear . The artillery falling on the 2nd Panzer Division 's eastern flank was stopped . With the threat of artillery fire on its right flank removed , the units on the 2nd Panzer 's left flank crossed the river and infiltrated the French positions opposite Donchery at 20 : 00 . Heavy French fire continued from the bunkers in front of Donchery on the south side of the Meuse . It was not until 22 : 20 , in darkness , that regular ferrying missions enabled the reinforcement of the German bridgehead .
= = = 10th Panzer at Wadelincourt = = =
The 10th Panzer Division , like the 2nd Panzer Division , had detached its heavy artillery batteries to support neighbouring units . It was left with just 24 light 105 mm howitzers . Moreover , the batteries were short of ammunition . The Luftwaffe had not helped the 10th Panzer Division as most of the air attacks were in support of the 1st Panzer Division in the central sector . This meant all of the French artillery and machine gun positions in the area of Wadelincourt were undisturbed . Added to this , the newly inserted 71st Infantry Division and French X Corps in the Rémilly area prevented the 10th Panzer Division making any quick progress . The Division also had to advance down to the river on open flat terrain of some 600 – 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 600 ft ) .
Near the town of Bazeilles , the Engineers and assault infantry had gathered to prepare the boats for the crossing of the Meuse at Wadelincourt when an artillery barrage from the French positions destroyed 81 out of 96 rubber boats . The plan of attack had included an assault by both the 69th and 89th Infantry Regiments , but the loss of so many boats meant that only the 86th Infantry Regiment was able to conduct the crossing . The 69th Infantry Regiment was kept in reserve to follow the 86th as reinforcements .
The 10th Panzer Division 's assaults failed all along the Meuse front . The only success came from a small 11 @-@ man team ( five engineers and six infantrymen ) of the 2nd Company , Panzerpionier @-@ Batailion 49 ( 49th Panzer Engineer Battalion ) placed under the 1st Battalion , 86th Infantry Regiment . Unsupported and acting on their own initiative , this small force led by Feldwebel Walter Rubarth opened a decisive breach by knocking out seven bunker positions . Follow @-@ up units from the 1st Battalion 86th Rifle Regiment had crossed over by 21 : 00 and stormed the remaining bunkers on Hill 246 , where the main French defence positions were located . By the end of the day , the bridgehead had been consolidated and the objective taken .
= = = Allied air strikes = = =
In the central sector , at Gaulier , the Germans began moving 3 @.@ 7 cm Pak 36 light infantry field artillery across the Meuse to provide support to infantry across the river . By 01 : 00 on 14 May , a pontoon bridge had been erected over which Sdkz 222 , SdKfz 232 and SdKfz 264 armoured cars began to dismount in the bridgeheads . French reports spoke of German tanks crossing the bridges . Such reports were in error , as the first Panzers only crossed at 07 : 20 on 14 May . Prior to this masses of lorries , armoured cars and other traffic had passed through but not tanks .
The capture of Sedan and the expansion of the bridgeheads alarmed the French who called for a total effort against the bridgeheads at Sedan , to isolate the three Panzer Divisions . General Gaston @-@ Henri Billotte , commander of the First French Army Group , whose right flank pivoted on Sedan , urged that the bridges across the Meuse be destroyed by air attack , convinced that " over them will pass either victory or defeat ! " . General Marcel Têtu , commander of the Allied Tactical Air Forces ordered : " Concentrate everything on Sedan . Priority between Sedan and Houx is at 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to 1 " .
No. 103 Squadron and No. 150 Squadron RAF of the RAF Advanced Air Striking Force ( AASF ) flew 10 sorties against the targets in the early morning . In the process they suffered only one loss in a forced landing . Between 15 : 00 – 16 : 00 , 71 RAF bombers took off escorted by Allied fighters . The impressive escort was offset by the presence of German fighter units that outnumbered the Allied escort fighters by 3 : 1 . No. 71 Wing RAF lost 10 Fairey Battles and five Bristol Blenheims . No. 75 Wing RAF lost 14 – 18 Battles and No. 76 Wing RAF lost 11 Battles . Out of 71 bombers dispatched , 40 – 44 bombers were lost , meaning a loss rate of 56 – 62 percent . The AASF lost a further five Hawker Hurricanes . The AASF flew 81 sorties and lost 52 percent of its strength . No 2 Group RAF also contributed with 28 sorties . The bombing results were poor , with three bridges damaged and one possibly destroyed .
French Air Forces under the command of Commandant des Forces ( Commander of Forces ) Marcel Têtu Aeriennes de Cooperation du Front Nord @-@ Est ( Ardennes Cooperation Front North East , or FACNE ) rarely supported the British efforts despite substantial reinforcements . They flew only an average of one sortie per day , including strategic defensive missions . One reason for this was heavy French bomber losses on the previous two days . During the Battle of Maastricht in the Netherlands , the Groupement de Bombardement ( Bomber Groups , or GB ) had its squadrons reduced . GB I / 12 and II / 12 had only 13 LeO 451s between them . Groupement de Bombardement d 'Assaut 18 ( GBA 18 ) had only 12 of 25 Breguet 693s left . GB I / 34 and II / 34 could muster eight aircraft out of 22 Amiot 143s , I / 38 seven out of 12 , and II / 38 six out of 11 . All of these groups were sent to Sedan on 14 May . Escort was given from Groupement de Chasse ( Fighter Groups , or GC ) . GC III / 7 with 12 Morane 406s , 12 Bloch 152s of I / 8 and nine Dewoitine D.520s of I / 3 took part . GBA 18 was escorted by 15 Bloch 152s of GC I / 8 . The missions cost the French five bombers , two from ground fire . After this date , the French bomber forces were eliminated from the fight over Sedan . The major efforts were now made by the AASF .
The Allied bombers received mostly poor protection . Only 93 fighter sorties , ( 60 by the French ) were flown . The French lost 21 fighters in the operation . The German air defence was soon reinforced by Jagdgeschwader 26 and Jagdgeschwader 27 ( Fighter Wings 26 and 27 ) . One of the premier German fighter units responsible for the heavy loss rate was Jagdgeschwader 53 ( Fighter Wing 53 ) , who later engaged French bombers who tried to succeed where the AASF failed . The attacks failed as they were uncoordinated . Along with fighter aircraft , the Germans had assembled powerful flak concentrations in Sedan . The FlaK battalions of the 1st , 2nd and 10th Panzer Divisions numbered 303 anti @-@ aircraft guns . This force was built around the 102nd FlaK Regiment with its 88 mm , 37 mm , and rapid fire 20 mm weapons . So heavy was the defensive fire that the Allied bombers could not concentrate over the target . Allied bomber pilots called it " hell along the Meuse " . On 14 May , the Allies flew 250 sorties , the French losing 30 ( another source states 21 ) and the RAF losing 20 fighter aircraft . Another 65 were heavily damaged . Out of 109 RAF bombers dispatched , 47 were shot down . This meant 167 aircraft had been lost against one target . Bruno Loerzer called 14 May " the day of the fighter " .
The German Generals , in particular Guderian , were relieved that the Luftwaffe had prevented the Allied bombers from knocking out their supply bridges . By nightfall , at least 600 tanks , including those of the 2nd Panzer Division which had to use the 1st Panzer Division 's bridge at Gaulier ( owing to theirs not having yet been constructed ) , were across the Meuse . The German victory in the air battle had been decisive .
= = French counter @-@ offensive = =
Charles Huntziger , commanding the Second Army was unconcerned by the capture of Sedan , or of the collapse of French defences in the face of air attack . He expected considerable French reserves , particularly X Corps , to stabilise the front . The forces at the French commander 's disposal were formidable . Guderian 's decision to strike north west left the 10th Panzer Division protecting the bridgehead alone . Against this force was the XXI Corps ( 3d Armoured Division , 3d Motorised Infantry Division , 5th Light Cavalry Division , 1st Cavalry Brigade ) under Flavigny . A second group , consisting of the 2d Light Cavalry Division and 3d Tank Division reinforced Flavigny . X Corps , with the 12th and 64th Reconnaissance Battalions , elements of the 71st Infantry Division , 205th Infantry Regiment , the 4th Tank Battalion were also to join the attack . The French had nearly 300 tanks , with 138 main battle tanks consisting of Hotchkiss and Char B1 @-@ Bis .
The French tanks had heavier armour and armament than the Panzers . The Panzer IV had 30 mm of armour , while the Hotchkiss had 45 mm , and the Char B1 had 60 mm of protection . Moreover , its main armament , one 47 mm and one 75 mm gun , outmatched all the German tanks . In an open field engagement , Guderian 's armour stood little chance . Two @-@ thirds of his units were equipped with Panzer I and IIs . Just 30 of the Panzer IVs were on his order of battle . However , one crucial disadvantage of the French tanks , considered as a very broad whole , was their low endurance . They needed refuelling after just two hours . They were also slow in speed , complicating high tempo operations .
= = = Missed chance = = =
During 14 May , General Lafontaine had moved the 55th Infantry Division 's command post from its position on the Marfee heights to Bulson , 10 – 11 kilometres ( 6 – 7 mi ) south of Sedan . The French had prepared , to an extent , for a German breakthrough at Sedan , and accordingly placed X Corps available for a counter @-@ attack . It was to occupy the Bulson position on the Chéhéry – Bulson – Haraucourt axis and strike at the Meuse bridgeheads . The terrain included heavily wooded areas , and the units left behind convinced General Charles Huntziger , commander of the French Second Army , that they would be able to hold Bulson , and the Germans would not be able to exploit their tactical victory at Sedan on 14 May .
The Germans suffered a seven @-@ hour delay in getting their armour across the bridge from 01 : 20 @-@ 07 : 30 , which could have been disastrous for the Panzer divisions . The French had already initiated plans for counter @-@ attacks with armour on the German @-@ held bridgehead during the night but delays in bringing up forces , procrastination ( inclined towards momentary adaptation towards defensive stancing and posturing ) , and hesitation on the part of local overall French command at large , made worse by the resulting confusion from the panic and retreat of the infantry who had also abandoned their positions and artillery as part of the " panic of Bulson " , made an attack possible only in the morning of 14 May . The commander of X Corps ' artillery , Colonel Poncelet , had tried to keep his units where they were , but had reluctantly ordered a retreat . This decision resulted in the Corps artillery battalions abandoning many heavy artillery pieces and caused the collapse of the 55th Infantry Division ( " panic of Bulson " ) and a partial collapse of the 71st Infantry Division . Poncelet killed himself a few days later .
On 13 – 14 May , the Germans were vulnerable . A strong attack at this point by the French armoured units could have prevented Guderian from breaking out of the Meuse bridgeheads and changed the outcome of the campaign . However , the French commanders , already deeply schooled and versed in the rather staunchly defensively @-@ focused broad , generalized doctrine of methodological warfare , were located far to the rear , which meant they lacked a real time and up @-@ to @-@ date picture of the battle . When intelligence did filter through , it was out @-@ of @-@ date . This was to prove fatal , especially coupled with the case of the matter that the French generalship at large was envisioning plus expecting a considerably more prolonged process of initial German assault phase and overall attack effort as a whole .
= = = Race to Bulson = = =
The race to Bulson ridge began at 16 : 00 on 13 May . At 07 : 30 on 14 May , French armour advanced to Bulson ridge with a view to seizing the high ground vacated by the infantry of the 55th Infantry Division on 13 May . But the main , primary objective was to destroy the German bridgeheads . While that may have been possible on 13 May , the odds had shifted against the French .
The X Corps attack involved a strike on the left flank by the 213th Infantry Regiment and 7th Tank Battalion , and on the right flank by the 205th Infantry Regiment and 4th Tank Battalion . The right flanking force arrived late , so the 213th Infantry and the 7th Tank Battalion advanced alone on the north axis . It was thought that the 213th could reach an area in between Chéhéry and Bulson in one hour fifty minutes and the 7th Tank Battalion in two hours . Yet it was not until 17 hours after the original order to advance to Bulson that the lead French tanks reached the Bulson ridge . They found the Germans had beaten them there by a few minutes .
Lafontaine had hesitated over the 24 hours since the afternoon of 13 May . He spent hours reconnoitring the terrain , sometimes trying to contain and reason with fleeing , routing scores of French infantrymen and artillerymen of the 55th and 71st Infantry Divisions , and travelling around the area to various regimental headquarters , looking for his Corps commander , General Gransard ( whom was deliberately reconnoitring the terrain , for some time , at that relative point in time ) , for an order to attack , and , in the meantime , extemporarily assessing and conferring with some local command personnel . Owing to this Lafontaine also delayed issuing orders to the tactical attack units until 05 : 00 on 14 May , by which time the Germans had consolidated their bridgehead and the Panzer divisions ' combined arms infantry teams were already advancing inland to Bulson . Lafontaine had had a mission plan since 20 : 00 on 13 May to defeat the Germans and retake the Meuse bridgeheads , but he waited for an order to proceed . Lafontaine 's need for an order was contrary to the unit actions of the Germans , who operated the tactically more efficient Auftragstaktik ( Mission Command ) system . Ultimately , Lafontaine had squandered valuable hours essential for a prompt , perhaps opportune and timely , perhaps potentially decisive counter @-@ attack effort .
The French had an opportunity to throw the Germans back into the Meuse but they missed their chance owing to poor staff @-@ work . The 1st Panzer Division had struggled to advance as quickly as it would have liked , and was jammed on the roads leading out of Gaulier and Sedan . Moreover , the German soldiers were exhausted after a five @-@ day advance . A quick counter thrust by just two infantry regiments and two tank battalions would have " plunged the Germans into crisis " . Even a failed attack , and the holding of Bulson , would have allowed it to be used by formations of the Second French Army and the tank units , including the French 3rd Armoured Division , of General Jean Adolphe Louis Robert Flavigny 's powerful French XXI Corps which were moving up from the Maginot line area in the south .
That said , however , additionally , the French lacked neither relatively mobile tanks nor relatively offensively @-@ intended tanks , in the local area of battle just as well so , for the most part , as in the whole broad Western European theatre of war and campaign of military operations of the time . French military doctrine dictated that the tanks , mostly FCM 36s , predominantly and primarily designed and intended as basically defensive @-@ oriented infantry @-@ support units , were to advance with the infantry . The speed of the FCM 36 was not designed to go any faster for this reason , so its top speed was only 24 km / h ( 15 mph ) . It took from 07 : 30 to 08 : 45 on 14 May for the French armour to traverse the last 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) to the ridge . Lead elements of the 1st and 2nd Panzer Divisions had reached the ridge just minutes before , having travelled 9 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) in less time . But the initial clash was not in the Germans ' favour . Instead of making sure the medium Panzer III and Panzer IV tanks had priority in crossing the Meuse , the Germans had sent few across , and the van of the advance contained mostly lightly armed and lightly armoured although faster Panzer Is and Panzer IIs .
= = = Battle of Bulson = = =
The initial encounters took place as the Battle of Hannut was being fought in Belgium . The results were much the same . On the southern face of Bulson , General Friedrich Kirchner , commander of the 1st Panzer Division , suffered several tactical reverses and saw the 37mm shells from his 3 @.@ 7 cm PaK 36 anti @-@ tank guns and Panzer IIIs bounce off the more heavily armoured French tanks . A number of the German tanks were knocked out in rapid succession . The Germans had to hold the French at the ridge . Kirchner was forced to send in his tanks in dribs and drabs , tactics which Guderian hated , but which he himself decided there was no other recourse . It was once again the German tanks ' radio equipment that enabled them to move around quickly and communicate with one another , to change the point of defence or attack quickly . The speed of the German tanks also enabled them to offset their inferiority in combat power to the French tanks . Often. the Panzer III and IVs could speed into the rear of French formations , closing quickly and knocking out the French armour from the rear . The Germans noted the particular weakness between the chassis and turret of the French tanks , which were vulnerable to their fire .
The French artillery concealed in wooded areas proved more potent than the tanks . The German 1st Panzer Company was wiped out by French artillery , and pulled back with just one battle worthy tank . The Company retreated under the cover of part of the ridge , and moved its single tank back and forth , simulating the presence of many German tanks . Diverted from their success at Gaulier , near Sedan , the 2nd Panzer Company was rushed to the spot and managed to delay the French armoured advance . The Großdeutschland Infantry Regiment 's late arrival tilted the scales . They managed to eliminate the anti @-@ tank lines and entrenched French infantry .
On the left side of the Bulson ridge , the Germans encountered 13 French tanks with support from infantry near Chéhéry . The Germans ' advance intended to strike at Connage to the south of the town of Chéhéry , to outflank the French . Kirchner reacted quickly , ordering two anti @-@ tank platoons to be set up at Connage . The 37 mm guns struggled to halt the French armour which then outflanked the position at Connage by moving to the west while the infantry advanced from the south east on the German right flank . Fortunately the 43rd Assault Engineer Battalion and the 8th Company , 2nd Battalion , 2nd Panzer Regiment arrived and pushed the French back to the town of Chémery @-@ sur @-@ Bar , some 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) south west of Bulson , and due south of Connage .
At 10 : 45 , Lafontaine ordered a retreat and Guderian finally got heavy artillery from the Großdeutschland Infantry Regiment . The 88 mm dual role artillery guns and the heavier Panzer III and IVs reached the area of the battle . By this time , the French 7th Tank Battalion had been wiped out and the 213th Infantry Regiment had been devastated . Only 10 French tanks , out of 40 , remained . In the two pitched battles the 7th Tank Battalion fought that day they lost 10 from 13 . Delays on the right flank meant the 205th Infantry Regiment and 4th Tank Battalion did not reach their starting line until 10 : 45 , by which time the battle on the left wing had been lost and further attacks on the right would have made little sense . The 1st Panzer Division 's victory parade was held in Chemery at 12 : 00 , but it was cut short when the Luftwaffe bombed the square by mistake inflicting a few casualties .
= = = Battle of Stonne = = =
The German High Command did not want to exploit the victory at Sedan and Bulson until the German infantry divisions had caught up with the three Panzer divisions . To Guderian , this was madness and would throw away the victory at Sedan and allow the enemy time to recover and reorganise his still formidable armoured units . Guderian decided to push for the Channel , even if it meant ignoring the High Command and Hitler himself . Guderian ordered the 10th Panzer Division and Großdeutschland Infantry Regiment to hold the Sedan bridgehead , while the 1st and 2nd Panzer Divisions struck north west , towards the Channel . Now that they were pushing largely at an ' open door ' , the 1st and 2nd Panzer Divisions advanced into the undefended French rear with speed .
The Sedan bridgeheads were still not safe . French forces were massing to the south . Guderian decided it was better to mount an aggressive defence given the lack of any suitable anti @-@ tank weapons for a defensive battle . The better option would be to attack rather than defend . The advance of the 1st and 2nd Panzer Divisions had assisted his progress . They ran into and defeated elements of X Corps near Chemery . The French Corps was heading towards Sedan , but withdrew southward after the engagement . Any potential threat on the German western flank had been removed .
Part of Guderian 's original plan had called for a feint south towards and behind the Maginot Line , to mask the intention to thrust to the channel . General Franz Halder had dropped this from Fall Gelb , but Guderian resurrected it and ordered the 10th Panzer Division and Großdeutschland Infantry Regiment to attack across the Stonne plateau . In this innocuous town , a vicious two @-@ day battle took place in which the Germans came face to face with the premier French tank , the Char B1 @-@ Bis , for the only time . One of these tanks , commanded by Pierre Billotte , proved invulnerable to German anti @-@ tank fire and took 140 hits , and knocked out 13 German tanks ( two PzKpfw IV and eleven PzKpfw III ) and a number of anti @-@ tank guns . It transpired that the French had concentrated their own armour there to mount another attack on the Sedan bridgeheads . The battle of Stonne took place between 15 and 17 May , and the town changed hands 17 times . Ultimately the failure of the French to hold it meant the final failure to eliminate the Sedan bridgeheads .
The French offensive at Stonne was of vital importance . The town remained a base situated on high ground overlooking Sedan . The French could use it as a base from which to launch long @-@ term attacks on Sedan . On 15 May , the battle began . The French committed the 3d Company , 49th Tank Battalion ; 1st Company , 45th Tank Battalion ; and the 2d Company , 4th Tank Battalion ; the 1st Battalion , 67th Infantry Regiment ; and the 1st Company , 51st Infantry Regiment . The French infantry were slow in their advance , which meant the armour outran them . Alone , the tanks tried to attack and failed . At this time , Stonne was held only by the 1st Battalion Großdeutschland supported by only nine of the Regiments 12 anti @-@ tank artillery guns . As the French pressed forward , the weak German defence struggled to hold its ground . However , when one German platoon managed to knock out three French Char B1s the French tank crews panicked , and drove away to the south . It was a psychological victory for the Germans which encouraged their continued defence of the position . In the next attacks , they held their positions and fought . The town would fall to each side over the next 48 hours , as offensive followed counter @-@ attack . The 10th Panzer sent its 1st Battalion , 69th Infantry Regiment to support the hard @-@ pressed Großdeutschland . The Germans retook the town at 17 : 00 on 17 May , for the fourth time in nine hours .
The Germans reinforced their defences on the night of 16 May with the VI Corps , consisting of the 16th Division under Heinrich Krampf , and 24th Infantry Division . It was a timely deployment . By this time the Großdeutschland had lost 570 men and were in need of rest and the Panzerjägerkompanie 14 ( 14th Panzer Anti @-@ tank Company ) had lost six of its 12 guns . It had also lost 12 dead and 65 wounded . Stonne was destroyed . Around 33 French tanks and 24 German Panzers were knocked out . With the IV Corps now supporting the German defence and counter @-@ attacks , the town was captured for the 17th and final time at 17 : 45 on 17 May .
= = Aftermath = =
The French defeat at Sedan left the Allied Army Groups in Belgium with sparse flank protection . The German attack , especially the breakout from the bridgeheads at Sedan , was so fast that there were hardly any major combats . Many French soldiers were in such shock that they were taken prisoner before they could offer resistance , which also explains the low casualty rates for both sides . The two assault engineer battalions under Korthals achieved the most important success . By eliminating the bunkers in the Bellevue sector , they made the breakthroughs of the 1st and 2nd Panzer Divisions possible . This was achieved without a single casualty .
There is consensus among military historians the Battle at Sedan sealed the fate of Belgium and France . On 14 May , the Allied forces had been wrongfooted and through the failures in deployment had effectively lost the campaign . The advance to the Channel would trap 1 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 soldiers and expel the Allies from Western Europe .
Unfortunately for the Germans , the bulk of the British Army escaped from the port of Dunkirk . The German Army eventually won the ensuing Battle of Dunkirk , forcing the Allied Armies to leave behind large amounts of equipment , but failed , through controversial circumstances , to eliminate the British manpower trapped in the pocket . The encirclement destroyed the best units of the French Army , including a prisoner of war total of 40 @,@ 000 , but significant forces did escape ( 139 @,@ 732 British and 139 @,@ 037 French ) . Some French forces would return to France and participate in the battles of June 1940 , surrendering along with the rest of the French armed forces on 25 June 1940 .
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= Robert Jefferson Breckinridge =
Robert Jefferson Breckinridge ( March 8 , 1800 – December 27 , 1871 ) was a politician and Presbyterian minister . He was a member of the Breckinridge family of Kentucky , the son of Senator John Breckinridge .
A restless youth , Breckinridge was suspended from Princeton University for fighting , and following his graduation from Union College in 1819 , was prone to engage in a lifestyle of partying and revelry . But , he was admitted to the bar in 1824 and elected to the Kentucky General Assembly in 1825 . A serious illness and the death of a child in 1829 prompted him to turn to religion , and he became an ordained minister in 1832 .
That year Breckinridge accepted the call to pastor the Second [ a ] Presbyterian Church of Baltimore , Maryland . While at the church , he became involved in a number of theological debates . During the Old School @-@ New School Controversy within the Presbyterian Church in the 1830s , Breckinridge became a hard @-@ line member of the Old School faction , and played an influential role in the ejection of several churches in 1837 . He was rewarded for his stances by being elected moderator of the Presbyterian Church 's General Assembly in 1841 .
After a brief stint as president of Jefferson College in Pennsylvania , Breckinridge returned to Kentucky , where he pastored the First Presbyterian church of Lexington , Kentucky , and was appointed superintendent of public education by Governor William Owsley . The changes he effected in this office brought a tenfold increase in public school attendance and led to him being called the father of the public school system in Kentucky . He left his post as superintendent after six years to become a professor at Danville Theological Seminary in Danville , Kentucky .
As the sectional conflict leading up to the Civil War escalated , Breckinridge was put in the unusual position of being a slaveholder who opposed slavery . His support of Abraham Lincoln for president in the election of 1860 put him at odds with his nephew , John C. Breckinridge . The tragic scenario of brother against brother literally played out in Breckinridge 's family , with two of his sons joining each side during the war . Following the war , Breckinridge retired to his home in Danville , where he died on December 27 , 1871 .
= = Early life = =
Robert Breckinridge was born March 8 , 1800 at Cabell 's Dale near Lexington , Kentucky . He was the third son born to Senator John and Mary Hopkins ( Cabell ) Breckinridge . Senator Breckinridge died in 1806 , leaving his wife to tend the family 's large plantations . Robert soon earned a reputation of misbehaving . In one instance , he and his brother John had a physical altercation because Robert put salt in a blind cousin 's coffee ; in another , his mother gave him a " tremendous whipping " for beating an old slave .
Breckinridge studied education at a classical school operated by Dr. Louis Marshall , the brother of Chief Justice John Marshall , then followed his brothers , Cabell and John , to Princeton in 1817 . His behavior problems continued there ; in one year , he spent more than $ 1200 . He was suspended for fighting , and although he was later reinstated , the incident soured him on Princeton , and he was granted an honorable release . ( The school later awarded him an honorary Master of Arts degree in 1832 . ) Breckinridge enrolled at Yale University , but after three months , discovered that a one @-@ year residency was required for graduation . Unwilling to complete this requirement , he moved to Union College in Schenectady , New York , where he earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1819 .
Following his graduation , Breckinridge returned to Kentucky with no clear direction in his life . He began to amuse himself by attending various parties and other social engagements . During a visit to the state capital , he so offended one man that he was challenged to a duel . Though he obtained two pistols , he never accepted the man 's challenge , and was branded a coward . The dispute was later settled in the Masonic Lodge of which both Breckinridge and the other man were members .
On March 11 , 1823 , Breckinridge married his cousin , Ann Sophonisba Preston at the bride 's home in Abingdon , Virginia ; the couple had eleven children . Ann 's political heritage rivaled that of her husband . A grandniece of Patrick Henry , she was also a sister to Senator William Campbell Preston and a sister @-@ in @-@ law to South Carolina governor Wade Hampton III , and Virginia governors John B. Floyd and James McDowell .
= = Service in the Kentucky General Assembly = =
Following the advice of his older brother , Breckinridge obtained his law license on January 3 , 1824 , but the practice of law did not suit him . He instead decided to follow the family tradition and seek public office , campaigning for a seat in the Kentucky House of Representatives . Even in his early political career , he began to articulate his stance on the issues that would become his legacy .
First , he shunned the states ' rights viewpoint , stressing instead the need for a strong interdependence between the states . Second , he called for an end to slavery . Third , he emphasized the importance of education . Though they agreed on this last point , Breckinridge 's father had ardently opposed emancipation of slaves and favored states ' rights . Historian James C. Klotter opines that Louis Marshall and Robert 's mother Mary may have influenced his positions .
The most politically charged issue in Kentucky during Breckinridge 's campaign , however , was the Old Court @-@ New Court controversy . The Panic of 1819 had left many Kentuckians in dire financial straits . Legislators sought to relieve some of the financial burden by passing a law of replevin which favored debtors . The Kentucky Court of Appeals , ( the highest court in the Commonwealth at the time , ) declared the law unconstitutional . The next year , an incensed General Assembly passed legislation that dissolved the court and replaced it with a new court . Neither court acknowledged the other as valid , and a confused public lost respect for public authority in general . The issue was generally split along party lines , with Democrats generally favoring the New Court and Whigs favoring the Old Court .
Breckinridge dodged the issue during the campaign , which he won in 1825 , but once he took office , he had to come down on one side or the other . He voted in favor of the Old Court , reflecting his upper @-@ class status and affinity for the establishment . In so doing , he identified himself with the party of Kentucky 's favorite son , Henry Clay . The Whigs would control Kentucky politics for the next twenty @-@ five years . In 1826 , the majority of the General Assembly sided with the Old Court and abolished the New Court .
Eventually , tensions faded , but a bigger decision awaited Robert Breckinridge in 1828 . He was chosen to sit on a committee that would draft Kentucky 's response to the Nullification Crisis . Because much of South Carolina 's reasoning for their actions was based on the logic of the Kentucky Resolutions , which had been supported by Senator John Breckinridge , Robert Breckinridge now had to determine whether he should support the words of his late father or refute them . In the end , his Unionist sympathies overrode his sense of loyalty to his father ; he sided with the committee 's majority in condemning South Carolina 's actions .
= = Religious conversion and ministry = =
Throughout his time in the General Assembly , Breckinridge had battled with typhoid fever . In an 1828 letter to his wife , who was visiting relatives in Virginia , he recounted that he had been bedridden and near death for two months . Finally , in February 1829 , the illness subsided . Only then could he be told about the death of his daughter , Louisiana , which had occurred a month earlier . The illness , combined with the news of the death of his daughter , caused Breckinridge to turn to religion .
In spring 1829 , he made a public profession of his faith . In 1831 , he hosted a revival meeting on his farm during which he decided to pursue ministerial training under the West Lexington Presbytery . He was ordained as a Presbyterian minister on April 5 , 1832 .
Breckinridge served as a Ruling Elder at the Presbyterian General Assembly of 1832 , then relocated to Princeton , New Jersey , to study under Samuel Miller at Princeton Theological Seminary . In November 1832 , he succeeded his brother John as pastor of Second [ a ] Presbyterian Church of Baltimore , Maryland . His tenure saw numerous converts , but he was put at odds with his brother and Samuel Miller over practices employed in his church . His counselors were also concerned that he was wavering on his belief in the doctrine of limited atonement . Eventually , he was persuaded back into the doctrines of the orthodox Calvinism and became one of the leaders of the Old School Presbyterian movement .
Now solidly in the Presbyterian fold , Breckinridge began to follow in the footsteps of his brother John , criticizing Roman Catholicism in a number of his speeches and publications . There were many Catholics in Baltimore . He sponsored and edited two " thoroughly Protestant " journals – the Baltimore Literary and Religious magazine and the Spirit of the XIX Century . A year @-@ long tour of Europe with his wife that began in April 1836 deepened his disdain for the denomination ; he opined that most of the continent 's ills could be traced back to Catholic " superstitions . " A particularly harsh missive against a Catholic who worked in the county almshouse drew an indictment for libel in 1840 . The trial ended in a hung jury that voted 10 – 2 in favor of acquittal . Though displeased that he could not obtain a unanimous acquittal , Breckinridge continued undaunted . In 1841 , he published several of his anti @-@ Catholic articles as Papism in the XIX Century in the United States .
Breckinridge was equally controversial in internal church politics . He rebuked the Synod of the Western Reserve for de @-@ emphasizing and effectively abandoning the office of Ruling Elder . He also condemned the governance of Presbyterian missionaries by anyone other than the Presbyterian church . In 1834 , he was the chief author of the Act and Testimony , a document summarizing the contentions between the Old and New Schools . The New School resented Breckinridge and those who signed the Act and Testimony , and even some in the Old School camp had hoped for a more moderate course . The differences between the Old and New Schools widened over the teachings of Albert Barnes , and the New School members were ejected from the Presbyterian Church in 1837 . Because of his leadership in the Old School @-@ New School controversy , Breckinridge was elected moderator of the Old School branch 's General Assembly in 1841 .
= = President of Jefferson College = =
In 1844 , Breckinridge 's wife Ann died . Lingering sadness and memories of his and Ann 's life in Baltimore may have led him to leave the city and the pastorate he had held for twelve years . He was offered pastorate of the Second Presbyterian Church of Lexington , Kentucky , but instead , accepted the presidency of Jefferson College in Pennsylvania in 1845 against the advice of his brothers John and William . A rift between Breckinridge and his brother Cabell 's widow and other relatives may help account for this surprising decision . He did not feel he could yet return to his home state .
Breckinridge was inaugurated as president of Jefferson College on September 27 , 1845 . During his tenure , he also pastored a church in the city of Canonsburg , Pennsylvania . College administration apparently did not suit him , however . A student uprising against the president and the faculty occurred in 1846 , hastening the end of his short stay at the school . A desire to see his children , most of whom were living with relatives scattered throughout Kentucky and Virginia , also factored into his decision to resign his post in 1847 . On his resignation , he was awarded an honorary LL.D from the school .
= = Father of Kentucky 's public school system = =
Breckinridge returned to Kentucky , accepting the pastorate of First Presbyterian Church of Lexington . His return to Kentucky was also motivated by a growing fondness for his cousin , Virginia Hart Shelby , who had cared for two of his children during his stay in Pennsylvania . Virginia was the widow of Alfred Shelby , the son of Isaac Shelby , who was twice governor of Kentucky . Their written exchanges included love poems from Robert and concerned questions from Virginia about the wisdom of engaging in a relationship . Despite being advised by her sisters to avoid the marriage and her own wavering on the issue , the two were married in April 1847 . They had three children , only one of whom survived to adulthood . Disagreements among the children of both partners ' previous marriages exacerbated an already tense union , which almost ended in divorce in September 1856 . Robert managed to reconcile with his wife , and they remained together until Virginia 's death in 1859 .
Breckinridge 's personal turmoil did not hinder his political accomplishments . He was appointed superintendent of public education by Governor William Owsley . He was the sixth person to hold the office since its creation in the 1830s . The task was daunting . Only one of every ten school @-@ age children in Kentucky ever attended school , and at least thirty Kentucky counties had received no state educational funds since 1840 .
Breckinridge began reforms immediately and zealously . He secured the General Assembly 's passage of a two @-@ cent property tax for education . The tax was subject to voter approval , and Breckinridge worked hard to publicize the issue . His efforts paid off , as the tax passed by almost a two @-@ to @-@ one margin . Continuing to publicize needs and push legislators to action , Breckinridge enjoyed the support of five of the six governors under whom he served . Only John L. Helm , who opposed a state @-@ funded school system , challenged him , but Helm 's veto of a Breckinridge educational bill was overridden in the General Assembly . Breckinridge 's reforms manifested tangible results . From 1847 to 1850 , educational spending increased from $ 6 @,@ 000 to $ 144 @,@ 000 . By 1850 , only one out of every ten school age children did not attend school .
In 1850 , Kentuckians ratified their third constitution . One of many changes effected by this document was that the office of superintendent became elective . Though the election belonged to the Democrats , Breckinridge , a Whig , was elected over five challengers for the office . His tenure would be a short one , however . Unlike his early reforms , his calls for parental selection of textbooks and use of the Bible as the primary reading material were not heeded . He also opposed the abolition of tuition charges and unsuccessfully lobbied for a pay increase for his position . ( The salary was only $ 750 . ) With little prospect of further reform under his leadership , Breckinridge resigned in 1853 .
Following his resignation , Breckinridge shifted his party affiliation from Whig to Know @-@ Nothing to Republican . In 1853 , he helped found Danville Theological Seminary in Danville , Kentucky , becoming a Professor of Exegetic , Didactic and Polemic Theology .
= = Civil War and later life = =
Although he owned a number of slaves , and his marriage to Virginia Shelby had left him with a good many more , Breckinridge had been a supporter of gradual emancipation and colonization of blacks since his early political career . As the sectional crisis worsened , this led him into several high @-@ profile debates , notably with fellow Kentuckian Robert Wickliffe , the uncle of Robert C. Wickliffe . His support of Abraham Lincoln for president in the election of 1860 pitted him against his own nephew , Vice President John C. Breckinridge .
At the outbreak of the Civil War , Breckinridge quickly became an ardent supporter of the Union , not for its position against slavery , but for the sake of preserving the Union . He used his position as editor of the Danville Quarterly Review to advocate his position . He called for harsh measures against secession , and in time , accepted President Lincoln 's immediate emancipation of slaves . He was chosen as the temporary chair of the 1864 Republican National Convention that re @-@ nominated Lincoln for president , and his pro @-@ Union speech was hailed by freshman Representative James G. Blaine as one of the most inspiring given at the event .
Breckinridge 's family split on the issue , with two of his sons – Joseph and Charles – fighting for the Union cause , and two – Willie and Robert Jr . – fighting for the Confederacy . While three of his sons @-@ in @-@ law also fought for the Union , daughter Sophonisba 's husband , Theophilus Steele , rode with John Hunt Morgan , and it is likely that Robert Breckinridge 's intervention kept him from being executed by Edwin M. Stanton . Following the war , Willie Breckinridge 's wife Issa refused to let her father @-@ in @-@ law see two of his grandchildren for a period of two years .
On November 5 , 1868 , Breckinridge married his third wife , Margaret Faulkner White . A year later , he resigned his professorship at Danville Seminary . He died on December 27 , 1871 after an extensive illness , and was buried in Lexington Cemetery .
= = Legacy = =
In 1892 , Breckinridge Hall ( named for Breckinridge ) was built as a dormitory for students of the Danville Theological Seminary . It is now a residence hall for upper @-@ class students at Centre College in Danville - Breckinridge 's nephew John C. Breckinridge 's alma mater . Breckinridge Hall was renovated in 1999 , and is on the National Register of Historic Places .
Breckinridge Hall , a three @-@ story building on Morehead State University 's campus , is named for Robert J. Breckinridge .
= = Selected works of Robert Breckinridge = =
The Knowledge of God , Objectively Considered : Being the First Part of Theology Considered as a Science of Positive Truth , Both Inductive and Deductive
The Knowledge of God , Subjectively Considered : Being the Second Part of Theology Considered as a Science of Positive Truth , Both Inductive and Deductive
Our country – its peril and its deliverance .
Breckinridge 's protest against the use of instrumental music in worship
Presbyterian Government not a Hierarchy , but a Commonwealth
Presbyterian Ordination not a Charm , but an Act of Government
Some Thoughts on the Development of the Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A.
The Christian Pastor , One of Christ 's Ascension Gifts
Letter of Robert J. Breckinridge to the Second Presbyterian Church of Baltimore
Robert J. Breckinridge 's speech at the laying of the cornerstone of the Clay Monument
The Calling of the Church of Christ : A Discourse to Illustrate the Posture and Duty of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America
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= Rideau Cottage =
Rideau Cottage is a historic , residential building located on the grounds of Rideau Hall in Ottawa , Ontario . The two @-@ level , 22 @-@ room Georgian Revival home is owned by the Canadian Crown and has traditionally been inhabited by persons associated with the Governor General of Canada , including the viceroy 's private secretary . It is occupied by Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and his family as of 2016 .
= = History = =
Construction on the building , which was based on a design by architect F.P. Rubidge , began in 1866 and concluded in 1867 . Though intended in the early days to serve as the residence of the governor general 's secretary , the cottage was later designated for use by the government as an official guest house for visiting dignitaries .
On his arrival in Canada in 1883 , incoming governor general the Marquess of Lansdowne resided at Rideau Cottage while waiting for Rideau Hall to be vacated by the outgoing Governor General , the Marquess of Lorne . Other residents included Lionel and Lilias Massey during Vincent Massey 's time as governor general ; Georges Vanier , as Aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Governor General the Viscount Byng of Vimy , and Barbara Uteck , private secretary to the governor general from 2000 to 2006 , and her husband , Graham Fraser . Uteck 's successor , Stephen Wallace , resided in Rideau Cottage until the weekend of 24 – 25 October 2015 , when he vacated the premises to allow then prime minister @-@ designate Justin Trudeau and his family to live in the house while the traditional official residence of the Prime Minister of Canada , 24 Sussex Drive , was undergoing assessment for repairs and restoration .
Rideau Cottage was recognized as a Recognized Federal Heritage Building on 3 October 1986 .
= = Design = =
Rideau Cottage is a two @-@ level , 22 @-@ room Georgian Revival building . Originally , the structure had 14 rooms on a single floor . An 1872 remodel , using a different brick , added both the second level and a verandah on three sides of the ground floor . During that remodel , the exterior brick of the first floor was covered in stucco painted to appear like brick . ( When the verandah was removed some time later , the stucco remained . ) Between 1999 and 2000 , the building underwent major renovations to the basement , roof and interior finishes , and the mechanical and electrical systems were upgraded . Outside , the stucco was removed and each brick and joint was individually dyed to give a uniform appearance . It was again renovated in 2013 .
Rideau Cottage is characterized and distinguished by its symmetry , simple lines , classically inspired central entrance with pedimented porch , sash windows flanked by decorative shutters , and paired chimneys .
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= Tōshirō Hitsugaya =
Tōshirō Hitsugaya ( Japanese : 日番谷 冬獅郎 , Hepburn : Hitsugaya Tōshirō ) is a fictional character in the manga and anime series Bleach , created by Tite Kubo . In the series , Hitsugaya is a captain of the Gotei 13 , a group of Soul Reapers who govern the flow of souls and protect Soul Society , an afterlife realm . Hitsugaya makes appearances in all Bleach 's films , being the protagonist in The Diamond Dust Rebellion , as well as and in other media related to the franchise , including video games and original video animations .
Hitsugaya 's character has been well received among both readers and reviewers , becoming the series breakout character . Amongst the Bleach reader base , he has been highly popular , placing high in several popularity polls . Several pieces of merchandise have been released in Hitsugaya 's likeness , including action figures , plush toys and key chains . Anime and manga publications have provided acclaim and criticism of Hitsugaya 's character .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In the Bleach manga and anime series = = =
Hitsugaya lived with his grandmother and with Momo Hinamori , whom he considers a very close friend . Hitsugaya excelled in the Soul Reaper academy , becoming the youngest captain in the history of Soul Society with command over Squad 10 . Introduced to the Gotei 13 , Hitsugaya suspected Squad 3 captain Gin Ichimaru of foul play as the circumstances surrounding the coming execution of Rukia Kuchiki become more complicated . When Hinamori is manipulated into thinking that Hitsugaya killed Sōsuke Aizen , Hitsugaya attacks Gin on the notion that he tricked her . The fight is interrupted when Hitsugaya dodges an attack that almost kills Hinamori , only to be intercepted by his lieutenant Rangiku Matsumoto . Seeing how destructive Rukia 's execution is becoming , Hitsugaya tries to stop it by appealing to the Chamber 46 , only to discover all members were murdered by Aizen , who faked his death . When Hitsugaya discovers Hinamori injured , Hitsugaya tries to kill Aizen but is defeated .
In a later arc , Hitsugaya leads a group of Soul Reapers assigned to defend Karakura Town against the Arrancar that Aizen has enlisted to his cause . He defeats Shawlong Qufang , and Luppi Antenor , and upon learning that Orihime Inoue has followed the Arrancars back to their home world , Hitsugaya returns to Soul Society to help in the preparation for the war against Aizen . At Karakura Town , he engages the Espada Tier Halibel before she is mortally wounded by Aizen . From there , Hitsugaya engages Aizen , and is tricked into stabs Momo in the chest with Aizen taking advantage of the youth 's rage of being tricked to cut his left limbs off . After Aizen 's defeat and healed , Hitsugaya resolves to train so that he can more freely use his bankai to protect Hinamori .
When Kugo Ginjo steals Ichigo Kurosaki 's Fullbring powers , Hitsugaya and several other high @-@ ranking Soul Reapers appear in the human world . To help Ichigo regain his Soul Reaper powers and combat Kugo , captain @-@ commander Genryūsai Shigekuni Yamamoto orders the Soul Reapers to give Ichigo some of their spirit energy . Hitsugaya then engages the Fullbringer Yukio Hans Vorarlbena in a cat @-@ and @-@ mouse game , ending with Hitsugaya encasing Yukio in ice , threatening to end his life if he does not release his Fullbring . During the Wandenreich invasion of Soul Society , Hitsugaya loses his bankai to the organization 's member Cang Du . But with the help of Kisuke Urahara , Hitsugaya retrieves his bankai from Cang Du and defeat him . However , the battle took its toll on Hitsugaya as he ends up a zombie under the Sternritter Giselle Gewelle . Hitsugaya appears along with a zomified Rangiku as they , Kensei , and Rose fight Mayuri Kurotsuchi 's group of revived Arrancars and Squad 11 's Ikkaku and Yumichika . Eventually , Mayuri manages to take control of the zombified Soul Reapers with Hitsugaya and Rangiku restored to normal and healed , although their lifespans were shortened . Hitsugaya later joins Byakuya and other soul reapers against the sternritter , Gerard . During this battle , the ice petals of Hitsugaya 's bankai dissolve . But instead of his bankai deactivating , revealing that the time limit was a sign that it was fully developed prior to the fight , Daiguren Hyōrinmaru 's power reaches its full potential while Hitsugaya is transformed into a young adult to better utilize his improved weapon .
= = = In other media = = =
He appears in all of the four featured films in the series . He fights the Dark Ones with other Soul Reaper comrades in Bleach : Memories of Nobody . He is the main character in Bleach : The DiamondDust Rebellion , where he is accused of stealing the King 's Seal , an ancient artifact , and stumbles across a dark secret concerning a long @-@ dead Soul Reaper named Sōjirō Kusaka , who was his close friend and rival when he was younger . A one @-@ shot manga chapter focusing on Histugaya 's past was released to promote the film , revealing how Hitsugaya learned of his powers . Apparently , Kusaka uses the King 's Seal to come back to life for revenge , but in the end is killed by Hitsugaya in a final rematch . He also appears in Bleach : Fade to Black , in which he loses his memories of Ichigo and Rukia , along with the other Soul Reapers . In Hell Verse , after losing his memories about Rukia 's disappearance and Ichigo , Hitsugaya along with other captains try to stop Ichigo from entering the Soul Society .
Hitsugaya is featured in the 30 minute original video animation , Sealed Sword Frenzy , in which he is part of the group of captains sent to the real world to seal away the escaped and notoriously dangerous shinigami criminal , Baishin . During their first encounter , he successfully fends off the criminal , though Baishin escapes . Hitsugaya is a common playable character in Bleach @-@ related video game , including the Blade Battlers series and the Nintendo home consoles series . Special versions of the character such his bankai form is featured in some games such Soul Resurrección , and Hitsugaya in a school costume are unlockable in other games such as Bleach : Shattered Blade . He is also a playable character in the Nintendo DS game , Jump Ultimate Stars . He also appears in two Bleach Beat Collection albums aside . The first one was a compilation album with Hinamori and Matsumoto . The second one was also a compilation album , this time with Ichigo . A Hitsugaya and Hyōrinmaru 's album was also released as part of Bleach Breathless Collection . He was initially portrayed by Takashi Nagayama in the Bleach rock musicals . Later , in Shinsei Rock Musical Bleach Reprise , Nagayama was replaced by Yūya Kido , who also was substituted ; Takuya Kawaharada took the role .
= = Reception = =
Hitsugaya has been highly popular in the Weekly Shōnen Jump 's Bleach popularity polls ranking most of the times within the top ten . In early 2008 , Hitsugaya was voted the most popular character in the series , replacing Ichigo , who had previously held the position . Hyōrinmaru was voted the most popular zanpakutō in the zanpakutō popularity poll of the series . In the 2007 Japanese Newtype magazine character polls , he was voted the 9th most popular male character in any anime . In the 28th Annual Animage Readers ' Poll , Anime Grand Prix , Hitsugaya was voted as the eighth most popular male anime character . He has also been featured in similar Animage monthly polls . Hitsugaya ranked eighth in 2008 and third in 2009 in a survey titled " The Character I Want to Be My Groom " from the Japanese music distributor Recochoku . In order to promote the second film of Bleach , the trailer had the line " Execute Hitsugaya ! " . Kubo admitted that it was his own idea to make everybody be surprised , but he and Masakazu Morita , the voice actor of Ichigo , received a lot of letters from worried fans , causing Kubo to apologize in response . Various merchandise based on Hitsugaya 's appearance has been created , including action figures , plush toys and key chains .
Various publications from manga , anime and other media have commented on Hitsugaya 's character adding praise and criticism . He has been noted to be one of the most common " fan favorite " characters from the series . Carl Kimlinger from Anime News Network praised Steve Staley for giving an interesting variation of his voice rather than " integrity @-@ destroying abominations " . Also , he commented that Hitsugaya 's unresolved personal issue is , along with the ones from others characters , a good part from the climax of the Soul Society story arc . He additionally praised the animation of Hitsugaya 's bankai in the anime . Later , however , Kimlinger criticized it as " it makes him look like an arthritic blue crow " . IGN 's Ramsey Isler lamented the fact that his first fight against an Arrancar was not very entertaining and his character did not " get a chance to shine . " Hitsugaya 's early appearances were criticized by Isaac Hale from Pop Culture Shock who found Kubo was ignoring other characters and giving a lot of attention to him and Matsumoto 's gags . However , in a later arc , Chris Beveridge of Mania Entertainment noted he " has a pretty good arc " and " shine [ s ] brightly " facing Aizen . His appearance in DiamondDust Rebellion were praised by Active Anime 's Holly Ellingwood who found his motivations and back story " involving and intriguing " . Similarly , Chris Beveridge from Mania Entertainment praised " how he stands as a man " on this film .
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= Sunny Lee =
Sunny Lee is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours , played by Hany Lee . She made her first screen appearance during the episode broadcast on 8 April 2009 . Sunny was created by executive producer Susan Bower in response to criticism that Neighbours was " too white " . Lee came to the attention of Neighbours producers after she entered a competition run by Dolly Magazine to win a three @-@ month contract with the show . Despite not winning , she was cast as Sunny soon afterwards . In August 2009 , it was announced that Lee and Sunny would be departing Neighbours and Sunny made her final appearance on 19 November 2009 .
Sunny was an exchange student from South Korea who is taken in by Karl ( Alan Fletcher ) and Susan Kennedy ( Jackie Woodburne ) . Sunny was described as having " typical teenage insecurities " , which made her appear abrasive , unfriendly and " snobby " . Her storylines focused on her starting a relationship with Zeke Kinski ( Matthew Werkmeister ) , having her first kiss stolen by Donna Freedman ( Margot Robbie ) and being the subject of a crush by Robin Hester ( Benjamin Jay ) . During her time on Neighbours , Sunny was poorly received by television critics .
= = Creation and casting = =
In July 2008 , Neighbours was branded " too white " by black and Asian viewers in Britain . A report found that many ethnic viewers felt they were under @-@ represented in some of Britain 's most popular television shows . In Australia there was talk of a ' White Australia policy ' when it came to casting actors for top @-@ rated soaps . In response to the criticism , executive producer Susan Bower made the decision to add more ethnically diverse extras , small walk on roles and speaking parts . She also decided to introduce 15 @-@ year @-@ old Korean actor Hany Lee into the cast as exchange student , Sunny Lee . Bower said " I know we 're going to get flak about this gorgeous little Korean girl who 's going to be coming in next year , because you 're damned if you do and damned if you don 't " .
Hany Lee was chosen to play the role of Sunny after she was spotted at Dolly Magazine 's " Neighbours ' Next Big Stars " contest . Lee made it to the final ten , but ultimately lost out on the six @-@ week contract to Mauricio Merino , Jr . ( Simon Freedman ) and Chelsea Jones ( Tegan Freedman ) . A few months later , Lee was cast as regular character Sunny after producers saw her audition tape for the competition .
In August 2009 , it was announced that Lee was to leave the show . Producers confirmed that Lee would film her last scenes the following month and they would air in Australia that November . Following the news , Lee said that she would miss the friendships that she had formed with the actors and crew .
= = Development = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
Sunny clashed with her culture 's patriarchal society after being influenced by life in western countries and was considered to be something of a rebel by her peers . On her arrival into the show , Sunny was described as being aloof by television channel , Five 's Holy Soap website . They also described her as being bright , confident , having an outspoken nature and being " full of contradictions " . Holy Soap also described Sunny as having " typical teenage insecurities " , which included being self @-@ conscious about her braces and her lack of experience with boys . This results in Sunny having an abrasive attitude . British television magazine , What 's on TV described Sunny as being initially " disappointed by the lack of excitement in Erinsborough " , they also added " Sunny appears snobby and unfriendly . But Sunny 's front is a cover for a whole host of insecurities " .
On her character , Lee said " She 's come from an Asian lifestyle and culture so she 's out there , she 's got the fashion going on , the hair and make up going on and the attitude " . Lee also said that she shares some similarities with Sunny , with them both having strict parents . On her departure , Lee said that Sunny took a " sacrifice " in leaving as she did not want her parents turning up and ruining everyone 's lives , especially after Susan had recently suffered health issues .
= = = Relationships = = =
Sunny found it difficult to express herself to the other female teens on her first day in Ramsay Street and instead she chose to talk to ' Lost Boy ' from the radio station , Pirate Net about her past and her hurtful relationship with her sister .
Sunny and her housemate , Zeke Kinski , clashed on a number of occasions , which led What 's On TV to ask " is their playful animosity fuelled by romantic chemistry ? " Viewers saw Sunny finding herself unable to deal with her feelings for Zeke and their friends trying to encourage the two to begin a relationship . Zeke managed to get Sunny to open up to him about her insecurities and she started to trust him . They later began a relationship . Holy Soap described their relationship saying " After much to @-@ ing and fro @-@ ing , she eventually got together with Zeke " . Network Ten describe Sunny and Zeke 's relationship as being a " blessing in Zeke 's life , and a great help to him " . Sunny is also credited with helping Zeke to heal from his past and putting him on the straight and narrow again . Bower called Zeke and Sunny the show 's " Romeo and Juliet couple " . Of their relationship she said " They come from different cultures and she 's got a year as an exchange student , so we play out the Romeo and Juliet thing . How far do they go for their love ? Do they love each other ? They keep clashing because of their cultural differences " .
Robin Hester played by Benjamin Jay , was a teenager who formed a crush on Sunny and tried to ruin her relationship with Zeke . Digital Spy said Robin " goes to drastic lengths to keep Zeke and Sunny apart " and Holy Soap and Jay labelled him as " creepy " . Robin was seen trying to manipulate Sunny and he locked Zeke in a store cupboard , so he could spend time with her . Lee named the storyline with Robin as her favourite from her time in the show . She said " That was probably the best storyline ever because it gave me a chance to show who Sunny Lee was " .
= = = Same @-@ sex kiss = = =
One of Sunny 's most high @-@ profile storylines was a kiss between herself and female character , Donna Freedman ( Margot Robbie ) . The kiss occurs after Donna discovers that Sunny has been writing the romantic love letters given to her by her boyfriend . Sunny is then shocked when Donna leans over and kisses her on the lips and steals her first kiss . Lee said " For days , all Sunny 's been able to think about is what it would be like to kiss Zeke . Now Donna 's gone and stolen the moment – and Sunny 's not happy , to say the least ... "
Previously a kiss between Lana Crawford ( Bridget Neval ) and Sky Mangel ( Stephanie McIntosh ) in 2004 received complaints from conservative groups . The show 's producers called the kiss between Sunny and Donna " impulsive " and Robbie agreed , saying " It 's really not a big deal at all . It 's not an actual gay storyline , it 's just kind of an impulsive peck " . The storyline came weeks after rival soap Home and Away endured a backlash to its own same @-@ sex romance .
The storyline received attention from the Australian Family Association , with spokesman John Morrissey saying that he was concerned about TV " normalising " same @-@ sex relationships . Psychologist Dr Janet Hall praised the storyline , saying it allows families to discuss the topic . Susan Bower defended the kiss , which was shot before the Home and Away controversy , saying " Ours is a lovely tale about friendship . It 's very innocent . " She added " If we were going to do a lesbian story – and " Neighbours " is not against lesbian stories – we would do it properly . This is a teenage romance story . There 's nothing sexual " .
= = Storylines = =
Susan and Karl Kennedy decide to take in exchange student , Sunny , following their step daughter 's departure . On her first night with the Kennedys , Sunny calls into the Pirate Net radio station and speaks to ' Lost Boy ' about her past and her relationship with her sister . Sunny believes that she has humiliated herself by talking too much about her life . She then decides to find out who ' Lost Boy ' is , so she can confront him . She is unaware that he is really her housemate , Zeke Kinski .
During auditions for the school play , a romantic tension builds between Sunny and Zeke and they are asked to play the lead roles . Sunny quits the play when she realises that she has to kiss Zeke . Sunny then finds out that Zeke is ' Lost Boy ' , but she forgives him . When she sees Donna Freedman practising the kissing scene with Zeke , Sunny becomes upset . Sunny and Zeke almost share a kiss one night when they are alone . However , they are interrupted by Libby Kennedy ( Kym Valentine ) . Due to rewrites of the play , Sunny 's new character has to kiss Zeke too and Sunny grows uncomfortable again . During drama camp , Sunny and Zeke are locked in a cupboard during a game of truth or dare . They almost kiss again , but are interrupted when the door is opened . Karl realises that Sunny and Zeke like each other and he tries to keep them apart . However , they eventually start a relationship .
Sunny offers to help out Ringo Brown ( Sam Clark ) with his love letters to Donna . When Donna works out that Ringo did not write the letters , Sunny has to tell her that she wrote them for him . In a spur @-@ of @-@ the @-@ moment act , Donna kisses Sunny , grateful for her honesty . Sunny is upset that her first kiss was stolen by Donna . Sunny and Zeke 's first kiss occurs during the play . Sunny struggles with public displays of affection with Zeke and she lies that she told her parents about their relationship . When Sunny finds that her grades have slipped , she decides to end the relationship and admits to Zeke that she did not tell her parents about him .
At a music festival , Sunny is embarrassed when Ringo and Declan Napier ( James Sorensen ) interrupt a kiss between her and Zeke . She runs off into the bush , falls down a cliff and injures her ankle . Zeke also falls down the cliff , they are eventually rescued by Declan and Lucas Fitzgerald ( Scott Major ) . Karl and Susan call Sunny 's parents and learn that they know nothing about the festival or Zeke . Sunny 's parents demand that she is placed on the next flight home . However , Zeke moves out , so Sunny 's parents will not worry about them having a relationship . Zeke later moves back home and Karl asks Sunny to call her father and translate for him . Sunny lies to her father about the nature of the conversation and tells him that her father said everything is fine .
After hearing Sunny on the radio , Robin Hester turns up in Ramsay Street to try to get close to her . Sunny believes he is just being friendly . Robin climbs through Sunny 's bedroom window and takes a photo of her . He locks Zeke in Pirate Net 's storeroom , so he can spend some time with Sunny alone . Sunny and Robin go to Pirate Net to see if Zeke is there and Robin pretends to find the storeroom key and unlocks the door . Zeke tells Sunny that Robin locked him in the storeroom , but she refuses to believe him . Zeke violently attacks Robin in front of Sunny , scaring her . Zeke apologises and Sunny eventually realises that Zeke had been right about Robin . Sunny meets Robin at Charlie 's and tells him that she and Zeke have broken up . Robin confesses to locking Zeke in the storeroom and tries to kiss Sunny , but Zeke appears and tells Robin to stay away them .
Libby accuses Zeke of writing Kyle Canning 's ( Christopher Milligan ) essay for him , but Sunny reveals that she wrote it . Kyle was blackmailing her after he overheard Sunny telling Donna that her parents did not know about Zeke moving home . Karl and Susan make Sunny call her parents and tell them about Zeke . Sunny tells them that her parents want her to come home . Zeke tells Sunny that he will go to South Korea with her . However , when Sunny realises how much Susan and Karl need him , she tells him to stay . On her last day , Zeke organises a picnic and a performance at Charlie 's from The Black Skirts . A few days after her departure , Sunny texts Zeke and tells him not to contact her again .
= = Reception = =
Sunny was negatively received during her time on Neighbours . Upon her arrival , the a Western Mail reporter quipped that viewers were going to tire of Sunny " quite quickly " and that she was " downright irritating . " Ruth Deller of entertainment website Lowculture called the character " annoying " and thought that she had " no other layers to her personality " . She added " As for expecting us to believe that perma @-@ mardy emo kid Zeke would fall for her ? Don 't be daft – he 's the character most likely to push her from a tower . Let 's hope her stay in Ramsay Street is short @-@ lived . " In November , Deller called the storyline between Sunny , Zeke and Robin " ludicrous " and she was placed at number one of the " soap characters we love to hate " list . Deller cited her " continued presence in general " as another reason for her being there .
During a feature on the best and worst soap characters of the decade , Sunny was placed at number eight on the worst soap characters list . Deller stated " Neighbours doesn 't have a great reputation for ethnic diversity , and when they finally decide to introduce a non @-@ white main character for the first time in years , they have to make her the most wooden , annoying , drippy character since Ned . Let 's hope Sunny 's failure isn 't an excuse for avoiding ethnic minority casting in the future … "
Jaci Stephen from the British newspaper , Daily Mail was also negative towards the character , calling her " dreadful " and " awful " . Stephen also expressed her desire for the character 's departure from the show and asked " When are they going to dispense with this hopeless character ? " During the storyline involving Robin and Sunny , Stephen commented " Is she about to disappear into the sunset with someone else ? No such luck . Looks like we 're still going to have to pay a dingo to carry her off . " Following Sunny 's departure , Stephen said " The relief at Erinsborough becoming a Sunny @-@ free zone is enormous " .
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= The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill =
The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill is the debut solo album by American recording artist Lauryn Hill , released on August 25 , 1998 , by Ruffhouse Records and Columbia Records . After touring with her former group Fugees , Hill became involved in a romantic relationship with Jamaican entrepreneur Rohan Marley , and shortly after , became pregnant with his child . This pregnancy , as well as other circumstances in her life , inspired Hill to make a solo album . Recording sessions for the album took place from late 1997 to June 1998 mainly at Tuff Gong Studios in Kingston , as Hill collaborated with a group of musicians known as New Ark in writing and producing the songs . Primarily a neo soul album , The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill incorporates musical styles from R & B , hip hop , soul , and reggae . Its lyrics touch upon Hill 's pregnancy and the turmoil within the Fugees , along with themes of love and God . The album 's title was inspired by the film and autobiographical novel The Education of Sonny Carson , and Carter G. Woodson 's The Mis @-@ Education of the Negro .
The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 chart , selling 422 @,@ 624 copies in its first week , which broke a record for first @-@ week sales by a female artist . The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill produced three hit singles : " Doo Wop ( That Thing ) " , " Ex @-@ Factor " , and " Everything Is Everything " . Its lead single " Doo Wop ( That Thing ) " peaked at number one in the US , with the latter two singles peaking within the top 40 . The album 's success propelled Hill to international superstardom , and contributed to bringing hip hop and neo soul to the forefront of popular music . At the 41st Annual Grammy Awards , The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill earned 10 nominations , winning five awards , making Hill the first woman to receive that many nominations and awards in one night . By 2013 , it had sold over 8 million copies in the US and over 19 million copies worldwide .
Critics generally praised The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill for Hill 's presentation of a woman 's view on life and love , along with her artistic range . New Ark , however , felt Hill and her record label did not properly credit the group on the album ; a lawsuit filed by the group was settled out of court in 2001 . Since the record 's release , it has been ranked in numerous best @-@ album lists , with a number of critics regarding it as one of the greatest albums of the 1990s , as well as one of the greatest albums of all time . In 2015 , it was included by the Library of Congress in the National Recording Registry .
= = Background = =
In 1996 , Lauryn Hill met Rohan Marley while touring as a member of the Fugees . The two gradually formed a close relationship , and while on tour , Hill became pregnant with his child . The pregnancy and other circumstances in her life inspired her to record a solo album . After contributing to fellow Fugees member Wyclef Jean 's 1997 solo record The Carnival , Hill took time off from touring and recording due to her pregnancy and cases of writer 's block . This pregnancy , however , renewed Hill 's creativity , as she recalled in an interview several years later : " When some women are pregnant , their hair and their nails grow , but for me it was my mind and ability to create . I had the desire to write in a capacity that I hadn 't done in a while . I don 't know if it 's a hormonal or emotional thing ... I was very in touch with my feelings at the time . " Of the early writing process , Hill said , " Every time I got hurt , every time I was disappointed , every time I learned , I just wrote a song . "
While inspired , Hill wrote over thirty songs in her attic studio in South Orange , New Jersey . Many of these songs drew upon the turbulence in the Fugees , as well as past love experiences . In the summer of 1997 , as Hill was due to give birth to her first child , she was requested to write a song for gospel musician CeCe Winans . Several months later , she went to Detroit to work with soul singer Aretha Franklin , writing and producing her single " A Rose is Still a Rose " . Franklin would later have Hill direct the song 's music video . Shortly after this , Hill did writing work for Whitney Houston . Having written songs for artists in gospel , hip hop , and R & B , she drew on these influences and experiences to record The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill .
= = Recording and production = =
Hill began recording The Miseducation in late 1997 at Chung King Studios in New York City , and completed it in June 1998 at Tuff Gong Studios in Kingston , Jamaica . In an interview , Hill described the first day of recording , stating : " The first day in the studio I ordered every instrument I ever fell in love with : harps , strings , timpani drums , organs , clarinets . It was my idea to record it so the human element stayed in . I didn 't want it to be too technically perfect . " Initially , Jean did not support Hill recording a solo album , but eventually offered to help as a producer , which she did not accept . Aside from doing work at Chung King Studios , Hill also recorded at Perfect Pair Studios in New Jersey , as well as Sony Studios , with some songs having different elements recorded at different studios . The bulk of the album , however , was recorded at Tuff Gong Studios in Kingston , Jamaica , the studio built by reggae musician Bob Marley . Regarding this shift in environment , Hill stated : " When I started recording in New York and New Jersey , lots of people were talking to me about going different routes . I could feel people up in my face , and I was picking up on bad vibes . I wanted a place where there was good vibes , where I was among family , and it was Tuff Gong . " Many members of the Marley family were present in the studio during the recording sessions , among them Julian Marley , who added guitar elements to " Forgive Them Father . "
In an interview , recording engineer Gordon " Comissioner Gordon " Williams recalled the recording of " Lost Ones " , stating : " It was our first morning in Jamaica and I saw all of these kids gathered around Lauryn , screaming and dancing . Lauryn was in the living room next to the studio with about fifteen Marley grandchildren around her , the children of Ziggy , and Stephen , and Julian , and she starts singing this rap verse , and all the kids start repeating the last word of each line , chiming in very spontaneously because they were so into the song . " Columbia Records considered bringing in an outside producer for the album and had early talks with RZA of the Wu @-@ Tang Clan . However , Hill was adamant about writing , arranging , and producing the album herself : " It would have been more difficult to articulate to other people . Hey , it 's my album . Who can tell my story better than me ? " She recalled Ruffhouse Records executive Chris Swartz ensuring her artistic freedom while recording the album : " I had total control of the album . Chris Swartz at Ruffhouse , my label , said , ' Listen , you 've never done anything stupid thus far , so let me let you do your thing . ' "
= = Music and lyrics = =
A neo soul album , The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill incorporates musical styles such as R & B , soul , hip hop , and reggae . Some songs are based in hip hop soul . " When It Hurts So Bad " is musically old roots reggae mixed with soul . While mostly in English , " Forgive Them Father " and " Lost Ones " both feature singing in patois , which is the common dialect in Jamaica . Although heavily R & B , the song " Superstar " contains an interpolation of the rock song " Light My Fire " by The Doors . Hill said that she " didn 't want to come out with a [ Fugees ] type of sound " , but create " something that was uniquely and very clearly a Lauryn Hill album . " She also said that she did not intend for the album 's sound to be commercially appealing : " There 's too much pressure to have hits these days . Artists are watching Billboard instead of exploring themselves . Look at someone like Aretha , she didn 't hit with her first album , but she was able to grow up and find herself . I wanted to make honest music . I don 't like things to be too perfect , or too polished . People may criticize me for that , but I grew up listening to Al Green and Sam Cooke . When they hit a high note , you actually felt it . "
Much of Hill 's lyrics dealt with motherhood , the Fugees , reminiscence , love , heartbreak , and God . Commenting on the album 's gospel content , Hill stated " Gospel music is music inspired by the gospels . In a huge respect , a lot of this music turned out to be just that . During this album , I turned to the Bible and wrote songs that I drew comfort from . " Several of the album 's songs , such as " Lost Ones , " " Superstar , " " Ex @-@ Factor " and " Forgive Them Father " were widely speculated as direct attacks at Fugee members Wyclef and Pras . " Ex @-@ Factor " was originally intended for a different artist , however , Hill decided to keep it after it was completed , due to its personal content . Although a large portion of the album 's love songs would turn out to be bitter from Hill 's previous relationship , " Nothing Even Matters , " a duet performed by Hill and R & B singer D 'Angelo , showcased a brighter , more intimate perspective on the subject . The song was inspired by Hill 's relationship with Rohan Marley . Speaking about " Nothing Even Matters " ' lyrics , Hill remarked : " I wanted to make a love song , á la Roberta Flack & Donny Hathaway , and give people a humanistic approach to love again without all the physicality and overt sexuality . "
" To Zion , " among the more introspective tracks on the album , spoke about how Hill 's family comes before her career and her decision to have her first child , even though many at the time encouraged her to abort the pregnancy , so as to not conflict with her burgeoning career . In an interview she discussed the song 's origin and significance , commenting " Names wouldn 't come when I was ready to have him . The only name that came to me was Zion . I was like , ' is Zion too much of a weight to carry ? ' But this little boy , man . I would say he personally delivered me from my emotional and spiritual drought . He just replenished my newness . When he was born , I felt like I was born again . " She further stated : " I wanted it to be a revolutionary song about a spiritual movement , and also about my spiritual change , going from one place to another because of my son . "
Throughout The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill , several interludes of a teacher speaking to what is implied to be a classroom of children are played . The " teacher " was played by American poet and politician Ras Baraka speaking to a group of children in the living room of Hill 's New Jersey home . Hill requested that Baraka speak to the children about the concept of love , to which he improvised in the lecture . Slant Magazine 's Paul Schrodt remarked on the title 's reference to Carter G. Woodson 's The Mis @-@ Education of the Negro : " [ Hill ] adopts Woodson 's thesis and makes it part of her own artistic process . Like the songs themselves , the intro / outro classroom scenes suggest a larger community working to redefine itself . " Along with Woodson 's book , the album 's title was inspired by the film and autobiographical novel The Education of Sonny Carson .
= = Release and reception = =
After The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill was released on August 25 , 1998 , it entered at number one on the Billboard 200 , selling 422 @,@ 624 copies in its first week . The album 's chart debut broke the record for first @-@ week sales by a female artist . It topped the Billboard 200 for a second consecutive week , during which it sold 265 @,@ 000 copies . In the United States , the album sold one million copies in less than a month and 2 @.@ 4 million copies by December . It spent 81 weeks on the Billboard 200 , and topped the Billboard Year @-@ End Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart .
The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill was promoted with three singles — " Doo Wop ( That Thing ) " , " Ex @-@ Factor " , and " Everything Is Everything " — all of which became hits and produced popular music videos . The album 's sales increased after Hill 's appearance at the 41st Annual Grammy Awards , as it sold 234 @,@ 000 more copies in the week of March 3 , 1999 , and 200 @,@ 000 copies the following week . By August , it had sold 10 million copies worldwide , including nearly 700 @,@ 000 in Canada . On December 17 , 2001 , it was certified 8x platinum by the RIAA . In April 2002 , Columbia said that the album had sold 12 million copies worldwide , and in 2009 , its global sales were reported to be 19 million copies . By 2013 , it had sold more than eight million copies in the US .
The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill received highly positive reviews from contemporary critics and , according to the Los Angeles Times , was the most acclaimed album of 1998 . Reviewers frequently praised Hill 's presentation of a female 's view on life and love . Eric Weisbard from Spin called her a " genre @-@ bender " whose confident singing and rapping was balanced by vulnerable themes and sentiment . In The New York Times , Ann Powers found it " miraculous " and " exceptional " for Hill to use " her faith , based more in experience and feeling than in doctrine , " to " connect the sacred to the secular in music that touches the essence of soul . " AllMusic 's John Bush was impressed by how she produced most of the album , " not as a crossover record , but as a collection of overtly personal and political statements " , while demonstrating " performing talents , vocal range , and songwriting smarts " . David Browne , writing in Entertainment Weekly , called it " an album of often @-@ astonishing power , strength , and feeling " , crediting Hill with " easily flowing from singing to rapping , evoking the past while forging a future of her own " . Dream Hampton of The Village Voice said she seamlessly " travels her realm within any given song " , while Chicago Tribune critic Greg Kot deemed the record a " vocal tour de force " with arrangements that " bristle with great ideas " .
In a less enthusiastic review , Q magazine 's Dom Phillips felt the music 's only flaw was " a lack of memorable melody " on some songs that did not utilize interesting samples , while John Mulvey from NME quibbled about what he felt were redundant skits and Hill 's " propensity " for histrionics and declarations of " how brilliant God is " on an other " essential " album . Pitchfork Media 's Neil Lieberman found some of the ballads tedious and the melodies " cheesy " . Citing " Lost Ones " and " Superstar " as highlights , Village Voice reviewer Robert Christgau deemed it the " PC record of the year " , featuring exceptionally understated production and skillful rapping but also inconsistent lyrics , average singing , and superfluous skits . He appreciated the " knowledge [ and ] moral authority " of Hill 's perspective and values , although he lamented her appraisal of God on record . In the Los Angeles Times , Soren Baker believed Hill was more effective as a critical rapper than a singer on the more emotional songs , where her voice was " too thin to carry such heavy subject matter " .
= = Tour = =
Initially , there was no immediate tour planned due to the album not needing the promotion , and Hill was pregnant again with a child due in September 1998 . Her first live performances of the songs were at Saturday Night Live and the Billboard Music Awards . In January 1999 , Hill recruited a band and began rehearsals for what would become The Miseducation Tour . As soon as the tour was announced , tickets immediately sold out .
The tour began at Budokan in Tokyo on January 21 , 1999 . Hill performed there again the following night , and played at two other Tokyo venues in the following week . One week later , she flew to London for her performance at the Brixton Academy on February 8 , 1999 . With 20 US dates total , the American part of the tour , which featured Outkast as the opening act , started on February 18 in Detroit , and ended on April 1 , 1999 , at Hill 's hometown , Newark , New Jersey . She began the tour 's 14 @-@ date European leg on May 13 , when she performed at the Oslo Spektrum in Norway , closing on June 2 at the Manchester Arena in England . She then returned to Japan , where the tour was completed .
Hill did not want an extensive tour because of obligations to her family and the difficulties she experienced touring with the Fugees in 1996 , which she found desensitizing and isolating . According to Hill biographer Chris Nickson in 1999 , " there was the possibility of more dates being added ... but it was unlikely that Lauryn would be willing to make the tour more grueling and draining . She 'd come to know that there was much more to life than a career . "
= = Lawsuit = =
Though The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill was largely a collaborative work between Hill and a group of musicians known as New Ark ( Vada Nobles , Rasheem Pugh , Tejumold and Johari Newton ) , there was " label pressure to do the Prince thing , " wherein all tracks would be credited as " written and produced by " the artist with little outside help . While recording the album , when Hill was asked about providing contracts or documentation to the musicians , she replied : " We all love each other . This ain 't about documents . This is blessed . "
In 1998 , New Ark filed a 50 @-@ page lawsuit against Hill , her management and her record label , stating that Hill " used their songs and production skills , but failed to properly credit them for the work . " The musicians claimed to be the primary songwriters on two tracks , and major contributors on several others , though Gordon Williams , the album 's mixer and engineer , described the project as a " powerfully personal effort by Hill ... It was definitely her vision . " In response to the lawsuit , Hill claimed that New Ark took advantage of her success . New Ark requested partial writing credits , and monetary reimbursement . The suit was eventually settled out of court in February 2001 for a reported $ 5 million .
= = Accolades = =
At the end of 1998 , The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill was voted the second best record of the year in the Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of American critics published in The Village Voice . Hill was nominated ten times for the 1999 Grammy Awards , making her the first woman to ever be nominated that many times in one year . She won five Grammys , including awards in the Best New Artist , Best R & B Song , Best Female R & B Vocal Performance , and Best R & B Album categories . The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill also won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year , making it the first hip hop record to ever receive that award . Hill set a new record in the industry , as she also became the first woman to win five Grammys in one night . It also earned her nominations at the NAACP Image Awards for Outstanding Female Artist , Outstanding Album , and Outstanding Song ( " Doo Wop ( That Thing ) " ) . At the Billboard Music Awards , the record won in the R & B Album of the Year category , while " Doo Wop " won Best R & B / Urban New Artist Clip , and at the 1999 American Music Awards , Hill won the award for Best New Soul / R & B artist . She also won a Soul Train award and received a nomination for Best International Female Solo Artist at the Brit Awards .
The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill has since appeared on a number of lists ranking the greatest albums ever ; according to Acclaimed Music , it is the 154th most ranked record on critics ' all @-@ time lists .
= = Legacy = =
With The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill 's success , Hill became a national media icon , as magazines ranging from Time to Esquire to Teen People vied to place her on their front covers . In a February 8 , 1999 , Time cover @-@ story , Hill was credited for helping fully assimilate hip hop into mainstream music , making her the first hip hop artist to ever appear on the magazine 's front cover . In 2012 , Rolling Stone ranked the record at number 314 in the magazine 's " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " list , its entry reading , " Hill took Seventies soul and made it boom and signify to the hip @-@ hop generation on her solo debut . " Jon Caramanica , writing in The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , called it " as earnest , unpretentious , and pleasantly sloppy an album as any woman of the hip @-@ hop generation has ever made " , and said that , by appealing to a wide spectrum of listeners with hip hop filtered through a " womanist lens " , the album propelled Hill to superstardom " of epic proportions " and " the focal point at hip @-@ hop 's crossover into the mainstream . " Music journalist Peter Shapiro cited it as " the ultimate cross @-@ over album of the hip @-@ hop era . "
Along with Erykah Badu 's 1997 debut Baduizm , The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill was also an important release in the neo soul music scene . According to Ebony magazine , it brought the neo soul genre to the forefront of popular music , and became the genre 's most critically acclaimed and popular album . According to the Encyclopedia of African American Music ( 2010 ) , " some tracks are based more in hip hop soul than neo soul , but the record is filled with live musicians and layered harmonies , and therefore it is a trendsetting record that connects modern hip hop , R & B , and classic soul music together , creating groundwork for what followed it in the neo soul genre . " On its fifteenth anniversary , American rapper Nas reviewed the album for XXL giving it the publication 's highest rating . He viewed it as a model for artists of all genres to follow and " a timeless record , pure music ... It represents the time period — a serious moment in Black music , when young artists were taking charge and breaking through doors . " In 2015 , The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill was deemed " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " by the Library of Congress and selected for inclusion in the National Recording Registry .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = = Instrumentalists = = =
= = = Production = = =
= = = Vocalists = = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Mendy Rudolph =
Marvin " Mendy " Rudolph ( March 8 , 1926 – July 4 , 1979 ) was an American professional basketball referee in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) for 22 years , from 1953 to 1975 . Regarded as one of the greatest officials in NBA history , Rudolph officiated 2 @,@ 112 NBA games ( a record held at retirement ) and was the first league referee to work 2 @,@ 000 games . He was also selected to referee eight NBA All @-@ Star Games and made 22 consecutive NBA Finals appearances .
Following his career as a referee , he was a color commentator for CBS Sports 's coverage of the NBA on CBS for two seasons from 1975 to 1977 and he appeared in a television advertisement for Miller Lite . He was a member of the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame Class of 2007 .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Early life and family = = =
Born in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , Rudolph was raised in Wilkes @-@ Barre , Pennsylvania . His father , Harry Rudolph , was a prominent basketball referee and baseball umpire . Mendy Rudolph played basketball as a child and eventually chose the same profession as his father . Upon graduating from James M. Coughlin High School , he began officiating basketball games at the Wilkes @-@ Barre Jewish Community Center and later worked scholastic games . At age 20 , he was recruited to referee games alongside his father , who served as Eastern Professional Basketball League ( Eastern League ) President from 1956 to 1970 . During his career in the Eastern League , he officiated his first Eastern League President 's Cup championship series in 1948 and was selected as a referee in at least one game in every President 's Cup playoff and championship series between 1949 and 1953 . At the same time , he also served in the United States Air Force during the Korean War .
Rudolph was married twice during his life . His first marriage was to his childhood sweetheart and together they raised three children . But the relationship became troubled and eventually ended . In 1961 , Mendy Rudolph met Susan , a receptionist at the WGN office in New York City , while both worked for the station . At the time , Rudolph worked at WGN as an additional job outside of officiating , which was common among referees from his era . Mendy and Susan Rudolph were married in 1973 . Two years later , their first child , Jennifer Rudolph , was born .
= = = Gambling problem = = =
Throughout his life , Rudolph suffered from a gambling problem and was labeled a " compulsive gambler " . He would often spend his leisure time placing bets at race tracks and Las Vegas , Nevada and Puerto Rico casinos . At that time , NBA referees were allowed to gamble , but this practice has since been prohibited . As he incurred gambling losses , Rudolph was once offered by a Las Vegas gambler to erase his outstanding debt by participating in point shaving . However , he refused to accept the offer and said to his wife , " It goes against all my principles . I love the game too much , respect it too much . I couldn 't do it to you . I couldn 't do it to the memory of my father , and I couldn 't do it to myself . If I have to go into bankruptcy , something I 'd hate to do , I 'd do it , " according to in a 1992 New York Times interview with Susan Rudolph . Rudolph had cashed in his $ 60 @,@ 000 pension fund to pay debts and he still owed an additional $ 100 @,@ 000 . While he refused to seek professional help , Rudolph cut back on his gambling habit later in his life .
= = NBA officiating career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Rudolph was recommended by Eddie Gottlieb , coach and owner of the NBA 's Philadelphia Warriors at the time , to then @-@ NBA commissioner Maurice Podoloff , after observing Rudolph officiate an exhibition game . Rudolph was hired by the NBA in February 1953 , midway through the 1952 – 53 NBA season and he became the youngest official in the league . In his early years with the NBA , Rudolph quickly became an established official as he worked playoff games within his first two years in the league .
= = = Memorable NBA Finals games = = =
Rudolph officiated the 1955 NBA Finals between the Syracuse Nationals and Fort Wayne Pistons , which was notable for its actions by fans , fights between players , and attacks on referees . Game 3 of the series , played in Indianapolis , Indiana , was interrupted by a fan who threw a chair on the floor and ran on the court to protest calls made by Rudolph and referee Arnie Heft . Six years later , he made history by officiating the entire 1961 NBA Finals between the Boston Celtics and St. Louis Hawks with his colleague Earl Strom .
Rudolph and Strom officiated another notable game in the 1964 NBA Finals . In Game 5 of the championship series , Wilt Chamberlain , playing for the San Francisco Warriors , knocked out Clyde Lovellette of the Boston Celtics with a punch . Celtics head coach Red Auerbach stormed onto the court and demanded that Chamberlain be thrown out of the game . The latter told Auerbach if he did not " shut up " , he would be knocked down to the floor with Lovellette . Auerbach countered the threat , " Why don 't you pick on somebody your own size . " Rudolph intervened the discussion and told Auerbach , " Red , do you have any other seven @-@ footers who 'd like to volunteer ? "
= = = Head of officials = = =
As his career progressed in the league , Rudolph took on responsibilities beyond officiating . In 1966 , he was named referee @-@ in @-@ chief and worked alongside Dolph Schayes , who was hired as the league 's supervisor of officials that year to replace Sid Borgia . In this position , he oversaw areas that pertained to referee mechanics , techniques , and rule interpretations . It was in this role that he authored the NBA Official ’ s Manual and Case Book .
While he served as head of officials , the NBA lost four veteran officials — Norm Drucker , Joe Gushue , Earl Strom , and John Vanak to the rival American Basketball Association ( ABA ) in 1969 over salary and benefits . At the time of transaction , Rudolph told Strom , " ( Deputy Commissioner ) Carl [ Scheer ] , ( NBA Commissioner ) Walter [ Kennedy ] , and I were prepared to offer you guys the greatest contract in the history of pro basketball . "
By the early 1970s , Rudolph successfully encouraged the league to adopt a plain gray referee uniform over the traditional " zebra " shirt to de @-@ emphasize the presence of officials in games .
= = = Final years = = =
By 1975 , Rudolph 's health condition began to deteriorate and he was forced to retire after suffering a blood clot in his lung during a 1975 NBA playoff game between the Buffalo Braves and Washington Bullets , played April 25 , 1975 . In his final game , he had to be carried off the court . On November 9 , 1975 , Rudolph officially ended his career as a referee in the NBA , in which he officiated more games ( 2 @,@ 113 ) than any official in league history at the time . Earl Strom later broke Rudolph ’ s record and officiated over 2 @,@ 400 games in his 30 @-@ year career .
= = Post @-@ officiating career = =
= = = Broadcasting = = =
Following his officiating career , Rudolph transitioned to a career in broadcasting . During the 1975 @-@ 76 and 1976 @-@ 77 NBA seasons , he worked as a television analyst for CBS Sports covering The NBA on CBS . During his first season , he was paired with Brent Musburger and Rick Barry for the 1976 NBA Finals . This championship series was most memorable for a triple @-@ overtime Game 5 , which has been labeled the " greatest game " in NBA history . In this game , Celtic John Havlicek made an apparent game @-@ winning field goal at the conclusion of the second overtime . The game clock had expired , but Rudolph , along with Musburger and Barry , noted that the shot was made with two seconds remaining . Referee Richie Powers , however , decided that one second remained in the second overtime period .
= = = Television commercial = = =
In 1976 , Rudolph was featured in a Miller Brewing Company television advertisement along with then @-@ Celtics head coach Tom Heinsohn to promote Miller Lite 's " Tastes Great , Less Filling " advertising campaign . Rudolph and Heinsohn debated whether Miller Lite was less filling or tastes great in a bar room scene . After Heinsohn refused to agree that Lite was , first and foremost , less filling , Rudolph threw his thumb in the air and screamed , " You 're out of the bar . " This advertisement popularized Miller 's campaign slogan and the campaign was named eighth best of the 20th century by Advertising Age in 1999 .
= = Legacy = =
Rudolph died on July 4 , 1979 from a heart attack in New York City . Mendy and Susan Rudolph were standing outside a movie theatre entrance when Mendy collapsed . After unsuccessful attempts at mouth @-@ to @-@ mouth resuscitation , he was taken to a hospital where he died an hour after arrival . At the time of his death , then @-@ NBA Commissioner Larry O 'Brien said of Rudolph , " Mendy 's contributions to the integrity of pro basketball are legendary . " Officials wore a patch with Rudolph 's uniform number , 5 , on their sleeves the following season after his death , the 1979 @-@ 80 NBA season , to honor him . No other official in the NBA has worn this number to the present day .
Known for his charisma , personality , and iconic stature on the court , Rudolph symbolized NBA officiating during the early years of the NBA to fans of professional basketball and became the most recognizable official during the NBA 's first four decades . Bob Ryan of The Boston Globe said of Rudolph , " If any man other than Red Auerbach ever earned the title of NBA institution , it was certainly Mendy Rudolph . " Upon retirement , he set a precedent for the standards that future referees are judged . Early in his officiating career , Joe Crawford ( later hired by the NBA in 1977 ) attended games that Rudolph worked in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania and studied his style and approach . Earl Strom credited Rudolph for being an influence on the development of his career in the NBA . In his autobiography , Calling the Shots , Strom described Rudolph as " one of the most prominent referees because of his style , courage , and judgment . He had excellent judgment . He made the call regardless of the pressure , whom it involved , or where it was . " Strom later told The New York Times that " Mendy Rudolph was simply the greatest referee of all time . "
Strom was also an advocate to get Rudolph enshrined into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame . On April 2 , 2007 , Rudolph was announced as one of the seven members of the Basketball Hall of Fame 's Class of 2007 to be enshrined in September 2007 , twenty @-@ eight years after his death . It was reported that the length of time for Rudolph to become elected was the result of his gambling lifestyle . He became the thirteenth referee to be inducted into the Hall of Fame .
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= Commutative property =
In mathematics , a binary operation is commutative if changing the order of the operands does not change the result . It is a fundamental property of many binary operations , and many mathematical proofs depend on it . Most familiar as the name of the property that says " 3 + 4 |
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