page
stringlengths 23
146k
|
|---|
= Kefka Palazzo =
Kefka Palazzo ( ケフカ ・ パラッツォ , Kefuka Parattso , romanized as Cefca Palazzo in the Japanese version ) is a character in the Final Fantasy series of video games . Originally designed by Yoshitaka Amano , he appears in the 6th installment of the series - Final Fantasy VI . First introduced as the court jester and army general under Emperor Gestahl , throughout the game he reveals himself to be a nihilistic psychopath , and , finally , takes on a Lucifer @-@ esque form , after setting in motion events leading to the Apocalypse and pronouncing himself the God of Magic . From that point he acts as the game 's primary antagonist .
He is also present in the spin @-@ off fighting games Dissidia Final Fantasy and Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy , wherein he is voiced by Shigeru Chiba ( Dave Wittenberg in English localization ) . As well as these appearances , he shows up in Theatrhythm Final Fantasy , Final Fantasy Artniks , and Final Fantasy All the Bravest as an enemy boss character .
Kefka has been rated one of the most memorable and most evil video game villains ever created , with critics and fans noting his intense hatred and maniacal laughter as defining characteristics . He has also been compared to the Joker from the Batman universe .
= = Attributes = =
= = = Character design = = =
Kefka 's appearance was designed by Yoshitaka Amano , who was given complete creative freedom in Final Fantasy VI , with only brief character outlines as guidelines . His approach was to create " real " and " alive " characters , though with consideration for the representation as small computer sprites . Kefka is well known for his clown @-@ like apparel , which has been compared to the Joker from Batman . His dress has been described as " garish " , with " makeup smeared across his face " and " a shrill , girlish laughter " that is thought to " punctuate his madness " .
= = = Personality = = =
Given only the artwork and outline to work with during production , writer Yoshinori Kitase felt that one early scene of Kefka 's approach of a castle was too " boring to make completely normal " and decided to ad @-@ lib a scene where he requests that his accompanying soldiers dust off his boots in the middle of a desert . The scene set the tone for his personality from that point onwards , suggesting that there " may be a screw or two missing from this character 's head " . He has been described as " powerful " and " manipulative " , though he is retiring on occasion when confronted by opposition and even called a coward for his delegating . He is also known for his sarcastic tone and one @-@ liners . As Kefka 's power grows , his nihilism and madness grow in tandem and , as he attains godlike powers he thirsts for the destruction of all life , expresses his loathing of everything in existence by chanting the word " hate " to his enemies . He is also very sadistic , taking amusement at the very idea of people dying and screaming . This is especially evident when he poisoned Doma , as well as his admission prior to confronting the Returners for the final time that he enjoys destroying things precisely because precious lives are lost in the process . In his Dissidia appearance , Kefka 's insanity is further explored , suggesting that his actions stem from a desire to fill his heart with destruction when love failed to provide his life with meaning . Final Fantasy VI features a song called " Kefka " , which exemplifies the " sadistic joy " of the character . His laughter has been called the greatest video game laughter of all time .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Final Fantasy VI = = =
Kefka first appears as a general under the game 's primary antagonist Emperor Gestahl , serving as his court mage . Prior to the start of the game , he was the first human to be experimentally infused with the magic @-@ like craft " Magitek , " which granted him the ability to wield magic , although the imperfect process warped his mind and made him into the nihilistic psychopath he is during the course of the game . Through the first half of the game , Kefka leads the charge for the city @-@ state of Vector to conquer the world , one kingdom at a time , using their magic weapons . Kefka mentally enslaves Terra and uses her to lead an attack on the town of Narshe to claim the frozen esper Tritoch there . When she escapes Imperial control , he pursues Terra to the kingdom of Figaro , setting the castle ablaze as she , Locke and King Edgar flee .
During a siege on the kingdom of Doma , Kefka grows impatient with fellow Imperial General Leo and poisons the drinking water in the castle of Doma , resulting in mass casualties and a swift victory for the Empire . After the alliance of Espers and revolutionaries invade and destroy Vector , Gestahl feigns sorrow for the Empire 's evils , and to gain the trust of the protagonists , Gestahl has Kefka imprisoned , citing the poisoning of Doma . Kefka later goes to the village of Thamasa to kill the espers congregated there , killing Leo when he tries to intervene . Using the power of the espers , Kefka helps Gestahl raise the espers ' homeworld and create the Floating Continent , where they intend to awaken three entities known as the Warring Triad . Upon being confronted by the protagonists , Gestahl freezes them except for former Imperial general Celes , whom he orders to kill her friends to show her loyalty to the Empire . She instead stabs Kefka , who becomes enraged . Kefka and the Emperor then get in an argument as to what degree they will wield the power of the triad — the Emperor taking a more conservative approach , since he only wants enough power to rule the world , while Kefka wants to unleash the Warring Triad 's full potential . The Emperor tries and fails to kill Kefka , who retaliates by having the Warring Triad strike Gestahl down and unceremoniously boots him off the Floating Continent to his death . Kefka then moves the statues of the Warring Triad out of balance , unleashing enough raw magical energy to reshape the face of the planet and bringing about the second act of the game .
Imbued with the power of the statues , Kefka becomes the god of the ruined world he created , using the statues to forge a massive tower of random debris to serve as his headquarters . Kefka smites the millions who refuse to worship him with his " Light of Judgment " , a beam of incinerating light capable of cutting fissures into the planet 's surface . Confronted by the protagonists at the game 's conclusion , Kefka reveals his nihilistic motivations : when the protagonists reject his claims , Kefka goes berserk and proclaims his desire to eradicate everything . Upon the defeat of his minions , Kefka reveals his godlike form and , after uttering one final nihilistic vision of life , dreams and hope , attacks the protagonists before he is ultimately dispatched , causing the power of magic to vanish .
= = = Other games = = =
Kefka is the villain representing Final Fantasy VI in Dissidia Final Fantasy , where the gods Cosmos and Chaos are fighting a cosmic war for control , with Kefka on the side of Chaos . As revealed in its prequel Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy , Kefka controlled Terra while she was a warrior of Chaos until Kuja weakens his spell , allowing Terra to escape and become a warrior of Cosmos with the aid of Vaan . During the events of Dissidia , Kefka allies himself with the Cloud of Darkness to bring Terra back to their side so he can use her Esper powers to fulfill his destructive desires . However , mastering her powers , Terra defeats Kefka to obtain her crystal . After Cosmos 's death , Kefka breaks his ties to the other villains and starts his own scheme to become the ruler of the ruined world before being ultimately dispatched for good . Kefka received a considerable amount of work and changes according to producer Tetsuya Nomura and planning director Mitsunori Takahashi . Translator Tom Slattery , who worked on Final Fantasy VI Advance for the Game Boy Advance , enjoyed writing new dialogue for Kefka . Director Takahashi Mitsunori said he felt that developing Kefka 's attacks such as " reverse magic " felt similar to development of the recurring minor character Gilgamesh 's attacks , and that the staff enjoyed brainstorming the moves . Kefka 's Japanese voice actor , Shigeru Chiba , ad @-@ libbed many lines , including shouting seafood words like " Pike ! " " Yellowtail ! "
Kefka makes cameo appearances in Itadaki Street Portable , Theatrhythm Final Fantasy , and Final Fantasy : All the Bravest as an antagonist . He also appears as a huntable villain in a GREE social network card game called " Final Fantasy Artniks " , where players must share information to find and defeat Kefka to earn rewards . He also appears in the 2015 arcade reboot of Dissidia : Final Fantasy as an add @-@ on character , where his role is reprised by Chiba .
= = Analysis = =
Konami video game developer Tomm Hulett described Kefka as a pure villain , stating " Unlike most Japanese stories , Kefka did not have shades of gray . He didn 't have a tragic past that turned him into a sadistic clown that you felt sorry for him over . He didn 't have some greater purpose that he lost sight of . Yet , at the same time , he wasn 't ' evil for evil 's sake . ' There was something twisted and nasty inside him that MADE him that way ... and you could feel it ... but you also knew there wasn 't any good in there . " That he is a central villain of the entire game also serves to intensify a players negative fixation on him . In a review of Final Fantasy VI Advance , IGN stated " it 's the game 's maniacal nihilist Kefka that really stands out . The most evil and destructive villain in the entire Final Fantasy franchise , Kefka 's brutality and ruthlessness is unmatched and he has to be seen to be believed . " IGN also noted his ability to " tap into primal , instinctive fears " , including fears of clowns . CNet in their own review described him as " the unrivaled star of the show ... he 's the kind of villain that you will love to hate " , comparing him to Jack Nicholson 's portrayal of the Joker and calling his laugh one of the greatest sound effects in any video game . Kotaku has called Kefka the greatest video game villain of all time , and attempted to explain players ' lasting fascination by noting that he inspires such hatred that when his evil plans are finally thwarted , the sense of joy from victory is so much the greater . GameSpy compared Kefka 's final form as a representation of Lucifer , highlighted by his powerful " Fallen Angel " attack . Another theory posited by GameSpot is that the intense reaction to Kefka stems from the fact that he is one of the few villains in Final Fantasy , or any game , that succeeds at his master plan before he is defeated .
= = Cultural Impact = =
= = = Merchandise = = =
In 2006 , Kefka was made into a toy in the Final Fantasy Master Creatures line . The figure is 6 " tall from the bottom of the base , representing his final form from the game 's conclusion . A munny doll of Kefka in his human form was also created by Tomopop . An album of the music from Final Fantasy VI entitled " Kefka 's Domain " was released on July 1 , 1994 . A figurine was created of Kefka for Square Enix 's " Final Fantasy Creatures Kai Volume 5 " in 2012 .
= = = Reception = = =
In a " Reader 's Choice " edition of GameSpot 's " Top Ten Video Game Villains " , Kefka placed first , stating " Kefka topped many of your lists , as the villain who gave Sephiroth a run for his money in the status department . You love and hate Kefka , but you surely think he 's about as vile and evil as evil gets . " In a similar article the boss battle against Kefka was voted by readers as one of the ten best in video games ; GameSpot 's staff noted " Kefka is one of the two bosses that won through the write @-@ in ballot , meaning he wasn 't on our main list of nominees . That means he 's a serious favorite . "
Nintendo Power named Kefka the best villain to appear on Nintendo consoles in 1994 , ranking higher than Donkey Kong Country 's King K. Rool and Marvel Comics ' Carnage . They again featured him in their January 2010 issue , ranking him as their third favorite Nintendo villain . He also was ranked 3rd place in the " Our Favorite Villains , " section of their " 250 Reasons to Love Nintendo , " article . He was described as " An insane , remorseless clown with godlike powers who wants to destroy everyone and everything ( and comes frighteningly close to achieving his goal ) , Kefka is downright evil . " UGO.com named him third in their " Top 25 Japanese RPG Characters " article , stating " Insane , nihilistic , and cruel , Kefka isn 't a reserved mystery like other Final Fantasy villains – rather , he 's in @-@ your @-@ face at all times , doing dirty deeds just to say he did them . " Digital Spy states that he caused some of the most surprising moments in the Final Fantasy series when he destroyed the world . IGN ranked him sixth on their list of the " Top 25 " Final Fantasy characters of all time , noting that several factors , such as his dialogue and appearance , contributed to his memorability as a character ; in a " Reader 's Choice " edition of the article he placed eighth , with similar comments . He was also ranked 18th in IGN 's " Top 100 Videogame Villains " list . GamePro ranked him 33rd on the top 47 most diabolical video game villains of all time , citing both his " genocide " and his enslavement of Terra . GamesRadar ranked him the most " outrageous camp bad guys " , stating that when compared to Kefka , Final Fantasy VII antagonist Sephiroth seems as interesting as a dead accountant painted brown . They also compared him to Batman antagonist the Joker , praising him for both his villainous ambition and his laugh . Gamespy declared that Kefka is quite possibly the greatest video game villain of all time .
|
= The Boat Race 1857 =
The 14th Boat Race took place on the River Thames on 4 April 1857 . Held annually , The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge . Oxford rowed in a keel @-@ less carvel @-@ built boat , the first time in the history of the race that such a construction method was used for one of the vessels . Umpired by Joseph William Chitty , the race was won by Oxford who triumphed over Cambridge by 11 lengths .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having defeated Oxford by half @-@ a @-@ length in the previous year 's race . They led overall with eight wins to Oxford 's five .
It was the first race to feature a keel @-@ less carvel @-@ built boat . Purchased personally by Oxford boat club president Arthur Heywood @-@ Lonsdale from Newcastle boat builder Matthew Taylor , the Oxford crew rowed a practice time of 19 minutes 50 seconds in it , considered " remarkable " in a boat with fixed seats . Lonsdale engaged Taylor to instruct Oxford how to " send his boat along as quickly as possible " , avoiding connotations of professional coaching which was banned in the Boat Race . Cambridge rowed in a boat built by Salter of Wandsworth . It was also the first race in which both crews rowed with round loom oars .
Oxford " soon showed signs of good pace " in practice and set the course record with 19 minutes 50 seconds , a time which would remain unbeaten until the 1873 race . Cambridge began their practice rows " very late " . The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race .
= = Crews = =
Oxford saw four crew members return from the 1856 race in Gurdon , Lonsdale , Thorley and the cox , Elers , while Cambridge welcomed back just two former Blues in Lloyd and Snow . Oxford were marginally the heavier crew at an average of just over 11 st 9 lb ( 73 @.@ 8 kg ) per rower , about 1 pound ( 0 @.@ 5 kg ) more on average than Cambridge . The Oxford president , Heywood @-@ Lonsdale , rowed at number seven while his counterpart , R. Lloyd , rowed at six for the Light Blues .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , leaving Cambridge with the Surrey station . Starting soon after 11am , Oxford made a good start and at Searle 's boathouse ( originally home to the Leander Club ) were clear of Cambridge . They increased their lead to a length by the time they had reached " The Crab Tree " pub . Despite Cambridge making a number of pushes to try to recover the deficit , Oxford continued to pull away and completed the course 32 seconds ahead of Cambridge , and eleven lengths clear . The winning time was 22 minutes 5 seconds . It was Oxford 's fourth victory in the previous five races and represented the largest winning margin since the 1841 race . It was described in the Oxford Books ' account as " without doubt ... about the most hollow beating ever given to Cambridge by Oxford . "
|
= New York State Route 132 =
New York State Route 132 ( NY 132 ) is a 2 @.@ 75 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 43 km ) state highway located entirely within the town of Yorktown in Westchester County , New York , in the United States . The route acts as a connector between the concurrency of U.S. Route 202 ( US 202 ) and NY 35 in the south and US 6 in the hamlet of Shrub Oak in the north . When the route was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , it continued southeast to the hamlet of Katonah . It was cut back to its current southern terminus in the early 1940s and extended one block northward to its present length between 1968 and 1973 .
= = Route description = =
NY 132 begins at an intersection with the concurrency of US 202 and NY 35 in front of Franklin D. Roosevelt State Park in the town of Yorktown . NY 132 proceeds north along Old Yorktown Road , crossing through a residential section of Yorktown . After passing a junction with Meadowcrest Drive , the route takes a turn to the northwest then returns to its northerly progression near Strang Boulevard . Remaining a two @-@ lane residential street through Yorktown , NY 132 passes Lakeland Copper Beech Middle School and turns northwest once again towards more homes and into a partial diamond interchange with the Taconic State Parkway . At this interchange , there is no access from NY 132 to the northbound Taconic , and no access from the southbound Taconic to NY 132 .
A short distance northwest of the interchange , NY 132 reaches a junction with the eastern end of East Main Street ( unsigned County Route 1309 ( CR 1309 ) ) . Two blocks north of East Main Street , NY 132 enters a junction with US 6 in the hamlet of Shrub Oak . This junction marks the northern terminus of NY 132 , whose right @-@ of @-@ way continues north through Yorktown as Barger Street , connecting to the Putnam County line .
= = History = =
The north – south highway connecting Crompond Road to the hamlet of Shrub Oak was acquired by the state of New York in the mid @-@ 1920s . It did not have a posted route number until the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York when it became part of NY 132 , a new route extending from US 6 in Shrub Oak to NY 22 near the hamlet of Katonah . The highway went southeast from Shrub Oak to Yorktown Heights on Crompond Street and Crompond Road , from where it traveled generally eastward to Katonah on Hallocks Mill , Saw Mill River , Amawalk , and Woods Bridge roads . In Katonah , NY 132 used Woods Bridge Road , Bedford Road , and Jay Street to connect to NY 22 .
As originally assigned , NY 132 bypassed the center of Yorktown Heights to the north . This was changed by 1932 as NY 132 was realigned to directly serve the hamlet by way of Crompond and Saw Mill River roads . In the early 1940s , all of NY 132 east of Yorktown became part of NY 35 , a new cross @-@ county route extending from Peekskill to the Connecticut state line . As a result , NY 132 was truncated to its junction with NY 35 and US 202 in the hamlet of Yorktown . NY 132 's northern terminus was moved a short distance northward between 1968 and 1973 as a result of the re @-@ alignment of US 6 through Yorktown . Prior to being called Old Yorktown Road , most of NY 132 was named Crompond Street .
= = NY 132A = =
NY 132A was a suffixed route of NY 132 in the town of Yorktown . When it was initially assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 132A was an alternate route of NY 132 along Mohansic Avenue and Baldwin Road , providing access from NY 132 to Mohansic State Park . Part of Mohansic Avenue was demolished in the early 1930s to make way for the Taconic State Parkway , splitting the route into two pieces . The western segment was removed from the state highway system while the eastern stub remained designated as NY 132A . NY 132 was truncated to Yorktown in the early 1940s , separating it from NY 132A ; however , NY 132A was not renumbered or otherwise altered . The route remained in existence until the mid @-@ 1970s , at which time maintenance of Mohansic Avenue and Baldwin Road was transferred to the town of Yorktown .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Westchester County .
|
= Southern Rhodesia in World War II =
Southern Rhodesia , then a self @-@ governing colony of the United Kingdom , entered World War II along with Britain shortly after the invasion of Poland in 1939 . By the war 's end in 1945 , 26 @,@ 121 Southern Rhodesians of all races had served in the armed forces , 8 @,@ 390 of them overseas , operating in the European theatre , the Mediterranean and Middle East theatre , East Africa , Burma and elsewhere . The territory 's most important contribution to the war is commonly held to be its contribution to the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ) , under which 8 @,@ 235 British , Commonwealth and Allied airmen were trained in Southern Rhodesian flight schools . The colony 's operational casualties numbered 916 killed and 483 wounded of all races .
Southern Rhodesia had no diplomatic powers , but largely oversaw its own contributions of manpower and materiel to the war effort , being responsible for its own defence . Rhodesian officers and soldiers were distributed in small groups throughout the British and South African forces in an attempt to prevent high losses . Most of the colony 's men served in Britain , East Africa and the Mediterranean , particularly at first ; a more broad dispersal occurred from late 1942 . Rhodesian servicemen in operational areas were mostly from the country 's white minority , with the Rhodesian African Rifles — made up of black troops and white officers — providing the main exception in Burma from late 1944 . Other non @-@ white soldiers and white servicewomen served in East Africa and on the home front within Southern Rhodesia . Tens of thousands of black men were conscripted from rural communities for work , first on the aerodromes and later on white @-@ owned farms .
World War II prompted major changes in Southern Rhodesia 's financial and military policy , and accelerated the process of industrialisation . The territory 's participation in EATS brought about major economic and infrastructural developments and led to the post @-@ war immigration of many former airmen , contributing to the growth of the white population to over double its pre @-@ war size by 1951 . The war remained prominent in the national consciousness for decades afterwards . Since the country 's reconstitution as Zimbabwe in 1980 , the modern government has removed many references to the World Wars , such as memorial monuments and plaques , from public view , regarding them as unwelcome vestiges of white minority rule and colonialism . Southern Rhodesia 's dead of the war today have no official commemoration , either in Zimbabwe or overseas .
= = Background = =
When World War II broke out in 1939 , the southern African territory of Southern Rhodesia had been a self @-@ governing colony of the United Kingdom for 16 years , having gained responsible government in 1923 . It was unique in the British Empire and Commonwealth in that it held extensive autonomous powers ( including defence , but not foreign affairs ) while lacking dominion status . In practice , it acted as a quasi @-@ dominion , and was treated as such in many ways by the rest of the Commonwealth . Southern Rhodesia 's white population in 1939 was 67 @,@ 000 , a minority of about 5 % ; the black population was a little over a million , and there were about 10 @,@ 000 residents of coloured ( mixed ) or Indian ethnicity . The franchise was non @-@ racial and in theory open to all , contingent on meeting financial and educational qualifications , but in practice very few black citizens were on the electoral roll . The colony 's Prime Minister was Godfrey Huggins , a physician and war veteran who had emigrated to Rhodesia from England in 1911 and held office since 1933 .
The territory 's contribution to the British cause during World War I ( 1914 – 18 ) had been very large in proportion to its white population , though troops had been mostly raised from scratch as there had been no professional standing army beforehand . Since the start of self @-@ government in 1923 , the colony had organised the all @-@ white Rhodesia Regiment into a permanent defence force , complemented locally by the partly paramilitary British South Africa Police ( BSAP ) . The Rhodesia Regiment comprised about 3 @,@ 000 men , including reserves , in 1938 . The country had fielded black troops during World War I , but since then had retained them only within the BSAP . A nucleus of airmen existed in the form of the Southern Rhodesian Air Force ( SRAF ) , which in August 1939 comprised one squadron of 10 pilots and eight Hawker Hardy aircraft , based at Belvedere Airport near the capital Salisbury .
The occupation of Czechoslovakia by Adolf Hitler 's Nazi Germany in March 1939 convinced Huggins that war was imminent . Seeking to renew his government 's mandate to pass emergency measures , he called an early election in which his United Party won an increased majority . Huggins rearranged his Cabinet on a war footing , making the Minister of Justice Robert Tredgold Minister of Defence as well . The territory proposed forces not only for internal security but also for the defence of British interests overseas . Self @-@ contained Rhodesian formations were planned , including a mechanised reconnaissance unit , but Tredgold opposed this . Remembering the catastrophic casualties suffered by units such as the Newfoundland Regiment and the South African Brigade on the Western Front in World War I , he argued that one or two heavy defeats for a white Southern Rhodesian brigade might cause crippling losses and have irrevocable effects on the country as a whole . He proposed to instead concentrate on training white Rhodesians for leadership roles and specialist units , and to disperse the colony 's men across the forces in small groups . These ideas met with approval in both Salisbury and London and were adopted .
Southern Rhodesia would be automatically included in any British declaration of war due to its lack of diplomatic powers , but that did not stop the colonial government from attempting to demonstrate its loyalty and legislative independence through supportive parliamentary motions and gestures . The Southern Rhodesian parliament unanimously moved to support Britain in the event of war during a special sitting on 28 August 1939 .
= = Outbreak of war = =
When Britain declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939 , following the invasion of Poland , Southern Rhodesia issued its own declaration of war almost immediately , before any of the dominions did . Huggins backed full military mobilisation and " a war to the finish " , telling parliament that the conflict was one of national survival for Southern Rhodesia as well as for Britain — the mother country 's defeat would leave little hope for the colony in the post @-@ war world , he said . This stand was almost unanimously supported by the white populace , as well as most of the coloured community , though with World War I a recent memory this was more out of a sense of patriotic duty than enthusiasm for war in itself . The majority of the black population paid little attention to the outbreak of war .
The British had expected Italy ( with its African possessions ) to join the war on Germany 's side as soon as it began , but fortunately for the Allies this did not immediately occur . No. 1 Squadron SRAF was already in northern Kenya , having been posted to the Italian East African frontier at Britain 's request in late August . The first Southern Rhodesian ground forces to be deployed abroad during World War II were 50 Territorial troops under Captain T G Standing , who were posted to Nyasaland in September at the request of the colonial authorities there to guard against a possible uprising by local German expatriates . They returned home after a month having seen little action . White Rhodesian officers and non @-@ commissioned officers left the colony in September and October 1939 to command units of black Africans in the west and east of the continent , with most joining the Royal West African Frontier Force ( RWAFF ) in Nigeria , the Gold Coast and neighbouring colonies . The deployment of white Rhodesian officers and NCOs to command black troops from elsewhere in Africa met with favour from the military leadership and became very prevalent .
As in the First World War , white Rhodesians volunteered for the forces readily and in large numbers . Over 2 @,@ 700 had come forward before the war was three weeks old . Somewhat ironically , the Southern Rhodesian recruiters ' main problem was not sourcing manpower but rather persuading men in strategically important occupations such as mining to stay home . Manpower controls were introduced to keep certain men in their civilian jobs . The SRAF accepted 500 recruits in the days following the outbreak of war , prompting its commander Group Captain C W Meredith to contact the Air Ministry in London with an offer to run a flying school and train three squadrons . This was accepted . In January 1940 the Southern Rhodesian government announced the establishment of an independent Air Ministry to oversee the Rhodesian Air Training Group , Southern Rhodesia 's contribution to the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ) .
Huggins set up a Defence Committee within the Cabinet to co @-@ ordinate the colony 's war effort in early 1940 . This body comprised the Prime Minister , the Finance Minister Jacob Smit , Tredgold and Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Ernest Lucas Guest , the Minister of Mines and Public Works , who was put in charge of the new Air Ministry . About 1 @,@ 600 of the colony 's whites were serving overseas by May 1940 when , during the Battle of France , Salisbury passed legislation allowing the authorities to call up any male British subject of European ancestry aged between 19 and a half and 25 who had lived in the colony for at least six months . The minimum age was reduced to 18 in 1942 . Part @-@ time training was compulsory for all white males between 18 and 55 , with a small number of exceptions for those in reserved occupations . On 25 May 1940 Southern Rhodesia , the last country to join the EATS , became the first to start operating an air school under it , beating Canada by a week . The SRAF was absorbed into the British Royal Air Force ( RAF ) in April 1940 , with No. 1 Squadron becoming No. 237 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron RAF . The RAF subsequently designated two more Rhodesian squadrons , namely No. 266 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron ( in 1940 ) and No. 44 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron ( 1941 ) , in a manner similar to the Article XV squadrons from Australia , Canada and New Zealand .
= = Africa and the Mediterranean = =
= = = Early deployments = = =
No. 237 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron , based in Kenya since before the start of the war , had expanded to 28 officers and 209 other ranks by March 1940 . By mid @-@ 1940 , most of the officers and men Southern Rhodesia had sent overseas were in Kenya , attached to various East African formations , the King 's African Rifles ( KAR ) , the RWAFF , or to the colony 's own Medical Corps or Survey Unit . The Southern Rhodesian surveyors charted the previously unmapped area bordering Abyssinia and Italian Somaliland between March and June 1940 , and the Medical Corps operated No. 2 General Hospital in Nairobi from July . A company of coloured and Indian @-@ descended Rhodesian transport drivers was also in the country , having arrived in January .
The first Southern Rhodesian contingent despatched to North Africa and the Middle East was a draft of 700 from the Rhodesia Regiment who left in April 1940 . No white Rhodesian force of this size had ever left the territory before . They were posted to a variety of British units across Egypt and Palestine . The largest concentration of Rhodesian soldiers in North Africa belonged to the King 's Royal Rifle Corps ( KRRC ) , whose connections with the colony dated back to World War I. Several Rhodesian platoons were formed in the KRRC 's 1st Battalion in the Western Desert . A company of men from the Southern Rhodesian Signal Corps was also present , operating in tandem with the British Royal Corps of Signals .
= = = East Africa = = =
Italy joined the war on Germany 's side on 10 June 1940 , opening the East African Campaign and the Desert War in North Africa . A Rhodesian @-@ led force of irregulars from the Somaliland Camel Corps — based in British Somaliland , on the Horn of Africa 's north coast — took part in one of the first clashes between British and Italian forces when it exchanged fire with an Italian banda ( irregular company ) around dawn on 11 June . Two days later three Caproni bombers of the Regia Aeronautica attacked Wajir , one of No. 237 Squadron 's forward airstrips , damaging two Rhodesian aircraft .
Italian forces entered British Somaliland from Abyssinia on 4 August 1940 , overcame the garrison at Hargeisa , and advanced north @-@ east towards the capital Berbera . The British force , including a platoon of 43 Rhodesians in the 2nd Battalion of the Black Watch , took up positions on six hills overlooking the only road towards Berbera and engaged the Italians at the Battle of Tug Argan . Amid heavy fighting , the Italians gradually made gains and by 14 August had almost pocketed the Commonwealth forces . The British retreated to Berbera between 15 and 17 August , the Rhodesians making up the left flank of the rearguard , and by 18 August had evacuated by sea . The Italians took the city and completed their conquest of British Somaliland a day later .
No. 237 Squadron embarked on reconnaissance flights and supported ground assaults on Italian desert outposts during July and August 1940 . Two British brigades from West Africa arrived to reinforce Kenya 's northern frontier in early July — the partly Rhodesian @-@ officered Nigeria Regiment joined the front at Malindi and Garissa , while a battalion of the Gold Coast Regiment , also with Rhodesian commanders attached , relieved the KAR at Wajir . The British forces in East Africa adopted the doctrine of " mobile defence " that was already being used in the Western Desert in North Africa — units embarked on long , constant patrols to guard wells and deny water supplies to the Italians . The British evacuated their north forward position at Buna in September 1940 , and expected an attack on Wajir soon after , but the Italians never attempted an assault . Boosted considerably by the arrival of three South African brigades during the last months of 1940 , the Commonwealth forces in Kenya had expanded to three divisions by the end of the year . No. 237 Squadron was relieved by South African airmen and redeployed to the Sudan in September .
Rebasing at Khartoum , No. 237 Squadron undertook regular reconnaissance , dive @-@ bombing and strafing sorties during October and November 1940 . Meanwhile , the Southern Rhodesian Anti @-@ Tank Battery arrived in Kenya in October and , following a period of training , received 2 @-@ pounder guns and joined the front at Garissa around the turn of the new year . No. 237 Squadron was partially re @-@ equipped during January 1941 , receiving some Westland Lysander Mk IIs , but most of the squadron continued operating Hardys .
The British forces in Kenya under General Alan Cunningham , including Rhodesian officers and NCOs in the King 's African Rifles and the Nigeria and Gold Coast Regiments , as well as the South African 1st Infantry Division , advanced into Abyssinia and Italian Somaliland during late January and February 1941 , starting with the occupation of the ports of Kismayo and Mogadishu . The Italians retreated to the interior . No. 237 Squadron meanwhile provided air support to the 4th and 5th Indian Divisions during Lieutenant @-@ General William Platt 's offensive into Eritrea from the Sudan , attacking ground targets and engaging Italian fighters . One of the Rhodesian Hardys was shot down near Keren on 7 February with the loss of both airman aboard ; two days later five Italian fighters attacked a group of grounded Rhodesian aircraft at Agordat in western Eritrea , and wrecked two Hardys and two Lysanders .
Platt 's advance into Eritrea was checked during the seven @-@ week Battle of Keren ( February – April 1941 ) , during which No. 237 Squadron observed Italian positions and took part in bombing raids . After the Italians retreated and surrendered , the Rhodesian squadron moved forward to Asmara on 6 April , whence it embarked on bombing sorties on the port of Massawa . The same day , the Italian garrison in the Abyssinian capital Addis Ababa surrendered to the 11th ( East Africa ) Division , including many Rhodesians . The forces of Platt and Cunningham converged and surrounded the remainder of the Italian forces , commanded by the Italian viceroy the Duke of Aosta , at the mountain stronghold of Amba Alagi . The viceroy surrendered on 18 May 1941 , effectively ending the war in East Africa . No. 237 Squadron and the Rhodesian Anti @-@ Tank Battery thereupon moved up to Egypt to join the war in the Western Desert . Some Italian garrisons continued to fight — the last surrendered only following the Battle of Gondar in November 1941 . Until this time the partly Rhodesian @-@ commanded Nigeria and Gold Coast Regiments remained in Abyssinia , patrolling and rounding up scattered Italian units . Around 250 officers and 1 @,@ 000 other ranks from Southern Rhodesia remained in Kenya until mid @-@ 1943 .
= = = North Africa = = =
In North Africa , Rhodesians in the 11th Hussars , 2nd Leicesters , 1st Cheshires and other regiments contributed to Operation Compass between December 1940 and February 1941 as part of the Western Desert Force under Major @-@ General Richard O 'Connor , fighting at Sidi Barrani , Bardia , Beda Fomm and elsewhere . This offensive was extremely successful , with the Allies suffering very few casualties — around 700 killed and 2 @,@ 300 wounded and missing — while capturing the strategic port Tobruk , over 100 @,@ 000 Italian soldiers and most of Cyrenaica . The Germans reacted by despatching the Afrika Korps under Erwin Rommel to shore up the Italian forces . Rommel led a strong counter @-@ offensive in March – April 1941 that forced a general Allied withdrawal towards Egypt . German and Italian forces surrounded Tobruk but failed to take the largely Australian @-@ garrisoned city , leading to the lengthy Siege of Tobruk .
The Rhodesian contingents in the 11th Hussars , Leicesters , Buffs , Argylls , Royal Northumberland Fusiliers , Durham Light Infantry and Sherwood Foresters were transferred en masse to Kenya in February 1941 to join the new Southern Rhodesian Reconnaissance Regiment , which served in East Africa over the following year . The Rhodesians in the 1st Cheshires moved with that regiment to Malta the same month . The Rhodesian Signallers were withdrawn to Cairo to form a section handling high @-@ speed communications between Middle East Command and General Headquarters in England . The 2nd Black Watch , with its Rhodesian contingent , took part in the unsuccessful Allied defence of Crete in May – June 1941 , then joined the garrison at Tobruk in August 1941 . No. 237 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron was re @-@ equipped with Hawker Hurricanes the following month .
Rhodesians made up an integral component of the Long Range Desert Group ( LRDG ) , a mechanised reconnaissance and raiding unit formed in North Africa in 1940 to operate behind enemy lines . Initially made up of New Zealanders , the unit 's first British and Rhodesian members joined in November 1940 . It was reorganised several times over the next year as it expanded and by the end of 1941 there were two Rhodesian patrols : S1 and S2 Patrols , B Squadron . Each vehicle bore a Rhodesian place @-@ name starting with " S " on the bonnet , such as " salisbury " or " sabi " . From April 1941 the LRDG was based at Kufra in south @-@ eastern Libya . The Rhodesians were posted to Bir Harash , about 160 kilometres ( 99 mi ) to the north @-@ east of Kufra , to patrol , hold the Zighen Gap and guard against a possible Axis attack from the north . For the next four months they lived in near @-@ total isolation from the outside world , an exception coming in July 1941 when they and a group of airmen from No. 237 Squadron celebrated Rhodes Day together in the middle of the Cyrenaican desert .
In November 1941 the British Eighth Army , commanded by General Cunningham , launched Operation Crusader in an attempt to relieve Tobruk . The British XXX Corps , led by the 7th Armoured Division ( " the Desert Rats " ) with its Rhodesian platoons , would form the main body of attack , advancing west from Mersa Matruh , then sweeping around in a north @-@ westerly direction towards Tobruk . The XIII Corps would concurrently advance north @-@ west and cut off Axis forces on the coast at Sollum and Bardia . When signalled the Tobruk garrison would break out and move south @-@ east towards the advancing Allied forces . The operation was largely successful for the Allies , and the siege was broken . The Rhodesians of the LRDG took part in raids on Axis rear areas during the operation , ambushing Axis convoys , destroying Axis aircraft and pulling down telegraph poles and wires .
From late 1941 the LRDG co @-@ operated closely with the newly formed Special Air Service ( SAS ) , which also included some Rhodesians . The Rhodesian LRDG patrols transported and supported SAS troops during operations behind Axis lines . The LRDG also maintained a constant " Road Watch " along the Via Balbia on the north coast of Libya , along which almost all Axis road traffic from Tripoli , the main Libyan port , had to travel east . The LRDG set up a watch post about 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) east of the Italian Marble Arch monument , and teams of two men each recorded Axis vehicle and troop movements in shifts throughout the day and night . This information was relayed back to the British commanders in Cairo .
Rommel advanced east from January 1942 , and won a major victory over the Eighth Army , commanded by Lieutenant @-@ General Neil Ritchie , at the Battle of Gazala in May – June 1942 . The Axis soon thereafter captured Tobruk . During the Axis victory at the " Retma Box " — part of the British @-@ devised system whereby isolated , strongly fortified " boxes " , each manned by a brigade group , formed the front line — and the subsequent Allied retreat , the Southern Rhodesian Anti @-@ Tank Battery lost five men killed , nine wounded and two missing ; 37 were captured . Rommel 's advance was stalled in July by the Eighth Army , now headed by General Claude Auchinleck , at the First Battle of El Alamein in western Egypt . Two months later the Rhodesians of the LRDG took part in Operation Bigamy ( aka Operation Snowdrop ) , an unsuccessful attempt by the SAS and LRDG to raid Benghazi harbour . The SAS raiding force , headed by Lieutenant @-@ Colonel David Stirling , was discovered by an Italian reconnaissance unit , prompting Stirling to turn back to Kufra . The Rhodesians , meanwhile , were led into impassable country by a local guide , and swiftly retreated after being attacked by German bombers .
Southern Rhodesian pilots played a part in the siege of Malta during 1942 . John Plagis , a Rhodesian airman of Greek ancestry , joined the multinational group of Allied airmen defending the strategically important island in late March and on 1 April achieved four aerial victories in an afternoon , thereby becoming the siege 's first Spitfire flying ace . By the time of his withdrawal in July he had been awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross twice . The British finally delivered vital supplies to Malta on 15 August with Operation Pedestal .
Back in Salisbury , the Southern Rhodesian government was coming under pressure from Britain to put its armed forces under the purview of a regional command . Huggins decided in late October 1942 to join a unified Southern African Command headed by South Africa 's Jan Smuts . This choice was motivated by a combination of strategic concerns and geopolitical manoeuvring . Apart from considering South Africa a more appropriate partner in geographical , logistical and cultural terms , Huggins feared that the alternative — joining the British East Africa Command — might detract from the autonomous nature of Southern Rhodesia 's war effort , with possible constitutional implications . A shift in the deployment of the colony 's troops duly occurred . For the rest of the war the majority of Rhodesian servicemen went into the field integrated into South African formations , prominently the 6th Armoured Division .
= = = El Alamein = = =
The decisive victory of Lieutenant @-@ General Bernard Montgomery 's Eighth Army over the Germans and Italians at the Second Battle of El Alamein in October – November 1942 turned the tide of the North African war strongly in favour of the Allies , and did much to revive Allied morale . The Rhodesians of the KRRC took part in the battle as part of the 7th Armoured Division under the XIII Corps , forming part of the initial thrust in the southern sector .
The Rhodesian Anti @-@ Tank Battery under Major Guy Savory also fought at El Alamein , supporting the Australian 9th Division as part of the XXX Corps . The fighting around " Thompson 's Post " between 1 and 3 November was some of the fiercest Rhodesians took part in during the war . Hoping to knock out the Allied anti @-@ tank guns before counter @-@ attacking , the Germans concentrated intense artillery fire on the Australian and Rhodesian guns before advancing 12 Panzer IV tanks towards the weakest point of the Australian line . The Australian six @-@ pounders had been largely disabled by the bombardment but most of the Rhodesian guns remained operational . The Rhodesian gunners disabled two Panzers and seriously damaged two more , compelling an Axis retreat , and held their position until being relieved on 3 November . One Rhodesian officer and seven other ranks were killed and more than double that number were wounded . For his actions at Thompson 's Post , Sergeant J A Hotchin received the Distinguished Conduct Medal ; Lieutenants R J Bawden and H R C Callon won the Military Cross and Trooper P Vorster the Military Medal .
The KRRC Rhodesians were in the forefront of the Allied column pursuing the retreating Axis forces after El Alamein , advancing through Tobruk , Gazala and Benghazi before reaching El Agheila on 24 November 1942 . They patrolled around the Axis right flank until being withdrawn to Timimi in December . Tripoli fell to the Eighth Army on 23 January 1943 , and six days later Allied forces reached Tunisia 's south @-@ eastern frontier , where Italian and German forces manned the Mareth Line , a series of fortifications built by the French in the 1930s .
= = = Tunisia = = =
The Mareth Line constituted one of two fronts in the Tunisia Campaign , the second being to the north @-@ west , where the British First Army and American II Corps , firmly established in formerly Vichy @-@ held Morocco and Algeria following Operation Torch in November 1942 , were gradually pushing the Axis forces under Hans @-@ Jürgen von Arnim back towards Tunis . After von Arnim won a decisive victory over the Americans at the Battle of Sidi Bou Zid in mid @-@ February 1943 , destroying over 100 US tanks , the Eighteenth Army Group was formed under the British General Harold Alexander to co @-@ ordinate the actions of the Allied forces on both Tunisian fronts .
The Eighth Army under Montgomery spent February at Medinine in south @-@ eastern Tunisia . Expecting an imminent attack by the Axis , the Eighth Army mustered every anti @-@ tank gun it could from Egypt and Libya . The 102nd ( Northumberland Hussars ) Anti @-@ Tank Regiment , including the Rhodesian Anti @-@ Tank Battery under Major Savory , duly advanced west from Benghazi and reached the front on 5 March 1943 . The Germans and Italians assaulted Medinine the next day , but failed to make much progress and abandoned their attack by the evening . The Rhodesian gunners , held in reserve , did not take part in the engagement but were attacked from the air . The Rhodesians of the KRRC , now under the 7th Motor Brigade , moved up from Libya during early March . No. 237 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron , which had spent 1942 and the first months of 1943 in Iran and Iraq , returned to North Africa the same month , with the future Prime Minister Ian Smith in its ranks as a Hurricane pilot .
Montgomery launched his major assault on the Mareth Line , Operation Pugilist , on 16 March . The Rhodesian Anti @-@ Tank Battery , operating with the 50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division , took part . The Allies advanced at first but the weather and terrain prevented the tanks and guns from moving forward , allowing the 15th Panzer Division to counter @-@ attack successfully . A flanking movement by the 2nd New Zealand Division around the right of the German forces , through the Tebaga Gap , compelled an Axis withdrawal on 27 March . The Rhodesian anti @-@ tank gunners fought their last action in Africa at Enfidaville , 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) south of Tunis , on 20 April . The KRRC Rhodesians meanwhile took part in a long outflanking march which brought them to El Arousse , 65 kilometres ( 40 mi ) south @-@ west of Tunis , the next day . British armour entered Tunis on 7 May 1943 . The Axis forces in North Africa — over 220 @,@ 000 Germans and Italians , including 26 generals — surrendered a week later .
By time Tunis had fallen , few Rhodesians remained with the First or Eighth Armies ; most were transferring to the South African 6th Armoured Division , then in Egypt , or making their way home on leave . Out of the 300 Southern Rhodesians who had joined the KRRC in Egypt , only three officers and 109 other ranks remained at the end of the Tunisian Campaign . The Rhodesian Anti @-@ Tank Battery retraced many of the movements it had taken during the campaign as it returned to Egypt . " Left for Matruh at 0830 hours today , " one Rhodesian gunner wrote . " Camped at night on the identical spot where we camped in June 1941 . It gave me a queer feeling to look back and think how many of us are missing . "
= = = Dodecanese = = =
Southern Rhodesia was represented in the Dodecanese Campaign of September – November 1943 by the Long Range Desert Group , which was withdrawn from the North African front in March 1943 . After retraining for mountain operations in Lebanon , the LRDG moved in late September to the Dodecanese island of Kalymnos , north @-@ west of Kos and south @-@ east of Leros , off the coast of south @-@ west Turkey . In the fall @-@ out from the armistice between Italy and the Allies , which had been concluded in the first week of September , the Allies were attempting to capture the Dodecanese so the islands could be used as bases against the German @-@ occupied Balkans . Most of the Italian forces had changed sides ; the LRDG found itself in an infantry role , acting as a mobile reserve for Italian troops .
The Germans swiftly mobilised to expel the Allied forces and launched heavy air assaults on Kos and Leros . Without fighter support , the islands ' defence was soon precarious ; the LRDG and the rest of the troops on Kalymnos were withdrawn to Leros on 4 October after the Germans won the Battle of Kos . German air assaults on Leros intensified during late October , and at dawn on 12 November 1943 the Germans attacked Leros by sea and air . During the ensuing Battle of Leros , the LRDG Rhodesians at Point 320 , commanded by Rhodesian Captain J R Olivey , spiked their position 's guns and withdrew before counter @-@ attacking and retaking the point the next day . They held that position for three more days , during which they learned that the Germans were winning the battle . On 16 November , Olivey decided that holding the point any longer was pointless and ordered his men to split up , escape by any means possible and re @-@ assemble in Cairo . Over half of the unit reached Egypt .
= = = Italy = = =
The largest concentration of Southern Rhodesian troops in the Italian Campaign of 1943 – 45 was the group of about 1 @,@ 400 , mainly from the Southern Rhodesian Reconnaissance Regiment , spread across the South African 6th Armoured Division . The 11th South African Armoured Brigade , one of the 6th Division 's two main components , was made up of Prince Alfred 's Guard , the Pretoria Regiment ( Princess Alice 's Own ) and the Special Service Battalion , each of which had a Rhodesian squadron of Sherman tanks . The other , the 12th South African Motorised Brigade , comprised infantry — the Witwatersrand Rifles , the Natal Carbineers and the Cape Town Highlanders , the last of which had a large Rhodesian contingent . There were also two Rhodesian artillery batteries — the original Rhodesian Anti @-@ Tank Battery and a newer unit of Rhodesian field gunners . After a year 's training in Egypt , the division sailed to Italy in April 1944 , landing towards the end of the month at Taranto . No. 237 Squadron , now flying Spitfires , rebased to Corsica the same month to operate over Italy and southern France .
The 6th Division moved north @-@ west from Taranto to take its place as part of the Eighth Army alongside the US Fifth Army . It took part in the fourth and final Allied assault of the Battle of Monte Cassino in the second and third weeks of May 1944 , helping to force the Germans out , and thereafter advanced north @-@ west up the Liri valley to join the Allied forces at Anzio and advance onwards to Rome . After wiping out a small German force about 50 km ( 31 mi ) east of the Italian capital on 3 June , the 6th Division advanced north and captured the town of Paliano , then doubled back to the south @-@ west and moved on Rome , which was reached on the morning of 6 June . A Squadron , Pretoria Regiment — that unit 's squadron of Rhodesian tanks — entered the city as part of the division 's vanguard .
The German commander Albert Kesselring fought a stubborn delaying action , gradually withdrawing his armies north with three Allied columns in pursuit , the 6th Armoured Division leading the most westerly spearhead of the Eighth Army in the centre . The mountainous terrain and the effective use of anti @-@ tank weapons by the retreating Germans made the Allies ' superiority in armour less decisive and slowed the Allied advance north to the banks of the Arno between June and August 1944 , during which time the Rhodesian tank squadrons took part in Allied victories at Castellana , Bagnoregio and Chiusi .
By the end of August 1944 the German forces in Italy had formed the Gothic Line along the Apennine Mountains , and the 6th Division had come under the command of the US Fifth Army . The difficulty of using tanks in the mountains led to the Rhodesians of Prince Alfred 's Guard temporarily adopting an infantry role , using dismounted tank machine @-@ guns to support the Natal Carabineers during the fighting for Pistoia during early September . The Southern Rhodesian Anti @-@ Tank Battery meanwhile converted partially from guns to 4 @.@ 2 @-@ inch mortars . The South Africans and Rhodesians met with fierce resistance from the 16th SS Panzer Grenadier Division , but helped push the Germans northwards towards the Reno river .
Hoping to repel Allied advances towards Bologna , the Germans took up positions on Monte Stanco overlooking the main roads towards the city . Two Allied assaults on the mountain — one by an Indian battalion , the other by the Royal Natal Carabineers — were repulsed . A third , larger attack at dawn on 13 October provided the Rhodesian Company of the Cape Town Highlanders with some of the fiercest combat they encountered in Italy . Advancing up the slope on the Allied right flank while being fired on from two directions , they suffered heavy casualties but achieved their objective and held it . Both Rhodesian artillery batteries provided support during the assault .
When the line stabilised in November 1944 , the portion occupied by the 6th Armoured Division extended for 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) along the heights over the Reno River . The Rhodesians of the Cape Town Highlanders patrolled nightly around the village of Casigno for the next three months . Some of the tank crews , including the Rhodesians of the Special Service Battalion , were temporarily reassigned to infantry duties to assist in these patrols . Many of the Rhodesians had never seen snow before , but on the whole they adapted well , taking up winter sports such as skiing during time off duty . The Rhodesians of the Special Service Battalion received new , more heavily armed tanks in November – December 1944 . In February 1945 the 6th Division was relieved by the American 1st Armoured Division and moved to Lucca , 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) north of Pisa , for rest and reorganisation . The Rhodesian Anti @-@ Tank Battery was refitted with M10 tank destroyers . The Spitfires of No. 237 Squadron , meanwhile , took part in assaults on German transport in the Po Valley around Parma and Modena .
= = = Balkans and Greece = = =
After the Battle of Leros , New Zealand withdrew its squadron from the Long Range Desert Group , compelling the LRDG to reorganise itself into two squadrons of eight patrols each . A Squadron was composed of Rhodesians and B Squadron comprised British troops and a squadron of signallers ; around 80 of the officers and men were from Southern Rhodesia . The group was reassigned from the Middle East Command to the Central Mediterranean Force in early 1944 , and deployed to the Gargano peninsula in south @-@ eastern Italy , where a new LRDG headquarters was set up near the seaside town of Rodi . Britain hoped to compel the Germans to commit as many divisions as possible to south @-@ eastern Europe so they could not be used on the more important fronts closer to Germany . In June 1944 the LRDG was assigned to operate on the western coast of Yugoslavia , with orders to set up observation posts , report the movements of German ships and undertake minor raids .
The successes of Josip Broz Tito 's Yugoslav partisans in Dalmatia led the Allies to despatch small patrols into Yugoslavia and Albania to contact partisan leaders and arrange co @-@ operation with the Allied air forces . Several Rhodesian patrols from the LRDG were selected to undertake such missions during August and September 1944 . Yugoslav partisans subsequently indicated targets for Allied bombing missions , with some success . From September , members of the LRDG 's Rhodesian squadron under Captain Olivey undertook advanced reconnaissance in the Peloponnese peninsula of southern Greece . Landing at Katakolo , they made their way inland to Corinth and , along with the British 4th Parachute Battalion , entered Athens as the Germans departed in November . The Rhodesians of the LRDG spent November and December helping Greek forces to garrison an Athens orphanage against supporters of the communist Greek People 's Liberation Army . Four Rhodesians were killed .
The LRDG returned to Yugoslavia in February 1945 , operating around Istria and Dalmatia , where Germany still held portions of the mainland and certain strategic islands . The Germans had heavily mined the southern Adriatic and were attempting to cover their shipping by moving only by night , close to shore , and heaving to during the day under camouflage nets . The LRDG was tasked to patrol the coast , find the ships and report their locations to the air force for bombing . This it did with success . It remained in Yugoslavia for the rest of the war .
The heightened vigilance of the German garrison as the war entered its final phase made these operations especially hazardous , particularly as they were often attempted at extremely close quarters . On several occasions Rhodesian patrols only narrowly escaped discovery . During one action , two Rhodesian patrols catered for the possibility that Germans might be listening to their transmissions by communicating in Shona , an African language . The LRDG 's last actions of the war , in April and May 1945 , were to help Tito 's partisans capture German @-@ held islands off Dalmatia .
= = = Spring 1945 offensive in Italy = = =
Kesselring 's forces in Italy retained their formidable defensive positions in the northern Apennines in March 1945 . The 6th Division rejoined the line in early April , shortly before the Allies launched their spring 1945 offensive , Operation Grapeshot . The units including Rhodesians took up positions opposite Monte Sole , Monte Abelle and Monte Caprara . The Rhodesian 25 @-@ pounder guns were posted slightly forward of their former positions , and B ( Rhodesia ) Squadron , Prince Alfred 's Guard , moved to Grizzana . The Special Service Battalion provided armoured support to the 13th South African Motorised Brigade .
The South Africans and Rhodesians launched a two @-@ pronged assault on the German positions over the road to Bologna at 22 : 30 on 15 April 1945 . The Cape Town Highlanders ' advance up the steep cliffs of Monte Sole was obstructed by a German minefield that guarded the peak . The Rhodesian officer commanding the leading platoon , Second Lieutenant G B Mollett , took a section of men and dashed through the minefield to the summit ; for this he later received the Distinguished Service Order . Hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting on Monte Sole continued until dawn , when the Germans withdrew . The Witwatersrand Rifles meanwhile took Monte Caprara . The Cape Town Highlanders took Monte Abelle late on 16 April , advancing under heavy artillery fire to the summit before clearing it of Germans . The regiment lost 31 killed and 76 wounded during these actions , including three Rhodesians killed and three wounded .
This victory contributed to a general Allied breakthrough in the area , and by 19 April , the 6th Division 's armour was moving towards Lombardy and Venetia as part of the Fifth Army 's vanguard . American and Polish troops entered Bologna on 21 April . The South Africans and Rhodesians advanced north @-@ west towards the Panaro river . The Special Service Battalion 's Rhodesian squadron , moving forward alongside the Cape Town Highlanders , and the Rhodesians of Prince Alfred 's Guard took part in numerous engagements with the retreating German rearguard , and suffered several fatalities .
The 6th Division crossed the Po near Ostiglia on 25 April and , after resupplying for a week , began a speedy advance towards Venice , aiming to cut off the retreat of elements of the German Fourteenth Army . The South Africans and Rhodesians advanced through Nogara and Cerea , crossed the Adige early on 29 April , and then made for Treviso , 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) north of Venice . The retreating German forces were by this time in such disarray that , during its advance from the Po , the 11th South African Armoured Brigade took prisoners from eight German divisions . On 30 April , the 6th Division joined up with British and American forces south of Treviso , and cut off the Germans ' last escape route from Italy .
The German forces in Italy surrendered unconditionally on 2 May 1945 , while the 6th Division was moving north @-@ west ; at the time of the announcement it was near Milan . Twelve days later the 6th Division held a victory parade of its 1 @,@ 200 guns , tanks and other vehicles at Monza racetrack , 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) north of Milan . The Rhodesians separated from their vehicles after the parade , then spent May and June 1945 as occupation troops in Lombardy before returning home .
= = Britain , Norway and western Europe = =
Southern Rhodesia 's fighting contributions in Britain and western Europe were primarily in the air , as part of the much larger Allied forces . Rhodesian pilots and Allied airmen trained in the colony 's flying schools participated in the defence of Britain throughout the war , as well as in the strategic bombing of Germany and other operations . Rhodesia provided the only RAF flying ace of the Norwegian Campaign of April – June 1940 , Squadron Leader Caesar Hull . Later that year " The Few " , the Allied airmen of the Battle of Britain , included three pilots of Southern Rhodesian birth — Hull , Pilot Officer John Chomley and Flight Lieutenant John Holderness — of whom two , Hull and Chomley , lost their lives .
Two of the RAF 's three Rhodesian squadrons , Nos. 44 and 266 , operated from England during the war . No. 266 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron , a fighter squadron based in Cambridgeshire for most of the duration , was initially only nominally Rhodesian , being manned by a mixture of British and Commonwealth personnel , but it received more airmen from the colony gradually and was virtually all Rhodesian by August 1941 . Initially flying Spitfires , it switched to Typhoons in early 1942 . It took as its motto the Sindebele word Hlabezulu ( " Stabber of Skies " ) and first went into action over Dunkirk on 2 June 1940 , after which it fought in the Battle of Britain . The squadron 's duties thereafter included patrolling , protecting convoys , sweeping around northern France and the Belgian and Dutch coasts , and escorting bombing raids over France and the Rhine .
No. 44 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron , based in Lincolnshire on the east coast , was a heavy bomber unit , and part of No. 5 Group in RAF Bomber Command 's front line . Unlike the other two squadrons designated as " Rhodesian " , No. 44 Squadron never had a Rhodesian majority , despite efforts to so populate it . Initially equipped with Hampdens , it became the first RAF squadron to convert to Lancasters at the end of 1941 . It played a prominent part in the attack on the MAN diesel factory at Augsburg in April 1942 . In March 1943 No. 44 Squadron took part in the Allied bombing of cities in northern Italy , including Genoa and Milan , as well as targets in Germany such as Wilhelmshaven , Cologne and Berlin .
From early 1944 , No. 266 Squadron took part in ground attack operations over the Channel and northern France , operating from RAF Harrowbeer in Devon . The squadron also escorted Allied bombers embarking on or returning from raids , protecting them from German fighters . Larger petrol tanks were fitted to the Typhoons to increase their range . In May 1944 the squadron was visited by the Prime Minister , who had been knighted and was now Sir Godfrey Huggins . Over the next month , in preparation for the imminent Allied invasion of Normandy , the Rhodesian aircraft took on a fighter @-@ bomber role , flying sorties across the channel twice a day and participating in the bombing of bridges , roads , railways and the like .
Apart from the Southern Rhodesian airmen serving with the RAF in Britain , the colony was sparsely represented in the Normandy landings of 6 June 1944 ( " D @-@ Day " ) . Several men from the colony served aboard cruisers and destroyers that engaged the German shore batteries . A small number of Southern Rhodesians parachuted into Normandy with the 6th Airborne Division during Operation Tonga , and some took part in the amphibious landings . No. 266 Squadron was part of the Allied force that flew over the beaches during the first landings , supporting the infantry . Later that day it took part in sorties to assist the paratroopers holding the bridgeheads north of Caen .
No. 266 Squadron , which remained 95 % Rhodesian at the start of 1945 , thereafter provided air support to the advancing Allied armies through France , the Low Countries and finally Germany . Through most of the European winter months it was based in Antwerp . In late March 1945 the Rhodesian fighters formed part of the force tasked with protecting the descending Allied paratroopers during Field @-@ Marshal Montgomery 's crossing of the Rhine . During April the squadron operated over Hanover and the northern Netherlands . No. 44 Squadron , meanwhile , embarked on bombing raids on targets as far away as Gdynia and Königsberg in East Prussia , as well as towns and cities closer to Berlin such as Dresden , Emden and Leipzig . Its last bombing operation was a raid on the Berghof , Hitler 's residence , near Berchtesgaden in Bavaria on 25 April 1945 . After Germany surrendered on 7 May , ending the war in Europe , No. 44 Squadron was one of many units selected to evacuate British prisoners of war home from the continent .
= = Burma = =
Southern Rhodesia 's main contribution to the Burma Campaign in terms of manpower was made by the Rhodesian African Rifles ( RAR ) , a regiment of black troops led by white officers that joined the front at the end of 1944 . The colony also made a significant contribution to the Commonwealth forces ' command element in Burma , providing white officers and NCOs to the 81st ( West Africa ) , 82nd ( West Africa ) and 11th ( East Africa ) Divisions , made up of units from Nigeria , the Gold Coast , the Gambia , Sierra Leone , Kenya , Uganda , Tanganyika , Nyasaland , Northern Rhodesia and the Congo . Almost every African battalion in Burma had white Rhodesian officers and NCOs attached ; some were over 70 % Rhodesian @-@ led .
Modelled on the Rhodesia Native Regiment of World War I , the RAR was formed in May 1940 under the command of Lieutenant @-@ Colonel F J Wane , who the black soldiers nicknamed msoro @-@ we @-@ gomo ( " top of the mountain " ) . Most volunteers for the regiment came from Mashonaland , much to the surprise of the white recruiters , who had expected Matabeleland , with stronger martial traditions , to provide more men . Originally comprising one battalion , the RAR expanded to two battalions in late 1943 to accommodate a rush of new recruits following the news that the 1st Battalion was being deployed overseas . Steps to organise two further battalions of black Southern Rhodesians were abandoned because of the conviction of the colony 's overall military commander , Brigadier E R Day , that it was important " to preserve a fair balance " between black and white troops , and that raising the men would take too long in any case .
1RAR trained in Kenya from December 1943 to September 1944 , when it transferred to Ceylon and became part of the 22nd ( East Africa ) Infantry Brigade alongside the 1st KAR and the 3rd Northern Rhodesia Regiment . In December 1944 , after three months ' training for jungle warfare , 1RAR and the other two components of the brigade joined the Burma Campaign at Chittagong under the command of the 15th Indian Corps . The brigade spent about three months supporting the 25th Indian Division in north @-@ western Burma , advancing through the Mayu peninsula during January 1945 and taking part in the latter stages of the Battle of Ramree Island , landing on the island on 14 February . 1RAR fortified positions at Myinbin , Kyaukkale and Mayin but did not contact Japanese forces .
A widespread belief developed among Japanese troops in Burma that the British Army 's African soldiers were cannibals , partly because of deliberate disinformation spread by the black troops themselves as they travelled around the country . While entirely unfounded , the notion " that we Africans eat people " , as one RAR soldier put it , had a fearsome psychological effect ; men of 1RAR reported Japanese soldiers picking up their comrades ' bodies in the midst of battle and running away .
In March 1945 the 22nd Brigade was ordered south to Dalaba where it became part of the 82nd ( West Africa ) Division , which had been tasked with clearing the Taungup area of Japanese troops . The 22nd Brigade was deployed as a flank guard , sweeping down the Tanlwe Chaung before hooking around to the Taungup Chaung and ultimately the road to Prome ; this move was intended to cut Japanese units to the north off from the Irrawaddy Delta to the south , where most of the key battles were being fought . 1RAR patrolled the area during March and April 1945 and was involved in several contacts . On 20 April it assembled at a point overlooking Tanlwe Chaung , where it was shelled by Japanese artillery and mortars dug in atop two high features to the south . On the morning of 26 April , after a few days of patrols , 1RAR took the lead in what became the Battle of Tanlwe Chaung ; after about half an hour of bombing , strafing and artillery bombardment of the Japanese positions , elements of A and D Companies , 1RAR charged up the slopes and routed much of the Japanese garrison before taking both hills . Seven RAR men were killed in the action and 22 were wounded , mostly from D Company ; an officer was also injured . An officer of the RAR recalled the battles of April 1945 around Taungup and Tanlwe Chaung as extremely intense :
1RAR spent most of May 1945 building quarters and training before marching the 110 km ( 68 mi ) to Prome in late June ; from here they went another 25 km ( 16 mi ) by truck to Gyobingauk . The monsoon conditions took a dreadful toll on operations , making logistics particularly difficult and slow — men found themselves either found themselves knee @-@ deep in mud or slipping around on the surface . From early July 1945 1RAR patrolled around Gyobingauk , repeatedly engaging parties of Japanese and forcing them into the hills . Even after the Japanese commanders in Burma surrendered unconditionally , the Allied troops had to continue patrolling to handle Japanese stragglers who either did know of this or did not believe it . After the Japanese forces in South @-@ East Asia formally surrendered at Singapore on 12 September 1945 , active Allied operations in the region were greatly diminished . 1RAR spent about half a year guarding Japanese prisoners in Burma before leaving for home in March 1946 . They arrived back in Salisbury on 10 May .
= = Southern Rhodesians in other theatres = =
In addition to the main deployments , Southern Rhodesian servicemen served in other theatres of the war . Rhodesian sailors in the Royal , South African and Merchant Navies crewed ships in many parts of the world , including the Indian Ocean , the Arctic and the Pacific . No. 237 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron operated in Iran and Iraq in 1942 – 43 , guarding oil wells and pipelines and supporting the British Tenth Army .
Closer to home , Southern Rhodesian military surveyors contributed to the preliminary planning work for the Allied invasion of Madagascar in May 1942 , and landed at Diego Suarez with the invading forces . They remained there long after the Vichy French garrison agreed to an armistice at Ambalavao on 6 November 1942 — the last Rhodesian left the island in October 1943 .
= = Home front = =
= = = Rhodesian Air Training Group = = =
The colony 's participation in the Empire Air Training Scheme is described in J F MacDonald 's War History of Southern Rhodesia as " undoubtedly Southern Rhodesia 's greatest single contribution to the Allied victory " , an assertion corroborated by Robert Blake in his 1977 History of Rhodesia . The Rhodesian Air Training Group ( RATG ) under Air Vice @-@ Marshal Sir C W Meredith eventually operated 11 aerodromes , requiring a huge national effort to build , maintain and staff — at the scheme 's peak more than a fifth of the white population was involved . This judicious management of skills and resources allowed the territory to make a much larger contribution to the Allied war effort than if it had simply sent all its manpower into the field .
Southern Rhodesia was regarded as an ideal location for air training for a number of reasons . It was far from the hostilities , firmly pro @-@ British and had excellent weather throughout the year . The British Air Ministry resolved to outsource training to the colony amid some urgency in late 1939 after EATS took a long time to get going in Canada . The RATG was the last EATS group to be formed , but the first to start training airmen ; it also turned out fully qualified pilots before any of the others , doing so for the first time in November 1940 .
The programme originally called only for an initial training wing and six schools , but this was expanded to eight flying schools and a school for bomb aimers , navigators and air gunners . There were two air firing and bombing ranges . Six reserve landing grounds were constructed for landing and take @-@ off instruction to prevent congestion on the main airstrips . Later in the war , a dedicated air station was designated for the training of instructors . Small administrative units were established in South Africa at Cape Town , Durban and Port Elizabeth to handle incoming equipment and arrivals and departures of personnel .
The complete pilot 's course initially lasted six months , split into two months each of elementary , intermediate and advanced instruction . Ground subjects were also taught and each trainee had to fly at least 150 hours to qualify . By the end of the war each period had been shortened by a week to speed up the output of trained pilots .
The trainees were mostly British , but came from all over the world . " The diversity of nationalities under training was surprising and impressive , " reported one officer . " British , South African , New Zealand , Australian , Canadian , American , men from Yugoslavia , Greece , Free France , Poland , Czechoslovakia , Kenya , Uganda , Tanganyika , Fiji Isles , Malta . " " [ Southern Rhodesia 's ] part in the Commonwealth Air Training Scheme has been outstandingly fine , " Sir James Ross of the British Air Ministry reported in 1942 . " I say this from knowledge and without qualification . ... I know how gratefully the Air Staff in London reckon on the unfailingly regular flow of well @-@ trained pilots and observers , course after course , month after month . "
= = = Home service = = =
The Rhodesian African Rifles were based at Borrowdale in north @-@ east Salisbury between 1940 and 1943 . Apart from a contingent sent south to Durban to guard Italian prisoners on their way to Rhodesia , the regiment 's main role was garrison duties within the colony . The Rhodesian Air Askari Corps , a unit of black volunteer troops under white command , guarded the air bases and also provided manpower for non @-@ armed labour . The perceived possibly that Japan might attempt an invasion of southern Africa via Madagascar led to the consolidation of a few hundred rural whites into the Southern Rhodesia Commando , a part @-@ time cadre intended as the basis for a guerrilla @-@ style resistance movement , from 1942 .
The mobilisation of white British South Africa Police officers for military service led to black male and white female constables taking on higher responsibilities . The BSAP recruited more black patrolmen to accommodate the growth of the urban black population during the war , going from 1 @,@ 067 black and 547 white personnel in 1937 to 1 @,@ 572 blacks and 401 whites in 1945 . This " Africanisation " led to higher appreciation for black constables among senior policemen and the public . The police remained rigidly segregated , but black constables received uniforms more similar to those of their white counterparts , and the nominal distinction between the BSAP " proper " and the British South Africa Native Police — the " force within the force " black personnel were traditionally regarded as members of — was abolished .
= = = = Women = = = =
White Southern Rhodesian women served in the war with auxiliary female units , in far greater numbers than in World War I. The Southern Rhodesian government set up three women 's services : the Women 's Auxilitary Volunteers ( WAV ) , the Women 's Auxiliary Air Service ( WAAS ) , the Women 's Auxiliary Military Service ( WAMS ) and the Women 's Auxiliary Police Service ( WAPS ) . Most Southern Rhodesian servicewomen served domestically within these organisations , while some went to East Africa with the First Aid Nursing Yeomanry .
The WAV , run by the Ministry of Defence , recruited and trained female personnel for the WAAS and the WAMS , which respectively came under the Air and Defence Ministries . According to the official statement announcing their formation , the services ' purpose was " to substitute women for men wherever necessary and practicable throughout the military and air forces within Southern Rhodesia . "
Recruitment for the women 's services began in June 1941 . Most volunteers were married women , many of them the wives of military men . The air and military services both offered a wide variety of positions . In addition to jobs as typists , clerks , caterers and the like , women served as drivers and in the stores and workshops . Many of the women in the air service did skilled work , checking flying instruments , testing parts and doing minor repairs . The women of the Auxiliary Police Service served as BSAP officers both in stations and on the streets .
Members of Southern Rhodesia 's white female population who did not join the forces still contributed to the war in various ways . Women worked in munitions factories and engineering workshops in Salisbury and Bulawayo . The Women 's National Service League , which thousands of women joined before the war even started , revived the role white Rhodesian women had played in World War I , sending the colony 's servicemen overseas parcels containing warm clothes , newspapers , razor blades , soap , food and minor luxuries such as sweets , tobacco and novels . Efforts such as these did much to keep the troops ' morale up .
= = = Domestic politics = = =
On the outbreak of war , Huggins invited the leader of the opposition Labour Party , Harry Davies , to join a coalition government . Davies accepted without consulting his party caucus , much to the indignation of many of his contemporaries ; Labour promptly split . The two Labour factions reconciled in 1943 and briefly threatened Huggins 's premiership until a heated dispute over whether Labour should become multiracial led to the party 's disintegration in 1944 .
= = = Economic impact ; conscripted labour ( chibaro ) = = =
The Southern Rhodesian economy grew considerably during the war despite the concurrent rise of war expenditure to pay for the expansion of the military and the air training scheme . Expenditure on the war grew from £ 1 @,@ 793 @,@ 367 in the financial year 1940 – 41 to £ 5 @,@ 334 @,@ 701 in 1943 – 44 — total Southern Rhodesian expenditure on the air training scheme was £ 11 @,@ 215 @,@ 522 . These sums , while tiny compared to those incurred by larger nations , were enormous when scaled against the white population of less than 70 @,@ 000 that accounted for most of the colony 's economic output . Annual costs for the air training scheme alone far exceeded the pre @-@ war national budget .
Southern Rhodesia was then the second largest gold producer in the world , after South Africa . The colony 's gold output had expanded greatly during the 1930s , and it remained the territory 's main source of income during the war , though many extracting operations were diverted towards strategic minerals , most prominently chrome and asbestos . Southern Rhodesia became one of the two main sources of chrome for the Allies ( South Africa was the other ) and the world 's third largest producer of asbestos after Canada and the Soviet Union . By the end of the war the mines at Shabani and Mashaba were turning out 1 @.@ 5 million tonnes of asbestos a year , in addition to 600 @,@ 000 tonnes of chrome . Gold output reached peak levels in 1941 – 42 and thereafter subsided . Southern Rhodesia also exported tungsten , mica and tin , and provided coal for the copper mines of Northern Rhodesia and the Congo . The Southern Rhodesian government encouraged private enterprise to form secondary industries to exploit the colony 's natural resources and increase production , but also set up some state industries in an attempt to spark growth . The establishment of the RATG prompted a minor economic boom , and also caused the primary direct demand placed on Southern Rhodesia 's black population during the early stages of the war — a programme of conscripted labour to build the aerodromes .
The government assigned labour quotas for each district to native commissioners across the territory who in turn called on local chiefs and headmen to provide workers . The tribal leaders decided who was required at the kraal and who would report to the district native commissioner for work . This system , known locally as the chibaro , cibbalo , isibalo or chipara — according to Charles van Onselen , synonymous etymologically with concepts ranging from contract labour to slavery — had been relatively widespread during Company rule ( 1890 – 1923 ) , but had fallen out of use by the 1930s . Some tribal communities were resettled to make room for the airstrips .
The chibaro workers received pay and provisions , but the salary of 15s / - per month compared unfavourably with the 17s / 6d generally received on white @-@ owned farms . It met with widespread opposition , with many men electing to run away rather than join the work parties . " Hundreds if not thousands " , according to Kenneth Vickery , crossed into Bechuanaland or South Africa to avoid the call @-@ up . Some suspected that after finishing the conscripted aerodrome work , they might be drafted to fight overseas . Rumours to this effect abounded enough that the chief native commissioner , H H D Simmonds , distributed a circular in November 1940 instructing the commissioners to make clear that the drafted men were required for labour only .
Voluntary employment increased sharply during 1940 and 1941 , both among indigenous blacks and migrant labourers , but many white farmers still complained about a lack of manpower . A severe drought during the 1941 – 42 season led to a food shortage in the colony , prompting the passing in June 1942 of the Compulsory Native Labour Act , under which unemployed black males between 18 and 45 years of age could be conscripted for work on white @-@ owned farms . Announcing the act , Tredgold — by now Minister of Native Affairs in addition to Defence and Justice — commented that its " principle ... would be intolerable under ordinary circumstances " , but that the war made it necessary . The act required each draftee to work at least three months at 15s / - per month ; the pay rose to 17s / 6 if he agreed to stay a further three months . This conscription of labour contributed to the rise in the country 's overall agricultural yield , but had a negative impact on the localised production of many kraals , either because too many men had been drafted for work elsewhere or because they had fled to avoid it . The scheme continued until the act 's repeal in 1946 .
A central Food Production Committee , set up in early 1942 , organised the conscripted labourers and attempted to help the white farmers to grow all the crops they could . Maize production grew by 40 % between 1942 and 1944 , the potato harvest doubled and the onion crop grew sixfold by the end of the war . Production of the colony 's most important cash crop , tobacco , was high throughout the war , averaging about 40 million pounds ( 18 million kg ) annually . The number of cattle slaughtered by the beef industry increased by 134 % , from 71 @,@ 000 head in 1937 to 160 @,@ 000 head in 1945 . Vegetable dehydration , one of the Food Production Committee 's main initiatives , proved a great success , allowing Rhodesia to export many products to the UK that would previously have spoiled in transit . Southern Rhodesia also provided goods to the Eastern Group Supply Council , a body set up in 1940 to co @-@ ordinate the build @-@ up of war materiel in India and other British colonies and dominions east of Suez , with the goal of reducing the amount of supplies shipped from the UK . A Rhodesian officer , Brigadier E G Cook , was the group 's deputy controller general . Between 1941 and 1945 Southern Rhodesia contributed large quantities of timber , leather goods , soap and building materials .
= = = Internment camps and Polish refugees = = =
Thousands of Axis POWs and people described as " enemy aliens " were held in Southern Rhodesia during the conflict . These were mainly Italians and Germans , but there were also a handful from Iraq and the Levant ; the colony furthermore hosted nearly 7 @,@ 000 refugees from Poland . Britain delegated responsibility for co @-@ ordinating investigation into enemy aliens in central Africa to the Southern Rhodesian government , which set up a system whereby the Criminal Investigation Department ( CID ) identified potential detainees while a body called the Internment Camps Corps oversaw the camps . Many of those held in Southern Rhodesia were sent there by Britain or authorities elsewhere in the Empire .
Five internment camps were set up in two waves . No. 1 ( General ) Internment Camp opened to the north @-@ east of Salisbury in October 1939 and No. 2 ( Tanganyika ) Internment Camp , just south of the city , opened the following year , mostly housing Germans formerly resident in Tanganyika . The first two camps together had less than 800 inmates . The third , fourth and fifth camps were set up near Gatooma , Umvuma and Fort Victoria in 1941 – 42 to accommodate roughly 5 @,@ 000 Italians from Somaliland and Abyssinia . The Internment Camps Corps ' reliance on the elderly , the infirm and so @-@ called " friendly aliens " to staff the three new camps led to indiscipline , poor living conditions and dozens of escapes . A 1943 government commission into the quality of the internment camps reported the second wave camps to be of far worse quality than those of the first wave .
Polish refugees were housed at dedicated settlements set up at Marandellas and Rusape , two towns about 40 km ( 25 mi ) apart to the south @-@ east of Salisbury , from 1943 . There were similar camps in Kenya , Nyasaland , Tanganyika , Northern Rhodesia and South Africa . The Polish settlements in Southern Rhodesia were run jointly by local authorities and the Polish consulate in Salisbury ; the Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile in London provided funding . Transport back to Europe picked up sharply as the war came to a close , and by October 1945 less than 2 @,@ 000 Polish refugees remained . Colonial officials were reluctant to let the Poles stay indefinitely , asserting that they were not culturally British enough and might have communist connections or sympathies , but most of those who remained showed little inclination to leave . Southern Rhodesia ultimately allowed around 726 Polish refugees to settle permanently after the war .
= = End of the war ; statistics = =
Along with most of the Commonwealth and Allied nations , Southern Rhodesia sent a delegation of soldiers , airmen and seamen to London to take part in the grand Victory Parade of 8 June 1946 . The colony 's contingent , led by Colonel R E B Long , marched after South Africa and before Newfoundland . The Southern Rhodesian colour guard comprised a white officer and two black sergeants of the Rhodesian African Rifles . During the royal visit to Southern Rhodesia in April 1947 , King George VI accorded the prefix " Royal " to the Rhodesia Regiment in recognition of its contributions to the two World Wars , and agreed to be its Colonel @-@ in @-@ Chief .
Southern Rhodesia had contributed more manpower to the Allied cause in World War II , proportional to white population , than any other British dominion or colony , and more than the UK itself . According to figures compiled by MacDonald for his War History of Southern Rhodesia , 26 @,@ 121 Southern Rhodesians served in the armed forces during the conflict , of whom 2 @,@ 758 were commissioned officers . Broken down by race and gender , there were 15 @,@ 153 black men , 9 @,@ 187 white men , 1 @,@ 510 white women and 271 coloured and Indian men . Of the 8 @,@ 390 who served outside the territory , 1 @,@ 505 were black men , 6 @,@ 520 were white men , 137 were white women and 228 were coloured or Indian men .
According to official figures , 33 @,@ 145 black Southern Rhodesians were conscripted for labour between 1943 and 1945 ; Vickery estimates that between 15 @,@ 000 and 60 @,@ 000 more may have worked on the aerodromes . According to Ashley Jackson 's work The British Empire and the Second World War , the Rhodesian Air Training Group instructed 8 @,@ 235 Allied pilots , navigators , gunners , ground crew and others — about 5 % of overall EATS output .
A total of 2 @,@ 409 Southern Rhodesians ( 977 officers and 1 @,@ 432 other ranks ) served in the RAF during the war , 373 ( 86 officers and 287 ratings ) joined the Royal Navy , and 13 officers and 36 ratings from Southern Rhodesia mustered into the South African Navy . The vast majority of the rest served in either the Southern Rhodesian territorial forces or the British or South African Army . The colony 's men and women received 698 decorations during the war ; whites received 689 while black troops won nine . No coloured or Indian serviceman was decorated . Army officers won 269 decorations while the other ranks received 158 ; the air force officers and other ranks respectively won 184 and 72 decorations . All eight decorated Southern Rhodesian naval personnel were officers . Of the seven decorated women , all but one held commissioned rank . Two hundred and fifty @-@ three Southern Rhodesians were mentioned in despatches during the war .
MacDonald records 916 Southern Rhodesian fatalities from enemy action during World War II — 498 airmen , 407 ground troops , eight seamen and three female personnel — and 483 wounded , of whom 434 were soldiers , 47 were airmen and two were sailors .
= = Legacy = =
The Rhodesian Air Training Group , widely accepted as the colony 's main contribution to World War II , proved to be " one of the most important happenings in Rhodesian history " , in the words of its commander Air Vice @-@ Marshal Sir C W Meredith , as it led to great economic development and a large wave of immigration after the war by former instructors , trainees and other staff . This contributed to the swelling of Southern Rhodesia 's white population to 135 @,@ 596 , over double its pre @-@ war size , by 1951 . RAF training operations in the country were stepped down considerably after the war , and the project formally ended in March 1954 .
The strengthening of ties with South Africa continued following the war as both countries underwent considerable industrialisation . Between 1948 and 1953 Southern Rhodesia and South Africa operated a customs agreement under which most export and import duties were waived . The decade immediately following 1945 has been called " the moment when Southern Rhodesia 's economy ' took off ' " . Huggins , secure in office at the end of the war , remained Prime Minister for another decade afterwards , and oversaw the colony 's Federation with Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland in 1953 . He retired in 1956 . Southern Rhodesia contributed to several Commonwealth counter @-@ insurgency operations during the 1950s and early 1960s , including the Malayan Emergency , similar actions in Aden and Cyprus , and Operation Vantage in Kuwait .
Amid decolonisation and the Wind of Change , the Federation failed to become a Commonwealth realm and collapsed in 1963 . Two years later , following prolonged dispute with Britain over the terms for full sovereignty , the mostly white government in Southern Rhodesia ( or Rhodesia , following Northern Rhodesia 's independence as Zambia ) issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence ( UDI ) . The Rhodesian government , counting several World War II veterans including the Prime Minister Ian Smith , attempted to emphasise Rhodesians ' prior war record on Britain 's behalf by declaring independence on Armistice Day , 11 November , at 11 : 00 local time . As part of its subsequent isolation of Rhodesia , the UK government banned the post @-@ UDI authorities from taking part in the annual Armistice Day service at the Cenotaph in London . Smith 's government organised its own Rhodesian wreath @-@ laying ceremony there . Veterans of World War II and Malaya held many key positions in the Rhodesian Security Forces during the Bush War of the 1970s .
Since the country 's reconstitution and recognised independence as Zimbabwe in 1980 , Robert Mugabe 's administration has pulled down many monuments and plaques making reference to the dead of the First and Second World Wars , perceiving them as reminders of white minority rule and colonialism that go against what the modern state stands for . This view is partly rooted in the association of these memorials with those commemorating the British South Africa Company 's dead of the Matabele Wars , as well as those memorialising Rhodesian servicemen killed during the Bush War . Many Zimbabweans see their nation 's involvement in the World Wars as a consequence of colonial rule that had more to do with the white community than the black majority . Southern Rhodesia 's dead of the two World Wars today have no official commemoration , either in Zimbabwe or overseas .
|
= Digital : A Love Story =
Digital : A Love Story is an indie visual novel by video game designer Christine Love , released for free in February 2010 . The game 's story is linear , with the player 's actions unable to significantly change the course of the plot . Set " five minutes into the future of 1988 " , Digital tells the story of the protagonist 's online relationship with a girl and their attempts to solve a mystery surrounding the deaths of several artificial intelligences . The game is presented entirely through the interface of a 1980s computer with online bulletin board system posts and messages from other characters ; the protagonist 's own messages are implied but never shown . The game was received positively , with critics especially praising the game 's writing and plot , and it was noted in lists of the best indie games of 2010 .
= = Gameplay = =
Digital : A Love Story is a visual novel , or interactive fiction game , where the game 's story is told primarily through text . The game is presented as if on a computer from the late 1980s running the Amie operating system ( the name and visual appearance a reference to 1.x versions of AmigaOS ) . The player logs into bulletin board systems , or BBSs , where they read and reply to messages from other people . Messages received from other characters in the game are displayed through a different program on the computer screen . Accessing a BBS requires the knowledge of the telephone number for that board , which the player must type in manually . Boards that require a long @-@ distance telephone number to reach require the player to use illegally obtained long @-@ distance calling card numbers found online . Accessing boards also requires the player to either set up a user account for that board or to know the password necessary to enter the system .
Many of the messages sent by the player and the replies back to those messages have no effect on the game . The messages that the player sends are never explicitly revealed , though their contents can be inferred from replies received from other characters in the game . The player , therefore , is unable to send a " wrong " reply or message , and the game cannot be lost . The player does not have a choice in the direction that the story takes , though the game requires the player to correctly decipher what actions to take before the plot can advance . A single playthrough of the game takes around one hour .
= = Plot = =
The game , set " five minutes into the future of 1988 " , opens with the silent protagonist , whose name is given by the player , having just obtained a computer . When the player checks their messages , they learn the telephone number to the Lake City Local BBS , a local board , and can then log on to there . One of the topics posted to that board is some poetry by a girl named " * Emilia " ; when the player responds to her message , the two start up a conversation . While this conversation is ongoing , the player learns of another BBS and of a board whose telephone number is in another area code . They also learn of an illegal method to get access to boards like that , which would otherwise require the purchase of long distance calling cards . The conversation between the player and * Emilia , which is inferred to have taken place over a much longer duration of time than has transpired in reality , begins at this point to show * Emilia forming an attachment to the player . Soon after , * Emilia confesses to the player that she loves them ; however , the host computer for Lake City Local breaks down , leaving the player unable to contact her .
Soon afterwards the owner of Lake City Local contacts the player with a garbled message that * Emilia had tried to send to them . This message implies that * Emilia is in danger , asking the player to contact someone named * Paris , and provides a mass of binary code . The player has no context for this message ; but after hacking into another BBS , The Gibson , the player finds a cryptic message reposted from another board saying that there are several artificial intelligences ( AIs ) around the world that have been recently " killed " , naming * Emilia as one of them . The player hacks into the source board for this message , and finds a history of artificial intelligence posted there by * Blue Sky , a " historian " AI .
According to * Blue Sky 's records , the American government created an AI at the same time it created ARPANET in the 1970s . This AI , * Mother , in turn created child AIs , but its first attempt spread out of control and had to be destroyed by a virus that spread after it — later officially explained by the government as the real @-@ life Creeper and Reaper worms . * Mother 's later attempts , which could only exist on one system at a time , were more successful , and these AIs left the ARPANET in favor of the Internet when it was developed . * Reaper , however , continued to spread and destroyed any AI it found , such as * Emilia . The player finds * Paris , another AI and * Emilia 's brother , on an ARPANET node , who explains that compiling the binary code in * Emilia 's message can recreate her . The player compiles * Emilia onto their system , and the two learn of a " payload " that the other AIs have developed , which can cause * Reaper to self @-@ terminate ; however , infecting * Reaper with it requires that an AI be recompiled with it as living bait , meaning permanent deletion . Realizing that they have no other choice , * Emilia becomes the payload carrier . After a final conversation , the player allows * Emilia to sacrifice herself , saving the AIs and ending the game .
= = Development = =
Digital was created and released by Christine Love in February 2010 . Although it was not her first game , it was her first successful one ; Love noted in January 2011 that her previous titles were played by " less than a dozen " people , while Digital had been played by " countless thousands " , gotten onto the reading lists of university classes , and became " a defining point in [ her ] writing career " . It was also her largest game to date ; prior to its release she thought of herself only as a writer , not as a game developer . She made Digital as a visual novel rather than just prose because she felt that immersing the player into the game would allow the story to resonate with them more than just reading the text . Love chose to set the game in the 1980s rather than more recently because she felt that the computing systems and number of people online then created a sense of isolation , which she felt was more conducive to both the romance and mystery aspects of the story . One of Love 's influences on the gameplay was Uplink ; she initially intended to reference more of its gameplay mechanics but eventually " streamlined " much of the hacking elements of Digital away .
Although * Emilia is explicitly female , Love purposely ensured that the protagonist 's gender is never stated , as she wanted them to be a blank slate that the player would project themselves into , rather than a character that the player would control . She intended this , combined with never showing what the protagonist actually says , to create more immersion in the story . Unofficially , however , Love thought of the relationship as " queer " , both in respect to the player 's gender and in respect to * Emilia as " a confused adolescent falling in love with someone she 's not supposed to " ; Love has stated that this did not come across as strongly as she intended . Love has said that one of the intended messages of the game was the importance of love and relationships , though not necessarily romantic love ; as an example she specifically referenced * Emilia valuing saving her " family " due to her love for them over her adolescent love for the player .
= = Reception = =
The writing and story of the game were especially praised by reviewers . Kieron Gillen of Rock , Paper , Shotgun said that after playing it , he " can 't think of a better love story in the Western medium " , and that the terse and minimalist prose worked well to create clearly defined characters . A reviewer from The Economist called the story " engaging " , saying that it provided a " memorable and thought @-@ provoking experience " . In an analysis of the game 's story , Emily Short of Gamasutra called the decision to leave the protagonist blank rather than making a viewpoint character " brilliant " , saying that it made the entire game work much better than it otherwise would . A reviewer from The A.V. Club , grading the game as an " A " , called the story " moving " . The majority of the criticism for the game was in regards to the interface used to navigate the online world ; while The Economist found it quirky and realistic , Gillen felt that it made it easy for the player to miss a key message , leaving the player stuck with no direction as to where to turn .
Gamasutra gave Digital an honorable mention in their " Best Indie Games of 2010 " list . It was chosen as a " freeware game pick " by Tim W. of IndieGames , Gamasutra 's independent games site , who said that it was " an absorbing experience that no other game from this day and age can offer . " IndieGames also named it number two in their " Top Freeware Adventure Games of 2010 " . PC Gamer listed it as number seven in their " 20 Free PC Games " feature in May 2011 , saying that it was " an hour of gorgeously crafted , personality @-@ imbued indie gaming . "
Love later made a " spiritual sequel " , don 't take it personally , babe , it just ain 't your story , and then another game " that further extends the non @-@ linear style of Digital " , Analogue : A Hate Story .
|
= Theef =
" Theef " is the fourteenth episode of the seventh season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on March 12 , 2000 . It was written by Vince Gilligan , John Shiban , and Frank Spotnitz and directed by Kim Manners . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Theef " earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 4 , being watched by 11 @.@ 91 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed to positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate the murder of a prominent doctor 's father @-@ in @-@ law , who was found with the word " theef " written on the wall in blood . After a string of follow @-@ up accidents , Mulder suspects hexcraft may be the source of threats against the doctor 's family .
" Theef " was written in a short amount of time during the show 's Christmas break after another script was dropped by the series . The main conceit of the episode was " modern medicine versus backyards supernatural arts " . The episode featured several noted actors , including Billy Drago , who played the role of antagonist Orell Peattie , and James Morrison , who was a former cast member of the science fiction series Space : Above and Beyond , which was created by former X @-@ Files writers Glen Morgan and James Wong . Series creator Chris Carter later called the episode " very well cast " .
= = Plot = =
Dr. Irving Thalbro is staying the night with his daughter and her family in Marin County , California , including her husband Dr. Robert Wieder ( James Morrison ) . In the middle of the night , Irving finds a pile of dirt shaped like a man in his bed . Irving is eventually discovered by Robert hanging from the ceiling with the word " theef " painted in Irving 's blood on the wall . While investigating the next morning , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) notices the graveyard dirt in Irving 's bed and believes it may be caused by a hoodoo hex . Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , however , believes that the doctor committed suicide by slitting his own throat , writing on the wall , and hanging himself . After the autopsy , it is determined that Irving suffered from a prion disease called kuru , which has not been found in the United States before . Mulder believes that kuru was given to him by a hex that caused him to go mad . The Wieders then find a family photo missing from their bedroom , and a " hoodoo man " , later revealed to be named Orell Peattie ( Billy Drago ) , is seen placing the faces cut from the picture into various poppet dolls . Ms. Wieder collapses after another pile of graveyard dirt is found in her bed . Her skin then sprouts lesions as the " hoodoo man " stands by the pool talking to the doll .
Peattie visits Dr. Wieder at work , but refuses to tell him why he is committing these hexes against his family . Wieder does some research of his own and finds a bracelet in a Jane Doe file that he believes may be connected . Mulder consults an expert in the occult , who notes that , in order to commit hexes , the man must draw energy from a charm and place blood , hair and a picture of the victim inside a poppet in order to follow through with the hexes . Meanwhile , Mrs. Wieder is burned to death during Magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) , and the " hoodoo man " is found taking her doll out of the microwave . The word " theef " is also found branded in Mrs. Wieder 's chest . Dr. Wieder tells the agents that the man came to see him , and that he found a Jane Doe case that may be connected to the murders . After investigating , it is revealed that the Jane Doe was Lynnette Peattie who died last October during a bus crash . The doctor gave her an overdose of morphine , euthanizing her due to her pain . Mulder assumes the man is her father and that he feels the doctor stole his family away from him . Mulder decides to exhume the body of Lynette Peattie and move it to Virginia , taking away her father 's power , but when they exhume the casket there is no body inside .
Meanwhile , Peattie 's landlord sneaks into his apartment for pain medication and finds the body of Lynnette in his bed . Immediately , she contracts a flesh @-@ eating disease . After hearing about the incident on the news , Mulder goes to Peattie 's apartment and finds Lynnette 's headless body , but Peattie missing . Peattie finds the Wieder family , whom Scully is protecting , and makes a poppet with Scully 's hair and photo inside . He places nails in the doll 's eyes and Scully promptly goes blind . Peattie breaks into the house , takes Scully 's gun and stabs a poppet of Dr. Wieder , causing the doctor to collapse in pain . Mulder shows up , finds Scully 's doll and removes the nails from it , allowing her to regain her vision and shoot Peattie . He is placed in a coma and Lynnette 's body is shipped back to her home in West Virginia .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Originally , the episode was not planned to be produced during the seventh season . However , just before the writing crew prepared to take their Christmas break , one of the scheduled scripts was removed from the line @-@ up . In order to meet the deadline , Frank Spotnitz , John Shiban , and Vince Gilligan decided to write a script about " modern medicine versus backyards supernatural arts " . Gilligan later joked that " I think I was enlisted for the fact that I 'm Southern , and they thought I was the closest thing they had to a hillbilly on the staff " .
Producer David Amann explained that the inspiration for the story was " What if you have a doctor who is prosperous but has a dark page from his past that comes back to haunt him ? " Spotnitz later elaborated that the story initially was " going to be how do you get rid of something you can 't get rid of " . However , the writers soon found this storyline difficult to develop , and , by Spotnitz 's own admission , the story " started to evolve into a Cape Fear type of situation " . The episode was finished by the writers over the Christmas break and then " handed over " to Kim Manners , who became the episode 's director .
= = = Casting , directing , and makeup = = =
Noted actor Billy Drago was brought in to play the role of Orell Peattie , a casting decision that series creator Chris Carter later called " especially lucky " . His son , Darren E. Burrows , had previously been cast as Bernard in a season six episode , Monday . Actor James Morrison , who played Dr. Wieder , was a former cast member of the science fiction series Space : Above and Beyond , and had previously been cast as detective Jim Horn in an episode of Millennium called " Dead Letters " . Both of these were written by former X @-@ Files writers Glen Morgan and James Wong . Leah Sanders , who was cast as the background character Reporter # 1 , was a childhood friend of John Shiban who had not been in contact for twenty years . Shiban was reportedly delighted to discover that his former friend had been coincidentally cast in the episode . Carter noted that the episode " was very well cast " .
Kim Manners later noted that " Theef " was difficult to shoot because the cast and crew had inadequate time to prepare . He explained , " It was kind of a rush thing and we got the script very late . We were totally winging it while we were shooting it " . Manners later stated that the episode " came together " in the editing room : " When I looked at the footage , it was like I was looking at somebody else 's film . But it cut together real nice and the end result was that ' Theef ' turned out to be a decent little episode " . Manners later admitted that the episode was his only credit for the series during which he experienced illness . With Manners out for a day due to his sickness , Rob Bowman took over directing duties for a day .
Cheri Montesanto @-@ Medcalf , one of the show 's makeup creators , was extremely pleased with Drago 's makeup in the episode . She later noted , " I remember Billy Drago was awesome – he looked so creepy after makeup . I just wanted this guy to look super @-@ creepy and disturbing to look at , but real enough that you might be scared if you looked out your window at night and saw him standing there " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Theef " first aired in the United States on March 12 , 2000 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 4 , with an 11 share , meaning that roughly 7 @.@ 4 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 11 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 11 @.@ 91 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on June 18 , 2000 and received 0 @.@ 71 million viewers , making it the third most watched episode that week . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " Voodoo curse ? Tonight , the dark powers of black magic have chosen their next victim ... Agent Scully . " The episode was nominated and won a 2000 Emmy Award by the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences for Outstanding Makeup for a Series .
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B + " , and called it " the strongest straight @-@ up , non @-@ experimental standalone the season ’ s had so far , " as well as one of " the strongest ' scary ' episode since season five . " He praised the guest cast — mostly notably Drago and Morrison — and wrote that the writers of the episode were able to successfully make the character deaths in the episode count in a way that moved the audience . VanDerWerff 's main criticism of the episode was that it painted Peattie " as a backwoods hick and a rather broad stereotype of one . " Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , gave the episode a moderately positive review . Despite slightly criticizing the episode utilizing a voodoo @-@ based plot , which he called " [ not ] terribly original " , he concluded that " there 's nothing wrong with a little modern medicine vs. practical magic confrontation . And I definitely enjoyed how Scully had her envelope pushed once again " . Rich Rosell from Digitally Obsessed awarded the episode 4 out of 5 stars , noting , " writer Vince Gilligan gets fairly serious in this ep concerning a series of deadly hexes cast upon a doctor and his family , as well as some cryptic scrawlings . There 's plenty of bad mojo going around as the X @-@ Files team gets to dig deep into the dark side of the magick arts , with Scully at one point losing her sight , thanks to a vengeful hex doll . Spooky " . TV Guide later named the episode 's main antagonist , Orell Peattie , as one of " The Scariest X @-@ Files Monsters " . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a moderately mixed review and awarded it two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . She concluded that " although ' Theef ' is burdened with some illogical plot developments and some underdeveloped characterization , overall it is a decent installment of The X @-@ Files " .
Several other reviews were more mixed . Kenneth Silber from Space.com was critical of the episode , noting that the main antagonist is " a veritable caricature of backwoods stupidity and thus hard to take seriously " . He did , however , compliment the sympathetic qualities of Dr. Wieder and his family . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , noting that the episode was " just too unambitious an X @-@ File to be anything more than a collection of moments , only some of which work " .
|
= Frederick Russell Burnham =
Frederick Russell Burnham DSO ( May 11 , 1861 – September 1 , 1947 ) was an American scout and world @-@ traveling adventurer . He is known for his service to the British South Africa Company and to the British Army in colonial Africa , and for teaching woodcraft to Robert Baden @-@ Powell in Rhodesia . He helped inspire the founding of the international Scouting Movement .
Burnham was born on a Lakota Sioux Indian reservation in Minnesota where he learned the ways of American Indians as a boy . By the age of 14 , he was supporting himself in California , while also learning scouting from some of the last of the cowboys and frontiersmen of the American Southwest . Burnham had little formal education , never finishing high school . After moving to the Arizona Territory in the early 1880s , he was drawn into the Pleasant Valley War , a feud between families of ranchers and sheepherders . He escaped and later worked as a civilian tracker for the United States Army in the Apache Wars . Feeling the need for new adventures , Burnham took his family to southern Africa in 1893 , seeing Cecil Rhodes 's Cape to Cairo Railway project as the next undeveloped frontier .
Burnham distinguished himself in several battles in Rhodesia and South Africa and became Chief of Scouts . Despite his U.S. citizenship , his military title was British and his rank of major was formally given to him by King Edward VII . In special recognition of Burnham 's heroism , the King invested him into the Companions of the Distinguished Service Order , giving Burnham the highest military honors earned by any American in the Second Boer War . He had become friends with Baden @-@ Powell during the Second Matabele War in Rhodesia , teaching him outdoor skills and inspiring what would later become known as Scouting . Burnham returned to the United States , where he became involved in national defense efforts , business , oil , conservation , and the Boy Scouts of America ( BSA ) .
During World War I , Burnham was selected as an officer and recruited volunteers for a U.S. Army division similar to the Rough Riders , which Theodore Roosevelt intended to lead into France . For political reasons , the unit was disbanded without seeing action . After the war , Burnham and his business partner John Hays Hammond formed the Burnham Exploration Company ; they became wealthy from oil discovered in California . Burnham joined several new wilderness conservation organizations , including the California State Parks Commission . In the 1930s , he worked with the BSA to save the big horn sheep from extinction . This effort led to the creation of the Kofa and Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuges in Arizona . He earned the BSA 's highest honor , the Silver Buffalo Award , in 1936 , and remained active in the organization at both the regional and national level until his death in 1947 . To symbolise the friendship between Burnham and Baden @-@ Powell , the mountain beside Mount Baden @-@ Powell in California was formally named Mount Burnham in 1951 .
= = Early life = =
Burnham was born on May 11 , 1861 on a Lakota Sioux Indian reservation in Minnesota , to a missionary family living near the small pioneer town of Tivoli ( now gone ) , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) from Mankato . His father , the Reverend Edwin Otway Burnham , was a Presbyterian minister educated and ordained in New York ; he was born in Ghent , Kentucky . His mother Rebecca Russell Burnham had spent most of her childhood in Iowa , having emigrated with her family from Westminster , England at the age of three . In the Dakota War of 1862 , Chief Little Crow and his Sioux warriors attacked the nearby town New Ulm , Minnesota ; Burnham 's father was in Mankato buying ammunition at the time , so when Burnham 's mother saw Sioux approaching her cabin dressed in war paint , she knew she had to leave and could never escape carrying her baby . She hid Frederick in a basket of green corn husks in a corn field and fled for her life . Once the Sioux attack had been repulsed , she returned to find their house burned down , but the baby Frederick was safe , fast asleep in the basket with the corn husks .
The young Burnham attended schools in Iowa . There he met Blanche Blick , whom he later married . The Burnham family moved from Minnesota to Los Angeles , California in 1870 , in search of easier living conditions soon after Edwin was seriously injured in an accident while rebuilding the family homestead . Two years later , Edwin died , leaving the family destitute . Burnham 's mother and 3 @-@ year @-@ old younger brother Howard returned to Iowa to live with her parents ; the 12 @-@ year @-@ old Burnham remained in California alone to repay his family 's debts and ultimately make his own way .
For the next few years , Burnham worked as a mounted messenger for the Western Union Telegraph Company in California and Arizona Territory . On one occasion his horse was stolen from him by Tiburcio Vásquez , a famous Californio bandit . At 14 , he began his life as a scout and Indian tracker in the Apache Wars , during which he took part in the United States Army expedition to find and capture or kill the Apache chief Geronimo . In Prescott , Arizona , he met an old scout named Lee who served under General George Crook . Lee taught Burnham how to track Apache by detecting the odor of burning mescal , a species of aloe they often cooked and ate . With careful study of the local air currents and canyons , trackers could follow the odor to Apache hiding places from as far away as 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) . During the Apache uprisings , the young Burnham also learned much from Al Sieber , the Chief of Scouts , and his assistant Archie McIntosh , who had been Chief of Scouts in Crook 's last two campaigns . Burnham learned much about scouting from these Indian trackers , who were advanced in age and fading from the frontier , including the vital lesson that " it is imperative that a scout should know the history , tradition , religion , social customs , and superstitions of whatever country or people he is called on to work in or among . " But the scout who was to have perhaps the greatest influence on Burnham during his formative years was a man named Holmes .
Holmes had served under Kit Carson and John C. Fremont , but he was old and physically impaired when he met Burnham . He had lost all of his family in the Indian wars and before he died he wanted to impart his knowledge of the frontier to the young Burnham . The two men traveled throughout the American Southwest and northern Mexico , and Holmes taught him many scouting skills , such as how to track a trail , how to double and cover one 's own trail , how to properly ascend and descend precipices , and how to tell the time at night . Burnham also learned survival skills from Holmes , such as where to find water in the desert , how to protect himself from snakes , and what to do in case of forest fires or floods . A stickler for details , Holmes impressed on him that even in the simplest things , such as braiding a rope , tying a knot , or putting on or taking off a saddle , there is a right way and a wrong way . The two men earned a living by hunting and prospecting . Burnham also worked as a cowboy , a guard for the mines , a guide , and a scout during these years .
In Globe , Arizona , Burnham unwittingly joined the losing side of the Pleasant Valley War before mass killing started , and only narrowly escaped death . He had no stake in the feud , but he was drawn into the conflict by his association with the Gordon family . Once the killing started , he felt he had to join a faction as a hired gun , although it put him on the wrong side of the law . In between raids and forays , he practiced incessantly with his pistol ; he learned to shoot using either hand and from the back of a galloping horse . Even after his faction admitted defeat ( the feud would begin again years later ) , Burnham still had many enemies .
During this time he met " a fine , hard riding young Kansan , who I had met on an Indian raid and whose nerve I greatly admired . " The young Kansan , who had been swindled by an unscrupulous superintendent of mines , had a plan to rustle cattle and horses from the superintendent and sell them to Curly Bill ( William Brocius ) , an outlaw with whom he had indirectly been in contact . Both men were broke at the time , and the job sounded easy . But Burnham had always rejected the life of a thief and even as a wanted man , he did not view himself as a criminal . Burnham began to see that even though he joined the feud to help his friends , he had been in the wrong , that " avenging only led to more vengeance and to even greater injustice than that suffered through the often unjustly administered laws of the land . "
Burnham decided to reject the offer of the young Kansan ( who followed through with the plan and was later killed ) , and that he needed to leave the Tonto Basin . Judge Aaron Hackney , editor of the local Arizona Silver Belt newspaper and a friend , helped him escape to Tombstone , Arizona with the assistance of Neil McLeod . He was a well @-@ known prizefighter in Tombstone and one of the most successful smugglers along the Arizona – Mexico frontier . The Gunfight at the O.K. Corral had occurred only a few months earlier , but as Tombstone was a boomtown attracting new silver miners from all parts , it was an ideal location to hide out . Burnham assumed several aliases and occasionally he delivered messages for McLeod and his smuggler partners in Sonora , Mexico . From McLeod , he learned many valuable tricks for avoiding detection , passing coded messages , and throwing off pursuers .
Burnham eventually went back to California to attend high school , but he never graduated . He returned to Arizona and was appointed Deputy Sheriff of Pinal County , but he soon went back to herding cattle and prospecting . After he went to Prescott , Iowa to visit his childhood sweetheart Blanche , the two were married on February 6 , 1884 . He was 23 years old . He and Blanche settled down soon after in Pasadena , California , to tend to an orange grove but soon Burnham returned to prospecting and scouting . Active as a Freemason , he rose to become a Thirty @-@ Second Degree Mason of the Scottish Rite .
During the 1880s , sections of the American press popularized the notion that the West had been won and there was nothing left to conquer in the United States . The time when great scouts like Kit Carson , Daniel Boone , and Davy Crockett could explore and master the wild and uncharted Western territories was coming to a close . Contemporary scouts such as Buffalo Bill , Wild Bill Hickok , and Texas Jack Omohundro , were leaving the old West to become entertainers , and they battled great Native American chiefs like Sitting Bull , Chief Joseph , and Geronimo only in Wild West Shows . In 1890 the United States Census Bureau formally closed the American frontier , ending the system under which land in the Western territories had been sold cheaply to pioneers . As a " soldier of fortune " , as Richard Harding Davis later called him , Burnham began to look elsewhere for the next undeveloped frontier , feeling that the American West was becoming tame and unchallenging . When he heard of the work of Cecil Rhodes and his pioneers in southern Africa , who were working to build a railway across Africa from Cape to Cairo , Burnham sold what little he owned . In 1893 with his wife and young son , he set sail for Durban in South Africa , intending to join Rhodes 's pioneers in Matabeleland and Mashonaland .
= = Military career = =
= = = First Matabele War = = =
Burnham was trekking the 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 609 km ) north from Durban to Matabeleland with his wife and son , an American buckboard and six donkeys when war broke out between Rhodes 's British South Africa Company and the Matabele ( or Ndebele ) King Lobengula in late 1893 . He signed up to scout for the Company immediately on reaching Matabeleland , and joined the fighting . Leander Starr Jameson , the Company 's Chief Magistrate in Mashonaland , hoped to defeat the Matabele quickly by capturing Lobengula at his royal town of Bulawayo , and so sent Burnham and a small group of scouts ahead to report on the situation there . While on the outskirts of town they watched as the Matabele burned down and destroyed everything in sight . By the time the Company troops had arrived in force , Lobengula and his warriors had fled and there was little left of old Bulawayo . The Company then moved into the remains of Bulawayo , established a base , and sent out patrols to find Lobengula . The most famous of these patrols was the Shangani Patrol , led by Major Allan Wilson and the man he chose as his Chief of Scouts , Fred Burnham .
= = = = Shangani Patrol = = = =
Jameson sent a column of soldiers under Major Patrick Forbes to locate and capture Lobengula . The column camped on the south bank of the Shangani River about 25 miles ( 40 km ) north @-@ east of the village of Lupane on the evening of December 3 , 1893 . The next day , late in the afternoon , a dozen men under the command of Major Wilson were sent across the river to patrol the area . The Wilson Patrol came across a group of Matabele women and children who claimed to know Lobengula 's whereabouts . Burnham , who served as the lead scout of the Wilson Patrol , sensed a trap and advised Wilson to withdraw , but Wilson ordered his patrol to advance .
Soon afterwards , the patrol found the king and Wilson sent a message back to the laager requesting reinforcements . Forbes , however , was unwilling to set off across the river in the dark , so he sent only 20 more men , under the command of Henry Borrow , to reinforce Wilson 's patrol . Forbes intended to send the main body of troops and artillery across the river the following morning ; however , the main column was ambushed by Matabele warriors and delayed . Wilson 's patrol too came under attack , but the Shangani River had swollen and there was now no possibility of retreat . In desperation , Wilson sent Burnham and two other men , Pearl " Pete " Ingram ( a Montana cowboy ) and William Gooding ( an Australian ) , to cross the Shangani River , find Forbes , and bring reinforcements . In spite of a shower of bullets and spears , the three made it to Forbes , but the battle raging there was just as intense as the one they had left , and there was no hope of anyone reaching Wilson in time . As Burnham loaded his rifle to beat back the Matabele warriors , he quietly said to Forbes , " I think I may say that we are the sole survivors of that party . " Wilson , Borrow , and their men were indeed surrounded by hundreds of Matabele warriors ; escape was impossible , and all were killed .
Colonial @-@ era histories called this the Shangani Patrol , and hailed Wilson and Borrow as national heroes . Their last stand together became a kind of national myth , as Lewis Gann writes , " a glorious memory , [ Rhodesia 's ] own equivalent of the bloody Alamo massacre and Custer 's Last Stand in the American West " . The version of events recorded by history is based on the accounts of Burnham , Ingram and Gooding , the Matabele present at the battle ( particularly inDuna Mjaan ) , and the men of Forbes ' column . While all of the direct evidence given by eyewitnesses supports the findings of the Court of Inquiry , some historians and writers debate whether or not Burnham , Ingram and Gooding really were sent back by Wilson to fetch help , and suggest that they might have simply deserted when the battle got rough . The earliest recording of this claim of desertion is long after the event in a letter written in 1935 by John Coghlan to a friend , John Carruthers , that " a very reliable man informed me that Wools @-@ Sampson told him " that Gooding had confessed on his deathbed that he and the two Americans had not actually been despatched by Wilson , and had simply left on their own accord . This double hearsay confession , coming from an anonymous source , is not mentioned in Gooding 's 1899 obituary , which instead recounts the events as generally recorded . Several well @-@ known writers have used the Coghlan letter , as shaky as it is , as clearance to create hypothetical evidence in an attempt to challenge and revise the historical record .
For his service in the war , Burnham was presented the British South Africa Company Medal , a gold watch , and a share of a 300 acre ( 120 ha ) tract of land in Matabeleland . It was here that Burnham uncovered many artifacts in the huge granite ruins of the ancient civilization of Great Zimbabwe . Matabeleland became part of the Company domain , which was formally named Rhodesia , after Rhodes , in 1895 . Matabeleland and Mashonaland became collectively called Southern Rhodesia .
= = = Northern Rhodesia Exploration = = =
In 1895 , Burnham oversaw and led the Northern Territories British South Africa Exploration Company expedition that first established for the British South Africa Company that major copper deposits existed north of the Zambezi in North @-@ Eastern Rhodesia . Along the Kafue River , Burnham saw many similarities to copper deposits he had worked in the United States , and he encountered native peoples wearing copper bracelets . After this expedition he was elected a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society . Later , the British South Africa Company built the mining towns of the Copperbelt and a railroad to transport the ore through Portuguese Mozambique .
= = = Second Matabele War = = =
In March 1896 , the Matabele again rose up against the British South Africa Company administration in what became called the Second Matabele War or the First Chimurenga ( liberation war ) . Mlimo , the Matabele spiritual leader , is credited with fomenting much of the anger that led to this confrontation . The colonists ' defenses in Matabeleland were undermanned due to the ill @-@ fated Jameson Raid into the South African Republic ( or Transvaal ) , and in the first few months of the war alone hundreds of white settlers were killed . With few troops to support them , the settlers quickly built a laager in the centre of Bulawayo on their own and mounted patrols under such figures as Burnham , Robert Baden @-@ Powell , and Frederick Selous . The Matabele retreated into their stronghold of the Matopos Hills near Bulawayo , a region that became the scene of the fiercest fighting between Matabele warriors and settler patrols . It was also during this war that two scouts of very different backgrounds , Burnham and Baden @-@ Powell , would first meet and discuss ideas for training youth that would eventually become the plan for the program and the code of honor for the Boy Scouts .
= = = = Assassination of Mlimo = = = =
The turning point in the war came when Burnham and Bonar Armstrong , a Company native commissioner , found their way through the Matopos Hills to a sacred cave not many miles from the Mangwe district , to a sanctuary then known only to the Matabele where Mlimo had been hiding . Not far from the cave was a village ( now gone ) of about 100 huts filled with many warriors . The two men tethered their horses to a thicket and crawled on their bellies , screening their slow , cautious movements by means of branches held before them . Once inside the cave , they waited until Mlimo entered . Mlimo was said to be about 60 years old , with very dark skin , sharp @-@ featured ; American news reports of the time described him as having a cruel , crafty look . Burnham and Armstrong waited until Mlimo entered the cave and started his dance of immunity , at which point Burnham shot Mlimo just below the heart , killing him .
Burnham and Armstrong leapt over the dead Mlimo and ran down a trail toward their horses . The warriors in the village nearby picked up their arms and searched for the attackers ; to distract them , Burnham set fire to some of their huts . The whites escaped and rode back to Bulawayo . Shortly after , Cecil Rhodes walked unarmed into the Matabele stronghold and made peace with the rebels , ending the Second Matabele War .
= = = Klondike Gold Rush = = =
With the Matabele wars over , Burnham decided it was time to leave Africa and move on to other adventures . The family returned to California . Soon after , Fred traveled to Alaska and the Yukon to prospect in the Klondike Gold Rush , taking with him his eldest son Roderick , who was then 12 years old . On hearing of the Spanish – American War , Burnham rushed home to volunteer his services , but the war had ended before he could get to the fighting . Burnham returned to the Klondike having played no part in the war . Colonel Theodore Roosevelt regretted this as much as Burnham and paid him a great tribute in his book .
= = = Second Boer War = = =
The Second Boer War ( October 1899 – May 1902 ) was fought between the British and two independent Boer republics , the South African Republic and the Orange Free State , partly the result of long @-@ simmering strife between them . It was directly caused by each side 's desire to control the lucrative Witwatersrand gold mines in the Transvaal . Field Marshal Frederick Roberts , one of the British Army 's most successful commanders of the 19th century , was appointed to take overall command of British forces , relieving General Redvers Buller , following a number of Boer successes in the early weeks of the war , including the Siege of Mafeking , in which Baden @-@ Powell , his small regiment of men , and the townspeople had been besieged by thousands of Boer troops since the conflict began . Roberts asked General Frederick Carrington , who had commanded the British forces in Matabeleland three years earlier , whom he should appoint as his Chief of Scouts in South Africa . Carrington had selected Burnham for this role and advised Roberts to do the same , describing Burnham as " the finest scout who ever scouted in Africa . "
Roberts sent for Burnham soon after arriving in South Africa on the RMS Dunottar Castle . The American scout was prospecting near Skagway , Alaska , when he received the following telegram in January 1900 : " Lord Roberts appoints you on his personal staff as Chief of Scouts . If you accept , come at once the quickest way possible . " Cape Town is at the opposite end of the globe from the Klondike , so Burnham left immediately . In an unusual step for a foreigner , Burnham received a command post from Roberts and the British Army rank of captain . Burnham reached the front just before the Battle of Paardeberg ( February 1900 ) . During the war , Burnham spent much time behind the Boer lines gathering information and blowing up railway bridges and tracks . He was captured twice ( escaping both times ) , and also temporarily disabled at one point by near @-@ fatal wounds .
Burnham was first captured during the fighting at Sanna 's Post in the Orange Free State . He gave himself up in order to obtain information on the enemy , which he did , and then he escaped from his guards and succeed in reaching British occupied Bloemfontein safely after two days and nights on the run . The second time he was captured was while trying to warn a British column approaching Thaba ' Nchu . He came upon a group of Boers hiding on the banks of the river , toward which the British were even then advancing . Cut off from his own side , Burnham chose to signal the approaching soldiers even though it would expose him to capture . With a red kerchief , Burnham signaled the soldiers to turn back , but the column paid no attention and plodded steadily on into the ambush , while Burnham was at once taken prisoner . In the fight that followed , Burnham pretended to receive a wound in the knee , limping heavily and groaning with pain . He was placed in a wagon with the officers who really were wounded and who , in consequence , were not closely guarded . Later that evening , Burnham slipped over the driver 's seat , dropped between the two wheels of the wagon , lowered himself , and fell between the legs of the oxen on his back in the road . In an instant , the wagon had passed over him safely , and while the dust still hung above the trail he rolled rapidly over into the ditch at the side of the road and lay motionless . It was four days before he was able to re @-@ enter the British lines , during which time he had been lying in the open veld . He had subsisted on one biscuit and two handfuls of " mielies " ( i.e. , maize ) .
On June 2 , 1900 , during the British march on Pretoria , Burnham was wounded , almost fatally . He was on a mission to cut off the flow of Boer gold and supplies to and from the sea and to halt the transportation of British prisoners of war out of the Pretoria . He scouted alone far to the east behind enemy lines trying to identify the best choke point along the Pretoria @-@ Delagoa Bay railway line . He came upon an underpass of a railway bridge , an ideal location to disrupt the trains , but was immediately surrounded by a party of Boers . Burnham instantly fled and he had almost escaped when his horse was shot and fell , knocking him senseless and pinning him under its dead body . It was night and he was already far away when his horse was shot , so the Boer troopers apparently did not check to see if Burnham had been injured or killed . When he awoke hours later , Burnham was alone and in a dazed state having sustained serious injuries . In spite of his acute agony , Burnham proceeded to creep back to the railway , placed his charges , and blew up the line in two places . He then crept on his hands and knees to an empty animal enclosure to avoid capture and stayed there for two days and nights insensible . The next day , Burnham heard fighting in the distance so he crawled in that direction . By this time he was indifferent as to the source of the gunshots and by chance it was a British patrol that found him . Once in Pretoria the surgeons discovered that Burnham had torn apart his stomach muscles and burst a blood @-@ vessel . His very survival was due only to the fact that he had been without food or water for three days .
Burnham 's injuries were so serious that he was ordered to England by Lord Roberts . Two days before leaving for London , he was promoted to the rank of major , having received letters of commendation or congratulations from Baden @-@ Powell , Rhodes , and Field Marshal Roberts . On his arrival in England , Burnham was commanded to dine with Queen Victoria and to spend the night at Osborne House . A few months later , after the Queen 's death , King Edward VII personally presented Burnham with the Queen 's South Africa Medal with four bars for the battles at Driefontein ( March 10 , 1900 ) , Johannesburg ( May 31 , 1900 ) , Paardeberg ( February 17 – 26 , 1900 ) , and Cape Colony ( October 11 , 1899 – May 31 , 1902 ) , in addition to the cross of the Distinguished Service Order , the second highest decoration in the British Army , for his heroism during the " victorious " march to Pretoria ( June 2 – 5 , 1900 ) . The King also made his British Army appointment and rank permanent , in spite of his U.S. citizenship . Burnham received the highest awards of any American who served in the Second Boer War . Following his investiture , the British press hailed him as : " The King of Army Scouts " .
Burnham 's most accomplished soldiers during the Second Boer War were the Lovat Scouts , a Scottish Highland regiment he commanded , whom he described as " half wolf and half jackrabbit . " Formed by Lord Lovat in 1899 , this yeomanry unit was the first to wear Ghillie suits , a type of camouflage clothing developed to resemble heavy foliage . These scouts were well practiced in the arts of marksmanship , field craft , and tactics . After the war , the Lovat Scouts went on to become the British army 's first sniper unit .
= = " Father of Scouting " = =
Burnham was already a celebrated scout when he first befriended Baden @-@ Powell during the Second Matabele War , but the backgrounds of these two scouts was as strange a contrast as it is possible to imagine . From his youth on the open plains , Burnham 's earliest playmates were Sioux Indian boys and their ambitions pointed to excelling in the lore and arts of the trail and together they dreamed of some day becoming great scouts . When Burnham was a teenager he supported himself by hunting game and making long rides for Western Union through the California deserts , his early mentors were wise old scouts of the American West , and by 19 he was a seasoned scout chasing and being chased by Apache . The British scout he would later befriend and serve with in Matabeleland , Baden @-@ Powell , was born in London and had graduated from Charterhouse , one of England 's most famous public schools . Baden @-@ Powell developed an ambition to become a scout at an early age . He passed an exam that gave him an immediate commission into the British Army when he was 19 , but it would take several years before he was engaged in any active service . When the two men met in 1896 , Baden @-@ Powell was an army intelligence officer and a brilliant outdoorsman who had organized a small scouting section in his regiment , written a book called Reconnaissance and Scouting ( 1884 ) and served in India , Afghanistan , Natal and Ashanti . Burnham , meanwhile , was General Carrington 's Chief of Scouts .
During the siege of Bulawayo , these two men rode many times into the Matopos Hills on patrol , and it was in these hills that Burnham first introduced Baden @-@ Powell to the ways and methods of the Native Americans , and taught him " woodcraft " ( better known today as Scoutcraft ) . Baden @-@ Powell had written at length about reconnaissance and tracking , but from Burnham he learned many new dimensions such as how to travel in wild country without either a compass or map , how to discover nearby dangers by observing animals , and the many techniques for finding potable water . So impressed was Baden @-@ Powell by Burnham 's Scouting spirit that he closely listened to all he had to tell . It was also here that Baden @-@ Powell began to wear his signature Stetson campaign hat and neckerchief , like those worn by Burnham , for the first time . Both men recognized that wars were changing markedly and that the British Army needed to adapt . During their joint scouting missions , Baden @-@ Powell and Burnham discussed the concept of a broad training program in woodcraft for young men , rich in exploration , tracking , fieldcraft , and self @-@ reliance . In Africa , no scout embodied these traits more than Burnham .
In his first scouting handbook , Aids to Scouting ( 1899 ) , Baden @-@ Powell published many of the lessons he learned from Burnham and this book was later used by boys ' groups as a guide to outdoor fun . At the urging of several youth leaders , Baden @-@ Powell decided to adapt his scouting handbook specifically to training boys . While Baden @-@ Powell went on to refine the concept of Scouting , publish Scouting for Boys ( 1908 ) , and become the founder of the international Scouting movement , Burnham has been called the movement 's father . James E. West , Chief Scout Executive for the Boy Scouts of America ( BSA ) , summarized Burnham 's historical relevance to Scouting : " There is an especial significance for those of us in Scouting in this man 's list , for he was engaged for this work by Lord Baden Powell , who was then connected with the British Army in Africa , and who had unbounded admiration for the scouting methods of Frederick Burnham . So these two pioneers , each of whom was to have such immeasurable influence in restoring the old traditions of American youth , met in Africa , years before the Scouting movement was ever thought of . "
Burnham later became close friends with others involved in the Scouting movement in the United States , such as Theodore Roosevelt , the Chief Scout Citizen , and Gifford Pinchot , the Chief Scout Forester , and E. B. DeGroot , BSA Scout Executive of Los Angeles . DeGroot said of Burnham : " Here is the sufficient and heroic figure , model and living example , who inspired and gave Baden @-@ Powell the plan for the program and the code of honor of Scouting for Boys . " With assistance from Baden @-@ Powell , the BSA published his biography : He @-@ who @-@ sees @-@ in @-@ the @-@ dark ; the Boys ' Story of Frederick Burnham , the American Scout . The BSA made Burnham an Honorary Scout in 1927 , and for his noteworthy and extraordinary service to the Scouting movement , Burnham was bestowed the highest commendation given by the BSA , the Silver Buffalo Award , in 1936 . Throughout his life he remained active in Scouting at both the regional and the national level in the United States and he corresponded regularly with Baden @-@ Powell on Scouting topics .
Burnham and Baden @-@ Powell remained close friends for their long lives . Burnham called Baden @-@ Powell a " wonderfully able scout " , and nicknamed him " Sherlock Holmes . " Baden @-@ Powell considered Burnham to be " the greatest scout alive . " The seal on the Burnham – Baden @-@ Powell letters at Yale and Stanford expired in 2000 and the true depth of their friendship and love of Scouting has again been revealed . In 1931 , Burnham read the speech dedicating Mount Baden @-@ Powell , California , to his old Scouting friend . Their friendship , and equal status in the world of Scouting and conservation , was honored in 1951 with the dedication of the adjoining peak as Mount Burnham .
Burnham 's descendants followed in his footsteps and are active in Scouting and in the military . His son Roderick enlisted in the U.S. Army and he fought in France in World War I. His grandson , Frederick Russell Burnham II , was a leader in the BSA and a Vietnam War veteran . His great @-@ grandson , Russell Adam Burnham , is an Eagle Scout and was the United States Army 's Soldier of the Year in 2003 .
= = Later life = =
= = = Post war = = =
After convalescing , Burnham became the London office manager for the Wa Syndicate , a commercial body with interests in the Gold Coast and neighboring territories in West Africa . He led the Wa Syndicate 's 1901 expedition through the Gold Coast and the Upper Volta , looking for minerals and ways to improve river navigation . Between 1902 and 1904 he was employed by the East Africa Syndicate , for which he led a vast mineral prospecting expedition in the East Africa Protectorate ( Kenya ) . Traveling extensively in the area around Lake Rudolf ( now Lake Turkana ) , he discovered a huge soda lake .
= = = Mexico = = =
Burnham returned to North America and for the next few years became associated with the Yaqui River irrigation project in Mexico . While investigating the Yaqui valley for mineral and agricultural resources , Burnham reasoned that a dam could provide year @-@ round water to rich alluvial soil in the valley ; turning the region into one of the garden spots of the world and generate much needed electricity . He purchased water rights and some 300 acres ( 1 @.@ 2 km2 ) of land in this region and contacted an old friend from his time in Africa , John Hays Hammond , who conducted his own studies and then purchased an additional 900 @,@ 000 acres ( 3 @,@ 600 km2 ) of this land — an area the size of Rhode Island . Burnham together with Charles Frederick Holder made important archaeological discoveries of Mayan civilization in this region , including the Esperanza Stone .
In 1909 , William Howard Taft and Porfirio Díaz planned a summit in El Paso , Texas , and Ciudad Juárez , Mexico , an historic first meeting between a U.S. president and a Mexican president and also the first time an American president would cross the border into Mexico . But tensions rose on both sides of the border , including threats of assassination , so the Texas Rangers , 4 @,@ 000 U.S. and Mexican troops , U.S. Secret Service agents , FBI agents and U.S. marshals were all called in to provide security . Burnham was put in charge of a 250 private security detail hired by Hammond , who in addition to owning large investments in Mexico was a close friend of Taft from Yale and a U.S. Vice @-@ Presidential candidate in 1908 . On October 16 , the day of the summit , Burnham and Private C.R. Moore , a Texas Ranger , discovered a man holding a concealed palm pistol standing at the El Paso Chamber of Commerce building along the procession route . Burnham and Moore captured and disarmed the assassin within only a few feet of Taft and Díaz .
After the Taft @-@ Díaz summit , Burnham led a team of 500 men in guarding mining properties owned by Hammond , J. P. Morgan , and the Guggenheims in the Mexican state of Sonora . Just as the irrigation and mining projects were nearing completion in 1912 , a long series of Mexican revolutions began . The final blow to these efforts came in 1917 when Mexico passed laws prohibiting the sale of land to foreigners . Burnham and Hammond carried their properties until 1930 and then sold them to the Mexican government .
= = = World War I = = =
During this period , Burnham was one of the 18 officers selected by former U.S. president Theodore Roosevelt to raise a volunteer infantry division for service in France in 1917 shortly after the United States entered the war . A plan to raise volunteer soldiers from the Western U.S. came out of a meeting of the New York @-@ based Rocky Mountain Club and Burnham was put in charge of both the general organization and recruitment . Congress gave Roosevelt the authority to raise up to four divisions similar to the Rough Riders of 1st United States Volunteer Cavalry Regiment and to the British Army 25th ( Frontiersmen ) Battalion , Royal Fusiliers ; however , as Commander @-@ in @-@ chief , President Woodrow Wilson refused to make use of Roosevelt 's volunteers .
Roosevelt had been an outspoken critic of Wilson 's neutrality policies , so even though Roosevelt had made several attempts to come to an agreement with Wilson , the President was unwilling to accept any compromise . In an astute political maneuver , Wilson announced to the press that he would not send Roosevelt and his volunteers to France , but instead would send an American Expeditionary Force under the command of General John Pershing . Roosevelt was left with no option except to disband the volunteers . He never forgave Wilson , and quickly published The Foes Of Our Own Household , a harsh indictment of the sitting president . These relentless attacks helped the Republicans win control of Congress in 1918 . Roosevelt might have been a serious candidate for president in 1920 , but lingering malaria kept him out of the race .
During World War I , Burnham was living in California and was active in counterespionage for Britain . Much of it involved a famous Boer spy , Captain Fritz Joubert Duquesne , who became a German spy in both World Wars and claimed to have killed Field Marshal Kitchener while en route to meet with the Russians . During the Second Boer War , Burnham and Duquesne were each under orders to assassinate the other , but it was not until 1910 that the two men first met while both were in Washington , D.C. , separately lobbying Congress to pass a bill in favor of the importation of African game animals into the United States ( H.R. 23621 ) . Duquesne was twice arrested by the FBI and in 1942 he and 32 other Nazi agents ( the Duquesne Spy Ring ) were jailed for espionage in the largest spy ring conviction in U.S. history .
= = = Oil wealth = = =
Although Burnham had lived all over the world , he never had a great deal of wealth to show for his efforts . It was not until he returned to California , the place of his youth , that he found great affluence . In November 1923 , he struck oil in Dominguez Hills , near Carson , California . In a field that covered just two square miles , over 150 wells from Union Oil were soon producing 37 @,@ 000 barrels a day , with 10 @,@ 000 barrels a day going to the Burnham Exploration Company , a syndicate formed in 1919 between Frederick Burnham , his son Roderick , John Hayes Hammond , and his son Harris Hammond . In the first 10 years of operation , the Burnham Exploration Company paid out $ 10 @.@ 2 million in dividends . The spot where Burnham found oil was land where " as a small boy he used to graze cattle , and shoot game which he sold to the neighboring mining districts to support his widowed mother and infant brother . " Many years after the oil was depleted , the land near the Dominguez field was re @-@ developed and became the site of the California State University , Dominguez Hills . In 2010 , Occidental Petroleum Corporation expressed interest in redeveloping the former Dominguez oil field using modern extraction technologies .
= = = Conservation = = =
An avid conservationist and hunter , Burnham supported the early conservation programs of his friends Theodore Roosevelt and Gifford Pinchot . He and his associate John Hayes Hammond led novel game expeditions to Africa with the goal of finding large animals such as Giant Eland , hippopotamus , zebra , and various bird species that might be bred in the United States and become game for future American sportsmen . Burnham , Hammond , and Duquesne appeared several times before the House Committee on Agriculture to ask for help in importing large African animals . In 1914 , he helped establish the Wild Life Protective League of America , Department of Southern California , and served as its first Secretary .
In his later years , Burnham filled various public offices and also served as a member of the Boone and Crockett Club of New York , and as a founding member of the American Committee for International Wildlife Protection ( now a committee of the World Conservation Union ) . He was one of the original members of the first California State Parks Commission ( serving from 1927 to 1934 ) , a founding member of the Save @-@ the @-@ Redwoods League , president of the Southwest Museum of Los Angeles from 1938 until 1940 , and he served as both the Honorary President of the Arizona Boy Scouts and as a regional executive for the BSA throughout the 1940s until his death in 1947 .
In 1936 , Burnham enlisted the Arizona Boy Scouts in a campaign to save the Desert Bighorn Sheep from probable extinction . Several other prominent Arizonans and environmental groups joined the movement and a " save the bighorns " poster contest was started in schools throughout the state . Burnham provided prizes and appeared in store windows from one end of Arizona to the other . The contest @-@ winning bighorn emblem was made into neckerchief slides for the 10 @,@ 000 Boy Scouts , and talks and dramatizations were given at school assemblies and on radio . On January 18 , 1939 , over 1 @.@ 5 million acres ( 6 @,@ 100 km2 ) were set aside in Arizona to establish the Kofa National Wildlife Refuge and the Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge , and Burnham gave the dedication speech .
= = Personal life = =
At 5 ft 4 in ( 1 @.@ 62 m ) , Burnham was slight , but he was also muscular and bronzed , with a finely formed square jaw . He had a boyish appearance which he used to his advantage on numerous occasions . His most noticeable feature was his steady , grey @-@ blue eyes . Contemporary reports had it that Burnham 's gaze appeared to never leave those of the person he was looking at , and yet somehow could simultaneously monitor all the details of the physical surroundings . It was also said that Burnham 's eyes possessed a far @-@ away look such as those acquired by people whose occupation has caused them to watch continually at sea or on great plains .
Burnham would not smoke and seldom drank alcohol , fearing these habits would injure the acuteness of his sense of smell . He found ways to train himself in mental patience , took power naps instead of indulging in periods of long sleep , and drank very little liquid . He trained himself to accept these abstinences in order to endure the most appalling fatigues , hunger , thirst , and wounds , so that when scouting or traveling where there was no water , he might still be able to exist . On more than one occasion he survived in environments where others would have died , or were in fact dying , of exhaustion . He was quiet @-@ mannered and courteous , according to contemporaries . Their reports describe a man who was neither shy nor self @-@ conscious , who was extremely modest , and who seldom spoke of his many adventures .
Burnham died of heart failure at the age of 86 , on September 1 , 1947 at his home in Santa , Barbara , California . He was buried at a private ceremony at Three Rivers , California , near his old cattle ranch , La Cuesta . His memorial stone was designed by his only surviving child , Roderick . Also buried at Three Rivers cemetery are his first wife , Blanche , several members of the Blick family who had also pioneered 1890s Rhodesia with Burnham , Roderick , his granddaughter Martha Burnham Burleigh , and " Pete " Ingram , the Montana cowboy who had survived the Shangani Patrol massacre along with Burnham .
= = = Family = = =
Burnham 's wife of 55 years , Blanche ( February 25 , 1862 – December 22 , 1939 ) of Nevada , Iowa , accompanied him in very primitive conditions through many travels in both the Southwest United States and southern Africa . Together they had three children , all of whom spent their early youth in Africa . In the early years , she watched over the children and the pack animals , and she always kept a rifle nearby . In the dark of night , she used her rifle many times against lions and hyena and , during the Siege of Bulawayo , against Matabele warriors . Several members of the Blick family joined the Burnhams in Rhodesia , moved with them to England , and returned to the United States with the Burnhams to live near Three Rivers , California . When Burnham Exploration Company struck it rich in 1923 , the Burnhams moved to a mansion built by Pasadena architect Joseph Blick , his brother @-@ in @-@ law , in a new housing development then known as Hollywoodland ( a name later shortened to " Hollywood " ) and took many trips around the world in high style . In 1939 , Blanche suffered a stroke . She died a month later and was buried in the Three Rivers Cemetery .
Burnham 's first son , Roderick ( August 22 , 1886 – July 2 , 1976 ) , was born in Pasadena , California , but accompanied the family to Africa and learned the Matabele language , Sindebele . He went to boarding school in France in 1895 , and then to a military school in England the following year . In 1898 , he went to Skagway , Alaska with his father , and returned to Pasadena the next year . In 1904 , he attended the University of California , Berkeley , joined the football team , but left Berkeley after a dispute with his coach . In 1905 – 08 , he went to the University of Arizona , joined the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity , played the position of running back , and became the captain of the football team . He attended the Michigan School of Mines ( now Michigan Technological University ) in 1910 , became a geologist , and worked for Union Oil as Manager of Lands and Foreign Exploration helping to develop the first wells in Mexico and Venezuela . He took time off from his job to serve in the U.S. Army in World War I and fought in France . He and his father became minority owners of the Burnham Exploration Company , incorporated in 1919 by Harris Hays Hammond ( the son of John Hays Hammond , Sr ) . In 1930 , he and Paramount Pictures founder W. W. Hodkinson started the Central American Aviation Corporation , the first airline in Guatemala .
Nada ( May 1894 – May 19 , 1896 ) , Burnham 's daughter , was the first white child born in Bulawayo ; she died of fever and starvation during the town 's siege . She was buried three days later in the town 's Pioneer Cemetery , plot No. 144 . Nada is the Zulu word for lily and she was named after the heroine in Sir H. Rider Haggard 's Zulu tale , Nada the Lily ( 1892 ) . Three of Haggard 's books are dedicated to Burnham 's daughter , Nada : The Wizard ( 1896 ) , Elissa : The Doom of Zimbabwe ( 1899 ) , and Black Heart and White Heart : A Zulu Idyll ( 1900 ) .
Burnham 's youngest son , Bruce B. Burnham ( 1897 – October 3 , 1905 ) , was staying with his parents in London when he accidentally drowned in the River Thames . His brother , Roderick , was in California the night Bruce died , yet claimed to know from a dream exactly what had happened . Roderick awoke screaming and rushed to tell his grandmother about his nightmare . The next morning , a cable arrived with the news of Bruce 's death .
His brother Howard Burnham ( 1870 – 1918 ) , born shortly before the family moved to Los Angeles , lost one leg at the age of 14 and suffered from tuberculosis . During his teenage years he lived with Fred in California and learned from his brother the art of Scoutcraft , how to shoot , and how to ride the range , all in spite of his wooden leg . Howard moved to Africa , became a mining engineer in the Johannesburg gold mines , and later wrote a text book on Modern Mine Valuation . He traveled the world and for a time teamed up with Fred on Yaqui River irrigation project in Mexico . During World War I , Howard worked as a spy for the French government , operating behind enemy lines in southwest Germany . Throughout the war he used his wooden leg to conceal tools he needed for spying . From his death bed , Howard returned to France via Switzerland and shared his vital data and secrets with the French government : the Germans were not opening a new front in the Alps and there was no need to move allied troops away from the Western Front . Howard was buried at Cannes , France , leaving behind his wife and four children . He had been named after his second cousin , Lieutenant Howard Mather Burnham who was killed in action in the American Civil War .
Burnham 's first cousin Charles Edward Russell ( 1860 – 1941 ) was a journalist and politician and also a founder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) . The author of a number of books of biography and social commentary Russell won a Pulitzer Prize in 1928 for his biography : The American Orchestra and Theodore Thomas .
In 1943 , at 83 years of age , Burnham married his much younger typist , Ilo K. Willits Burnham ( June 20 , 1894 – August 28 , 1982 ) . The couple sold their mansion and moved to Santa Barbara in 1946 .
Burnham was a descendant of Thomas Burnham ( 1617 – 1688 ) of Hartford , Connecticut , the first American ancestor of a large number of Burnhams . The descendants of Thomas Burnham have been noted in every American war , including the French and Indian War .
= = Film and stage accounts = =
In 1899 , Frank E. Fillis brought his circus and stage show " Savage South Africa " , featuring a number of Zulu performers , to the Empress Theatre at Earls Court in London as part of the " Greater Britain Exhibition . " The actors dramatically played out famous battles from the Matabele wars twice a day . The program featured " Wilson 's Heroic Stand at the Shangani River " , a re @-@ enactment of the battle of the Shangani Patrol . Fillis himself played Major Wilson , Peter Lobengula played the Matabele King Lobengula , and Burnham was played by the adopted son of Texas Jack Omohundro , " Texas Jack " Jr . , who later ran a Wild West show in South Africa featuring the American cowboy and entertainer Will Rogers . The Shangani segment of the show was filmed in September 1899 , and subsequently sold to movie houses around the world as Major Wilson 's Last Stand . Years later , a feature length Shangani Patrol ( film ) ( 1970 ) was released . The picture was shot on location in and around Bulawayo by RPM Film Studios and directed by David Millin . Burnham was portrayed by the American cowboy actor Will Hutchins of the ABC / Warner Brothers western series Sugarfoot , and the part of Major Wilson was played by the South African actor Brian O 'Shaughnessy .
In late 1958 , Ernest Hemingway acquired the rights to produce a film version of Burnham 's memoirs , Scouting on Two Continents . CBS immediately contracted Hemingway to produce the film for television , with Gary Cooper expressing considerable interest in playing the part of Burnham . Hemingway was already behind schedule with other commitments , however , and no work had been done on the movie when he committed suicide in July 1961 .
Another epic film , On My Honor , was conceived and begun by Cecil B. DeMille . It was to document the founding of the Scouting movement but was left unfinished after DeMille died in January 1959 . The screenplay , by Jesse Lasky , Jr . , focused on Baden @-@ Powell , Burnham and other pioneers who were to have a major influence on Scouting . After DeMille 's death , associate producer Henry Wilcoxon continued to work on the film until 1962 , hiring Sydney Box to assist with the script . Starting in 2001 , producers Jerry Molen and Robert Starling began work to finish DeMille 's project , using an updated screenplay by Starling based on the earlier work of Lasky and Box .
In June 2014 , RatPac Entertainment and Class 5 Films acquired the non @-@ fiction article American Hippopotamus , by Jon Mooallem , about the meat shortage in the U.S. in 1910 and the attempts made by Burnham , Duquesne and Congressman Robert Broussard to import hippopotamuses into the Louisiana bayous and to convince Americans to eat them . The movie will highlight the Burnham - Duquesne rivalry . Edward Norton , William Migliore and Brett Ratner will produce this feature film .
= = Tributes = =
Sir H. Rider Haggard , inventor of the lost world literary genre , was heavily influenced by the larger than life adventures of his friend Burnham as he penned his fictional hero Allan Quatermain . There are many similarities between these two African explorers : both sought and discovered ancient treasures and civilizations , both battled large wild animals and native peoples , both were renowned for their ability to track , even at night , and both had similar nicknames : Quatermain was dubbed " Watcher @-@ by @-@ Night " , while Burnham was called " He @-@ who @-@ sees @-@ in @-@ the @-@ dark " .
To commemorate 100 years of Scouting , the BSA issued 100 bronze coins in 2007 featuring Burnham and Baden @-@ Powell . One side shows the bust of Burnham and is inscribed : " Major Frederick Russell Burnham " , " Father of Scouting " . Other side shows the bust of Baden @-@ Powell and is inscribed : " Col. Robert Baden @-@ Powell " , " Founder of Scouting " . The coins were distributed by the White Eagle District . Years earlier , the BSA helped create the Major Burnham Bowling Trophy , an annual bowling event sponsored by Union Oil and held in California . Serbelodon burnhami , an extinct gomphothere ( Shovel @-@ Tusker elephant ) from California , was named after Burnham . It was discovered by John C. Blick , the brother of Burnham 's first wife .
|
= Rock martin =
The rock martin ( Ptyonoprogne fuligula ) is a small passerine bird in the swallow family that is resident in central and southern Africa . It breeds mainly in the mountains , but also at lower altitudes , especially in rocky areas and around towns , and , unlike most swallows , it is often found far from water . It is 12 – 15 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) long , with mainly brown plumage , paler @-@ toned on the upper breast and underwing coverts , and with white " windows " on the spread tail in flight . The sexes are similar in appearance , but juveniles have pale fringes to the upperparts and flight feathers . The former northern subspecies are smaller , paler , and whiter @-@ throated than southern African forms , and are now usually split as a separate species , the pale crag martin . The rock martin hunts along cliff faces for flying insects using a slow flight with much gliding . Its call is a soft twitter .
This martin builds a deep bowl nest on a sheltered horizontal surface , or a neat quarter @-@ sphere against a vertical rock face or wall . The nest is constructed with mud pellets and lined with grass or feathers , and may be built on natural sites under cliff overhangs or on man @-@ made structures such as buildings , dam walls , culverts and bridges . It is often reused for subsequent broods or in later years . This species is a solitary breeder , and is not gregarious , but small groups may breed close together in suitable locations . The two or three eggs of a typical clutch are white with brown and grey blotches , and are incubated by both adults for 16 – 19 days prior to hatching . Both parents then feed the chicks . Fledging takes another 22 – 24 days , but the young birds will return to the nest to roost for a few days after the first flight .
This small martin is caught in flight by several fast , agile falcon species , such as hobbies , and it sometimes carries parasites , but it faces no major threats . Because of its range of nearly 10 million km2 ( 4 million sq mi ) and large , apparently stable , population , it is not seen as vulnerable and is assessed as least concern on the IUCN Red List .
= = Taxonomy = =
The rock martin was formally described in 1842 as Hirundo fuligula by German physician , explorer and zoologist Martin Lichtenstein and was moved to the new genus Ptyonoprogne by German ornithologist Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach in 1850 . Its nearest relatives are the three other members of the genus , the pale crag martin , P. obsoleta of north Africa , the dusky crag martin P. concolor of southern Asia and the Eurasian crag martin P. rupestris . The genus name is derived from the Ancient Greek ptuon ( φτυον ) , " a fan " , referring to the shape of the opened tail , and Procne ( Πρόκνη ) , a mythological girl who was turned into a swallow . The specific name fuligula means " sooty @-@ throated " , from Latin fuligo " soot " and gula " throat " .
The three Ptyonoprogne species are members of the swallow family of birds , and are placed in the Hirundininae subfamily , which comprises all swallows and martins except the very distinctive river martins . DNA sequence studies suggest that there are three major groupings within the Hirundininae , broadly correlating with the type of nest built . The groups are the " core martins " including burrowing species like the sand martin , the " nest @-@ adopters " , which are birds like the tree swallow that utilise natural cavities , and the " mud nest builders " . The Ptyonoprogne species construct open mud nests and therefore belong to the last group . Hirundo species also build open nests , Delichon house martins have a closed nest , and the Cecropis and Petrochelidon swallows have retort @-@ like closed nests with an entrance tunnel .
The genus Ptyonoprogne is closely related to the larger swallow genus Hirundo , but a DNA analysis showed that a coherent enlarged Hirundo genus should contain all the mud @-@ builder genera . Although the nests of the Ptyonoprogne crag martins resembles those of typical Hirundo species like the barn swallow , the DNA research suggested that if the Delichon house martins are considered to be a separate genus , as is normally the case , Cecropis , Petrochelidon and Ptyonoprogne should also be split off .
= = = Subspecies = = =
There are several subspecies differing in plumage shade or size , although the differences are clinal , and races interbreed where their ranges meet . The small , pale former subspecies ( obsoleta , peroplasta , perpallida , presaharica , spatzi , arabica and buchanani ) found in the mountains of North Africa , the Arabian peninsula and southwest Asia are now normally split as a separate species , the pale crag martin , following German ornithologist Jean Cabanis , who first formally described these birds , but the changes in size and colour are continuous , and the forms often intergrade where they meet , so the evidence for separate species is not strong . The southern forms of the rock martin can weigh more than twice as much as the smallest northern subspecies of pale crag martin . The average weight for P. f. fusciventris is 22 @.@ 4 g ( 0 @.@ 79 oz ) against 10 g ( 0 @.@ 35 oz ) for P. o. obsoleta . The robust , large @-@ billed southernmost forms ( P. f. fuligula , P. f. pretoriae , and P. f. anderssoni ) are sufficiently different from dark , fine @-@ billed P. f. fusciventris that the latter could also be regarded as a potentially different species . However , Rhodesian ornithologist Michael Irwin collected specimens from southern Zimbabwe ( then Rhodesia ) which were dark above like P. f. fusciventris and rich reddish below like P. f. fuligula . This led him to suggest that the two groups had previously been isolated , but were probably hybridising following secondary contact .
= = Description = =
The rock martin of the nominate subspecies P. f. fuligula is 12 – 15 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) long with earth @-@ brown upperparts and a short square tail that has small white patches near the tips of all but the central and outermost pairs of feathers . It has a cinnamon chin , throat , upper breast and underwing coverts , with the rest of the underparts being a similar brown to the upperparts . The eyes are brown , the small bill is mainly black , and the legs are brownish @-@ pink . The sexes are similar in appearance , but juveniles have pale edges to the upperparts and flight feathers . The other subspecies differ from the nominate form as detailed above .
The rock martin 's flight is slow , with rapid wing beats interspersed with flat @-@ winged glides , and it is more acrobatic than the larger Eurasian crag martin . It is a quiet bird ; the song is a muffled twitter , and other calls include a trrt resembling the call of the common house martin , a nasal vick , and a high pitched twee contact call .
The rock martin is much drabber than most African swallows , and confusion is unlikely except with other crag martins or with sand martins of the genus Riparia . The pale crag martin is smaller , paler and greyer than its southern relative . Although only slightly larger than the sand martin and brown @-@ throated sand martin , the rock martin is more robust , has white tail spots , and lacks a breast band . It is paler on the throat , breast and underwings than the all @-@ dark form of the brown @-@ throated sand martin .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The rock martin breeds in suitable habitat in Africa north to Nigeria , Chad and Ethiopia . It is largely resident apart from local movements or a descent to lower altitudes after breeding . This species has been recorded as a vagrant in Gabon , and its status in Congo is uncertain .
The natural breeding habitat is hilly or mountainous country with cliffs , gorges and caves up to 3 @,@ 700 m ( 12 @,@ 000 ft ) above sea level , but this martin also breeds in lowlands , especially if rocks or buildings are available , and may be found far from water . It readily uses man @-@ made structures as a substitute for natural precipices .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
Rock martin pairs often nest alone , although where suitable sites are available small loose colonies may form with up to 40 pairs . These martins aggressively defend their nesting territory against conspecifics and other species . Breeding dates vary geographically and with local weather conditions . Two broods are common , and three have been raised in a season . Breeding mainly August to September . The nest , built by both adults over several weeks , is made from several hundred mud pellets and lined with soft dry grass or sometimes feathers . It may be a half @-@ cup when constructed under an overhang on a vertical wall or cliff , or bowl @-@ shaped like that of the barn swallow when placed on a sheltered ledge . The nest may be built on a rock cliff face , in a crevice or on a man @-@ made structure , and is re @-@ used for the second brood and in subsequent years .
The clutch is usually two or three buff @-@ white eggs blotched with sepia or grey @-@ brown particularly at the wide end . The average egg size in South Africa was 20 @.@ 8 x 14 @.@ 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 82 x 0 @.@ 56 in ) with a weight of 2 @.@ 17 g ( 0 @.@ 077 oz ) . Both adults incubate the eggs for 16 – 19 days prior to hatching and feed the chicks about ten times an hour until they fledge and for several days after they can fly . The fledging time can vary from 22 – 24 days to 25 – 30 days , though the latter estimates probably take into account fledged young returning to the nest for food .
= = = Feeding = = =
The rock martin feeds mainly on insects caught in flight , although it will occasionally feed on the ground . When breeding , birds often fly back and forth along a rock face catching insects in their bills and feed close to the nesting territory . At other times , they may hunt low over open ground . The insects caught depend on what is locally available , but may include mosquitoes and other flies , Hymenoptera , ants and beetles . This martin often feeds alone , but sizeable groups may gather at grass fires to feast on the fleeing insects , and outside the breeding season flocks of up to 300 may form where food is abundant . Cliff faces generate standing waves in the airflow which concentrate insects near vertical areas . Crag martins exploit the area close to the cliff when they hunt , relying on their high manoeuvrability and ability to perform tight turns .
A study of nine bird species including four hirundines showed that the more young there are in a nest , the more frequent are the parents ' feeding visits , but the visits do not increase in proportion to the number of young . On average a solitary nestling therefore gets more food than a member of a pair or of a trio . Since the nestling period is not prolonged in proportion to the drop in feeding rate , an individual fledgling from a larger brood is likely to weigh less when it leaves the nest . However , a subspecies of the rock martin ( P. f. fusciventris ) was an anomaly in respect of both feeding rate and nestling time . There was no difference in parental feeding rate for members of a pair and members of a trio , but the nestling period averaged 1 @.@ 5 days longer for trios than pairs .
= = Predators and parasites = =
Some falcons have the speed and agility to catch swallows and martins in flight , and rock martins may be hunted by species such as the peregrine falcon , Taita falcon , African hobby and wintering Eurasian hobby . Rock martins often share their nesting sites with little swifts , which sometimes forcibly take over the martin 's nests . In 1975 , one of the first findings of the tick Argas ( A. ) africolumbae was in a nest of Ptyonoprogne f. fusciventris in Kenya , at that time the martin was described under its synonym Ptyonoprogne fuligula rufigula ( Fischer & Reichenow ) .
= = Status = =
The rock martin has a very large range of 9 @.@ 5 million km2 ( 3 @.@ 7 million sq mi ) . The total population is unknown , but the bird is described as generally common , although scarce in Botswana and Namibia . The population is thought to be stable , mainly due to the absence of evidence of any declines or substantial threats . Its large range and presumably high numbers mean that the rock martin is not considered to be threatened , and it is classed as least concern on the IUCN Red List .
|
= Maynard James Keenan =
Maynard James Keenan ( born James Herbert Keenan ; April 17 , 1964 ) , often referred to by his initials MJK , is an American musician , record producer , winemaker , and actor , best known as the vocalist for Grammy Award @-@ winning progressive metal band Tool . He is originally from Ohio , but spent his high school and college years in Michigan . After serving in the United States Army in the early 1980s , he attended Kendall College of Art and Design in Grand Rapids . He moved to Los Angeles , California in 1988 to pursue a career in interior design and set construction . Shortly thereafter , he formed the band Tool with Adam Jones .
Keenan is also the lead singer of A Perfect Circle . In 2003 , he created Puscifer as a side project and has subsequently released three studio albums . Since rising to fame , Keenan has been noted as being a recluse ; however , he does emerge to support charitable causes .
In addition to his music career , he has performed improvisational sketch comedy and ventured into acting . He currently owns Merkin Vineyards and the associated winery , Caduceus Cellars , and also partly owns Stronghold Vineyards , all of which are located in Arizona , where he lives . Among other business ventures , he is a partner in the Los Angeles restaurant Cobras & Matadors , and also owns an organic produce market in Cornville , Arizona , which features a food court and a tasting room for his wines .
= = Early life = =
James Keenan was born into a Southern Baptist family in Ravenna , Ohio , on April 17 , 1964 , the only child of Judith Marie ( née Dougherty ; November 22 , 1943 , Bedford , Ohio - June 18 , 2003 , Dover , Ohio ) and Michael Loren Keenan ( born March 4 , 1946 , Ohio ) . When his parents divorced in 1968 , his father , a high school wrestling coach , moved to Scottville , Michigan and Keenan would only see him about once a year for the next 12 years . His mother remarried , bringing Keenan into an " intolerant and unworldly household , " where his intelligence and creative expression would be stifled . His mother suffered a paralyzing cerebral aneurysm in 1976 , when Maynard was 11 , which would later serve as the inspiration for creative works such as Tool 's " Jimmy " and " Wings for Marie " as well as A Perfect Circle 's " Judith " . A few years later , she persuaded Keenan to live with his father in Michigan . Keenan considers this " the best move [ he ] ever made . " Maynard graduated in the class of 1982 at Mason County Central High School in Scottville , where he was a member of the wrestling team . His father was one of the coaches for the team and left coaching at the same time Maynard graduated in 1982 .
Inspired by Bill Murray 's performance in the 1981 comedy film Stripes , Keenan joined the United States Army , with the intention of having the G.I. Bill fund his dream of attending art school ( Kendall College of Art and Design in Grand Rapids , MI ) . By this point , he had lived in Ohio , Michigan , New Jersey , New York , Oklahoma , Kansas , and Texas . He initially served in the Army as a forward observer before studying at the United States Military Academy Preparatory School ( West Point Prep School ) from 1983 to 1984 . In addition to completing a rigorous math and English curriculum , he wrestled , ran on the cross country team and sang in the glee club . It was during his time in the military that he adopted the sobriquet " Maynard " on a whim . He was distinguished in basic and advanced training , but declined an appointment to West Point and instead chose to pursue a music career because of his disillusionment with his colleagues ' values and because he knew West Point would not tolerate his dissidence .
Upon completing his term of enlistment , he studied art at Kendall College of Art and Design in Grand Rapids , Michigan . In 1988 , he relocated to Los Angeles where his love of animals led him to practice interior design for pet stores , before he was quickly fired and began working in set construction . During the 1980s , Keenan played bass guitar for TexA.N.S. and sang for Children of the Anachronistic Dynasty , both independent bands .
= = Music career = =
= = = Early bands = = =
Before Tool , Keenan performed in Children of the Anachronistic Dynasty for a few years , during which he formed the foundation for the song " Sober . " He also ( with future Tool bandmate Danny Carey ) performed live and recorded with Green Jellÿ between 1990 and 1993 , performing backup vocals ( as the voice of the " 1st Pig " ) on the band 's hit song " The Three Little Pigs " on their debut album , and appearing in the music video for " Slave Boy " on the band 's follow up LP .
= = = Tool = = =
After moving to Los Angeles , Keenan met Adam Jones who had heard him singing on a demo in college . Impressed with Keenan 's vocals , Jones suggested that they form a band . Although reluctant at first , Keenan agreed and , in 1990 , Tool was formed . Fronted by Keenan , the eventual lineup included guitarist Jones ; his neighbor , drummer Danny Carey ; and bassist Paul D 'Amour , who would later be replaced by Justin Chancellor .
Tool signed to Zoo Entertainment in November 1991 and released the Opiate EP the following year . To support this release , the band toured with Fishbone and Rage Against the Machine .
Shortly thereafter , Tool released their 1993 debut album , Undertow , in the United States . It was certified gold after just eight months , and platinum less than a year later . In 1994 , the band released their single " Prison Sex " with a corresponding music video created and directed by Jones . The video was deemed " too graphic and offensive " , and was withdrawn by MTV after a few airings due to " a symbolic dealing with the sensitive subject of child abuse " .
In October 1996 , the band released their second studio album , Ænima . The album was certified gold in ten weeks , achieved double platinum in ten months , and won the Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance in 1998 . After the release of the album , Tool began a prolonged legal battle with their label , Volcano Records ( formerly Zoo Records ) , over contract violations . Following this legal battle , which resulted in a new three @-@ record deal , the members of Tool decided to take some time off . During the hiatus , Keenan went under the alias " Gaylord C. " while collaborating with Tim Alexander of Primus and Mike Bordin of Faith No More on " Choked " , a track on the 1997 drumming compilation Flyin ' Traps .
The band members were outspokenly critical of peer @-@ to @-@ peer file sharing networks , due to the negative financial impact on artists dependent on success in record sales . During an interview with NY Rock in 2000 , Keenan stated , " I think there are a lot of other industries out there that might deserve being destroyed . The ones who get hurt by MP3s are not so much companies or the business , but the artists , people who are trying to write songs . "
Five years after the release of Ænima , Tool announced a new album , Systema Encéphale , with a 12 @-@ song tracklist in January 2001 . A month later , the band revealed that the new album was actually titled Lateralus and that the previous announcement had been a ruse . The album was released in May 2001 to positive reviews . Known for his " dark , intelligent , compelling , and unexpected lyrical twists " , Keenan was acclaimed for his songwriting on the album , in which he " doesn 't cross the line from darkness to ugliness ... as often as he has in the past " . In an interview with NY Rock , Keenan explained , " Everything we release with Tool is inspired by our music . It doesn 't matter if it is a video or if its lyrics . The lyrics for " Schism " are nothing more than my interpretation of the music . " The album became a worldwide success , reaching No. 1 on the U.S. Billboard 200 albums chart in its debut week , and Tool received their second Grammy Award for the best metal performance of 2001 for " Schism " . In 2002 , Keenan recorded a song called " Fallen " with Thirty Seconds to Mars that was released on the band 's self @-@ titled debut album .
Fifteen years after the band 's formation , Tool had acquired what Dan Epstein of Revolver described as a devoted " cult " following , and in May 2006 the band released 10 @,@ 000 Days , an album in which Keenan sang about more personal issues in contrast to previous attempts to inspire change . His mother , who inspired the song " jimmy " on Ænima , also served as the inspiration for " Jambi " , and the two @-@ part song " Wings for Marie " and " 10 @,@ 000 Days ( Wings for Marie , Pt 2 ) " , which deals with her 2003 death after 27 years , or around 10 @,@ 000 days , of suffering . The album sold 564 @,@ 000 copies in its opening week in the U.S. and was No. 1 on the Billboard 200 charts . However , 10 @,@ 000 Days was received less favorably by critics than its predecessor Lateralus had been .
Following 10 @,@ 000 Days , Tool has one album remaining to fulfill the obligation of its record contract . Though there is little information available on plans for this album , the band is steadily working towards its fifth studio release . Tool has worked around Keenan and his side projects since 1999 , starting with the creation of A Perfect Circle , which has led to several years between projects . Regarding the future of Tool , Keenan stated in a 2007 interview with Spin , " We 'll make music together until one of us is dead . "
On March 24 , 2009 , a summer tour was announced on Tool 's website , and in a March 26 press release Tool was confirmed as a headliner for the second annual Mile High Music Festival in Commerce City , Colorado , with Widespread Panic and The Fray . Tool also headlined Lollapalooza 2009 in Chicago , Illinois .
On December 12 , 2012 , Tool 's webmaster posted on the band website :
Something that might be encouraging to some Tool enthusiasts is that while riding with Danny to Chili John 's yesterday , I heard a lot of new Tool music ( sans Maynard ) . This was the most new material that I 've heard so far , although a few of the riffs and arrangements were familiar . So , what did I think ? Dare I say that it sounded like ... Tool ( some of it reminiscent to earlier Tool stuff , with other parts pushing the envelope ) , and I assume that it will sound even more like Tool once the vocal melodies , etc. have been added . To answer your next question , I cannot say how far along in the writing process the band is . If I had to GUESS , I would say more than half way ( and keep in mind that in the past , at least , the writing went faster once the first few [ more complex ] songs were finished ) .
= = = A Perfect Circle = = =
During Tool 's post @-@ Ænima hiatus to deal with their legal issues , Keenan began working with Billy Howerdel , Tool 's guitar tech through the Ænima tour , on a different project . The supergroup they formed , A Perfect Circle , began performing in 1999 and released its first album Mer de Noms in 2000 . They released a successful follow @-@ up in 2003 titled Thirteenth Step , a reference to twelve @-@ step programs ( many of the songs were written from the perspective of recovery ) . Both albums were eventually certified platinum . Their subsequent 2004 album , eMOTIVe , was primarily composed of covers , except for the singles " Counting Bodies Like Sheep to the Rhythm of the War Drums " — a song inspired by " Pet " that was originally released on Thirteenth Step — and " Passive " . Keenan later characterized the record as a political album with which he " tested the waters " and was subsequently " crucified " for it because of the content . It was certified gold the month after its release . That same year they released the DVD and CD set entitled aMOTION , which was certified platinum within a month of its release .
Howerdel reported in a May 2006 interview with MTV that the supergroup 's work was concluded for the time being . After more than two years since the band 's last release , Keenan was asked about the status of A Perfect Circle during an interview with Revolver . He stated :
The real problem with running Tool and A Perfect Circle at the same time was they both operate the same way . They 're both live touring bands with a label , still working under the old contract mentality . So I thought it was time to let A Perfect Circle go for now and let Billy explore himself . It 's tough for a guy who went from being a guitar tech [ for Tool ] to being in a band with a pretentious , famous singer and having to live in that shadow . It was important for Billy to go and do his own thing and really explore his own sound and let people hear what he has to say and how he would do it on his own , and then we 'll get back and do some A Perfect Circle stuff .
When asked , in an interview for Spin that same month , about the possibility of another A Perfect Circle album , Keenan stated , " Maybe , someday , a song on a soundtrack . But an album ? No . " A year later , on December 9 , 2008 , blabbermouth.net reported that Keenan had announced on The Pulse of Radio that he and Howerdel have been writing new music for A Perfect Circle . Keenan also said that the band has no plans to resume full @-@ scale touring , or even to write and record a new album . Instead , they will focus on " one or two songs at a time " , which will most likely be released via the Internet .
However , in November 2010 , the band returned from a nearly 6 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ year hiatus with a 14 @-@ show tour in the western US . Touring resumed in May 2011 with a North American tour across the US and Canada that wrapped up at the end of August . The band performed only once in 2012 with a December 29 show in Las Vegas , followed by a five @-@ show Australian tour and a three @-@ show South American tour in early 2013 .
= = = Puscifer = = =
In 2003 , Keenan surfaced under the name " Puscifer " for the song " REV 22 : 20 " on the Underworld film soundtrack . Puscifer was once advertised as a side project with Danny Lohner , who had formerly performed live with Nine Inch Nails , but has since been formed as a manifestation of Keenan 's " creative subconscious " — meaning that Keenan is now using the name as a pseudonym for his solo work . Keenan has stated that it is " a premiere improvisational hardcore band " , and his " catch @-@ all , stream of consciousness , anything goes , etc . " project . When comparing the project to Tool in an interview with Rolling Stone , Keenan described it as his " attempt to make music to inspire people . ... This is definitely not thinking man 's music , but groove @-@ oriented music that makes you feel good . " In a later interview with Artistdirect , Keenan said that he did not want the lyrics to be puzzles . He wanted the complexity to be in the music , stating " that 's the part that gets under your skin and makes you feel good . "
In 2006 , Puscifer contributed the song " The Undertaker ( Renholder Mix ) " to the soundtrack of Underworld : Evolution , where " Renholder " , a moniker for Danny Lohner created by the members of A Perfect Circle , is the reversal of " Re : D Lohner " . Keenan financed and released the first studio album , " V " Is for Vagina , in October 2007 . Created in a tour bus , in several hotel rooms , and in various studios around the country while Keenan toured with Tool , the album is a radical departure from Keenan 's contributions in Tool and A Perfect Circle . Tim Alexander , best known as the drummer for rock band Primus , was a guest musician on the album . He called Puscifer " trancy and hypnotic " and a " total 180 from Tool " . The album was criticized as unfocused and lacking in the passion and intelligence present in Keenan 's previous work .
Puscifer is also a clothing line , with merchandise available for purchase on the band 's website . On September 16 , 2008 , Keenan updated the puscifer.com blog , revealing that the first ever Puscifer store would be opening " hopefully " by October 1 in Jerome , Arizona . Occupying a small space above a tattoo parlor , the store opened on October 3 , 2008 . In addition to the merchandise available on the band 's online store , Keenan has also made available locally roasted coffee , art , and limited edition collectibles .
On February 13 – 15 , 2009 , Keenan debuted Puscifer at the Pearl Concert Theater in Palms Casino Resort in Paradise , Nevada , with a cabaret @-@ style show so abstract it is not easily described . In an interview with the Los Angeles Times , Keenan stated " we didn 't really have any clue what to call it , so we just kind of called it cabaret . " Keenan — who has had previous experience with this type of entertainment , having fronted a similar show in Los Angeles before achieving fame with Tool — went on to add that " you just can 't really describe it , you just have to see it , then it makes sense . " Featuring an ever @-@ changing lineup of artists including Milla Jovovich and Primus drummer Tim Alexander , the show was originally said to have a long @-@ term residency at the Pearl ; however , Keenan later revealed that it was to be only a two @-@ show performance .
Puscifer continued to perform with a revolving lineup throughout 2009 at venues around the Southwest . However , in a November 2009 interview , Keenan stated : " Efforts to confine our beloved enigma to the Southwestern United States have been thwarted . We are compelled beyond all reason to bring the noise Eastward and share our special sauce . Although authorities suggest you be prepared for any and all possibilities , we simply suggest you arrive happy and hungry . "
On October 18 , 2011 , Keenan released Puscifer 's second album , Conditions of My Parole . The album received generally favorable reviews on Metacritic , a positive review from Allmusic 's Gregory Heaney , who described it as " a fine piece of cold weather headphone music . " Keenan followed with the February 19 , 2013 , release of Donkey Punch the Night . This EP includes covers of " Bohemian Rhapsody " by Queen and " Balls to the Wall " by Accept . It received mostly mixed reviews , resulting in a Metacritic rating of 62 % .
= = = Writing and performance style = = =
A primary purpose of Keenan 's lyrics for Tool involves a desire to connect with the listeners on a personal level ; to encourage them to look within themselves for self @-@ identity , understanding and reflection . Tool does not include lyrics with any releases as Keenan believes most people " don 't get it " and it is not a priority of the band that people do . However , after each release Keenan has eventually published his typed lyrics online via the semi @-@ official fansite , with the exception of " Lateralus " , which was published on the official Tool website . Despite Maynard 's aversion to promoting the lyrical content of Tool 's work to its audience , lyrical arrangements are often given special attention , such as in the lyrics to " Lateralus " , wherein the number of syllables per line correspond to an arrangement of the Fibonacci numbers , and " Jambi " , in which the metrical foot iamb is used . Keenan 's lyrics on Ænima and Lateralus focused on philosophy and spirituality — specific subjects range from evolution and Jungian psychology in " Forty @-@ Six & 2 " and transcendence in " Lateralus " .
In live performances with Tool , Keenan has often been known to be situated on a platform towards the rear of the stage , without a spotlight , facing the backdrop rather than the audience . Breckinridge Haggerty , the band 's live video director , says that the dark spaces on stage " are mostly for Maynard " . He explains , " a lot of the songs are a personal journey for him and he has a hard time with the glare of the lights when he 's trying to reproduce these emotions for the audience . He needs a bit of personal space , and he feels more comfortable in the shadows . " An exception , which surprised even devout Tool fans , occurred when a fan climbed on stage and attempted to hug Keenan during the band 's performance of " Pushit " . After dropping the fan to the ground with a gentle hip toss , Keenan , continuing to sing , wrapped himself around the man 's back into a rear naked choke . He held the man without actually constricting his neck , allowing him to raise his fist in celebration . Keenan eventually turned the man to his stomach and sat on his back , where he stayed for " an uncomfortably long period of time . " His appearance with Tool has included the Mohawk hairstyle , wigs , Kabuki masks , bras , tights , and his entire body in blue paint . This is contrasted with a variety of long haired wigs while performing with or promoting A Perfect Circle .
Describing Keenan 's contribution to Tool and A Perfect Circle , The New York Times wrote that " both groups rely on Mr. Keenan 's ability to dignify emotions like lust , anger and disgust , the honey in his voice adding a touch of profundity " . He ranked No. 21 in Hit Parader 's 2006 list of " Heavy Metal 's All @-@ Time Top 100 Vocalists " , and his unique style of singing has often been considered influential to artists such as Pete Loeffler of Chevelle and Jared Leto of Thirty Seconds to Mars .
= = Comedy and acting = =
Keenan is featured in several segments of Mr. Show , most notably in the Ronnie Dobbs sketch presented in the first season . In one scene , he is seen being arrested with Dobbs . Later in the sketch he is featured wearing a wig as the lead singer of the then @-@ fictitious band " Puscifer " . When asked about the arrest of Dobbs , Keenan replies " Guilty ? Yeah . I 'm sure he 's guilty but ... he knows it . I mean , you 're guilty , and you don 't know it . So ... who 's really in jail ? " He also appears in episode 2 @.@ 6 , " The Velveteen Touch of a Dandy Fop " , as one of the viewers of Coupon : The Movie , saying " Now is not the time " , waving the cameras off and slapping the microphone out of his face in disgust after walking out of the theater . Later , Keenan would sing on a track for the Mr. Show incarnation Run Ronnie Run , and appear in the " music video sex scene " on its DVD . Keenan appeared on the cover of the May / June 1999 issue of Pop Smear magazine , portraying Charles Manson as part of a photo essay , imitating a famous Life magazine portrait . He also appeared as Satan in the 2002 film Bikini Bandits and its 2004 sequel Bikini Bandits 2 : Golden Rod . When asked in an interview which role was more difficult , Keenan responded , " Oh , Manson . He 's a real person . People know what he looks like , how he talked . With Satan there 's so much gray area . "
In the mid @-@ 90s , responding to requests for Tool to perform in benefit shows , Keenan created " Free Frances Bean " tee @-@ shirts to represent his own platform . Frances ' mother , Courtney Love , had previously referred to Keenan as a " media whore " to which he responded , " Isn 't that great ? I have the distinction of being called a media whore by Courtney Love . " He said that after watching " the tornado that is her mother " , he thought " Oh my God , how is Frances Bean gonna survive this insanity ? " Although it was started as a simple joke , the T @-@ shirts were soon in high demand and Keenan was giving them away .
On April 1 , 2005 , the official Tool website announced , as an April Fools ' Day prank , that " Maynard has found Jesus " and would be abandoning the recording of the new album temporarily and possibly permanently . Kurt Loder of MTV contacted Keenan via email to ask for a confirmation and received a nonchalant confirmation . When Loder asked again , Keenan 's response was simply " heh heh " . On April 7 , the official site revealed that it was a hoax . During an interview Keenan later stated , " It was April Fools ' . If you fall for that on April Fools ' Day , there 's nothing I can do for you . " He has been part of other April Fools ' pranks related to Tool , including one in which he was said to be in critical condition after a tour bus accident .
Keenan made his major feature film debut in the April 17 , 2009 , release of Crank : High Voltage . Sharing a scene with the movie 's lead , Jason Statham , Keenan portrays a dog walker " who has an electrifying experience [ ... ] in a public park " .
In May 2015 , Keenan made a cameo in an episode of Comedy Bang ! Bang ! as fictional punk musician Barf Edwards .
= = Winemaking and other endeavors = =
In addition to a produce market in Cornville , Arizona ; Keenan , whose grandparents and great @-@ uncle made wine in Northern Italy , owns Merkin Vineyards and Caduceus Cellars , based in the unincorporated area of Page Springs / Cornville , Arizona , southwest of Sedona , where he resides . While the winery is named after an ancient symbol for commerce ( caduceus ) , the vineyard is named after a pubic wig ( merkin ) . He is also a partner of Stronghold Vineyards , " an 80 @-@ acre site dedicated to producing affordable wines in the state " , located in the small , unincorporated area known as Kansas Settlement in Sulfur Springs Valley , Arizona . Keenan 's mother died in 2003 , at the age of 59 , due to complications from an aneurysm . Following her death , he scattered her ashes across one of his vineyards , and later named one of his wines after her , honoring her memory with his Cabernet Sauvignon " Nagual del Judith " . In a statement released in April 2009 , Keenan stated :
I am standing on a metaphorical plateau . The view from here suggests that I / we still have many mountains to negotiate . It has already been a long journey . But the successes and failures have been in balance . Which would suggest that I / we have chosen the correct path . I hold in my hands the evidence to support this statement . . . With tears in my eyes , I present to you the very first 100 percent Arizona Caduceus wine . Nagual del Judith , named after my late mother , Judith Marie .
His previous wines were named after relatives of the Chiricahua Apache chief Cochise who lived in the area where the vineyard is located , and were produced at Page Springs Cellars , owned by Keenan 's business partner . While those wines used some fruits imported from California , " Nagual del Judith " is the first made entirely from Keenan 's own vineyard . Keenan was also a part @-@ owner of Cobras & Matadors , an LA restaurant ran by Steven Arroyo until 2012 .
During the fall season of 2008 , Keenan began a small tour of sorts with his Stronghold Vineyards partner Eric Glomski , promoting his wine with signing sessions at Whole Foods Markets in California and Nevada . The tour continued in 2009 with sessions in Texas kicking off in March , and appearances scheduled during Tool 's 2009 summer tour in Florida , Massachusetts , and New Jersey . In July 2009 , Keenan opened an organic market which features a tasting room for his Arizona wines as well as a food court .
Keenan is featured in Blood Into Wine : The Arizona Stronghold , a documentary co @-@ produced by Moog filmmakers Ryan Page and Christopher Pomerenk that chronicles Keenan and Glomski 's embarkation into winemaking in the desert conditions of Arizona 's Verde Valley , and the success they 've seen in the decade since its inception . The film , which includes appearances from Tim & Eric , Patton Oswalt , and Milla Jovovich , was shown at the Noise Pop Festival on February 25 , 2010 , along with another documentary produced by Pomerenk , The Heart is a Drum Machine . It investigates why people create and listen to music , and features Keenan , Jason Schwartzman , Kurt Loder , Nic Harcourt , Juliette Lewis , and Elijah Wood .
In a January 2013 interview with Phoenix New Times , Keenan announced he is working on an autobiography .
I think there are a lot of misconceptions with some people that , all of a sudden , I was born when my first band came out , " Keenan says . " I actually had a life before that , and there were a lot of accomplishments . [ The book ] will kind of chronicle why it is I got to where I am , and why I got to where you knew about me .
In April 2016 it was announced that Maynard 's authorized biography would be called " A Perfect Union Of Contrary Things " and would be for sale November 8 , 2016 .
= = Philanthropy = =
Keenan has used his voice on numerous occasions to support charitable causes . He performed at a 1997 benefit concert for RAINN ( the Rape , Abuse & Incest National Network ) organized by Tori Amos ( who had often referred to Keenan as an unofficial brother ) . He is one of the notable performers for Axis of Justice , a non @-@ profit organization that brings musicians , fans of music , and grassroots political organizations together to fight for social justice . In 2004 , Axis of Justice released Concert Series Volume 1 . Included are two tracks featuring Keenan on vocals . The second track on the album , " ( What 's So Funny ' Bout ) Peace , Love , and Understanding " , was recorded live during Lollapalooza in Seattle , Washington on August 23 , 2003 . The first track , " Where the Streets Have No Name " , was recorded live during the Axis of Justice Concert Series at The Avalon in Hollywood on July 19 , 2004 . In February 2005 , Keenan appeared as a surprise vocalist at a Seattle benefit concert for victims of the 2004 earthquake and tsunami in southern Asia , performing with the partly reformed Alice in Chains , in place of the deceased vocalist Layne Staley , on the songs " Them Bones " , " Man in the Box " , and " Rooster " .
= = Personal life = =
He has a son named Devo H. Keenan ( born 1995 ) who sang backing vocals on A Perfect Circle 's Thirteenth Step , and later was credited as the cellist on Keep Telling Myself It 's Alright — the debut album of Ashes Divide , Billy Howerdel 's post @-@ A Perfect Circle project . He also gave a solo cello performance for Maynard 's 50th birthday celebrational concert , " Cinquanta " .
Two songs bear the name of Maynard 's mother , Judith Marie Keenan : the song " Wings for Marie ( Pt . 1 ) " by Tool and " Judith " by A Perfect Circle .
Keenan has a reputation for being reclusive , elliptical and controlling of his public image . He dislikes the manner in which rock stars are worshipped , and at one point carried business cards with the name " Jesus H. Christ " printed on them . When having to deal with stalkers , Keenan has apparently resorted to using a paintball gun to run off trespassers from his property . Brazilian Jiu @-@ Jitsu is one of Keenan 's pursuits , and he studied under Rickson Gracie .
It was announced in June 2010 that Keenan had proposed to girlfriend and Caduceus lab manager Lei Li . On September 10 , 2012 , Keenan wrote an article for the Phoenix New Times in which he made reference to his wife , and he has included in the position field of her Caduceus staff page , " Wife " and " My Better half , " and her interests as " Me . " On July 25 , 2014 , Keenan and his wife welcomed a baby daughter , Lei Li Agostina Maria .
= = Selected discography = =
With TexA.N.S.
Live at Sons and Daughters Hall ( 1986 )
Never Again ( 1986 )
With Children of the Anachronistic Dynasty
Fingernails ( 1986 )
Dog.House ( 1987 )
With Tool
Undertow ( 1993 )
Ænima ( 1996 )
Lateralus ( 2001 )
10 @,@ 000 Days ( 2006 )
With A Perfect Circle
Mer de Noms ( 2000 )
Thirteenth Step ( 2003 )
eMOTIVe ( 2004 )
As Puscifer
" V " Is for Vagina ( 2007 )
Conditions of My Parole ( 2011 )
Money Shot ( 2015 )
|
= Drew Carey =
Drew Allison Carey ( born May 23 , 1958 ) is an American actor , comedian , sports executive , and game show host . After serving in the U.S. Marine Corps and making a name for himself in stand @-@ up comedy , Carey eventually gained popularity starring in his own sitcom , The Drew Carey Show , and serving as host of the U.S. version of the improv comedy show Whose Line Is It Anyway ? , both of which aired on ABC .
Carey has appeared in several films , television series , music videos , a made @-@ for @-@ television film , and a computer game . He has hosted the game show The Price Is Right since 2007 on CBS . He is interested in a variety of sports , has worked as a photographer at U.S. National Team soccer games , is a minority owner of the Major League Soccer team Seattle Sounders FC . Carey has written an autobiography , Dirty Jokes and Beer : Stories of the Unrefined , detailing his early life and television career .
= = Early life = =
Carey is the youngest of Lewis and Beulah Carey 's three sons and raised in the Old Brooklyn neighborhood of Cleveland , Ohio . When Drew was eight years old , his father died from a brain tumor . He played the cornet and trumpet in the marching band of James Ford Rhodes High School , from which he graduated in 1975 .
He continued on to college at Kent State University ( KSU ) and was expelled twice for poor academic performance . He left KSU after three years . After leaving the university , Carey enlisted into the United States Marine Corps Reserve in 1980 and served for six years . He moved to Las Vegas for a few months in 1982 , and for a short time worked as a bank teller and a waiter at Denny 's .
= = Stand @-@ up career = =
In 1985 , he began his comedy career by following up on a suggestion by David Lawrence ( a disc jockey friend who had been paying Drew to write jokes for David 's radio show in Cleveland ) to go to the library and borrow books on how to write jokes . The following year , after winning an open @-@ microphone contest , he became Master of Ceremonies at the Cleveland Comedy Club . He performed at comedy clubs over the next few years in Cleveland and Los Angeles . He first came to the national eye as a comedian when he competed in the 1988 Star Search . Carey was working as a stand @-@ up comedian when he appeared on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson in November 1991 . His performance that night impressed Carson , who invited Carey to the couch next to his desk ; this was considered a rare honor for any comedian . In that same year , Carey joined the 14th Annual Young Comedians Special on HBO and made his first appearance on Late Night with David Letterman . In 1994 , Carey wrote his own stand @-@ up comedy special , Drew Carey : Human Cartoon , which aired on Showtime and won a CableACE Award for Best Writing .
= = Acting career = =
= = = Early roles = = =
His early stand @-@ up career led to supporting roles on television shows , during which he developed the character of a hapless middle @-@ class bachelor . In 1993 , Carey had a small role in the film Coneheads as a taxi passenger . In 1994 , Carey co @-@ starred with John Caponera in The Good Life , a short @-@ lived sitcom on NBC . After the show was cancelled , Bruce Helford , a writer on the show , hired Carey as a consultant for the television show Someone Like Me .
= = = The Drew Carey Show = = =
After their stint on Someone Like Me , Carey and Helford developed and produced the storyline for The Drew Carey Show . The sitcom revolved around a fictionalized version of Carey , as he took on the stresses of life and work with his group of childhood friends . The show premiered on September 13 , 1995 on ABC . In his autobiography , Carey revealed his frustration with having to deal with censors and being unable to employ the off @-@ color humor common in his stand @-@ up routines . Carey initially earned $ 60 @,@ 000 per episode in the first seasons , then renegotiated for $ 300 @,@ 000 . By the final season , he was earning $ 750 @,@ 000 per episode . The show had high ratings for its first few seasons , but declining ratings and increasing production costs ( around $ 3 million per episode ) precipitated its cancellation . The program had a total of 233 episodes over its nine @-@ year run and Carey was one of four actors to appear in every episode . The show starred ( in order of episode appearances ) Carey , Diedrich Bader , Kathy Kinney , Ryan Stiles ( all in every episode ) ; Craig Ferguson ( starring role in seasons 2 – 8 and guest appearances in 9 ) ; Christa Miller ( seasons 1 – 7 ) ; and Ian Gomez ( semi @-@ regular from seasons 1 – 9 ) and John Carroll Lynch ( semi @-@ regular from seasons 3 / 4 – 9 ) .
= = = Improv television = = =
While still starring in The Drew Carey Show , in 1998 Carey began hosting the American version of the improvisational comedy show Whose Line Is It Anyway ? . He would announce the improv guests , direct the games , and then would usually involve himself in the final game of the episode . The show ran for a total of 220 episodes until the show 's cancellation in 2006 . In 1998 , the New York Friars ' Club made Carey the newest inductee of the group 's Comedy Central Roast . His friend Ryan Stiles ( who costarred in The Drew Carey Show and Whose Line Is It Anyway ? ) served as the roastmaster . Carey 's income from Whose Line Is It Anyway ? and The Drew Carey Show led to his inclusion on the Forbes list of highest @-@ paid entertainers of 1998 , at 24th with $ 45 @.@ 5 million .
For the WB 's 2004 – 2005 prime time schedule , Carey co @-@ produced and starred in Drew Carey 's Green Screen Show , a spin @-@ off of Whose Line Is It Anyway ? . It was canceled by the WB , but picked up shortly afterward by Comedy Central . The show 's premise relied on the use of a green screen for all of the actors ' improv interactions . Animation on the screen was inserted during post @-@ production .
In April 2011 , Carey began hosting a new primetime improv show , called Drew Carey 's Improv @-@ A @-@ Ganza . It was filmed at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas , Nevada and first aired on April 11 . The show takes on the premise of Whose Line ? and Drew Carey 's Green Screen Show in that it features many of the same performers from both shows and they do improv based on audience @-@ provided suggestions .
= = = Improv All @-@ Stars = = =
Carey was one of the founders of the Improv All @-@ Stars , a group of eleven actors who perform in unscripted skits . The group joined Carey in all three of his improv shows , Whose Line Is It Anyway ? , Drew Carey 's Green Screen Show , and Drew Carey 's Improv @-@ a @-@ ganza and some members had major roles or guest starred on The Drew Carey Show . The Improv All @-@ Stars travel on comedy tours , performing at comedy clubs throughout the United States .
= = Game show host = =
= = = Power of 10 = = =
Beginning in 2007 , Carey began hosting game shows , beginning with his April selection as host of the CBS game show pilot Power of 10 . The show ran from August 7 , 2007 to April 7 , 2008 and aired twice weekly during the late summer and early fall . Each game featured contestants predicting how a cross @-@ section of Americans responded to questions covering a wide variety of topics in polls conducted by CBS .
= = = The Price Is Right = = =
After taping the pilot episode for Power of 10 , Carey was contacted by CBS about replacing Bob Barker — who had earlier announced his own retirement — as host of The Price Is Right . After initially turning down the offer , Carey announced on Late Show with David Letterman that he would succeed Barker as host of the program beginning in the fall of 2007 . His first episode of The Price Is Right was taped on August 15 , and his shows began airing on October 15 . In response to replacing Barker as host of the game show , Carey stated " You can 't replace Bob Barker . I don 't compare myself to anybody ... It 's only about what you 're doing and supposed to do , and I feel like I 'm supposed to be doing this . " When Carey began hosting , the set , theme music , and show logo were updated . However , Carey kept the old closing line about spaying and neutering the pets that originated with Barker , although his version uses slightly different wording . During Carey 's second year as host , he began to write some of the sketches used during the Showcase , which sometimes features guest appearances by stars of other CBS programs . In the April Fools ' Day 2013 episode , Carey and announcer George Gray switched places with the models , letting the two men be the models for the episode .
= = Other roles and appearances = =
Carey began appearing in commercials for restaurants in the late 1990s in Canada with The Great Root Bear , but his two @-@ year contract with A & W Food Services of Canada was cut short in November 1998 after an episode of The Drew Carey Show featured McDonald 's . As a result of his dismissal , Carey sued A & W for compensation .
Disney 's Hollywood Studios ( then " Disney @-@ MGM Studios " ) , part of Walt Disney World Resort in Florida , debuted a 12 @-@ minute attraction in 1999 titled Sounds Dangerous ! . In the show , a camera follows Carey through a day as an undercover detective . When his video camera fails , the audience is left in complete darkness wearing earphones , following his adventure through sound cues . The attraction is now closed .
In 2000 , Carey was given a cameo appearance in the House Party expansion pack of the computer game The Sims . To make him appear , the characters in the game must throw a successful party , which causes Carey to arrive in a limo and join the festivities . Carey is a fan of The Sims series and during one April Fool 's episode of The Drew Carey Show , a scene takes place completely within The Sims . Carey made several other cameo appearances in music videos , including " Weird Al " Yankovic 's " It 's All About the Pentiums " and Fountains of Wayne 's 2004 video for " Mexican Wine " , giving an introduction to the video as if it were on a stage .
On January 21 , 2001 , Drew entered as Vince McMahon 's guest entrant in the Royal Rumble match .
Although primarily known for his television work , Carey has done limited film work , with his first appearance in 1993 's Coneheads . His next film was the 2000 television film , Geppetto that debuted on The Wonderful World of Disney . The film , an adaptation of Pinocchio , included actor Wayne Brady who had joined Carey on his improv shows . Carey took singing lessons to prepare for the role . In 2005 , Carey appeared in three films : the animated film Robots , where he provided a voice @-@ over for the character Crank ; The Aristocrats where he retold a dirty joke along with other celebrities ; and the documentary , Fuck , where he was interviewed .
Carey provided the entertainment for the 2002 Annual White House correspondents ' dinner . Once Carey completed his standup routine for the 1 @,@ 800 guests , President George W. Bush , noting Carey 's improv work , made a joke of his own : " Drew ? Got any interest in the Middle East ? " In 2003 , he joined Jamie Kennedy to host the WB 's live special Play for a Billion . In September 2003 , Carey led a group of comedians , including Blake Clark and The Drew Carey Show 's Kathy Kinney , on a comedy tour of Iraq .
On June 8 , 2006 , Drew Carey 's Sporting Adventures debuted on the Travel Channel . In this series , Carey traveled throughout Germany to photograph multiple FIFA World Cup soccer games while he immerses himself in the culture of the towns and states he visits . In early 2008 , Carey appeared in Matt Groening 's The Simpsons as part of the episode " All About Lisa " as a guest on the Krusty the Clown Show . He also surfaced in the second season of Community , playing a well liked former boss to Jeff Winger .
On March 4 , 2014 , it was announced on Good Morning America that Carey would compete on the season 18 of Dancing with the Stars . He was partnered with professional dancer Cheryl Burke . The couple was eliminated on the sixth week of competition , finishing in 8th place .
= = Writing = =
Carey has routinely written throughout his career , including developing his stand @-@ up comedy routines in his early stand @-@ up career , and then moving on to assist in writing sitcoms . In 1997 , Carey published his autobiography , Dirty Jokes and Beer : Stories of the Unrefined wherein he shared memories of his early childhood and of his father 's death when he was eight . He also revealed that he was once molested , had suffered bouts of depression , and had made two suicide attempts by swallowing a large amount of sleeping pills . The book discusses his college fraternity years while attending Kent State University , and his professional career up to that time . The book featured large amounts of profanity and , as the title suggests , includes multiple dirty jokes ( there is one at the start of each chapter ) and references to beer . The book was featured on The New York Times bestseller list for three months .
= = Personal life = =
He adopted his crew cut hair style while serving in the United States Marine Corps . Carey has had refractive surgery to correct his vision and therefore did not really require glasses ( any glasses he wore in public were merely props to help the audience recognize him ) . However , while this was true for several years , on the May 17 , 2006 episode of Jimmy Kimmel Live ! he revealed that when he turned 40 , he actually developed a need for bifocals . As of 2007 , Carey resides in Los Angeles and New York City .
Carey is a father figure to Nicole Jaracz 's son , Connor , from a previous relationship . They have no children together . Nicole and Connor have appeared alongside Carey on The Price Is Right several times . Although he proposed to Jaracz in 2007 , the pair never wed as the engagement was called off in January 2012 .
After suffering chest pains while filming The Drew Carey Show in August 2001 , Carey went to the hospital where he underwent a coronary angioplasty . Although his weight was a comedic topic throughout his sitcom and improv shows , in 2010 he began a diet and exercise plan , resulting in an extensive weight loss ( similar to former TPIR announcer Rod Roddy ) . He also claimed that he cured his Type 2 diabetes .
= = = Political views = = =
Carey is an outspoken libertarian . He has expressed his political philosophy in the following terms , " I believe the answers to all the problems we face as a society won 't come from Washington , it will come from us . So the way we decide to live our lives and our decisions about what we buy or don 't buy are much more important than who we vote for . "
Carey expressed his distaste for the Bush administration 's management of the Iraq War , specifically on the September 15 , 2007 , episode of Real Time with Bill Maher . He made donations to Ron Paul 's presidential campaign for the 2008 election . On the September 26 , 2008 , episode of The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson , Carey defined " libertarian " to host Craig Ferguson as " a conservative who still gets high . " In 2016 , he supported Libertarian Party presidential candidate Gary Johnson in his run for office .
Carey has spoken about his various political beliefs in several interviews , and in 1998 he led a " smoke @-@ in " in defiance of California 's newly passed no @-@ smoking ordinance inside bars and restaurants . Carey has hosted a series of mini @-@ documentaries called The Drew Carey Project on Reason.tv , an online project of Reason Foundation , a libertarian @-@ oriented nonprofit think tank ( for which Carey sits as a member of the board of trustees ) . The first episode , " Gridlock " , addresses private highway ownership and was released on October 15 , 2007 . Other episodes discuss topics such as eminent domain , urban traffic congestion , and medical marijuana .
= = = Sports involvement = = =
Carey is a devoted fan of the U.S. National Soccer Team , Cleveland Browns , Cleveland Cavaliers , Cleveland Indians and the Columbus Blue Jackets . In 1999 , Carey was part of the pregame ceremonies at the first game of the return of the Cleveland Browns , televised on ESPN . Carey attended the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany and the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa . Carey is a minority owner of the Seattle Sounders FC , who began play in Major League Soccer on March 19 , 2009 . Carey is a fan of FC Barcelona and of the Scottish team Rangers . In 2006 he was a season ticket holder for the Los Angeles Galaxy .
Carey has shown his support for the Indians by throwing the first pitch at an August 12 , 2006 , game against the Kansas City Royals . He was rewarded by the Cleveland Indians for being " the greatest Indians fan alive " with a personal bobblehead doll made in his likeness that was given to fans . Carey responded to his bobblehead likeness by saying " Bobblehead Day , for me , is as big as getting a star in the Hollywood Walk of Fame . "
In 2001 , Carey was the first television actor to enter World Wrestling Federation 's 30 @-@ man " Royal Rumble " match , which he did to promote an improv comedy pay @-@ per @-@ view at the time . He appeared in a few backstage segments before his brief participation in the match . Upon entering the ring , Carey stood unopposed for more than half a minute , but after the next entrant Kane refused a monetary bribe , Carey eliminated himself from the match by jumping over the top rope and retreated from ringside . On April 2 , 2011 , Carey was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame by Kane .
Carey competed against five other celebrities in the first celebrity edition of the 2003 World Poker Tour . He placed fifth , only beating out actor Jack Black . Carey won $ 2 @,@ 000 for his charity .
On May 15 , 2011 , Carey completed the " Marine Corps Historic Half Marathon " in 1 : 57 : 02 , then on September 4 , 2011 , he improved to complete the Disneyland Half Marathon in 1 : 50 : 46 . And on October 30 , 2011 , he finished the Marine Corps Marathon with a chip time of 4 : 37 : 11 , placing 10149th out of 20940 .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
Carey is a supporter of libraries , crediting them for beginning his successful comedy career . On May 2 , 2000 , in a celebrity edition of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire , he selected the Ohio Library Foundation to receive his $ 500 @,@ 000 winnings . He later went on to win an additional $ 32 @,@ 000 on the second celebrity Millionaire , making him one of the biggest winning contestants on Millionaire who did not win the top prize . Carey also has played on the World Poker Tour in the Hollywood Home games for the Cleveland Public Library charity . In June 2007 , Carey offered to donate up to $ 100 @,@ 000 ( in $ 10 @,@ 000 increments ) to the Mooch Myernick Memorial Fund if anybody could beat him at the video game FIFA Soccer 07 for the Xbox 360 . He dared five players from both the U.S. Men 's and Women 's National Teams to compete against him . Carey ended up donating $ 100 @,@ 000 plus $ 60 @,@ 000 for losing two games out of the six games he played .
In October 2009 , Carey made a bid of $ 25 @,@ 000 in a charity auction for the @ drew Twitter account . He later increased his offer to $ 100 @,@ 000 if the number of followers of his account @ DrewFromTV reached 100 @,@ 000 by the end of the auction . In an interview with CBS News , he said he would instead donate $ 1 million to the charity Livestrong Foundation if his follower count reached one million by December 31 , 2009 .
= = Photography = =
Carey can sometimes be seen on the sidelines of U.S. National Team soccer games as a press photographer . His images are sold via wire services under the pseudonym Brooks Parkenridge . He was at the 2006 FIFA World Cup in the summer of 2006 , for his television show Drew Carey 's Sporting Adventures .
= = Filmography = =
Carey has starred in only a few television shows and films , but also has numerous guest star appearances in a variety of sitcoms and comedy shows .
= = = Television = = =
= = = Film = = =
.
= = Awards and honors = =
= = = Individual = = =
1994 : Cable Ace Award for Best Writing – Drew Carey : Human Cartoon
1995 : TV Guide " 10 Hottest New Faces of 1995 "
1998 : Satellite Award for Best Actor – Musical / Comedy Series
2000 : Honorary DHL from Cleveland State University
2000 : People 's Choice Award for Favorite Male Television Performer
2003 : Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame
2004 : Comedy Central 's 100 Greatest Stand @-@ Ups of All Time ( # 84 )
2011 : WWE Hall of Fame inductee
2011 : Southern California Journalism " Best Advocacy Journalism " Award winner
= = = Collective = = =
2013 : Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Game / Audience Participation Show ( as host of The Price Is Right )
2014 : Supporters ' Shield winner ( as part owner of the Seattle Sounders )
Four @-@ time Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup winner ( as part owner of the Seattle Sounders - 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2014 )
|
= Manchester Ship Canal =
The Manchester Ship Canal is a 36 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 58 km ) inland waterway in the North West of England linking Manchester to the Irish Sea . Starting at the Mersey Estuary near Liverpool , it generally follows the original routes of the rivers Mersey and Irwell through the historic counties of Cheshire and Lancashire . Several sets of locks lift vessels about 60 feet ( 18 m ) up to Manchester , where the canal 's terminus was built . Major landmarks along its route include the Barton Swing Aqueduct , the only swing aqueduct in the world , and Trafford Park , the world 's first planned industrial estate and still the largest in Europe .
The rivers Mersey and Irwell were first made navigable in the early 18th century . Goods were also transported on the Runcorn extension of the Bridgewater Canal ( from 1776 ) and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway ( from 1830 ) , but by the late 19th century the Mersey and Irwell Navigation had fallen into disrepair and was often unusable . In addition , Manchester 's business community viewed the charges imposed by Liverpool 's docks and the railway companies as excessive . A ship canal was therefore proposed as a way of giving ocean @-@ going vessels direct access to Manchester . The region was suffering from the effects of the Long Depression , and for the canal 's proponents , who argued that the scheme would boost competition and create jobs , the idea of a ship canal made sound economic sense . They initiated a public campaign to enlist support for the scheme , which was first presented to Parliament as a bill in 1882 . Faced with stiff opposition from Liverpool , the canal 's supporters were unable to gain the necessary Act of Parliament to allow the scheme to go ahead until 1885 .
Construction began in 1887 ; it took six years and cost £ 15 million ( equivalent to about £ 1 @.@ 65 billion in 2011 ) . When the ship canal opened in January 1894 it was the largest river navigation canal in the world , and enabled the newly created Port of Manchester to become Britain 's third busiest port despite the city being about 40 miles ( 64 km ) inland . Changes to shipping methods and the growth of containerisation during the 1970s and ' 80s meant that many ships were now too big to use the canal and traffic declined , resulting in the closure of the terminal docks at Salford . Although able to accommodate a range of vessels from coastal ships to inter @-@ continental cargo liners , the canal is not large enough for most modern vessels . By 2011 traffic had decreased from its peak in 1958 of 18 million long tons ( 20 million short tons ) of freight each year to about 7 million long tons ( 7 @.@ 8 million short tons ) . The canal is now privately owned by Peel Ports , whose plans include redevelopment , expansion , and an increase in shipping from 8 @,@ 000 containers a year to 100 @,@ 000 by 2030 , as part of their Atlantic Gateway project .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The idea that the rivers Mersey and Irwell should be made navigable from the Mersey Estuary in the west to Manchester in the east was first proposed in 1660 , and revived in 1712 by the English civil engineer Thomas Steers . The necessary legislation was proposed in 1720 , and the Act of Parliament for the navigation passed into law in 1721 . Construction began in 1724 , undertaken by the Mersey & Irwell Navigation Company . By 1734 boats " of moderate size " were able to make the journey from quays near Water Street in Manchester to the Irish Sea , but the navigation was only suitable for small ships ; during periods of low rainfall or when strong easterly winds held back the tide in the estuary , there was not always sufficient depth of water for a fully laden boat . The completion in 1776 of the Runcorn extension of the Bridgewater Canal , followed in 1830 by the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway , intensified competition for the carriage of goods . In 1825 an application had been made to Parliament for an Act to allow the construction of a ship canal between the mouth of the River Dee and Manchester at a cost of £ 1 million , but " the necessary forms not having been observed " , it did not become law . In 1844 ownership of the Mersey & Irwell Navigation was transferred to the Bridgewater Trustees , and in 1872 it was sold to The Bridgewater Navigation Company for £ 1 @.@ 112 million . The navigation had by then fallen into disrepair , its owners preferring instead to maintain the more profitable canal ; in 1882 the navigation was described as being " hopelessly choked with silt and filth " , and was closed to all but the smaller boats for 264 out of 311 working days .
Along with deteriorating economic conditions in the 1870s and the start of a period known as the Long Depression , the dues charged by the Port of Liverpool and the railway charges from there to Manchester were perceived to be excessive by Manchester 's business community ; it was often cheaper to import goods from Hull , on the opposite side of the country , than it was from Liverpool . A ship canal was proposed as a way to reduce carriage charges , avoid payment of dock and town dues at Liverpool , and by @-@ pass the Liverpool to Manchester railways by giving Manchester direct access to the sea for its imports and its exports of manufactured goods . Historian Ian Harford suggested that the canal may also have been conceived as an " imaginative response to [ the ] problems of depression and unemployment " that Manchester was experiencing during the early 1880s . Its proponents argued that reduced transport costs would make local industry more competitive , and that the scheme would help create new jobs .
The idea was championed by Manchester manufacturer Daniel Adamson , who arranged a meeting at his home , The Towers in Didsbury , on 27 June 1882 . He invited the representatives of several Lancashire towns , local businessmen and politicians , and two civil engineers : Hamilton Fulton and Edward Leader Williams . Fulton 's design was for a tidal canal , with no locks and a deepened channel into Manchester . With the city about 60 feet ( 18 m ) above sea level , the docks and quays would have been well below the surrounding surface . Williams ' plan was to dredge a channel between a set of retaining walls , and build a series of locks and sluices to lift incoming vessels up to Manchester . Both engineers were invited to submit their proposals , and Williams ' plans were selected to form the basis of a bill to be submitted to Parliament later that year .
= = = Public campaign = = =
To generate support for the scheme , the provisional committee initiated a public campaign led by Joseph Lawrence , who had worked for the Hull and Barnsley Railway . His task was to set up committees in every ward in Manchester and throughout Lancashire , to raise subscriptions and sell the idea to the local public . The first meeting was held on 4 October in Manchester 's Oxford Ward , followed by another on 17 October in the St. James Ward . Within a few weeks meetings had been held throughout Manchester and Salford , culminating in a conference on 3 November attended by the provisional committee and members of the various Ward Committees . A large meeting of the working classes , attended by several local notables including the general secretaries of several trade unions , was held on 13 November at the Free Trade Hall in Manchester .
Regular night @-@ time meetings were held across the region , headed by speakers from a range of professions . Harford suggests that the organisers ' choice of orators represents their " canny ability " to choose speakers who might move their audiences to support their cause . By adopting techniques used by the Anti @-@ Corn Law League , their strategy was ultimately successful : local offices were acquired , secretaries hired and further meetings organised . The weekly Ship Canal Gazette , priced at one penny , was by the end of the year being sold at newsagents in towns across Lancashire . The Gazette was part of a prolonged print campaign organised by the committee , to circulate leaflets and pamphlets , and write supportive letters to the local press , often signed with pseudonyms . One of the few surviving leaflets , " The Manchester Ship Canal . Reasons why it Should be Made " , argued against dock and railway rates , which were apparently levied " with the object of protecting the interests of Railway kings , [ so that ] trade is handicapped , and wages kept low " . By the end of 1882 the provisional committee comprised members from several of Manchester 's large industries , but notably few of the city 's wealthier inhabitants . The sympathetic Manchester City News reported that " the rich men of South and East Lancashire , with a few notable exceptions , have not rivalled the enthusiasm of the general public " .
= = = Bills = = =
The Mersey Docks Board opposed the committee 's first bill , presented late in 1882 , and it was rejected by Parliament in January 1883 for breaching Standing Orders . Within six weeks the committee organised hundreds of petitions from a range of bodies across the country : one representing Manchester was signed by almost 200 @,@ 000 people . The requirement for Standing Orders was dispensed with , and the represented bill allowed to proceed . Some witnesses against the scheme , worried that a canal would cause the entrance to the Mersey estuary to silt up , blocking traffic , cited the case of Chester harbour . This had silted up due to a man @-@ made cut through the Dee estuary . Faced with conflicting evidence , Parliament rejected the bill . Later mass meetings were held , including a large demonstration at Pomona Gardens on 24 June 1884 . Strong opposition from Liverpool led the House of Commons Committee to reject the committee 's second bill on 1 August 1884 .
The unresolved question of what would happen to the Mersey estuary if the canal was built had remained a sticking point . During questioning , an engineer for the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board was asked how he would avoid such a problem . His reply , " I should enter at Eastham and carry the canal along the shore until I reached Runcorn , and then I would strike inland " , prompted Williams to change his design to include this suggestion . Despite continued opposition , the committee 's third bill , presented in November 1884 , was passed by Parliament on 2 May 1885 , and received royal assent on 6 August , becoming the Manchester Ship Canal Act 1885 . Certain conditions were attached ; £ 5 million had to be raised , and the ship canal company was legally obliged to buy both the Bridgewater Canal and the Mersey & Irwell Navigation within two years . The estimated cost of construction was £ 5 @.@ 16 million , and the work was expected to take four years to complete .
= = = Financing = = =
The enabling Act of Parliament stipulated that the ship canal company 's £ 8 million share capital had to be issued within two years , otherwise the act would lapse . Adamson wanted to encourage the widest possible share ownership , and believed the funds should be raised largely from the working population . Richard Peacock , vice @-@ chairman of the Provisional Manchester Ship Canal Committee , said in 1882 :
No few individuals should be expected to subscribe and form a company for mere gain ; it should be taken on by the public ; and if it is not ... I for one should say drop the scheme ... unless I see the public coming forward in a hearty manner .
The act forbade the company from issuing shares below £ 10 so , to make them easier for ordinary people to buy , they issued shilling coupons in books of ten so they could be paid for in instalments . The construction costs and expected competition from the Port of Liverpool put off potential investors ; by May 1887 only £ 3 million had been raised . As a temporary solution Thomas Walker , the contractor selected to construct the canal , agreed to accept £ 500 @,@ 000 of the contract price in shares , but raising the remainder required another Act of Parliament to allow the company 's share capital to be restructured as £ 3 million of ordinary shares and £ 4 million of preference shares . Adamson was convinced that the money should be raised from members of the public and opposed the debt restructuring , resigning as chairman of the Ship Canal Committee on 1 February 1887 . Barings and Rothschild jointly issued a prospectus for the sale of the preference shares on 15 July , and by 21 July the issue had been fully underwritten , allowing construction to begin . The first sod was cut on 11 November 1887 , by Lord Egerton of Tatton , who had taken over the chairmanship of the Manchester Ship Canal Company from Adamson .
The canal company exhausted its capital of £ 8 million in 4 years , when only half the construction work was completed . To avoid bankruptcy they appealed for funds to Manchester Corporation , which set up a Ship Canal Committee . On 9 March 1891 the corporation decided , on the committee 's recommendation , to lend the necessary £ 3 million , to preserve the city 's prestige . In return the corporation was allowed to appoint five of the fifteen members of the board of directors . The company subsequently raised its estimates of the cost of completion in September 1891 and again in June 1892 . An executive committee was appointed as an emergency measure in December 1891 , and on 14 October 1892 the Ship Canal Committee resolved to lend a further £ 1 @.@ 5 million on condition that Manchester Corporation had an absolute majority on the canal company 's board of directors and its various sub @-@ committees . The corporation subsequently appointed 11 of the 21 seats , nominated Alderman Sir John Harwood as deputy director of the company , and secured majorities on five of the board 's six sub @-@ committees . The cost to Manchester Corporation of financing the Ship Canal Company had a significant impact on local taxpayers . Manchester 's municipal debt rose by 67 per cent , resulting in a 26 per cent increase in rates between 1892 and 1895 .
However well this arrangement served the corporation , by the mid @-@ 1980s it had become " meaningless " . Most of the company 's shares were controlled by the property developer John Whittaker , and in 1986 the council agreed to give up all but one of its seats in return for a payment of £ 10 million . The deal extricated Manchester Council from a politically difficult conflict of interest , as Whittaker was proposing to develop a large out of town shopping centre on land owned by the Ship Canal Company at Dumplington , the present @-@ day Trafford Centre . The council opposed the scheme , believing that it would damage the city centre economy , but accepted that it was " obviously in the interests of the shareholders " .
= = = Construction = = =
Thomas Walker was appointed as contractor , with Edward Leader Williams as chief engineer and designer and general manager . The 36 @-@ mile ( 58 km ) route was divided into eight sections , with one engineer responsible for each . The first reached from Eastham to Ellesmere Port . Mount Manisty , a large mound of earth on a narrow stretch between the canal and the Mersey northwest of Ellesmere Port , was constructed from soil taken from the excavations . It and the adjacent Manisty Cutting were named after the engineer in charge . The last section built was the passage from Weston Point through the Runcorn gap to Norton ; the existing docks at Runcorn and Weston had to be kept operational until they could be connected to the completed western sections of the ship canal .
For the first two years construction went according to plan , but Walker died on 25 November 1889 . While the work was continued by his executors , the project suffered a number of setbacks and was hampered by harsh weather and several serious floods . In January 1891 , when the project had been expected to have been completed , a severe winter added to the difficulties ; the Bridgewater Canal , the company 's only source of income , was closed after a fall of ice . The company decided to take over the contracting work and bought all the on site equipment for £ 400 @,@ 000 . Some railway companies , whose bridges had to be modified to cross the canal , demanded compensation . The London and North Western Railway and Great Western Railway refused to co @-@ operate , and between them demanded about £ 533 @,@ 000 for inconvenience . The Ship Canal Company was unable to demolish the older , low railway bridges until August 1893 , when the matter went to arbitration . The railway companies were awarded just over £ 100 @,@ 000 , a fraction of their combined claims .
By the end of 1891 , the ship canal was open to shipping as far as Saltport , the name given to wharves built at the entrance to the Weaver Navigation . The success of the new port was a source of consternation to merchants in Liverpool , who suddenly found themselves cut out of the trade in goods such as timber , and a source of encouragement to shipping companies , who began to realise the advantages an inland port would offer . Saltport was rendered useless when the ship canal was completely filled with water in November 1893 . The Manchester Ship Canal Police were formed the following month , and the canal opened to its first traffic on 1 January 1894 . On 21 May , Queen Victoria performed the official opening , the last of three royal visits she made to Manchester . During the ceremony she knighted the Mayor of Salford , William Henry Bailey , and the Lord Mayor of Manchester , Anthony Marshall ; Edward Leader Williams was knighted on 2 July by letters patent .
The ship canal took six years to complete at a cost of just over £ 15 million , equivalent to about £ 1 @.@ 65 billion in 2011 . It is still the longest river navigation canal and remains the world 's eighth @-@ longest ship canal , only slightly shorter than the Panama Canal in Central America . More than 54 million cubic yards ( 41 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m ³ ) of material were excavated , about half as much as was removed during the building of the Suez Canal . An average of 12 @,@ 000 workers were employed during construction , peaking at 17 @,@ 000 . Regular navvies were paid 4 1 ⁄ 2d per hour for a 10 @-@ hour working day , equivalent to about £ 16 per day in 2010 . In terms of machinery , the project made use of more than 200 miles ( 320 km ) of temporary rail track , 180 locomotives , more than 6000 trucks and wagons , 124 steam @-@ powered cranes , 192 other steam engines , and 97 steam excavators . Major engineering landmarks of the scheme included the Barton Swing Aqueduct , the first swing aqueduct in the world , and a neighbouring swing bridge for road traffic at Barton , both of which are now Grade II * listed structures . In 1909 the canal 's depth was increased by 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) to 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) , equalling that of the Suez Canal .
= = = Operational history = = =
The Manchester Ship Canal enabled the newly created Port of Manchester to become Britain 's third @-@ busiest port , despite the city being about 40 miles ( 64 km ) inland . Since its opening in 1894 the canal has handled a wide range of ships and cargos , from coastal vessels to intra @-@ European shipping and inter @-@ continental cargo liners . The first vessel to unload its cargo on the opening day was the Pioneer , belonging to the Co @-@ operative Wholesale Society ( CWS ) , which was also the first vessel registered at Manchester ; the CWS operated a weekly service to Rouen .
Manchester Liners established regular sailings by large ocean @-@ going vessels . In late 1898 the Manchester City , at 7 @,@ 698 gross tons , became the largest vessel to reach the terminal docks . Carrying cattle and general cargo , it was met by the Lord Mayor of Manchester and a large welcoming crowd . In 1968 Manchester Liners converted its fleet to container vessels only . To service them it built two dedicated container terminals next to No. 9 Dock . The four container vessels commissioned that year , each of 11 @,@ 898 gross tons , were the largest ever to make regular use of the terminal docks at Salford . In 1974 the canal handled 2 @.@ 9 million long tons ( 3 @.@ 25 million short tons ) of dry cargo , 27 per cent of which was carried by Manchester Liners . The dry tonnage was , and is still , greatly supplemented by crude and refined oil products transported in large tanker ships to and from the Queen Elizabeth II Dock at Eastham and the Stanlow Refinery just east of Ellesmere Port , and also in smaller tankers to Runcorn . The limitations imposed by the canal on the maximum size of container vessel meant that by the mid @-@ 1970s Manchester Liners was becoming uncompetitive ; the company sold its last ship in 1985 .
The amount of freight carried by the canal peaked in 1958 at 18 million long tons ( 20 million short tons ) , but the increasing size of ocean @-@ going ships and the port 's failure to introduce modern freight @-@ handling methods resulted in that headline figure dropping steadily , and the closure of the docks in Salford in 1984 . Total freight movements on the ship canal were down to 7 @.@ 56 million long tons ( 8 @.@ 47 million short tons ) by 2000 , and further reduced to 6 @.@ 60 million long tons ( 7 @.@ 39 million short tons ) for the year ending September 2009 .
The maximum length of vessel currently accepted is 530 feet ( 161 @.@ 5 m ) with a beam of 63 @.@ 5 feet ( 19 @.@ 35 m ) and a maximum draft of 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) . By contrast the similarly sized Panama Canal , completed a few years after the Manchester Ship Canal , is able to accept ships of up to 950 feet ( 289 @.@ 6 m ) in length with a beam of 106 feet ( 32 @.@ 31 m ) . Ships passing under the Runcorn Bridge have a height restriction of 70 feet ( 21 m ) above normal water levels .
= = Present day = =
The canal was completed just as the Long Depression was coming to an end , but it was never the commercial success its sponsors had hoped for . Many ship owners were reluctant to dispatch ocean @-@ going vessels along a " locked cul @-@ de @-@ sac " at a maximum speed of 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) . The Ship Canal Company found it difficult to attract a diversified export trade , which meant that ships not uncommonly had to return down the canal loaded with ballast rather than freight . The only staple imports attracted to the Port of Manchester were lamp oil and bananas , the latter from 1902 until 1911 . As the import trade in oil began to grow during the 20th century the balance of canal traffic switched to the west , from Salford to Stanlow , eventually culminating in the closure of the docks at Salford . Historian Thomas Stuart Willan has observed that " What may seem to require explanation is not the comparative failure of the Ship Canal but the unquenchable vitality of the myth of its success " .
Unlike most other British canals , the Manchester Ship Canal was never nationalised . In 1984 Salford City Council used a derelict land grant to purchase the docks at Salford from the Ship Canal Company , rebranding the area as Salford Quays . Principal developers Urban Waterside began redevelopment work the following year , by which time traffic on the canal 's upper reaches had declined to such an extent that its owners considered closing it above Runcorn . In 1993 the Ship Canal Company was acquired by Peel Holdings ; as of 2014 it is owned and operated by Peel Ports , which also owns the Port of Liverpool . The company announced a £ 50 billion Atlantic Gateway plan in 2011 to develop the Port of Liverpool and the Manchester Ship Canal as a way of combating increasing road congestion . Their scheme involves the construction of a large distribution centre to be named Port Salford and an additional six sites along the canal for the loading and unloading of freight . Peel Ports predict that the number of containers transported along the canal could increase from the 8 @,@ 000 carried in 2010 to 100 @,@ 000 by 2030 .
= = Route = =
= = = Geography = = =
From Eastham the canal runs parallel to , and along the south side of the Mersey estuary , past Ellesmere Port . Between Rixton east of the M6 motorway 's Thelwall Viaduct and Irlam , the canal joins the Mersey ; thereafter it roughly follows the route the river used to take . At the confluence of the Mersey and Irwell near Irlam , the canal follows the old course of the River Irwell into Manchester .
= = = Locks , sluices and weirs = = =
Vessels travelling to and from the terminal docks , which are 60 feet ( 18 m ) above sea level , must pass through several locks . Each set has a large lock for ocean @-@ going ships and a smaller , narrower lock for vessels such as tugs and coasters . The entrance locks at Eastham on the Wirral side of the Mersey , which seal off the tidal estuary , are the largest on the canal . The larger lock is 600 feet ( 180 m ) long by 80 feet ( 24 m ) wide ; the smaller lock is 350 feet ( 110 m ) by 50 feet ( 15 m ) . Four additional sets of locks lie further inland , 600 feet ( 180 m ) long and 65 feet ( 20 m ) wide and 350 feet ( 110 m ) by 45 feet ( 14 m ) for the smaller lock ; each has a rise of approximately 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) . The locks are at Eastham ; Latchford , near Warrington ; Irlam ; Barton near Eccles and Mode Wheel , Salford .
Five sets of sluices and two weirs are used to control the canal 's depth . The sluices , located at Mode Wheel Locks , Barton Locks , Irlam Locks , Latchford Locks and Weaver Sluices , are designed to allow water entering the canal to flow along its length in a controlled manner . Each consists of a set of mechanically driven vertical steel roller gates , supported by masonry piers . Originally , manually operated Stoney Sluices were used ; these were replaced in the 1950s by electrically driven units , with automation technology introduced from the late 1980s . The sluices are protected against damage from drifting vessels by large concrete barriers . Stop logs can be inserted by roving cranes , installed upstream of each sluice ; at Weaver Sluices , accessed by boat , this task is performed by a floating crane .
Woolston Siphon Weir , built in 1994 to replace an earlier structure and located on an extant section of the Mersey near Latchford , controls the amount of water in the Latchford Pond by emptying canal water into the Mersey . Howley Weir controls water levels downstream of Woolston Weir . Further upstream , Woolston Guard Weir enables maintenance to be carried out on both .
= = = Docks and wharfs = = =
Seven terminal docks were constructed for the opening of the canal . Four small docks were located on the south side of the canal near Cornbrook , within the Borough of Stretford : Pomona Docks No. 1 , No. 2 , No. 3 , and No. 4 . The three main docks , built primarily for large ocean @-@ going vessels , were in Salford , to the west of Trafford Road on the north bank of the canal , docks No. 6 , No. 7 , and No. 8 . In 1905 , No. 9 Dock was completed on the same site . Dock No. 5 , known as Ordsall Dock , was part of Pomona Docks , but was dug on the Salford side of the river ; it was never completed and was filled in around 1905 .
Pomona Docks have also been filled in except for the still intact No. 3 Dock , and are largely derelict . A lock at No. 3 Dock connects it to the nearby Bridgewater Canal at the point where the two canals run in parallel . The western four docks have been converted into the Salford Quays development ; ships using the Manchester Ship Canal now dock at various places along the canal side such as Mode Wheel ( Salford ) , Trafford Park , and Ellesmere Port . Most ships have to terminate at Salford Quays , although vessels capable of passing under Trafford Road swing bridge ( permanently closed in 1992 ) can continue up the River Irwell to Hunts Bank , near Manchester Cathedral .
In 1893 the Ship Canal Company sold a parcel of land just east of the Mode Wheel Locks to the newly established Manchester Dry Docks Company . The graving docks were constructed adjacent to the south bank of the canal , and a floating pontoon dock was built nearby . Each of the three graving docks could accommodate ocean @-@ going ships of up to 535 feet ( 163 @.@ 1 m ) in length and 64 feet ( 19 @.@ 5 m ) in beam , equivalent to vessels of 8 @,@ 000 gross tons . Manchester Liners acquired control of the company in 1974 , to ensure the availability of facilities for the repair of its fleet of ships .
= = = Trafford Park = = =
Two years after the opening of the ship canal , financier Ernest Terah Hooley bought the 1 @,@ 183 @-@ acre ( 4 @,@ 790 @,@ 000 m2 ) country estate belonging to Sir Humphrey Francis de Trafford for £ 360 @,@ 000 ( £ 37 @.@ 6 million in 2016 ) . Hooley intended to develop the site , which was close to Manchester and at the end of the canal , as an exclusive housing estate , screened by woods from industrial units constructed along the 1 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) frontage onto the canal .
With the predicted traffic for the canal slow to materialise , Hooley and Marshall Stevens ( the general manager of the Ship Canal Company ) came to see the benefits that the industrial development of Trafford Park could offer to both the ship canal and the estate . In January 1897 Stevens became the managing director of Trafford Park Estates , where he remained until 1930 , latterly as its joint chairman and managing director .
Within five years Trafford Park , Europe 's largest industrial estate , was home to forty firms . The earliest structures on the canal side were grain silos ; the grain was used for flour and as ballast for ships carrying raw cotton . The wooden silo built opposite No.9 Dock in 1898 ( destroyed in the Manchester Blitz in 1940 ) was Europe 's largest grain elevator . The CWS bought land on Trafford Wharf in 1903 , where it opened a bacon factory and a flour mill . In 1906 it bought the Sun Mill , which it extended in 1913 to create the UK 's largest flour mill , with its own wharf , elevators and silos .
Inland from the canal the British Westinghouse Electric Company bought 11 per cent of the estate . Westinghouse 's American architect Charles Heathcote was responsible for much of the planning and design of their factory , which built steam turbines and turbo generators . By 1899 Heathcote had also designed fifteen warehouses for the Manchester Ship Canal Company .
= = = Manchester Ship Canal Railway = = =
During construction , a year after the death of Walker , the directors of the canal company and Walker 's trustee 's came to an agreement for the canal company to take ownership of the construction assets . These included the more than 200 miles ( 320 km ) of temporary rail track , 180 locomotives and more than 6 @,@ 000 trucks and wagons . These formed the basis of the Manchester Ship Canal Railway , which became the largest private railway in the United Kingdom .
The construction railway followed the route of the former River Irwell . To bring in construction materials , the construction railway had a connection to the Cheshire Lines Committee ( CLC ) east of Irlam railway station . Every month this allowed more than 10 @,@ 000 tons of coal and 8 @,@ 000 tons of cement to be delivered to sites along the canal excavation . All existing railway companies with lines along the route had been given notice that their lines had to either be abandoned by a given date or raised to give a minimum of 75 feet ( 23 m ) clearance with all deviation construction costs to be paid by the MSC . The CLC Glazebrook to Woodley mainline passed over the River Mersey at Cadishead and so they decided to build a deviation . Construction of the Cadishead Viaduct began in 1892 , approached via earth banks , with two brick arches accessing a multi @-@ lattice iron girder centre span of 120 feet ( 37 m ) in length . It opened to freight on 27 February 1893 and to passenger traffic on 29 May 1893 . Following the withdrawal of passenger services in 1964 , the line became freight only . When expensive repairs to the viaduct were needed in the early 1980s British Rail opted to close it , together with the line to Glazebrook .
At the end of construction , the canal company left in place the original construction railway route , and eventually developed track along 33 miles ( 53 km ) of the canal 's length , mainly to its north bank . Built and operated mainly as a single track line , the busiest section from Weaste Junction through Barton and Irlam , to Partington was all double tracked . The railway 's access to Trafford Park was over the double @-@ tracked Detroit Swing Bridge , which after closure of the MSC Railway in 1988 was floated down the canal to be placed in Salford Quays . The only major deviation was to allow construction of the CWS Irlam soap works and the adjacent Partington Steel & Iron Co. works at Partington ( both of which had their own private railways and locomotives ) , with the MSC Railway 's deviation route pushed south to run alongside the canal 's north bank and under the Irlam viaduct . The canal company also developed large complexes of sidings along the route , built to service freight to and from the canal 's docks and nearby industrial estates , especially at : Salford Docks ; Trafford Park ; Partington North Coaling Basin ( both sides of the canal ) ; Glazebrook sidings ; and a small but busy marshalling yard east of Irlam locks . Unlike most other railway companies in the UK it was not nationalised in 1948 , and at its peak it had 790 employees , 75 locomotives , 2 @,@ 700 wagons and more than 230 miles ( 370 km ) of track .
The MSC Railway was able to receive and despatch goods trains to and from all the UK 's main line railway systems , using connecting junctions at three points in the terminal docks . Two were to the north of the canal , operated by the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway and the London and North Western Railway . The third was to the south , operated by the Cheshire Lines Committee ( CLC ) , where by the MSC Railway had taken over the old and abandoned route of the CLC , giving them a monopoly on traffic to the new soap works and steel mill .
The MSC Railway 's steam locomotives were designed to negotiate the tight @-@ radius curves of the sidings and industrial tracks on which they ran . Originally only hence specifying 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 wheel arrangements , later 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 locomotives - purchased to cope with increasing traffic and loads - had flangeless centre axles , whilst the coupling rods had a hinged central section that permitted several inches of lateral play . A long term user of Hudswell Clarke , from their steam through to diesel locomotives , like many industrial railways later motive power was often provided by the purchase of refurbished former " big @-@ four " operated types , with the advantage that crew were hence readily available to operate these types . Post @-@ WWII purchases included several war surplus Hunslet ' Austerity ' 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 saddle tanks ; the last steam locomotive types purchased for the MSC Railway . A fleet of diesel locomotives was purchased between 1959 and 1966 , including 18 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 diesels from the Rolls @-@ Royce @-@ owned Sentinel Waggon Works from 1964 @-@ 66 . These enabled the MSC Railways to complete its conversion from steam on 6 July 1966 , more than three years before British Railways .
However , as transshipment costs increased , and unprocessed bulk cargos decreased in volume , the economics of road transport resulted in a gradual dwindling of traffic on the MSC Railway system , and hence contraction in the MSC Railway itself . Traffic reduction was added to by : the 1969 closure of the CWS Irlam soap works ; post nationalisation British Steel Corporation building their own line to Glazebrook to junction with BR ; and severe reductions in traffic of ICI 's soda ash trains , British Tar Products and reduced domestic coal consumption . With the remaining engines stationed at Ellesmere Port and Stanlow , maintenance on the line from Irlam through to Partington was halted in late summer 1977 , and all through traffic except engineering trains stopped on 21 December 1977 . The through line was officially closed to all traffic in 1978 , but many of the sidings complexes remained ; the last operational section of the MSC Railway , at Trafford Park , closed on 30 April 2009 .
= = = Other features on the banks = = =
At Ellesmere Port the canal is joined by the Shropshire Union Canal , at a site now occupied by the National Waterways Museum . The area formerly consisted of a 7 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 8 ha ) canal port linking the Shropshire Union Canal to the River Mersey . Designed by Thomas Telford , it remained operational until the 1950s . It was a " marvellously self @-@ contained world " with locks , docks , warehouses , a blacksmith 's forge , stables , and cottages for the workers . Its Island Warehouse was built in 1871 to store grain . A few miles from Ellesmere Port , at Weston , near Runcorn , the ship canal also connects with the Weaver Navigation .
= = Ecology = =
The quality of water in the ship canal remains adversely affected by several factors . The high population density of the Mersey Basin has , historically , placed heavy demands on sewage treatment and disposal . Industrial and agricultural discharges into the Irwell , Medlock , and Irk rivers are responsible for a number of industrial contaminants found in the canal . Matters have improved since 1990 , when the National Rivers Authority found the area between Trafford Road Bridge and Mode Wheel Locks to be " grossly polluted " . The water was depleted of dissolved oxygen , which in the latter half of the 20th century often resulted in toxic sediments normally present at the bottom of the turning basin in what is now Salford Quays rising to the surface during the summer months , giving the impression of solid ground . Previously , only roach and sticklebacks could be found in the canal 's upper levels , and then only during the colder parts of the year , but an oxygenation project implemented at Salford Quays from 2001 , together with the gradual reduction of industrial pollutants from the Mersey 's tributaries , has encouraged the migration into the canal of fish populations from further upstream . The canal 's water quality remains low , with mercury and cadmium in particular present at " extremely high levels " . Episodic pollution and a lack of habitat remain problems for wildlife , although in 2005 , for the first time in living memory , salmon were observed breeding in the River Goyt ( a part of the Mersey 's catchment ) . In 2010 the Environment Agency issued a report concluding that the canal " does not pose a significant barrier to salmon movement or impact on migratory behaviours " .
Despite the canal 's poor water quality there are several nature reserves along its banks . Wigg Island , a former brownfield site east of Runcorn , contains a network of public footpaths through newly planted woodlands and meadows . Among the wildlife species found there are butterflies , dragonflies , kestrels , swallows and house martins . Further upstream the 200 @-@ acre ( 81 ha ) Moore Nature Reserve , which is bisected by the de @-@ watered Runcorn to Latchford Canal , comprises lakes , woodland and meadows . The reserve is open to the public and contains a number of bird hides , from which native owls and woodpeckers may be viewed . Near Thelwall , Woolston Eyes ( a corruption of the Saxon Ees ) , is a Site of Special Scientific Interest . It is used as a deposit for canal dredgings and is a habitat for many species of bird , including black @-@ necked grebes , grasshopper warblers , blackcaps and common whitethroats . Great crested newts and adders are present , and local flora includes orchids and broad @-@ leaved helleborines . Diving ducks are regular visitors to Salford Quays , where species such as pochard and tufted ducks feed on winter nights .
|
= Cyclone Gonu =
Cyclone Gonu ( IMD designation : ARB 01 , JTWC designation : 02A , also known as Super Cyclonic Storm Gonu ) is the strongest tropical cyclone on record in the Arabian Sea , and is also the strongest named cyclone in the northern Indian Ocean . The second named tropical cyclone of the 2007 North Indian Ocean cyclone season , Gonu developed from a persistent area of convection in the eastern Arabian Sea on June 1 , 2007 . With a favorable upper @-@ level environment and warm sea surface temperatures , it rapidly intensified to attain peak winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) on June 3 , according to the India Meteorological Department . Gonu weakened after encountering dry air and cooler waters , and early on June 6 , it made landfall on the easternmost tip of Oman , becoming the strongest tropical cyclone to hit the Arabian Peninsula . It then turned northward into the Gulf of Oman , and dissipated on June 7 after making landfall in southern Iran , the first landfall in the country since 1898 .
Intense tropical cyclones like Gonu are extremely rare over the Arabian Sea , since most storms in this area tend to be small and dissipate quickly . The cyclone caused 50 deaths and about $ 4 @.@ 2 billion in damage ( 2007 USD ) in Oman , where the cyclone was considered the nation 's worst natural disaster . Gonu dropped heavy rainfall near the eastern coastline , reaching up to 610 mm ( 24 inches ) , which caused flooding and heavy damage . In Iran , the cyclone caused 28 deaths and $ 216 million in damage ( 2007 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
Toward the end of May 2007 , the monsoon trough spawned a low pressure area in the eastern Arabian Sea . By May 31 , an organized tropical disturbance was located about 645 km ( 400 mi ) south of Mumbai , India , with cyclonic convection , or thunderstorm activity , and a well @-@ defined mid @-@ level circulation . The disturbance initially lacked a distinct low @-@ level circulation ; instead it consisted of strong divergence along the western end of a surface trough of low pressure . A favorable upper @-@ level environment allowed convection to improve , and by late on June 1 , the system developed to the extent that the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) classified it as a depression . It tracked westward along the southwestern periphery of a mid @-@ level ridge over southern India . Convection continued to organize , and early on June 2 the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) classified it Tropical Cyclone 02A about 685 km ( 425 mi ) southwest of Mumbai .
Upon first forming , the system contended with the entrainment of dry air to the northwest of the storm , which was expected to limit intensification . The storm steadily intensified , and early on June 2 the IMD upgraded it to deep depression status . Later in the day the IMD classified the system as Cyclonic Storm Gonu about 760 km ( 470 mi ) southwest of Mumbai , India . As a mid @-@ latitude trough developed over Pakistan , Gonu turned to the north and northeast , though it resumed a westward track after ridging built to the north of the storm . With a solid area of intense convection , it rapidly intensified to attain severe cyclonic status early on June 3 , and with good outflow the JTWC upgraded it to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane . The dry air ultimately had a smaller impact on the intensification than previously estimated . A well @-@ defined eye developed in the center of convection , and after moving over a local increase in ocean heat content , Gonu rapidly deepened .
Late on June 3 , the IMD upgraded the storm to Very Severe Cyclonic Storm Gonu . With warm waters , low amounts of vertical wind shear , and favorable upper @-@ level outflow , Gonu strengthened further to attain peak 1 @-@ min sustained winds of 270 km / h ( 165 mph ) and gusts to 315 km / h ( 195 mph ) , about 285 km ( 175 mi ) east @-@ southeast of Masirah Island on the coast of Oman . The IMD upgraded it to Super Cyclonic Storm Gonu late on June 4 , with peak 3 @-@ min sustained winds reaching 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) and an estimated pressure of 920 mbar . This made it the first super cyclonic storm in the Arabian Sea on record .
After the storm maintained peak winds for about six hours , the IMD downgraded Gonu to very severe cyclonic storm status late on June 4 . Its eye became cloud @-@ filled and ragged , and the cyclone gradually weakened due to cooler water temperatures and drier air as it approached the Arabian Peninsula . Due to land interaction with Oman , the inner core of deep convection rapidly weakened , and over a period of 24 hours the intensity decreased by 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . According to the IMD , Cyclone Gonu crossed the easternmost tip of Oman still as a very severe cyclonic storm early on June 6 . Although the winds continued to gradually decrease , overall organization increased slightly in the hours prior to landfall ; Gonu maintained a well @-@ defined low @-@ level structure with a weak eye .
After emerging into the Gulf of Oman , the cyclone briefly re @-@ intensified slightly , possibly due to the warm waters . However , increasing wind shear and entrainment of dry air from the Arabian Peninsula continued to remove deep convection from its eastern semicircle . On June 6 , the cyclone turned to the north @-@ northwest , and later that day the JTWC downgraded Gonu to tropical storm status . The IMD followed suit by downgrading Gonu to severe cyclonic storm status and later to cyclonic storm status early on June 7 . Gonu crossed the Makran coast in Iran six hours later and the IMD stopped issuing advisories on the cyclone . This made it the first tropical cyclone on record to hit the country since 1898 . After landfall , Gonu persisted as a remnant low over Iran through June 8 .
= = Preparations = =
The Oman Chairman of the National Committee for Civil Defence , General Malek Bin Sulaiman Al Ma 'amari , remarked the nation had already developed a contingency plan , which included the activation of army and police personnel after the storm 's passage . Significant damage was expected , especially in northeastern areas , along with up to 150 mm ( 6 in ) of rainfall and very strong winds . Officials recommended citizens evacuate from potentially affected areas , and about 7 @,@ 000 people were forced to leave Masirah Island due to the threat of high surf and strong winds . Overall , more than 20 @,@ 000 people evacuated to emergency shelters . A state of emergency was declared for the nation . The Omani national weather service warned that the cyclone was expected to be worse than the destructive cyclone that hit Masirah Island in 1977 . The Mina al Fahal oil terminal closed for over three days due to the threat of the storm . Omani officials closed government offices for two days and declared a five @-@ day @-@ long national holiday . Most businesses near the coastline were closed prior to the announcement . Authorities at the Muscat International Airport canceled of all flights after 2000 UTC on June 5 due to the cyclone .
In Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates , both members of OPEC , no official warnings had been issued due to Gonu . The storm was not expected to disrupt oil supplies from these two nations . However , oil prices rose early on June 5 because of concerns of disruptions caused by Gonu , as well as the threat of nationwide strikes in Nigeria , Africa 's biggest oil producer . Crude oil for July delivery rose $ 1 @.@ 13 , or 1 @.@ 7 percent , to $ 66 @.@ 21 Monday on the New York Mercantile Exchange , the highest close in 15 days . Futures reached $ 66 @.@ 48 , the highest intraday price since April 30 . The contract was at $ 65 @.@ 95 a barrel , down 26 cents , in after @-@ hours electronic trading at 9 : 43 a.m. Tuesday in Singapore . Tom Kloza , chief oil analyst at the Oil Price Information Service , said he doubted the increase could be attributed to Gonu . " I don 't know if you can really attribute any of the gain to the cyclone , " he said . " It 's an excuse , as opposed to a reason , for the rise in prices . "
In Pakistan , officials recommended fishermen remain within 50 km ( 30 mi ) of the coastline , due to anticipated rough waves in the open ocean . Naval authorities in the United States warned ships to avoid the cyclone in the Arabian Sea .
The Iran Department of Meteorology declared storm warnings for the country 's southeastern coastline ; the agency anticipated moderate to severe precipitation and gusty winds . Prior to the arrival of the cyclone , about 40 @,@ 000 people , including around 4 @,@ 000 students at the International University of Chabahar , evacuated coastal areas of the country to at least 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) inland . All flights in and out of the Konarak Airport were canceled during a 48 @-@ hour period . Additionally , all hospitals in Sistan and Baluchestan Province were put on red alert . The Iran chapter of the Red Cross advanced the delivery of necessary relief supplies .
= = Impact = =
Across its path , Cyclone Gonu caused heavy damage and many fatalities . About seven hours before passing near the northeastern Oman coastline , Cyclone Gonu began affecting the country with rough winds and heavy precipitation ; rainfall totals reached 610 mm ( 24 in ) near the coast . Gonu produced strong waves along much of the coastline , leaving many coastal roads flooded . There was a 5 @.@ 1 meter ( 17 foot ) storm surge and a 200 m ( 660 ft ) incursion of seawater inland at Ras al @-@ Hadd ; other areas along the coast had similar levels .
= = = Oman = = =
Strong winds knocked out power and telephone lines across the eastern region of the country , leaving thousands isolated until the lines were repaired hours later . The cyclone caused extensive damage along the coastline , including in the city of Sur and the village of Ras al Hadd at the easternmost point of the Omani mainland . In Muscat , winds reached 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) , leaving the capital city without power . Strong waves and heavy rainfall flooded streets and some buildings . Police workers in the city sent text messages to keep people away from flooded streets to prevent electrocutions . Little damage was reported to the oil fields of the nation . The liquefied natural gas terminal in Sur , which handles 10 million tonnes of gas each year , was badly hit by the storm and could not be operated . Overall , the cyclone killed 50 people in the country ; by the fourth day after it struck the country , 27 people had been reported missing . Around 20 @,@ 000 people were affected , and damage in the country was estimated at around $ 4 @.@ 2 billion ( 2007 USD ) .
= = = United Arab Emirates = = =
Fierce waves pushed large amounts of water to coastal areas in Fujairah of the United Arab Emirates , forcing roads to be closed and traffic diverted . Civil defence and police were on duty to manage the road closures , while municipal workers pumped the excess water off the roads . The road connecting Kalba and Fujairah was closed due to the road being submerged by water . The waves along the coastline were reported to be 10 m ( 32 ft ) high , which destroyed about a dozen fishing boats . About 300 boats were moved from the water or emptied of equipment , and overall damage to the port of Fujairah was reported as severe . A boat sank by the port , leaving its ten passengers missing .
= = = Iran = = =
Upon striking Iran , Gonu dropped moderate to heavy rainfall , including 74 mm ( 2 @.@ 91 in ) in the city of Chabahar . Winds reached 111 km / h ( 69 mph ) , which caused power outages and damaged some homes made of clay ; the power outage led to some fires across the city . The rainfall flooded at least 40 houses , and resulted in the temporary closure of several major roads . Cyclone Gonu produced a storm tide of 2 m ( 6 @.@ 5 ft ) in some locations , with many homes near the coastline receiving damage . In Jask , heavy rainfall overflowed a river , killing three people in a vehicle caught in the water . Flooding from the rainfall also destroyed a dam in Nikshahr County . Throughout the country , the cyclone caused 28 deaths , including 20 from drowning ; damage in Iran was estimated at 2 billion ( 2007 IRR , $ 216 million 2007 USD ) .
= = = Pakistan = = =
Cyclone Gonu caused strong gusty winds and torrential rainfall along Pakistan 's Arabian Sea coast from Karachi to Gwadar . The cyclone was reported to have sunk a number of boats off the eastern coast of Gwadar . It was feared that fishing launches that had ventured into the open sea may have been stranded . At least three houses and one school were destroyed and 210 anchored fishing boats were badly damaged anchored in the coastal town of Sar Bandar in Baluchistan province
= = Aftermath and records = =
The Muscat International Airport reopened after three days while Fujairah reopened on June 7 after it was closed the day before . The cyclone caused little impact to oil facilities along its path ; after the initial price rises , oil dropped over USD2 per barrel as a result . Across the northern Arabian Sea , the passage of Gonu produced stronger winds and significant upwelling – an oceanographic phenomenon that involves the replacement of the nutrient @-@ depleted surface water with deeper nutrient @-@ rich water ; the passage caused a significant increase in phytoplankton . Additionally , the cyclone delayed the arrival of the Indian Ocean south @-@ west monsoon in the Western Ghats in India .
In Oman , production of desalinated water was interrupted , as both of Oman 's desalination plants failed . The first , Ghubrah , lost supplies of natural gas , halting production ; while the second , Barka , sustained a damaged switchgear due to flooding . These plants provided water to Muscat 's 631 @,@ 000 residents and surrounding areas , triggering severe water shortages across eastern Oman . To rectify the situation , officials used water tanks . The water returned to near normal in five days , as the two plants returned to service . Additionally , electricians worked quickly to repair the power outages across the region . Five days after Gonu hit , utilities were restored to most of Muscat and the coastal provinces . The Omani army assisted residents in returning to their houses . Even though the Omani government did not request any international aid , the United States offered assistance through naval ships in the area ; this was eventually rejected . The country lost an estimated $ 200 million ( 2007 USD ) in oil exports . In the months after the storm , the government allocated funds for the removal of debris and trees , as well as restoration of roads in tourist areas . Additionally , the National Committee for Civil Defence set up 139 buildings to provide temporary housing for 8 @,@ 192 people . Services such as water and electricity were gradually restored , and people returned to their homes . By two weeks after the storm 's passage , most of those remaining in shelters were from Qurayat , one of the most severely affected villages .
After the passage of the cyclone , the Iran chapter of the Red Cross and its volunteers worked in conjunction with the military to distribute relief supplies to villages using trucks and helicopters . The branch in Sistan and Baluchestan Province distributed over 10 @,@ 000 blankets , 1 @,@ 300 tents , 400 clothing items , 82 @,@ 000 loaves of bread , and 87 @,@ 000 bottles of water to affected citizens . In total , 61 @,@ 558 families received aid from the Red Cross in Iran . The Iranian government provided monetary relief to the affected people . Officials worked to restore roads , bridges , and power systems in the affected areas , although repairs were more difficult in some locations ; by a week after the storm , several villages remained surrounded by floodwaters .
Cyclone Gonu set several intensity records . When it became a very severe cyclonic storm on June 3 , Gonu became the strongest tropical cyclone on record in the Arabian Sea . Later , it became the only super cyclonic storm , which is a tropical cyclone with 3 @-@ minute sustained winds of at least 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) , in the region . The JTWC estimated peak winds of 270 km / h ( 165 mph ) . Based on their estimate , Gonu was tied with the 1991 Bangladesh Cyclone for the strongest tropical cyclone in the entire northern Indian Ocean , and had the highest windspeed of any cyclone in this basin . On June 6 , Gonu made landfall in extreme eastern Oman with winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) , making it the strongest tropical cyclone on record to strike the Arabian Peninsula . With a damage total of $ 4 @.@ 2 billion ( 2007 USD ) and 50 deaths , Gonu became the worst natural disaster on record in Oman . Additionally , the storm was only the second cyclonic storm on record to strike Iran , the other doing so on June 4 , 1898 .
|
= Tron : Legacy =
Tron : Legacy ( stylized as TRON : Legacy ) is a 2010 American science fiction action film directed by Joseph Kosinski from a screenplay written by Adam Horowitz and Edward Kitsis , based on a story by Horowitz , Kitsis , Brian Klugman and Lee Sternthal . It is a sequel to the 1982 film Tron , whose director Steven Lisberger returned to produce . The cast includes Jeff Bridges and Bruce Boxleitner reprising their roles as Kevin Flynn and Alan Bradley , respectively , as well as Garrett Hedlund , Olivia Wilde , and Michael Sheen . The story follows Flynn 's son Sam , who responds to a message from his long @-@ lost father and is transported into a virtual reality called the Grid , where Sam , his father and the algorithm Quorra , stop the malevolent program CLU from invading the human world .
Interest in creating a sequel to Tron arose after the film garnered a cult following . After much speculation , Walt Disney Pictures began a concerted effort in 2005 to devise Tron : Legacy , with the hiring of Klugman and Sternthal as writers . Kosinski was recruited as director two years later . As he was not optimistic about Disney 's Matrix @-@ esque approach to the film , Kosinski filmed a high @-@ concept , which he used conceptualize the universe of Tron : Legacy and convince the studio to greenlight the film . Principal photography took place in Vancouver over 67 days , in and around the city 's central business district . Most sequences were shot in 3D and ten companies were involved with the extensive visual effects work . Chroma keying and other techniques were used to allow more freedom in creating effects . Daft Punk composed the musical score , incorporating orchestral sounds with their trademark electronic music .
Tron : Legacy was released in North America on December 17 , 2010 . Disney aggressively promoted the film across multiple media platforms , including merchandising , consumer products , theme parks , and advertising . The film received mixed reviews from film critics , who praised the visual effects , production design , and soundtrack , but criticized the character development and cast performance . The film grossed $ 400 million during its worldwide theatrical run .
= = Plot = =
In 1989 , seven years after the events of the first film , Kevin Flynn , who has been recently promoted CEO of ENCOM International , disappears . Twenty years later , his son Sam , now ENCOM 's primary shareholder , takes little interest in the company beyond playing an annual prank on its board of directors .
Alan Bradley , an ENCOM executive and friend to Sam 's father , asks Sam to investigate a strange pager message originating from Flynn 's shuttered video arcade . Sam discovers a large computer in a hidden basement , which suddenly teleports him to the Grid , a virtual reality created by his father that exists within ENCOM ’ s computer mainframe . He is quickly captured and sent to " the Games " , where he is forced to fight a masked program named Rinzler . When Sam is injured and begins bleeding , Rinzler realizes that Sam is a human " User " and takes him before Clu , the Grid 's corrupt ruling program who resembles a younger Kevin Flynn . Clu nearly kills Sam in a Light Cycle match , but Sam is rescued by Quorra , an " apprentice " of Flynn , who conveys him to his father 's hideout outside Clu 's territory .
Flynn reveals to Sam that he had been working to create a " perfect " computer system and had appointed Clu and Tron ( a security program created by Bradley ) its co @-@ creators . During this construction , the trio discovered a species of naturally occurring " isomorphic algorithms " ( ISOs ) not conceived by Flynn , bearing the potential to resolve various mysteries in science , religion and medicine . Clu , considering them an aberration , betrayed Flynn , seemingly killed Tron , and destroyed the ISOs . Meanwhile , the " I / O portal " permitting travel between the two worlds had closed , leaving Flynn trapped in the system . Now that Clu has gained complete control , he sent the message to Alan in order to lure Sam onto the Grid and reopen the portal for a limited time . As Flynn 's " identity disc " is the master key to the Grid and the only way to traverse the portal , Clu expects Sam to bring Flynn to the portal so he can take Flynn 's disc , go through the portal himself , and impose his idea of perfection on the human world .
Against his father 's wishes , Sam returns to Clu 's territory on Quorra 's tip @-@ off to find Zuse , a program who can provide safe passage to the I / O portal . At the End of Line Club , its owner Castor reveals himself to be Zuse , then betrays Sam to Clu 's guards . In the resulting fight , Flynn rescues his son , but Quorra is injured and Zuse gains possession of Flynn 's disc . Zuse attempts to bargain with Clu for the disc , but Clu simply takes the disc and destroys the club along with Zuse . Flynn and Sam stow away aboard a " solar sailer " transport program , where Flynn restores Quorra and reveals her to be the last surviving ISO .
The transport is intercepted by Clu 's warship ; as a diversion , Quorra allows herself to be captured by Rinzler , whom Flynn recognizes as Tron , reprogrammed by Clu . Sam reclaims Flynn 's disc and rescues Quorra , while Flynn takes control of a Light Fighter on the flight deck . Clu , Rinzler , and several guards pursue the trio in Light Jets . Upon making eye contact with Flynn , Rinzler remembers his past and deliberately collides with Clu 's Light Jet , but Clu uses Tron 's spare baton to escape while Tron falls into the Sea of Simulation below . Clu confronts the others at the I / O portal , where Flynn reintegrates with his digital duplicate , destroying Clu along with himself . Quorra , having switched discs with Flynn , gives Flynn 's disc to Sam and they escape together to the real world . In Flynn 's arcade , Sam backs up and deactivates the system . He then finds a waiting Bradley and tells him he plans to retake control of ENCOM , naming Bradley chairman of the board . He departs on his motorcycle with Quorra , and she witnesses her first real sunrise .
= = Cast = =
Jeff Bridges as Kevin Flynn , the former CEO of ENCOM International and creator of the popular arcade game Tron based on his own experiences in ENCOM 's virtual reality , who disappeared in 1989 while developing " a digital frontier that will reshape the human condition " .
Bridges also portrays Clu ( Codified Likeness Utility ) , a more advanced incarnation of Flynn 's original computer @-@ hacking program , designed as an " exact duplicate of himself " within the Grid , via digital makeup and voiceover , while John Reardon portrays Clu physically .
Garrett Hedlund as Samuel " Sam " Flynn , a primary shareholder of ENCOM who , while investigating his father 's disappearance , is transported onto the Grid himself . Hedlund won a " Darwinian casting process " which tested hundreds of actors , being chosen for having the " unique combination of intelligence , wit , humor , look and physicality " that the producers were looking for in Flynn 's son . The actor trained hard to do his own stunts , which included jumping over cars and copious wire and harness work . Owen Best portrays the seven @-@ year @-@ old Sam Flynn .
Olivia Wilde as Quorra , an " isomorphic algorithm " , adept warrior , and confidante of Kevin Flynn in the Grid . Flynn refers to her as his " apprentice " and has imparted volumes of information to her regarding the world outside of the Grid , which she longs to experience . She is shown to have a love of human literature , particularly the writings of Jules Verne , and plays Go with Flynn . She comments that her ' aggressive style ' is usually foiled by Flynn 's patience . Wilde describes Quorra as akin to Joan of Arc . Her hairstyle was influenced by singer Karen O. Wilde added that although " [ Quorra ] could have just been another slinky , vampy temptress " , it was important for her to appeal to both men and women , and that character tried to avoid the typical female lead by having a naiveté and childlike innocence adequate for such an " evolving and learning organism " . Quorra 's action scenes led Wilde to work out and train in martial arts .
Bruce Boxleitner as Alan Bradley , an executive consultant for ENCOM , and close friend of Kevin Flynn who , after receiving a cryptic page from the office at the shuttered Flynn 's Arcade , encourages Sam to investigate its origin .
Boxleitner also portrays Tron / Rinzler , a security program originally developed by Bradley to monitor ENCOM 's Master Control Program and later reassigned by Flynn to defend the Grid , who was overpowered and re @-@ purposed by Clu as a masked command program wielding an identity disk that splits into two , in flashback sequences via the same treatment as Bridges ' younger self for Clu . Anis Cheurfa , a stunt actor , portrayed Rinzler , while Boxleitner provided the dialogue . Rinzler is named after author and Lucasfilm Executive Editor J.W. Rinzler .
Michael Sheen as Zuse / Castor , a flamboyant supermodel program who runs the End of Line Club at the top of the tallest tower in the system . Sheen describes his performance as containing elements of performers such as David Bowie , Joel Grey from Cabaret , and a bit of Frank @-@ N @-@ Furter from The Rocky Horror Show .
James Frain as Jarvis , an administration program who serves as Clu 's right @-@ hand man and chief intelligence officer . Frain had to shave his head , bleach his eyebrows white , and wear make @-@ up . The refraction on Jarvis ' helmet led Frain to walk in a " slightly squinty , blind stagger " which the actor felt was helpful to get him into character . Frain described Jarvis as " a fun , comic character that ’ s a little off @-@ beat " , considering him " more human , in terms of being fallible and absurd " compared to the zanier Castor .
Beau Garrett as Gem , one of four programs known as Sirens . The Sirens operate the Grid 's game armory , equipping combatants with the armor needed to compete in the games , while also reporting to Castor .
Daft Punk as disc jockey programs at Castor 's End of Line Club .
Steven Lisberger as Shaddix , a bartender in the End of Line Club .
Jeffrey Nordling as Richard Mackey , the chairman of ENCOM 's executive board .
Cillian Murphy ( uncredited ) as Edward Dillinger , Jr . , the head of ENCOM 's software design team and the son of former ENCOM Senior Executive Ed Dillinger ( portrayed by David Warner in the original film ) .
Serinda Swan and Yaya DaCosta also appear as Sirens .
= = Themes = =
Tron : Legacy is imbued with several references to religious themes , particularly those relating to Christianity and Buddhism . Olivia Wilde 's character , Quorra , was informed by the historical Catholic figure Joan of Arc . Wilde sought inspiration from her six months before production of the film commenced . She , alongside Kosinski , collaborated with the writers on editing the characters so she would contain the characteristics of Joan of Arc . Wilde assessed the characteristics of the figure : " She 's this unlikely warrior , very strong but compassionate , and completely led by selflessness . Also , she thinks she 's in touch with some higher power and has one foot in another world . All of these were elements of Quorra . " Since she epitomizes the concept of androgyny , producers conceived Quorra from an androgynous perspective , notably giving her a short haircut .
Bridges opined that Tron : Legacy was evocative of a modern myth , adding that ideas alluding to technological advancement were prevalent throughout the film . To Cyriaque Lamar of io9 , the film 's approach to technology was reminiscent of a kōan . " One of the things that brought me to this film , " affirmed Bridges , " was the idea of helping to create a modern @-@ day myth to help us navigate through these technological waters [ ... ] . I dig immediate gratification as much as anybody , but it happens so fast that if you make a decision like that , you can go far down the wrong path . Think about those plastic single @-@ use water bottles . Where did that come from ? Who decided that ? You can have a couple of swigs of water [ ... ] and those bottles don 't disintegrate entirely . Microscopic animals eat the plastic , and the fish eat those , and we 're all connected . It 's a finite situation here . "
According to screenwriter Adam Horowitz , Kosinski stated that the film 's universal theme was " finding a human connection in a digital world . " They followed this by " approach [ ing ] the world from the perspective of character , using Kevin Flynn as an organizing principle , and focus on the emotional relationship from father and son and their reconciliation , which brings profound turns in their respective individual lives . ”
= = Pre @-@ production = =
= = = Background = = =
Steven Lisberger relocated to Boston , Massachusetts from Philadelphia , Pennsylvania in the 1970s to pursue a career in computer animation . Since the computer animation field was mainly concentrated in Los Angeles , Lisberger had very little competition operating on the East Coast : " Nobody back then did Hollywood stuff , so there was no competition and no one telling us that we couldn 't do it . " He later produced the American science fiction film Tron ( 1982 ) for Walt Disney Productions , the first computer animation @-@ based feature film . Although the film garnered some critical praise , it generated only modest sales at the box office — the cumulative North American gross was just $ 33 million . Producer Sean Bailey , who saw the film with his father and Lisberger , was captivated by the finished product . Although Tron performed below Disney studio 's expectations , it later developed a cult following , which fueled speculation of Pixar 's alleged interest in creating a sequel , in 1999 . Rumors of a Tron sequel were further ignited after the 2003 release of the first @-@ person shooter video game , Tron 2 @.@ 0 . Lisberger hinted that a third installment could be in the works , depending on the commercial success of the game .
= = = Conception = = =
Plans for creating Tron : Legacy began to materialize in 2005 , when Walt Disney Studios hired screenwriters Brian Klugman and Lee Sternthal as writers for the film . The two had recently finished writing the script for Warrior . According to Variety columnist Michael Fleming , Klugman and Sternthal felt " that the world has caught up to Lisberger 's original concept " . Klugman said of the precedent film : " It was remembered not only for story , but a visual style that nobody had ever used before . We are contemporizing it , taking ideas that were ahead of the curve and applying them to the present , and we feel the film has a chance to resonate to a younger audience . "
In 2007 , Disney began to negotiate with Joseph Kosinski to direct Tron : Legacy . Kosinski admitted that at the time , he was not keen on the idea but it later grew on him as time progressed . Kosinski was involved in a meeting with Bailey , president of Walt Disney Pictures . " Disney owns the property , Tron , " Bailey stated . " Do you know it ? Are you interested ? What would your take be ? In a post @-@ Matrix world , how do you go back to the world of Tron ? " Kosinski wanted to embrace the general ambiance of the film , and wished to not use the internet as a model or use a formula emulative of The Matrix film series . As neither individuals were in equal agreement on choosing a perspective to conceive the film , Kosinski asked Bailey to lend him money in order to create a conceptual prototype of the Tron : Legacy universe , which was eventually presented at the 2009 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International . " So , we went into Disney , " he recalled , " and I told them , ' We can talk about this all day , but in order to really get on the same page , I need to show you what this world looks and feels like . Give me some money and let me do a small test that will give you a hint for a couple minutes of it , and see what you think . ' "
A graduate of Columbia University 's architecture school , Kosinski 's knowledge of architecture was pivotal in conceptualizing the Tron : Legacy universe . His approach in cultivating a prototype was different from other film directors because , according to Kosinski , he came " from a design point of view " ; " Some of my favorite directors come from outside of the film business , so that made my approach different from other directors , but a design background makes sense for a movie like this because the whole world has to be made from scratch . " Lisberger would later state that he left the sequel to a different production team because " after thirty years I don ’ t want to compete with myself " , and to showcase how the next generation dealt with the themes contained in Tron - " If I brought my network in , it would be a little bit like one of those Clint Eastwood movies where all the old guys go to space . " Lisberger added that " I dig this role of being the Obi @-@ Wan or the Yoda on this film more than being the guy in the trenches " , stating that unlike Kosinski his age was a hindering factor - " I cannot work sixteen hours a day staring at twenty @-@ five monitors for most of that time . "
= = = Writing = = =
Shortly after hiring Kosinski , Bailey approached screenwriting duo Adam Horowitz and Edward Kitsis , who accepted for being self @-@ described " obsessed about Tron " . Horowitz later claimed the challenge was to " homage the first movie , continue the story , expand it and take it to another place and open up space for new fans " , and Kitsis claimed that the film would start a whole new mythology " of which we 're only scratching the surface " . Horowitz and Kitsis first created a story outline , and developed and fine @-@ tuned the plot with Bailey and Kosinski across a period of two days in La Quinta . The writers also consulted Lisberger , to view Tron 's creator input on the story . Lisberger gave his blessing , particularly as he has a son the same age as Sam , which Kitsis stated that " was like we had tapped into something he was feeling without even realizing it . " The Pixar team contributed with rewrites for additional shooting after being shown a rough cut in March 2010 , which helped in particular to the development of Sam 's story line .
The writing staff cited The Wizard of Oz as a source of thematic influence for Tron : Legacy in writing the script , with Kitsis stating that " They both have very similar DNA , which is Tron really lives on , in a lot of ways , trying to get home . You 're put on this world and you want to go home and what is home ? That 's in a lot of way inspired us . " Kitsis also added that they had to include an " emotional spine to take us into the story or else it just becomes a bunch of moves or gags and stuff " , eventually deciding on adding a mysterious destiny to Flynn and giving him a legendary aura - " Kevin Flynn to us was Steve Jobs and Bill Gates all wrapped up into one and John Lennon " . The writers decided to create the character of Clu as an evil embodiment of " how you look back on your younger self , ( ... ) that guy [ that ] thought he knew everything , but he really knew nothing " . Bridges liked the idea of the dual perspectives , and contributed with the writers for the characterization of Flynn as a sanguine Zen master by suggesting them to get inspiration from various Buddhist texts . Part of the concepts emerged from a reunion the producers had with scientists from California Institute of Technology and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory to discuss concepts such as isomorphic algorithms and the digitizing of organic matter .
Horowitz revealed the film would contain many light cycles battles , and asserted that the script for the scenes were " incredibly detailed " , and involved an intricate collaborative process . For the disc game , Horowitz and Kitsis wrote a rough draft of the scene , and sent the script to Kosinski ; he summarized his perspective of the sequence 's visuals to them . " He described them as these underlying platforms , " said Horowitz , " that would then coalesce and then the way you would go from round to round in the game is you defeat someone , they kinda come together as you see in the movie . " After giving his intake , Kosinski sent various sketches of the scene to the writers and would often revise the script . Kitsis thought that illustrating the character 's stories to be the most difficult task in writing Tron : Legacy . The writers collaborated with the creative process throughout production , which was helpful especially considering the difficulties of describing in a tangible way a digital world that " in its very nature defies basic screenwriting conventions . "
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
At the 2008 San Diego Comic @-@ Con , a preliminary teaser trailer ( labeled as TR2N and directed by Joseph Kosinski ) was shown as a surprise to convention guests . It depicted a yellow Program engaged in a light cycle battle with a blue Program , and it prominently featured Jeff Bridges reprising his role as an aged Kevin Flynn ( from the first film ) . At the end of the trailer , the yellow Program showed his face , which appeared identical to Flynn 's earlier program Clu ( resembling the younger Flynn in Tron ) .
While the trailer did not confirm that a Tron sequel was in production , it showed that Disney was serious about a sequel . In an interview with Sci @-@ Fi Wire , Bridges revealed that the test footage was unlikely to appear in the finished film . On July 23 , 2009 , Disney revealed film 's title at their panel at Comic @-@ Con. Bridges explained that the title is in reference to the story 's theme : " It 's basically a story about a son 's search for his father . " They also showed a trailer similar to the one shown at Comic @-@ Con 2009 , with updated visuals . At the time , the film had just wrapped production and they had a year of post production ahead of them . Because none of the footage from inside the computer world was finished , they premiered concept images from the production . Art included the Recognizer , which has been updated from the original film . Concept photos were also shown of Disc Wars , which has also been revised from the original film into a 16 @-@ game tournament . The arena is set up so that the game court organically changes , and all 16 games are going on at the same time . The boards also combine in real time until the last two Disc warriors are connected .
Light cycles make a return , with new designs by Daniel Simon . According to the press conference at Comic @-@ Con 2008 , a new vehicle appears called a " Light Runner , " a two @-@ seat version of the light cycle . It is said to be very fast , and has the unique ability to go off The Grid on its own power . We also get a glimpse at Kevin Flynn 's own cycle , a " Second Generation Light Cycle " designed in 1989 by Flynn and is " still the fastest thing on The Grid . " It incorporates some of the look of both films .
A life @-@ size model of the light cycle was put on display at a booth at Fan Expo 2009 in Toronto , Ontario from August 28 – 30 , 2009 , along with a special presentation of material from the production . The conceptual art shown at Comic @-@ Con was shown in the session , along with some test film of the martial artists who play a more athletic style of Disc Wars . A segment from the film showed Flynn 's son entering the now @-@ decrepit arcade , playing a Tron stand @-@ up arcade video game , noticing a passage in the wall behind the Tron game and entering it , the passage closing behind him . Flynn 's son makes the visit to the arcade after Alan Bradley receives a page from the disconnected phone number of the arcade . The footage was used later as part of the trailer released on March 5 , 2010 .
The character of Yori and her user , Dr. Lora Baines , do not appear in the sequel , even though the film refers to Alan Bradley being married to Lora . Fans have lobbied for actress Cindy Morgan to be in the film with active campaigns online , such as " Yori Lives " on Facebook , which is independent of Morgan herself . " All I know is what I 'm seeing online , " Morgan said . " I am so thrilled and touched and excited about the fan reaction and about people talking about the first one and how it relates to the second one . I can 't tell you how warm a feeling I get from that . It just means so much . " No one from Tron : Legacy had contacted Morgan , and she did not directly speak with anyone from the sequel 's cast and crew . As Dr. Lora Baines , Cindy Morgan had appeared with Bruce Boxleitner ( as Alan Bradley ) at the Encom Press Conference in San Francisco , April 2 , 2010 .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography took place in Vancouver , British Columbia in April 2009 , and lasted for approximately 67 days . Many filming locations were established in Downtown Vancouver and its surroundings . Stage shooting for the film took place at the Canadian Motion Picture Park studio in Burnaby , a nearby suburb of the city . Kosinski devised and constructed twelve to fifteen of the film 's sets , including Kevin Flynn 's safe house , a creation he illustrated on a napkin for a visual effects test . " I wanted to build as much as possible . It was important to me that this world feel real , and anytime I could build something I did . So I hired guys that I went to architecture school with to work on the sets for this film , and hopefully people who watch the film feel like there ’ s a certain physicality to this world that hopefully they appreciate , knowing that real architects actually put this whole thing together . " The film was shot in dual camera 3D using Pace Fusion rigs like James Cameron 's Avatar , but unlike the Sony F950 cameras on that film , Tron used the F35s . " The benefit of [ the F35s ] , " according to director Kosinski , " is that it has a full 35mm sensor which gives you that beautiful cinematic shallow depth of field . " The film 's beginning portions were shot in 2D , while forty minutes of the film were vertically enhanced for IMAX . Digital Domain was contracted to work on the visual effects , while companies such as Prime Focus Group , DD Vancouver , and Mr. X were brought on to collaborate with producer on the post @-@ production junctures of Tron : Legacy . Post @-@ production wrapped on November 25 , 2010 .
The sequences on the Grid were wholly shot in 3D , utilizing cameras specifically designed for it , and employed a 3D technique that combined other special effects techniques . The real @-@ world sequences were filmed in 2D , and eventually altered using the three @-@ dimensional element . Bailey stated that it was a challenge shooting Tron : Legacy in 3D because the cameras were bigger and heavier , and variations needed to be taken into account . Despite these concerns , he opined that it was a " great reason to go to the movies because it 's an experience you just can 't recreate on an iPhone or a laptop " . In some sequences the image shows a fine mesh pattern and some blurring . That is not interference or a production fault , but indicates that that sequence is a flashback and to simulate an older form of video representation technology . Stunt work on the film was designed and coordinated by 87Eleven , who also designed and trained fight sequences for 300 and Watchmen . Olivia Wilde described it as an honor to train with them .
= = = Design = = =
In defining his method for creating Tron : Legacy , Kosinski declared that his main objective was to " make it feel real " , adding that he wanted the audience to feel like filming actually occurred in the fictional universe . For this , many physical sets were built , as Kosinski " wanted the materials to be real materials : glass , concrete , steel , so it had this kind of visceral quality . " Kosinski collaborated with people who specialized in fields outside of the film industry , such as architecture and automotive design . The looks for the Grid aimed for a more advanced version of the cyberspace visited by Flynn in Tron , which Lisberger described as " a virtual Galapagos , which has evolved on its own " . As Bailey put , the Grid would not have any influence from the internet as it had turned offline from the real world in the 1980s , and " grew on its own server into something powerful and unique " . Kosinski added that as the simulation became more realistic , it would try to become closer to the real world with environmental effects such as rain and wind , and production designer Darren Gilford stated that there would be a juxtaposition between the variety of texture and color of the real world introduction in contrast with the " clean surfaces and lines " of the Grid . As the design team considered the lights a major part of the Tron look , particularly for being set in a dark world — described by effects art director Ben Procter as " dark silhouetted objects dipped in an atmosphere with clouds in @-@ between , in a kind of Japanese landscape painting " where " the self @-@ lighting of the objects is the main light source " — lighting was spread through every prop on the set , including the floor in Flynn 's hideout . Lisberger also stated that while the original Tron " reflected the way cyberspace was " , the sequel was " going to be like a modern day , like contemporary plus , in terms of how much resolution , the texturing , the feel , the style " , adding that " it doesn ’ t have that Pong Land vibe to it anymore . "
The skintight suits worn by the actors were reminiscent of the outfits worn by the actors in the original film . Kosinski believed that the costumes could be made to be practical due to the computerized nature of the film , as physically illuminating each costume would be costly to the budget . Christine Bieselin Clark worked with Michael Wilkinson in designing the lighted costumes , which used electroluminescent lamps derived from a flexible polymer film and featured hexagonal patterns . The lights passed through the suit via Light Tape , a substance composed of Honeywell lamination and Sylvania phosphors . To concoct a color , a transparent 3M Vinyl film was applied onto the phosphor prior to lamination . While most of the suits were made out of foam latex , others derived from spandex , which was sprayed with balloon rubber , ultimately giving the illusion of a lean shape . The actors had to be compressed to compromise for the bulk of the electronics . In addition , Clark and Wilkinson designed over 140 background costumes . The two sought influence from various fashion and shoe designers in building the costumes . On the back of the suit was an illuminated disc , which consisted of 134 LED lights . It was attached to the suit via a magnet , and was radio @-@ controlled . All the costumes had to be sewn in such a way that the stitches did not appear , as the design team figured that in a virtual environment the clothes would just materialize , with no need for buttons , zippers or enclosures . According to Neville Page , the lead designer for the helmets , " The art departments communicated very well with each other to realise Joe ’ s [ ... ] vision . We would look over each other ’ s shoulders to find inspiration from one another . The development of the costumes came from trying to develop the form language which came from within the film . "
The majority of the suits were designed using ZBrush . A scan of an actor 's body was taken , which was then encased to decipher the fabric , the location of the foam , amongst other concerns . With a computer numerical cutting of dense foam , a small scale output would be created to perfect fine details before initiating construction of the suit . Upon downloading the participant 's body scan , the illustrations were overlaid to provide an output manufacturing element . Describing the computer numerical cutting process , Chris Lavery of Clothes on Film noted that it had a tendency to elicit bubbles and striations . Clark stated : " The [ ... ] suit is all made of a hexagon mesh which we also printed and made the fabric from 3D files . This would go onto the hard form ; it would go inside the mould which was silicon matrix . We would put those together and then inject foam into the negative space . The wiring harness is embedded into the mould and you get a torso . We then paint it and that ’ s your finished suit . "
= = = Sound and visual effects = = =
Crowd effects for the gaming arena were recorded at the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International . During one of the Tron : Legacy panels , the crowd was given instruction via a large video screen while techs from Skywalker Sound recorded the performance . The audience performed chants and stomping effects similar to what is heard in modern sports arenas .
It took two years and ten companies to create the 1 @,@ 565 visual effects shots of Tron : Legacy . The majority of the effects were done by Digital Domain , who created 882 shots under supervisor Eric Barba . The production team blended several special effect techniques , such as chroma keying , to allow more freedom in creating effects . Similar to Tron , this approach was seen as pushing the boundaries of modern technology . " I was going more on instinct rather than experience , " Kosinski remarked . Although he had previously used the technology in producing advertisements , this was the first time Kosinski used it a large scale simultaneously . Darren Gilford was approached as the production designer , while David Levy was hired as a concept artist . Levy translated Kosinski 's ideas into drawings and other visual designs . " Joe 's vision evolved the visuals of the first film , " he stated . " He wanted the Grid to feel like reality , but with a twist . " An estimated twenty to twenty @-@ five artists from the art department developed concepts of the Tron : Legacy universe , which varied from real world locations to fully digital sets . Gilford suggested that there were between sixty and seventy settings in the film , split up into fifteen fully constructed sets with different levels of computer @-@ created landscapes .
Rather than utilizing makeup tactics , such as the ones used in A Beautiful Mind , to give Jeff Bridges a younger appearance , the character of Clu was completely computer generated . To show that this version of Clu was created some time after the events of the original film , the visual effects artists based his appearance on how Bridges looked in Against All Odds , released two years after Tron . The effects team hired makeup artist Rick Baker to construct a molded likeness of a younger Bridges head to serve as their basis for their CG work . But soon , they scrapped the mould because they wished for it to be more youthful . There was no time to make another mould , so the team reconstructed it digitally . On @-@ set , first Bridges would perform , being then followed by stunt double John Reardon who would mimic his actions . Reardon 's head was replaced on post @-@ production with the digital version of the young Bridges . Barba – who was involved in a similar experience for The Curious Case of Benjamin Button — stated that they used four microcameras with infrared sensors to capture all 134 dots on Bridges face that would be the basis of the facial movements , a similar process that was used in Avatar . It took over two years to not only create the likeness of Clu , but also the character 's movements ( such as muscle movement ) . Bridges called the experience surreal and said it was " Just like the first Tron , but for real ! "
= = = Music = = =
The French electronic group Daft Punk composed the film score of Tron : Legacy , which features over 30 tracks . The score was arranged and orchestrated by Joseph Trapanese . Jason Bentley served as the film 's music supervisor . An electronic music fan , Kosinski stated that to replicate the innovative electronic Tron score by Wendy Carlos " rather than going with a traditional film composer , I wanted to try something fresh and different " , adding that " there was a lot of interest from different electronic bands that I follow to work on the film " but he eventually picked Daft Punk . Kosinski added that he knew the band was " more than just dance music guys " for side projects such as their film Electroma . The duo were first contacted by producers in 2007 , when Tron : Legacy was still in the early stages of production . Since they were touring at the time , producers were unsuccessful in contacting the group . They were again approached by Kosinski , eventually agreeing to take part in the film a year later . Kosinski added that Daft Punk were huge Tron fans , and that his meeting with them " was almost like they were interviewing me to make sure that I was going to hold up to the Tron legacy " .
The soundtrack started being composed before production had even begun , and is a notable departure from the band 's previous works , as Daft Punk put more emphasis on orchestral elements rather than relying solely on synthesizers . " Synths are a very low level of artificial intelligence , " explained member Guy @-@ Manuel de Homem @-@ Christo , " whereas you have a Stradivarius that will live for a thousand years . We knew from the start that there was no way that we were going to do this film score with two synthesizers and a drum machine . " " Derezzed " was taken from the album and released as its sole single . The album was released on December 3 , 2010 , and sold 71 @,@ 000 copies in its first week in the United States . Peaking at number six on the Billboard 200 , it eventually acquired a gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America , denoting shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies . A remix album for the soundtrack , titled Tron : Legacy Reconfigured , became available on April 5 , 2011 to coincide with the film 's home media release .
= = Marketing = =
On July 21 , 2009 , several film @-@ related websites posted they had received via mail a pair of " Flynn 's Arcade " tokens along with a flash drive . Its content was an animated GIF that showed CSS code lines . Four of them were put together and part of the code was cracked , revealing the URL to Flynnlives.com , a fictitious site maintained by activists who believe Kevin Flynn is alive , even though he has been missing since 1989 . Clicking on a tiny spider in the lower section of the main page led to a countdown clock that hit zero on July 23 , 2009 , 9 : 30 pm PDT . Within the Terms of Use Section , an address was found . It lies in San Diego , California , USA near the city 's convention center where the Comic @-@ Con 2009 took place and some footage and information on the sequel was released . Flynn 's Arcade was re @-@ opened at that location , with several Space Paranoids arcade machines and a variety of ' 80s video games . A full @-@ size light cycle from the new film was on display .
A ninth viral site , homeoftron.com , was found . It portrays some of the history of Flynn 's Arcade as well as a fan memoir section . On December 19 , 2009 a new poster was revealed , along with the second still from the film . Banners promoting the film paved the way to the 2010 Comic @-@ Con convention center , making this a record third appearance for the film at the annual event .
Disney also partnered with both Coke Zero and Norelco on Tron : Legacy . Disney 's subsidiary Marvel Comics had special covers of their superheroes in Tron garb , and Nokia had trailers for the film preloaded on Nokia N8 phones while doing a promotion to attend the film 's London premiere . While Sam picks up a can of Coors in the film , it was not product placement , with the beer appearing because Kosinksi " just liked the color and thought it would look good on screen . "
= = = Theme parks and attractions = = =
At the Walt Disney World Resort in Florida , one monorail train was decorated with special artwork depicting lightcycles with trailing beams of light , along with the film 's logo . This Tron @-@ themed monorail , formerly the " Coral " monorail , was renamed the " Tronorail " and unveiled in March 2010 . At the Disneyland Resort in California , a nighttime dance party named " ElecTRONica " premiered on October 8 , 2010 and was set to close in May 2011 , but it was extended until April 2012 due to positive guest response , in Hollywood Land at Disney California Adventure Park . Winners of America 's Best Dance Crew , Poreotics , performed at ElecTRONica . As part of ElecTRONica , a sneak peek with scenes from the film is shown in 3D with additional in @-@ theater effects in the Muppet * Vision 3D theater .
On October 29 , 2010 , the nighttime show World of Color at Disney California Adventure Park began soft @-@ openings after its second show of a Tron : Legacy @-@ themed encore using a Daft Punk music piece titled " The Game Has Changed " from the film soundtrack , using new effects and projections on Paradise Pier attractions . The encore officially premiered on November 1 , 2010 . On December 12 , 2010 , the show Extreme Makeover : Home Edition as part of a house rebuild constructed a Tron : Legacy @-@ themed bedroom for one of the occupants ' young boys . The black painted room not only consisted of life sized Tron city graphics but glowing blue line graphics on the walls , floor and furniture , a desk with glowing red lit Recognizers for the legs and a Tron suit inspired desk chair , a Lightcycle shaped chair with blue lighting accents , projection mural system that projects Tron imagery on a glass wall partition , laptop computer , flat panel television , several Tron Legacy action figures , a daybed in black and shimmering dark blue and blue overhead lit panels .
Disney was involved with the Ice Hotel in Jukkasjärvi , Sweden through association with designers Ian Douglas @-@ Jones at I @-@ N @-@ D @-@ J and Ben Rousseau to create " The Legacy of the River " , a high @-@ tech suite inspired by Tron : Legacy . The suite uses electroluminescent wire to capture the art style of the film . It consists of over 60 square meters of 100mm thick ice equating to approximately six tons . 160 linear meters of electroluminescent wire were routed out , sandwiched and then glued with powdered snow and water to create complex geometric forms . The Ice Hotel is expected to get 60 @,@ 000 visitors for the season which lasts December 2010 through April 2011 . On November 19 , 2010 , the Tron : Legacy Pop Up Shop opened at Royal @-@ T Cafe and Art Space in Culver City , California . The shop featured many of the collaborative products created as tie ins with the film from brands such as Oakley , Hurley and Adidas . The space was decorated in theme and the adjacent cafe had a tie in menu with Tron inspired dishes . The shop remained open until December 23 , 2010 .
Shanghai Disneyland , scheduled to open on June 16 , 2016 , will feature the TRON Lightcycle Power Run , a steel , indoor roller coaster located underneath a color @-@ shifting canopy in Tomorrowland . The attraction , unique to that Disney park , will take guests on a ride through the Grid from Tron : Legacy on their very own light cycle .
= = = Merchandising = = =
Electronics and toy lines inspired by the film were released during Fall 2010 . A line of Tron @-@ inspired jewelry , shoes and apparel was also released , and Disney even created a pop @-@ up store to sell them in Culver City . Custom Tron branded gaming controllers have been released for Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 and Wii .
A tie @-@ in video game , entitled Tron : Evolution , was released on November 25 , 2010 . The story sits between the original Tron film and Tron : Legacy . Teaser trailers were released in November 2009 , while a longer trailer was shown during the Spike Video Game Awards on December 12 , 2009 . There were also two games released for the iOS devices ( iPhone , iPod , and iPad ) as a tie @-@ in to the film : Tron and Tron : Legacy . Disney commissioned N @-@ Space to develop a series of multiplayer games based on Tron : Legacy for the Wii console . IGN reviewed the PlayStation 3 version of the game but gave it only a " passable " 6 out of 10 . A tie @-@ in 128 @-@ page graphic novel Tron : Betrayal was released by Disney Press on November 16 , 2010 . It includes an 11 @-@ page retelling of the original Tron story in addition to a story fitting between the original film and Tron : Legacy . IGN reviewed the comic and gave it a " passable " score of 6 @.@ 5 out of 10 .
= = Release = =
On October 28 , 2010 , a 23 @-@ minute preview of the film was screened on many IMAX theaters all over the world , ( presented by ASUS ) . The tickets for this event were sold out within an hour on October 8 . Stand @-@ by tickets for the event were also sold shortly before the presentation started . Original merchandise from the film was also available for sale . Announced through the official Tron Facebook page , the red carpet premiere of the film was broadcast live on the internet . Tron Legacy was released in theaters on December 17 , 2010 , in the United States and United Kingdom . The film was originally set to be released in the UK on December 26 , 2010 , but was brought forward due to high demand . The film was presented in IMAX 3D and Disney Digital 3D . The film was also released with D @-@ BOX motion code in select theaters and released in 50 Iosono @-@ enhanced cinemas , creating " 3D sound " .
On December 10 , 2010 , in Toronto , Canada , a special premiere was hosted by George Stroumboulopoulos organized through Twitter , open to the first 100 people who showed up at the CN Tower . After the film ended the tower was lit up blue to mirror The Grid . On December 13 , 2010 , in select cities all over the United States , a free screening of the entire film in 3D was available to individuals on a first @-@ come , first @-@ served basis . Free " Flynn Lives " pins were handed out to the attendees . The announcement of the free screenings was made on the official Flynn Lives Facebook page . On January 21 , 2011 , the German designer Michael Michalsky hosted the German premiere of the film at his cultural event StyleNite during Berlin Fashion Week .
= = = Home media = = =
Tron : Legacy was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on Blu @-@ ray Disc , DVD , and digital download in North America on April 5 , 2011 . Legacy was available stand @-@ alone as a single @-@ disc DVD , a two @-@ disc DVD and Blu @-@ ray combo pack , and a four @-@ disc box set adding a Blu @-@ ray 3D and a digital copy . A five @-@ disk box set featuring both Tron films was also released , with one , entitled The Ultimate Tron Experience , having a collectible packaging resembling an identity disk . The digital download of Tron : Legacy was available in both high definition or standard definition , including versions with or without the digital extras .
A preview of the 10 @-@ part animated series Tron : Uprising is included in all versions of the home media release . Tron : Legacy was the second Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment release that included Disney Second Screen , a feature accessible via a computer or iPad app download that provides additional content as the user views the film . Forty minutes of the film were shot in 2 @.@ 35 : 1 and then vertically enhanced for IMAX . These scenes are presented in 1 @.@ 78 : 1 in a similar way to the Blu @-@ ray release of The Dark Knight .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 51 % of commentators gave the film a positive review , based on 226 reviews . Attaining a mean score of 5 @.@ 9 / 10 , the site 's consensus stated : " Tron : Legacy boasts dazzling visuals , but its human characters and story get lost amidst its state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art production design . " At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 based on reviews from mainstream critics , Tron : Legacy received a rating average of 49 , based on 40 reviews .
The visual effects were cited as the central highlight of the film . In his three @-@ star review , Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times felt that the environment was aesthetically pleasing , and added that its score displayed an " electronic force " that complemented the visuals . Rolling Stone columnist Peter Travers echoed these sentiments , concluding that the effects were of an " award @-@ caliber " . J. Hoberman of The Village Voice noted that while it was extensively enhanced , Tron : Legacy retained the streamlined visuals that were seen in its predecessor , while Variety 's Peter DeBarge affirmed that the visuals and the accompanied " cutting @-@ edge " score made for a " stunning virtual ride " . To Nick de Semlyen of Empire , " This is a movie of astonishing high @-@ end gloss , fused to a pounding Daft Punk soundtrack , populated with sleek sirens and chiselled hunks , boasting electroluminescent landscapes to make Blu @-@ ray players weep . " Some critics were not as impressed with the film 's special effects . Manohla Dargis of The New York Times avouched that despite its occasional notability , the film 's " vibrating kaleidoscopic colors that gave the first movie its visual punch have been replaced by a monotonous palette of glassy black and blue and sunbursts of orange and yellow " . Though declaring that Tron : Legacy was " eye @-@ popping " , San Francisco Chronicle 's Amy Biancolli asserted that the special effects were " spectacular " — albeit cheesy . A columnist for The Wall Street Journal , Joe Morgenstern denounced the producers ' emphasis on technological advancements , which he felt could have been used for other means such as drama . To the New York Post 's Kyle Smith , there were many moments where he " shed [ his ] customary phlegmatic equilibrium and [ ... ] thought : Hey , this is really exciting ! "
The performances of various cast members was frequently mentioned in the critiques . Michael Sheen 's portrayal of Castor was particularly acclaimed by commentators , who — because of his flamboyance — drew parallels to the English singer @-@ songwriter David Bowie , as well as fictional characters such as A Clockwork Orange ( 1971 ) lead character Alex . Dargis , Debruge , Puig , and Carrie Rickey of The Philadelphia Inquirer were among the journalists to praise his acting : Dargis ascribed Sheen 's exceptional performance to a seemingly " uninteresting " cast . To Philadelphia Daily News film critic Gary Thompson , the film became humorous with the scenes involving Castor . Star Tribune critic Colin Covert believed that Sheen 's campy antics was the " too brief " highlight of Tron : Legacy . With other cast members — particularly Garrett Hedlund , Olivia Wilde , and Jeff Bridges — commentary reflected diverse attitudes . The film received " a little boost from " Wilde , according to Rickey . The Boston Globe 's Wesley Morris called Hedlund a " dud stud " ; " None of what he sees impresses , " he elaborated . " The feeling is mutual . At an alleged cost of $ 200 million , that ’ s some yawn . If he can ’ t be thrilled , why should we ? " To Salon commentator Andrew O 'Hehir , even Bridges — an individual he regarded as " one of America 's most beloved and distinctive " actors — was " weird and complicated " rather than being the " sentimental and alluring " portrayer in the original Tron .
Critics were divided with the character development and the storylines in Tron : Legacy . Writing for The New Yorker , Bruce Jones commented that the audience didn 't connect with the characters , as they were lacking emotion and substance . " Disney may be looking for a merchandising bonanza with this long @-@ gestating sequel to the groundbreaking 1982 film , " remarked Jones , " but someone in the corporate offices forgot to add any human interest to its action @-@ heavy script . " Likewise , USA Today journalist Claudia Puig found Tron : Legacy to resonate with " nonsensical " and " unimaginative , even obfuscating " dialogue , and that " most of the story just doesn 't scan " . As Dana Stevens from Slate summed up , " Tron : Legacy is the kind of sensory @-@ onslaught blockbuster that tends to put me to sleep , the way babies will nap to block out overwhelming stimuli . I confess I may have snoozed through one or two climactic battles only to be startled awake by an incoming neon Frisbee . " Although he proclaimed the plot of Tron : Legacy and its predecessor to be spotty , Ian Buckwater of NPR was lenient of the latter film due to its youth @-@ friendly nature . In contrast to negative responses , Michelle Alexander of Eclipse adored the plot of Tron : Legacy , a reaction that was paralleled by Rossiter Drake from 7x7 , who wrote that it was " buoyed " by its " sometimes convoluted , yet hard to resist " story . Metro 's Larushka Ivan @-@ Zadeh complained about the underdeveloped plot , saying " In 2010 , issues surrounding the immersive nature of gaming and all @-@ consuming power of modern technology are more pertinent than ever , so it 's frustrating the script does nothing with them . " However , she conceded that " it 's the best 3D flick since Avatar and a super @-@ groovy soundtrack by Daft Punk nonetheless makes for an awesome watch " .
= = = Box office = = =
Leading up to the release , various commercial analysts predicted that Tron : Legacy would gross $ 40 – $ 50 million during its opening weekend , a figure that Los Angeles Times commentator Ben Fritz wrote would to be " solid but not spectacular " . Although the studio hoped to attract a broad audience , the film primarily appealed to men : " Women appear to be more hesitant about the science @-@ fiction sequel " , wrote Fritz . Jay Fernandez of The Hollywood Reporter felt that the disproportionate audience would be problematic for the films long term box office prospects . Writing for Box Office Mojo , Brandon Gray attributed pre @-@ release hype to “ unwarranted blockbuster expectations from fanboys ” , given the original Tron was considered a box office failure when it was released , and the film 's cult fandom " amounted to a niche " .
In North America , the film earned $ 43 @.@ 6 million during the course of its opening weekend . On its opening day , it grossed $ 17 @.@ 6 million , including $ 3 @.@ 6 million during midnight showings from 2 @,@ 000 theaters , 29 % of which were IMAX screenings , and went on to claim the top spot for the weekend , ahead of Yogi Bear and How Do You Know . Tron : Legacy grossed roughly $ 68 million during its first week , and surpassed $ 100 million on its 12th day in release .
In international markets , Tron : Legacy grossed $ 23 million on its opening weekend , averaging $ 6 @,@ 000 per theater . According to Disney , 65 % of foreign grosses originated from five key markets ; Japan , Australia , Brazil , United Kingdom , and Spain . The film performed the best in Japan , where it took $ 4.7M from 350 theaters . Australia ( $ 3.4M ) , the United Kingdom ( $ 3.2M ) , Brazil ( $ 1.9M ) , and Spain ( $ 1.9M ) . By the following week , Tron : Legacy obtained $ 65 @.@ 5 million from foreign markets , bringing total grosses to $ 153 @.@ 8 million . At the end of its theatrical run , Tron : Legacy had grossed $ 400 @,@ 062 @,@ 763 ; $ 172 @,@ 062 @,@ 763 in North America , and $ 228 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in other countries .
= = = Accolades = = =
Tron : Legacy received an award for " Best Original Score " from the Austin Film Critics Association . The film was also nominated for " Excellence in Production Design for a Fantasy Film " by the Art Directors Guild , and for " Sound Editing " by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences . The film made the final shortlist for the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects , although it did not receive a nomination .
= = Halted sequel and other media = =
= = = Halted sequel = = =
Steven Lisberger stated on October 28 , 2010 , before the film 's release , that a sequel was in planning and that Adam Horowitz and Edward Kitsis , screenwriters for Tron : Legacy , were in the early stages of producing a script for the new film . Perry Nemiroff of Cinema Blend speculated that Tron 3 could be the first installment in a new trilogy . On January 13 , 2011 , Ain 't It Cool News reported that the film was close to having its sequel announced as part of Disney 's plan for Tron 's future . On January 21 , 2011 , Tron @-@ Sector reported an unsourced rumor that a sequel to Tron : Legacy had been green @-@ lit and a teaser trailer would debut on the DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc releases of Tron and Tron : Legacy . Harry Knowles reported on the teaser , calling it a " DVD Extra " and noting that it had been filmed before Thanksgiving ( i.e. before November 2010 ) . On April 8 , 2011 , director Joseph Kosinski talked about the sequel : " We 're working on the story right now . Once we get a script we 're all really happy with , we 'll take it to the powers that be and see if we can go back to the grid . I think we will pick up with where Tron : Legacy left off with Sam and Quorra in the real world and what does that mean and the possibilities it opens up for the next chapter . It 's that relationship between the two of them that 's the next step . " On March 31 , Kosinski said that the film 's script was expected to be finished in two weeks and its working title is Tr3n .
On June 7 , 2011 , it was reported that screenwriter David DiGilio ( Eight Below ) had been hired to draft a script for the sequel to Tron : Legacy . Legacy screenwriters Adam Horowitz and Edward Kitsis were initially slated to return , but were forced to drop out due to their ongoing work in developing the ABC television series Once Upon a Time . It is currently unspecified whether or not Legacy director Joseph Kosinski will return to direct the sequel . On March 8 , 2012 , Bruce Boxleitner suggested that a sequel to Tron : Legacy could begin filming as early as 2014 , after Kosinski finished his film Oblivion . On June 4 , 2012 , Horowitz and Kitsis confirmed they were developing a sequel , and the character of Quorra would be returning for the film , as well as a cameo in Tron : Uprising . On December 5 , 2012 , Jesse Wigutow was hired to rewrite the script for the film . This was later followed by the confirmation that Bruce Boxleitner and Garrett Hedlund would return for the third film .
In September 2013 , Kosinski said : " The TRON sequel is still in early stages , it ’ s still in the script stage . So I can ’ t say if and when that would go into production but the fundamental idea of the movie is something I ’ m very excited about , it delivers on the ideas that we set up in Legacy , especially at the end in the last five minutes , so that one is a work in progress . "
On January 15 , 2014 , Bruce Boxleitner stated in an interview : " All I know is , they don ’ t tell me anything , but they want to do it I would say probably the end of this year , for 2015 maybe , " Boxleitner said . " They don ’ t have any dates but I ’ m thinking from the scuttlebutt I ’ m hearing that ’ s it , but I don ’ t know anything for sure other than they do have a script they love , they 're still tweaking . " The film may also take place more in the real world than in the past according to the recent interview : " That ’ s what I ’ m told , but you didn ’ t hear me say that , " Boxleitner joked . " I think it ’ s going to be a lot about taking the company back because if you remember Sam Flynn says to Alan at the end , just before he rides his bike off into the sunrise with Quorra , says , ‘ We ’ re going to take the company back . ’ That ’ s not the end of the movie . That ’ s the beginning of the next one . That ’ s foreshadowing . And you don ’ t get Cillian Murphy to do an unscripted cameo " and " I got a feeling Eddie Dillinger Jr . ’ s going to be as bad as his dad was . "
In March 2015 , it was revealed that Disney has greenlit the third film with Hedlund reprising his role as Sam and Kosinski returning to direct the sequel . Wilde was revealed in April to be returning as Quorra . Filming was expected to start in Vancouver in October 2015 . However , in May 2015 , The Hollywood Reporter stated that Walt Disney Studios had chosen not to continue with a third installment , which was confirmed by Wilde the following month . In the end of July , Boxleitner stated he frequently heard about the pre @-@ production of Tron 3 while shooting Cedar Cove in Vancouver , and was disappointed to hear about the cancellation . While expressing the opinion that Disney decided to " play it safe " and explore other properties [ i.e. Star Wars ] , Boxleitner said that this broke his interest in continuing with the franchise , as " it 's been too up and down for me . I would rather not just keep going . I don ’ t want to repeat my career anymore . " However , in September 2015 , Hedlund stated that he was told that the third Tron film was not " totally dead " , but jokingly suggested that it could be released 30 years later , referencing the near 30 @-@ year gap between the first film and Legacy .
= = = Television = = =
Tron : Uprising , a spin @-@ off animated series , premiered June 7 , 2012 on the Disney XD network across the United States . Tron : Legacy 's writers Adam Horowitz and Eddie Kitsis revealed that the series tells the story of what happened in the Grid in between the films . Voice actors for the animation include Bruce Boxleitner as Tron , Elijah Wood , Lance Henriksen , Mandy Moore , Emmanuelle Chriqui , Paul Reubens , Nate Corddry and Olivia Wilde , who reprises her role as Quorra .
= = = Manga = = =
A manga version of Tron : Legacy was released by Earth Star Entertainment in Japan on June 30 , 2011 .
|
= Hurricane Alex ( 2016 ) =
Hurricane Alex was the first Atlantic hurricane in January since Alice in 1955 , and the first to form in the month since 1938 . Alex originated as an extratropical cyclone near the Bahamas on January 7 , 2016 . The system initially traveled northeast , passing Bermuda on January 8 , before turning southeast . It subsequently deepened and acquired hurricane @-@ force winds by January 10 . Slight weakening took place thereafter , and the system eventually turned east and northeast as it acquired tropical characteristics . On January 13 , it developed into a subtropical cyclone well south of the Azores , becoming the first tropical or subtropical system during January in the North Atlantic since an unnamed storm in 1978 . As it turned north @-@ northeast , Alex transitioned into a full @-@ fledged tropical cyclone on January 14 and became a hurricane . The storm peaked as a Category 1 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale with maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 981 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 97 inHg ) . After weakening slightly , Alex made landfall on Terceira Island as a tropical storm the next day . Concurrently , Alex began transitioning back into an extratropical cyclone ; it completed this cycle hours after moving away from the Azores . The system ultimately merged with another extratropical cyclone over the Labrador Sea on January 17 .
The hurricane prompted the issuance of hurricane and tropical storm warnings for the Azores and the closure of schools and businesses . Alex ultimately brought gusty winds and heavy rain to the archipelago , causing generally minor damage . One person died from a heart attack when the inclement weather prevented a helicopter from transporting them to a hospital .
= = Background = =
As currently defined , the Atlantic hurricane season lasts from June 1 to November 30 , the period in which tropical cyclones are most likely to develop across the basin . Occasionally , systems develop outside the season , most frequently in May or December . Activity in January is considered extremely rare , with only five other known instances since 1851 : an unnamed hurricane in 1938 , an unnamed tropical storm in 1951 , Hurricane Alice in 1954 – 55 , an unnamed storm in 1978 , and Tropical Storm Zeta in 2005 – 06 . Since Alice originated in December 1954 , Alex is only the second hurricane to develop solely within January , after the 1938 storm . When Alex made landfall on Terceira as a strong tropical storm this marked only the second time that an Atlantic tropical cyclone has made landfall in January , with the other being Hurricane Alice of 1955 which made landfall on Saint Martin and Saba . In addition to forming well outside of hurricane season , Alex developed unusually far north and east , becoming only the second hurricane to form north of 30 ° N and east of 30 ° W.
Unrelated to Alex , Hurricane Pali developed over the Central Pacific in early January , and persisted through the formation of Alex . This marked the first known occurrence of simultaneous January tropical cyclones between the two basins .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Alex originated in a non @-@ tropical weather disturbance that developed over Cuba and the Bahamas on January 6 , 2016 . Moving northeast ahead of the subtropical jet stream , the system acquired a surface vortex the following day . Initial conditions , including strong wind shear , low sea surface temperatures , and dry air , inhibited formation of a tropical cyclone as the storm moved northeast toward Bermuda . The large system featured gale @-@ force winds , with maximum sustained winds of 60 – 65 mph ( 95 – 100 km / h ) . On January 8 , the system passed about 75 mi ( 120 km ) north of Bermuda , bringing strong winds and heavy rain to the islands . On January 9 , the system turned east and later southeast , entering a region slightly more favorable for subtropical development . Hurricane @-@ force winds developed around the core of the cyclone the following day , though convective activity near the center remained sparse . The storm 's separation from the jet stream , similar to a cut @-@ off low , allowed it to move southeast and gradually acquire tropical characteristics . Slight weakening took place on January 11 . Convection began increasing around the storm 's center on January 12 , by which time it was situated 1 @,@ 100 mi ( 1 @,@ 770 km ) southwest of the Azores .
Frontal features associated with the storm dissipated on January 13 and banding features around the defined low increased in coverage and depth . Though relatively shallow , owing to the seasonally low level of the tropopause , convection was deemed deep enough for the system to be classified a subtropical storm at 21 : 00 UTC . Accordingly , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) assigned the name Alex to the storm . Upon its classification , Alex was situated 785 mi ( 1 @,@ 260 km ) south @-@ southwest of the Azores . Situated to the east of a shortwave trough , Alex traveled northeast and gradually turned more to the north , steered by broad cyclonic flow over the central Atlantic . An eye feature soon appeared , marking intensification , within a complex of several banding features . The 20 mi ( 25 km ) wide feature cleared out early on January 14 and was surrounded by a ring of − 75 ° F ( − 60 ° C ) cloud tops . The storm remained situated under a cold @-@ core low , though the development of upper @-@ level outflow indicated the system was becoming increasingly tropical . Despite moving over 68 ° F ( 20 ° C ) waters , Alex continued to deepen and transitioned into a full @-@ fledged tropical cyclone by 09 : 00 UTC . The transition was enabled by colder @-@ than @-@ average upper @-@ tropospheric temperatures which created greater instability than would otherwise be expected .
Upon transitioning into a tropical cyclone , satellite intensity estimates — using the Dvorak technique — indicated Alex achieved hurricane strength . Forecasters at the NHC estimated maximum winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 981 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 97 inHg ) ; this made it a Category 1 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale and constituted the storm 's peak intensity . As Alex moved north toward the Azores , decreasing sea surface temperatures and increasing wind shear caused it to weaken late on January 14 and into January 15 . The hurricane 's eyewall opened up and its convective structure decayed , indicating the start of its transition back into an extratropical cyclone . Becoming increasingly tilted with height due to shear , Alex weakened to a tropical storm before making landfall over Terceira Island at 13 : 15 UTC with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Hours later the system completed its transition into an extratropical cyclone , with its circulation becoming more elongated and the radius of maximum winds expanding significantly . Furthermore , the overall structure became more " comma shaped " , a feature of frontal systems . Consequently , the NHC issued its last advisory on Alex . Turning northwest , the system deepened slightly as it approached Greenland and re @-@ acquired hurricane @-@ force winds on January 17 . Alex soon merged with another extratropical cyclone over the Labrador Sea , marking its dissipation .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Bermuda = = =
The precursor to Alex brought gale @-@ force winds and heavy rain to Bermuda on January 8 . Gusts to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) disrupted air travel , downed trees , and left sporadic power outages , while waves as high as 20 ft ( 6 m ) necessitated small craft advisories for the islands . Ferry services to and from Cavello Bay , Dockyard , Belmont , Hodsdon ’ s Ferry , and Lower Ferry were suspended . During the three days in which the system impacted the territory , 1 @.@ 33 in ( 34 mm ) of rain fell at Bermuda International Airport .
= = = Azores = = =
Upon Alex 's classification as a hurricane on January 14 , the Azores Meteorological Service issued a hurricane warning for the islands of Faial , Pico , São Jorge , Graciosa , and Terceira . They also issued a tropical storm warning for São Miguel and Santa Maria . A red alert — the highest stage for meteorological warnings — was declared for central and eastern islands . Homeowners protected doors and windows with plywood and sandbags in anticipation of damaging winds and flooding . Officials closed schools and administrative buildings for the duration of the hurricane on January 15 . SATA Air Açores cancelled 33 domestic and international flights for the morning of January 15 , stranding more than 700 passengers . The hurricane and tropical storm warnings were discontinued after Alex 's passage on January 15 .
The first hurricane to impact the Azores since Hurricane Gordon in 2012 , Alex brought heavy rain and gusty winds to the archipelago . It is the only known hurricane to track within 230 mi ( 370 km ) of the Azores outside of August and September . Rainfall totals reached 4 @.@ 04 in ( 103 mm ) in Lagoa , São Miguel , and 3 @.@ 71 in ( 94 mm ) in Angra do Heroísmo , Terceira . Wind gusts exceeded 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) on Santa Maria Island and peaked at 57 mph ( 92 km / h ) in Ponta Delgada , São Miguel . The strong winds brought down trees , inflicted damage on some roofs , and triggered scattered power outages . Additionally , minor flooding was observed . Six homes in Ponta Delgada sustained flood damage and another had its roof destroyed . Landslides occurred across parts of the central islands , though they caused only limited damage . The overall effects of the storm were less than initially feared . The hurricane indirectly led to one death — the person suffered a heart attack unrelated to the storm — when an Island Health Unit helicopter was unable to take off due to turbulent conditions .
|
= Sunday , Cruddy Sunday =
" Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " is the twelfth episode of The Simpsons ' tenth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 31 , 1999 , just after Super Bowl XXXIII and the premiere of Family Guy . In the episode , while buying new tires for his car , Homer meets a travel agent called Wally Kogen . After becoming friends , Kogen offers Homer a free bus ride to the Super Bowl , as long as he can find enough people to fill Kogen 's bus . Several people , including Bart , tag along what soon becomes a problematic trip . Meanwhile , Marge and Lisa set out to find the missing parts of " Vincent Price 's Egg Magic " , a celebrity @-@ endorsed craft kit .
" Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " was directed by Steven Dean Moore and written by George Meyer , Brian Scully , Mike Scully and Tom Martin , the first credit Martin received for the series . Mike Scully jokingly said that the episode was " thrown together [ ... ] without thought or structure " by the writers . For the subplot , the writers tried to come up with the " most boring thing " Lisa and Marge could do to pass time . The episode features several guest @-@ stars , including comedian Fred Willard , country singer Dolly Parton , Fox CEO Rupert Murdoch , sports commentators Pat Summerall and John Madden , and former American football players Troy Aikman , Rosey Grier and Dan Marino . All guest @-@ stars played themselves , except for Willard who portrayed Kogen . The episode pokes fun at folk singer Burl Ives , former United States president Bill Clinton as well as the series ' fans , among other things .
In its original broadcast , the episode was seen by approximately 11 @.@ 5 million viewers , making it the tenth most watched program of the week as well as the second most watched scripted program on the network the night it aired . The episode was released on home video for the first time in 2004 , and in 2007 , the episode was again released as part of the DVD set The Simpsons – The Complete Tenth Season . Following its broadcast , the episode received mostly positive reviews from critics .
After its original broadcast , however , a scene in the episode involving a fictitious , sexually suggestive Super Bowl commercial for the Catholic Church became a subject of controversy . The scene garnered scrutiny from the American Catholic anti @-@ defamation and civil rights organization The Catholic League , whose members sent hundreds of angry letters to the Fox network , demanding any mention of Catholicism in the episode be excised . In September the same year , when the episode was supposed to repeat , the Catholic League asked Fox if they could censor the scene , which the network agreed to . The network 's decision was criticized by journalists and staff members . The censored version of the episode is still in syndication .
= = Plot = =
When Bart , Lisa and the students of Springfield Elementary go on a field trip to the post office , Bart gets a coupon book as a souvenir , which he gives to Homer as a birthday present . Homer uses one of his coupons at a tire business on a free wheel balancing , and is told by the " customer care specialist " that his car will not take a balance , and that he will need four new tires because they cannot legally let customers drive off with faulty tires . Homer reluctantly accepts , and meets Wally Kogen , a travel agent . They go to Moe 's for a beer , watching a special on the Super Bowl . Wally says his travel agency has a charter bus going to the game and suggests to Homer that he can fill the bus and ride for free . They ask Moe to come to the Super Bowl and he agrees , as do other prominent men of Springfield .
Homer and Bart go to the Super Bowl with their posse at Miami 's Pro Player Stadium on the charter bus and arrive for pre @-@ game festivities . Expecting to get in the game , they are stopped when they are told that the tickers Wally had bought were counterfeit . However , Bart notices a rack of costumes meant for the halftime show , and Homer use it to knock over security and rush inside . However , stadium security quickly catches them , and they are locked up in the stadium jail where the group vents their frustration by kicking Homer in the buttocks one @-@ by @-@ one . They are freed when Kogen 's friend Dolly Parton uses her extra @-@ strength makeup remover to dissolve the lock and release them . As they are freed , they run into a skybox suite and get a view of the game , until the skybox 's owner Rupert Murdoch arrives and confronts them . Homer 's posse flee to the field , chased by Murdoch 's security , until they get lost in the sea of victorious players . The group ends up in the locker room where they share the celebration , and everyone has a Super Bowl ring on one of their hands at game 's end .
Meanwhile , Marge and Lisa try to find their own activity at home . They use the crafting kit , " Vincent Price 's Egg Magic " , until they realize that the product was shoddy because the feet were not included . Despite the kit being from 1967 , Marge decides to call the help @-@ line number listed on the box . Surprisingly , she is greeted with the voice of Price — who assures her that his grandson Jody will bring the missing feet to them . Lisa expresses surprise , believing the actor to be dead . The episode ends with John Madden and Pat Summerall analyzing the events of the episode . Despite endorsing Kogen and the subplot , they are infuriated by a Super Bowl episode guest starring Parton that does not feature " any football or singing " . Madden declares the episode a slap to the show 's fanbase , who he says have taken " so much nonsense " from the franchise . They eventually leave on a bus driven by Price , which " doesn 't make a lick of sense " according to Madden .
= = Production = =
" Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " was directed by Steven Dean Moore and co @-@ written by former staff writers Tom Martin , George Meyer , Brian Scully and executive producer and former showrunner Mike Scully . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on January 31 , 1999 , right after Super Bowl XXXIII and the premiere of Family Guy . " Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " was the first episode that Martin received a writing credit for , and in the DVD audio commentary for the episode , he stated that he " loved " writing the episode . The writing process for the episode was " kind of unusual " , since the writers " threw it [ the episode ] together " without , Scully quipped , thinking of " things such as thought and structure " . A scene in the episode shows Homer buying new tires for his car . The scene was written by Brian Scully , who had been scammed by a Firestone Tire and Rubber Company dealer . The episode 's subplot was the result of the Simpsons writers trying to find activities for Marge and Lisa to participate in while Bart and Homer were at the Super Bowl . According to Martin , the writers were trying to come up with " the most boring thing " Marge and Lisa could do to pass time . After hearing cast member Dan Castellaneta 's impression of Vincent Price , the writer 's found the impression to be so funny that they based the subplot on the fictional crafts set " Vincent Price 's Egg Magic " .
In a scene in the episode , Homer and Kogen are in Moe 's tavern , discussing their favourite football teams with Moe . When Moe mentions that his favourite team is the Atlanta Falcons , he holds a glass in front of his mouth , obscuring his lip movements . He then passes the same glass to Homer , who does the same . Originally , the characters would be saying something else , however , because the staff wanted the episode to be " current " , new dialogue was recorded for the scene . Because there was no time to animate the scene from scratch , the staff simply made the characters hold a glass in front of their mouths while saying their lines . This technique was also used in reference to the ongoing impeachment scandal , as when the characters mention that the President and First Lady will be there , they cover their mouths when calling them by name . The song that plays during the bus trip to the Super Bowl was performed by NRBQ . The episode also features British rock band Blur 's " Song 2 " , which plays during the " race " to the stadium .
The episode features American comedian Fred Willard as Wally Kogen . Scully stated that , for many years , the Simpsons staff had wanted Willard to guest @-@ star in an episode , and that they had been looking for a character for Willard to portray . Scully also stated that Willard was " great fun " to have on the show . Wally Kogen 's name is taken from two former writers on The Simpsons ; the character 's first name , Wally , is taken from Wallace Wolodarsky , and the character 's last name , Kogen , is taken from Jay Kogen . The episode also features former football players Rosey Grier , Troy Aikman and Dan Marino as themselves . Scully stated that , when athletes guest @-@ star in television shows , their performances are " not always the greatest " , however , he asserted , Aikman , Grier and Marino were all " really funny " and " did a great job " . Country singer Dolly Parton guest @-@ starred as herself as well . Scully stated that he was " shocked " by how short Parton was , however he added that she was " very nice " and " thrilled " to be in the episode . Also featured in the episode is Rupert Murdoch , creator of the Fox Broadcasting Company . Originally , the writers wanted Murdoch to be portrayed by cast member Dan Castellaneta , the voice of Homer among other characters in the series . However , after a while , the writers decided to ask if Murdoch would guest @-@ star as himself . Scully comments that the writers were " impressed " that Murdoch would introduce himself as a " billionaire tyrant " in the episode .
The episode pokes fun at the dwindling popularity of Bill Clinton 's presidency at the time . In their list 15 Simpsons Moments That Perfectly Captured Their Eras , Genevieve Koski , Josh Modell , Noel Murray , Sean O 'Neal , Kyle Ryan , and Scott Tobias of The A.V. Club wrote " By the time this episode aired [ ... ] , the nation had endured more than a year of the Lewinsky scandal . The episode debuted a month after the House impeached Clinton , but less than two weeks before the Senate 's impeach / acquit vote , so an air of uncertainty lingered over an otherwise lightweight episode about Homer organizing a Super Bowl trip . " In a scene in the episode , Clinton calls to congratulate the Super Bowl victors from the Oval Office , but is distracted by Al Gore measuring a window . As Scully recalls , at the time , the Simpsons writers were confident Gore would win the 2000 presidential election , which eventually was marginally , and controversially , won by George W. Bush .
The episode also comments on the series ' fanbase . Near the end of the episode , Madden and Summerall provide the following analysis :
In his book Leaving Springfield , John Alberti writes about the exchange : " This conversation begins with conventional football game patter used to comment on the episode , but then takes an abrupt turn when Madden realizes , in spite of the humor , that the episode did not live up to expectations ( which he has not originally noticed ) . "
The episode title is a reference to the film Sunday Bloody Sunday ( 1971 ) , and perhaps the U2 song of the same name . The couch gag is a reference to James Cameron 's 1997 film Titanic . The beginning of the episode shows Bart 's grade visiting a post office . Their tour guide is modeled after American actor and folk singer Burl Ives , whom director Moore is a fan of . " Vincent Price 's Egg Magic " is a parody on celebrity @-@ endorsed craft kits which were popular during the 1960s and which , according to Meyer , do not exist anymore . The decision to have Price endorse an egg crafts product is based on Price 's role as Egghead in the 1960s ' series Batman . The sequence featuring a man called Rudy being refused entry to the group 's bus because he is " too small to go to the Super Bowl " is a reference to the 1993 film Rudy about football player Rudy Ruettiger . Dolly Parton says she will be joined by actor Rob Lowe and dance group Stomp for her performance during the Super Bowl halftime show , while the Super Bowl features a booth called " Take a Leak with NFL Greats " ; the players shown participating are Ricky Watters and Jim Plunkett .
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Broadcast and re @-@ releases = = =
In its original American broadcast on January 31 , 1999 , " Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " received an 11 @.@ 6 rating , meaning it was seen by approximately 11 @.@ 5 million viewers . It finished in 10th place in the ratings for the week of January 25 – 31 , 1999 , making it the second most watched scripted program on Fox , after the premiere of Family Guy . On September 14 , 2004 , " Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " , along with the season 1 episode " Homer 's Night Out " , the season 11 episode " The Mansion Family " and the season 13 episode " Homer the Moe " , were released on a DVD set called The Simpsons – Gone Wild . On August 7 , 2007 , " Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " was again released as part of The Simpsons – The Complete Tenth Season DVD box set . Matt Groening , Mike Scully , George Meyer , Tom Martin , Matt Selman and Steven Dean Moore participated in the DVD 's audio commentary of the episode .
= = = Controversy = = =
= = = = Background = = = =
The beginning of the episode 's third act shows Marge and Lisa watching a Super Bowl commercial . In his book The gospel according to the Simpsons , Mark I. Pinsky described the commercial :
The scene was inspired by real @-@ life Super Bowl commercials in which , according to Scully , " you don 't know what the product is " because there is " so much going on " in Super Bowl commercials . It was also based on the music video for the American rock band ZZ Top 's 1983 song " Legs " . Although they had come up with the commercial 's premise , they were not sure of what its tagline would be . Eventually , Martin , one of the episode writers , suggested " The Catholic Church ... we 've made a few changes . " It got the biggest laugh from the other writers and was subsequently included in the episode .
The scene garnered scrutiny from members of The Catholic League , a self @-@ appointed organization that is not , despite its name , affiliated with the Catholic Church . The league had criticized The Simpsons ' depiction of Catholicism before , namely in the episode " Lisa Gets an " A " " , which aired the year before . The scene included an exchange between Bart and Marge that the League felt was hurtful to Catholics . William A. Donohue , the president of the league , wrote Fox a letter asking them to explain why the dialogue was in the show . After failing to receive an answer several times , Donohue was at last given a reply written by Thomas Chavez , manager for broadcast standards and practices . The league were not satisfied with Chavez ' answer . After " Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " aired , the Catholic League issued an article in their news magazine Catalyst . In it , they mentioned the scene in " Lisa Gets an " A " " , and wrote that The Simpsons had " struck again , big time " with the Super Bowl commercial in " Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " . They wrote that they had sent a complaint to Chavez regarding the scene , and encouraged others to do the same ; " We wrote to Mr. Chavez again , but we also told him that he ’ d be hearing from you , too . So don ’ t disappoint us . "
= = = = Censorship = = = =
Following the episode 's broadcast , the Fox network received several angry letters and emails from concerned Catholics , who were uneasy with the commercial scene . According to Scully , the letters were worded the same , and all started with " My family and I have always enjoyed The Simpsons , until last night ... " Nevertheless , the letters provoked a reaction from The Simpsons staff , and in an interview , Scully said , " We got a couple of hundred letters , and it was very obvious from reading a majority of them that [ the Catholic letter writers ] had not seen the show . Some of them were from third @-@ graders , all saying the same thing : ' Please don 't make fun of my religion . ' Which we all know third @-@ graders are very adamant about . "
Several months later , the Catholic League contacted Fox again , asking that the word " Catholic " be excised from the voice @-@ over when the episode repeated in September 1999 on the network , as well as in its subsequent syndicated airings . The network agreed , and Roland MacFarland , Fox 's vice president of broadcast standards , ordered Scully to cut the word from the episode or eliminate all reference to religion . Scully refused , and after a long argument , MacFarland offered to replace the protesting denomination with a Protestant substitute – Methodist , Presbyterians or Baptists . Scully then asked MacFarland " What would be the difference changing it to another religion , and wouldn 't that just be offending a different group of people ? " , to which MacFarland replied that Fox had already had trouble with the Catholics earlier that season .
Following the complaints , Fox removed any mention of Catholicism from the scene , resulting in the line " The church ... " Scully was reportedly furious with Fox 's actions . In an interview in Los Angeles Times , Scully said , " people can say hurtful things to each other about their weight , their race , their intelligence , their sexual preference , and that all seems up for grabs , but when you get into religion , some people get very nervous . " Marisa Guthrie of Boston Herald also criticized the network , describing it as " caving in " to the Catholic League 's protests . She wrote , " Hollywood has always been gun shy of controversy , but recent displays of self @-@ censorship on the part of entertainment industry executives make us cringe [ ... ] Granted Catholics , as a group have endured an ample amount of bashing , but The Simpsons is an equal opportunity offender . " Howard Rosenberg , a writer for the Los Angeles Times , criticized Fox 's actions as well . He argued that the network had a biased opinion towards Catholicism and that , had the scene mentioned a different religion , it would have been accepted . He also wrote , " Given its famous flaunting of sleaze and death @-@ defying motorcycle leaps , the big news here is that Fox has standards . Its latest production is Censors Who Kill Jokes . "
In an issue of Catalyst , the Catholic League responded to Rosenberg 's article . They argued that Rosenberg was biased against Catholics , in that he was content with the series lampooning Catholicism , but not other religions . They wrote , " all along we have been told by Fox that none of our complaints were valid because none of the material was truly offensive . But now we have a Fox executive producer disingenuously giving away his hand by protesting why it should be okay to offend another group of people with the same material he initially said wasn ’ t offensive to Catholics ! And isn ’ t it striking that Rosenberg is upset with the fact that the double standard — which now , for the first time works positively for Catholics — is a real problem . Never do we remember Rosenberg protesting the double standard that allows ' artists ' to dump on Catholics while protecting most other segments of society from their assaults . " The League also complimented the members ' participation , writing , " It only goes to prove what can be done when Catholics get actively involved . "
The controversy surrounding the scene has since been referenced in later episodes of the series . While the censored version of " Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " is still in syndication , it was left uncensored on its release on The Simpsons – The Complete Tenth Season DVD box set .
= = = Critical reviews = = =
Following its broadcast , " Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " received mostly positive reviews from critics . In his review of the The Simpsons – Gone Wild DVD set , David Packard of DVD Verdict wrote : " This episode has always been one of my favorites , and while the following episode [ " The Mansion Family " ] is a nice inclusion as well , this episode is the best on the disc . The hilarious gags come at a slam @-@ bang pace , and they 're occasionally edgy . " He especially liked the set @-@ piece in the post office , as well as the Super Bowl commercial . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide called the episode " A thoroughly enjoyable romp through what happens when a bunch of lads go for a Sunday out at the ball game . " They enjoyed the guest @-@ stars , writing " both Dolly Parton and , bizarrely , Rupert Murdoch – spice things up nicely " , however they were most fond of Fred Willard as Wally Kogen . " A shame he doesn 't join our regulars " , they wrote . James Plath of DVD Town wrote that the episode is " funny , " and Ian Jane of DVD Talk found the episode " amusing " . The Orlando Sentinel 's Gregory Hardy named it the third best episode of the show with a sports theme . Phillip Stephenson of Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette called the episode " classic " , and Susan Dunne of The Hartford Courant described it as " debauched but hilarious " . The Cincinnati Post 's Greg Paeth noted that the episode is a critical favorite .
On the other hand , Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide gave the episode a more mixed review . He wrote : " Like most guest star @-@ ridden episodes , this one gets a bit gimmicky to fit in all the cameos . " He found the self @-@ referential ending " fails to become clever and instead just seems silly . " However , he wrote that the episode " includes a few goods bits , especially the phone call in which Homer convinces Lenny to go to the game . " Jake McNeill of Digital Entertainment News wrote that the episode is " so jam @-@ packed with guest celebrity voices that they ran out of room for a plot . Or humor . " Chris Barsanti of Filmcritic.com gave a negative review as well , and wrote that the episode is " lost amid a flurry of celebrity walk @-@ ons and lazy jokes . "
|
= St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador =
St. John 's ( / ˌseɪntˈdʒɒnz / , local / ˌseɪntˈdʒɑːnz / ) is the capital and largest city in Newfoundland and Labrador , Canada . St. John 's was incorporated as a city in 1888 , yet is considered by some to be the oldest English @-@ founded city in North America . It is located on the eastern tip of the Avalon Peninsula on the island of Newfoundland . With a population of 214 @,@ 285 as of July 1 , 2015 , the St. John 's Metropolitan Area is the second largest Census Metropolitan Area ( CMA ) in Atlantic Canada after Halifax and the 20th largest metropolitan area in Canada . It is one of the world 's top ten oceanside destinations , according to National Geographic Magazine . Its name has been attributed to the feast day of John the Baptist , when John Cabot was believed to have sailed into the harbour in 1497 , and also to a Basque fishing town with the same name .
= = History = =
= = = 16th and 17th centuries = = =
St. John 's is one of the oldest settlements in North America , with year @-@ round settlement beginning sometime after 1630 and seasonal habitation long before that . It is not , however , the oldest surviving English settlement in North America or Canada , having been preceded by the Cuper 's Cove colony at Cupids , founded in 1610 , and the Bristol 's Hope colony at Harbour Grace , founded in 1618 . In fact , although English fishermen had begun setting up seasonal camps in Newfoundland in the 16th Century , they were expressly forbidden by the British government , at the urging of the West Country fishing industry , from establishing permanent settlements along the English controlled coast , hence the town of St. John 's was not established as a permanent community until after the 1630s at the earliest . Other permanent English settlements in the Americas that predate St. John 's include : St. George 's , Bermuda ( 1612 ) and Jamestown , Virginia ( 1607 ) .
Sebastian Cabot declares in a handwritten Latin text in his original 1545 map , that the St. John 's earned its name when he and his father , the Venetian explorer John Cabot became the first Europeans to sail into the harbour , in the morning of 24 June 1494 ( against British and French historians stating 1497 ) , the feast day of Saint John the Baptist . However , the exact locations of Cabot 's landfalls are disputed . A series of expeditions to St. John 's by Portuguese from the Azores took place in the early 16th century , and by 1540 French , Spanish and Portuguese ships crossed the Atlantic annually to fish the waters off the Avalon Peninsula . In the Basque Country , it is a common belief that the name of St. John 's was given by Basque fishermen because the bay of St. John 's is very similar to the Bay of Pasaia in the Basque Country , where one of the fishing towns is also called St. John ( in Spanish , San Juan , and in Basque , Donibane ) .
The earliest record of the location appears as São João on a Portuguese map by Pedro Reinel in 1519 . When John Rut visited St. John 's in 1527 he found Norman , Breton and Portuguese ships in the harbour . On 3 August 1527 , Rut wrote a letter to King Henry on the findings of his voyage to North America ; this was the first known letter sent from North America . St. Jehan is shown on Nicholas Desliens ' world map of 1541 and San Joham is found in João Freire 's Atlas of 1546 . It was during this time that Water Street was first developed , making it the oldest street in North America .
On 5 August 1583 , an English Sea Dog , Sir Humphrey Gilbert claimed the area as England 's first overseas colony under Royal Charter of Queen Elizabeth I. There was no permanent population , however , and Gilbert was lost at sea during his return voyage , thereby ending any immediate plans for settlement . The Newfoundland National War Memorial is located on the waterfront in St. John 's , at the purported site of Gilbert 's landing and proclamation .
By 1620 , the fishermen of England 's West Country controlled most of Newfoundland 's east coast . In 1627 , William Payne , called St. John 's " the principal prime and chief lot in all the whole country " . The population grew slowly in the 17th century and St. John 's was the largest settlement in Newfoundland when English naval officers began to take censuses around 1675 . The population would grow in the summers with the arrival of migratory fishermen . In 1680 , fishing ships ( mostly from South Devon ) set up fishing rooms at St. John 's , bringing hundreds of Irish men into the port to operate inshore fishing boats .
The town 's first significant defences were likely erected due to commercial interests , following the temporary seizure of St. John 's by the Dutch admiral Michiel de Ruyter in June 1665 . The inhabitants were able to fend off a second Dutch attack in 1673 , when this time it was defended by Christopher Martin , an English merchant captain . Martin landed six cannons from his vessel , the Elias Andrews , and constructed an earthen breastwork and battery near chain Rock commanding the Narrows leading into the harbour . With only twenty @-@ three men , the valiant Martin beat off an attack by three Dutch warships . The English government planned to expand these fortifications ( Fort William ) in around 1689 , but actual construction didn 't begin until after the French admiral Pierre Le Moyne d 'Iberville captured and destroyed the town in the Avalon Peninsula Campaign ( 1696 ) . When 1500 English reinforcements arrived in late 1697 they found nothing but rubble where the town and fortifications had stood .
= = = 18th and 19th centuries = = =
The French attacked St. John 's again in 1705 ( Siege of St. John 's ) , and captured it in 1708 ( Battle of St. John 's ) , devastating civilian structures with fire on each instance .
The harbour remained fortified through most of the 18th and 19th centuries . The final battle of the Seven Years ' War in North America ( the French and Indian War ) was fought in 1762 , in St. John 's . Following a surprise capture of the town by the French early in the year , the British responded , and at the Battle of Signal Hill , the French surrendered St. John 's to British forces under the command of Colonel William Amherst .
The 18th century saw major changes in Newfoundland : population growth , beginnings of government , establishment of churches , reinforcement of commercial ties with North America and development of the seal , salmon and Grand Banks fisheries . St. John 's population grew slowly , and although it was still primarily a fishing station , it was also a garrison , a centre of government and a commercial hub . St. John 's served as a naval base during both the American Revolutionary War and the War of 1812 .
The core of the city was destroyed by fire several times , the most famous of which was the Great Fire of 1892 .
= = = 20th and 21st centuries = = =
Guglielmo Marconi received the first transatlantic wireless signal in St. John 's on December 1901 from his wireless station in Poldhu , Cornwall .
St. John 's was the starting point for the first non @-@ stop transatlantic aircraft flight , by Alcock and Brown in a modified Vickers Vimy IV bomber , in June 1919 , departing from Lester 's Field in St. John 's and ending in a bog near Clifden , Connemara , Ireland . In July 2005 , the flight was duplicated by American aviator and adventurer Steve Fossett in a replica Vickers Vimy aircraft , with St. John 's International Airport substituting for Lester 's Field ( now an urban and residential part of the city ) .
During the Second World War , the harbour supported Royal Navy and Royal Canadian Navy ships that were engaged in anti @-@ submarine warfare . It was also the site of an American Army Air Force base , Fort Pepperrell , that was established as part of the " Lend @-@ Lease " agreement between the United Kingdom and United States . The base was transferred to Canadian control in 1960 and is now known as CFS St. John 's . The Knights of Columbus Hostel fire in December 1942 , saw 99 military and civilian lives lost .
St. John 's , and the province as a whole , was gravely affected in the 1990s by the collapse of the Northern cod fishery , which had been the driving force of the provincial economy for hundreds of years . After a decade of high unemployment rates and depopulation , the city 's proximity to the Hibernia , Terra Nova and White Rose oil fields has led to an economic boom that has spurred population growth and commercial development . As a result , the St. John 's area now accounts for about half of the province 's economic output .
As of 2012 , St. John 's contains 21 National Historic Sites of Canada .
St. John 's is serviced by one major airport , and has daily direct service to Toronto , Ottawa , Montreal , Gander , Deer Lake , Wabush , Goose Bay and Halifax ; and seasonal service direct to Calgary , Dublin and London .
= = Geography = =
St. John 's is located along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean , on the northeast of the Avalon Peninsula in southeast Newfoundland . The city covers an area of 446 @.@ 04 square kilometres ( 172 @.@ 22 sq mi ) and is the most easterly city in North America , excluding Greenland ; it is 475 kilometres ( 295 mi ) closer to London , England than it is to Edmonton , Alberta . The city of St. John 's is located at a distance by air of 3 @,@ 636 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 259 mi ) from Lorient , France which lies on a nearly precisely identical latitude across the Atlantic on the French western coast . The city is the largest in the province and the second largest in the Atlantic Provinces after Halifax , Nova Scotia . Its downtown area lies to the west and north of St. John 's Harbour , and the rest of the city expands from the downtown to the north , south , east and west .
Coniferous trees such as black spruce , white spruce , and balsam fir dominate the native vegetation . The largest deciduous tree is white birch ; species of lesser stature include alder , cherry and mountain ash . Of introduced tree species , sycamore maple is most abundant and Norway maple is common . Blue spruce , common horsechestnut , European beech and littleleaf linden are among the other non @-@ native species grown .
= = = Climate = = =
St. John 's has a humid continental climate ( Köppen Dfb ) , with lower seasonal variation than normal for the latitude , which is due to Gulf Stream moderation . However , despite this maritime moderation , average January high temperatures are actually slightly colder in St. John 's than it is in Kelowna , British Columbia , which is an inland city that is near the more marine air of the Pacific , demonstrating the cold nature of Eastern Canada . Mean temperatures range from − 4 @.@ 9 ° C ( 23 @.@ 2 ° F ) in February to 16 @.@ 1 ° C ( 61 @.@ 0 ° F ) in August , showing somewhat of a seasonal lag in the climate . The city is also one of the areas of the country most prone to tropical cyclone activity , as it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east , where tropical storms ( and sometimes hurricanes ) travel from the United States . The city is one of the rainiest in Canada outside of coastal British Columbia . This is partly due to its propensity for tropical storm activity as well as moist , Atlantic air frequently blowing ashore and creating precipitation .
Of major Canadian cities , St. John 's is the foggiest ( 124 days ) , windiest ( 24 @.@ 3 km / h ( 15 @.@ 1 mph ) average speed ) , and cloudiest ( 1 @,@ 497 hours of sunshine ) . St. John 's experiences milder temperatures during the winter season in comparison to other Canadian cities , and has the mildest winter for any Canadian city outside of British Columbia . Precipitation is frequent and often heavy , falling year round . On average , summer is the driest season , with only occasional thunderstorm activity , and the wettest months are from October to January , with December the wettest single month , with nearly 165 millimetres of precipitation on average . This winter precipitation maximum is quite unusual for humid continental climates , which most commonly have a late spring or early summer precipitation maximum ( for example , most of the Midwestern U.S. ) . Most heavy precipitation events in St. John 's are the product of intense mid @-@ latitude storms migrating from the Northeastern U.S. and New England states , and these are most common and intense from October to March , bringing heavy precipitation ( commonly 4 to 8 centimetres of rainfall equivalent in a single storm ) , and strong winds . In winter , two or more types of precipitation ( rain , freezing rain , sleet and snow ) can fall from passage of a single storm . Snowfall is heavy , averaging nearly 335 centimetres per winter season . However , winter storms can bring changing precipitation types . Heavy snow can transition to heavy rain , melting the snow cover , and possibly back to snow or ice ( perhaps briefly ) all in the same storm , resulting in little or no net snow accumulation . Snow cover in St. John 's is variable , and especially early in the winter season , may be slow to develop , but can extend deeply into the spring months ( March , April ) . The St. John 's area is subject to freezing rain ( called " silver thaws " ) , the worst of which paralyzed the city over a three @-@ day period in April 1984 .
The highest temperature ever recorded in St. John 's was 33 @.@ 9 ° C ( 93 ° F ) on 14 August 1876 . The coldest temperature ever recorded was − 29 @.@ 4 ° C ( − 21 ° F ) on 16 February 1875 .
= = Cityscape = =
Downtown St. John 's
= = = Architecture = = =
The architecture of St. John 's has a distinct style from that of the rest of Canada , and its major buildings are remnants of its history as one of the first British colonial capitals . Buildings took a variety of styles according to the means available to build the structures .
Starting as a fishing outpost for European fishermen , St. John 's consisted mostly of the homes of fishermen , sheds , storage shacks , and wharves constructed out of wood . Like many other cities of the time , as the Industrial Revolution took hold and new methods and materials for construction were introduced , the landscape changed as the city grew in width and height . The Great Fire of 1892 destroyed most of the downtown core , and most residential and other wood @-@ frame buildings date from this period .
Often compared to San Francisco due to the hilly terrain and steep maze of residential streets , housing in St. John 's is typically painted in bright colours . The city council has implemented strict heritage regulations in the downtown area , including restrictions on the height of buildings . These regulations have caused much controversy over the years . With the city experiencing an economic boom a lack of hotel rooms and office space has seen proposals put forward that do not meet the current height regulations . Heritage advocates argue that the current regulations should be enforced while others believe the regulations should be relaxed to encourage economic development .
To meet the need for more office space downtown without compromising the city 's heritage , the city council amended heritage regulations , which originally restricted height to 15 metres in the area of land on Water Street between Bishop 's Cove and Steer 's Cove , to create the " Commercial Central Retail – West Zone " . The new zone will allow for buildings of greater height . A 47 @-@ metre , 12 @-@ storey office building , which includes retail space and a parking garage , was the first building to be approved in this area .
= = Demographics = =
As of the 2006 Census , there were 100 @,@ 646 inhabitants in St. John 's itself , 151 @,@ 322 in the urban area and 181 @,@ 113 in the St. John 's Census Metropolitan Area ( CMA ) . Thus , St. John 's is Newfoundland and Labrador 's largest city and Canada 's 20th largest CMA . Apart from St. John 's , the CMA includes 12 other communities : the city of Mount Pearl and the towns of Conception Bay South , Paradise , Portugal Cove @-@ St. Philip 's , Torbay , Logy Bay @-@ Middle Cove @-@ Outer Cove , Pouch Cove , Flatrock , Bay Bulls , Witless Bay , Petty Harbour @-@ Maddox Cove and Bauline . The population of the CMA was 192 @,@ 326 as of 1 July 2010 .
As of 2011 , there were 4 @,@ 205 members of visible minorities in the city . The largest visible minority group were South Asians ( 1 @.@ 2 % ) , followed by Chinese Canadian ( 1 @.@ 0 % ) , and Blacks ( 0 @.@ 9 % ) . There were 4 @,@ 305 Aboriginals in St. John 's , comprising 4 @.@ 1 % of the city 's population . First Nations people made up 2 @.@ 9 % of the city 's population , Inuit comprised 0 @.@ 8 % of St. John 's population , and 0 @.@ 6 % were Métis .
= = = Religion = = =
The information below is from the 2001 Canadian Census. and the National Household Survey 2011
Predominantly Christian , the population of St. John 's was once divided along sectarian ( Catholic / Protestant ) lines . In recent years , this sectarianism has declined significantly , and is no longer a commonly acknowledged facet of life in St. John 's . St. John 's is the seat of the Roman Catholic Archbishop of St. John 's , and the Anglican Bishop of Eastern Newfoundland and Labrador . All major Christian sects showed a decline from 2001 – 2011 with a large increase in those with no religion from 3 @.@ 9 % to 11 @.@ 1 % .
= = Economy = =
St. John 's economy is connected to both its role as the provincial capital of Newfoundland and Labrador and to the ocean . The civil service which is supported by the federal , provincial and municipal governments has been the key to the expansion of the city 's labour force and to the stability of its economy , which supports a sizable retail , service and business sector . The provincial government is the largest employer in the city , followed by Memorial University . With the collapse of the fishing industry in Newfoundland and Labrador in the 1990s , the role of the ocean is now tied to what lies beneath it – oil and gas – as opposed to what swims in or travels across it . The city is the centre of the oil and gas industry in Eastern Canada and is one of 19 World Energy Cities . ExxonMobil Canada is headquartered in St. John 's and companies such as Chevron , Husky Energy , Suncor Energy and Statoil have major regional operations in the city . Three major offshore oil developments , Hibernia , Terra Nova and White Rose , are in production off the coast of the city and a fourth development , Hebron , is expected to be producing oil by 2017 .
The economy has been growing quickly in recent years . In both 2010 and 2011 , the metro area 's gross domestic product ( GDP ) led 27 other metropolitan areas in the country , according to the Conference Board of Canada , recording growth of 6 @.@ 6 per cent and 5 @.@ 8 per cent respectively . At $ 52 @,@ 000 the city 's per capita GDP is the second highest out of all major Canadian cities . Economic forecasts suggest that the city will continue its strong economic growth in the coming years not only in the " oceanic " industries mentioned above , but also in tourism and new home construction as the population continues to grow . In May 2011 , the city 's unemployment rate fell to 5 @.@ 6 per cent , the second lowest unemployment rate for a major city in Canada .
St. John 's is also becoming known as an entrepreneurial city . In a 2009 report by the Canadian Federation of Independent Business ; Communities in Boom : Canada ’ s Top Entrepreneurial Cities , St. John 's was ranked the best major city in Atlantic Canada , and 19th overall in Canada for providing a good environment for small business development .
= = Arts and culture = =
The downtown area is the cultural hub of St. John 's and is a major tourist destination in Newfoundland and Labrador and Atlantic Canada . Water Street and Duckworth Street are known for their brightly coloured low rise heritage buildings , housing numerous tourist shops , clothing boutiques , and restaurants .
George Street , a downtown side @-@ street above the western end of Water Street , is the predominant home of the city 's nightlife . The street holds numerous annual festivals including the George Street Festival in August and the Mardi Gras Festival held in October . The street can be credited with kick starting the careers of many musical acts and is busy nearly every night of the week .
The city has a symphony orchestra , a string quartet , and several choirs . In addition the School of Music of Memorial University of Newfoundland has several ensembles , including a chamber orchestra . St. Johns also plays host to the Tuckamore Festival of chamber music , which has been held every August since 2001 . Opera on the Avalon puts on performances of opera , over several days , in the summer
The LSPU Hall is home to the Resource Centre for the Arts . The " Hall " hosts a vibrant and diverse arts community and is regarded as the backbone of artistic infrastructure and development in the downtown . The careers of many well @-@ known Newfoundland artists were launched there including Rick Mercer , Mary Walsh , Cathy Jones , Andy Jones and Greg Thomey . The St. John 's Arts and Culture Centre houses an art gallery , libraries and a 1000 @-@ seat theatre , which is the city 's major venue for entertainment productions .
The Nickel Film Festival and the St. John 's International Women 's Film Festival are two independent film festivals held annually in St. John 's .
= = Attractions = =
= = = Museums = = =
The Provincial Museum of Newfoundland and Labrador ( c . 1892 – 93 ) was located on Duckworth Street in a building designated as a heritage site by the City of St. John 's . In 2005 the museum , along with the Art Gallery of Newfoundland and Labrador and the Provincial Archives of Newfoundland and Labrador , moved into The Rooms . The Rooms is Newfoundland and Labrador 's cultural facility , and is located in the downtown area .
The Railway Coastal Museum is a transportation museum located in the 104 @-@ year @-@ old Newfoundland and Labrador train station building on Water Street .
The Johnson Geo Centre is a geological interpretation centre located on Signal Hill . The centre is designed to teach the public about the history of the earth through the unique and complex geological history of Newfoundland and Labrador .
The East Rider Motorcycle Museum showcases over 110 years of Newfoundland 's Motorcycle History , with two floors of bikes , memorabilia , and biker culture . Located downtown St. John 's ( above East Rider Motorcycle Gear Shop ) .
= = = Urban parks = = =
Pippy Park is an urban park located in the east end of the city ; with over 3 @,@ 400 acres ( 14 km2 ) of land , it is one of Canada 's largest urban parks . The park contains a range of recreational facilities including two golf courses , Newfoundland and Labrador 's largest serviced campground , walking and skiing trails as well as protected habitat for many plants and animals . Pippy Park is also home to the Fluvarium , an environmental education centre which offers a cross section view of Nagle 's Hill Brook .
Bowring Park , located in the Waterford Valley , is one of the most scenic parks in St. John 's . Entrance to the park is via Waterford Bridge Road , passing a sculptured duck pond and a statue of Peter Pan . The park land was donated to the city in 1911 by Sir Edgar Rennie Bowring on behalf of Bowring Brothers Ltd. on their 100th anniversary of commerce in Newfoundland . The park was officially opened by His Royal Highness , the Duke of Connaught on 15 July 1914 .
Bannerman Park is a Victorian @-@ style park located near the downtown . The park was officially opened in 1891 by Sir Alexander Bannerman , Governor of the Colony of Newfoundland who donated the land to create the park . Today the park contains a public swimming pool , playground , a baseball diamond and many large open grassy areas . Bannerman Park plays host to many festivals and sporting events , most notably the Newfoundland and Labrador Folk Festival and St. John 's Peace @-@ a @-@ chord . The park is also the finishing location for the annual Tely 10 Mile Road Race .
= = = Murray Premises = = =
The Murray Premises is a National Historic Site located in downtown St. John 's . The buildings once served as a fishery premises , with facilities for drying and packaging fish and warehouses for fish , barrels and other items . The oldest of the buildings is the one facing on Beck 's Cove . It was built after the 1846 fire and for a time served as both shop and house . The Murray Premises was renovated in 1979 and now contains office suites , restaurants , retail stores and a boutique hotel .
= = = Signal Hill = = =
Signal Hill is a hill which overlooks the city of St. John 's . It is the location of Cabot Tower which was built in 1897 to commemorate the 400th anniversary of John Cabot 's discovery of Newfoundland , and Queen Victoria 's Diamond Jubilee . The first transatlantic wireless transmission was received here by Guglielmo Marconi on 12 December 1901 . Today , Signal Hill is a National Historic Site of Canada and remains incredibly popular amongst tourists and locals alike ; 97 % of all tourists to St. John 's visit Signal Hill . Amongst its popular attractions are the Signal Hill Tattoo , showcasing the Royal Newfoundland Regiment of foot , c . 1795 , and the North Head Trail which grants an impressive view of the Atlantic Ocean and the surrounding coast .
= = Sports = =
St. John 's has been home to several professional hockey franchises . Currently it is home to the St. John 's IceCaps the minor league affiliate of the Montreal Canadiens .
The St. John 's Maple Leafs were the city 's former American Hockey League ( AHL ) team . Placed in St. John 's in 1991 , the team was lost during the 2004 – 2005 season to Toronto , Ontario due to the desire of its parent team , the Toronto Maple Leafs , to reduce travel costs and to have a tenant for its Ricoh Coliseum .
Shortly after the Maple Leafs were replaced by the St. John 's Fog Devils of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) . The team left St. John 's in 2008 after just three seasons due to a poor lease arrangement with the city over the use of Mile One Centre and poor attendance .
The rugby union team The Rock is the Eastern Canadian entry in the Americas Rugby Championship . The Rock play their home games at Swilers Rugby Park , as did the Rugby Canada Super League champions for 2005 and 2006 , the Newfoundland Rock . The city hosted a Rugby World Cup qualifying match between Canada and the USA on 12 August 2006 , where the Canadians heavily defeated the USA 56 – 7 to qualify for the 2007 Rugby World Cup finals in France . The 2007 age @-@ grade Rugby Canada National Championship Festival was held in the city .
St. John 's is home to North America 's oldest annual sporting event , the Royal St. John 's Regatta , which dates back to at least 1816 . The event is important enough in the life of the city that the day of the Regatta ( the first Wednesday in August , weather permitting ) is a civic holiday – one of the few weather @-@ dependent holidays in the world .
The Tely 10 is an annual 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) road race that starts in Paradise and finishes at Bannerman Park . The race draws in excess of 2 @,@ 500 runners . It began in 1922 , which makes it one of the oldest road races in Canada .
St. John 's was where the Canada men 's national soccer team qualified for their only FIFA World Cup on 14 September 1985 , when they defeated Honduras 2 – 1 , at King George V Park .
Curling has gained prominence in St. John 's over the years . The 2005 Scott Tournament of Hearts , the Canadian women 's curling championship , was held at Mile One Centre from 19 to 27 February 2005 . The 2006 Olympic gold medalist men 's curling team , skipped by Brad Gushue , is based in St. John 's . The city has two curling clubs , the St. John 's Curling Club and the Bally Haly Golf & Curling Club .
The St. John 's Avalon Harps are the local Hurling and Gaelic Football team , that compete in Canadian GAA events .
= = Law and government = =
St. John 's is governed by a mayor @-@ council system , and the structure of the municipal government is stipulated by the City of St. John 's Act . The St. John 's City Council is a unicameral legislative body composed of a mayor , deputy mayor and nine councillors . The mayor , deputy mayor and four of the councillors are elected at large while the five other councillors represent geographical wards throughout the city . The mayor and members of the city council serve four @-@ year terms without term limits .
Elections in St. John 's are held every four years on the last Tuesday in September . The current city council was elected in the municipal election held on 24 September 2013 . The Mayor of St. John 's is Dennis O 'Keefe , who has served in the position since 2008 . The St. John 's City Hall , located on New Gower Street , has housed municipal offices and Council Chambers since being officially opened in 1970 .
St. John 's served as the capital city of the Colony of Newfoundland and the Dominion of Newfoundland before Newfoundland became Canada 's tenth province in 1949 . The city now serves as the capital of Newfoundland and Labrador , therefore the provincial legislature is located in the city . The Confederation Building , located on Confederation Hill , is home to the House of Assembly along with the offices for the Members of the House of Assembly ( MHAs ) and Ministers . The city is represented by ten MHAs , four who are members of the governing Progressive Conservative Party , three that belong to the New Democratic Party ( NDP ) , and three that belong to the Liberal Party . Lorraine Michael , leader of the NDP since 2006 , represents the district of Signal Hill @-@ Quidi Vidi .
St. John 's is represented in the House of Commons by two members of Parliament , both from the Liberal Party . Nick Whalen represents St. John 's East and Ryan Cleary , elected 2011 , represents St. John 's South — Mount Pearl .
The Newfoundland and Labrador office for the regional federal minister is located in downtown St. John 's . Regional offices for federal government departments and agencies are also located throughout the city .
= = = Crime = = =
Policing services for the city are provided by the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary , which serves as the primary policing body of the metropolitan area . The B Division headquarters of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police is located in the Pleasantville neighbourhood but the RCMP primarily operate in the rest of Newfoundland and Labrador and not St. John 's .
St. John 's has traditionally been one of the safest cities in Canada to live ; however , in recent years crime in the city has steadily increased . While nationally crime decreased by 4 % in 2009 , the total crime rate in St. John 's saw an increase of 4 % . During this same time violent crime in the city decreased 6 % , compared to a 1 % decrease nationally . In 2010 the total crime severity index for the city was 101 @.@ 9 , an increase of 10 % from 2009 and 19 @.@ 2 % above the national average . The violent crime severity index was 90 @.@ 1 , an increase of 29 % from 2009 and 1 @.@ 2 % above the national average . St. John 's had the seventh @-@ highest metropolitan crime index and twelfth @-@ highest metropolitan violent crime index in the country in 2010 .
According to Statistics Canada 's Juristat reports ( 1993 – 2007 ) , the metropolitan area reports an average homicide rate of approximately 1 @.@ 15 per 100 @,@ 000 population ; an average of two homicides per year . An all @-@ time high rate of 2 @.@ 27 was reported in 1993 ( four homicides ) . This figure is far below the national average and ranks amongst the lowest rates for any metropolitan area in Canada .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
St. John 's has a substantial harbour . Among other things , the harbour is the base for the following Canadian Coast Guard ( CCG ) ships :
CCGS Ann Harvey – icebreaker
CCGS George R. Pearkes – icebreaker
CCGS Henry Larsen – icebreaker
CCGS Louis S. St @-@ Laurent – icebreaker
CCGS Terry Fox – icebreaker
CCGS Cygnus – patrol vessel
CCGS Wilfred Templeman - offshore fishery science vessel * No longer a Canadian Coast Guard Vessel
CCGS Leonard J. Cowley – multi role
CCGS Sir Wilfred Grenfell – multi role
St. John 's is served by St. John 's International Airport ( YYT ) , located 10 minutes northwest of the downtown core . In 2011 , roughly 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 passengers travelled through the airport making it the second busiest airport in Atlantic Canada in passenger volume . Regular destinations include Halifax , Montreal , Ottawa , Toronto , as well as destinations throughout the province . International locations include Dublin , London , New York City , Saint Pierre and Miquelon , Glasgow and Varadero . Scheduled service providers include Air Canada , Air Canada Jazz , Air Saint @-@ Pierre , Air Transat , United Airlines , Porter Airlines , Provincial Airlines , Sunwing Airlines and Westjet .
St. John 's is the eastern terminus of the Trans @-@ Canada Highway , one of the longest national highways in the world . The divided highway , also known as " Outer Ring Road " in the city , runs just outside the main part of the city , with exits to Pitts Memorial Drive , Topsail Road , Team Gushue Highway , Thorburn Road , Allandale Road , Portugal Cove Road and Torbay Road , providing relatively easy access to neighbourhoods served by those streets . Pitts Memorial Drive runs from Conception Bay South , through the city of Mount Pearl and into downtown St. John 's , with interchanges for Goulds , Water Street and Hamilton Avenue @-@ New Gower Street .
The St. John 's Cycling Master Plan was officially launched in July 2009 . Its first phase will consist of 43 kilometres ( 27 mi ) of on @-@ road painted bike lanes , signs on an additional 73 kilometres ( 45 mi ) of roadway , the installation of 20 bicycle parking facilities and the addition of bike racks on the fleet of 53 Metrobuses .
Metrobus Transit is responsible for public transit in the region . Metrobus has a total of 19 routes , 53 buses and an annual ridership of 3 @,@ 014 @,@ 073 . Destinations include the Avalon Mall , The Village Shopping Centre , Memorial University , Academy Canada , the College of the North Atlantic , the Marine Institute , the Confederation Building , downtown , Stavanger Drive Business Park , Kelsey Drive , Goulds , Kilbride , Shea Heights , the four hospitals in the city as well as other important areas in St. John 's and Mount Pearl .
St. John 's was the eastern terminus of the Newfoundland Railway from 1898 until the abandonment and closure of the railway in September 1988 .
= = = Medical centres and hospitals = = =
St. John 's is served by Eastern Health , Newfoundland and Labrador 's largest health authority .
The city 's major hospitals include the Health Sciences Centre , St. Clare 's Mercy Hospital , Waterford Hospital and the Janeway Children 's Health and Rehabilitation Centre .
St. John 's Harbour
= = Education = =
St. John 's is served by the Eastern School District , the largest school district in Newfoundland and Labrador by student population . There are currently 36 primary , elementary and secondary schools in the city of St. John 's , including three private schools . St. John 's also includes one school that is part of the province @-@ wide Conseil Scolaire Francophone ( CSF ) , the Francophone public school district . It also contains two private schools , St. Bonaventure 's College and Lakecrest Independent . Atlantic Canada 's largest university , Memorial University of Newfoundland ( MUN ) , is located in St. John 's . MUN provides comprehensive education and grants degrees in several fields and its historical strengths in engineering , business , geology , and medicine , make MUN one of the top comprehensive universities in Canada . The Fisheries and Marine Institute of Memorial University of Newfoundland ( MI ) or simply Marine Institute , is a post @-@ secondary ocean and marine polytechnic located in St. John 's and is affiliated with Memorial University of Newfoundland . MUN also offers the lowest tuition in Canada ( $ 2 @,@ 644 , per Academic Year )
The College of the North Atlantic ( CNA ) is the public college of the province and operates two main campuses within the city . CNA provides career , trade , and university @-@ transfer programs for St. John 's residents . The city also hosts a number of private colleges and post @-@ secondary schools ; Academy Canada , Eastern College , and Keyin College are the largest of these schools .
= = Local media = =
St. John 's has one daily newspaper , The Telegram . Other local papers include The Muse , The Gazette , Le Gaboteur , The Scope , The Business Post and The Current . St. John 's also receives the nationally distributed newspaper The Globe and Mail .
CJON @-@ DT , known on air as " NTV " , is an independent station . The station sublicenses entertainment programming from Global and news programming from CTV and Global , rather than purchasing primary broadcast rights . Rogers Cable has its provincial headquarters in St. John 's , and their community channel Rogers TV airs local shows such as Out of the Fog and One Chef One Critic . CBC has its Newfoundland and Labrador headquarters in the city and their television station CBNT @-@ DT broadcasts from University Avenue .
The city is home to 15 am and FM radio stations , two of which are French @-@ language stations . St. John 's is the only Canadian city served by radio stations whose call letters do not all begin with the letter C. The ITU prefix VO was assigned to the Dominion of Newfoundland before the province joined Canadian Confederation in 1949 , and three AM stations kept their existing call letters . However , other commercial radio stations in St. John 's which went to air after 1949 use the same range of prefixes ( CF – CK ) currently in use elsewhere in Canada , with the exception of VOCM @-@ FM , which was permitted to adopt the VOCM callsign because of its corporate association with the AM station that already bore that callsign . VO also remains in use in amateur radio .
allNewfoundlandLabrador is the city 's daily online newspaper , which focuses on business news from across the province .
= = Notable people = =
= = Sister cities = =
Ílhavo , Portugal
Waterford , Ireland
|
= United Kingdom Election Results =
United Kingdom Election Results is a website and e @-@ book written by David Boothroyd , published in 1994 . Boothroyd also wrote The History of British Political Parties , published in 2001 . The website includes material about elections in the United Kingdom , including election results , resources for further information and links to relevant websites . Boothroyd used a minimalist approach for the site 's design , avoiding " flashy graphics " and placing an emphasis on " authoritative unbiased information " .
Boothroyd 's website has been cited by several oganisations and authors , including the United Nations Development Programme and the Parliament of Australia . Boothroyd 's site is listed as a resource by the website of the Parliamentary Library of the Parliament of Australia , and the Gilbert + Tobin Centre of Public Law at The University of New South Wales . The Data & Information Services Center of the University of Wisconsin said that Boothroyd maintains " an emphasis on including the entire range of parties " , and The University of York library said that the " site maintained by David Boothroyd provides detailed results data for all UK Parliamentary Elections since 1983 " .
= = Contents = =
The site contains information and resources related to UK elections , including election results , lists of candidates and maps of election districts . It also contains resources such as links to relevant websites covering politics and those of political parties . In an introduction to the website , Boothroyd writes : " Unlike some other political sites , this site doesn ’ t go in for minimising the information to ‘ major parties ’ only , using flashy graphics that distract from the content , compromising its impartiality by accepting sponsorship , or including irrelevant party propaganda . On these pages you will find authoritative unbiased information and nothing else . "
Data on parliamentary elections in the UK since 1983 are on the website . It also includes results of the Labour Party National Executive Committee elections , European Parliamentary elections from 1994 onwards , a list of members expelled since the 1660 Restoration , and recent regional elections for the National Assembly for Wales , the Northern Ireland Assembly , and the Greater London Authority . The earliest snapshot of the website in the archival database Internet Archive is from 1996 . The website is located at www.election.demon.co.uk.
= = Reception = =
Several authors and organisations — including United Nations Development Programme ( 2004 ) , the Politics and Public Administration Group of the Parliament of Australia ( 2002 ) , and Scott L. Greer ( 2005 ) — have cited Boothroyd 's website in their works . Oonag Gay and Patricia Leopold used information about parliamentary expulsion from the site in their book Conduct Unbecoming : The Regulation of Parliamentary Behaviour ( 2004 ) ; they wrote , " As the author , David Boothroyd , makes clear , expulsion was no bar to further parliamentary career in the eighteenth century . " The Guardian referenced the site in a 2007 article about politics of education in the UK .
In their 2008 book The Politics of Electoral Systems , Michael Gallagher and Paul Mitchell wrote that Boothroyd 's site " Has detailed results of elections at all levels of government . " The website of the Parliamentary Library of the Parliament of Australia lists Boothroyd 's site as a resource , as does the Gilbert + Tobin Centre of Public Law at The University of New South Wales . The Data & Information Services Center of the University of Wisconsin said that Boothroyd maintains " an emphasis on including the entire range of parties " . RBA ( Rhodes @-@ Blakeman Associates ) website maintained by Karen Blakeman describes Boothroyd 's resource as a " fast @-@ loading , no @-@ nonsense site " . The University of York library said that the " site maintained by David Boothroyd provides detailed results data for all UK Parliamentary Elections since 1983 " . " Scottish Politics " , the website of the Scottish Politics Research Institute , Alba Publishing said , " Those interested in election results and analysis from England & Wales are encouraged to consult David Boothroyd 's inspirational United Kingdom Election Results site . "
|
= CenturyLink Field =
CenturyLink Field is a multi @-@ purpose stadium in Seattle , Washington , United States . It serves as the home field for the Seattle Seahawks of the National Football League ( NFL ) and Seattle Sounders FC of Major League Soccer ( MLS ) . Originally called Seahawks Stadium it became Qwest Field on June 23 , 2004 , when telecommunications carrier Qwest acquired the naming rights . It received its current name in June 2011 after the acquisition of Qwest by CenturyLink . The complex also includes the Event Center with the WaMu Theater , a parking garage , and a public plaza . The venue hosts concerts , trade shows , and consumer shows along with sporting events . Located within a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of Seattle 's central business district , the venue is accessible by multiple freeways and forms of mass transit .
The stadium was built between 2000 and 2002 after voters approved funding for the construction in a statewide election held on June 17 , 1997 . This vote created the Washington State Public Stadium Authority to oversee public ownership of the venue . The owner of the Seahawks , Paul Allen , formed First & Goal Inc. to develop and operate the new facilities . Allen was closely involved in the design process and emphasized the importance of an open @-@ air venue with an intimate atmosphere . The stadium is a modern facility with views of the skyline of Downtown Seattle . The stadium can seat 69 @,@ 000 people .
The crowd at CenturyLink Field is notoriously loud during Seahawks games . On September 15 , 2013 , during a game against the San Francisco 49ers , the fans broke the Guinness World Record for loudest crowd roar at an outdoor stadium with 136 @.@ 6 decibels . The record was broken on October 13 , 2013 , at Kansas City 's Arrowhead Stadium , home of the NFL 's Kansas City Chiefs with a roar of 137 @.@ 5 dB , but fans reclaimed the title on December 2 , 2013 , during a Monday night game against the New Orleans Saints , with a roar of 137 @.@ 6 decibels . Arrowhead reclaimed the title on September 29 , 2014 reaching 142 @.@ 2 dB in a Monday Night Football game vs. the Patriots . The noise has contributed to the team 's home field advantage with an increase in false start ( movement by an offensive player prior to the play ) and delay of game ( failure of the offense to snap the ball prior to the play clock expiring ) penalties against visiting teams . The stadium was the first in the NFL to implement a FieldTurf artificial field . Numerous college and high school American football games have also been played at the stadium .
CenturyLink Field is also designed for soccer . The first sporting event held included a United Soccer Leagues ( USL ) Seattle Sounders match . The USL team began using the stadium regularly for home games in 2003 . The MLS expansion team Seattle Sounders FC , began its inaugural season in 2009 at the stadium . CenturyLink Field was the site of the MLS Cup in 2009 . The venue also hosted the 2010 and 2011 tournament finals for the U.S. Open Cup . Sounders FC won both times and new attendance records were set each year it was hosted at CenturyLink Field . On August 25 , 2013 , the Sounders broke a new home field attendance record when 67 @,@ 385 fans turned out to watch them play the Portland Timbers .
= = Funding = =
The Seahawks played their home games at the Kingdome from their 1976 inaugural season until 1999 . In 1995 a proposal was made to issue county bonds to fund a remodeling project of the facility . The proposal failed , and as a result , Seahawks ' owner Ken Behring threatened to sell or move the team . In 1997 local billionaire Paul Allen pledged to acquire the team if a new stadium could be built and said that the team could not be profitable until they left the Kingdome . He asked the state legislature to hold a special statewide referendum on a proposal to finance a new stadium . Allen also agreed to cover any cost overruns . With Allen agreeing to pay the $ 4 million cost , the legislature agreed . The vote was scheduled to be held in June 1997 but in May a Seattle resident filed a lawsuit that claimed the legislature did not have authority to call for such a vote , since it would be paid for by a private party who could gain from the result . The case was delayed until after the vote . The proposal was pitched to voters as providing both a new home for the Seahawks and a venue for top @-@ level soccer . It passed on June 17 , 1997 , with 820 @,@ 364 ( 51 @.@ 1 % ) in favor and 783 @,@ 584 against . The vote was close in Seattle , but it received 60 % approval in Seattle 's northern and eastern suburbs . The public funding was unpopular farther away in the eastern portion of the state . In October , a Thurston County Superior Court judge ruled that the legislature acted properly and in the public 's interest , and he dismissed the pending lawsuit . The Washington Supreme Court upheld the decision that December .
Voter approval of the referendum created a public – private partnership . The Washington State Public Stadium Authority was created to oversee public ownership of the stadium , exhibition center , and parking garage complex . Allen purchased the Seahawks and formed First & Goal Inc. to build and operate the facility . The budget for the project was $ 430 million . Of this cost , $ 44 million was allotted to build the Event Center , $ 26 million for the parking garage , and $ 360 million for the stadium . First & Goal was to cover cost overruns and pay up to $ 130 million of the project while the contribution from the public was capped at $ 300 million . The public funding package included new sports @-@ related state lottery games , taxes on the facility 's admissions and parking , sales tax credits and deferrals , and an eight @-@ year extension of the 2 % tax on hotel rooms in King County . The taxes on admissions and parking are set at 2 % to pay off the project 's tax @-@ exempt bonds . Those taxes will be kept below the authorized 10 % to preserve the tax @-@ exempt status , but the percentage will be increased to the full amount when the bonds are completely paid in 2021 . At such time , they will become dedicated funding sources for maintenance and modernization of the facilities .
In September 1998 First & Goal signed a 30 @-@ year stadium lease that includes options to extend for another 20 . Per the agreement , the Public Stadium Authority receives $ 850 @,@ 000 a year from First and Goal ( adjusted for inflation ) , and First & Goal keeps all revenue from the stadium and parking garage . The company receives 80 % of the revenue from the exhibition center while the other twenty percent is allotted to a state education fund . First & Goal is responsible for all operating and maintenance costs , expected to be $ 6 million a year , and must keep the facility in " first @-@ class " condition . Other details of the lease include the availability of affordable seats , a coordinated effort with neighboring Safeco Field to prevent gridlock , a provision for naming rights , the investment in public art at the stadium , and the giveaway of a luxury suite to a fan each Seahawks ' game .
= = Construction and layout = =
The architectural firm Ellerbe Becket , in association with Loschky Marquardt & Nesholm Architects of Seattle , designed the 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 140 @,@ 000 m2 ) project . Allen was closely involved during the design process . While growing up he attended games at the University of Washington 's outdoor Husky Stadium . His goal was to create a similar experience and atmosphere at the new venue . The exhibition center portion of the project was designed over a period of 14 months by Loschky Marquardt & Nesholm Architects while First & Goal managed the construction . Town meetings were held to discuss the impact on the public , and the company created a $ 6 million mitigation fund for nearby neighborhoods . In accordance with a program established by the building team , contracts totaling $ 81 million were awarded to minority- and women @-@ owned businesses . Union apprentices made up 19 % of the workforce through another program with local trade unions .
In September 1998 construction began on the new exhibition center and parking garage . By October 1999 the exhibition center was open and hosting events . On March 26 , 2000 , to make way for the stadium , the Kingdome was demolished in the world 's largest implosion of a single concrete structure . Almost all of the Kingdome rubble was recycled with roughly half used for the new stadium . The designers were challenged by the soft soil at the site since it was a tidal marsh until public works projects in the early 20th century adjusted the waterline of nearby Elliott Bay . The top layer is a soft fill taken from the grading projects that had leveled portions of Seattle 's hills . To account for the soft soil , the complex sits on over 2 @,@ 200 pilings driven 50 to 70 ft ( 15 to 21 m ) below the ground to form what is essentially a pier for the foundation . Eight individually connected sections were built to account for the soil concerns , temperature effects , and the potential for earthquakes . The adjoining exhibition center and parking garage are separate structures and are not part of the eight @-@ section stadium .
The site of CenturyLink Field is the smallest of those developed for new NFL stadiums . The upper levels were cantilevered over the lower sections to fit within the limited space . Along with the angle of seats and the placement of the lower sections closer to the field , this provided a better view of the field than typically seen throughout the country and allowed for a 67 @,@ 000 @-@ seat capacity . Space is available to increase the total capacity to 72 @,@ 000 for special events . Included in the capacity are 111 suites and over 7 @,@ 000 club seats . The stadium has 1 @,@ 400 seats for those with disabilities and their companions located in various sections . In 2009 CenturyLink Field ranked 21st out of the 31 stadiums in the NFL for total seating capacity .
The configuration of CenturyLink Field is a U @-@ shape with an open north end to provide views of downtown Seattle and the large north plaza . The large retractable roof of Safeco Field along with Mount Rainier to the southeast can be seen from the partially open south end . The stadium 's concourses were built to be wide , and they provide additional views of the surrounding area . A 13 @-@ story tower was erected at the north end of the stadium that visually complements the Seattle skyline . The tower features a vertically oriented scoreboard which is the first of its kind in the NFL . At the base is bleacher seating for 3 @,@ 000 called the " Hawks ' Nest " . Another addition not previously seen in the NFL are field @-@ level luxury suites located directly behind the north end zone .
Allen rejected plans for a retractable roof during the early stages of the stadium 's design . The lack of a retractable roof made it open to the elements , provided better views , and reduced the total cost of the project . The roof , at 200 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 19 @,@ 000 m2 ) , covers 70 % of the seats but leaves the field open . The roof spans 720 ft ( 220 m ) between concrete pylon supports at the north and south ends of the stadium . Its two expansive sections are held from below by trusses . From above , two arches with additional supports rise 200 ft ( 61 m ) over the field . Post @-@ tensioned cables were used to achieve its final shape and positioning . To minimize damage in the event of an earthquake , the roof has a friction pendulum damper system . This disconnects the roof from the support pylons so that it can move independently of the structure . The technology had never been applied to a large @-@ scale roof before CenturyLink Field .
The roof was originally painted white to aesthetically distinguish it from both Safeco Field and the nearby industrial area . The east side of the stadium has a large glass curtain wall that faces the nearby International District . The exterior of the stadium also consists of salmon @-@ colored concrete , and the west side of the structure is partially clad with red brick . The coloring and facade were designed so the stadium would blend with the older buildings in neighboring Pioneer Square . To reduce costs , the exterior was not completed with brick or ornate steel work .
A 6 @.@ 8 @-@ magnitude earthquake struck the Seattle area during construction . The structure responded as expected by the designers , and there was minimal damage . The project was completed on budget and a month ahead of schedule .
In 2015 the stadium was expanded with the addition of the Toyota Fan Deck including a new 12 Flag raising platform . This expansion was privately funded by the Seahawks and the 1 @,@ 000 additional seats were made available to purchase by current season ticket holders the Blue Pride waiting list for season tickets . The additional seating pushed the capacity of the stadium to 69 @,@ 000 @-@ plus .
= = Surface = =
In 2002 , CenturyLink Field became the first stadium in the NFL to install a FieldTurf artificial field . The surface is made of plastic fibers rooted in a mixture of ground rubber and sand . The field was replaced in the spring of 2008 after tests showed that compression of the sand and rubber increased the risk of player injuries . FieldTurf won the bid for the second installation over Polytan . For the replacement surface , a one @-@ inch ( two and one @-@ half centimeters ) poured rubber foundation was added to prevent the compression from reoccurring . Under the naming rights agreement , Qwest paid $ 500 @,@ 000 for the installation and First & Goal paid the remaining amount , which was undisclosed . By 2010 the FieldTurf 's quality had decreased with the blades becoming matted down . It also failed FIFA 's quality testing to be ranked 2 Star . A new FieldTurf surface was laid down in 2012 and it met the requirements of a 2 Star field after testing .
The 1997 state referendum stated that the stadium would feature a natural grass surface , but FieldTurf was not an option when the stadium was originally presented to voters according to the Public Stadium Authority . Seahawks management reconsidered surface after the Seahawks played on FieldTurf at Husky Stadium during the 2000 and 2001 seasons . Artificial turf was installed because it was easier to maintain than natural grass . The potential damage to a natural grass field caused by Seattle 's frequent rain also made the surface an appropriate option . In order to keep a grass surface robust under heavy football use during late fall and early winter rains , a $ 1 @.@ 8 million irrigation and heating system would have been required . The coach of the Seahawks at the time , Mike Holmgren , said FieldTurf installation was the right decision and stated that " the players love it , and I think this surface will offer a better product on the field for the fans . "
Local soccer fans were concerned that the lack of a natural grass field would hinder Seattle 's chances of receiving an MLS expansion franchise . They asserted that voters had approved the facility with the understanding that the new stadium was intended for soccer as well as football . In a compromise , First & Goal agreed to pay for grass to be installed for special events when needed .
There have been various opinions regarding both the artificial surface and temporary grass surfaces used for soccer matches . After the Brazilian national team defeated Canada 's side 3 – 2 in 2008 , Brazil 's coach commented that one reason for his team 's unexpectedly poor performance was the loosely installed grass field . The Grenada national team struggled to cope with the artificial surface during their loss at the 2009 CONCACAF Gold Cup . In July 2009 , the U.S. Soccer Federation chose D.C. United 's RFK Stadium over CenturyLink Field for the U.S. Open Cup . The general manager of D.C. United speculated that RFK 's grass field was one of the reasons his team had a stronger bid . The general manager of the Sounders , Adrian Hanauer , told The Seattle Times in 2010 that replacement of the surface was a continuing conversation between the Sounders and Allen 's Vulcan Inc . When the Los Angeles Galaxy traveled to Seattle in May 2012 , the FieldTurf was noted as one of the reasons David Beckham and Robbie Keane were left out of the line @-@ up .
Between August and November both the Seahawks and Sounders FC host games at CenturyLink Field . Each team has emphasized the importance of playing their games without the other team 's painted lines on the field . Around 2003 , at the Seahawks ' request , local company EcoChemical developed for the field a new kind of paint " designed to fail . " The new paint is relatively easy to remove with a power washer and a special chemical solution , a process that the company describes as environmentally friendly . With the new paint , converting the field between American football and soccer takes 14 hours in dry weather , though painting logos and other colors takes additional time .
A new turf field , using the FieldTurf Revolution 360 , was installed in February 2016 ahead of the 2016 Sounders season .
= = American football = =
= = = Seahawks = = =
Prior to the stadium opening in 2002 , Allen and Bob Whitsitt said that they hoped the new stadium would help turn the Seahawks into a Super Bowl contender and that Seattle would be considered to host the championship game . The seating is expandable to 72 @,@ 000 for the purpose of holding the game , but the NFL typically does not consider cities with outdoor stadiums where the average temperature in February is below 50 ° F ( 10 ° C ) . The number of season tickets available at Qwest was capped at 61 @,@ 000 following the Super Bowl appearance . The ensuing waiting list was the first for the Seahawks since the early 1990s .
The team 's first season at their new home was in 2002 . Their first game at the new facility was a 28 – 10 preseason loss to the Indianapolis Colts on August 11 , 2002 . They went on to end their first season at the new field with a 7 – 9 record . In the 2003 season , the team went undefeated at home and reached the playoffs . It was the first time the franchise had won 10 games in a single season in 17 years . The Seahawks again reached the postseason during the 2004 season and played their first playoff game at CenturyLink Field on January 8 , 2005 . In that game , they lost to the St. Louis Rams who had already defeated them twice that season . The following season , the Seahawks went undefeated at home for the second time in three years and won their first @-@ ever NFC Championship , but lost in Super Bowl XL . Between 2002 and 2005 , the Seahawks won 24 of their 32 regular season games at the stadium .
In 2006 the Seahawks had a 9 – 7 record and hosted the Dallas Cowboys in the wild card round of the playoffs . The Seahawks trailed 20 – 13 with less than 7 minutes remaining but came back to win 21 – 20 . In 2007 , the team won seven of their eight home games and clinched their fourth consecutive division title . CenturyLink Field was again the site for their wild card game , and they defeated the Washington Redskins 35 – 14 . In 2008 , the Seahawks went 4 – 12 and had only two home wins . Holmgren left the organization after the season . When he was interviewed about memorable moments and the fans , he said that CenturyLink Field was " a remarkable place to compete in and to play professional football . " He called a game at the stadium " an experience . "
In 2010 , the Seahawks were the first NFL team with a losing record ever to win a division title in a season not shortened by a strike . Seattle earned its fifth consecutive home playoff victory with a 41 – 36 win over the New Orleans Saints . " God bless the voters , " defensive tackle Craig Terrill said after the game in reference to the stadium 's importance to the franchise .
Under Pete Carroll , the Seahawks were undefeated at home during the 2012 season . Season tickets for 2013 sold @-@ out with a franchise @-@ record 98 % renewal rate .
CenturyLink Field often sells out for Seahawks games . Although the team struggled in 2008 and 2009 , the team maintained its base of season ticket holders . Before the 2008 season , the 14 @,@ 000 single game tickets not already allotted sold out less than 15 minutes after they became available . By the end of the 2009 season , the Seahawks had sold out 60 consecutive games . After going 9 – 23 over two seasons in 2008 and 2009 , the number of available season tickets was increased to 62 @,@ 000 . The largest crowd to attend a Seahawks game at CenturyLink Field was 69 @,@ 055 vs the Pittsburgh Steelers on November 29 , 2015 .
= = = = Home field advantage = = = =
CenturyLink Field has earned a reputation as one of the loudest stadiums in the NFL . It was , at one point in time , in the Guinness World Record books for being the loudest stadium in the world . The seating decks and partial roof , both trap and amplify exceptional amounts of noise and reflect it back onto the field . This noise possibly contributes to increased false start penalties since opposing offenses can miss audibles and the snap count , as well as delay of game penalties due to the reduced efficiency of communicating plays to the offense . From 2002 through 2012 , there have been 143 false @-@ start penalties on visiting teams in Seattle , second only to the Minnesota Vikings . During that same time period , the Seahawks have accumulated a home win record of 59 @-@ 29 , with a simultaneous road record of 33 @-@ 55
When Tod Leiweke was hired as the Seahawks ' new CEO in 2003 , he had a large flagpole installed in the south end to fly the 12th Man Flag as a tribute to the team 's 12th man . The organization had retired the number in 1984 to honor the 12th man . A local celebrity , sometimes a former Seahawk , raises the flag during the network television pre @-@ game events . The Seahawks currently refer to their fans as the 12s .
In 2005 , the stadium gained national attention when the visiting New York Giants committed 11 false start penalties . Seahawks head coach Mike Holmgren attributed the penalties to the enthusiasm and noise from the crowd . He dedicated the ball used to make the game @-@ winning field goal to the fans , and it is now displayed at the stadium . The Giants ' general manager , Ernie Accorsi , asked an NFL senior vice president whether the Seahawks had broadcast artificial crowd noise over the public address system during this game . The NFL sent a memorandum early in the 2006 season about such complaints and sent officials to monitor two games . Holmgren denied the allegations , and the crowd responded by being even louder than usual when the Giants returned to CenturyLink Field . Since 2005 the Seahawks have tracked the number of false starts committed by visiting teams and display the statistic on a scoreboard to motivate the crowd . As of 2013 , the stadium has had a league @-@ high number of false starts since . In preparation for 2005 – 06 NFC Championship Game at CenturyLink Field , the Carolina Panthers practiced with the recorded sounds of jet engines in the background to prepare for the volume of the crowd .
Kickers experience further disadvantages when attempting field goals at CenturyLink Field . Both the stadium 's proximity to Puget Sound and the open north end create winds that are challenging to gauge . Former Seahawks kicker Josh Brown adjusted to the winds , and he believed the moisture in the air caused trouble for others .
On September 15 , 2013 , Seattle Seahawks fans successfully broke the Guinness World Records for the loudest stadium in the world . The 131 @.@ 9 @-@ decibel record occurred during the sack of San Francisco 49er quarterback Colin Kaepernick in the first quarter . Fans then broke their new record during the third quarter of the same game when a level of 136 @.@ 6 decibels was achieved during a goal line stand by the Seahawks defense . The record was broken by the crowd at Arrowhead Stadium on October 13 , 2013 , with a sound pressure level of 137 @.@ 57 decibels . The record was later regained by the Seahawks fans on December 2 , 2013 with 137 @.@ 6 decibels against the New Orleans Saints , but lost once again to Arrowhead Stadium in a Monday Night Football game between the Kansas City Chiefs and New England Patriots on September 29 , 2014 , setting the record at 142 @.@ 2 decibels .
= = = College = = =
CenturyLink Field has hosted several college football games . The hometown Washington Huskies played their 2005 season opener against the Air Force Falcons at the stadium in Tyrone Willingham 's first game as head coach . In 2011 , the University of Washington began a $ 250 million renovation to Husky Stadium , so the Huskies and the Washington State Cougars played the 2011 Apple Cup at CenturyLink Field . The Huskies also played their entire 2012 home football schedule at CenturyLink Field .
Except for in 2010 , the stadium hosted a Washington State Cougars non @-@ conference home game each season between 2002 and 2014 . This included the 86th " Battle of the Palouse " against the Idaho Vandals in 2003 . The Cougars were and their crowds ranged from 30 @,@ 927 to 63 @,@ 588 . CenturyLink Field is about 300 miles ( 500 km ) from the university . The university 's athletic director said that 50 @,@ 000 need to attend to make it worth moving the game from Pullman . The Cougars went 6 – 6 in the annual game . The games generated additional revenue that was invested in facilities for the football program while also increasing exposure to the western side of the state .
In April 2009 , it was proposed that the annual Apple Cup between the Seattle @-@ based Huskies and the Pullman @-@ based Cougars be hosted at CenturyLink Field for six years beginning in 2010 . The two programs could not reach an agreement on how to divide tickets . Pullman 's business community had expressed concerns that playing the game away from the area would be detrimental to the local economy .
Qwest Field hosted the 2002 Seattle Bowl , in which Wake Forest beat Oregon 38 – 17 . The inaugural Seattle Bowl was played a year earlier at Safeco Field , but the game was discontinued when organizers could not secure financing before 2003 . Later attempts to revive the Seattle Bowl were unsuccessful . The Seattle Sports Commission is pushing for a proposal of a new bowl game . In 2008 a business plan was begun for a game in 2010 that would be a fundraiser for Seattle Children 's Hospital .
Lower division NCAA teams have played at the stadium throughout the years . From 2003 to 2008 , the Division II football teams from Western Washington University and Central Washington University met each year in a rivalry game called " The Battle in Seattle " . Central won all but the 2004 game , and each meeting attracted more than 11 @,@ 000 people . Western discontinued its football program after the 2008 season , but Central came to an agreement to continue the series with Western Oregon University for games in 2009 and 2010 . " Battle in Seattle VII " saw Central make a comeback to win 23 – 21 in front of 5 @,@ 374 .
On October 31 , 2009 , the Division I FCS Eastern Washington University Eagles played a home game in Seattle for the first time . Along with the goal of drawing alumni from the metropolitan area , the athletic directors from both Eastern Washington and Washington State had expressed the importance of connecting with alumni at receptions and other events on the western side of the state . Billed as the " Showdown on the Sound " , the game was a 47 – 10 victory over the Portland State Vikings . According to Eastern 's athletic director , Qwest Field 's rental was $ 50 @,@ 000 for the day .
= = = High school = = =
CenturyLink Field has been used for high school football . The Washington Interscholastic Activities Association puts on the annual Emerald City Kickoff Classic at the stadium . The event is a season @-@ opening series of games between some of the best teams in the state .
The stadium features a meeting between one of the best teams in Washington and one of the best from another state in the " Best of the West " game . On September 4 , 2004 , Washington 's Bellevue High School and California 's De La Salle High School played in front of over 25 @,@ 000 , a state high school event attendance record . Bellevue ended De La Salle 's national @-@ record 151 @-@ game winning streak in a 39 – 20 win . On September 16 , 2009 , Bellevue defeated another highly regarded California school at Qwest Field in a 30 – 16 victory over Long Beach Polytechnic . USA Today had recently rated both teams highly with Long Beach third and Bellevue at 16th in the nation .
After the organizer of the event announced a match @-@ up between Washington 's Skyline High School and Oregon 's Jesuit High School in 2009 , he said that he proposed the possibility of televising games to Fox Sports , but Fox did not televise the game . Skyline went on to shut out Jesuit 17 – 0 during that year 's Emerald City Classic .
Within CenturyLink Field , there is a large art piece called The State of Football that pays tribute to high school football in the state of Washington . The piece features a depiction of Washington and holds replica football helmets from every high school football team in the state . The art is part of the nearly $ 1 @.@ 75 million Stadium Art Program commissioned through First & Goal 's lease of the facility .
= = Soccer = =
CenturyLink Field is also designed for soccer . The stadium meets FIFA sight line requirements and provides separate locker rooms for soccer teams . Camera locations were chosen for optimal television coverage of the sport . Numerous exhibition games have taken place at CenturyLink Field , including high @-@ profile clubs such as Manchester United , Barcelona , Celtic , Real Madrid , Chelsea , Club América and Chivas de Guadalajara . These games have proved to be highly popular , and the first sell @-@ out of 66 @,@ 772 fans at CenturyLink Field was a soccer match between Manchester United and Celtic . National teams such as Brazil , Venezuela , Mexico , and China have played exhibition games at the stadium . The artificial turf has been temporarily overlaid with grass for international matches .
Seattle was the site of the 2005 CONCACAF Gold Cup Group B opening round between the national teams of the United States , Costa Rica , Canada , and Cuba . Two matches of the 2009 CONCACAF Gold Cup opening round were also played at the stadium on July 4 , 2009 . In the second match , the United States comfortably defeated Grenada , who were playing in their first major international competition , 4 – 0 . The Gold Cup returned in 2013 with Panama beating Martinique and Mexico defeating Canada in opening group play matches .
CenturyLink Field was among the 58 facilities in the United States being considered for World Cup matches had the country hosted the tournament in 2018 or 2022 . When discussing Seattle as a candidate , Sunil Gulati of the U.S. Soccer Federation called it " a world @-@ class facility . " Seattle finally hosted a qualifier in June 2013 — only the city 's second with the first being over 3 decades earlier . The United States topped Panama 2 — 0 in front of a raucous crowd .
On November 22 , 2009 , Seattle was the site of the 14th annual MLS Cup between Real Salt Lake and the Los Angeles Galaxy , where Salt Lake won the Cup on penalty kicks ( 5 – 4 ) in front of 46 @,@ 011 . The stadium was the eighth stadium to host the event .
= = = Sounders ( USL ) = = =
The first sporting event at the stadium was a double @-@ header on July 28 , 2002 , that included both the Sounders Select Women and the men 's Seattle Sounders of the USL team . The women defeated the Vancouver Breakers 4 – 3 , while the men beat the Vancouver Whitecaps 4 – 1 in front of 25 @,@ 515 people . The USL team began using the facility regularly as their home field in 2003 . Although team management was concerned with the high rent and the underused seating capacity , they were drawn by the sponsorship opportunities and location . The Sounders increased their average attendance from 2 @,@ 583 at Seattle 's Memorial Stadium in 2002 to 3 @,@ 452 at the new stadium in 2003 . In 2005 , the Sounders beat the Richmond Kickers 2 – 1 in a penalty shootout for the USL championship in front of 8 @,@ 011 . Scott Jenkins scored the final goal and announced his retirement after the game .
In 2008 , the MLS expansion franchise Sounders FC decided to develop the Starfire Sports Complex in nearby Tukwila , and the USL team played most of the season at that facility . At the time , team management thought that practicing and playing at Starfire could provide a better transition for those hoping to play for the new MLS team . The last match for the USL Sounders at Qwest Field was the 2008 season opener against the rival Portland Timbers . The game ended in a scoreless draw in front of 10 @,@ 184 .
= = = Sounders FC = = =
The potential to draw an MLS expansion team helped drive public support for building the stadium in 1997 . In 1996 , Seattle was considered for one of the 10 original MLS teams ; however , the region lacked an adequate outdoor stadium . In 2007 , it was announced that Seattle would be the home of an expansion team . The first Sounders FC regular season match was at the stadium on March 19 , 2009 . Fredy Montero scored the first goal in a 3 – 0 Seattle victory .
Before the opening of their first season , the Sounders already had the highest number of season ticket holders in the MLS after they sold all 22 @,@ 000 of the offered season ticket packages . The team created a web site that was used to identify seating arrangements for season ticket holders based on personal interests including preferred method for watching a game and foreign team preference . For the first half of the inaugural season , the upper and lower sections were tarped off , limiting the seating capacity to 27 @,@ 700 . The club hoped to create an intimate environment as well as a supply @-@ and @-@ demand factor that would reward season ticket holders and encourage early purchase of seats . The stadium has continuously sold out league matches in the limited seating configuration . However , majority owner Joe Roth has said that he " won 't be happy " until the entire venue is open .
The stadium was designed to easily open seating sections in stages if needed . After repeated sellout crowds , additional sections were opened , increasing total capacity to 32 @,@ 400 . In the Sounders ' first year they set an MLS record with an average home attendance of 30 @,@ 943 people . Official capacity was increased to 35 @,@ 700 after the 2009 season . In 2011 , The Sounders continued to hold the highest average attendance in the league with 38 @,@ 496 . Official capacity was increased again to 38 @,@ 500 with the opening of the Hawk 's Nest for the 2012 season . The Sounders set the state 's single game soccer attendance record when they hosted Manchester United in front of 67 @,@ 052 in July 2011 . On October 15 , 2011 , additional seats were available for a record crowd of 64 @,@ 140 during the final regular season home match , a Sounders 2 – 1 win followed by ceremonies honoring retiring goalkeeper Kasey Keller . And on October 7 , 2012 , another attendance record was broken when 66 @,@ 452 fans were present for a 3 – 0 win over the Portland Timbers , following a ceremony awarding retired Forward Roger Levesque a Golden Scarf .
CenturyLink Field has hosted two U.S. Open Cup tournament finals . On October 5 , 2010 , the tournament 's 81 @-@ year @-@ old attendance record was broken when Sounders FC defeated the Columbus Crew 2 – 1 in front of 31 @,@ 311 . That record was broken one year later when CenturyLink Field again hosted the final on October 4 , 2011 as 36 @,@ 615 spectators watched Seattle defeat the Chicago Fire 2 – 0 . Like the Seahawks , the Sounders have received attention for sellout crowds and boisterous fans . The Seattle Times reported that a " new standard for attendance and game @-@ day atmosphere has been set " due to the loud sellout crowds . The passionate Emerald City Supporters have dubbed the general admission sections behind the south goal the " Brougham End " for the street that runs along the south edge of the complex .
= = Other events = =
The stadium became a yearly site for Supercross races in 2005 . Seattle had been left out of the circuit since the Kingdome hosted the race in 1999 . It takes more than 650 truckloads of dirt to build the course for the event that around 50 @,@ 000 spectators attend .
The Rolling Stones , U2 , Metallica , Taylor Swift and other large acts have performed at CenturyLink Field . The stadium hosts both trade and consumer shows . A stadium record for attendance was set in June 2011 when U2 played in front of more than 70 @,@ 000 .
The CenturyLink Field Event Center connects to the stadium 's west field plaza and consists of two exhibition halls , a conference room , and a concourse . The center hosts pre @-@ game events for the Seahawks and Mariners . According to the Public Stadium Authority 's website , the event center contributes more than half a billion dollars to the region 's economy . The center was renamed the CenturyLink Field Event Center in June 2011 , following the acquisition of Qwest Communications by CenturyLink and the renaming of the stadium .
The Event Center had previously been called " the worst venue in town " for concerts , but in 2006 , AEG Live and First & Goal formed a partnership to create a new theater within the Event Center space . Washington Mutual obtained the naming rights to the new theater , calling it the " WaMu Theater . " The theater space can be assembled on an as @-@ needed basis within the building and equipment , including the 104 @-@ foot ( 32 m ) wide stage , can be dismantled and stored in the stadium . The theater 's acoustics were improved by installing panels on the ceiling and a large curtain . Depending on the seating configuration , the capacity can be 3 @,@ 300 , 4 @,@ 000 , or 7 @,@ 000 . Seal performed the inaugural concert on November 6 , 2006 . Though the naming rights deal ended following the bankruptcy of Washington Mutual in the wake of the 2008 financial crisis , the space retained the WaMu Theater name , amending the abbreviation to now mean the " Washington Music Theater . "
The facilities have been used for public speaking engagements . For example , the 14th Dalai Lama of Tibet , Tenzin Gyatso , delivered a 28 @-@ minute speech to 50 @,@ 817 people on April 12 , 2008 .
= = Football stadium shaking experiments = =
During a Seattle football game on January 8 , 2011 , the Pacific Northwest Seismic Network ( PNSN ) recorded what was dubbed a " Beast Quake " , for Marshawn " Beast Mode " Lynch , a player whose performance excited the ( then @-@ named ) Qwest Field stadium crowd enough for the resultant shaking to be recorded on PNSN instruments . In 2014 and 2015 additional sensors were added in and around the stadium . Motivations for the experiment included conducting a quick @-@ reaction exercise for the seismometer network team to install sensors and interpret results , and to test the ability to handle increased web traffic from interested visitors from the general public . Shaking was detected at the stadium after a 90 @-@ yard touchdown run during a January 10 , 2015 playoff game , dubbed a " Kam Quake " for the player making the run , Kam Chancellor . The PNSN scientists say that the biggest event of all was the " Dance Quake " , which was caused by the all the jumping and dancing that followed Marshawn Lynch 's touchdown and 2 @-@ point conversion during 2014 – 15 NFC Championship Game on January 18 , 2015 .
= = Facility contracts and naming rights = =
The stadium was originally named Seahawks Stadium . The name was changed to Qwest Field in June 2004 after the telecommunications carrier bought the naming rights for $ 75 million for a period of 15 years . According to the agreement , the proceeds must be used for maintenance and upgrades . A portion of any profit then goes into a $ 10 million fund Allen guaranteed for youth playfields . Due to CenturyLink 's recent acquisition of Qwest , the stadium was officially renamed CenturyLink Field on June 23 , 2011 . There is speculation as to if there will be a new nickname for the venue . An informal reader poll conducted by The Seattle Times showed that " The Clink " was a popular suggestion . During Sounders FC matches , the field has been entitled " The Xbox Pitch at CenturyLink Field " as part of a sponsorship deal with Microsoft .
In addition to its 48 concession stands , restaurants and lounges are located throughout the stadium . Along with typical fare , local Pacific salmon sandwiches , Dungeness crab cakes , and microbrews are served . In 2006 , Levy Restaurants replaced Aramark in a five @-@ year deal to provide the food and beverage service for the stadium and exhibition center . As of 2013 , Sportservice manages and operates all general concessions and premium dining in the stadium .
In May 2007 , Seattle @-@ based Jones Soda outbid Coca @-@ Cola to sign a five @-@ year contract for the pouring rights of non @-@ alcoholic beverages at the stadium , making it the only venue in the NFL that did not have a contract with either Coca @-@ Cola or Pepsi . Jones Soda , known for unusual and holiday @-@ themed soda flavors such as Blue Bubblegum and Turkey & Gravy , said it was working to develop football @-@ related soda flavors , such as " grass @-@ stain . " In June 2010 , the Seahawks and Jones Soda announced their mutual decision to end the Jones sponsorship , following which Coca @-@ Cola reclaimed the vending rights with a new five @-@ year agreement .
= = Transportation = =
CenturyLink Field is bordered by the Pioneer Square , International District , and Industrial District neighborhoods of Seattle . The stadium 's referendum approval required a transportation management program to coordinate transportation options . First & Goal 's facility lease agreement also included a provision to ease gridlock . A " Dual Event Agreement " with Safeco Field was established so that two events with a combined attendance of over 58 @,@ 000 would not occur within four hours of each other . The agreement was also implemented to coordinate mass transit to the stadiums on game days . Local and regional buses service the area with stops within three blocks of the stadium , and the county 's Metro bus service offers express routes from several area park and ride lots for games . Trains service the stadium through Seattle 's King Street Station and overflow tracks accommodate extra trains during events . Regional commuter trains operate on Sundays if the Seahawks have a home game . Trains also run for mid @-@ day Sounders FC games on Saturdays . In 2008 , the commuter trains carried 64 @,@ 000 event goers to the two nearby stadiums . Amtrak , primarily through the Pacific Northwest corridor 's Cascades route , also serves the station . On July 18 , 2009 , light rail service between SeaTac and downtown began in time for an exhibition match between the Sounders and Chelsea . The light rail connects to the baseball and football stadiums via the Stadium station . The International District / Chinatown station also offers convenient access .
CenturyLink Field is bordered by the junction of Interstates 5 and 90 to the east and State Route 99 to its west . The State Route 519 corridor connects I @-@ 90 to the neighborhood . Local governments compromised with both the Seahawks and Mariners on the location of new ramps over the train tracks that run along the east sides of CenturyLink and Safeco Fields . An overpass for S Royal Brougham Way , the road that borders the south edge of the CenturyLink Field complex , to improve access and safety was completed in May 2010 . The stadium has 2 @,@ 000 parking spaces in its parking garage and 8 @,@ 400 in the surrounding lots to accommodate automobile traffic . Beginning in December 2011 , construction of the Stadium Place mixed @-@ use development project replaced much of the north lot . The developer must replace the 500 lost parking spots and turn over parking revenue to the Public Stadium Authority per an agreement with King County .
|
= Dynasty Warriors 4 =
Dynasty Warriors 4 ( 真 ・ 三國無双3 , Shin Sangokumusō 3 , Shin Sangokumusou 3 in Japan ) is a hack and slash video game and the fourth installment in the popular Dynasty Warriors series . Dynasty Warriors 4 was developed by Omega Force and published by Koei . The game is available on PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) and Xbox and is based on a series of books called Romance of the Three Kingdoms , written by Luo Guanzhong . As the series has progressed , it has strayed further from the actual plot of Romance of the Three Kingdoms but instead has given the user more input on how the storyline progresses . When it was released in Japan as Shin Sangokumusou 3 , it topped the sales charts , sold over one million copies within nine days , and received an average of 78 out of 100 on Metacritics reviews .
Originally released on the PS2 in March 2003 , it was later ported to the Xbox in September of the same year and , in 2005 , ported to the PC under the name Dynasty Warriors 4 Hyper . Two expansions were released for the PS2 version of the game , Xtreme Legends and Empires . Whereas Xtreme Legends requires the player to use the original Dynasty Warriors 4 disc to access all of its features , Empires is a stand @-@ alone game and can be played with all of its content without the use of the original disk . The game is the first in the Dynasty Warriors series to introduce an Empires expansion pack and the second to include an Xtreme Legends title . These expansions are not available for the Xbox version of the game .
= = Gameplay = =
Dynasty Warriors 4 expands on its predecessors by adding new characters , new modes of play and a completely new ' Edit Mode . ' Instead of having strict routines to follow during battle , officers , to some extent , will have a greater reaction to the events taking place on the battlefield in the game and may react to things more often .
The aim of most of the stages in Dynasty Warriors 4 is to defeat the enemy commander . The player must make their way through the stage , defeating enemy officers and troops while trying to keep their own commander alive . Some stages have secondary objectives for the player to complete to make the stage easier , unlock new features , or help in later stages . Each playable character has their own unique weapon and individual superhuman abilities . The scope of each stage allows for each side to have thousands of soldiers in the battlefield . The game uses a fairly simple combination system so that players can chain attacks together ; the highest possible attack combo being 10 . And new character designs and attack moves are also updated in this hit game , leaving more damage and raising your characters skill up more easily .
Playable starting officers include Liu Bei , Zhang Fei , and Guan Yu for the Shu Kingdom ; Xiahou Dun , Xiahou Yuan , and Cao Cao for the Wei Kingdom ; and Sun Shang Xiang , Huang Gai , and Sun Jian for the Wu Kingdom . It is possible to unlock new characters from other kingdoms as well as use a player created character in any of the campaigns . The new ' Edit Mode ' allows players to create an officer from sets of different features , motions , and weapons to use in ' Kaiba Mode . ' The characters stance and motion are affected by their gender and the weapon the player has selected them to carry and use . The motions for the weapons are taken from pre @-@ existing officers as well as from two characters removed from Dynasty Warriors 4 that were in Dynasty Warriors 3 : Fu Xi and Nu Wa . Some characters are unlocked by fulfilling optional side @-@ goals ; most are unlocked by completing certain battles during gameplay . The maximum number of playable characters is 42 , 46 with created characters .
Each playable character in the game has the ability to equip items . Weapons in the game , unlike its predecessors , are gained in levels . Some items are only found in certain stages , but is only obtainable if completing a goal . Sometimes the goal may be very simple , but some may be not that easy to figure out how to obtain the certain item . By defeating generals and lieutenants , the player 's character is awarded experience scaled by the difficulty of each officer , and the amount of them defeated . This experience is allocated at the end of the level and allows the player to increase their attributes or obtain new forms . Each playable officer has 9 levels to achieve with their standard weapon , while a 10th level is accessible through special in @-@ game requirements , and on the " Hard " difficulty , which is found to be frustrating like most games , the harder the difficulty the more eager you gain . Items can have a number of effects on the player such as increasing attack power , defense , and movement speed . You can also retrieve your health level to avoid getting killed and having " Game Over " by obtaining " Chinese Meatbuns " that at first , look like onions like in any other game in the so far successful Dynasty Warriors franchise . You can also obtain item boost that increase a certain skill by 2 for limited time only . You can also get packs of wine and packs of Chinese Meatbuns in certain stages in certain locations during gameplay . As said above , special items can also be unlocked by completing objectives during gameplay . Special items can grant the player a statistics boost , a unique ability or skill , or even a ride @-@ able mount such as an Elephant or Horse .
'Musou Mode , ' the main campaign mode , has separate campaigns for each kingdom rather than a separate ' Musou Mode ' for each character , as was featured in Dynasty Warriors 3 , which made it more frustrating for the player to unlock their favorite characters . So , Dynasty Warriors 4 Mosou Modes are easier for the player to unlock their favorite characters . While the storyline is still linear , ' Musou Mode ' is rather open @-@ ended in the sense that depending on the user ’ s actions , different events will occur , such as unlocking new characters for use or new kingdoms . The unlockable kingdoms in the game include the Wu , Shu , and Wei Kingdoms , and unlockable characters include warlords who were defeated in the book that the game series is based on , Romance of the Three Kingdoms .
In @-@ game features include large battlefields , a large number of enemies and officers to defeat , and multiple outcomes for each stage . Certain levels make use of the siege engine ( A new feature to the series ) and introduce specialized siege equipment such as bridge layers , battering rams and catapults to the stage . Although it is not essential for the completion of stages , having a siege weapon will increase morale for the player 's forces , and help the player succeed .
The morale system in the game is similar to previous Dynasty Warrior games . Morale is increased and decreased by performing a number of positive actions for the player ’ s army . Action that produce this effect include defeating enemies in multiples of fifty , defeating enemy officers , and completing special events such as ambushes , siege attacks , and finding enemy strongholds . Morale in the game has a strong effect on the player 's forces , determining their strength and speed , as well as their ability to perform Berwald attacks . Morale will also affect how the CPU characters move along through battle . Example : Ally Oxenstiernas are winning . They are more likely to charge the enemy and destroy the enemies in the path . They may or may not stop if the charging armies morale drops to losing . More chances they 'll stop and stay where they are , or they 'll flee back to the ally side of the battlefield .
Occasionally , when the player confronts an enemy officer , the officer will challenge them to a one @-@ on @-@ one duel . If the player accepts , they will be transported to a small arena away from the main battlefield where a one @-@ on @-@ one fight with the officer will take place until either is victorious or time runs out . If the player declines , your morale will drop . If the player wins , their morale will rise and the enemy officer will be removed from the battlefield . If you accept the officers challenge they do become more difficult to beat in the duel .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Dynasty Warriors 4 is set in Ancient China during the time of the Three Kingdoms era . The game begins at the fall of the Han Dynasty , shortly before the death of Emperor Ling when the Yellow Turban Rebellion led by Zhang Jiao begun an uprising against the Empire . A number of elements in the game build on aspects of Chinese Mythology and there is a mix between fact and fiction as the game is built on the story of Romance of the Three Kingdoms .
Many of the locations , characters , and events in Dynasty Warriors 4 are reported to have happened in Chinese history although many have been exaggerated to make the game more appealing to the player . There are also some features that are historically inaccurate such as Zhou Tai 's weapon , a Japanese tachi , as there is no historical record of this kind of weapon being used in that era . The game features environments resembling that of ancient China and various items from the era . Common items throughout the game include Fairy Wine and Dim Sum ’ s .
= = = Stages = = =
Many of the stages are recreations of notable battles present historically or from the novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms , while original creations became more common with the newer installments . Of course , the battlefields are not exact reproductions of the original locations , as newer establishments , buildings and othe facilities have been built on top of them . For example , He Fei , a key site in both the game and in the historical context , has been developed and expanded into an urbanised area , making an exact replication impossible . Instead , levels are designed to be vaguely accurate , focusing more on expression of mood and effects ; these are not re @-@ used in every game , but are instead updated in every Dynasty Warriors game , save the games ' extension packages - in this case , Dynasty Warriors 4 : Xtreme Legends and Dynasty Warriors 4 : Empires
= = = Characters = = =
* Denotes new characters to the series
* Denotes new characters to the seriesBold denotes default charactersNote : Fu Xi and Nü Wa were removed in DW4
= = = Story = = =
Although Dynasty Warriors 4 does allow for some player input into how the story unfolds , the three main kingdoms ' ' Musou Modes ' follow the main events of the Romance of the Three Kingdoms story .
= = = = Han and Allied Forces Story = = = =
In 184 AD , with the corruption and poverty within the Han dynasty , Zhang Jiao and a religious sect known as the Way of Peace start a rebellion within China , attracting hundreds of thousands of followers . In response to this threat , Regent Marshal He Jin gathers generals from across the land to combat the " Yellow Turban Rebellion " . Among the volunteers for the Han Forces are Cao Cao of Chang 'an , Sun Jian of Jianye , and Liu Bei . The Han forces are able to destroy Zhang Liang , who is laying siege to Huangfu Song at Xiapi Castle . They proceed to drive Zhang Bao out of his fortress at He Nan Yin and the whole Han army triumphs over Zhang Jiao himself in Ji Province ( If Zhang Jiao withdraws from the battle , one of the forces , either Wei , Wu , or Shu , will defeat Zhang Jiao and Zhang Lu in Hanzhong ) .
With Zhang Jiao and his followers dead , it is Dong Zhuo who seizes power within the Imperial Court . Followed by Lu Bu and Diaochan , he enslaves Emperor Xian and makes himself regent in place of the deceased He Jin . In 190 AD , the powerful nobleman Yuan Shao rallies an army of warriors from across the land , including Cao Cao , Sun Jian , Liu Bei , Gongsun Zan , and many fresh warriors . These forces defeat Li Jue and Hua Xiong at Si Shui Gate and , at Hulao Gate a year later , they defeat Dong Zhuo and Lu Bu ; Dong Zhuo survives , and burns down Luoyang .
= = = Shu Story = = =
After defeating Dong Zhuo , Liu Bei and his sworn brothers Zhang Fei and Guan Yu are forced to wander the land in search of a home . Since the people love Liu Bei , Cao Cao sets out to destroy him . In 200 AD , Guan Yu returns to Liu Bei after an escape ( " Tales " ) , making it through many gates to ships on the river . At Ru Nan ( " Tales " ) , Liu Bei is rejoined by Guan Yu and is now followed by Zhao Yun , who saves him from advancing infantry . Cao Cao is defeated , but Liu Bei must continue wandering . In 208 AD , Liu Bei finds talent in a strategist known as Zhuge Liang , who agreed to follow him after Liu Bei visited him three times . Zhuge Liang proves his worth by defeating Cao Cao 's army in a series of ambushes at the Battle of Bo Wan Po and Liu Bei successfully manages to flee to Sun Jian in Wu after the Battle of Changban , where Zhao Yun saved his son . Sun Jian agrees to assist Liu Bei in his goal of defeating Cao Cao , and Wu strategist Zhou Yu teams up with Zhuge Liang to execute a fire attack that destroyed Cao Cao 's fleet at the Battle of Chi Bi .
After Chi Bi , Liu Bei focused on building up his kingdom . He took over Luo Castle from his cousin Liu Zhang after the people pleaded for his guidance ( although he lost Pang Tong ) , and also unified Jing Province after defeating Han Xuan of Changsha , Liu Du of Lingling , Zhao Fan of Guiyang , and Jin Xuan of Wuling . He gained Huang Zhong and Wei Yan as officers after this battle , and his great army conquered the rest of Yi Province at Chengdu in 214 AD . Soon after , he assisted Ma Chao at the Battle of Tong Pass ( " Tales " ) against Cao Cao , and gained him as a general after Chengdu .
Liu Bei then attacks either Wei or Wu , depending on if the fire attack at Chi Bi succeeds or not . Either Wei or Wu will be the final battle where you attack their capital ; the battles are the same .
Liu Bei proceeds to campaign in the southlands to get rid of Wu 's threat , as Wu had backed a Nanman rebellion by King Meng Huo . In Nanzhong , he systematically defeated Meng Huo for a total of seven times , as Zhuge Liang cleverly resisted the Nanman armor troops and also pacified the poison marshes . After taking down Meng Huo , Shu proceeded to capture Fan Castle from Wei 's Cao Ren , and also defeated Wu reinforcements under Lu Meng and traitors under Mi Fang and Fu Shiren . The final battle with Wu was at the Battle of Yi Ling , where Liu Bei braved a Wu fire attack and defeated ( if Wu falls first , kills ) Sun Jian and his officers . If Wei has been defeated before Wu , Liu Bei proceeds to attack Jianye , and sees through Sun Jian 's body double trickery and kills Sun Jian , Sun Ce , Sun Quan , and Sun Shangxiang .
He also attacks Wei in campaigns masterminded by Zhuge Liang . Zhuge Liang gains Jiang Wei as a general after isolating him and tricking Wei general Ma Zun into thinking that he was betraying him , in a clever ploy at the Battle of Tianshui ( " Tales " ) . He proceeds to defeat the Wei after a failed prisoner exchange at the Battle of Mt . Dingjun and saves Ma Su from defeat at the Battle of Jieting . His final battle with Wei is at the Battle of Wuzhang Plains , where he fakes his death , only to ambush the Wei forces and defeat Sima Yi . If Wu has fallen before Wei , Shu will attack Xuchang , the co @-@ capital of Wei , and take it , with Wei 's officers fighting to the death .
Having united the land , Liu Bei will ride on a victory march with his generals , and enter the capital in a glorious procession .
= = = Wei Story = = =
After Dong Zhuo 's defeat , Cao Cao focuses on uniting the land . He is surrounded by enemies : Dong Zhuo 's general Lu Bu has taken over all of Dong Zhuo 's troops and taken Xiapi Castle ; Zhang Xiu has rebelled in Wan Castle ; to the north , Yuan Shao threatened to swallow the north whole . Cao Cao defeated Zhang Xiu at Wan Castle , with his guard Dian Wei holding foes back in the burning castle . Cao Cao , having escaped , defeats Lu Bu in alliance with Liu Bei at Xiapi in 198 AD , exterminating his army and gaining several officers . Cao Cao 's final victory is at the Battle of Guandu in 200 AD , where he destroys Yuan Shao 's army before he even arrives .
After defeating Yuan Shao , Cao Cao proceeds to fight against Liu Bei , who is wandering the land in search of a master . Xiahou Dun pursues and defeats Guan Yu , Liu Bei 's brother , who is trying to escape to boats on the Huang He ( " Tales " ) . In 208 AD , Cao Cao wins victories over Zhuge Liang 's trickery at Bo Wan Po , defeats a fleeing Liu Bei at Changban , and stops a fire attack ploy by an allied fleet of Sun Jian and Liu Bei at Chi Bi .
Although his southern foes were still very alive , Cao Cao focused to the north to crush Ma Chao and his rebels at Tong Gate in 211 AD ( " Tales " ) . He also chooses to defend against Lu Bu , who is terrorizing Xiapi , and in a fireattack , he ends Lu Bu 's Offensive ( " Tales " ) . Cao Cao 's generals then destroy the army of the alive Dong Zhuo piecemeal at Ji Province ( " Tales " ) , and he eradicates all of his foes . Cao Cao then chooses to go after Shu or Wu , depending on the result of the Chibi fire attack .
Cao Cao defends against Shu 's attacks , with Xiahou Yuan defeating Huang Zhong at Mt . Dingjun in 218 AD after a failed prisoner exchange . Zhuge Liang then makes a new attempt to go north , appointing Ma Su as a subordinate , but Ma Su is encircled at Jieting in 229 AD and his army is decimated by Sima Yi , Cao Cao 's strategist . Cao Cao and Sima Yi then defeat Zhuge Liang at the Wuzhang Plains in 234 AD , defeating ( or killing , depending on order of conquest ) Liu Bei . If Wu has fallen first , Cao Cao proceeds to attack the Shu capital of Chengdu . He gets Wei Yan to defect to his forces and the Wei army seizes both Luo Castle and Chengdu from the Shu forces , and Liu Bei and his peasant militias are killed .
Wei strikes back against Wu , who have attacked them at Fan Castle . Cao Ren successfully defends the fortifications against Lu Meng , who fails to lay siege layers against the walls . At Shiting in 228 AD , Cao Xiu narrowly survives a defection ploy by Zhou Fang , with aid from Sima Yi , who destroys Lu Xun 's army . The final battle is at He Fei Castle , where the Wei general Zhang Liao defeats Sun Jian in a series of ambushes . If Shu has been defeated first , Wei will attack the capital at Jianye and every member of the Sun family is killed as the Three Kingdoms come to an end .
Cao Cao and his generals will then make a victory march into the capital , waved at by local peasants .
= = = Wu Story = = =
Dong Zhuo 's defeat has left him holed up in Luoyang , so Sun Jian and his army attack and defeat him in the city , finding the Imperial Seal in the process ( " Tales " ) . Sun Jian then leads his army home , but finds out that Liu Biao has taken over Jing Province , Yan Baihu , Wang Lang , and Liu Yong have conquered the Wu Territory , and Liu Xun has allied with Yuan Shu . At Xiangyang in 192 AD , Sun Jian falls into a trap in the castle but survives and defeats the attackers . His generals also kill off many of Liu Biao 's generals and defeat Yuan Shao 's reinforcements , and Liu Biao is defeated after interrogating why he invaded Jing . His son Sun Ce continues his conquest , and proceeds to conquer the Wu Territory from the regional lords ; Zhou Yu plans his campaign for the lands . With Wu secure , the Sun Family continues on to Mt . Xingshi , where they attack Jiangdong and defeat the armies of Liu Xun and Yuan Shu in 198 AD . If only Liu Xun has been defeated , Sun Jian and his family will participate in a unification of Jing Province , securing all of the cities from the forces of Liu Biao and the three Wu lords .
With their home base secured , Wu looked to external threats . Huang Zu , who had formerly supported Liu Biao , prepared a pirate fleet to attack . Nanman king Meng Huo had shown signs of revolt in the south . In the north , Cao Cao prepared an armada to invade the south . Sun Ce and Zhou Yu defeated Huang Zu with a naval fire attack at Xiakou and convinced Gan Ning to join them , and Zhou Yu inflicted a decisive defeat on Meng Huo 's elephant troops in Nanman . To fix the problem with Cao Cao , Sun Jian allied with Liu Bei and defeated Cao Cao 's fleet at Chi Bi .
After Chi Bi , Wu continued their conquests . Depending on the result of the fire attack , they will either attack Wei or Shu . Before either , the Wu defeat Dong Zhuo and Meng Huo 's combined forces at Chang Jiang ( " Tales " ) .
The Wu secured Xiangyang , the Nan Territory , Jiangling , and Jing Province from Wei before Shu 's Zhuge Liang could , and also defeated Meng Huo for a second ( or third ) time in the south . Their final battle against Shu is at Yiling , where they use a fire attack to force Liu Bei to retreat to Bai Di Castle , where he is then defeated ( or killed ) . If Wei has fallen first , Wu will defeat the Shu at Chengdu and occupy the lands of Shu Han , killing their officers .
Wu then faces off with Wei , taking Fan Castle with siege engines . Lu Xun , a new strategists , then defeats Wei at Shiting with a defection ploy involving Zhou Fang . Their final victory at He Fei Castle gives them control of the region . If Shu has fallen first , the Wu will proceed to Xuchang and take it after a siege .
With the land in their hands , the Wu have a victory march into the capital city .
= = = Yuan Shao Story = = =
Yuan Shao , having humbled the Yellow Turbans and the army of Dong Zhuo , proceeded to attack his rival Cao Cao . After defeating Cao Cao at Guan Du , Yuan Shao destroys Wei and kills all of their generals . With the tyrant dead , he focuses on defeating Liu Bei and Sun Jian . He fights two campaigns against them , defeating Sun Jian at Hefei and Liu Bei in Xiapi . The two heroes ' deaths let him take control of the whole land .
= = = Nanman Story = = =
The Nanman are absent from both the Yellow Turban Campaign and the War against Dong Zhuo . Instead , they are living peacefully in the south , but are defeated several times by Shu invaders . King Meng Huo is infuriated , but his wife Zhu Rong invigorates him to send them back to their lands and destroy them . After a single battle for Nanzhong , Meng Huo forces Zhuge Liang 's army out of his home .
Meng Huo 's army marches northwards to attack Liu Bei . However , his army is swept down the Changjiang and end up in the Kingdom of Wu , ruled by Sun Jian . The Nanman resolve to take Jianye from Wu , and Meng Huo kills every member of the Sun family in rapid succession . With Jianye down , Meng Huo proceeds to attack into Wei . He captures Xuchang and kills every Wei officer , although Sima Yi 's efforts to launch an attack on the Nanman supply depot cause temporary chaos .
Meng Huo and his Nanman army then march on Chengdu , the Shu capital . The Nanman troops are held back from the bridges by Zhang Bao and Guan Suo , who hold the Nanman back to defend the legacy of their fathers ( Zhang Fei and Guan Yu , respectively ) . Meng Huo kills the last of Shu 's generals and conquers the land .
= = = Lu Bu Story = = =
Lu Bu fights for Dong Zhuo at the Battle of Si Shui Gate , fighting off invaders that are supposed to depose him . Lu Bu then defeats the Coalition at Hu Lao Gate , but they are not done for yet . Also , he finds that Dong Zhuo is truly a monster , and starts a revolt in Wan Castle and cuts him down . Now in charge of Dong Zhuo 's army , he defeats Cao Cao , Liu Bei , and Sun Jian in several campaigns , and takes over the land .
= = = Dong Zhuo Story = = =
Dong Zhuo learns that the Coalition of Yuan Shao has finally started to attack , and he defeats them at Si Shui Gate and Hu Lao Gate . Afterwards , he defeats Lu Bu , who is trying to revolt against him , and defeats the rebels . His final act is to destroy Cao Cao , Liu Bei , and Sun Jian at Guandu , Xiapi , and Hefei . He rides into the capital on a victory march , taking over the land .
= = = Yellow Turban Story = = =
Zhang Jiao , leader of the Yellow Turban Rebellion , finds out that the Han army has moved at last , and they are preparing to attack him . He defeats Sun Jian , Liu Bei , and Cao Cao in a series of campaigns at Hefei , Xiapi , and Guandu , respectively . He then defeats the Han at Xiapi Castle , held by Huangfu Song , and then defeats Zhu Jun at He Nan Yin . Finally , he defeats the Coalition ( including Dong Zhuo and Lu Bu ) in Ji Province , and the Han fall to his feet . His men enter the capital , as the Way of Peace have taken over the land .
= = Development = =
Due to the success of Dynasty Warriors 3 , Omega Force began development on the sequel , Dynasty Warriors 4 , and its expansions . The fourth game in the series was the first to introduce an Empires expansion , but it wasn ’ t designed by the same person who designed Dynasty Warriors 4 , Tomohiko Sho . Although he was not the designer for all of the Dynasty Warriors games he was involved in the production for them , usually as the planner . Omega Force works under Koei as an internal development team and have mainly concentrated on the Dynasty Warriors series and the Samurai Warriors series . Similarities have been pointed out between the two series , such as the Xtreme Legends and Empires expansions , as well as a similar voice cast that has been used throughout a number of the games from each series . Repeated voices between games include Beau Billingslea , Steven Jay Blum and Richard Epcar .
= = = Audio = = =
The Dynasty Warriors series has never used the musical style commonly made in the era that the games are set in . Dynasty Warriors 4 is no different and features a similar style of music to Dynasty Warriors 3 , using a mix of rock , metal , and heavy metal with undertones of traditional Chinese music . However , this does not detract from the fact that there are a large number of varied tracks throughout the game . The ending song of the game , " Cross Colors , " is performed by Yuki Koyanagi and the music was composed by Kazuhiro Hara . The song was performed in both Japanese and English by the same singer and was released for the US and Japanese versions of the game .
= = Reception = =
Before its main release , Dynasty Warriors 4 was already looking promising after GameSpot UK ’ s preview two months before the game was released . Although still very similar to previous titles in the series , the graphics engine had been tweaked and the gameplay been expanded , featuring more characters and stages .
After its release , it had high sales rates in Japan , selling over one million copies a short time after release . Its release in the US did not create as much hype as in Japan mainly because the market for the Dynasty Warriors series is smaller there , but it still sold fairly well and together with the Japanese sales , Dynasty Warriors 4 entered into the Greatest Hits charts . In its time Dynasty Warriors 4 has managed to become IGN 's 5th best co @-@ operative game on the PS2 as well . The game is criticized for being very similar to older games in the series and retaining some of the features such as the fogging and repetitive gameplay . Even with these drawbacks , Koei went on to release two expansions for Dynasty Warriors 4 Xtreme Legends and Dynasty Warriors 4 Empires . It had also been ported to the Xbox and to the PC as a Hyper edition . Armchair Empire commented that when there is a lot happening on screen at once , the game tended to slow down
The English voice acting for the series , commonly criticized as being poor , has remained in DW4 . The English voice @-@ overs of Dynasty Warriors series uses straightforward English pronunciations for the romanized pinyin names of characters and locations . The results tend to leave errors in the dialogue , with incorrect English pronunciations of originally Chinese text .
= = Versions and expansions = =
Dynasty Warriors 4 has had two expansions and a re @-@ release . The first was Dynasty Warriors 4 Xtreme Legends and added new gameplay options and modes . The second was Dynasty Warriors 4 Empires , which added a strategy mode of gameplay to the original . It has also been re @-@ released as Dynasty Warriors 4 Hyper ( 真 ・ 三國無双3ハイパー , Shin Sangokumusou 3 Hyper ) in Japan . Hyper is a port of Dynasty Warriors 4 to Windows 2000 / Windows XP .
= = = Dynasty Warriors 4 : Xtreme Legends = = =
Dynasty Warriors 4 : Xtreme Legends ( 真 ・ 三國無双3 猛将伝 , Shin Sangokumusou 3 Moushouden ) is a PlayStation 2 Dynasty Warriors 4 expansion developed by Omega Force and published by Koei . This expansion was released in the United States on November 4 , 2003 . DW4XL , as it is sometimes abbreviated to , has slightly improved weather effects and character reflections within the overall graphics . The original DW4 game disc is needed if the player wishes to play external modes such as ' Musou Mode.'
The expansion adds new difficulty levels ( ' Beginner ' and ' Expert ' ) and new modes of play ( ' Arena Challenge ' and ' Legend ' modes ) . In ' Arena Challenge Mode , ' the player can engage one @-@ on @-@ one duels against various opponents , where they 'll be rewarded if they win . The new ' Legend Mode ' elaborates on the individual prowess of each individual warrior within Dynasty Warriors . Individual weapons are given the availability to have an 11th evolved state , increasing the weapon 's stats further . Due to the great emphasis in the duelling system in this expansion , it is at times seen as its own individual game - separate from the original Dynasty Warriors 4 .
= = = Dynasty Warriors 4 : Empires = = =
Dynasty Warriors 4 : Empires ( 真 ・ 三國無双3 Empires ( Shin Sangokumusou 3 Empires ) in Japan ) is the second expansion of Dynasty Warriors 4 , released exclusively for the PlayStation 2 on August 31 , 2004 in the United States . The game adds a new strategy mode called ' Empire Mode ' which is based on the Romance of the Three Kingdoms series . However , the gameplay during attacking or defending against opposing forces is exactly the same as the original Dynasty Warriors 4 . The main goal in Empire Mode is to conquer the land in order to beat the game , by invading and conquering all areas and territories of China . In addition , the Japanese voices were added into the PS2 version of Dynasty Warriors 4 Empires for the American version .
In ' Empire Mode , ' the player can choose a ruler for their forces , along with two main generals . Three minor lieutenants can also be chosen for support . In battle , the capture of enemy officers is possible by lowering their morale and defeating them . If , at the end of the battle , the player is victorious , it is possible to hire the captured officer or , alternatively , release them . Before every battle , the player is given the choice of using ' Political Tactics , ' such as increasing or decreasing time limit of battles or preventing enemy reinforcements from arriving during battles . The player can also secure alliances with other forces ; these alliances can change how the game progresses , such as requesting reinforcements from the allied forces against opposing forces . However , these alliances only last for a set time decided by the tactic used . There 's also an ' Archives Mode ' that shows the motions and voices of the officers . A gallery of character artworks and game movies is also presented within the Archives Mode .
= = = Dynasty Warriors 4 : Hyper = = =
The PC version of the game hosts several exclusive features , such as improved graphics , higher resolution options , more characters onscreen , improved draw distance , optional Japanese dialogue , and improved enemy AI . However , it does not contain the additional content from Dynasty Warriors 4 : Xtreme Legends .
|
= Eilley Bowers =
Alison " Eilley " Oram Bowers ( September 6 , 1826 – October 27 , 1903 ) was a Scottish American woman who was , in her time , one of the richest women in the United States , and owner of the Bowers Mansion , one of the largest houses in the western United States . A farmer 's daughter , Bowers married as a teenager , and her husband converted to Mormonism before the couple immigrated to the United States . After briefly living in Nauvoo , Illinois , she became an early Nevada pioneer , farmer and miner , and was made a millionaire by the Comstock Lode mining boom . Married and divorced two times , she married a third time and became a mother of three children but outlived them all .
Following the deaths of her first 2 children in infancy then her husband , with the third child dying a few short years after , and with the collapse of the Nevada mining economy , Eilley Bowers became bankrupt and destitute . Eilley reinvented herself as " The Famous Washoe Seeress " , a professional scryer and fortune @-@ teller in Nevada and California . Worth over $ 4 million at the height of the Nevada mining boom , she died penniless in a care home in Oakland , California .
= = Early life = =
Alison Oram ( sometimes spelled " Orrum " ) , commonly called Eilley , was born on September 6 , 1826 , in Forfar , Scotland . Her only brother John was born in 1821 , and it appears that her father ’ s work forced them to move frequently . John was born in Dunfermline and at some point during their childhood , they moved eighty miles southwest of Forfar to Clackmannan . It was here that she married Stephen Hunter in the Church of Scotland at the age of fifteen . Stephen soon met some Mormon missionaries and became a believer . He was baptized into the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints and agreed to immigrate to America . Eilley never converted but traveled with her husband . They sailed for America on January 29 , 1849 . By the time the Hunters reached Salt Lake City , the strain on their marriage was evident . After eight years of marriage , Bowers and Stephen separated in early 1850 .
= = Remarriage and settlement in Nevada = =
In 1853 , Bowers married farmer Alexander Cowan . Two years later the couple joined a mission to Mormon Station , near the western edge of Utah Territory . They brought with them Alexander 's 12 @-@ year @-@ old nephew who had recently been orphaned by the death of Alexander 's sister . The following year , the mission relocated to Washoe Valley in a settlement they named Franktown . The Cowans purchased 320 acres ( 130 ha ) of land for $ 100 ( approximately $ 2500 today ) . The existing ranch contained a dwelling house and coral . They stayed for two seasons .
During the crisis of the Utah War in 1857 , Brigham Young recalled Mormon colonists from the western areas of the proposed State of Deseret to the core area of Mormon settlement south of the Great Salt Lake . Alexander heeded the call , leaving his wife and son in Western Utah . With Alexander gone , Bowers and Robert left the abandoned settlement of Franktown for a small mining camp called Johntown in Gold Canyon near present @-@ day Virginia City , Nevada . Bowers opened a boardinghouse and began taking care of the miners . When the threat of war passed , Alexander returned to Western Utah and settled in Johntown , but he did not wish to pursue the life of a Washoe miner . In the fall of 1858 he returned to Salt Lake City where he remained a prominent member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints . Bowers and Robert remained in Johntown .
= = = Gold Hill and the Comstock Lode = = =
As prospectors began entering the area in large numbers , they soon settled in a new town they named Gold Hill . Bowers opened a new boardinghouse , but she was also buying and selling mining claims . At this time she was also known to engage in fortune @-@ telling using a traditional Scottish " peep stone " she had brought from Forfar . Henry de Groot recorded that on his arrival in August 1859 :
Mrs Ellen Cowan was living at Gold Hill in a very rude and comfortless sort of abode . She did the washing for the miners , a business that paid well at that day , and had gathered not a little gear prior to her marriage with Sandy .
Lemuel Sanford ( Sandy ) Bowers was one of the town ’ s new arrivals . Sandy was a Missouri muleskinner ( teamster ) , born in Madison County , Illinois on February 24 , 1833 . Sandy owned many mining claims , but his most productive was a ten @-@ foot strip being part of the Little Gold Hill Mines . James Rogers owned the adjoining ten @-@ foot strip which he sold to Bowers for $ 100 .
On August 9 , 1859 , Eilley and Sandy joined their mining claims and lives when they were married in Gold Hill . In order to settle the land in Washoe Valley , Bowers officially divorced Alexander Cowan on June 4 , 1860 . As a settlement , she received half of the 320 @-@ acre farm they had owned in the Washoe Valley .
As the area boomed following the discovery of the Comstock Lode , the Bowers claim proved to hold one of the richest seams of silver ore in what would become Nevada , and because their claim was close to the surface , it was easily extracted without initial capital investment . The Bowers Mining Company quickly made Eilley and Sandy very wealthy .
= = = European tour and the Bowers Mansion = = =
On June 28 , 1860 Eilley Bowers gave birth to a son , John Jasper Bowers , who died on August 27 , 1860 . On June 16 , 1861 she gave birth to a daughter , Theresa Fortunatas Bowers , who died on September 17 , 1861 . With money to be had , the couple began to plan a grand mansion on the old Cowan Ranch in Washoe Valley . While the house was being built , the couple traveled through Europe to explore the old county and purchase furniture for the new house .
Shortly before their departure , the couple hosted a banquet at the International Hotel in Virginia City , to which the entire town was invited , and which included free champagne . After traveling to California , the Bowers sailed from San Francisco for England on May 2 , 1862 , aboard the steamer Golden Gate . The couple visited Eilley 's family in Scotland and traveled through Europe while purchasing large quantities of furniture .
The couple returned to Nevada in March 1863 , accompanied by a baby girl , named Margaret Persia Bowers . The Bowers never divulged where they had acquired the child . Some contemporary sources claimed she was born on their European crossing to an unwed mother who died during childbirth .
The Bowers Mansion was one of the most expensive buildings built in the western United States at the time . Designed by J. Neely Johnson , the former Governor of California , The two @-@ story dressed granite stone mansion consisted of 16 rooms constructed with Jeffery Pine and Douglas fir . The main floor included a library , guest room , reception room , formal parlor and adjoining smoking room , dining room , and kitchen . Four hand @-@ crafted carrara marble fireplaces warmed the downstairs room . A plaster of Paris frieze border decorated the ceilings , moldings and medallions above the chandeliers . The main entrance hall opened to a turned mahogany handrail and balcony , which led to the upstairs where Eilley , Sandy , and Persia each had a suite of rooms including a bedroom and sitting room . Expensive toys and fancy dolls filled Persia 's playroom . The extra upstairs room housed a hand @-@ sculptured billiard table used for the enjoyment and entertainment of their guests . Kerosene lanterns and candles lighted the beautiful mansion that was truly unlike any other in the West .
= = Economic hardship = =
The rich silver of the Comstock Lode began to play out in 1863 resulting in a deepening depression throughout 1864 . Sandy moved back to Gold Hill to help save the mine . With health failing , he attempted to sell or lease most of the Bowers mining operation in the spring of 1868 . At the age of 35 , Sandy died of Lung Disease on April 21 , 1868 at his Gold Hill residence . He was buried on the hill behind his Mansion .
In 1873 , Virginia City recovered with a new strike bringing wealth back to the region . Eilley Bowers opened the Bowers Mansion to the public as a resort . The grounds were advertised as being beneficial to health , while dances and social events were held in the mansion . Bowers improved the mansion and grounds by adding a dance hall and offering the upstairs suits for family use . With the extension of the railroad which now connected Virginia City to the young town of Reno and the Trans Continental Railroad , Bowers Mansion became a prime destination for grand excursions . Eilley spent many weekends hosting extravagant picnics . The guests bathed in the fishponds , swung under the trees , waltzed on the dance floor and generally just had a fine old time . For the next few years , Bowers Mansion was filled with music and laughter .
Meanwhile , Persia Bowers was sent to live with friends in Reno allowing her to go to school and learn music . On July 14 , 1874 Persia died of what may have been a ruptured appendix . She was buried behind the mansion with her father .
The resort brought in some money , but Bowers was still in debt . The Bowers Mine was sold to pay off creditors , and she entered into negotiations with the newly created State of Nevada for the state to purchase the mansion as a psychiatric hospital . Unfortunately for Bowers , the deal fell through , and she was obliged to begin to sell her possessions to settle debts .
Bowers made one final attempt to save the mansion when she hired construction crews and began renovating the mansion . This time she changed the entire structure by adding a third floor . The $ 8 @,@ 000 expansion included 14 rooms including 10 over the main house and two over each wing . However , this only increased her debt .
In April 1876 , the District Court of Washoe County finally ruled against Bowers and in favor of her creditors in the sum of $ 13,622.17.Nevada State Journal April 9 , 1876 ( 3 : 2 ) On May 3 , 1876 , at 1 : 00 p.m. the courts auctioned off the remaindered of her properties in front of the Washoe county Courthouse . Eight years after Sandy 's death , Eilley lost everything to the founder of Reno , Myron C. Lake for $ 10 @,@ 000 .
= = = Seeres of Washoe = = =
Bankrupt and with no remaining family in the United States , Bowers set herself up as a fortune @-@ teller using her peep stone , billing herself as " Mrs L. S. Bowers , The Famous Washoe Seeress " . She enjoyed some success with her predictions , successfully predicting , among other things , the fire which destroyed much of Virginia City in 1875 . Due to the continued economic decline in northern Nevada following the collapse of the mining industry , in the 1880s she moved to San Francisco , where she continued to practice as a scryer .
= = = Destitution = = =
In the late 19th century , Bowers returned to Nevada . Her hearing had diminished significantly , and she was forced to give up the scrying business as she was unable to hear the requests of her clients . She launched a claim against the government asking for financial assistance in return for the $ 14 @,@ 000 she and Sandy Bowers had donated to support the Union cause in the Civil War and to finance the 1860 Paiute War , but was ignored . Destitute , she was placed in the Washoe County poorhouse , and became the subject of a protracted legal dispute between the governments of Nevada and California over who was to pay for her care . In August 1901 it was agreed that California would take responsibility for her welfare , and she was summarily put on a San Francisco @-@ bound train by Reno officials with $ 30 cash . For the last two years of her life she lived at the King 's Daughters Home in Oakland , dying on October 27 , 1903 . Her ashes were returned to Nevada and buried alongside Sandy and Margaret at the Bowers Mansion .
= = Legacy = =
Eilley Bowers continues to be one of the most famous of 19th @-@ century female pioneers , and a major figure in the early history of Nevada . In one writer 's words , she " is one of the most researched , written and talked about women in Nevada history . "
Following its sale at auction following foreclosure , the Bowers Mansion was abandoned . Eventually purchased by Reno saloon owner Henry Riter , it was renovated and reopened as a resort in 1903 . The hot springs were remodeled to feed warm swimming pools , and a spur was built from the Virginia and Truckee Railroad to serve the property . It continued to operate as a resort until 1946 . It is now considered the finest example of the mansion houses built by the millionaire beneficiaries of the Comstock boom , is listed on the National Register of Historic Places , and is administered by the Washoe County Parks Department .
|
= Dusky crag martin =
The dusky crag martin ( Ptyonoprogne concolor ) is a small passerine bird in the swallow family . It is about 13 cm ( 5 in ) long with a broad body and wings , and a short square tail that has small white patches near the tips of most of its feathers . This martin has sooty @-@ brown upperparts and slightly paler underparts . The two subspecies are resident breeding birds in South Asia from the Indian subcontinent to southwestern China and the northern parts of Thailand , Vietnam and Laos .
This martin nests under a cliff overhang or on a man @-@ made structure , building a neat half @-@ cup mud nest with a soft lining . Both adults incubate the two to four eggs and feed the chicks . This species does not form large breeding colonies , but it is more gregarious outside the breeding season . It feeds a wide variety of insects that are caught as the martin flies near to cliff faces . It may be hunted by large bats as well as birds of prey , but its extensive and expanding range and large population mean that there are no significant conservation concerns .
= = Taxonomy = =
The dusky crag martin was formally described by in 1832 as Hirundo concolor by British soldier and ornithologist William Henry Sykes . It was moved to the new genus Ptyonoprogne by German ornithologist Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach in 1850 . Its nearest relatives are the three other members of the genus , the rock martin P. fuligula , the pale crag martin , P. obsoleta , and the Eurasian crag martin P. rupestris . The genus name is derived from the Greek ptuon ( φτυον ) , " a fan " , referring to the shape of the opened tail , and Procne ( Πρόκνη ) , a mythological girl who was turned into a swallow . The specific concolor is from Latin , con " together " , and color " colour " and refers to the bird 's uniform colouration .
The four Ptyonoprogne species are members of the swallow family of birds , and are classed as members of the Hirundininae subfamily which comprises all swallows and martins except the very distinctive river martins . DNA studies suggest that there are three major groupings within the Hirundininae , broadly correlating with the type of nest built . The groups are the " core martins " including burrowing species like the sand martin , the " nest @-@ adopters " , which are birds like the tree swallow that utilise natural cavities , and the " mud nest builders " . The Ptyonoprogne species construct an open mud nest and therefore belong to the latter group ; Hirundo species also build open nests , Delichon house martins have a closed nest , and the Cecropis and Petrochelidon swallows have retort @-@ like closed nests with an entrance tunnel .
The genus Ptyonoprogne is closely related to the larger swallow genus Hirundo into which it is often subsumed , but a DNA analysis showed that an enlarged Hirundo genus should contain all the mud @-@ builder genera , including the Delichon house martins , a practice which few authorities follow . Although the nests of the Ptyonoprogne crag martins resembles those of typical Hirundo species like the barn swallow , the research showed that if Delichon , Cecropis and Petrochelidon are split from Hirundo , Ptyonoprogne should be also considered as a separate genus .
In Pakistan , the breeding range of the dusky crag martin overlaps that of the subspecies P. f. peloplasta of pale crag martin , but that species breeds much higher in the mountains . This altitudinal separation means that it is not known whether the two closely related martins could hybridise , which would cast doubts as to whether they were distinct species . Dusky crag martins from Burma and Thailand have been described as a separate darker subspecies , P. c. sintaungensis ( originally Krimnochelidon concolor sintaungensis , Baker , 1832 ) , but it is not clear that the difference is greater than that between individual martins of the nominate subspecies .
= = Description = =
The dusky crag martin is 13 cm ( 5 in ) long with a broad body , wings and tail . It has sooty @-@ brown upperparts and slightly paler underparts , with a streaked pale dull rufous chin , throat and foreneck . The tail is short and square , with small white patches near the tips of all but the central and outermost pairs of feathers . The underwing coverts are dark brown , the eyes are brown , the small bill is mainly black , and the legs are brownish @-@ pink . The sexes are alike , but juveniles have rufous grey tips to the plumage of the upperparts and wings . This species can be distinguished from the Eurasian crag martin and rock martin by its darker underparts , and its white tail spots are significantly smaller than those of the Eurasian crag martin . The under @-@ tail coverts are of the same shade as the underside of the abdomen but these are darker in the Eurasian crag martin .
This small martin 's flight is typically slow and leisurely , but it is capable of considerable speed when required . The calls are similar to those of the Eurasian crag martin and include a soft chi , chi contact call and a twittering song .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The nominate subspecies of the dusky crag martin breeds in much of the Indian subcontinent from the base of the Himalayas south to the Nilgiri mountains and east to West Bengal , and P. c. sintaungensis is found in southwestern China , and the northern parts of Thailand , Vietnam and Laos . The dusky crag martin is largely resident apart from local movements after breeding , but it has bred in Malaysia at least once , and occurred as a vagrant to Sri Lanka and probably Borneo .
The natural breeding habitat is hilly or mountainous country with cliffs , gorges and caves , with nesting typically up to an altitude of about 1 @,@ 800 m ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) , although up to 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) in Thailand . This martin also breeds in lowland areas utilising man @-@ made structures as a substitute for natural precipices . Stone buildings such as old forts are particularly favoured , and the dusky crag martin can be found in urban areas including Mumbai . Nests on buildings can be 30 m ( 98 ft ) from the ground , and include unusual sites such as light fittings .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
Dusky crag martin pairs typically nest alone , although in suitable locations several pairs may be quite close to each other . The natural nesting habitat is under ledges on cliff faces or river banks , but man @-@ made structures are readily used . Stone buildings such as old hill forts , mosques and tombs are preferred , and other artificial sites include bridges , archways and culverts . Breeding has been reported in every month , but mainly in February and March , and again after the rains start in July and August ; usually two broods are raised . The nest , built by both adults , is an open half @-@ cup made of mud and lined with soft material such as feathers or dry grass . It is constructed under an overhang or in a crevice on a cliff or man @-@ made structure , and is re @-@ used for the second brood and in subsequent years . The clutch is two to four eggs , white with reddish brown blotches particularly at the wide end , and averaging 17 @.@ 7 mm × 13 @.@ 0 mm ( 0 @.@ 70 in × 0 @.@ 51 in ) with a weight of 1 @.@ 57 g ( 0 @.@ 055 oz ) . Both adults incubate the eggs and feed the chicks . Incubation and nestling periods are unknown but assumed to be similar to those of the Eurasian crag martin ( 13 – 17 day to hatching , and 24 – 27 days to fledge ) .
= = = Feeding = = =
The dusky crag martin feeds mainly on insects caught in flight . When nesting , birds often fly back and forth near to a rock face or building hunting for their prey . This martin is more gregarious outside the breeding season , and may form small flocks where food is abundant . Vertical surfaces are preferred for hunting , and a study of the Eurasian crag martin , which has a similar foraging technique , showed that cliff faces generate standing waves in the airflow which concentrate insects near vertical areas . The martin exploits the area close to the cliff when it hunts , relying on its high manoeuvrability and ability to perform tight turns . When feeding young , foraging is concentrated on the profitable patches in the immediate vicinity of the nest , since there is a negative correlation between foraging distance and feeding rate .
= = Predators and parasites = =
In addition to predation by birds of prey such as the peregrine falcon , this small martin has been recorded in the diet of the greater false vampire bat , Megaderma lyra .
= = Status = =
The total population of the dusky crag martin has not been quantified , but it is suspected to be increasing owing to the availability of artificial nest sites . This martin is locally common in India , Thailand , and southern China , and there appear to be range extensions to the northeast into Guangxi , southwards into lowland Laos , and westwards to the hills and plains of Sindh . There is also a recent unconfirmed report from Cambodia . Its large range and presumed high numbers mean that the dusky crag martin is not considered to be threatened , and it is classed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List .
|
= Help Is on the Way =
" Help Is on the Way " is a song by American rock band Rise Against , featured on their sixth studio album Endgame ( 2011 ) . Inspired by lead vocalist Tim McIlrath 's visit to New Orleans , the song is about the slow response time for aid to disaster stricken areas . It incorporates elements of punk rock and melodic hardcore , with lyrics that allude to Hurricane Katrina and the Deepwater Horizon oil spill . " Help Is on the Way " premiered on KROQ @-@ FM on January 17 , 2011 , and was later released as Endgame 's lead single on January 25 .
" Help Is on the Way " polarized critics , with some praising its lyrics and song structure , while others criticized it for being bland and repetitive . Despite the mixed reception , it remains one of the band 's highest charting singles to date , becoming their first song to chart within the Billboard Hot 100 , where it peaked at eighty @-@ nine , as well as number two on the Hot Rock Songs chart . The accompanying music video depicts an African @-@ American family , as they attempt to escape increasing floodwater levels that engulf their neighborhood .
= = Recording and inspiration = =
" Help Is on the Way " was written by American rock band Rise Against , with lyrics by lead vocalist Tim McIlrath , and produced by Bill Stevenson and Jason Livermore . Stevenson and Livermore engineered the song alongside Andrew Berlin , while Chris Lord @-@ Alge served as the mixer . It was recorded at The Blasting Room in Fort Collins , Colorado and was mastered by Ted Jensen . Rise Against unveiled the song on the California radio @-@ station KROQ @-@ FM on January 17 , 2011 , before releasing it as Endgame 's lead single on January 25 .
McIlrath was inspired to write the lyrics for the song following a trip he took to New Orleans . While he had initially gone to discuss with local musicians how to merge politics and music , he was able to visit several areas affected by Hurricane Katrina and the subsequent flood , such as the Lower Ninth Ward . As McIlrath had felt that news outlets were quick to move onto other stories following the disaster , he compiled his thoughts and wrote the song 's lyrics . McIlrath also noted that he was critical of the United States government for its handling of various disasters , calling Hurricane Katrina " as much a man @-@ made disaster as it was a natural disaster " , while citing the lack of legislation to prevent another oil spill following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010 .
= = Composition = =
" Help Is on the Way " is a rock song containing elements of punk rock and melodic hardcore , and has been described as " anthemic " . According to the song 's sheet music , the composition is written in the time signature of common time , with a moderate tempo of 108 beats per minute . It follows verse @-@ chorus form , and is composed in the key G ♯ minor , with a melody that spans a tonal range of D ♯ 4 to B ♭ 5 .
Lyrically , " Help Is on the Way " is about the slow response time for aid to disaster stricken areas . While Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club found that the lyrics could pertain to any difficult situation , the song primarily focuses on Hurricane Katrina and the Deepwater Horizon oil spill , as well as their affects on the Gulf Coast of the United States and New Orleans . McIlrath maintains clean vocals throughout the majority of the song , but temporarily switches to screaming vocals during the bridge .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critics were polarized in their opinions when reviewing " Help Is on the Way " . Tim Newbound of Rock Sound described the piece as " impressively structured and equally furious " , while Evan Lucy of Billboard.biz thought it was " understated enough to capture radio attention and plenty explosive to please Rise Against 's devoted fan base " . Rob Parker of NME felt that " Help Is on the Way " and fellow Endgame track " This Is Letting Go " were able to " strike the perfect balance between punk fury and melodic accessibility without losing any of frontman Tim McIlrath ’ s personality " . Chad Grischow of IGN complimented the music , saying that " as powerful as the lyrical content of the song is , the storm of guitars rolling over it like a gristly , foreboding cloud kick you in the chest just as hard " .
Koski and Steven Hyden of The A.V. Club were divided in their opinions , with Koski praising the powerful lyrics , while Hyden belittled the song as " run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill " . Thomas Nassiff of AbsolutePunk wrote that " Help Is on the Way " was one of the weaker moments from the album , criticizing the intro guitar riff , while comparing the lyrics to those of another Rise Against song , " Re @-@ Education ( Through Labor ) " . Johnny Firecloud of CraveOnline was heavily critical of the song , stating that it " suffers from a blandness so paralyzing and repetitive " , and ultimately summarized it as " totally flaccid " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
Commercially , " Help Is on the Way " remains one of Rise Against 's most successful singles to date . In the United States , it remains the band 's only song to reach the Billboard Hot 100 , where it peaked at eighty @-@ nine , as well as number two on the Hot Rock Songs chart . The single also achieved international success , reaching number ten on the Australia Hitseekers chart , number forty @-@ five on the Canadian Hot 100 , number four on the Czech Republic Modern Rock chart , and number nineteen on the UK Rock & Metal chart .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video was directed by Alan Ferguson and filmed in New Orleans . It follows an African @-@ American family as they 're forced to move into their house 's attic , and eventually their rooftop to escape the increasing floodwater levels caused by Hurricane Katrina . The video follows the song 's lyric thread , while real footage of Hurricane Katrina and the survivors are shown throughout . It ends with a message encouraging donations , and a link to the band 's activism website .
The video was released on March 23 , 2011 . It does not feature any band members , who opted not to appear in it , as they felt their presence would be detremental to the video 's message . This decision was commended by critics , with Katie Hasty of HitFix stating that band " went for an artifact of truth " .
= = Personnel and credits = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Endgame .
= = Charts = =
|
= Cyclone Helen ( 2008 ) =
Tropical Cyclone Helen was the first tropical cyclone to bring gale @-@ force winds to Darwin , Australia since 1985 . The fourth named storm of the 2007 – 08 Australian region cyclone season , Helen developed out of a weak area of low pressure in late December over the Top End region of Australia . Generally tracking westward , the system eventually intensified into a tropical cyclone and was given the name Helen on 2 January . By this time , it was situated over the Joseph Bonaparte Gulf and was beginning to retrograde eastward . Late on 4 January , the storm made landfall near Channel Point with winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) though rapidly weakened to a tropical low within 12 hours . Gradually accelerating , the remnants of Helen moved over the Gulf of Carpentaria before striking land again on 6 January . The system was last noted over the Cape York Peninsula on 7 January .
From late December through 6 January , Helen and its precursor low produced significant rainfall over the Northern Territory , generally amounting between 100 and 200 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 and 7 @.@ 9 in ) . One person drowned in the Victoria River after his car was swept away in a flood . As a tropical cyclone , Helen produced significant wind gusts across the Top End , peaking at 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , downing thousands of trees . In Darwin , roughly 15 @,@ 000 people were without power due to the storm , more than 100 of which remained so four days after the storm . Overall losses from the storm reached A $ 1 @.@ 3 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 1 million ) with an additional A $ 1 million ( US $ 882 @,@ 000 ) in cleanup costs .
= = Meteorological history = =
As early as autumn 2007 , long @-@ rage forecast models indicated that a La Niña would develop by December of that year . In general , this event results in increased sea surface temperatures near Australia . Following this , a strong Madden – Julian oscillation phase took shape , leading to the development of Tropical Cyclone Melanie off the coast of Western Australia and an area of low pressure over the Top End by 28 December . Situated over land , the system initially embedded within a disorganised trough and to intensify as it slowly tracked eastward . By 30 December , it separated itself from the trough and travelled towards the west . The following day , the interaction between the two systems allowed the low to significantly deepen , attaining a barometric pressure of 993 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 32 inHg ) . This strengthening was short @-@ lived as wind shear over the low increased , displacing convection from its centre .
By 2 January , the weak low moved over the Joseph Bonaparte Gulf where it slowly developed over the following day . Once over water , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) designated the system as Tropical Depression 09S . As organisation improved , a mid @-@ level subtropical ridge over Western Australia pushed the system westward , away from the Kimberley coast . Steadily strengthening , the low attained gale @-@ force winds near its centre during the morning of 4 January and was subsequently named Helen by the Bureau of Meteorology . Shortly thereafter , a strong westerly monsoon flow to the north caused Helen to turn eastward , back towards land . Intensification continued up until landfall , by which time Helen had attained Category 2 status on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale . Maximum ten @-@ minute sustained winds reached 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) and the storm 's barometric pressure decreased to 975 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 79 inHg ) . The JTWC assessed Helen to have been slightly weaker , with peak winds estimated at 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) .
Around 10 : 00 pm local time on 4 January , the centre of Tropical Cyclone Helen made landfall near Channel Point . As it moved ashore , the storm developed an eye ; however , this feature began breaking apart once overland and the eyewall merged into the system 's feeder bands . Roughly 12 hours after landfall , Helen weakened to a tropical low before moving over the Gulf of Carpentaria late on 5 January . Due to an increase in forward motion , the system was unable to regenerate sufficient convection to be reclassified a tropical cyclone before making a second landfall along the Cape York Peninsula . Once overland again , the remnants of Helen abruptly slowed and were last noted on 7 January in the same region .
= = Preparations = =
Starting in late December , widespread rains produced by the precursor to Helen prompted the issuance of flood warnings throughout the Top End region . Prior to the arrival of Cyclone Helen on 4 January , the Bureau of Meteorology issued cyclone warnings for areas between the Mitchell Plateau , in Western Australia , to Cape Hotham in the Northern Territory . According to local officials , flooding was the greatest concern from the storm rather than wind damage . The warning area was later condensed to encompass areas from Wadeye to Cape Hotham , including Darwin and the Tiwi Islands . By 6 January , warnings were issued for the western coast of the Cape York Peninsula between Karumba and Weipa as the remnants of Helen were forecast to regain storm intensity .
In light of Helen 's approach in the Top End region , the Compass Resources mining company suspended construction of a new mine in Batchelor . Mining at the Ranger Uranium Mine maintained by Energy Resources of Australia was also suspended until the storm passed . The George Brown Darwin Botanic Gardens and Territory Wildlife Park were also closed for the duration of the storm . Residents in the Aboriginal community of Wadeye were strongly advised to take precautions for the storm . Following the issuance of a cyclone warning in Darwin , local shelters were opened to the public . At the Darwin International Airport , all incoming and outgoing flights through Jetstar Airways were cancelled while Tiger Airways rescheduled their flights and no changes were made by Qantas . Darwin Harbour was mostly shut down as seas became too rough to sail in . Schools and day cares within a 50 km ( 31 mi ) radius of the city were closed on 4 January .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Throughout the Top End region , the precursor to Helen resulted in a prolonged period of moderate rains over a relatively large area . These rains caused the Victoria River to swell over its banks and flood nearby areas . On 4 January , a car with three people was swept away by the river ; two of the passengers managed to escape and swim to shore , but the third person remained trapped . Aerial searches were made later that day for him , though he was later declared dead . After becoming a tropical cyclone , the storm produced additional moderate to heavy rainfall , generally totaling between 100 and 200 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 and 7 @.@ 9 in ) . Between 1 and 6 January , a total of 174 @.@ 6 mm ( 6 @.@ 87 in ) of rain fell in Darwin . These rains affected two additional major rivers in the area : the Adelaide and Katherine rivers . Near where the storm made landfall , wind gusts up to 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) were recorded ; Darwin recorded a maximum wind gust of 102 km / h ( 63 mph ) as Helen moved by the city .
Near Channel Point , the cyclone brought a storm surge of 2 to 3 m ( 6 @.@ 6 to 9 @.@ 8 ft ) , barely surpassing the highest astronomical tide in a few areas . In some cases , waves over topped sand dunes but no damage took place . Roughly 10 @-@ 15 % of trees in open areas were snapped or uprooted by high winds . Only two structures sustained direct wind damage while several others were struck by downed trees . Damage was more widespread in Darwin where roughly 15 @,@ 000 homes , 60 % of the city 's residences , were left without power . Approximately 1 @,@ 500 trees were downed in the city , falling on roads , homes and power lines . In the days following the storm 's passage , the Adelaide and Katherine rivers continued to rise , of which the former exceeded minor flood levels . In the harbour , seven vessels washed ashore , each sustaining minor damage . Losses caused by the storm was placed at A $ 1 @.@ 3 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 1 million ) .
The day after Helen passed through , cleanup efforts began as power crews had to remove downed trees before fixing power lines . The main power lines in the city were restored within 24 hours and rural areas were stated to have their power back within a day or two . Two days after the storm , 500 homes remained without electricity and frustrated residents were further angered after discovering that the Power and Water agency was in control of tree removal and not emergency services . With the power company in charge of clearing downed trees , they stated that their crews would only be dealing with cases involved power lines . Residents with trees in their yards or even on their homes were told to contact private contractors to remove them . By 9 January , more than 100 homes were still without power in northern Darwin , resulting in angry outcries from those still left in the dark . Cleanup efforts dragged on for more than two months as debris was still present in Darwin in March . Removal of tree stumps took through at least mid @-@ April as the cost to remove downed trees exceeded A $ 1 million ( US $ 882 @,@ 000 ) . Due to the damage wrought by Helen , its name was retired following its usage . However , it was not replaced by any particular name as a new naming scheme was implemented the following season .
|
= Landscape painting in Scotland =
Landscape painting in Scotland includes all forms of painting of landscapes in Scotland since its origins in the sixteenth century to the present day . The earliest examples of Scottish landscape painting are in the tradition of Scottish house decoration that arose in the sixteenth century . Often said to be the earliest surviving painted landscape created in Scotland is a depiction by the Flemish artist Alexander Keirincx undertaken for Charles I.
The capriccios of Italian and Dutch landscapes undertaken as house decoration by James Norie and his sons in the eighteenth century brought the influence of French artists such as Claude Lorrain and Nicolas Poussin . Students of the Nories included Jacob More whose produced Claudian @-@ inspired landscapes . This period saw a shift in attitudes to the Highlands and mountain landscapes to interpreting them as aesthetically pleasing exemplars of nature . Watercolours were pioneered in Scotland by Paul Sandby and Alexander Runciman . Alexander Nasmyth has been described as " the founder of the Scottish landscape tradition " , and produced both urban landscapes and rural scenes that combine Claudian principles of an ideal landscape with the reality of Scottish topography . His students included major landscape painters of the early nineteenth century such as Andrew Wilson , the watercolourist Hugh William Williams , John Thompson of Duddingston and probably the artists that would be most directly influenced by Nasmyth , John Knox . In the Victorian era , the tradition of Highland landscape painting was continued by figures such as Horatio McCulloch , Joseph Farquharson and William McTaggart , described as the " Scottish Impressionist " . The fashion for coastal painting in the later nineteenth century led to the establishment of artist colonies in places such as Pittenweem and Crail .
The first significant group of Scottish artists to emerge in the twentieth century were the Scottish Colourists in the 1920s . They were John Duncan Fergusson , Francis Cadell , Samuel Peploe and Leslie Hunter , who placed an emphasis on colour above form . The group of artists connected with Edinburgh , most of whom had studied at Edinburgh College of Art during or soon after the First World War , became known as the Edinburgh School . They were influenced by French painters and the St. Ives School and their art was characterised by use of vivid and often non @-@ naturalistic colour and the use of bold technique above form . Members included William Gillies , John Maxwell , William Crozier and William MacTaggart . William Johnstone was one of the artists most closely associated with the Scottish Renaissance , an attempt to introduce modernism into art and to create a distinctive national art . Stanley Cursiter was influenced by the Celtic revival , post @-@ impressionism and Futurism . Later in his career he became a major painter of the coastline of this native Orkney . Other artists strongly influenced by modernism included James McIntosh Patrick and Edward Baird , both of whom were influenced by surrealism and the work of Bruegel .
In the post @-@ war period the English @-@ born Joan Eardley explored the landscapes of the Kincardineshire coast and created depictions of Glasgow tenements and children in the streets . Scottish artists that continued the tradition of landscape painting and joined the new generation of modernist artists of the highly influential St Ives School were Wilhelmina Barns @-@ Graham and Margaret Mellis . Husband and wife Tom MacDonald and Bet Low with William Senior formed the Clyde Group , aimed at promoting political art and producing industrial landscapes . John Bellany focused on the coastal communities of his birth . The coastal theme would also be pursued by artists such as Elizabeth Ogilvy , Joyce W. Cairns and Ian Stephen .
= = Origins to the eighteenth century = =
The earliest examples of Scottish landscape painting are in the tradition of Scottish house decoration for burgesses , lairds and lords , that arose after the Reformation in the sixteenth century , partly as a response to the loss of religious patronage . Most were of heraldry , classical myths and allegory , but there were a number of painted landscape scenes . These included the landscapes of four seasons in the Skelmorlie Aisle ( 1638 ) in the memorial chapel of the Montgomery family in Largs undertaken by James Stalker ( fl . 1632 – 38 ) . They indicate an awareness of contemporaneous Dutch landscape painting . The Flemish artist Alexander Keirincx ( 1600 – 52 ) was active in England and Scotland where he undertook commissions for Charles I , mainly of royal castles in Northern England and Scotland . These included one showing Seton House ( 1636 – 37 ) in its landscape , which is often said to be the earliest surviving painted landscape created in Scotland . The theme of house decoration with landscapes was taken up in the eighteenth century by James Norie ( 1684 – 1757 ) , who worked beside the architect William Adam ( 1689 – 1748 ) . Norie , with his sons James ( 1711 – 36 ) and Robert ( d . 1766 ) , painted the houses of the peerage with capriccios or pastiches of Italian and Dutch landscapes , bringing to Scotland the influence of French artists such as Claude Lorrain and Nicolas Poussin . The Nories were also important figures in professionalisation of Scottish art and the development of art education .
Probably a student of the Nories was Charles Steuart ( fl . 1762 – 90 ) , who produced a series of Perthshire landscapes for the Duke of Atholl at Blair Castle , including The Black Lynn , Fall on the Brann ( 1766 ) . Also among the students of the Nories was Jacob More , who moved to Italy from 1773 and is chiefly known as a landscape painter who created Claudian @-@ style , classically inspired landscapes . More 's series of four paintings " Falls of Clyde " ( 1771 – 73 ) , produced before his departure to Italy , have been described by art historian Duncan Macmillan as treating the waterfalls as " a kind of natural national monument " and has been seen as an early work in developing a romantic sensibility to the Scottish landscape . This period saw a shift in attitudes to the Highlands and mountain landscapes in general , from viewing them as hostile , empty regions occupied by a backwards and marginal people , to interpreting them as aesthetically pleasing exemplars of nature , occupied by rugged primitives , which were now depicted in a dramatic fashion . Highly influential in this process was the Scottish philosopher Archibald Alison 's Nature and Principles of Taste ( 1790 ) , which widened the forms of landscape seen as appropriate for painting , placing an emphasis on their historical significance and emotional impact on the painter .
Paul Sandby ( 1731 – 1809 ) , often considered the " father of British watercolour painting " , visited Scotland as part of the military survey that followed the 1745 Jacobite rebellion and undertook a number of studies of Scottish scenes . His abandonment of traditional pen and ink drawing , using washes of colour in order to paint directly in watercolours without pen outlines , opened the way for the creation of powerful Romantic landscapes . Alexander Runciman ( 1736 – 1785 ) was probably the first artist to paint Scottish landscapes in watercolours in the more romantic style that was emerging towards the end of the eighteenth century .
Alexander Nasmyth ( 1758 – 1840 ) trained in the Trustees Academy in Edinburgh under Runciman . He visited Italy , where he met with More , and worked in London , but returned to his native Edinburgh for most of his career . He produced work in a large range of forms , including his portrait of Romantic poet Robert Burns , which depicts him against a dramatic Scottish background , but he is chiefly remembered for his landscapes and is described in the Oxford Dictionary of Art as " the founder of the Scottish landscape tradition " . He produced both urban landscapes , like Edinburgh from Caton Hill ( 1825 ) , which put Edinburgh its geological context , and rural scenes such as Castle Huntly and The Tay ( c . 1800 ) . His works combined Claudian principles of an ideal landscape with the reality of Scottish topography .
= = Nineteenth century = =
Nasmyth was also a highly influential teacher at the Trustee 's Academy in Edinburgh . Among his students were painters who took the landscape tradition into the nineteenth century . They included Andrew Wilson ( 1780 – 1840 ) , who would become Master of the Academy in 1818 , the watercolourist Hugh William Williams ( 1773 – 1829 ) , clergyman and artist John Thompson of Duddingston ( 1778 – 1840 ) and probably the artist that would be most directly influenced by Nasmyth , John Knox ( 1778 – 1845 ) . Williams ' most famous work are interpretive versions of Greek landscapes , based on sketches taken on his travels there , among them The Temple of Poseidon , Cape Sunium ( 1828 ) . His close friend John Thompson focused on a dark dramatic version of Scottish landscape , as in his most famous work Fast Castle from Below ( 1824 ) . Knox directly linked Nasmyth 's style with the Romantic literature of Walter Scott . Knox 's Landscape with Tourists at Lock Katrine ( c . 1820 ) , was a commentary on the tourist trade that grew up in the Trossachs in the aftermath of the publication of Scott 's poem The Lady of the Lake in 1810 . He was also among the first artists to take a major interest in depicting the urban landscape of Glasgow . Towards the end of his career he undertook panoramic works of the views from the top of Ben Lomond , which played a part in opening up the Highlands as a spectacle that would be taken up by artists in the second half of the century .
In the Victorian era , the tradition of Highland landscape painting was continued by figures such as Horatio McCulloch ( 1806 – 67 ) , Joseph Farquharson ( 1846 – 1935 ) and William McTaggart ( 1835 – 1910 ) . McCulloch was a student of Knox . His images of places including Glen Coe , Loch Lomond and the Trossachs , became parlour room panoramas that defined popular images of Scotland . This was helped by the Queen 's declared affection for Scotland , signified by her adoption of Balmoral as a royal retreat . The wildlife around Balmoral was immortalised by English painter Edwin Landseer ( 1802 – 73 ) in the much copied Monarch of the Glen ( 1851 ) . In this period a Scottish " grand tour " developed with large number of English artists , including Turner , flocking to the Highlands to paint and draw . From the 1870s Farquharson was a major figure in interpreting Scottish landscapes , specialising in snowscapes and sheep , and using a mobile heated studio in order to capture the conditions from life . In the same period McTaggart emerged as the leading Scottish landscape painter . He has been compared with John Constable and described as the " Scottish Impressionist " , with free brushwork often depicting stormy seas and moving clouds . The fashion for coastal painting in the later nineteenth century led to the establishment of artist colonies in places such as Pittenweem and Crail in Fife , Cockburnspath in the Borders , Cambuskenneth near Stirling on the River Forth and Kirkudbright in Dumfries and Galloway . The Glasgow Boys emerged in the 1880s , rejecting much of the sentimentality of Scottish landscape painting and introducing elements of impressionism . Key figures included W. Y. Macgregor ( 1855 – 1923 ) , James Guthrie ( 1859 – 1930 ) , John Lavery ( 1856 – 1941 ) , George Henry ( 1858 – 1943 ) and E. A. Walton ( 1860 – 1922 ) .
= = Twentieth century to today = =
The first significant group of Scottish artists to emerge in the twentieth century were the Scottish Colourists in the 1920s . The name was later given to four artists who knew each other and exhibited together , but did not form a cohesive group . All had spent time in France between 1900 and 1914 and all looked for inspiration to Paris , particularly to the Fauvists , such as Monet , Matisse and Cézanne , whose techniques they combined with the painting traditions of Scotland . They were John Duncan Fergusson ( 1874 – 1961 ) , Francis Cadell ( 1883 – 1937 ) , Samuel Peploe ( 1871 – 1935 ) and Leslie Hunter ( 1877 – 1931 ) . They have been described as the first Scottish modern artists and were the major mechanism by which post @-@ impressionism reached Scotland . From 1912 Cadell visited Iona annually to paint and he was joined there by Peploe from 1920 . They produced a number of works using the west @-@ coast light and Iona landscape , particularly views of Ben More , which both painted several times . John Duncan , the arts and crafts artist , was still active in the early twentieth century and painted several landscapes similar in style to those of Cadell and Peploe . Hunter used a vibrant palette to create notable paintings of the landscape around Balloch on Loch Lomond . Leading architect Charles Rennie Mackintosh ( 1868 – 1928 ) abandoned architecture for painting after World War I and created a number of landscapes , particularly of southern France . He became associated with Fergusson , who pursued also experimental landscape in the inter @-@ war years , many of which were around his home in the Highlands , like that at Craigcornash ( c . 1925 ) . The work of Mackintosh and Fergusson has similarities to that of David Young Cameron ( 1865 – 1945 ) who pursued the systematic painting of the Highlands in his later years .
The group of artists connected with Edinburgh , most of whom had studied at Edinburgh College of Art during or soon after the First World War , became known as the Edinburgh School . They were influenced by French painters and the St. Ives School and their art was characterised by use of vivid and often non @-@ naturalistic colour and the use of bold technique above form . Members included William Gillies ( 1898 – 1973 ) , who worked in both watercolours and oils around Ardnamurchan and Morar in the 1930s , John Maxwell ( 1905 – 62 ) whose landscapes were influenced by mythological themes , William Crozier ( 1893 – 1930 ) , whose landscapes were created with glowing colours and William MacTaggart ( 1903 – 81 ) , grandson of the nineteenth @-@ century artist , noted for his landscapes of East Lothian , France and Norway . His Celebration of Earth , Air , Fire and Water ( 1978 ) utilised the Borders ' landscape in abstract form .
William Johnstone ( 1897 – 1981 ) was one of the artists most closely associated with the Scottish Renaissance , an attempt to introduce modernism into art and to create a distinctive national art . He studied cubism , surrealism and was introduced to new American art by his wife the sculptor Flora Macdonald . He moved towards abstraction , attempting to utilise aspects of landscape , poetry and Celtic art . His most significant work , A Point in Time ( 1929 – 38 ) , has been described by art historian Duncan Macmillan as " one of the most important Scottish pictures of the century and one of the most remarkable pictures by any British painter in the period " . Stanley Cursiter ( 1887 – 1976 ) was influenced by the Celtic revival , post @-@ impressionism and Futurism . Later in his career he became a major painter of the coastline of this native Orkney . Other artists strongly influenced by modernism included James McIntosh Patrick ( 1907 – 98 ) and Edward Baird ( 1904 – 49 ) . Both trained in Glasgow , but spent most of their careers in and around their respective native cities of Dundee and Montrose . Both were influenced by surrealism and the work of Bruegel and focused on landscape , as can be seen in McIntosh Patrick 's Traquair House ( 1938 ) and more overtly in Baird 's The Birth of Venus ( 1934 ) .
In the post @-@ war period the English @-@ born Joan Eardley ( 1921 – 63 ) moved to Glasgow , where she was a graduate of the Glasgow School of Art and explored the landscapes of the Kincardineshire coast and created depictions of Glasgow tenements and children in the streets . Scottish artists that continued the tradition of landscape painting and joined the new generation of modernist artists of the highly influential St Ives School were Wilhelmina Barns @-@ Graham ( 1912 – 2004 ) and Margaret Mellis ( 1914 – 2009 ) . Polish realist Josef Herman ( 1911 – 2000 ) was resident in Glasgow between 1940 and 1943 where he influenced husband and wife Tom MacDonald ( 1914 – 1985 ) and Bet Low ( born 1924 ) , who with painter William Senior ( born 1927 ) formed the Clyde Group , aimed at promoting political art . Their work included industrial and urban landscapes such as MacDonald 's Transport Depot ( 1944 – 45 ) and Bet Low 's Blochairn Steelworks ( c . 1946 ) . John Bellany ( born 1942 ) , mainly focusing on the coastal communities of his birth , labelled " Scottish realism " , was among the leading Scottish intellectuals from the 1960s . Landscape has remained a major form in Scottish painting in the work of artists such as James Morrison ( born 1932 ) , Ian MacKenzie Smith ( born 1935 ) , Duncan Shanks ( born 1937 ) and Barbara Rae ( born 1943 ) . The coastal theme would also be pursued by artists such as Elizabeth Ogilvy ( born 1946 ) , Joyce W. Cairns ( born 1947 ) and Ian Stephen ( born 1955 ) .
|
= 70th Infantry Division ( United Kingdom ) =
The 70th Infantry Division was an infantry division of the British Army that fought during the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War . What would become the 70th Division originated with the 7th Infantry Division , which was formed in 1938 to serve in the British Mandate of Palestine during the Arab Revolt . This division then transferred to Egypt on the outbreak of the Second World War and soon became the 6th Infantry Division , which went on to take part in the Battle of Crete and the Syria – Lebanon Campaign . On 10 October 1941 , the 6th Division was re @-@ created as the 70th Infantry Division , in an attempt to deceive Axis intelligence concerning the strength of the British military in the Middle East .
The Royal Navy transported the division to Tobruk from 19 September to 25 October , in a politically controversial move to relieve the mainly Australian garrison which had been defending the port for almost seven months , since the beginning of the Siege of Tobruk . Under daily aerial and artillery attacks , the division defended the port and conducted nightly offensive patrols against German and Italian positions . On 18 November , the British Eighth Army launched Operation Crusader . The division was tasked with breaking out of Tobruk , following the destruction of the Axis armoured forces . Following unexpected early success , the division began its attacks on 21 November , before the armoured formations of Germans and Italians had been defeated . Heavy fighting soon followed as the division captured several well @-@ defended and dug @-@ in German and Italian strong points . The looming threat of the Axis tanks ended the break @-@ out offensive the following day . Renewed fighting on 26 November saw the division link up with the approaching New Zealand Division , cutting the Axis lines of communication . In response , the Germans launched several counter @-@ attacks to throw back the 70th Division from the territory they had gained . The failure of these attacks had a lasting strategic impact on Operation Crusader ; the Axis forces began their retreat and lifted the siege of Tobruk . Two men — from units attached to the division — were awarded the Victoria Cross for their actions during Operation Crusader .
Following the fighting at Tobruk , the division was withdrawn from the front and placed in reserve . When Japan entered the war , the division was transferred to India . It was considered the most experienced and best trained British formation available in Asia . In India , the division formed a reserve to counter possible Japanese landings while it trained in jungle warfare . It also served as a police force , protecting railways and being used to suppress civil disobedience caused by the Quit India Movement . While it was requested that the division be sent to the front line in Burma , it was instead transferred to Special Force , commonly known as the Chindits . Such a move was opposed by the highest military commanders in India and Burma , and proved controversial with the troops themselves . Despite their pleas , the division was broken up and officially ceased to exist on 24 November 1943 . Historian Woodburn Kirby and Lieutenant @-@ General William Slim ( who led the British troops in Burma ) believed that the division could have had a greater impact against the Japanese had it been retained as a single formation .
= = Background = =
= = = Arab Revolt in Palestine = = =
During 1936 , the Arab Revolt broke out in the British Mandate of Palestine . British troops were dispatched , ending the first phase of the war by the close of the year . Fighting soon resumed and reached its zenith during the summer of 1938 . With rising tensions in Europe , the British began to withdraw troops from Palestine for use elsewhere . The conclusion of the Munich Agreement — on 30 September 1938 — calmed the rising tensions in Europe and averted war , allowing the British to resume their military build @-@ up in Palestine .
The 7th Infantry Division was formed the following month and placed under the command of Major @-@ General Richard O 'Connor . The division was deployed to Palestine on internal security duties as part of a build @-@ up of 18 @,@ 500 men in the region . This force then began to suppress the revolt . Meanwhile , Palestinian guerrillas had overrun the Old City of Jerusalem . O 'Connor 's men proceeded to sweep the area , declaring the Old City free of militants on 19 October . The same day , the division seized Acre and by the end of the month were clearing Jaffa of rebels . Many Palestinians were detained and rebel activity significantly dropped off in the area . In the north , the 8th Infantry Division , under Major @-@ General Bernard Montgomery , and Special Night Squads engaged in counter @-@ terror operations , with O 'Connor writing that one brigadier " always encouraged his men to be brutal " . General Officer Commanding British Forces in Palestine and Trans @-@ Jordan Robert Haining wrote in late 1938 that " unnecessary violence , vindictiveness ... , [ and ] killing in cold blood " had to be curbed . O 'Connor was likewise opposed to the measures in the north , and wrote " harshness and unnecessary violence on the part of our soldiers " had to be curbed . During the operation in Jerusalem , only four to nineteen guerrillas were killed . In early 1939 , the revolt finally came to an end .
= = = Second World War = = =
On 1 September 1939 , the Second World War began with the German Invasion of Poland , and two days later the United Kingdom declared war on Germany . On 31 August , the headquarters of the 7th Infantry Division gave up command of its troops . O 'Connor and the divisional staff then left Jerusalem bound for Cairo , Egypt . From Cairo , the men moved forward to Mersa Matruh arriving on 7 September . The headquarters was then assigned all troops based there , with the exception of the 7th Armoured Division . The British Official Historian , I. S. O. Playfair , comments that this decision was undertaken to relieve the burden on Lieutenant @-@ General Henry Maitland Wilson , GOC British Troops Egypt , of " direct control of operations which had been his in addition to the command of all troops in Egypt " . Due to the logistical problems in maintaining substantial forces across the Western Desert and on the Libya – Egypt border , Mersa Matruh was the forward British base of operations and supplied by rail . Positioned 200 miles ( 320 km ) west of Alexandria and 120 miles ( 190 km ) from the border , the location had been chosen to shield forward Royal Air Force ( RAF ) landing strips behind it and to defend the Nile Delta . Mersa Matruh also offered the British the strategy of drawing Italian or other forces forward to them , to allow a counter @-@ attack after they ran into supply difficulties .
On 3 November , the division was renamed the 6th Infantry Division . The division initially commanded rear area personnel and the 22nd Infantry Brigade . Over the coming months , the 14th and 16th Infantry Brigades were assigned to the division as they arrived in Egypt from Palestine . On 10 June 1940 , Italy declared war upon Britain and her allies . Seven days later , the 6th Infantry Division was dissolved and its headquarters transformed into the command staff of a corps known as the Western Desert Force ( WDF ) . In early September 1940 , Italian forces based in Libya invaded Egypt . Three months later , the WDF began a limited raid , Operation Compass . The raid succeeded and was expanded ; in two months the WDF advanced 500 miles ( 800 km ) , occupied the Italian province of Cyrenaica and destroyed the Italian 10th Army . The operation was halted in February 1941 to give priority to the Battle of Greece .
On 17 February 1941 , the 6th Infantry Division was reformed in Egypt . It was initially made up of the 16th and the 22nd Guards Brigade , who were based in Egypt , but lacked artillery or other supporting arms . The 22nd Guards Brigade was soon withdrawn , and the division was assigned the 14th and 23rd Infantry Brigade . Here , the division trained for amphibious operations in the Dodecanese . The deteriorating situation in North Africa , which saw General Erwin Rommel 's Afrika Korps retake the territory lost by the Italians during Operation Compass , resulted in the 6th Infantry Division being reassigned to defend Egypt . The division had been earmarked to deploy to Crete , where the 14th Brigade had been based since November , but instead took up defensive positions at Mersa Matruh . The 14th Brigade later defended the airfield at Heraklion during the Battle of Crete when 2 @,@ 000 German paratroopers landed in the area on 20 May . The Germans were able to penetrate into Heraklion , before Anglo @-@ Greek forces cleared the town following heavy fighting . Despite many losses , the paratroopers were able to dig @-@ in on ridges around the brigade 's positions . Due to the deteriorating situation on Crete , the 14th Brigade was evacuated by Royal Navy ships on 29 May . En route to Egypt , they were repeatedly bombed by the Luftwaffe , suffering 800 casualties .
By late April , British attention had shifted to the Middle East due to the Anglo @-@ Iraqi War , although the situation was resolved by the end of May . A greater concern was that German and Italian forces had intervened in Iraq , using bases in Vichy Syria . With Germans and Italians threatening to gain full control of the French territory , thus jeopardising the British position in the Middle East , the Allies invaded Syria ( Operation Exporter ) on 8 June . In the face of stiff resistance from the Vichy French , the British realised that reinforcements were needed . On 13 June , the 6th Infantry Division ( with two infantry brigades ) was ordered to reinforce the effort . The leading elements of the 16th Infantry Brigade arrived on 17 June and captured Kuneitra . The 23rd Infantry Brigade arrived on 28 June . The division then took part in the Battle of Damascus . The campaign ended on 14 July and the division remained in Syria .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Tobruk = = =
Operation Sonnenblume , the counter @-@ attack launched by Italian troops and the Afrika Korps across Cyrenaica , had forced the British and Commonwealth forces into retreat during March and April . Richard O 'Connor — now General Officer Commanding British Troops Egypt — had been captured . The Australian 9th Infantry Division fell back to the fortress port of Tobruk and the remaining British and Commonwealth forces withdrew a further 100 miles ( 160 km ) east to Sollum on the Libyan – Egyptian border .
These moves initiated the Siege of Tobruk . Although isolated by land , the garrison was supplied by the Royal Navy and the first Axis attacks failed to take the port . This failure was significant ; Erwin Rommel 's front line positions at Sollum were at the end of an extended supply chain that stretched back to Tripoli and was threatened by the Tobruk garrison . Besieging Tobruk also required a substantial commitment of troops and prevented Rommel from making further advances into Egypt . By maintaining possession of Tobruk , the Allies regained the initiative .
Australian policy for the use of the Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2AIF ) was to have all forces concentrated in an Australian Corps , under Australian command . By June , Australian troops were dispersed throughout the Middle East , Cyprus and North Africa . The subject had been of concern to the Australian Government since 18 April . The issue came to a head on 18 July , when Lieutenant @-@ General Thomas Blamey ( commander of the 2AIF , and deputy commander Middle East Command ) wrote a letter to General Claude Auchinleck , the new commander of all forces in North Africa and the Middle East , stating " the agreed policy for the employment of Australian troops between the British and Australian Governments is that the ... troops should operate as a single force . " Blamey also highlighted that the troops in Tobruk were showing a decline in health due to the siege and that the attrition rate they were suffering would result in " considerable " casualties , if they were not replaced by fresh troops . This caused a diplomatic row between Winston Churchill and the Australian Government that continued after the war , and turned what Graham Freudenberg called a " reasonable request in July " into " a risky one in October " .
The relief of the garrison and replacement with fresh troops were finally agreed . The first stage saw the 1st Polish Carpathian Brigade replace the 18th Australian Infantry Brigade . Next came the 6th Infantry Division 's 16th Infantry Brigade , during late September , with elements of the 32nd Army Tank Brigade , in lieu of the 24th Australian Infantry Brigade . On 10 October , for security reasons and in an attempt to confuse Axis intelligence as to when the division was fully redeployed , the 6th Infantry Division was renamed the 70th Infantry Division . Major @-@ General Ronald Scobie was given command .
The final stage of the relief effort took place between 12 and 25 October . The remaining elements of the 70th Division were transported into Tobruk and the remaining Australian garrison ( save the 2 / 13th Battalion and elements of the 2 / 15th Battalion ) were shipped out . In total , the relief effort evacuated 47 @,@ 280 men ( including prisoners ) and brought in 34 @,@ 113 men ; it also brought the garrison 's armour strength to 126 tanks . On 22 October , the 32nd Army Tank Brigade was attached to the 70th Division . With the relief effort over , command of the garrison was given to Scobie . Investing Tobruk were some German infantry and the Italian 27th Infantry Division Brescia , 25th Infantry Division Bologna , 17th Infantry Division Pavia , and 102nd Motorised Division Trento .
Prior to their withdrawal , the Australians briefed the incoming British troops . The men of the division then took over from the Australians and settled into their task of defending Tobruk , with what the Black Watch Regiment described as a sense that it was " the main post of honour open to the British fighting man . " The soldiers ' lives were uncomfortable : fresh water was scarce , washing was a luxury and done in sea @-@ water , razor blades were in short supply , meals were basic and sand storms were common . The troops were engaged in a dull routine : daily artillery bombardments by both sides , Axis air raids every night on Tobruk harbour , and for the infantry , nightly patrols . These patrols , described by the Black Watch as " pure 1914 – 18 warfare " , varied from reconnaissance missions — to identify what was located at a certain position — to capturing enemy soldiers and large scale trench raids on enemy positions . Auchinleck and Rommel had planned offensive operations simultaneously . The latter sought to capture Tobruk , aiming to launch an assault during the period of 20 November – 4 December , whereas Auchinleck planned to relieve Tobruk with a slightly earlier start date .
= = = Operation Crusader = = =
Auchinleck planned for XXX Corps ( under Lieutenant @-@ General Willoughby Norrie ) , containing the British armour , to advance around the undefended southern Axis flank , south of Sidi Omar , before moving towards Tobruk and engaging the German and Italian armoured units in battle . Once the Axis armour was defeated , the British force would attack towards Tobruk aiming to capture Sidi Rezegh , while the garrison broke out aiming to capture Ed Duda , cutting the enemy lines of communication . On 18 November , the Eighth Army began the offensive . Rommel , believing the attack was an attempt to hinder his own plans to assault Tobruk , did little to counter the British offensive . This led to the capture of Sidi Rezegh and the suggestion that the 70th Division should begin its attack on 21 November , before the Axis armour had been defeated . The plan to break out of Tobruk had been well rehearsed ; the 2nd Battalion , York and Lancaster Regiment , 2nd Black Watch , 2nd King 's Own Royal Regiment ( Lancaster ) and 2nd Queen 's Royal Regiment ( West Surrey ) would lead the attack with tanks of the 32nd Army Tank Brigade in close support .
Under cover of dark the men moved forward , creating gaps in the barbed wire and minefields in front of their positions and bridging Tobruk 's anti @-@ tank ditch . At 06 : 30 , on 21 November , the division began its attack on the positions of the Bologna Division and the German 90th Light Division ( although the latter had not been expected ) . The Axis positions were well dug @-@ in , behind mines and barbed wire , supported by machine guns and artillery . The first position , codenamed " Butch " , was captured by 09 : 00 , shortly followed by " Jill " , but two attempts to capture " Tugun " were repulsed by the Italian defenders . The mix of Italian and German troops holding " Tiger " offered up the most resistance of the day . The supporting Matilda tanks ran into undetected minefields and were engaged periodically by Axis anti @-@ tank guns . The Black Watch , under flanking fire from other Axis strong points and being fired upon directly by the defenders of " Tiger " , led a bayonet charge to the sound of bagpipes and captured the position , in conjunction with elements of the 1st Royal Tank Regiment ( 1 RTR ) and the 4th Royal Tank Regiment ( 4 RTR ) . The Black Watch suffered 75 per cent casualties , being reduced to 165 men .
Despite the losses , the Black Watch launched another attack to capture " Jack " . Major Meythaler , the commanding officer of the German sector under attack , was positioned there and reported nine more British tanks lost to mines . Minutes after his report , at 10 : 30 , the Black Watch overran the strong point . 1 RTR proceeded to overwhelm " Wolf " , but were repulsed by anti @-@ tank fire when they attempted to attack " Freddie " . During the afternoon , a further attack was launched that captured half of " Tugun " , but further progress was impeded by Italian artillery fire . The planned final thrust , to seize Ed Duda , was called off , due to the changing situation to the south . By the end of the day , a salient 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) deep and wide had been created , 550 German and 527 Italian soldiers had been captured , and 59 tanks of the 32nd Army Tank Brigade had been lost , of which half were repaired . The war diary of the German 90th Light Division described the day 's actions as " very serious " concluding " that the next day ' would probably bring a crisis ' " .
The following day the division improved its position . Strong point " Lion " , to the south west of " Tiger " , was captured , but an attempt to capture the remaining sections of " Tugun " was repelled . As a result of the fighting , the division began to face a shortage of ammunition for its artillery . Due to the tank battle raging to the south , Scobie was ordered not to make a further advance . The author of the Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War 1939 – 45 , W. E. Murphy , highlights that the fighting by the British armour and 70th Division had created much " confusion in the enemy camp " and that , had the 32nd Army Tank Brigade attempted , it " could certainly have got to Ed Duda " and in doing so would have thwarted the German plans , greatly aiding the beleaguered 7th Armoured Division .
To the south , having temporarily defeated the British armour , Rommel launched the Afrika Korps and the Italian mobile divisions towards Egypt in the " Dash to the Wire " . He sought to relieve the besieged Italian garrisons along the border , cut the British supply lines and inflict an overwhelming defeat upon the Eighth Army . Despite causing panic amongst rear echelon troops , the attack was weak and ran into difficulties against prepared positions . The 2nd New Zealand Division had advanced around the Italian border defences and on 24 November began an advance towards Tobruk . By the next day , the division had reached Zaafran and retaken the much @-@ contested Sidi Rezegh airfield .
From these positions , the New Zealanders were ordered to capture Belhamed , Sidi Rezegh proper and Ed Duda . This was to precede a renewed break @-@ out offensive by the 70th Division . Scobie had informed Lieutenant @-@ General Alfred Godwin @-@ Austen , the XIII Corps commander , responsible for all operations near Tobruk , that the positions between him and Ed Duda were strongly defended . Godwin @-@ Austen assured Scobie that he was under no obligation to attack until the New Zealand Division had taken Ed Duda . Undertaking a night assault , the New Zealand infantry captured Belhamed despite strong resistance , but their attacks to take their other objectives were repulsed .
Aware that Ed Duda was still in Axis hands and that the New Zealand Division had bogged down attempting to advance upon the feature and was caught up in heavy fighting , Scobie ordered his men to capture Ed Duda . The 1st Essex Regiment , with machine gun support from the Royal Northumberland Fusiliers and the 32nd Army Tank Brigade , began their attack just after midday on 26 November . Axis artillery fire damaged two tanks before they crossed the start line but the remaining 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) was covered without incident . The 4 RTR were able to silence several Axis gun positions , and were joined by Z Company of the Royal Northumberland Fusiliers , who helped eliminate a further position . Following the fighting , the Essex were ordered to join the tanks .
The 1st Essex now advanced on Ed Duda , which was not a fortified position as previously faced by the division . An artillery bombardment and the approaching British troops persuaded the defending Italian platoon to surrender . By 15 : 00 , Ed Duda was in British hands and the Essex began digging in to consolidate their position . Following the capture of the position , several Axis counterattacks were launched . Three German tanks inflicted heavy casualties upon a British detachment in front of the main Essex position , before being driven off . Two infantry companies advanced towards the Essex and " were badly shot up in their lorries at a range of some 200 yards . " In following engagements , the Essex took upwards of 110 prisoners . By the end of the day , the position was secure for the loss of only 65 casualties . That evening , the New Zealanders renewed their attacks and succeeded in linking with the 70th Division and cutting the Axis lines of communication .
On 27 November , Rommel abandoned his attack and ordered the Afrika Korps and accompanying Italians to return to the Tobruk area . It was not until 29 November that the Axis armour launched its attack upon the 70th and New Zealand divisions . Around 50 tanks of the 15th Panzer Division advanced on the 1st Essex and were engaged by anti @-@ tank guns and a handful of British infantry tanks . Several British tanks were hit and the rest retired . The anti @-@ tank guns of the Essex were silenced , and 300 German soldiers from II Battalion , Infantry Regiment 115 advanced . Two companies of the Essex were overrun , with 150 men captured . As darkness fell , British and German tanks again clashed before the former withdrew . Under the cover of night , the Australian 2 / 13th Battalion was ordered to counter @-@ attack along with the remnants of 4 RTR ( eleven tanks in total ) . Elements of the Essex battalion spontaneously joined the assault , retaking the lost ground and capturing 167 prisoners for the loss of around 25 men . Less than 60 German troops were able to retreat to friendly units .
Axis attention now concentrated upon the New Zealand Division ; after the recent fighting , the division , less 4 @,@ 500 men who joined the 70th Division , withdrew towards the frontier in need of rest , refitting and re @-@ organization ; the 70th Division was again cut off . On 1 December , Godwin @-@ Austen was concerned about the exposed British position at Ed Duda , as were the staff of 70th Division , who believed the area had become untenable . Infantry had reinforced the captured ground , the 14th Infantry Brigade holding a line from Ed Duda to roughly 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to the north @-@ east . The Essex were still dug in at Ed Duda , with the 19th New Zealand Battalion to their north @-@ east , then the 4th Border Regiment , the 18th New Zealand Battalion to their east and the 1st Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire Regiment to their north at Bir ( Magen ) Belhamed and the captured Axis strong point known as " Leopard " . The commanding officer of the 1st Essex reported that the position was well prepared and he was confident of repelling any assault . Scobie sent word stating " Well done , I admire your spirit " .
For several days , the 70th Division was bombarded , and on 1 December an uncoordinated attack by the German 90th Division was repulsed by the 18th New Zealand Battalion . The following day , a larger attack was launched upon the 1st Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire Regiment . This attack was also repulsed inflicting heavy losses on one of the German battalions . On 4 December , elements of the 21st Panzer Division , supported by an ad hoc formation of 500 German infantry and Italian engineers and artillery support from the 90th Light Division , launched an assault on Ed Duda . This attack was met by the Essex , 4th Borders , 18th New Zealanders and elements of the 32nd Army Tank Brigade . The German attack was defeated and the 4th Borders , supported by tanks , counter @-@ attacked taking 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) of ground , for the loss of fifteen tanks .
The 70th Division had been planning another attack to capture El Adem but the battle made these plans redundant . The inability of the Germans and Italians to defeat the 70th Division and push the unit back inside Tobruk had strategic consequences . Rommel had come to the conclusion that his troops could not maintain the siege due to being overstretched , and decided to withdraw all of the troops he could to the east of Tobruk . The 70th Division initially joined other Eighth Army formations in advancing west in pursuit , but by 12 December it had returned to Tobruk . Over the course of December , Operation Crusader continued and the Axis forces retreated to El Agheila before fighting ceased . The 70th Division was withdrawn to Egypt for rest and refitting . Due to a lack of transport , the move took until mid @-@ January . By the end of the month , the division had returned to Syria to camp near Damascus .
= = = India and disbandment = = =
During the night of 7 / 8 December 1941 , one hour prior to the Attack on Pearl Harbor , the Empire of Japan entered the war with the Japanese invasion of Malaya . Four hours following the strike on Pearl Harbor , the Battle of Hong Kong was launched ; the city surrendered on Christmas Day . On 15 January 1942 , the Japanese attack was expanded as their troops invaded Burma . Then , on 15 February , Singapore fell . During February , the 70th Division began moving back to Egypt . On 17 February the order was given for the division to be transferred to India . The next day , Major @-@ General George Symes was given command of the division . They boarded ships at Suez , and had completely departed Egypt by 28 February . The division , without the 16th Brigade , reached Bombay on 10 March . With a Japanese invasion of British Ceylon expected , the 16th Brigade was sent in as reinforcements , arriving on 15 March . It remained until 1943 , when it rejoined the division . In June 1942 , the 70th Division was located near Ranchi ; along with the 50th Indian Armoured Brigade , it formed part of the Eastern Army reserve . The division was seen as a well @-@ trained formation and along with the 23rd Indian Infantry Division formed a mobile reserve against a Japanese landing or advance through Arakan in Burma . At Ranchi , the division also engaged in jungle warfare training .
In August 1942 , Mahatma Gandhi 's Quit India Movement resulted in civil disobedience spreading across Bihar , Orissa and Bengal . The division was deployed throughout these areas , suppressing the disturbances and protecting the railways of Bihar . After civil power was restored in the affected areas , the 70th Division was concentrated again at Ranchi and resumed training as part of XV Indian Corps . The corps commander , Lieutenant @-@ General William Slim , wrote in his memoirs that the 70th Division " was one of the best British formations I have met , with a magnificent battle hardened spirit gained in the Middle East " .
A member of the division , writing in May 1943 , commented that it would not be
... enough for us to rest on our Middle East laurels [ despite them being ] " well deserved " ... those days should only be regarded as a starting point in efficiency for only 100 % trained tps ... will defeat the Japanese in Arakan or in any other theatre of operations .
In April 1943 , Slim requested that the 70th Division be released from Eastern Army reserve to relieve other units on the Arakan front , but elements of the division were only slowly redeployed . The 23rd Infantry Brigade arrived in the Arakan area in May . As of June , the remainder of the division was still part of the army reserve .
On 14 February 1943 , Brigadier Orde Wingate launched Operation Loincloth . This operation saw the 77th Indian Infantry Brigade operate behind the Japanese lines , supplied via air drops , ambushing Japanese troops and destroying rail lines . The force returned to Allied lines during April , having lost nearly a third of its troops ; most of the remainder , as described by historian Christopher Chant , were " crippled by exhaustion , malnutrition , dysentery , and malaria . " Despite this , the operation was deemed a success . In August 1943 , Wingate ( now a major @-@ general ) was sent to attend the Quebec Conference . Churchill and the Americans were so impressed by Wingate that Special Force , commonly known as the Chindits , were ordered to be expanded . Under this expansion , the 70th Division would be broken up and its units transferred to Special Force .
Auchinleck , now Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , India , strongly opposed such a move preferring to retain the division as an entity . Instead , he proposed that the newly arrived 81st ( West Africa ) Division could be used in its place . Despite his arguments and the end of the division 's availability for operations against the Japanese @-@ occupied Ramree Island , he was over @-@ ruled by Churchill 's backing of Wingate . On 6 September , the division began reorganising for long @-@ range penetration . It had been estimated that 10 percent of the men would be unsuitable but this had been based on an erroneous report given in London ( believed to be from Wingate ) that the division was not first class , even though the standard of its infantry was high .
On 25 October , the division was broken up and all troops were transferred to Special Force . Symes , despite his seniority , became Wingate 's second @-@ in @-@ command and tried to prevent the further break @-@ up of the divisional units to retain the traditions , histories and esprit de corps of the British Army 's regimental structure , which reconciled his men and helped to ensure a smooth transition to Special Force . Having ceased to exist , the 70th Division was officially disbanded on 24 November .
The British Official Historian , Stanley Kirby , wrote that the best @-@ trained and most @-@ experienced British division had been broken up to reinforce Special Force , which eventually absorbed one @-@ sixth of the infantry in South East Asia Command . He judged that had the division been retained , it could have reinforced the Fourteenth Army , making the defence of Imphal and Kohima in 1944 easier . Historian F. W. Perry wrote , " it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the results achieved by the force did not represent an adequate return for the resources invested " . He further argued that the force was too lightly armed to capture strongly held positions or to hold one if captured , and concluded that Special Force " inflicted more damage and disruption on the British Army than it ever did on the Japanese . " Similarly , Slim argued in his memoirs that it had been a mistake to break up the 70th Division as it was the only British division which had been trained in jungle warfare , and that it would have been twice as effective as an experienced conventional formation than it proved to be as part of Special Force .
= = General officer commanding = =
Commanders included :
= = Order of Battle = =
|
= Rhode Island Route 403 =
Route 403 , also known as the Quonset Freeway , is a numbered state highway located in Washington County and Kent County , Rhode Island , United States . The route is a nominally east – west limited @-@ access freeway for its entire length . A spur of Rhode Island Route 4 , Route 403 serves Davisville and the Quonset Business Park , providing freeway access to Interstate 95 and the northern Providence metropolitan area from the industrial zone . The western terminus of the freeway is at a trumpet interchange with Route 4 in East Greenwich . The route has three unnumbered interchanges along its 4 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) length , including a junction with U.S. Route 1 in North Kingstown , before terminating at an at @-@ grade intersection with Roger Williams Way and Commerce Park Road in Quonset . Route 403 is the highest numbered route in Rhode Island .
Prior to 2006 , Route 403 was a narrow , two @-@ lane road through Davisville . The western terminus of the route was at an interchange with Route 4 and Rhode Island Route 402 in East Greenwich , and the eastern terminus was at U.S. Route 1 in North Kingstown . In order to accommodate increasingly heavy commercial and commuter traffic to and from the Quonset Business Park , the Rhode Island Department of Transportation constructed the Quonset Freeway as an upgraded Route 403 . The relocation of the route began in 2000 and was constructed in two phases ; Phase 1 , a freeway from Quonset to Davisville , opened in June 2006 . Phase 2 of the relocation project , which connected the freeway with Route 4 , was completed one year ahead of schedule in December 2008 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Original Route 403 = = =
Prior to 2006 , Route 403 was a narrow , two @-@ lane road running for 2 @.@ 4 miles ( 3 @.@ 9 km ) through Davisville , Rhode Island . The road , a spur route of Route 4 , connected to Rhode Island Route 402 and Route 4 at its western terminus , and was accessible only from Route 4 southbound . Its eastern terminus was at a grade @-@ separated interchange with U.S. 1 . The nominally east – west route followed a northwestern – southeastern route for most of its length . Route 403 was signed on two local roads , Davisville Road and Devil 's Foot Road , in the towns of East Greenwich and North Kingstown .
Route 403 's original western terminus was at a complex interchange with Routes 4 and 402 in East Greenwich . Both Routes 402 and 403 were accessible from Exit 7 on Route 4 southbound ; there was no access to either route from the northbound lanes of Route 4 . After the Exit 7 ramp , Route 403 eastbound crossed over Route 4 and began to head in southeastern direction along Davisville Road . Shortly after its western terminus , Route 403 crossed the Hunt River into Washington County and Davisville , a village in the town of North Kingstown . After intersecting Old Baptist Road , a local route that connects to Route 102 , Route 403 began to follow Devil 's Foot Road , continuing on its southeastern trajectory . The route crossed Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor rail line before turning to head in an almost due east direction , entering the Quonset Business Park . Shortly after passing Devil 's Foot Rock , a petrosomatoglyph attributed to the Devil in colonial times , Route 403 passed under U.S. Route 1 ( Post Road ) and intersected two US 1 access ramps , Davisville Road , and Quonset Road ; the latter two roads headed into the business park toward Quonset State Airport and the Quonset container port . Although the mainline of the road continued eastbound as Quonset Road ( now Roger Williams Way ) , Route 403 officially terminated at the intersection with the US 1 access ramps .
Since the completion of the Quonset Freeway in 2008 and the full relocation of Route 403 , the old route on Davisville Road and Devil 's Foot Road has been unnumbered . Some portions of the road are signed " To RI 403 , " but there is no indication that RIDOT plans to designate the old route as Rhode Island Route 403A . Route 403 's previous alignment was largely unchanged during the construction of the Quonset Freeway ; only the interchanges with Routes 4 and 402 in East Greenwich and with US 1 in North Kingstown were altered significantly .
= = = Quonset Freeway = = =
The Quonset Freeway begins in East Greenwich at Exit 7 of Route 4 ; southbound , the exit is numbered 7B , as Exit 7A serves Route 402 . Unlike Route 402 , which is accessible only via Route 4 southbound , Route 403 is accessible from the northbound lanes of Route 4 via the newly constructed Exit 7 . Like the original Route 403 , the nominally east – west freeway follows a northeastern – southwestern route for much of its length . Shortly after beginning at Route 4 , Route 403 crosses over Route 402 and the Hunt River on a single @-@ span bridge , entering the town of North Kingstown . The relocation of Route 403 removed access to Route 402 ; the freeway now travels over Frenchtown Road without an interchange . While there is no direct link between the two routes , motorists traveling westbound on Route 403 can take the exit for Route 4 south and then access Route 402 from Exit 7A off Route 4 .
Route 403 continues in a southeastern direction before crossing over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor rail line . The freeway begins to closely parallel the railroad before crossing under Devil 's Foot Road , the original Route 403 , and entering the village of Davisville . Shortly after the overpass , Route 403 turns to head almost due east . The freeway has its first interchange with West Davisville Road ; the exit is accessible only from eastbound Route 403 , and serves the villages of Davisville and Quidnessett . Closely paralleling Devil 's Foot Road , Route 403 continues eastward before interchanging with U.S. Route 1 ( Post Road ) and Davisville Road ; the two roads are served via a single exit . Westbound Route 403 has no direct interchange with either US 1 or Davisville Road ; the route 's first westbound exit in Quonset is signed as " To US 1 , " and connects to Post Road via Gate Road , a commercial outlet in Quonset .
Shortly after the interchange with US 1 , Route 403 begins to head in a southwestern direction . After 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) miles , Route 403 terminates at a traffic signal with Commerce Park Road , a commercial route that heads north into the business park . The mainline of Route 403 continues eastward as Roger Williams Way ( formerly Quonset Road ) , a four @-@ lane , undivided road that leads to Quonset State Airport .
= = History = =
The original Route 403 that existed prior to 2006 was numbered in 1973 as a spur route of the newly constructed Route 4 . The two @-@ lane , undivided state highway was the main access road to Davisville and Quonset Point from Route 4 . Quonset was home to Naval Air Station Quonset Point , a major U.S. naval base , until 1974 . After the closure of the base , the Quonset Point region of North Kingstown was converted into an industrial zone and commercial district by the state of Rhode Island ; a container port and the Quonset State Airport were also opened for commercial use .
By the 1980s , more than 12 @,@ 000 cars were using Route 403 daily to access the business park ; the Rhode Island Department of Transportation ( RIDOT ) estimated that this vehicle volume would exceed 25 @,@ 000 by 2005 . This high vehicle capacity would be dangerous because of Route 403 's sharp curves and low speed limit in Davisville . The narrow route through a densely populated region was particularly unsuitable for the high volume of commercial trucks that used it to access Route 4 from the Quonset Business Park and container port . RIDOT began studies on improving the route in 1987 , exploring both the widening of the existing route to a four @-@ lane , undivided highway and the construction of a freeway as options . The proposal to widen the existing road was ultimately dropped , as it would less effective at relieving congestion in the region and would require significant demolition of existing structures in Davisville . A freeway alternative to be constructed north of the existing route with more direct access to Route 4 and an eastward expansion beyond US 1 into the Quonset Business Park was selected instead .
= = = Construction of the Quonset Freeway = = =
Construction of " Phase 1 " of the four @-@ lane , limited @-@ access Quonset Freeway began in 2000 with excavation of the route and right @-@ of @-@ way acquisition ; the project required the demolition of 13 structures , five commercial and eight residential . Phase 1 included an extension of the highway into the Quonset Business Park and the construction of several overpasses in Quonset , an exit ramp to Gate Road , a full interchange with U.S. Route 1 in North Kingstown , and a partial diamond interchange with West Davisville Road in Davisville . During Phase 1 's construction , traffic was maintained on the existing Route 403 ( Devil 's Foot Road ) ; the only major alteration to the route was the setting of a new eastern terminus of the road at US 1 , as the previous terminus was demolished to allow for the construction of the freeway . Phase 1 cost $ 70 million to complete and was opened to traffic on June 22 , 2006 . The new freeway was posted with a speed limit of 45 miles per hour ( 72 km / h ) .
From 2006 until 2008 , while Phase 2 of the relocated Route 403 was constructed , traffic on the newly completed freeway from Quonset to Davisville was rediected onto Davisville Road ( the original route alignment ) , which continued on to the existing terminus at Routes 4 and 402 . Traffic was diverted onto the original route alignment after the West Davisville Road interchange , passing over the Amtrak rail tracks via the existing Devil 's Foot Road overpass bridge .
Construction of the $ 100 million @-@ Phase 2 of the Quonset Freeway began in 2004 and continued until 2008 . The project included the construction of new bridges over the Northeast Corridor rail line , Route 402 , and Route 4 . The existing Route 403 bridge over Route 4 was also demolished as a part of Phase 2 . The freeway and ramps from Route 403 west to Route 4 north and from Route 4 south to Route 403 east opened on October 23 , 2008 . The route was posted with a speed limit of 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) . The final portion of Phase 2 , ramps from Route 403 west to Route 4 south and from Route 4 north to Route 403 east , opened in December 2008 . As part of the construction of a trumpet interchange with Route 4 in East Greenwich , a new northbound Exit 7 on Route 4 was completed ; the original Route 403 was accessible only from Route 4 southbound . All major construction on the freeway was completed in December 2008 , one year ahead of schedule ; minor projects continued on the relocated route until early 2009 .
= = Exit list = =
All exits are unnumbered .
|
= Sega Meganet =
Sega Meganet , also known as the Net Work System , was an online service for the Mega Drive in Japan and later Brazil . Utilizing dial @-@ up Internet access , Meganet was Sega 's first online multiplayer gaming service , and functioned on a pay to play basis . The system functioned through the use of a peripheral called the Mega Modem and offered several unique titles that could be downloaded , and a few could be played competitively with friends . In addition , it shared technology and equipment with more serious services such as the Mega Anser , used for banking purposes . Though the system was announced for North America under the rebranded name " Tele @-@ Genesis " , it was never released for that region . Ultimately , the Meganet service would be short @-@ lived , lasting approximately a year before it was discontinued , but would serve as a precursor to the Sega Channel and XBAND services , as well as a predecessor to online gaming services for video game consoles . Retrospective feedback praises the attempt by Sega to introduce online gaming , but criticizes the service for its logistical issues and lack of titles .
= = History = =
Sega 's 16 @-@ bit console , the Sega Genesis ( known as Mega Drive in most areas outside of North America ) was released in Japan on October 29 , 1988 , though the launch was overshadowed by Nintendo 's release of Super Mario Bros. 3 a week earlier . Positive coverage from magazines Famitsu and Beep ! helped to establish a following , but Sega only managed to ship 400 @,@ 000 units in the first year . In order to draw a larger audience , Sega began work on an Internet service , similar to what Nintendo had attempted with the Famicom Tsushin for the NES .
Released in Japan on November 3 , 1990 , at a cost of JP ¥ 12 @,@ 800 ( approximately US $ 100 ) for the equipment , as well as an additional ¥ 800 monthly , access began to the Meganet service by way of the Mega Modem , a peripheral which attaches to the rear EXT 9 @-@ pin port on the rear of the console . From the modem , a cable runs to a dual @-@ port connector , which connects into a telephone line . The Mega Modem also came packaged with a cartridge which allowed for access to the Meganet game library , and approximately six titles were available at launch . It was capable of connection speeds of up to 1200bit / s . Though the service had also been advertised in North America under the name " Tele @-@ Genesis " in publications such as Electronic Gaming Monthly , it was never released for the region .
As another way of attempting to expand the audience for the Mega Drive in Japan , Sega introduced the Mega Anser , a system designed for use with Nagoya Bank in Japan , in 1990 . Packaged as an all @-@ in @-@ one system including a Mega Drive , Mega Modem , Mega Anser cartridge and keypad , the system allowed for transactions such as balance inquiries , transfers , and loan information . It initially retailed at a cost of JP ¥ 34 @,@ 000 including the home console , and a version with an additional printer retailed for ¥ 72 @,@ 800 .
Due to the system 's low number of titles , prohibitively high price , and the Mega Drive 's lack of success in Japan , the Meganet system proved to be a commercial failure . By 1992 , the Mega Modem peripheral could be found in bargain bins at a reduced price , and a remodeled version of the Mega Drive released in 1993 removed the EXT 9 @-@ pin port altogether , preventing the newer model from being connected to the Meganet service .
In 1995 , the Meganet internet service launched in Brazil . Its main focus in the region was e @-@ mail , although by 1996 the service was capable of online multiplayer , along with chat features . Similar to the Mega Anser , a home banking product was also released for the region . Meganet hardware and services were provided through Sega 's distributor in the region , Tectoy .
= = Game library = =
The Meganet service utilized its own library of titles , independent of the Genesis library . Most of these games never received a cartridge release ; however , Columns , Flicky , Fatal Labyrinth , and Teddy Boy Blues each later saw cartridge versions . Several Meganet games would also later appear in Game no Kanzume vol . 2 , released for the Mega @-@ CD exclusively in Japan . Most games for the service were small , at around 128kB per game , due to the limits of Internet connection speeds at the time . Downloads were estimated to take about five to eight minutes to complete .
All of the Meganet games were available through the Sega Game Library , accessed through the Meganet modem . Due to issues with long @-@ distance charges through the use of telephone lines , as well as seconds of lag time between commands , only two games featured competitive play : Tel @-@ Tel Stadium and Tel @-@ Tel Mahjong , with the remainder of the games available for single players via download . Due to Sega 's reluctance to commit to releasing the service in North America , third @-@ party developers in that region were unwilling to invest in developing games specifically for Meganet . This resulted in a low number of titles created for the service .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Retrospective feedback on the Sega Meganet service is mixed , praising the early initiative to develop online gaming for video consoles , but criticizing its implementation via use of telephone lines and issues with Sega 's lack of developers for the service . Adam Redsell of IGN commented on the basic features of the service , and despite noting that Meganet received only a few games , stated " [ T ] hat 's pretty damn impressive for 1990 " . He also notes the influence of Sega in the development of online gaming , with the Meganet service as their first attempt , and credits the Meganet 's successor , Sega Channel , with helping to spread broadband Internet .
However , the telephone line network which the Meganet ran on has been criticized for its logistical issues in online gaming . According to Electronic Gaming Monthly , " Even though the TeleGenesis modem has been announced , it has yet to appear and the real usefulness of a device that is used only to play games with friends over the phone lines remains questionable ( both have to have the modem , the phone lines must be clear , the phone bills will be a problem if it ’ s a long @-@ distance call , etc . ) " The same issues that plagued the Meganet over the use of phone lines for Internet connectivity would later resurface when Catapult Entertainment launched the XBAND service in 1994 .
Ken Horowitz of Sega @-@ 16 took note of Sega 's reluctance to commit to releasing the service in North America as part of the reason for its lack of titles , noting , " Companies were most likely waiting for confirmation of the modem ’ s release before they began to commit themselves , and as time has attested , few were waiting to go ahead with development in light of Sega 's ' wait and see ' attitude . " Horowitz went on to criticize this issue as a problem Sega would have again with the Sega 32X in 1994 , stating , " History would repeat itself in the harshest of manners only five years later . Sega 's expectations of third party support for something it showed little enthusiasm for were entirely unrealistic and ultimately meant that no games would be in the pipeline . "
|
= Innherredsferja =
Innherredsferja AS ( " The Innherred Ferry " ) was a Norwegian ferry operator in the Trondheimsfjord in Nord @-@ Trøndelag county . It operated the Levanger – Hokstad Ferry between the town of Levanger and the island of Ytterøya , and the Vangshylla – Kjerringvik Ferry between Inderøy and Mosvik . The company operated seven ferries through its history , and had up to three operating at any time , including one in reserve . Innherredsferja was based in Levanger .
The company was founded in 1957 , and started a service between Venneshamn , Kjerringvik , Vangshylla , Hokstad , and Levanger . The initial owners of the company were a mixture of municipalities , the county , and private individuals and companies . In 1964 , the company 's operations were split into two services , each with a single crossing . Following the opening of the Skarnsund Bridge in 1991 , the Vangshylla – Kjerringvik Ferry was terminated . In 2005 , the company was taken over by Fosen Trafikklag , after the state decided that the route would be subject to public service obligation . The company lost the bid to Nor @-@ Ferjer , and operation ceased at the end of 2006 .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
The initiative for a cross @-@ fjord ferry services was taken by Arthur Selvig , leader of the merchants ' association in Levanger . In January 1955 , he invited members of the municipal councils on both sides of the fjord to establish a company . The meeting was held in Levanger , and the representatives from Mosvik took two days to get to the meeting . An interim committee was appointed , which was to cooperate with Innherreds Aktie Dampskibsselskab to persuade them not purchase a new ship , and also to consider purchase of a combined car- and cargo @-@ ferry , or alternatively a conventional vessel . At the time , National Road 755 between Mosvik and Leksvik was being constructed and would be competed by the end of the decade ; however , it would take longer before Mosvik would be connected to Venneshamn . The committee suggested the route Venneshamn – Kjerringvik – Vangshylla – Ytterøy – Levanger be established . The municipal council of Ytterøy voted to place the ferry quay at Hokstad , which was serving as the municipal center .
State funding of NOK 105 @,@ 000 was granted to build ferry quays at Hokstad , Levanger and Venneshamn . The committee decided that they wanted a ferry similar to one delivered by Moen & Sønns Båtbyggeri which was at the time stationed in Trondheim , costing NOK 450 @,@ 000 . To finance this , state guarantees for the load and deficits needed to be granted . The Ministry of Transport and Communications promised to grant partial guarantees if local guarantees were also issued . Sale of shares started in 1957 , and the municipalities of Inderøy , Mosvik , Verran and Levanger bought shares , as well as guaranteeing 20 % of the deficits . Nord @-@ Trøndelag County Municipality bought shares , but did not want to issue guarantees . Innherredsferja was established with a share capital of NOK 144 @,@ 000 , split between 288 shares . The county bought 100 and became the largest owner , while seven municipalities bought 90 between them . The remaining shares were owned by private individuals and local companies . The company was incorporated on 10 May 1957 .
NOK 400 @,@ 000 was borrowed and NOK 510 @,@ 000 invested in a ferry from Moen & Sønns . It arrived at Levanger on 31 December 1957 and was named Innherredsferja . Initial plans were to have a crew of three on the ferry , but this was quickly expanded to five . The single @-@ direction vessel had space for 75 passengers plus vehicles . During the test @-@ run it became clear that the quay at Vangshylla was 75 centimetres ( 30 in ) too narrow to allow the ferry to dock . The first ferry service had ten different route combinations in each direction , and the fees were based on three different zones . Trips within Mosvik , Verran and Inderøy were in Zone 1 , trips to and from Ytterøy were in Zone 2 , while trips from Levanger to Mosvik and Inderøy were within Zone 3 . The initial prices were NOK 1 for one person in Zone 1 , NOK 2 @.@ 50 in Zone 2 and NOK 3 @.@ 5 in Zone 3 . For cars , the prices were NOK 5 , 10 and 14 , respectively . On workdays , the ferry made two round trips to Ytterøy and Levanger , three round trips to Venneshamn and five round trips to Vangshylla and Kjerringvik . At Levanger , both ferries corresponded with north- and southbound trains on the Nordland Line at Levanger Station , which is within walking distance of the quay . At Vangshylla , there were buses operated by Fylkesbilene i Nord @-@ Trøndelag to Steinkjer and Røra Station .
Operations commenced on 1 February 1958 . After five days , the service had to stop because of technical problems with the engine , and it took a week before it resumed . The quay at Levanger was not suitable , because the ferry could not dock at low tide . This caused the ferry to dock at the main dock to disembark passengers , whilst unloading the vehicles had to wait until high tide . In the first twelve months of operation , the ferry transported 9 @,@ 411 vehicles , of which 4 @,@ 000 were cars , and 40 @,@ 000 passengers . By 1961 , the number of cars had increased to 9 @,@ 374 . During 1958 , the company employed ticket sellers at the quays . A new ferry , Innherredsferja II , was ordered from Ulstein Mekaniske Verksted , and entered service on 1 August 1962 . The 27 metres ( 89 ft ) long vessel cost NOK 1 @,@ 062 @,@ 000 . It had a capacity for sixteen cars or six trucks . Part of the rationale for purchasing the new ferry was the increased traffic across Skarnsund following the completion of National Road 755 from Mosvik to Leksvik , which made the ferry the fastest link for people from Leksvik traveling to Levanger .
= = = Two routes = = =
Discussion about splitting the route into two started in the early in 1960s . The Public Roads Administration felt that it was unnecessary to have a cross @-@ fjord service , as at the time there was a road from Vangshylla to Levanger which sufficed . The administration was also in the process of building a road from Kjerringvik to Venneshamn , which would allow the ferry to drop that service . On 1 June 1964 , the service was split in two : Vangshylla – Kjerringvik and Hokstad – Levanger . At the same time , the service was upgraded to a national road connection , and the full responsibility for funding was transferred to the ministry . The Vangshylla – Kjerringvik service was taken over by Innherredsferja , while the Hokstad – Levanger service was taken over by Innherredsferja II . In 1968 , the state granted sufficient guarantees to allow a new ferry to be purchased . In the same year , the road from Framverran via Venneshamn to Kjerringvik was opened . The new ferry was similar to Innherredsferja II ; it was built in Kristiansund for NOK 1 @,@ 555 @,@ 000 and originally named Skarnsund . Innherredsferja was sold to an operator in Agder for NOK 50 @,@ 000 . At the same time , Fremverran and Venneshamn were transferred from the municipality of Verran to Mosvik , while Ytterøy , Skogn and Frol merged with Levanger .
In 1970 , the ferries were equipped with televisions . The following year , the company had a deficit of NOK 1 @.@ 1 million . It transported 195 @,@ 000 passengers , of which 120 @,@ 000 took the Vangshylla – Kjerringvik service . Mobile telephones came into use in January 1972 . In 1973 , the service was reduced as a result of the oil crisis , which lasted until 1 March 1974 . Smoking indoors was banned from 1975 , and a new quay was built in Levanger and opened on 1 July 1976 . Local disagreement about the location of a new quay on Ytterøy delayed construction , and it did not open until 1981 . In 1974 , planning for a new ferry on the Ytterøy service started , although the order was not placed until June 1979 . The new ferry , Ytterøy , cost NOK 10 @.@ 5 million , had space for 30 cars and was bi @-@ directional . It was put into service in February 1981 . Innherredsferja II was kept as a reserve .
The need for a larger ferry on the Skarnsund service was also pressing . Cars often had to wait , and if the ferry sailed with full capacity , there was no room for passengers to leave their vehicles . Work to procure a new ferry to replace Skarnsund started in 1981 . This resulted in the acquisition of the second @-@ hand ferry Mosvik from Bergen , with a capacity of 24 cars , which entered service starting 9 December 1982 . Skarnsund was leased to Namsos Trafikkselskap . In 1982 , tickets for a single trip on the Skarnsund Ferry were NOK 5 for an adult and NOK 14 for a car with driver . On the Ytterøy service , it was NOK 7 and 25 , respectively . Discounts were available , up to 33 % for cars and 50 % for trucks and buses .
= = = New times at Skarnsund = = =
Mosvik proved to be too small , with 3 @,@ 000 cars being left at the quays at Vangshylla and Kjerringvik in 1986 . An additional 47 were not catered for on the Ytterøy service in the same year . The order for Skarnsund II , costing NOK 27 million , was signed in December 1987 , and put into service in 1988 . Skarnsund was sold to Namsos Trafikkselskap for NOK 1 , as was Mosvik for NOK 1 million . The following year , Verran Municipality sold its shares in the company . In 1990 , the subsidy system was changed , and the company received a fixed subsidy instead of the state covering the deficit . This allowed the company to make a profit , if it managed to rationalize operations .
The first meeting of local commercial and political interests to establish a bridge across Skarnsund was held in 1972 . By 1983 , it was formalized by the establishment of the company AS Skarnsundsbrua to finance construction . The Parliament of Norway passed the plans in 1986 , and construction started two years later . The bridge cost NOK 200 million , and was opened by King Harald V on 19 December 1991 , after he had taken the last ferry across the fjord .
In 1991 , Fosen Trafikklag purchased Inderøy Municipality 's shares in Innherredferja , while Verran Sparebank bought those previously owned by Mosvik Municipality . In its last year of operation , the Skarnsund service carried 267 @,@ 894 people , 108 @,@ 482 cars , 13 @,@ 878 trucks , 840 buses and 312 motorcycles . Skarnsund II was sold to Namsos Trafikkselskap for NOK 23 @,@ 357 @,@ 778 . In 1992 , the annual meeting had to be postponed due to a ferry strike , which prevented the shareholders from Ytterøy attending . Levanger Municipality and Nord @-@ Trøndelag County Municipality were the only remaining public shareholders , and in 1992 Levanger announced that they intended to sell the Trondheim @-@ based ferry operator Fosen Trafikklag . However , the politicians changed their mind , and the municipality remained as a shareholder . In 1994 , both ferries were out of service and a small passenger ferry was used for a few days . In 1996 , the company was again hit by a strike . Normally the service was not chosen to be subject to strikes due to the high regularity needed by the chicken manufacturer Trønderkylling , who would otherwise have to proceed with unnecessary slaughtering of animals . In 1997 , a cooperation with Fosen Trafikklag started , including the two using a shared reserve ferry , Austråt .
= = = Cooperation and competition = = =
In 2000 , Innherredsferja started to work on proposals to purchase a new ferry . The following year , it chose to buy Torghatten for NOK 19 @.@ 2 million from Torghatten Trafikkselskap , and renamed it Ytterøy II . It was taken into service on 9 November 2002 , andInnherredsferja II was sold . At the same time , Innherredsferja and Fosen Trafikklag amended their agreement , whereby Ytterøy , stationed at Levanger , became the shared reserve ferry . This meant that if a reserve vessel was needed for the Flakk – Rørvik Ferry , Ytterøy II would be sent there , and Ytterøy used for the Levanger – Hokstad service . From 1 January 2003 , the Levanger – Hokstad Ferry was one of six services which were part of a national test project where the fees for cars were increased , while passengers traveled free . The project included larger discounts for large users . The scheme was terminated in 2006 . A new ferry quay at Levanger was opened in 2003 , with a larger waiting area and ramp . The ramp also had separate sections for walk @-@ on passengers and cars . A terminal building was built with a waiting room and toilets , as well as offices for Innherredsferja . The terminal was 160 square metres ( 1 @,@ 700 sq ft ) in two stories and cost NOK 1 @.@ 8 million . From the ground , the building was built to symbolize a lighthouse , while from above it appears shaped like a fish .
In 2004 , Bondevik 's Second Cabinet and Liberal Minister of Transport Torild Skogsholm decided that all ferry services in Norway would become subject to public service obligation ( PSO ) . Innherredsferja held a concession until the end of 2006 , but would have to bid for the service from 1 January 2007 . The company would need expertise in both bidding and increased share capital to succeed in the bidding . By then , Fosen Trafikklag had bought 25 % of the company , and the county and the municipality sold their shares to Fosen . Following this , a meeting was held on Ytterøy , where Fosen succeeded in securing a sufficient number of shares from the private owners to purchase the entire company . This valued the company at NOK 23 @.@ 1 million . Private owners were given the option to be paid in Fosen shares . From 1 July 2005 , Innherredsferja was made a subsidiary of Fosen , but the company remained a separate limited company with its own board .
The Ytterøy service was packaged with the Brekstad – Valset Ferry — located further out in the fjord than the Flakk – Rørvik Ferry . In the initial contract proposal from the Public Roads Administration , it was considered acceptable that Ytterøy could be without a ferry service for up to 24 hours , should there be technical difficulties with the vessel . After massive local protests — arguing that Brekstad residents had the option to take the Flakk – Rørvik Ferry — the Ytterøy this delay was reduced to 2 hours and it was specified that the reserve ferry had to be stationed at Levanger . In 2005 , the Public Roads Administration declared that Nor @-@ Ferjer , a joint venture between Stavangerske and Hardanger Sunnhordlandske Dampskipsselskap had won the bid . Innherredsferja continued to operate until their concession ran out , after which Ytterøy II and the terminal in Levanger were sold . All but three of the employees received jobs with Nor @-@ Ferjer . Until 2008 , Innherredsferja remained a paper company until the sale of Ytterøy was completed and liquidation completed . The company never had any serious accidents during its history .
= = Services = =
= = = Cross @-@ fjord = = =
The cross @-@ fjord route was in service from 1958 to 1964 . It connected the three sea @-@ locked communities of Venneshamn , Mosvik and Ytterøy to the mainland at Inderøy and Levanger . On workdays , the ferry made two round trips to Ytterøy and Levanger , three round trips to Venneshamn and five round trips to Vangshylla and Kjerringvik .
= = = Skarnsund = = =
The Vangshylla – Kjerringvik Ferry connected the municipalities of Inderøy and Mosvik across the sound Skarnsund , at the narrowest point of the Trondheimsfjord . The route operated from 1 June 1964 to 19 December 1991 , when it was replaced by the Skarnsund Bridge . It was part of Norwegian National Road 755 . The ferry had hourly services in each direction through most of the day , and the crossing took seven minutes .
= = = Ytterøy = = =
The Levanger – Hokstad Ferry connects the mainland at Levanger with the island of Ytterøya at Hokstad . The service has operated since 1 June 1964 , as part of Norwegian National Road 774 . The ferry has up to eleven daily round trips , with the crossing taking 30 minutes on the 9 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) stretch . Since 2007 , the service has been operated by Nor @-@ Ferjer ( which later merged to become part of Tide Sjø ) .
= = Fleet = =
MF Innherredsferja was the company 's first vessel . She was a single @-@ direction vessel built at Moen & Sønns Båtbyggeri in Risør . She arrived at Levanger on 31 December 1957 and cost NOK 510 @,@ 000 , and was not equipped with radar . She was initially used for the cross @-@ fjord route ; from 1962 she was used as a reserve until put into service on the Skarnsund route in 1964 . The ferry was sold for NOK 50 @,@ 000 in 1968 to Agder , and later became a restaurant at Aker Brygge in Oslo .
MF Innherredsferja II was ordered in 1960 and put into service on 1 August 1962 . She was 27 metres ( 89 ft ) long and 8 @.@ 4 metres ( 28 ft ) wide and cost NOK 1 @,@ 062 @,@ 000 . She was built by Ulstein Mekaniske Verksted and had a larger saloon and place for sixteen cars or six trucks . The bridge covered the full width of the vessel and had radar and other contemporary equipment . From 1964 , the ferry was put into service on the Levanger – Hokstad route . In 1981 , she was made a reserve ferry , and sold in 2002 .
MF Skarnsund was the same size as Innherredsferja II and was put into service on the Skarnsund route in 1969 . She had capacity for sixteen cars and was built in Kristiansund for NOK 1 @,@ 555 @,@ 000 . In 1982 , she was replaced by Mosvik and was leased to Namsos Trafikkselskap . She was sold for NOK 1 in 1988 .
MF Ytterøy cost NOK 10 @.@ 5 million , had places for 30 cars and was bi @-@ directional . Ytterøy weighed 300 tonnes and was 45 metres ( 148 ft ) long . She was put into service on the Levanger – Hokstad route in February 1981 . She became the reserve ferry following the purchase of Ytterøy II in 2002 .
MF Mosvik was bought in 1982 . She dated from 1969 and had been in service near Bergen . Capacity was 24 cars and she was sold for NOK 1 million to Namsos Trafikkselskap in 1988 .
MF Skarnsund II was the same size as Ytterøy , had placed for 30 cars and was bi @-@ directional . She cost NOK 27 million and was in service from 1987 to 1991 , when she was sold to Namsos Trafikkselskap for NOK 23 million . The 330 tonne vessel was built by Trønderverftet .
MF Ytterøy II was bought used from Torghatten Trafikkselskap , where she had been named Torghatten . She was built in 1987 and cost Innherredsferja NOK 19 @.@ 2 million . She was 56 metres ( 184 ft ) long , had three saloons and place for 40 cars . She was sold in 2007 , following the loss of the PSO bid .
|
= Russian battleship Imperator Nikolai I =
Imperator Nikolai I ( Russian : Император Николай I ) was a Russian Imperator Aleksandr II @-@ class battleship built for the Baltic Fleet in the late 1880s . She participated in the celebration of the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America in New York City in 1892 . She assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron and visited Toulon in October 1893 . She sailed for the Pacific Ocean during the First Sino @-@ Japanese War and remained in the Pacific until late 1896 , when she returned to the Mediterranean Squadron and supported Russian interests during the Cretan Revolt . She returned to the Baltic in April 1898 and had a lengthy refit , which replaced all of her machinery , before returning to the Mediterranean in 1901 .
Returning to the Baltic during the Russo @-@ Japanese War Imperator Nikolai I was refitted in late 1904 to serve as the flagship of the Third Pacific Squadron under Rear Admiral Nikolai Nebogatov . She was slightly damaged during the Battle of Tsushima and was surrendered , along with most of the Third Pacific Squadron , by Admiral Nebogatov to the Japanese the following day . She was taken into the Imperial Japanese Navy under the new name of Iki ( 壱岐 ) and she served as a gunnery training ship until 1910 and then became a first @-@ class coast defense ship and training vessel . She was sunk as a target ship in October 1915 .
= = Development = =
Imperator Nikolai I was originally intended as a smaller ship than her half @-@ sister Imperator Aleksandr II along the lines of the Brazilian battleship Riachuelo , but armed with 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns . A contract was signed on 6 November 1885 with the Baltic Works for a 7 @,@ 572 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 7 @,@ 694 t ) ship armed with two 12 @-@ inch guns in a forward barbette . However , this was quickly cancelled and a contract was quickly let with the Franco @-@ Russian Works for a repeat of Imperator Aleksandr II even though the earlier ship had been built by the Baltic Works . The Franco @-@ Russian Works had difficulties getting the drawings and was forced to redraft some of them . They took the opportunity to change the design in a number of relatively minor ways while doing so . However , the substitution of a gun turret for Imperator Aleksandr II 's barbette mount was made in 1887 , well after the start of construction and proved problematic . The design of the turret was not finalized until April 1889 and work on the forward part of the hull had to cease for more than six months because the dimensions of the turret were not yet known . The turret proved to be 44 @.@ 9 long tons ( 46 t ) heavier than the older ship 's barbette and made Imperator Nikolai I slightly bow @-@ heavy despite a reduction in the height of the belt armor in compensation .
= = Description = =
Imperator Nikolai I was 333 feet 6 inches ( 101 @.@ 65 m ) long at the waterline and 346 feet 6 inches ( 106 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 66 feet 11 inches ( 20 m ) and a draft of 24 feet 3 inches ( 7 @.@ 4 m ) , 1 foot 3 inches ( 0 @.@ 4 m ) more than designed . She displaced 9 @,@ 594 long tons ( 9 @,@ 748 t ) at load , over 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 016 t ) more than her designed displacement of 8 @,@ 440 long tons ( 8 @,@ 575 t ) .
Imperator Nikolai I had two triple @-@ cylinder vertical compound steam engines , each driving a single propeller . Twelve cylindrical boilers provided non @-@ superheated steam to the engines . They were built by Baltic Works and had a total designed output of 8 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 5 @,@ 966 kW ) . On trials , the powerplant produced a total of 7 @,@ 842 indicated horsepower ( 5 @,@ 848 kW ) , and a top speed of 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . She carried 847 long tons ( 861 t ) of coal that gave her a range of 2 @,@ 630 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 870 km ; 3 @,@ 030 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The main armament of the Imperator Aleksandr II @-@ class ships was a pair of 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) Obukhov Model 1877 30 @-@ caliber guns . Imperator Nikolai I carried hers in a twin @-@ gun turret forward . The four 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) Obukhov Model 1877 35 @-@ caliber guns were on center @-@ pivot mounts in casemates at the corners of the citadel , the hull given a pronounced tumblehome to increase their arcs of fire ahead and behind . The eight 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Model 1877 35 @-@ caliber guns were mounted on broadside pivot mounts . Four were fitted between the 9 @-@ inch guns and could traverse a total of 100 ° . The others were mounted at each end of the ship where they could fire directly ahead or astern . The ten 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss revolving cannon were mounted in hull embrasures of the ship , between the nine and six @-@ inch guns to defend against torpedo boats . Four 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss revolving cannon were mounted in each fighting top . Imperator Nikolai I carried six above @-@ water 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes . One was in the bow , two tubes were on each broadside and a tube was in the stern .
Most of Imperator Nikolai I 's armor was imported from the United Kingdom and some deliveries were delayed which caused problems during construction . The height of the waterline armor belt was reduced 6 inches ( 152 mm ) in comparison to that of her half @-@ sister , being 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) tall , of which 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) was above the designed waterline and 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) below . Most of the rest of the protection matched that of Imperator Aleksandr II other than the waterline belt forward which only reduced to a minimum of six inches rather than the 3 @.@ 9 inches ( 99 mm ) of the older ship and the walls of the conning tower were only six inches thick , 2 inches ( 51 mm ) less than her half @-@ sister .
= = History = =
Imperator Nikolai I was named after the Emperor Nicholas I of Russia . She was built by the Franco @-@ Russian Works at Saint Petersburg . She was laid down on 4 August 1886 , launched on 1 June 1889 , and completed in July 1891 , although her trials lasted until the spring of 1892 . She sailed in June 1892 for New York City to participate in the celebration honoring the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America . Upon her departure she was assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron and visited Toulon in October 1893 with the Russian Squadron to reinforce the Franco @-@ Russian Alliance . She was then commanded by Captain Richard Dicker . She sailed for the Pacific Ocean during the First Sino @-@ Japanese War and arrived at Nagasaki , Japan on 28 April 1895 , before sailing for Chefoo in China . She remained in the Pacific until late 1896 , when she returned to the Mediterranean Squadron and supported Russian interests during the Cretan Revolt . She returned to the Baltic in April 1898 for an extensive , multi @-@ year , refit . Her machinery was replaced with Belleville water @-@ tube boilers and vertical triple expansion steam engines . Her after superstructure was cut down one deck abaft the mainmast and most of her 47 mm and 37 mm revolving cannon were removed . Only two 37 mm revolvers were retained and she received sixteen 47 mm and two 37 mm single @-@ barreled guns in their place .
She returned to the Mediterranean in September 1901 and remained there until the Russo @-@ Japanese War when she was transferred to the Baltic to be refitted in late 1904 to serve as the flagship of the Third Pacific Squadron under Rear Admiral Nikolai Nebogatov . The squadron departed Liepāja on 15 January 1905 for the Pacific . She was slightly damaged during the Battle of Tsushima , receiving one hit from a twelve @-@ inch gun , two from eight @-@ inch guns and two from six @-@ inch guns , and suffered only 5 killed and 35 men wounded . She was surrendered , along with most of the Third Pacific Squadron , by Admiral Nebogatov the following day . On 6 June 1905 , she was taken into the Imperial Japanese Navy and renamed Iki , after Iki Island in the Sea of Japan , near site of the Battle of Tsushima . She served as a gunnery training ship until 12 December 1910 when she was redesignated as a first @-@ class coast defense ship and a training vessel . Some of her 6 @-@ inch guns were removed in 1910 and replaced by six 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) 45 @-@ caliber guns and some 76 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) 12 @-@ pounder guns were also added . She was stricken 1 May 1915 and sunk as a target by the battlecruisers Kongō and Hiei , although Watts and Gordon say that she was scrapped in 1922 .
|
= 2009 – 10 Duquesne Dukes men 's basketball team =
The 2009 – 10 Duquesne Dukes men 's basketball team represented Duquesne University in National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) Division I ( D @-@ I ) college basketball during the 2009 – 10 season .
Duquesne hoped to build on the success of the 2008 – 09 season and began the new year with five straight victories . Soon , however , a string of setbacks hit the team , including the loss of two players , one due to injury and the other to suspension . Duquesne lost its final non @-@ conference game and slipped into a five @-@ game losing streak . The team did manage to break the streak , but had trouble gaining any momentum . In mid @-@ February the Dukes finally seemed to break free with a solid 21 point victory over La Salle , followed by a crucial road upset of the University of Charlotte , which was ranked first in the Atlantic 10 Conference at the time , and finally another upset of the University of Dayton Flyers in front of a sellout Pittsburgh crowd . However , Duquesne then lost its final two road games of the season .
Despite its lackluster season 's end , Duquesne won an invitation to the College Basketball Invitational postseason tournament . The team lost to the Princeton Tigers , and the Dukes were eliminated in the first round , ending the 2009 season .
= = Duquesne University = =
Duquesne University , also called Duquesne University of the Holy Spirit , is a private Catholic university in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , United States . The University 's Duquesne Dukes compete in NCAA Division I ( D @-@ I ) . D @-@ I schools are generally the major collegiate athletic powers , with larger budgets , more elaborate facilities , and higher numbers of athletic scholarships in comparison to Division II and III . This level was once called the University Division of the NCAA , and the Division II and III levels , the College Division ; this terminology was replaced with the current numeric ( I , II , III ) divisions in 1973 .
The Dukes have played twice in national championship games in the 1950s and won the National Invitation Tournament championship in 1955 , when the NIT was the premier collegiate basketball tournament in the country . The men 's basketball Dukes annually play its cross @-@ town rival , the University of Pittsburgh Panthers , in Pittsburgh 's highly anticipated and well @-@ attended City Game . The current head coach is Ron Everhart , who has a two @-@ year record of 27 – 32 ( 13 – 19 in the Atlantic 10 Conference ) . Well @-@ known Duquesne players of the past include All @-@ Americans Chuck Cooper , Sihugo Green , Dick Ricketts and Willie Somerset , and Norm Nixon , who won the Most Outstanding Player in Duquesne 's 57 – 54 victory over the Villanova Wildcats in the 1977 Atlantic 10 Men 's Basketball Tournament .
= = Preseason = =
Duquesne lost only one starter , Aaron Jackson , from the 2008 – 09 team which ended with a record of 21 – 13 , the first time since 1981 that the school had 20 or more wins in a season . Picked to finish 12th in the Atlantic 10 , Duquesne went on to finish second , losing to Temple by only five points in the conference championship game . This earned Duquesne a bid into the National Invitation Tournament , its first postseason appearance since 1994 . The team was eliminated in a double @-@ overtime first round loss to Virginia Tech , but the Dukes ' unlikely success inspired the hope of a return to the NIT , or perhaps even the NCAA tournament .
On May 12 , 2009 the school announced that two freshman forwards , Shawntez Patterson and Aleksandar Milovic , had been released from their scholarships and cleared to transfer to other schools . Both saw limited action in the 2008 season . Shawntez Patterson transferred to Pensacola Junior College , and Aleksandar Milovic transferred to the University of Hawaii .
Andre Marhold , a small forward and the first of two incoming freshmen , signed with Duquesne on April 16 . Marhold , a native of Pittsburgh who moved to North Carolina for High School , averaged 17 @.@ 0 points and 10 @.@ 0 rebounds per game his senior year , in which his team was the regular season champion . He was ranked 188 in the top 1000 high school seniors by Hoop Scoop . Marhold turned down scholarship offers from Clemson , Charlotte , and Purdue .
Several weeks later on May 13 , guard Sean Johnson of Queens , New York also signed with the team . He attended Christ the King high school , whose basketball team finished his senior year ranked fourth in the state and eleventh in the nation by ESPN . He averaged 22 @.@ 4 points per game and was named New York City Catholic High School Athletic Association Most Valuable Player . Johnson also received scholarship offers from Nebraska , Manhattan , and Quinnipiac .
Prior to the start of the season , ESPN picked Duquesne to finish fifth in the Atlantic 10 conference , noting the loss of star Aaron Jackson but looking with optimism at the addition of 7 ft ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) center Morakinyo Williams and the continued development of other stars . Sophomore Melquan Bolding was also highlighted by ESPN as a key player in the Atlantic 10 .
= = = Incoming recruits = = =
= = = Roster = = =
Source
= = = Coaching staff = = =
Ron Everhart returned for his fourth season as head coach . After the departure of previous coach Danny Nee , Everhart steadily improved the team 's record year after year , taking the team from 3 – 24 the year before he arrived to the 21 – 13 record of 2008 – 09 . Everhart attended Virginia Tech , from which he graduated in 1985 . He served as an assistant coach at Georgia Tech , Virginia Military Institute , and Tulane University . In 1995 he took his first head coaching job at McNeese State University , and also coached at Northeastern University before moving to Duquesne in 2006 .
Bill Barton returned for his third season as Associate Head Coach . Steve Hall and Scott Rigot both served as Assistant Coaches for their second year . Jason Byrd was the Director of Basketball Operations .
= = Regular season = =
= = = Exhibition , Nicholls State , and Iowa = = =
The Dukes played their first game of the season on November 7 in an exhibition match against Division III La Roche . Duquesne scored a 47 @-@ point victory in which Damian Saunders led in scoring with 17 points . Despite the solid win , Duquesne made only 47 @.@ 6 % from the free throw line , a trend which haunted the team the rest of the season .
The regular season home @-@ opener was another victory for the team , as they defeated Nicholls State 85 – 62 on November 13 . Early in the game , Melquan Bolding hit the floor on a hard foul during a breakaway . After a few minutes , he recovered and went on to lead the team with 25 points . Saunders scored 17 points with 19 rebounds , his first of a long streak of double @-@ doubles . This game was also the second and final game of B.J. Monteiro 's 2 @-@ game suspension following allegations of participating in a robbery . Three days later , it was announced that Bolding had fractured his wrist when he was fouled , and would be unable to play for 4 – 6 weeks .
Despite the loss of Bolding , the team went on the road to face Iowa on November 17 , with newly returned B.J. Monteiro starting in place of Melquan Bolding . When down 49 – 50 with 11 @.@ 7 seconds left , Bill Clark took an off @-@ balance 3 @-@ point shot which spun in , putting the team up 52 – 50 and sealing their second victory of the regular season . This was Duquesne 's first ever victory at a Big Ten arena , and its first victory against a Big Ten school since a win over Illinois in 1973 .
= = = The CBE Classic = = =
The team then traveled to Cullowhee , North Carolina for three games as part of the O 'Reilly Auto Parts CBE Classic . Duquesne defeated Binghamton 70 – 52 to extend its record to 3 – 0 , with Saunders leading the way with 24 points . The next day the team improved to 4 – 0 with an overtime 75 – 72 victory against Division II Arkansas @-@ Monticello . On the third day of play , Duquesne finally lost to Western Carolina , 77 – 83 .
= = = The City Game and Chuck Cooper Classic = = =
The Dukes then returned home , where they faced Radford on November 29 . B.J. Monteiro continued to perform well as a starter in replacing Melquan Bolding , leading the team with 21 points . Next up for the team was the annual City Game match @-@ up between Duquesne and its crosstown rival Pitt . In front of 12 @,@ 336 fans at the Mellon Arena , Duquesne sprang out to a 16 @-@ point lead before slipping and losing 58 – 67 in double overtime . Bill Clark led all players with 23 points but the team hit foul trouble , with Saunders , Monteiro , and Peggau all fouling out in the final minutes .
On December 5 , Duquesne hosted the Chuck Cooper Classic , in which it defeated the Savannah State Tigers by a score of 58 – 44 . Eric Evans led with 17 points and Damian Saunders contributed 15 .
= = = West Virginia , Robert Morris , and Canisius = = =
Four days later , the Dukes were blown out 39 – 68 by # 7 West Virginia . Saunders led the team with only 12 points . One analyst attributed this loss to the skill of the Mountaineers , an abysmal night by star Bill Clark , as well as the continued absence of Melquan Bolding and now senior captain Jason Duty , who missed the game with a sprained ankle .
On December 12 the Dukes faced off against another local rival , Robert Morris . In a 59 – 54 win , B.J. Monteiro again led the team with 17 points . Monteiro 's continued high level of play prompted some analysts , as well as fans , to wonder whether the approaching return of Melquan Bolding would send Monteiro back to the bench , or if someone else would lose their starting position . Four days later the Dukes held off the Canisius Golden Griffins in a double overtime 86 – 77 victory at home . Bill Clark and Damian Saunders both contributed double doubles while B.J. Monteiro scored a career high 27 points .
= = = The end of non @-@ conference play = = =
The team then traveled to Indianapolis , where they lost to IUPUI 64 – 73 , despite a career high 20 points from Eric Evans . In their final game before a short Christmas break , Duquesne defeated the Saint Francis Red Flash 86 – 56 . Damian Saunders scored his tenth double @-@ double , making him the national leader in that statistic , as well as second in rebounds . Following the break , Duquesne lost its final non @-@ conference game to the Old Dominion Monarchs by a score of 54 – 63 , the first of a five @-@ game losing streak . Saunders still managed to post his eleventh double @-@ double , coming just one block short of what would have been only the second triple @-@ double in school history .
= = = Early conference play = = =
Duquesne opened conference play on January 6 in a match against the Richmond Spiders , a team which the Dukes had not defeated since the Spiders joined the Atlantic 10 in 2001 . This game marked the return of Melquan Bolding , though he did not start and scored only three points in fourteen minutes of playing time . Richmond managed to extend their streak , defeating the Dukes 86 – 80 , while Saunders maintained his nation @-@ leading position and now placed eighth in both blocks and steals . Duquesne then traveled to Dayton , Ohio where they lost to the Dayton Flyers 72 – 78 in overtime in front of a crowd of 13 @,@ 435 , the largest crowd the team would see all season . Senior Jason Duty was fouled on a 3 @-@ point attempt at the end of the game when his team was down by one , but made only one of three foul shots , sending the game into overtime . Melquan Bolding scored 13 points in 36 minutes , though he did not start , and Saunders came into the game now leading the nation in rebounds .
Duquesne found itself in overtime once again as they dropped another game against the St. Louis Billikens in double overtime , 75 – 79 . Melquan Bolding suffered another setback as he sat out most of the game , playing only five minutes due to strep throat . The team then went back out on the road to face the Rhode Island Rams , where they again lost with a final score of 67 – 75 , dropping their conference record to 0 – 4 . Bill Clark missed a game for the first time in his college career due to a suspension on suspicion of a " secondary NCAA rules violation . " Melquan Bolding started the game for the first time since his injury , but only scored 6 points .
= = = First conference win , Xavier , and Saint Joseph 's = = =
Two days later , Clark was reinstated . With Clark back in the lineup for a home game against St. Bonaventure Bonnies , Ron Everhart tried a new starting lineup : one that included Bolding and Monteiro , but left Senior Jason Duty on the bench . The Dukes took a 15 point lead at half time , but the Bonnies came back . With less than thirty seconds left , Bill Clark drew a charging penalty which gave his team the ball , down by two . One quick possession by each team left it 67 – 69 in favor of the Bonnies . On the final play , Damian Saunders drove towards the basket before passing it out to Melquan Bolding , who hit a 3 @-@ point shot to put the Dukes up by one with 3 @.@ 5 seconds remaining . Duquesne won 70 – 69 , giving them their first win since December 22 .
The winning feeling was short @-@ lived , however , as the Dukes were shut down by the Xavier Musketeers on January 28 , losing 86 – 50 . Melquan Bolding led the team with 14 points , Damian Saunders scored only 6 , and Bill Clark only 4 . On January 31 the team pulled out a 74 – 71 win against the Saint Joseph 's Hawks at home , with Melquan Bolding leading the team with 24 points .
= = = Temple , George Washington , and Massachusetts = = =
Once again , though , the Dukes were unable to build momentum as they lost 60 – 76 to # 19 ranked Temple . Bill Clark and Eric Evans led the team with just 12 points each . On February 6 , the Dukes braved a blizzard for a game against the George Washington Colonials in Washington , D.C .. Saunders led the way to a 70 – 63 win with a career @-@ high 27 points . Returning home on February 11 to face the Massachusetts Minutemen , the Dukes were unable to win two consecutive games for the third straight time , losing 80 – 84 . Damian Saunders scored 15 points , but was injured and left the game for a while ; when he returned , he did not score in the remainder of his playing time . He did , however , become Duquesne 's 33rd player to pass the 1 @,@ 000 career points mark .
= = = Introducing the 10 – 40 , Charlotte , and a rematch with Dayton = = =
Duquesne enjoyed another game at home on February 14 against the La Salle Explorers . Ron Everhart sought a new strategy for his team , which was struggling in conference play . In this game , La Salle was missing three players , leaving them with an active roster of only eight players . Duquesne ran a 10 – 40 pattern , in which two squads of five players execute short , intense bursts before being switched out for the other squad . At first , Duquesne fell behind by 14 points , but the strategy paid off as La Salle 's players tired . With La Salle fatigued , Duquesne switched back to a normal rotation and went on to win 103 – 82 . Bill Clark scored a career high 34 points , and also surpassed the 1 @,@ 000 point mark .
As underdogs on the road against the Charlotte 49ers , the Dukes ' new 10 – 40 strategy led them to an 83 – 77 upset victory . This was the first time of the season the team had managed to win two consecutive conference games . On February 21 , Duquesne again returned home for a nationally @-@ televised game against the Dayton Flyers . Senior Jason Duty was honored in a pre @-@ game ceremony , and the game 's attendance of 5 @,@ 144 was only 214 short of the A.J. Palumbo Center 's capacity . A late layup drive by Damian Saunders put the Dukes up by one , and they went on to win 73 – 71 .
= = = Ending the regular season = = =
Duquesne was unable to extend its streak on the road against St. Louis , as they lost 59 – 69 . Bill Clark led the team with 17 points and Saunders grabbed four steals , enough to raise his per @-@ game average to 2 @.@ 9 , a nation @-@ leading figure . With this , Saunders had at one point led the nation in double @-@ doubles , rebounds , and steals . The Dukes lost again , 80 – 92 , in their final road game against Saint Bonaventure . The loss put a damper on Duquesne 's hopes for a home game in the first round of the Atlantic 10 tournament , as they fell into a tie for the ninth seed position .
Duquesne closed its season against Fordham , who had yet to win a conference game and had only won two games all season . Fordham was hungry for a win , and a lack of effective defense on both sides led to a high scoring 111 – 100 victory for Duquesne . Melquan Bolding and Eric Evans both posted career high scores of 32 and 23 , respectively .
= = Postseason = =
After Duquesne lost to Saint Bonaventure , the Bonnies also lost their final regular season game to Xavier , which left the two teams in a tie for the eighth seed and the home tournament game that went with it . The two teams had played each other twice during the season , with each team taking one victory , so the second tiebreaker came down to who had scored the best victory . Duquesne 's best win came against Charlotte , while Saint Bonaventure 's was against Rhode Island . Unfortunately , those two teams were also in a tie . So for Duquesne to get their home game , Charlotte had to win their final home game , and Rhode Island had to lose . Both teams lost , so the tie remained and Rhode Island won out due to their head @-@ to @-@ head records . Thus Duquesne would head back out on the road against the Bonnies .
The game was played on March 9 and was close until the Bonnies went on a 14 – 0 run halfway into the second half , going on to win 71 – 83 . Despite Damian Saunders posting his 20th and final double @-@ double of the year , Duquesne 's 5 for 21 performance from beyond the 3 @-@ point arc combined with St. Bonaventure 's 75 % 3 @-@ point shooting and two players scoring in the upper twenties put the game out of the Dukes ' reach . The loss dashed Duquesne 's last hopes at a bid to the NIT . However , an invitation to either the College Basketball Invitational ( CBI ) or CollegeInsider.com Postseason Tournament was still possible .
Early on March 15 , hours after the NCAA and NIT fields were announced , Duquesne accepted a bid into the CBI . This would be Duquesne 's 23rd postseason appearance and first in the CBI , which started in 2008 . This also marked the first time since 1981 that the Dukes made two consecutive postseason appearances . It was announced that the Dukes would face off against the Princeton Tigers at Jadwin Gymnasium on March 17 .
On Tuesday , March 16 , it was announced that Junior Bill Clark had been suspended indefinitely from the team due to " conduct " issues . Clark had not attended practice the day before and would not travel to Princeton with the team for the CBI opening game on Wednesday . This would be only the second game that Bill Clark has missed in his college career .
Duquesne suffered its final disappointment of the season on March 17 as it fell to the Princeton Tigers . Bill Clark remained suspended and Damian Saunders led the team with only 14 points . Duquesne dominated the game early on , taking a 20 – 11 lead before Princeton came back , eventually leading 28 – 23 at the half . The Dukes were unable to turn the momentum and continued to fall behind , eventually losing 51 – 65 . The absence of Bill Clark showed on defense , as the Dukes were out @-@ rebounded heavily . The Dukes also failed to improve on their issues from the regular season , going only 8 for 18 from the free throw line and 3 for 15 from 3 @-@ point range . This loss ended the 2009 season , and all Duquesne could do was look ahead to the next year .
= = Schedule = =
= = Statistics = =
Duquesne was plagued by a few issues during the 2009 season . Most notable were the poor free @-@ throw and 3 @-@ point shooting percentages . Duquesne was last in the Atlantic 10 in both of these categories at 60 @.@ 8 % and 26 @.@ 3 % respectively . Despite their poor performance shooting from beyond the 3 @-@ point line , Duquesne still shot the fourth most three @-@ pointers of all teams in the Atlantic 10 . The following chart displays player per @-@ game average statistics for the regular season and Atlantic 10 tournament .
Source
= = = Awards and controversies = = =
Duquesne players received a few accolades in the 2009 – 10 season . Junior Damian Saunders 's outstanding play earned him a spot on the Atlantic 10 All @-@ Conference First Team . He was also named the Atlantic 10 Defensive Player of the Year . Earlier in the season , Jason Duty was nominated as a finalist for the Lowe 's Senior CLASS award , an award which recognizes college seniors who demonstrate exemplary outstanding performance both on the court and in the classroom . Duty , who held a 3 @.@ 72 GPA as an accounting major and had already accepted a job with PricewaterhouseCoopers , was named to the Atlantic 10 All @-@ Academic Team .
Early in the season , Damian Saunders was named Atlantic 10 ( A @-@ 10 ) player of the week for two consecutive weeks , sharing the honors with Chris Wright of Dayton and Jordan Crawford of Xavier , respectively . Following his 34 @-@ point performance against La Salle , Bill Clark earned his first career A @-@ 10 Player of the Week award , with Richmond 's Kevin Anderson .
The season was also marred by a few controversies . Prior to the beginning of play , B.J. Monteiro was arrested on October 3 in Middletown , Connecticut . He turned himself into police on suspicion of participating in the theft of a laptop , iPod , and cash from a house during a party in early August . He was charged with third @-@ degree larceny and , on October 6 , he was suspended indefinitely from the team . Following his court appearance on October 13 , all charges were dropped and Monteiro was reinstated to the team .
In late January , Junior Bill Clark was benched for the game against Rhode Island as the NCAA investigated a potential secondary rules violation . The specific details of the incident were not released by Duquesne , even after Clark 's return to the team the next day . A secondary rules violation is defined as " one that is isolated or inadvertent in nature , provides or is intended to provide only a minimal recruiting , competitive or other advantage . "
In the postseason , Bill Clark was again suspended , this time by coach Everhart for a conduct issue . The day before the CBI game against Princeton , Everhart announced that Clark would not travel to the game or participate in any practices or team activities until he felt the student ready to return . Clark was reinstated two weeks later , and , as before , no details were revealed .
|
= Paul Nobuo Tatsuguchi =
Paul Nobuo Tatsuguchi ( 辰口 信夫 , Tatsuguchi Nobuo ) , sometimes mistakenly referred to as Nebu Tatsuguchi ( August 31 , 1911 – May 30 , 1943 ) , was a surgeon in the Imperial Japanese Army ( IJA ) during World War II . He was killed during the Battle of Attu on Attu Island , Alaska on May 30 , 1943 .
A devout Seventh @-@ day Adventist , Tatsuguchi studied medicine and was licensed as a physician in the United States ( US ) . He returned to his native Japan to practice medicine at the Tokyo Adventist Sanitarium , where he received further medical training . In 1941 , he was ordered to cease his medical practice and conscripted into the IJA as an acting medical officer , although he was given an enlisted rather than officer rank because of his American connections . In late 1942 or early 1943 , Tatsuguchi was sent to Attu , which had been occupied by Japanese forces in October 1942 . The United States Army landed on the island on May 11 , 1943 , intending to retake the island from the Japanese .
Throughout the ensuing battle , Tatsuguchi kept a diary in which he recorded its events and his struggle to care for the wounded in his field hospital . He was killed on the battle 's final day after the remaining Japanese conducted one last , suicidal charge against the American forces .
Tatsuguchi 's diary was recovered by American forces and translated into English . Copies of the translation were widely disseminated and publicized in the US after the battle . The American public was intrigued by a Christian , American @-@ trained doctor serving with Japanese forces on the island and by his apparent participation in assisting with the deaths of wounded Japanese soldiers in his field hospital during the battle 's final days . Translated excerpts from Tatsuguchi 's diary have been widely quoted in Western historical accounts of the battle , especially his final entry in which he recorded a farewell message to his family .
= = Early life = =
Tatsuguchi 's father , Suichi Tatsuguchi , was born and raised in Hiroshima , Japan , before leaving for the US in 1895 to " explore the new world " . He attended Healdsburg College , later renamed Pacific Union College , in Angwin , California . While attending the college , he was baptized into the Seventh @-@ day Adventist Church . In 1907 , after completing a course of study in dentistry at the College of Physicians and Surgeons in San Francisco , Suichi Tatsuguchi returned to Hiroshima with plans to serve as a medical missionary .
In Hiroshima , Tatsuguchi established a prosperous dental practice and promoted the establishment of the Hiroshima Adventist church . He married Sadako Shibata who was also familiar with the US and spoke fluent English . Suichi and Sadako had three sons and three daughters . All three sons would eventually attend school in the US . The middle son , born on August 31 , 1911 , was given the English name of Paul and the Japanese name of Nobuo , although he was called " Joseph " at home .
= = Schooling and marriage = =
Paul Nobuo Tatsuguchi graduated from middle school in Hiroshima on March 16 , 1919 . On March 2 , 1923 , he graduated from Travier English Academy . Paul traveled to California and entered Pacific Union College in 1926 and graduated in May 1932 . When his parents both died unexpectedly in 1932 , Paul returned to Japan to help settle the family affairs . He returned to California in 1933 and entered the College of Medical Evangelists at Loma Linda University , completing the course of study in June 1937 . Paul Tatsuguchi then accepted a year 's internship at White Memorial Hospital in Los Angeles . While studying in America , Tatsuguchi was regarded by his classmates , who called him " Tatsy " or Paul , as a serious student , friendly but not gregarious . Classmate J. Mudry , a year behind Tatsuguchi at Loma Linda University , later said , " I know him well . I always thought Tatsuguchi — we called him Paul — was quite an American . "
On September 8 , 1938 , Tatsuguchi graduated as a Doctor of Medicine and was awarded a California medical license . That same year , he accepted a position at the Tokyo Adventist Sanitarium , an institution founded in part by his father in 1928 . As he would be working with tuberculosis patients in Tokyo , Tatsuguchi spent several more months undergoing postgraduate medical studies in California . Also in 1938 , Tatsuguchi married a childhood friend , Taeko Miyake . Taeko 's parents were serving as Adventist missionaries in Honolulu , Hawaii , while Taeko pursued studies in California . Paul and Taeko departed the U.S. for Japan in 1939 .
= = Early military service = =
In Tokyo , Tatsuguchi was aware of the rising tensions between Japan and the United States . Although he was strongly loyal to his native country , he also shared with Taeko a love of the US , to which they hoped to return to live someday . Tatsuguchi concentrated on his work at the sanitorium , and , with Taeko , supported activities for the Adventist church , of which they were devout members . In 1940 their first daughter , Joy Misako , was born .
Early the next year , the IJA – the conscription authority in Japan – ordered Tatsuguchi to leave his medical practice and report to the First Imperial Guard Regiment ( FIGR ) in Tokyo , where he was inducted with the rank of private on January 10 , 1941 . As he was stationed in Tokyo , Tatsuguchi was occasionally able to visit Taeko and Misako when his duties allowed . Misako said of this time that , " I only have one memory of my father , and that was playing hide and seek with him . "
In September 1941 , Tatsuguchi entered the IJA 's medical school . He graduated in October and was promoted to sergeant major , rejoining the FIGR in January 1942 . In the meantime , in December 1941 the Japanese attacked the US Navy base at Pearl Harbor and declared war on the US and its allies . Suspicious of Tatsuguchi 's American background , the IJA never gave him officer status , instead designating him as a non @-@ commissioned acting medical officer .
Over the next several months , Tatsuguchi was deployed to the South Pacific in support of IJA units in the Dutch East Indies . During his service , Tatsuguchi kept a diary , recording his first @-@ hand observations of military service as well as his thoughts and feelings about the events in which he was involved . In September 1942 , after learning that he would be reassigned to a combat area in Rabaul , New Britain , he noted in his diary , " I feel very happy and I am determined to do my best " , adding that he was " determined to destroy the enemy force to the very last soldier " .
Tatsuguchi reached Rabaul on October 4 , 1942 . His stay there was probably short , for his wife recorded that he joined her in Tokyo that same month prior to being redeployed . Tatsuguchi was unable to tell his wife , now pregnant with their second child , where he would be assigned , but she noticed that he studied maps of the North Pacific area . At one point , he remarked to Taeko that he was going to an area where he might meet some of his former classmates from California .
A few weeks after Tatsuguchi left for his new assignment , the IJA delivered a lock of his hair to Taeko . The IJA did this whenever soldiers were sent to a high @-@ risk combat area in case the soldier was killed and it proved impossible to repatriate the remains for proper funeral rites .
= = Attu = =
= = = Arrival = = =
Japanese forces had first occupied Attu and Kiska in the Aleutian Islands on June 7 , 1942 during the Battle of Midway . They abandoned Attu in September 1942 , but then decided to reoccupy it . A regiment of IJA soldiers from the Northern Sea Detachment ( 北海支隊 , Hokkai Shitai ) , a detachment of Imperial Japanese Navy Special Naval Landing Force troops , and support personnel began arriving on Attu in October 1942 . The total number of Japanese on the island would eventually be between 2 @,@ 500 and 2 @,@ 900 men . Exactly when Tatsuguchi arrived on Attu is unclear , because he was forbidden from specifying dates in the letters he wrote to Taeko , but it was probably between November 1942 and January 1943 . He was assigned to the Northern 5216 Detachment North Sea Defense Hospital .
With an American naval blockade in place , mail between Attu and Japan was infrequent and unscheduled . Tatsuguchi received several small packages from Taeko containing cookies and ointment for his skin , which was chafed by Attu 's severe winter winds . Four letters and several postcards from Tatsuguchi reached Taeko . As he was forbidden from discussing his unit 's exact location or mission , Tatsuguchi wrote about the weather , the beauty of the snowy and mountainous landscape around him , and his success in catching fish . He was cheered by the news from Taeko that their second daughter , Laura Mutsuko , was born in February . Tatsuguchi reminded Taeko in his letters to play classical music for their daughters . Whether he kept his diary during this time is unclear , for the only known diary entries by Tatsuguchi began in May , after the American landings to retake the island .
= = = Battle of Attu = = =
On May 11 , 1943 , the American Seventh Infantry Division began landing on Attu to retake the island from the Japanese . The Japanese commander on Attu , Yasuyo Yamasaki , positioned his troops – who were outnumbered five to one – in the mountains from where they temporarily delayed the Americans ' advance inland . Tatsuguchi 's diary entry on May 12 records the Japanese move into the mountains after the American landings , stating simply " evacuated to the summit . Air raids carried out frequently . Heard loud noise , it is naval gunfire . Prepared battle equipment . "
On May 14 , American artillery fired phosphorus smoke shells to mark Japanese positions in the mountains . Many Japanese and many Americans believed these were poison gas shells . Tatsuguchi noted in his diary that , " In the enemy the U.S. Forces used gas but no damage was done on account of strong wind . "
Tatsuguchi recorded in his diary that he was forced to move his field hospital into a cave to escape American naval and aerial bombardment . He relocated the hospital and patients several times as the Japanese forces were pushed back by the Americans . His May 17 entry describes one of the moves :
At night about 11 : 30 o 'clock under cover of darkness I left the cave . Walked over muddy roads and steep hills of no @-@ man 's land . No matter how far or how much we went we did not get over the pass . Sat down after 30 – 40 steps would sleep dream and wake up , same thing over again . We had few wounded and had to carry them on stretchers . They got frost @-@ bitten feet , did not move after all the effort . After struggling all the time , had expended nine hours , for all this without leaving any patients .
Tatsuguchi refers again and again in his diary to the constant , intense attacks by American aircraft and artillery on his comrades ' positions . On May 21 , he noted that he " was strafed when amputating a patient 's arm " and on May 23 that " by naval gun fire a hit was scored on the pillar pole of tents for patients and the tents gave in and killed two instantly . No food for two days . " On May 26 , Tatsuguchi recorded that " there was a ceremony of granting of the Imperial Edict . The last line of Umanose [ Japanese defensive position ] was broken through . No hope for reinforcements . We will die for cause of Imperial Edict . "
= = = Final attack and death = = =
By May 28 about a thousand Japanese remained , compressed into a small pocket . Yamasaki , apparently realizing that help from Japan was not forthcoming , decided on one last , desperate measure to try to save his command from destruction . On May 29 , Yamasaki organized a surprise attack on American positions . Yamasaki hoped to break through the enemy 's front lines and seize the American artillery batteries , which would then be turned on the rest of the American forces and their ships offshore . Tatsuguchi 's last diary entry records Yamasaki 's order , the disposition of the wounded in his hospital , and a farewell message to his family :
Today at 2 o 'clock we assembled at Headquarters , the field hospital took also part . The last assault is to be carried out . All the patients in the hospital were made to commit suicide . I am only 33 years old and I am to die . Have no regrets . Banzai to the Emperor . I am grateful that I have kept the peace in my soul which Enkis [ believed to mean either Christ or the Edict ] bestowed on me at 8 o 'clock . I took care of all patients with a grenade . Goodbye Iaeke [ Taeko ] , my beloved wife , who loved me to the last . Until we meet again grant you God @-@ speed Misaka [ Misako ] , who just became four years old , will grow up unhindered . If I feel sorry for you Takiko [ Mutusko ] born February this year and gone before without seeing your father . Well goodbye Mitsue , Brothers Hocan , Sukoshan , Masachan , Mitichan , goodbye . The number participating in this attack is a little over a thousand . Will try to take enemy artillery position . It seems the enemy will probably make an all @-@ out attack tomorrow .
Yamasaki launched his attack early in the morning on May 30 . Although the attack succeeded in penetrating the enemy lines , American rear @-@ area personnel rallied and killed Yamasaki and the majority of his attacking troops . Most of the remaining Japanese then committed suicide ; only 27 were taken prisoner .
Two versions exist of how Tatsuguchi died . One version is that he did not participate in the attack . Later in the day on May 30 , two American soldiers , Charles W. Laird and John Hirn , who were searching for remaining Japanese forces following the defeat of Yamasaki 's attack , approached the cave containing Tatsuguchi 's field hospital . Tatsuguchi emerged from the cave , waving his Bible in the direction of the Americans and yelling in English , " Don 't shoot ! I am a Christian ! " Laird heard and understood what Tatsuguchi was saying and withheld fire . Hirn , however , shot and killed Tatsuguchi . Hirn later stated that he could not hear what Tatsuguchi was saying over the wind and noise of battle and that he thought that the Bible Tatsuguchi was holding was a weapon .
The other version was told to Taeko and Laura by Charles Laird in 1984 . Laird , a former US Army sergeant who served on Attu , stated that he was sleeping in a tent the morning of May 30 when Yamasaki 's troops broke through the American front lines . A man ran into Laird 's tent and Laird shot and killed him , only to discover that the man was American . Then he saw eight Japanese soldiers approaching through the fog , so he shot and killed them too . One of them was Tatsuguchi . Laird said that he found Tatsuguchi 's diary and an address book in which he was shocked to see American names and addresses .
J. Mudry and another of Tatsuguchi 's Loma Linda classmates , J. L. Whitaker , were medical officers with the US Seventh Division on Attu during the battle . Whitaker was in the path of Yamasaki 's final attack , but survived without injury . Whitaker and Mudry were stunned to later learn that their former classmate was on the island with Japanese forces and was killed nearby .
= = Diary = =
After Tatsuguchi 's death his Japanese diary , as well as his Bible , a copy of Gray 's Anatomy and an address book , were forwarded to the division intelligence section . There , an American Nisei serviceman named Yasuo Sam Umetani drafted the first translation of the diary .
Word of the diary 's contents spread quickly through divisional headquarters to the other American troops on Attu . Americans were intrigued by the news that an American @-@ trained doctor had been with the Japanese forces on the island and that Tatsuguchi had described the battle from a Japanese perspective . Unauthorized copies of both Umetani 's version and subsequent translations , some of which contained variations , were passed around among the American troops on Attu and to military installations on other Aleutian islands . Civilian crews of transport ships in the area who obtained copies of the diary translation took their copies with them back to the continental US , where it drew the attention of the press and gained wide public exposure .
Simon Bolivar Buckner , Jr. the US commander of the Alaska Defense Command ( ADC ) , on learning that the diary claimed that the Americans had used poison gas in the Attu battle , was sufficiently troubled to order that all copies of the translations be confiscated . In transit to Buckner 's headquarters , the diary original itself vanished without trace , and its whereabouts are unknown to this day . Japanese versions are translated from the English translation . In early September 1943 , the ADC 's intelligence section reported that efforts to control the distribution of translated copies of the diary had failed .
Several American newspapers published excerpts from the diary , and most highlighted the possibility that Tatsuguchi , a professed Christian , might have been involved in the killing of wounded patients . The Chicago Tribune on September 9 , 1943 published an article headlined " Japs Slew Own Patients on Attu , Diary Discloses " . In contrast , the Loma Linda School of Medicine Alumni Journal defended Tatsuguchi as a gentle and caring doctor who was trapped in a situation beyond his control , where his actions violated neither his religious beliefs nor his oaths as a doctor . Most Western historical accounts of the Battle of Attu mention Tatsuguchi and quote from his diary , especially the final entry .
= = Family legacy = =
The Japanese government notified Taeko of her husband 's death in August 1943 . Taeko and her two daughters survived the remainder of the war on a small widow 's pension and with help from relatives . Taeko hoped that her husband was still alive and would return . Just after the war ended , B. P. Hoffman , one of Tatsuguchi 's former college instructors and a friend of Taeko 's , visited her in Osaka where she was living . Hoffman told her that a US Federal Bureau of Investigation agent had visited him during the war because Hoffman 's name was in Tatsuguchi 's address book found on Attu . The agent told the story of Tatsuguchi 's death to Hoffman , who related it to Taeko . Taeko accepted that her husband would not be coming back .
After the war , Taeko worked for the American occupation forces as a secretary and teacher . In 1954 , she and her two daughters , Joy and Laura , left Japan and joined Taeko 's parents in Hawaii . All three became naturalized citizens of the US . Joy and Laura both attended Pacific Union College and became nurses . Joy later married a Japanese man and returned to Japan to live . Laura married an American and moved to the Los Angeles area , where Taeko later joined her . In 2005 , Taeko told Kyodo News of her husband , " He was a faithful Christian doctor and a gentleman who devoted himself to God and communities . "
In May 1993 , Laura traveled to Attu and spoke at a 50th anniversary commemorative event of the Battle of Attu . In her speech at the event , Laura stated " How ironic that my father was killed in combat against his beloved America while in loyal service to his Japanese homeland ... Like my father , I too have a great love for Japan and America . "
= = = Books = = =
Cloe , John Haile ( 1990 ) . The Aleutian Warriors : A History of the 11th Air Force and Fleet Air Wing 4 . Missoula , Montana : Pictorial Histories Publishing Co. and Anchorage Chapter – Air Force Association . ISBN 0 @-@ 929521 @-@ 35 @-@ 8 . OCLC 25370916 .
Garfield , Brian ( 1995 ) [ 1969 ] . The Thousand @-@ Mile War : World War II in Alaska and the Aleutians . Fairbanks : University of Alaska Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 912006 @-@ 83 @-@ 8 . OCLC 33358488 .
Hays , Otis ( 2004 ) . Alaska 's Hidden Wars : Secret Campaigns on the North Pacific Rim . University of Alaska Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 889963 @-@ 64 @-@ X.
= = = Web = = =
Beauchamp , Edward R. ( November 22 , 2001 ) . " Imperial Navy doctor 's wartime diary opens a window to the nation 's past " . Japan Times . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 05 @-@ 04 .
McDaniel , Sandi ( July 16 , 1993 ) . " Searching for a Father on Attu for Daughter of WWII Japanese Medic , Island is Link to a Parent She Never Knew " . Anchorage Daily News . Archived from the original on 2008 @-@ 04 @-@ 22 . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 05 @-@ 04 .
Ōmura , Tomoyuki ( Japanese : 大村 紀征 ) . " An honorable death of Attu : Nobuo Tatsuguchi ' s diary " ( in Japanese ) . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 05 @-@ 04 .
Tominaga , Takaki ( August 15 , 2005 ) . " Postwar60 : Japanese widow remembers husband killed in Battle of Attu " . Asian Political News . Kyodo News . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 05 @-@ 04 .
|
= Pine Middle School shooting =
The Pine Middle School shooting was a school shooting that occurred in Reno , Nevada , United States , on March 14 , 2006 . The shooting was perpetrated by then fourteen @-@ year @-@ old student James Scott Newman who shot and injured two 14 @-@ year @-@ old eighth grade classmates with a .38 @-@ caliber revolver that had belonged to his parents . Newman was arrested and charged as an adult on charges of attempted murder , use of a deadly weapon and use of a firearm by a minor but later plead guilty to different charges of two counts of battery with a deadly weapon , in which he had received sentencing as a juvenile . James Newman was sentenced to house arrest until he completed 200 hours of community service .
On March 25 , 2008 , athletics teacher Jencie Fagan , who was hailed a hero for her confrontation with the shooter , was selected as one of the three national winners for the Above & Beyond Citizen Honor from the Congressional Medal of Honor Society at a ceremony in Washington , D.C.
= = The shooting = =
On the day of the shooting , the start of school had been delayed by snow and not all students had arrived when the shooting began . Just before 9 : 00 a.m. ( UTC @-@ 8 ) , fourteen @-@ year @-@ old student James Scott Newman brought his mother 's .38 @-@ caliber revolver to the school in his backpack . He removed the concealed pistol from his coat pocket and loaded it with three .38 caliber rounds while in the bathroom . He chose his target , student Alexander Rueda , 14 , at random in a hallway outside the cafeteria . Before he started firing , a friend of Newman yelled at him to put the gun away , but Newman told him to run . He pulled the trigger twice but the gun did not fire because those chambers were empty . He then fired three times at Rueda . One bullet hit Rueda in the arm and torso , and another ricocheted and hit student Kenzie McKeon , 14 , in the leg from the shrapnel . The two injured students had no prior relationship or arguments with Newman . Several students and teachers heard the shots and the physical education teacher , Jencie Fagan , approached Newman and challenged him . Fagan managed to convince Newman to drop his gun and then restrained him until more staff arrived to help .
Alexander Rueda was treated at Washoe Medical Center for his wounds and released the same day , while Kenzie McKeon only needed to be treated at the scene for superficial wounds . The school was placed on lockdown for an hour and then classes were canceled for the remainder of the day . The shooting was the second firearm @-@ related incident on Pine Middle School grounds in two weeks , with the previous incident being a man brandishing a gun towards the campus . On this occasion school administrators sent students home as a precaution .
= = = Motive = = =
After the shooting , Newman was interviewed by the police and remained determined that he did not want his parents to be present during questioning , however Newman 's father had arrived sometime after to ask for the questioning to stop until a lawyer would be consulted . During questioning Newman stated that he wanted to use the attack as a way to end abuse from his father , brother , and others . He said he was tired of being called " stupid " by them . He researched the Columbine High School massacre on the Internet and planned the attack about a week in advance . He conclusively decided against using a knife because " he did not want to be up close when blood came out of any of the victims . " The night before the attack , Newman 's father had given him a collection of ammunition which included three live .38 caliber rounds . When his parents left the house to eat , he took his mother 's handgun from a small safe in his father 's closet and hid it in his backpack .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the shooting , police arrested James Newman and booked him as an adult on charges of suspicion of attempted murder , use of a deadly weapon and use of a firearm by a minor in Washoe County Jail with a bail of $ 150 @,@ 000 . However , his trial was put on hold as prosecutors discussed whether he should be tried as an adult or juvenile . Washoe District Attorney Richard Gammick had announced on March 17 that the evidence given did not support Newman being charged as an adult . By May 2006 , Newman was tried as a juvenile by the Jan Evans Juvenile Justice Center for the charges of two counts of battery with a deadly weapon , instead of the initial charges and was put under house arrest until he completed 200 hours of community service .
On March 25 , 2008 , Jencie Fagan was selected as one of three national winners and the Nevada finalist for an Above & Beyond Citizen Honor from the Congressional Medal of Honor Society in the Washington , D.C. ceremony , being recognized for her role in prevention of any further incident in the shooting .
|
= Kilgour – Matas report =
The Kilgour – Matas report is a 2006 / 2007 investigative report into allegations of live organ harvesting in China conducted by Canadian MP David Kilgour and human rights lawyer David Matas . The report was requested by the Coalition to Investigate the Persecution of Falun Gong ( CIPFG ) after allegations emerged that Falun Gong practitioners were secretly having their organs removed against their will at Sujiatun Thrombosis Hospital . The report , based on circumstantial evidence , concluded that " there has been , and continues today to be , large @-@ scale organ seizures from unwilling Falun Gong practitioners . " China has consistently denied the allegations .
The initial report received a mixed reception . In the US , a Congressional Research Service report by Dr. Thomas Lum stated that the Kilgour – Matas report relied largely on logical inference , without bringing forth new or independently obtained testimony ; the credibility of much of the key evidence was said to be questionable . The initial 6 July 2006 report found that , " the source of 41 @,@ 500 transplants for the six year period 2000 to 2005 is unexplained " and concluded that " there has been and continues today to be large scale organ seizures from unwilling Falun Gong practitioners . " U.N. special rapporteur Manfred Nowak said in March 2007 that the chain of evidence Kilgour and Matas were documenting showed a " coherent picture that causes concern " , which the United Nations Committee Against Torture followed up in November 2008 with a request for " a full explanation of the source of organ transplants " , to investigate the claims of organ harvesting , and to take measures to prosecute those committing abuses . Other investigators , such as Ethan Gutmann , followed the Kilgour – Matas report ; Gutmann estimating that between 450 @,@ 000 and 1 million Falun Gong members were detained at any given time , and estimated that tens of thousands may have been targeted for organ harvesting .
Upon release of the initial report on 6 July 2006 , Chinese officials declared that China abides by World Health Organization principles that prohibit the sale of human organs without written consent from donors . They denounced the report as smears " based on rumours and false allegations " , and said the Chinese government had already investigated the claims and found them without any merit . The report is banned in Russia and China . Among international concerns , the US National Kidney Foundation expressed that it was " deeply concerned " about the allegations .
In 2009 , the authors published an updated version of the report as a book , titled Bloody Harvest , The killing of Falun Gong for their organs , and in the same year received an award from the International Society for Human Rights .
= = Background = =
= = = Falun Gong = = =
Falun Gong is a spiritual discipline that combines meditation and exercises with a moral philosophy , emerged in China in the 1990s ; by 1999 the number of practitioners was estimated in the tens of millions .
In July 1999 , following a large @-@ scale demonstration to request official recognition , Chinese authorities initiated a nationwide campaign to suppress the group , and created the 610 Office to oversee and coordinate the elimination of Falun Gong . The suppression that followed was accompanied by what Amnesty International called a " massive propaganda campaign , " , as well as the detention and imprisonment of tens of thousands of Falun Gong adherents . Former detainees reported that in some labour camps , Falun Gong practitioners comprised the majority population , and were singled out for abuse . Under order from Beijing , practitioners are subject to coercive “ reeducation ” and torture , sometimes resulting in deaths . Due to limited access to victims and labour camp facilities , however , many specific reports of abuses are difficult to independently corroborate .
= = = Organ transplantation in China = = =
China has had an organ transplantation programme since the 1960s . It is one of the largest organ transplant programmes in the world , peaking at over 13 @,@ 000 transplants a year in 2004 . Involuntary organ harvesting is illegal under Chinese law , although under a 1984 regulation it became legal to remove organs from executed criminals with the prior consent of the criminal or permission of relatives . By the 1990s , growing concerns about possible ethical abuses arising from coerced consent and corruption led medical groups and human rights organizations to start condemning the practice . These concerns resurfaced in 2001 , when The Washington Post reported claims by a Chinese asylum @-@ seeking doctor that he had taken part in organ extraction operations .
By 2005 the World Medical Association had specifically demanded that China cease using prisoners as organ donors . In December of that year , China 's Deputy Health Minister acknowledged that the practice of removing organs from executed prisoners for transplant was widespread – as many as 95 % of all organ transplants in China derived from executions , and he promised steps to prevent abuse .
= = = Sujiatun = = =
The first allegations of systematic organ harvesting from Falun Gong practitioners were made in March 2006 by two individuals claiming to possess knowledge of involuntary organ extractions at the Sujiatun Thrombosis Hospital in Shenyang , Liaoning province . The allegations were publicized by the Epoch Times , a newspaper group founded by Falun Gong practitioners . Within one month of the press coverage , third party investigators , including representatives of the US Department of State , said that there was insufficient evidence to prove the allegations . In 2006 and 2008 , United Nations Special Rapporteurs raised questions about the sources of organs , the short waiting times for finding perfectly matched organs , and the correlation between the sudden increase in organ transplants in China and the beginning of the persecution of Falun Gong practitioners . These requests were not satisfactorily addressed by the Chinese authorities . [ 69 ] In November 2008 the United Nations Committee Against Torture noted its concern at the allegations and called for China to " immediately conduct or commission an independent investigation of the claims " , and take measures " to ensure that those responsible for such abuses are prosecuted and punished " . [ 7 ] Chinese dissident Harry Wu , who exposed organ harvesting from prison inmates at laogai ( hard labour camps ) , questioned the credibility of the Sujiatun whistle @-@ blowers . But Harry Wu 's July 2006 article showed his views in his March 21 letter were formed before completing his investigation , so Harry Wu 's views were not based on his full investigation . Further , Harry Wu characterized the volume of organ harvesting Annie described as " technically impossible " , but in fact it is technically possible , according to medical expert . On April 14 , 2006 , the US state department wrote that " U.S. representatives have found no evidence to support allegations that a site in northeast China has been used as a concentration camp to jail Falun Gong practitioners and harvest their organs " , adding " independent of these specific allegations , the United States remains concerned over China ’ s repression of Falun Gong practitioners and by reports of organ harvesting . "
Soon thereafter , in May 2006 , The Coalition to Investigate the Persecution of Falun Gong asked David Kilgour as well as Canadian human rights lawyer David Matas to investigate the broader allegations of organ harvesting from Falun Gong adherents in China . Kilgour and Matas agreed to investigate .
= = The report = =
= = = First report = = =
On 20 July 2006 , Kilgour and Matas presented the findings of their two @-@ month investigation as Report into Allegations of Organ Harvesting of Falun Gong Practitioners in China . The report presented 33 strands of circumstantial evidence that Kilgour and Matas felt , in the absence of any disproof , cumulatively allowed the conclusion that " the government of China and its agencies in numerous parts of the country , in particular hospitals but also detention centres and ' people 's courts ' , since 1999 have put to death a large but unknown number of Falun Gong prisoners of conscience . Their vital organs , including kidneys , livers , corneas and hearts , were seized involuntarily for sale at high prices , sometimes to foreigners , who normally face long waits for voluntary donations of such organs in their home countries . ” . The report called attention to the extremely short wait times for organs in China — one to two weeks for a liver compared with 32 @.@ 5 months in Canada — noting that this was indicative of organs being procured on demand . It also tracked a significant increase in the number of annual organ transplants in China beginning in 1999 , corresponding with the onset of the persecution of Falun Gong . Despite very low levels of voluntary organ donation , China performs the second @-@ highest number of transplants per year . Kilgour and Matas also presented material from Chinese transplant center web sites advertising the immediate availability of organs from living donors , and transcripts of telephone interviews in which hospitals told prospective transplant recipients that they could obtain Falun Gong organs . The authors qualified their findings by noting the difficulties in verifying the alleged crimes , such as : independent bodies were not allowed to investigate conditions in China , eyewitness evidence was difficult to obtain , official information about organ transplantation was often withheld , and Kilgour and Matas themselves were denied visas to go to China to investigate .
= = = Second report = = =
In a January 2007 revision , Bloody Harvest : Revised Report into Allegations of Organ Harvesting of Falun Gong Practitioners in China , Kilgour and Matas felt that the Government of China had reinforced the basis of the first report by responding to it in an unpersuasive way , mostly as attacks on Falun Gong . For Kilgour and Matas , such attacks made possible the violation of the basic human rights of Falun Gong practitioners . China identified two factual errors in the first version of the report — one in an appendix , in a caption heading , where Kilgour and Matas placed two Chinese cities in the wrong provinces ; the authors dismissed those errors as have nothing to do with the analysis or conclusions of their report . In the absence of evidence that would invalidate the organ harvesting allegations — such as a Chinese government registry showing the identity of every organ donor and donation — Kilgour and Matas concluded that the allegations of China 's harvesting organs from live Falun Gong practitioners were true and the practice was ongoing . They called for a ban on Canadian citizens traveling to China for transplant operations .
As of November 2014 the report has been translated into 21 languages .
= = = Books = = =
In 2009 , Kilgour and Matas published an updated version of the report as a book , titled Bloody Harvest , The killing of Falun Gong for their organs . It contains new material and interviews , and is in two parts . The first section sets out the evidence ; the second section details the reactions the final report received and the advocacy Matas and Kilgour undertook to end the abuse that they conclusively identified . That year , Kilgour and Matas also received the 2009 Human Rights Award by the German @-@ based International Society for Human Rights ; and were nominated for the 2010 Nobel Peace Prize .
In 2012 , State Organs : Transplant Abuse in China , edited by David Matas and Torsten Trey was published with contributions from a dozen specialists .
= = Response = =
The report 's allegations of involuntary organ removal from Falun Gong adherents received considerable media coverage , particularly in Canada , Europe , and Australia . Several governments tightened transplant tourism practices and requested more information from the Chinese government . Chinese officials repeatedly and angrily denied the report 's organ harvesting allegations . Upon release of the initial report , China declared they abided by World Health Organization principles that prohibit the sale of human organs without written consent from donors and denounced the report .
Amnesty International in 2006 said it was “ continuing to analyze sources of information ” about the allegations . David Ownby , a professor of history at of the University of Montreal and expert on Falun Gong , wrote in Falun Gong and the Future of China that Falun Gong practitioners were probable candidates for organ harvesting in Chinese prisons . However , he felt that Falun Gong spokespersons " overplayed their hand " with the concentration camp allegations , potentially losing credibility in the eyes of neutral observers , despite the real persecution they were suffering . A Congressional Research Service report by Thomas Lum said that the report relies on logical inferences and telephone call transcripts which , he suggested , may not be credible . Glen McGregor of the Ottawa Citizen was skeptical about the logistical plausibility of the allegations after visiting Sujiatun at the invitation of the Chinese Medical Association . He said that , depending on who you believe , " the Kilgour – Matas report is either compelling evidence that proves the claims about Falun Gong ... or a collection of conjecture and inductive reasoning that fails to support its own conclusions " .
Some observers found the report and its figures plausible . Tom Treasure of Guy 's Hospital , London , said the Kilgour – Matas report was " plausible from a medical standpoint " based on the numerical gap in the number of transplants and the short waiting times in China compared with other countries . He noted the existence of blood tests of imprisoned Falun Gong followers , which is not useful for the victims but is critical to organ donation , and said the allegations were “ credible . ” Non @-@ fiction writer Scott Carney included the allegations in his book The Red Market , writing " No one is saying the Chinese government went after the Falun Gong specifically for their organs … but it seems to have been a remarkably convenient and profitable way to dispose of them . Dangerous political dissidents were executed while their organs created a comfortable revenue stream for hospitals and surgeons , and presumably many important Chinese officials received organs . " Using different research methods to Kilgour and Matas , Ethan Gutmann , adjunct fellow at the Foundation for Defense of Democracies , found that his estimate of the number of Falun Gong practitioners killed for organs of approximately 65 @,@ 000 was close to the estimate of 62 @,@ 250 by Kilgour and Matas . In September 2014 he published his findings in The Slaughter : Mass Killings , Organ Harvesting , and China ’ s Secret Solution to Its Dissident Problem . Kirk C. Allison , Associate Director of the Program in Human Rights and Medicine in the University of Minnesota , wrote that the " short time frame of an on @-@ demand system [ as in China ] requires a large pool of donors pre @-@ typed for blood group and HLA matching , " and would be consistent with the Falun Gong allegations about the systematic tissue typing of practitioners held prisoner . He wrote that the time constraints involved " cannot be assured on a random @-@ death basis " , and that physicians he queried about the matter indicated that they were selecting live prisoners to ensure quality and compatibility .
The US National Kidney Foundation said they were " deeply concerned about recent allegations regarding the procurement of organs and tissues through coercive or exploitative practices " and that " any act which calls the ethical practice of donation and transplantation into question should be condemned by the worldwide transplantation community . " A 2008 petition signed by 140 Canadian physicians urged the Canadian Government to " issue travel advisories warning Canadians that organ transplants in China are sourced almost entirely from non @-@ consenting people , whether prisoners sentenced to death or Falun Gong practitioners " . Canadian Member of Parliament Borys Wrzesnewskyj , based on the findings of the Kilgour – Matas report , introduced a 2008 bill that would make it illegal for Canadians to get an organ transplant abroad if the organ was taken from an unwilling victim . In 2013 , Doctors Against forced Organ Harvesting ( DAFOH ) presented a petition of nearly 1 @.@ 5 million signatures including over 300 @,@ 000 from Europe to the Office of UN High Commissioner on Human Rights in Geneva .
While Russia , along with China , banned the report ; Taiwan condemned , " in the strongest possible terms " , China 's harvesting of human organs from executed Falun Gong practitioners . Taiwan 's Department of Health , urged Taiwanese doctors to not encourage patients to get commercial organ transplants in mainland China . Rabbi Yosef Shalom Eliashiv prohibited Jews from deriving any benefit from Chinese organ harvesting , " even in life @-@ threatening situations " ; other rabbis opposed the use of Chinese organs for transplants .
In 2006 and 2008 , United Nations Special Rapporteurs raised questions about the sources of organs , the short waiting times for finding perfectly matched organs , and the correlation between the sudden increase in organ transplants in China and the beginning of the persecution of Falun Gong practitioners . These requests were not satisfactorily addressed by the Chinese authorities . In November 2008 the United Nations Committee Against Torture noted its concern at the allegations and called for China to " immediately conduct or commission an independent investigation of the claims " , and take measures " to ensure that those responsible for such abuses are prosecuted and punished " .
In 2010 , though the Chinese Medical Society had stated that organ transplants from executed prisoners must cease , and changes in Chinese regulations prohibited transplant tourism , a meeting of the Transplantation Society received over 30 papers containing data from several hundred transplants , where the donor source was likely executed prisoners .
During the U.N. Human Rights Council meeting held on March 12 , 2014 , Anne @-@ Tamara Lorre , the Canadian representative on human rights to the United Nations , raised the issue of organ harvesting in China . " We remain concerned that Falun Gong practitioners and other religious worshippers in China face persecution , and reports that organ transplants take place without free and informed consent of the donor are troubling . "
|
= Ficus rubiginosa =
Ficus rubiginosa , commonly known as the rusty- or Port Jackson fig ( damun in the Dharug language ) is a species of flowering plant native to eastern Australia in the genus Ficus . Beginning as a seedling that grows on other plants ( hemiepiphyte ) or rocks ( lithophyte ) , F. rubiginosa matures into a tree 30 m ( 100 ft ) high and nearly as wide with a yellow @-@ brown buttressed trunk . The leaves are oval and glossy green and measure from 4 to 19 @.@ 3 cm ( 1 1 ⁄ 2 – 7 1 ⁄ 2 in ) long and 1 @.@ 25 to 13 @.@ 2 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2 – 5 1 ⁄ 4 in ) wide .
The fruits are small , round and yellow , and can ripen and turn red at any time of year , peaking in spring and summer . The fruit is known as a syconium , an inverted inflorescence with the flowers lining an internal cavity . F. rubiginosa is exclusively pollinated by the fig wasp species Pleistodontes imperialis , which may in fact comprise four cryptospecies . The syconia are also home to another fourteen species of wasp , some of which induce galls while others parasitise the pollinator wasps , and at least two species of nematode . Many species of bird , including pigeons , parrots and various passerines , eat the fruit . Ranging along the Australian east coast from Queensland to Bega in southern New South Wales , F. rubiginosa grows in rainforest margins and rocky outcrops. it is used as a shade tree in parks and public spaces , and when potted is well @-@ suited for use as an indoor plant or in bonsai .
= = Taxonomy = =
Ficus rubiginosa was described by French botanist René Louiche Desfontaines in 1804 , from a type specimen whose locality is documented as " New Holland " . In searching for the type specimen , Australian botanist Dale Dixon found one from the herbarium of Desfontaines at Florence Herbarium and one from the herbarium of Étienne Pierre Ventenat at Geneva . As Ventenat had used Desfontaines ' name , Dixon selected the Florence specimen to be the type in 2001 . The specific epithet rubiginosa related to the rusty coloration of the undersides of the leaves . Indeed , rusty fig is an alternate common name ; others include Illawarra fig and Port Jackson fig . It was known as damun ( pron . " tam @-@ mun " ) to the Eora and Darug inhabitants of the Sydney basin .
In 1806 , German botanist Carl Ludwig Willdenow gave it the botanical name Ficus australis in Species Plantarum , but this is a nomen illegitimum as the species already had a validly published name . Italian botanist Guglielmo Gasparrini broke up the genus Ficus in 1844 , placing the species in the genus Urostigma as U. rubiginosum . In 1862 , Dutch botanist Friedrich Anton Wilhelm Miquel described Urostigma leichhardtii from material collected from Cape Cleveland , Queensland , noting it had affinities to F. rubiginosa . In 1867 , he placed Urostigma as a subgenus in the reunited Ficus , which resulted in the taxon becoming Ficus leichhardtii . Miquel also described Ficus leichhardtii variety angustata from Whitsunday Island , later classified as F. shirleyana by Czech botanist Karel Domin . Queensland state botanist Frederick Manson Bailey described Ficus macrophylla variety pubescens in 1911 from Queensland , Domin later renaming it Ficus baileyana . All these taxa were found to be indistinguishable from ( and hence reclassified as ) F. rubiginosa by Dixon in 2001 .
In a study published in 2008 , Nina Rønsted and colleagues analysed the DNA sequences from the nuclear ribosomal internal and external transcribed spacers , and the glyceraldehyde @-@ 3 @-@ phosphate dehydrogenase region , in the first molecular analysis of the section Malvanthera . They found F. rubiginosa to be most closely related to the rainforest species F. watkinsiana and two rock @-@ growing ( lithophytic ) species of arid northern Australia ( F. atricha and F. brachypoda ) . They classified these species in a new series Rubiginosae in the subsection Platypodeae . Relationships are unclear and it is uncertain into which direction the group radiated ( into rainforest or into arid Australia ) .
Joseph Maiden described variety lucida in 1902 , and Bailey described variety glabrescens in 1913 . Both had diagnosed their varieties on the basis of their hairlessness . Maiden described a taxon totally devoid of hair , while Bailey described his as nearly glabrous ( hairless ) . As Bailey 's description more closely matched Dixon 's findings ( that these variants were only partly and not completely hairless ) , Dixon retained Bailey 's name and reclassified it as Ficus rubiginosa forma glabrescens in 2001 as it differed only in the lack of hairs on new growth from the nominate form .
= = Description = =
A spreading , densely @-@ shading tree when mature , F. rubiginosa may reach 30 m ( 100 ft ) or more in height , although it rarely exceeds 10 m ( 30 ft ) in the Sydney region . The trunk is buttressed and can reach 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 ft 11 in ) in diameter . The bark is yellow @-@ brown . It can also grow as on other plants as a hemiepiphyte , or 1 – 5 m ( 3 – 16 ft ) high lithophyte . Alternately arranged on the stems , the ovate ( egg @-@ shaped ) , obovate ( reverse egg @-@ shaped ) or oval @-@ shaped leaves are anywhere from 4 – 19 @.@ 3 cm ( 1 5 ⁄ 8 – 7 5 ⁄ 8 in ) long and 1 @.@ 25 – 13 @.@ 2 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2 – 5 1 ⁄ 4 in ) wide , on 7 – 8 @.@ 2 cm ( 2 3 ⁄ 4 – 3 1 ⁄ 4 in ) -long petioles ( stalks that join the leaves to stems ) . They are smooth or bear tiny rusty hairs . There are 16 to 62 pairs of lateral veins that run off the midvein at an angle of 41 @.@ 5 – 84 @.@ 0 ° , while distinct basal veins run off the midvein at an angle of 18 @.@ 5 – 78 @.@ 9 ° . As with all figs , the fruit ( fig ) is actually an inverted inflorescence ( compound flower ) known as a syconium , with tiny flowers arising from the fig 's inner surface into a hollow cavity . F. rubiginosa is monoecious — both male and female flowers are found on the same plant , and in fact in the same fruit , although they mature at different times . Often growing in pairs , the figs are yellow initially and measure 4 – 10 mm ( 1 ⁄ 8 – 3 ⁄ 8 in ) across . Ripening to red in colour , they are tipped with a small nipple and on a 2 – 5 mm ( 1 ⁄ 8 – 1 ⁄ 4 in ) stalk . Fruits ripen throughout the year , although more so in spring and summer . Some trees have ripe and unripe fruit at the same time .
It closely resembles its relative , the Moreton Bay fig ( F. macrophylla ) . Having similar ranges in the wild , they are often confused . The smaller leaves , shorter fruit stalks , and rusty colour of the undersides of the leaves of F. rubiginosa are the easiest distinguishing features . It is also confused with the small @-@ leaved fig ( F. obliqua ) , the syconia of which are smaller , measuring 4 – 12 mm long and 4 – 11 mm in diameter , compared with 7 – 17 mm long and 8 – 17 mm diameter for F. rubiginosa .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Ficus rubiginosa occurs from the top of the Cape York Peninsula in north Queensland southwards along the eastern coastline of Australia to the vicinity of Bega on the south coast of New South Wales . The range extends westwards to Porcupine Gorge National Park in Queensland and the far western plains in New South Wales . F. rubiginosa f. rubiginosa and F. rubiginosa f. glabrescens are found over most of the range , though the latter does not occur south past the New South Wales @-@ Queensland border region . Lithophytic , hemiepiphytic and tree forms can be found together in local populations of plants .
F. rubiginosa is found in rainforest , rainforest margins , gullies , riverbank habitat , vine thickets , and rocky hillsides . It is found on limestone outcrops in Kanangra @-@ Boyd National Park . Fig seedlings often grow from cracks in stone where seeds have been lodged , in locations such as cliffs and rock faces in natural environments , or in brickwork on buildings and elsewhere in the urban environment . The soils it grows on are often well @-@ drained and low in nutrients . They are derived from sandstone , quartzite and basalt . In the Sydney region , F. rubiginosa grows from sea level to 1000 m ( 3500 ft ) altitude , in areas with an average yearly rainfall of 600 – 1 @,@ 400 mm ( 24 – 55 in ) . F. rubiginosa is largely sympatric with F. obliqua , though its range extends further west into dryer regions than the latter species .
Outside its native range , F. rubiginosa has naturalised to some degree in urban Melbourne and Adelaide in Australia , as well as New Zealand , Hawaii and California , and Mediterranean Europe . F. rubiginosa has been planted widely in Malta since the early 1990s but has not been observed to fruit .
= = Ecology = =
The fruit is consumed by many bird species including the rose @-@ crowned fruit @-@ dove ( Ptilinopus regina ) , wompoo fruit @-@ dove ( P. magnificus ) , wonga pigeon ( Leucosarcia melanoleuca ) , topknot pigeon ( Lopholaimus antarcticus ) , Pacific koel ( Eudynamys orientalis ) , Australasian swamphen ( Porphyrio melanotus ) , Australian king parrot ( Alisterus scapularis ) , Australasian figbird ( Sphecotheres vieilloti ) , green catbird ( Ailuroedus crassirostris ) , regent bowerbird ( Sericulus chrysocephalus ) , satin bowerbird ( Ptilonorhynchus violaceus ) and pied currawong ( Strepera graculina ) , as well as the mammalian grey @-@ headed flying fox ( Pteropus poliocephalus ) , and spectacled flying fox ( Pteropus conspicillatus ) . It is one of several plant species used as food by the endangered Coxen 's fig parrot . Many fruits drop onto the ground around the tree , though others are dispersed by animals that eat them .
The thrips species Gynaikothrips australis feeds on the underside of new leaves of F. rubiginosa , as well as F. obliqua and F. macrophylla . As plant cells die , nearby cells are induced into forming meristem tissue and a gall results , and the leaves become distorted and curl over . The thrips begin feeding when the tree has flushes of new growth , and live for around six weeks . At other times , thrips reside on old leaves without feeding . The species pupates sheltered in the bark . The thrips remain in the galls at night , wander about in the daytime and return in the evening , possibly to different galls about the tree . Psyllids have almost defoliated trees in the Royal Botanic Gardens in Sydney in spring .
= = = Reproduction and life span = = =
F. rubiginosa is exclusively pollinated in a symbiotic relationship with Pleistodontes imperialis , a species of fig wasp . Biologist Eleanor Haine and colleagues analysed the DNA of the wasp across the fig 's range and determined four cryptic lineages forming what they term the P. imperialis species complex . They diverge to a greater degree than some distinct wasp species , yet form a monophyletic group ; this indicates that the wasp lineages have split without a change of host .
Fertilised female wasps enter the receptive ' fig ' ( the syconium ) through a tiny hole at the crown ( the ostiole ) . They crawl around the inflorescenced interior of the fig , pollinating some of the female flowers , before laying eggs inside some of the flowers and dying . After several weeks ' development in their galls , the male wasps emerge before the females . They chew holes in the galls containing females and fertilise them through the hole they have just chewed . Males return later to mated females , and enlarge the mating holes to enable the females to emerge . Some males then chew their way through the syconium wall , which allows the females to disperse after collecting pollen from the now fully developed male flowers . Females then have a short time ( < 48 hours ) to find a tree with receptive syconia to successfully reproduce and disperse pollen .
A field study in Brisbane found that F. rubiginosa trees often bore both male and female phase syconia at the same time , which could be beneficial for reproduction in isolated populations . The same study found that male phase syconia development persisted through the winter , showing that its wasp pollinator tolerated cooler weather than those of more tropical fig species . F. rubiginosa itself can endure cooler climates than other members of the genus .
P. imperialis crossed the waters between Australia and New Zealand some time between 1960 and 1972 , and seedlings of the previously infertile trees of F. rubiginosa began appearing in brick and stone walls , and on other trees , particularly in parks and gardens around Auckland . They have been recorded as far south as Napier . P. imperialis has been transported to Hawaii , California and Israel , where it has been observed to pollinate its host .
Trees can live to 100 years or more . They have been known to resprout after bushfire , bearing fruit within three years .
= = = Other life in the syconia = = =
As with many other Ficus species , the community of wasps inside the figs of F. rubiginosa is made up mostly of pollinator wasps . These develop deep inside the syconium , presumably protected there from parasites . Also present are much smaller numbers of other wasp species , which do not pollinate the fig . At least fourteen species have been recorded , of which four — two each belonging to the genera Sycoscapter and Philotrypesis — are common while others are rare . Investigation of F. rubiginosa syconia found that the fig seeds and parasitic wasps develop closer to the wall of the syconium . The wasps of the genera Sycoscapter and Philotrypesis are parasitic and are around the same size as the pollinator species . Their larvae are thought to feed on the larvae of the pollinator wasp . Male Sycoscapter and Philotrypesis wasps fight other males of the same species when they encounter each other in a F. rubiginosa fig . Several genera of uncommon larger wasp species enter the immature figs before other wasps and induce galls , which may impact on numbers of pollinator wasps in the fig later . An example of this is Pseudidarnes minerva , a metallic green wasp species .
Nematodes of the genus Schistonchus are found in the syconia ( and the pollinator wasps ) of many species of fig , with F. rubiginosa hosting two species . They appear to be less species @-@ specific than wasps . S. altermacrophylla is generally associated with F. rubiginosa though it has been recorded on several other fig species .
= = Cultivation = =
Ficus rubiginosa was first cultivated in the United Kingdom in 1789 , where it is grown in glasshouses . It is commonly used as a large ornamental tree in eastern Australia , in the North Island of New Zealand , and also in Hawaii and California , where it is also listed as an invasive species in some areas . It is useful as a shade tree in public parks and on golf courses . Not as prodigious as other figs , F. rubiginosa is suited to slightly more confined areas , such as lining car parks or suburban streets . However , surface roots can be large and intrusive and the thin bark readily damaged when struck . Tolerant of acid or alkaline soils , it is hardy to US Hardiness Zones 10B and 11 , reaching 10 m ( 35 ft ) high in 30 years . Planting trees 8 – 12 m ( 30 – 40 ft ) apart will eventually result in a continuous canopy . The trees are of great value in providing fruit for birds and mammals , though drop large quantities of fruit and leaves , leaving a mess underfoot .
In a brief description , William Guilfoyle recorded a variegated fig from New South Wales " 12 – 15 ft high " in 1911 as F. rubiginosa variety variegata . A variegated form is in cultivation on Australia 's east coast , and in the United States . It is a chimera lacking in chlorophyll in the second layer of the leaf meristem . The leaves have an irregular central green patch along the midvein with irregular yellow and green elsewhere . Leaves that grow in winter generally have larger green patches than those that do in summer . The chimera is unstable , and branches of all @-@ green growth appear sporadically .
Despite the relatively large size of the leaves , it is popular for bonsai work as it is highly forgiving to work with and hard to kill ; the leaves reduce readily by leaf @-@ pruning in early summer . Described as the best tree for a beginner to work with , it is one of the most frequently used native species in Australia . Its bark remains smooth , and does not attain a rugged , aged appearance . Known as " Little Ruby " , a narrow @-@ leaved form with its origins somewhere north of Sydney is also seen in cultivation .
F. rubiginosa is also suited for use as a houseplant in low , medium or brightly @-@ lit spaces , although a variegated form requires brighter light . It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit . It is easily propagated by cuttings or aerial layering .
The light @-@ coloured wood is soft and brittle . Lightweight , it has some value in the making of such items as toys and small boxes .
|
= Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart =
The Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart ( spelled " Quick @-@ E @-@ Mart " in " Bart the General " ) is a fictional convenience store in the animated television series The Simpsons . It is a parody of American convenience stores , such as 7 @-@ Eleven and Wawa Inc . , and depicts many of the stereotypes about them . It is notorious for its high prices and the poor quality of its merchandise . The operator of the Springfield store is an Indian @-@ American named Apu Nahasapeemapetilon . It was first seen in the episode " The Telltale Head " and has since become a common setting in The Simpsons .
In July 2007 , eleven 7 @-@ Eleven locations in the United States and one in Canada were transformed into Kwik @-@ E @-@ Marts as part of a special promotion for The Simpsons Movie . Also in 2007 , gift shops modeled after the " Kwik @-@ E @-@ Marts " were opened in Universal Studios Florida and Universal Studios Hollywood , where they are a companion to " The Simpsons Ride " .
= = Role in The Simpsons = =
The Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart is a convenience store that sells the usual fare at extraordinarily high prices , including the always popular Squishee . The Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart chain was started somewhere in the Himalayas .
Springfield 's Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart is owned and operated by an Indian American named Apu Nahasapeemapetilon , who mans the store with his brother Sanjay and is a caricature of the stereotypical " foreign born " convenience store clerk . Apu is an extremely devoted convenience store clerk / owner , rarely closing his store and occasionally working 96 @-@ hour shifts . Apu proudly gouges customers and sells tainted merchandise , such as rotten meat or expired milk . Springfield 's Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart is quite often the target of robbers , leading to Apu having been shot on several occasions . It is a favorite target of local criminal Snake Jailbird , who has held up the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart several times .
= = Real @-@ world versions = =
= = = 7 @-@ Eleven promotion = = =
In July 2007 , convenience store chain 7 @-@ Eleven converted 11 of its stores in the United States and one in Canada ( Coquitlam ) into Kwik @-@ E @-@ Marts to promote The Simpsons Movie . The concept was first visualized in 2006 by Fox 's advertising agency , and the approximately 10 million dollar ( US ) cost of the promotion was borne by 7 @-@ Eleven . Another part of the promotion was a contest where customers who purchased a slurpee or sandwich also received a coded game piece that could be entered into a website . The grand prize of the contest was to be animated into an episode of The Simpsons . Prior to July , the promotion had long been known but the locations were kept a secret until the morning of July 1 , when the 12 stores were made over with industrial foam , vinyl and Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart signs .
These 12 locations , as well as the majority of other North American 7 @-@ Elevens , sold products found in The Simpsons , such as " Buzz Cola " , " Krusty @-@ O 's " , " Squishees " , pink frosted " Sprinklicious doughnuts " and other Simpsons @-@ themed merchandise . The Squishees were Slurpees that are sold in special collector cups and the Krusty @-@ O 's were made by Malt @-@ O @-@ Meal . Several other 7 @-@ Eleven items , such as sandwiches , were sold in Simpsons @-@ themed packaging . It was decided that Duff Beer would not be sold due to the movie being rated PG @-@ 13 , and the promoters wanted to have " good , responsible fun , " though it was noted that it was a tough decision . However , a Duff Energy Drink was released in place of the Duff Beer .
The promotion resulted in a 30 % increase in profits for the changed 7 @-@ Eleven stores . Many of the stores sold out of their special Simpsons products within a few days of the start of the promotion . The conversions lasted through early August , when the stores were converted back to 7 @-@ Elevens .
There was a mild controversy when the promotion offended members of the Indian @-@ American community who felt that Apu is a caricature that plays on too many negative stereotypes . Despite this , 7 @-@ Eleven reported that many of its Indian employees have reacted positively to the idea , although it was noted that it was " not a 100 percent endorsement . "
= = = Universal Studios = = =
On October 17 , 2007 , a gift shop that was modeled after a Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart was opened at Universal Studios Florida . One also opened at Universal Studios Hollywood at a later time . They replaced the old Back to the Future gift shop and supplement The Simpsons Ride , which opened in Spring 2008 . The stores sell Simpsons @-@ related merchandise like Flaming Moe 's Energy Drinks and Squishees .
|
= Henry Wilson =
Henry Wilson ( born Jeremiah Jones Colbath ; February 16 , 1812 – November 22 , 1875 ) was the 18th Vice President of the United States ( 1873 – 75 ) and a Senator from Massachusetts ( 1855 – 73 ) . Before and during the American Civil War , he was a leading Republican , and a strong opponent of slavery . He devoted his energies to the destruction of the " Slave Power " – the faction of slave owners and their political allies which anti @-@ slavery Americans saw as dominating the country .
Originally a Whig , Wilson was a founder of the Free Soil Party in 1848 . He served as the party chairman before and during the 1852 presidential election . He worked diligently to build an anti @-@ slavery coalition , which came to include the Free Soil Party , anti @-@ slavery Democrats , New York Barnburners , the Liberty Party , anti @-@ slavery members of the Native American Party ( Know Nothings ) , and anti @-@ slavery Whigs ( called Conscience Whigs ) . When the Free Soil party dissolved in the mid @-@ 1850s , Wilson joined the Republican Party , which he helped found , and which was organized largely in line with the anti @-@ slavery coalition he had nurtured in the 1840s and 1850s .
While a Senator during the American Civil War Wilson was considered a " Radical Republican " , and his experience as a militia general , organizer and commander of a Union Army regiment , and chairman of the Senate military committees enabled him to assist the Abraham Lincoln administration in the organization and oversight of the Union Army and Union Navy .
After the Civil War , he supported the Radical Republican program for Reconstruction . In 1872 , he was elected Vice President as the running mate of Ulysses S. Grant , the incumbent President of the United States , who was running for a second term . The Grant and Wilson ticket was successful , and Wilson served as Vice President from March 4 , 1873 until his death on November 22 , 1875 . Wilson 's effectiveness as Vice President was limited after he suffered a debilitating stroke in May 1873 , and his health continued to decline until he was the victim of a fatal stroke while working in the United States Capitol in late 1875 .
Throughout his career , Wilson was known for championing causes that were at times unpopular , including the abolition of slavery and workers ' rights for both blacks and whites . Massachusetts politician George F. Hoar , who served in the United States House of Representatives while Wilson was a Senator , and later served in the Senate himself , believed Wilson to be the most skilled political organizer in the country . However , Wilson 's reputation for personal integrity and principled politics was somewhat damaged late in his Senate career by his involvement in the Crédit Mobilier scandal .
= = Early life and education = =
Henry Wilson was born in Farmington , New Hampshire on February 16 , 1812 , one of several children born to Winthrop and Abigail ( Witham ) Colbath . His father named him Jeremiah Jones Colbath after a wealthy neighbor who was a childless bachelor , vainly hoping that this gesture might result in an inheritance . Winthrop Colbath was a militia veteran of the War of 1812 who worked as a day laborer and hired himself out to local farms and businesses , in addition to occasionally running a sawmill .
The Colbath family was impoverished and , after a brief elementary education , at the age of 10 Wilson was indentured to a neighboring farmer , where he worked as a laborer for the next 10 years . During this time two neighbors gave him books and Wilson enhanced his meager education by reading extensively on English and American history and biography . At the end of his service he was given " six sheep and a yoke [ two ] of oxen . " Wilson immediately sold his animals for $ 85 , which was the first money he had earned during his indenture .
Wilson apparently did not like his birth name , though the reasons given vary . Some sources indicate that he was not close to his family , or disliked his name because of his father 's supposed intemperance and modest financial circumstances . Others indicate that he was called " Jed " and " Jerry " , and disliked the nicknames so much that he resolved to change his name . Whatever the reason , when he turned 21 he successfully petitioned the New Hampshire General Court to legally change it . He chose the name Henry Wilson , inspired either by a biography of a Philadelphia teacher or a portrait from a book on English clergymen .
( The ideas that his name change resulted from disrespect of his father or lack of closeness with his family seem to be belied by the fact that some of his relatives followed him after he relocated to Natick , Massachusetts , including brother George A. Colbath . In addition , Winthrop and Abigail Colbath moved to Natick in 1848 . Winthrop died in Natick in 1860 , and Abigail died there in 1866 . )
= = Career = =
After trying and failing to find work in New Hampshire , in 1833 Wilson walked more than one hundred miles to Natick , Massachusetts seeking employment or a trade . Having met William P. Legro , a shoemaker who was willing to train him , Wilson hired himself out for five months to learn to make leather shoes called brogans . Wilson learned the trade in a few weeks , bought out his employment contract for $ 15 , and opened his own shop , intending to save enough money to study law . Wilson had success as a shoemaker , and was able to save several hundred dollars in a relatively short time . This success gave rise to legends about Wilson 's skill ; according to one story that grew with retelling , he once attempted to make one hundred pairs of shoes without sleeping , and fell asleep with the one hundredth pair in his hand . Wilson 's shoe making experience led to the creation of the political nicknames his supporters later used to highlight his working class roots — the " Natick Cobbler " and the " Natick Shoemaker " .
During this time Wilson read extensively and joined the Natick Debating Society , where he developed into an accomplished speaker . Wilson 's health suffered as the result of the long hours he worked making shoes , and he traveled to Virginia to recuperate . During a stop in Washington , D.C. he heard Congressional debates on slavery and abolitionism , and observed African American families being separated as they were bought and sold in the Washington slave trade . Wilson resolved to dedicate himself " to the cause of emancipation in America " , and after regaining his health returned to New England , where he furthered his education by attending several New Hampshire academies including schools in Strafford , Wolfeboro , and Concord .
Having spent part of his savings on his traveling and schooling , and having lost some as the result of a loan that was not repaid , Wilson worked as a schoolteacher to get out of debt and begin saving money again , intending to start a business of his own . Beginning with an investment of only twelve dollars , Wilson started a shoe manufacturing company . This venture proved successful , and Wilson eventually employed over 100 workers .
= = Political career = =
Wilson became active politically as a Whig , and campaigned for William Henry Harrison in 1840 . He had joined the Whigs out of disappointment with the fiscal policies of Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren , and like most Whigs blamed Democrats Jackson and Van Buren for the Panic of 1837 . In 1840 he was also elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives , and served from 1841 to 1842 .
Wilson was a member of the Massachusetts State Senate from 1844 to 1846 and 1850 to 1852 . From 1851 to 1852 he was the Senate 's President .
As early as 1845 , Wilson had started to become disenchanted with the Whigs as the party attempted to compromise on the slavery issue , and as a Conscience Whig he took steps including the organization of a convention in Concord opposed to the annexation of Texas because it would expand slavery . As a result of this effort , in late 1845 Wilson and abolitionist John Greenleaf Whittier were chosen to submit in person a petition to Congress containing the signatures of 65 @,@ 000 Massachusetts residents opposed to Texas annexation .
Wilson was a delegate to the 1848 Whig National Convention , but left the party after it nominated slave owner Zachary Taylor for president and took no position on the Wilmot Proviso , which would have prohibited slavery in territory acquired from Mexico in the Mexican @-@ American War . Wilson and Charles Allen , another Massachusetts delegate , withdrew from the convention , and called for a new meeting of anti @-@ slavery advocates in Buffalo , which launched the Free Soil Party .
Having left the Whig Party , Wilson worked to build coalitions with others opposed to slavery , including Free Soilers , anti @-@ slavery Democrats , Barnburners from New York 's Democratic Party , the Liberty Party , the anti @-@ slavery elements of the Whig Party , and anti @-@ slavery members of the Know Nothing or Native American Party . Although Wilson 's new political coalition was castigated by " straight party " adherents of the mainstream Democratic and Whig parties , in April 1851 it elected Free Soil candidate Charles Sumner to the U.S. Senate .
From 1848 to 1851 Wilson was the owner and editor of the Boston Republican , which from 1841 to 1848 was a Whig outlet , and from 1848 to 1851 was the main Free Soil Party newspaper .
During his service in the Massachusetts legislature , Wilson took note that participation in the state militia had declined , and that it was not in a state of readiness . In addition to undertaking legislative efforts to provide uniforms and other equipment , in 1843 Wilson joined the militia himself , becoming a Major in the 1st Artillery Regiment , which he later commanded with the rank of colonel . In 1846 Wilson was promoted to brigadier general as commander of the Massachusetts Militia 's 3rd Brigade , a position he held until 1852 .
= = = Offices = = =
In 1852 , Wilson was chairman of the Free Soil Party 's national convention in Pittsburgh , which nominated John P. Hale for president and George Washington Julian for vice president . Later that year he was a Free Soil candidate for U.S. Representative , and lost to Whig Tappan Wentworth . He was a delegate to the state constitutional convention in 1853 , which proposed a series of political and governmental reforms that were defeated by voters in a post @-@ convention popular referendum . He ran unsuccessfully for Governor of Massachusetts as a Free Soil candidate in 1853 and 1854 , but declined to be a candidate again in 1855 because he had his sights set on the U.S. Senate .
= = = U.S. Senator ( 1855 – 1873 ) = = =
In 1855 Wilson was elected to the United States Senate by a coalition of Free @-@ Soilers , Know Nothings , and anti @-@ slavery Democrats , filling the vacancy caused by the resignation of Edward Everett . He had briefly joined the Know @-@ Nothings in an attempt to strengthen their anti @-@ slavery efforts , but aligned himself with the Republican Party at its creation , formed largely along the lines of the anti @-@ slavery coalition Wilson had helped develop and nurture . Wilson was reelected as a Republican in 1859 , 1865 and 1871 , and served from January 31 , 1855 to March 3 , 1873 , when he resigned in order to begin his vice presidential term on March 4 .
In his first Senate speech in 1855 , Wilson continued to align himself with the abolitionists , who wanted to immediately end slavery in the United States and its territories . In his speech , Wilson said he wanted to abolish slavery " wherever we are morally and legally responsible for its existence " including Washington D.C. Wilson also demanded repeal of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 , believing the federal government should have no responsibility for enforcing slavery , and that once the act was repealed tensions between slavery proponents and opponents would abate , enabling those Southerners who opposed slavery to help end it in their own time .
On May 22 , 1856 Preston Brooks brutally assaulted Senator Charles Sumner on the Senate floor , leaving Sumner bloody and unconscious . Brooks had been upset over Sumner 's Crimes Against Kansas speech that denounced the Kansas @-@ Nebraska Act . After the beating , Sumner received medical treatment at the Capitol , following which Wilson and Nathaniel P. Banks , the Speaker of the House , aided Sumner to travel by carriage to his lodgings , where he received further medical attention . Wilson called the beating by Brooks " brutal , murderous , and cowardly " . Brooks immediately challenged Wilson to a duel . Wilson declined , saying that he could not legally or by personal conviction participate . In reference to a rumor that Brooks might attack Wilson in the Senate as he had attacked Sumner , Wilson told the press " I have sought no controversy , and I seek none , but I shall go where duty requires , uninfluenced by threats of any kind . " The rumors proved unfounded , and Wilson continued his Senate duties without incident .
The attack on Sumner took place just one day after pro @-@ slavery Missourians killed one person in the burning and sacking of Lawrence , Kansas . The attack on Sumner and the sacking of Lawrence were later viewed as two of the incidents which symbolized the " breakdown of reasoned discourse . " This phrase came to describe the period when activists and politicians moved past the debate of anti @-@ slavery and pro @-@ slavery speeches and non @-@ violent actions , and into the realm of physical violence , which in part hastened the onset of the American Civil War .
In June 1858 Wilson made a Senate speech in which he suggested corruption in the government of California and inferred complicity on the part of Senator William M. Gwin , a pro @-@ slavery Democrat who had served as a member of Congress from Mississippi before moving to California . Gwin accused Wilson of demagoguery , and Wilson responded by saying he 'd rather be thought a demagogue than a thief . Gwin then challenged Wilson to a duel , but in fact neither Gwin nor Wilson wanted to follow through . After several attempts to find a face @-@ saving compromise , Gwin and Wilson agreed to refer their dispute to three senators who would serve as mediators . William H. Seward , John J. Crittenden and Jefferson Davis were chosen , and produced an acceptable solution . At their instigation , Wilson stated to the Senate that he had not meant to impugn Gwin 's honor , and Gwin replied by saying that he had not meant to question Wilson 's motives . In addition , the mediators caused to be removed from the Senate record both Gwin 's remarks about demagoguery and Wilson 's suggestion that Gwin was a thief .
= = Civil War = =
During the American Civil War , Wilson was Chairman of the Committee on Military Affairs and the Militia , and later the Committee on Military Affairs . In that capacity , he oversaw action on over 15 @,@ 000 War and Navy Department nominations that Abraham Lincoln submitted during the course of the war , and worked closely with him on legislation affecting the Army and Navy .
In the summer of 1861 , after the congressional session ended , Wilson returned to Massachusetts and recruited and equipped nearly 2 @,@ 300 men in forty days . They were mustered in as the 22nd Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry , which he commanded from September 27 to October 29 , an honor sometimes accorded to the individual responsible for raising and equipping a regiment . After the war he became an early member of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States .
Wilson 's experience in the militia , service with the 22nd Massachusetts , and chairmanship of the Military Affairs Committee provided him with more practical military knowledge and training than any other Senator . He made use of this experience throughout the war to frame , explain , defend and advocate for legislation on military matters , including enlistment of soldiers and sailors , and organizing and supplying the rapidly expanding Union Army and Union Navy .
Winfield Scott , the Commanding General of the United States Army since 1841 , said that during the session of Congress that ended in the Spring of 1861 Wilson had done more work " then all the chairmen of the military committees had done for the last 20 years . " On January 27 , 1862 Simon Cameron , the recently resigned Secretary of War echoed Scott 's sentiments when he said that " no man , in my opinion , in the whole country , has done more to aid the war department in preparing the mighty [ Union ] army now under arms than yourself [ Wilson ] . "
= = = Greenhow controversy = = =
In July 1861 Wilson was present for the Civil War 's first major battle at Bull Run Creek in Manassas , Virginia , an event which many senators , representatives , newspaper reporters , and Washington society elite traveled from the city to observe in anticipation of a quick Union victory . Riding out in a carriage in the early morning , Wilson brought a picnic hamper of sandwiches to feed Union troops . However , the battle turned into a Confederate rout , forcing Union troops to make a panicky retreat . Caught up in the chaos , Wilson was almost captured by the Confederates , while his carriage was crushed , and he had to make an embarrassing return to Washington on foot . The result of this battle had a sobering effect on many in the North , causing widespread realization that Union victory would not be won without a prolonged struggle .
In seeking to place blame for the Union defeat , some in Washington spread rumors that Wilson had revealed plans for the Union invasion of Virginia to Washington society figure and southern spy Rose O 'Neal Greenhow . According to the story , although he was married , Wilson had seen a great deal of Mrs. Greenhow , and may have told her about the plans of Major General Irvin McDowell , which Mrs. Greenhow then conveyed to Confederate forces under Major General Pierre Beauregard . One Wilson biography suggests someone else — Wilson 's Senate clerk Horace White — was also friendly with Mrs. Greenhow and could have leaked the invasion plan , although it is also possible that neither Wilson nor White did so .
= = = Equal rights activism = = =
On December 16 , 1861 Wilson introduced a bill to abolish slavery in Washington D.C. something he had desired to do since his visit to the nation 's capital 25 years earlier . At this time fugitive slaves from the war were being held in prisons of Washington D.C. and faced the possibility of return to their owners . Wilson said of his bill that it would " blot out slavery forever from the nation 's capital " . The measure met bitter opposition from the Democrats who remained in the Senate after those from the southern states vacated their seats to join the Confederacy , but it passed . After passage in the House , President Lincoln signed Wilson 's bill into law on April 16 , 1862 .
On July 8 , 1862 Wilson drafted a measure that authorized the President to enlist African Americans who had been held in slavery and were deemed competent for military service , and employ them to construct fortifications and carry out other military @-@ related manual labor , the first step towards allowing African Americans to serve as soldiers . President Lincoln signed the amendment into law on July 17 . Wilson 's law paid African Americans in the military $ 10 monthly , which was effectively $ 7 a month after deductions for food and clothing , while white soldiers were paid effectively $ 14 monthly .
On January 1 , 1863 Lincoln 's Emancipation Proclamation freed all slaves held in bondage in the Southern states or territories then in rebellion against the federal government . On February 2 , 1863 Congress built on Wilson 's 1862 law by passing a bill authored by Pennsylvania Congressman Thaddeus Stevens , which authorized the enlistment of 150 @,@ 000 African Americans into the Union Army for service as uniformed soldiers .
On February 17 , 1863 Wilson introduced a bill that would federally fund elementary education for African American youth in Washington D.C. President Lincoln signed the bill into law on March 3 , 1863 .
Wilson added an amendment to the 1864 Enrollment Act which provided that formerly enslaved African Americans from slave holding states remaining in the Union who enlisted in the Union Army would be considered permanently free by action of the federal government , rather than through individual emancipation by the states or their owners , thus preventing the possibility of their re @-@ enslavement . President Lincoln signed this measure into law on February 24 , 1864 , freeing more than 20 @,@ 000 slaves in Kentucky alone .
Wilson supported the right of black men to join the uniformed services . Once African Americans were permitted to serve in the military , Wilson advocated in the Senate for them to receive equal pay and other benefits . A Vermont newspaper portrayed Wilson 's position and enhanced his nationwide reputation as an abolitionist by editorializing " Henry Wilson of Massachusetts , in a speech in the U.S. Senate on Friday , said he thought our treatment of the negro soldiers almost as bad as that of the rebels at Fort Pillow . This is hardly an exaggeration . "
On June 15 , 1864 , Wilson succeeded in adding a provision to an appropriations bill which addressed the pay disparity between whites and blacks in the military by authorizing equal salaries and benefits for African American soldiers . Wilson 's provision stated that " all persons of color who had been or might be mustered into the military service should receive the same uniform , clothing , rations , medical and hospital attendance , and pay " as white soldiers , to date from January 1864 .
Wilson introduced a bill in Congress which would free in the Union 's slave holding states the still @-@ enslaved families of former slaves serving in the Union Army . In advocating for passage , Wilson argued that allowing the family members of soldiers to remain in slavery was a " burning shame to this country ... Let us hasten the enactment ... that , on the forehead of the soldier 's wife and the soldier 's child , no man can write " Slave " . President Lincoln signed the measure into law on March 3 , 1865 , and an estimated 75 @,@ 000 African American women and children were freed in Kentucky alone .
= = Reconstruction and Civil Rights = =
When Andrew Johnson assumed the presidency after President Lincoln 's assassination in April 1865 , Senators Sumner and Wilson both hoped Johnson would support the policies of the Republican Party , since Johnson , a Democrat , had been elected with Lincoln on a pro @-@ Union ticket . After the Civil War ended with a Union Victory in May 1865 , the defeated former Confederacy was ruined . It had been devastated economically , politically , and much of its infrastructure had been destroyed during the war . The opportunity was ripe for Congress and Johnson to work together on terms for Southern restoration and reconstruction . Instead , Johnson launched his own reconstruction policy , which was seen as more lenient to former Confederates , and excluded African American citizenship . When Congress opened the session which began in December 1865 , Johnson 's policy included a demand for admission of Southern Senators and Representatives , nearly all Democrats , including many former Confederates . Congress , still in Republican hands , responded by refusing to allow the Southern Senators and Representatives to take their seats , beginning a rift between Republicans in Congress and the President . Wilson favored allowing only persons who had been loyal to the United States to serve in positions of political power in the former Confederacy , and believed that Congress , not the President , had the power to reconstruct the southern states . As a result , Wilson joined forces with the Congressmen and Senators known as Radical Republicans , those most strongly opposed to Johnson .
On December 21 , 1865 , two days after the announcement that the States had ratified the Thirteenth Amendment , which abolished slavery , Wilson introduced a bill to protect the civil rights of African Americans . Although Wilson 's bill failed to pass Congress it was effectively the same bill as the Civil Rights Act of 1866 that passed Congress over Johnson 's veto on April 9 , 1866 .
The rift between the Radicals , including Wilson , and President Johnson grew as Johnson attempted to implement his more lenient Reconstruction policies . Johnson vetoed the bill to establish the Freedmen 's Bureau , as well as other Radical measures to protect African American civil rights — measures which Wilson supported . Wilson supported the Senate effort to impeach Johnson , saying that Johnson was " unworthy , if not criminal " in resisting Congressional Reconstruction measures , many of which were passed over Johnson 's vetos . At the 1868 Senate trial Wilson voted for Johnson 's impeachment , but Republicans fell one vote short of the two @-@ thirds majority needed to remove Johnson from office . ( With 36 " guilty " votes needed for removal , the Senate results were 35 to 19 on all three post @-@ trial ballots . )
On May 27 , 1868 Wilson spoke before the Senate to forcefully advocate the readmission of Arkansas . Taking the lead on this issue , Wilson urged immediate action , saying that the new state government was constitutional , and was composed of loyal Southerners , African Americans who were formerly enslaved , and Northerners who had moved south . Wilson said he would not agree to Congressional adjournment until all Southern states with reconstructed governments loyal to the United States that adopted new constitutions were readmitted . The New York Tribune called Wilson 's speech " strong " and said that Wilson steered the Senate away from " legal hair @-@ splitting " . Within a month the Senate had acted , and Arkansas was readmitted on June 22 , 1868 .
In 1870 Hiram Revels was elected to the U.S. Senate by the reconstructed Mississippi Legislature . Revels was the first African American elected to the Senate , and Senate Democrats attempted to prevent him from being seated . Wilson defended Revels 's election , and presented as evidence of its validity signatures from the clerks of the Mississippi House of Representatives and Mississippi State Senate , as well as that of Adelbert Ames , the military Governor of Mississippi . Wilson argued that Revels 's skin color was not a bar to Senate service , and connected the role of the Senate to Christianity 's Golden Rule of doing to others as one would have done to oneself . The Senate voted to seat Revels , and after he took the oath of office Wilson personally escorted him to his desk as journalists recorded the historic event .
= = Vice Presidential campaign , 1868 = =
Prior to the presidential election of 1868 , Wilson toured the South giving political speeches . Many in the press believed Wilson was promoting himself to be the Republican presidential candidate . Wilson , however , supported the Civil War hero General Ulysses S. Grant . During Reconstruction Grant supported Republican Congressional initiatives rather than President Johnson 's , and during the dispute over the Tenure of Office Act which led to Johnson 's impeachment , Grant served as temporary Secretary of War , but then returned the Department to Radical ally Edwin M. Stanton 's control over Johnson 's strong objection , making Grant a favorite to many Radicals .
Wilson actually desired to be Vice President . During his speech making tour , he advocated a biracial society in the South , urging African Americans and their white supporters to take a conciliatory and peaceful approach with Southern whites who had favored the Confederacy . Radicals , including Benjamin Wade , were stunned by Wilson 's remarks , believing blacks should not be subject to their former white owners . At the Republican Convention , Wilson , Wade and others competed for the Vice Presidential nomination , and Wilson had support among Southern delegates , but he failed to win after five ballots . Wade was also unable to win the convention vote , and Wilson 's delegates eventually switched their votes to Speaker of the House Schuyler Colfax , who won the nomination and went on to win the general election with Grant at the head of the ticket . After Grant and Colfax won the 1868 election Wilson declined to serve as Secretary of War in Grant 's cabinet due to his desire to spend more time with Mrs. Wilson during her lengthy final illness .
= = Vice Presidential campaign , 1872 = =
In 1872 Wilson had a strong reputation among Republicans as a principled but practical reformer who supported African American civil rights , voting rights for women , federal education aid , regulation of businesses , and prohibition of liquor . In 1870 , incumbent Vice President Schuyler Colfax , said he would not run for another term , creating the possibility of a contested nomination . In addition , some Republicans , including Grant , desired another vice presidential nominee because they believed Colfax had presidential aspirations and might endanger Grant 's reelection by bolting to the Liberal Republican Party , which had formed because of opposition to charges of corruption in the Grant administration and Grant 's attempted Santo Domingo annexation .
At the Republican Convention held in Philadelphia in June 1872 , Wilson won enough votes to defeat Colfax , who by then had become an active candidate , renouncing his 1870 pledge and informing his supporters that he would accept renomination if it was offered . The Republicans believed Wilson 's nomination , as a politician of integrity coming from the anti @-@ slavery movement , would outflank the anti @-@ corruption argument of the Liberal Republicans , who counted Sumner among their members . Both the renominated Grant and his new running mate Wilson were idealized by Republican posters , which depicted Grant " the Galena Tanner " and Wilson " the Natick Shoemaker " carrying tools and wearing workmen 's aprons . ( Grant 's father operated a tanning and leather goods manufacturing business , and before the Civil War Grant had clerked in his father 's Galena , Illinois store . ) Wilson 's nomination for Vice President had been intended to strengthen the 1872 Republican ticket , and was seen as a success , with Grant and Wilson easily defeating Liberal Republican candidates Horace Greeley and B. Gratz Brown , who were also endorsed by the Democrats .
= = = Crédit Mobilier scandal = = =
During the 1872 campaign , Wilson 's reputation for honesty was marred by a September New York Sun article which indicated that he was involved in the Crédit Mobilier scandal . Wilson was one of several Representatives and Senators ( mostly Republicans ) , including Colfax , who were offered ( and possibly took ) bribes of cash and discounted shares in the Union Pacific Railroad 's Crédit Mobilier subsidiary from Congressman Oakes Ames during the late 1860s in exchange for votes favorable to the Union Pacific during the building of the First Transcontinental Railroad .
After denying to a reporter just a month before the election that he had a Crédit Mobilier connection , Wilson admitted involvement when he gave testimony before a Senate committee on February 13 , 1873 . Wilson told members of the investigating committee that in December 1867 he had agreed to purchase $ 2 @,@ 000 in Crédit Mobilier stock ( 20 shares ) using Mrs. Wilson 's money and in her name . According to Wilson , his wife and he later had concerns about the propriety of the transaction and had never taken possession of the actual stock certificates , so Wilson asked Ames to cancel the transaction and Ames refunded the $ 2 @,@ 000 purchase price to Wilson . Wilson said he then returned $ 814 to Ames – $ 748 in dividends and $ 66 in interest that Mrs. Wilson had supposedly earned as profits , even though she had not taken physical possession of her shares . Wilson further claimed that because Mrs. Wilson had refused to take these proceeds from Ames , Wilson took it upon himself to pay her $ 814 from his own funds to compensate her for the profit she would have made if she had kept the stock , which he said he felt obligated to do because his wife had originally agreed to purchase the stock on his recommendation , and had lost money by following his later recommendation to cancel the transaction .
Mrs. Wilson had died in 1870 , so Senators had to rely on Wilson 's word and that of Ames , who corroborated Wilson . The Senate accepted Wilson 's explanation , and took no action against him , but his reputation for integrity was somewhat damaged because of his initial denial and later admission , though not sufficiently enough to prevent him from becoming Vice President the following month .
= = Vice President = =
Wilson served as Vice President from March 4 , 1873 until his death . As Vice President , Wilson 's years of Senate experience enabled him to perform as a " highly efficient and acceptable " presiding officer .
= = Illness and death = =
Wilson 's ceremonial duties and work on History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America kept him extremely busy , working late hours with little time to rest . In early May , 1873 , Wilson attended funeral services for Salmon P. Chase in New York City . On May 19 , 1873 he suffered a stroke which caused paralysis in his face , general weakness , and impaired speech . His doctor ordered him to rest , but Wilson allowed reporters to see him . The public first took notice that Wilson was in ill health when he made an appearance in Boston on May 30 , and reporters were informed that Wilson was unable to work or handle his correspondence . His health somewhat improved during September and October , and on November 25 Wilson returned to Washington for the opening of Congress . He was able to preside over the Senate from December 1 through December 9 , 1873 , but was unable to speak in public , including when he attended a Boston commemoration of the one hundredth anniversary of the Boston Tea Party .
Wilson remained in occasional ill health into 1874 , but was able to attend funeral services for Charles Sumner in March . Throughout his remaining tenure , Wilson 's Senate attendance was irregular due to his continued poor health . During periods when he was not ill , Wilson was also able to resume some of his ceremonial duties , including participating in a White House party for the King of Hawaii , David Kalākaua , in December 1874 . When Free Soil and abolitionist colleague Gerrit Smith died in New York City on December 28 , 1874 , Wilson traveled there to view the body and take part in funeral services .
Wilson continued to go through bouts of ill health in 1875 . While working at the United States Capitol on November 10 , 1875 , he suffered what was believed to be a minor stroke , and was taken to the Vice President 's Room to recuperate . Over the next several days , his health appeared to improve and his friends thought he was nearly recovered . However , on November 22 at 7 : 20 AM , Wilson suffered a fatal stroke while working at the Capitol . His remains were accorded the honor of lying in state in the Capitol rotunda .
The subsequent funeral arrangements included military escorts as Wilson 's remains were transferred from one train station to another en route from Washington to Natick , as well as nights lying in state . The route included processions in Baltimore , Philadelphia , New York City , and Boston , and nights lying in state at Baltimore City Hall and Independence Hall in Philadelphia . He was interred at Old Dell Park Cemetery in Natick , Massachusetts .
Two other former Vice Presidents died in the same year as Wilson – John C. Breckinridge and Andrew Johnson .
Wilson was the fourth Vice President to die in office , following : George Clinton , who served under both Thomas Jefferson and James Madison ; Elbridge Gerry , who served under James Madison ; and William R. King who served under Franklin Pierce .
= = Historical reputation = =
According to historian George H. Haynes , during his nearly thirty years of public service Wilson practiced principled politics by championing unpopular causes , sometimes at the expense of his personal ambition . The causes Wilson supported included abolition of slavery , and the rights of workers , both black and white .
Wilson was not hesitant to sever ties with old guard politicians and form new coalitions in order to accomplish his objectives , even though this gave him the reputation among opponents of being a " shifty " politician . On the other hand , he was admired by fellow abolitionists for his lifelong dedication to the cause , and workingmen found inspiration in his career , since he had himself risen from a manual laborer 's background .
Wilson supported free public schools and libraries . In Massachusetts he supported tax exemptions for the purchase and maintenance of worker 's tools and furniture , and the removal of property qualifications for voting rights .
U.S. Senator George F. Hoar , a Massachusetts political contemporary , said Wilson was a " skilful , adroit , and practiced and constant political manager " and " the most skilled political organizer in the country " during his career .
Wilson is also recognized for being a political pioneer in techniques for determining public opinion while he held office . In the 20th century , the straw poll and scientific public opinion polls by companies including Gallup became standard parts of political campaigns and media coverage of elections . During his Senate career , Wilson pioneered straw polling by sampling the views of Massachusetts voters through in person conversations and unscientific written surveys before making his own views known . These efforts were credited with helping Wilson build coalitions , win elections , make political allies , and determine the best time to act in the Senate on issues of importance .
In 1891 , the Henry Wilson school , a facility for black students , opened on what was then Central Street in the Washington County portion of the District of Columbia ( now 17th Street in the Adams Morgan neighborhood ) . It was named for him in honor of his role emancipating the district 's slaves . The school was closed in 1956 due to its small size , and shortly thereafter converted to the Morgan Annex , a satellite location of the adjacent Thomas P. Morgan School . The Morgan Annex was later closed ; it was sold in 1989 , and then reopened as the Morgan Annex Lofts condominiums .
= = Personal life = =
On October 28 , 1840 Wilson married Harriet Malvina Howe ( 1824 – 1870 ) . They were the parents of a son , Henry Hamilton Wilson ( 1846 – 1866 ) , who attended the Highland Military Academy in Worcester , Massachusetts .
During the Civil War , the younger Wilson attended the United States Naval Academy , but left before graduating in order to accept a commission in the Union Army . He attained success in the 31st and 104th Regiments of United States Colored Troops , and was promoted to lieutenant colonel and second @-@ in @-@ command of the 104th in July 1865 . After the war he accepted a commission as a second lieutenant in the regular Army 's 6th Cavalry Regiment , and served until his death in 1866 .
In 1869 Henry and Harriet Wilson also became the de facto adoptive parents of a girl , Evangelina , who was born between 1864 and 1866 , and took the name Eva Wilson . In a complicated series of events , in 1869 a woman named Caroline Vreeland met Wilson 's sister in law Nancy Colbath , wife of his brother Samuel . Vreeland allowed Nancy Colbath to adopt the child , with the understanding that she would be raised by Henry Wilson and his wife . The child lived with the Wilsons until shortly before Mrs. Wilson 's death . Nancy Colbath then kept the child , and received monthly payments from Henry Wilson for her support . Details later emerged which indicated the likelihood that Vreeland had obtained a baby girl from an unknown parent or parents in Boston in 1866 so that her sister could use the baby in an attempt to extort a man with whom she had had an affair . Vreeland went to prison for a stabbing in the early 1870s . The child continued to live with Wilson , and by 1874 he had asked Nancy Colbath to again be responsible for her . Wilson agreed to provide them a suitable home and financial support , but had not followed through by the time of his death .
Wilson requested that the executor of his will , nephew William L. Coolidge , use most of Wilson 's estate to ensure that Wilson 's mother in law was cared for , and that Eva receive an education and financial support . Wilson had given Coolidge verbal instructions and letters in addition to his will , and the situation became complicated because Wilson 's death occurred before he had incorporated these additional instructions into his will . Coolidge acted as a trustee for Eva , and by 1889 , when she was more than 21 years old , she claimed she was entitled to the remainder of Wilson 's estate . Other Wilson family members disagreed ; because of the complexity of the details , Coolidge petitioned the Massachusetts courts for guidance . The courts found in favor of Eva , by then married and known as Eva Carpenter , and she received the bulk of the residue of the estate .
= = = Books = = =
Abbott , Richard H. ( 1965 ) . Cobbler in Congress : Life of Henry Wilson , 1812 – 1875 1 . Madison , WI : University of Wisconsin — Madison. p . 8 .
Abbott , Richard H. ( 1972 ) . Cobbler in Congress : The Life of Henry Wilson , 1812 – 1875 . Lexington , KY : University Press of Kentucky. p . 6 .
Blue , Frederick J. ( 1987 ) . Salmon P. Chase : A Life in Politics . Kent , OH : Kent University Press. p . 319 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87338 @-@ 340 @-@ 0 .
Giddings , Edward J. ( 1889 ) . American Christian Rulers : Or , Religion and Men of Government . New York , NY : Bromfield & Co. p . 551 .
Hatfield , Mark O. ; Senate Historical Office ( 1997 ) . Vice Presidents of the United States , 1789 – 1993 Henry Wilson ( 1873 – 1875 ) ( PDF ) . Washington D.C. : U.S. Government Printing Office. pp. 233 – 239 .
Haynes , George H. ( 1936 ) . Dumas Malone , ed . Dictionary of American Biography Henry Wilson . New York : Charles Scribner 's Sons. pp. 322 – 325 .
Heitman , Francis Bernard ( 1903 ) . Historical Register and Dictionary of the United States Army 1 . Washington , DC : U.S. Government Printing Office. p . 1046 .
" The Natick Cobbler " . Hide & Leather : The International Weekly ; Shoe Factories – Tanneries – Allied Industries ( Chicago , IL : Hide and Leather Publishing Co . ) : 36 . June 21 , 1919 .
McKay , Ernest A. ( 1971 ) . Henry Wilson : Practical Radical ; A Portrait of a Politician . Port Washington , NY : Kennikat Press. pp. 11 , 16 . 233 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8046 @-@ 9010 @-@ 2 .
McFeely , William S. ( 1974 ) . Woodward , C. Vann , ed . Responses of the Presidents to Charges of Misconduct . New York , New York : Delacorte Press. pp. 133 – 162 . ISBN 0 @-@ 440 @-@ 05923 @-@ 2 .
Myers , John L. ( 2009 ) . Henry Wilson and the Era of Reconstruction . Lanham , Maryland : University Press of America , Inc . ISBN 0 @-@ 7618 @-@ 4742 @-@ 1 .
Myers , John L. ( 2005 ) . Henry Wilson and the Coming of the Civil War . Lanham , MD : University Press of America. p . 8 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7618 @-@ 2608 @-@ 8 .
Myers , John L. " The Writing of History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America , " Civil War History , June 1985 , Vol . 31 Issue 2 , pp 144 – 162
Nason , Elias ; Russell , Thomas ( 1876 ) . The Life and Public Services of Henry Wilson . Boston : B.B. Russell .
New Hampshire Adjutant General ( 1868 ) . Annual Report . Manchester , NH : John B. Clarke. p . 203 .
Puleo , Stephen ( 2011 ) . A City So Grand : The Rise of an American Metropolis : Boston 1850 – 1900 . Boston , MA : Beacon Press. p . Chapter 9 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8070 @-@ 0149 @-@ 3 .
Shelden , Rachel A. ( 2013 ) . Washington Brotherhood : Politics , Social Life , and the Coming of the Civil War . Chapel Hill , NC : University of North Carolina Press. pp. 31 – 32 . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4696 @-@ 1085 @-@ 6 .
The National Cyclopedia of American Biography IV . New York , NY : James T. White & Company . 1895 @.@ p . 14 .
United States Congressional Serial Set . Washington , DC : U.S. Government Printing Office . 1913 @.@ p . 1125 .
Henry Wilson , History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America , 2 vols . ( Boston : J. R. Osgood and Co . , 1873 – 77 )
Winks , William Edward ( 1883 ) . Lives of Illustrious Shoemakers . London , England : Sampson Lowe , Marston , Searle & Rivington. p . 362 .
= = = New York Times = = =
" Brooks and Senator Wilson " . New York Times . June 7 , 1856 .
" Credit Mobilier Senator Wilson " . New York Times . February 14 , 1873 .
|
= Mockingjay =
Mockingjay is a 2010 science fiction novel by American author Suzanne Collins . It is the last installment of The Hunger Games , following 2008 's The Hunger Games and 2009 's Catching Fire . The book continues the story of Katniss Everdeen , who agrees to unify the districts of Panem in a rebellion against the tyrannical Capitol . The hardcover and audiobook editions of Mockingjay were published by Scholastic on August 24 , 2010 , six days after the ebook edition went on sale . The book sold 450 @,@ 000 copies in the first week of release , exceeding the publisher 's expectations . It received a generally positive reaction from critics .
The novel was adapted into two films , with The Hunger Games : Mockingjay – Part 1 released in November 2014 and The Hunger Games : Mockingjay – Part 2 released a year later .
= = Inspiration and development = =
Collins has said that the main inspiration for The Hunger Games trilogy came from the classical account of Theseus and the Minotaur . In Greek mythology , as a punishment for the killing of King Minos 's son Androgeos , Athens was forced to sacrifice seven youths and seven maidens to Crete , who were then put in the Labyrinth and killed by the Minotaur . After a while , Theseus , the son of the Athenian king , decided to put an end to the Minotaur and Minos 's terror , so he volunteered to join the third group of victims , ultimately killing the Minotaur and leading his companions out of the monster 's Labyrinth .
Collins has said that there are also many parallels between the Roman Empire and the fictional nation of Panem . She describes the Hunger Games as " an updated version of the Roman gladiator games , which entails a ruthless government forcing people to fight to the death as popular entertainment . " Collins also explains that the name " Panem " came from the Latin phrase " Panem et Circenses " , which means " Bread and Circuses " and refers to the strategy used by Roman emperors to appease the masses by providing them with food and entertainment .
As with the previous books in the trilogy , Mockingjay contains 27 chapters , with nine chapters in each of the three parts . This structure , which Collins had previously used in her series The Underland Chronicles , came from Collins 's playwriting background . This " three @-@ act " structure is also apparent in the trilogy as a whole ; Collins stated that she " knew from the beginning " that she was going to write a trilogy .
The cover and title information was revealed by Scholastic on February 11 , 2010 . The cover continues the previous books ' theme on the symbol of peace . The novel 's title comes from the hybrid birds of the same name that feature in the novels ' storyline . As Publishers Weekly has stated , " the hybrid birds that are an important symbol — of hope and rebellion — throughout the books " . Collins likens Katniss to a Mockingjay because both " should never have existed " .
= = Plot = =
Katniss , her sister Prim , and her friends Finnick and Gale all reluctantly adjust to a highly structured life in the underground District 13 , which has been spearheading the rebellion in Panem . Feeling manipulated , Katniss eventually agrees to act as " the Mockingjay " — a poster child for the rebellion — but only on the condition that District 13 's President Alma Coin vows to grant immunity to all of the past Hunger Games tributes , including Katniss 's friend Peeta Mellark and Finnick 's lover Annie Cresta , and to reserve for Katniss the right to personally murder Panem 's President Snow once he is captured .
Katniss and the rebels learn that Peeta is alive and is being tortured at the Capitol in an attempt to demoralize and control Katniss . When a rescue team succeeds in extracting him , they discover that Peeta has been " hijacked " — a brutal form of brainwashing involving the use of Tracker Jacker venom that induces extreme fear . Peeta has been programmed to hate and fear Katniss . After he attempts to kill her , he is kept restrained under heavy guard at all times as the rebel medics seek a way to restore him to sanity .
A controversial strategy proposed by Gale wins a decisive victory at District 2 , readying the rebels to launch a final campaign against the Capitol itself . Katniss and her propo team ( a film crew recording her squad for rebel propaganda ) are deployed on a trivial assignment to the Capitol . President Coin has sent Peeta along on the mission even though he is still dangerous and unpredictable . Katniss believes Coin wants her dead because she is impossible to control .
While filming in a purportedly safe Capitol neighborhood , the team 's commander , Boggs , is killed . Subsequently , during intense violence and urban warfare that involves Hunger Games @-@ like monsters , most of Katniss ' team mates , including Finnick , are killed . Katniss presses on alone towards President Snow 's mansion . As Katniss reaches the mansion , a hoverplane drops parachutes carrying bombs that explode among a group of trapped children . The rebel medics ( including Katniss ' sister Prim ) rush in to help the injured children but , in a deliberately inhumane strategy , a second wave of firebombs explodes , taking out the medics . Prim is killed and Katniss sustains severe burns , but the rebels succeed in taking the Capitol .
During her recuperation , Katniss is deeply depressed over her sister 's death and confronts President Snow . Snow claims that Coin orchestrated the bombing that resulted in Prim 's death , persuasively arguing that Coin made it appear to be Snow 's work to turn his supporters against him and that , if he had a hovercraft at his disposal , he would have escaped , rather than bomb the Capitol . Knowing this to be true , and acknowledging the previous agreement not to lie to one another , Katniss realizes in horror that the strategy used to kill the medics had been developed earlier by Gale . When Katniss confronts Gale about his possible involvement , he merely expresses uncertainty . Katniss becomes convinced that , rather than establishing a republic governed by representatives from each of the Districts , Coin intends to assume Snow 's power and maintain the status quo .
On the day Snow is to be executed , President Coin asks the remaining Hunger Games victors to vote on punishing the Capitol just as the Capitol punished the Districts : by holding a final Hunger Games that will target the children of the Capitol 's leaders . Katniss silently reflects that this is exactly the same evil the Capitol committed when the last rebellion failed . Then , she votes " yes — for Prim . " Haymitch is the only one who understands her hidden meaning . They proceed to the execution , where Katniss is to shoot Snow . As she readies her bow , Snow flashes her one last smile , reminding her of his promise to always be truthful to her . Katniss silently agrees and , making her decision , she raises her bow and shoots Coin instead , killing her . Katniss immediately attempts suicide , but Peeta stops her , and she is arrested during the ensuing riot . After the riot , Snow is found dead . Katniss is acquitted of Coin 's murder by reason of insanity , and she is relocated to the ruins of her home in District 12 .
Months later , Peeta and some other District 12 natives also return there . Peeta has gradually recovered the memories of his love for Katniss . Katniss embraces her love for Peeta , recognizing her need for his hope and strength . Together , they write a book to preserve the memory of those who died . Peeta still suffers flashbacks from being hijacked , and Katniss still wakes up screaming from nightmares . By helping to overthrow Snow and assassinating Coin , Katniss has preserved the possibility that Panem will transition to a representative form of government , but at a tremendous personal cost .
In the epilogue set 20 years later , Katniss and Peeta have two children . The Hunger Games are over for good , and the children represent hope that future generations will benefit from the sacrifices of their parents . Katniss dreads the day her children learn about their parents ' involvement in both the Games and the war . When she feels distressed , Katniss plays a comforting but repetitive game : reminding herself of every good thing she has ever seen someone do . The series ends with Katniss ' somber reflection that " There are much worse games to play . "
= = Themes = =
Reviews have noted many themes in the previous books that are also explored in " Mockingjay " . A review from The Baltimore Sun noted that " the themes of the series , including physical hardships , loyalty in extreme circumstances and traversing morally ambiguous terrain , are continued at an even larger scale . " In the book , Katniss must deal with betrayal and violence against people . At the same time , while she was symbolically touching thousands of lives , she must also lead those people into war . Finally , Katniss realizes she cannot even trust President Coin , leader of District 13 .
In an interview with Collins , it was noted that the series " tackles issues like severe poverty , starvation , oppression , and the effects of war . " Collins replied that this inspiration was from her father , who , when going to war in Vietnam , made sure that his children understood the consequences and effects of war . Yvonne Zipp of The Christian Science Monitor noted that it was " the most brutal of the trilogy " and that " Collins doesn 't take war lightly – her characters debate the morality involved in tactics used to try to overthrow the rotting , immoral government , and they pay a high cost for those tactics . " Katie Roiphe of The New York Times wrote that " it is the perfect teenage story with its exquisitely refined rage against the cruel and arbitrary power of the adult world . " In a review for USA Today , Bob Minzesheimer pointed out that the novel contained optimism : " Hope emerges from despair . Even in a dystopian future , there 's a better future . "
Minzesheimer also noted a central question of " Real or not real ? " which was asked throughout the novel by Peeta . Susan Carpenter of the Los Angeles Times also pointed this out , writing , " Mockingjay takes readers into new territories and an even more brutal and confusing world : one where it 's unclear what sides the characters are on , one where presumed loyalties are repeatedly stood on their head " .
= = Publication history = =
Mockingjay was first released in the US and Canada on August 24 , 2010 . The UK , New Zealand and Australia received the book one day later , on August 25 , 2010 . The audiobook was released simultaneously on August 24 , 2010 by Scholastic Audio .
= = = Sales = = =
The book had a 1 @.@ 2 million @-@ copy first printing that was bumped up from 750 @,@ 000 . In its first week of release , the book sold over 450 @,@ 000 copies . Following this , Scholastic printed an additional 400 @,@ 000 copies , bringing the initial print run up to 1 @.@ 6 million . Scholastic Trade president Ellie Berger said that sales " have exceeded all expectations " . The book has also been released in e @-@ book format and topped sales in the week ending with August 29 , 2010 , beating out The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo , which had held the top spot since April . The other Hunger Games books have also made it in the top ten , with the first book at fifth and the second book taking eighth . As of March 2012 , the book has sold over 9 million copies .
= = Release = =
= = = Promotion = = =
To promote the release of Mockingjay , many bookstores held midnight release parties . The official event in New York City was attended by Collins , and included many activities such as a tarot card reader , a magician , jugglers and face @-@ painters . Prizes such as signed copies of Catching Fire and Hunger Games @-@ themed cups were raffled . Once Collins arrived , she read the first chapter of the novel , explaining that she would read with an accent since Katniss , the narrator , is from Appalachia . By midnight , copies were being sold with a signature stamp since Collins had a hand injury and was unable to sign .
Before the release , Scholastic also released a trailer for the book , launched a Facebook page that gained over 22 @,@ 000 fans in 10 days , and held a contest for booksellers to win a visit from Collins and an online countdown clock to the release date . There were also advertisements for the book on websites such as Entertainment Weekly and Romantic Times . National Entertainment Collectibles Association also sold other goods such as T @-@ shirts , posters , games and bracelets . Collins also held a " 13 @-@ District Blog Tour " where 13 winners received a free copy of Mockingjay on August 24 , 2010 . A tour was also scheduled , starting at Books of Wonder in New York where the official party took place . The tour ended on November 6 , 2010 , in the Third Place Books store in Lake Forest Park , Washington .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Mockingjay has received generally positive reviews from critics . Some noted that there was a suspense drop between Catching Fire and the start of Mockingjay . Nicole Sperling of Entertainment Weekly gave the book a B + and said , " Collins has kicked the brutal violence up a notch in an edge @-@ of @-@ your @-@ seat plot " . Publishers Weekly gave the book a starred review , calling it " the best yet , a beautifully orchestrated and intelligent novel that succeeds on every level " . The review went on to praise the " sharp social commentary and the nifty world building " . Kirkus Reviews gave Mockingjay a starred review , saying that the book is exactly what its fans are looking for and that " it will grab them and not let go " . Susan Carpenter of the Los Angeles Times compared the battlefield to Iraq and said that the book is every bit as original as the first in the series , ending the review with " Wow " .
The Baltimore Sun 's Nancy Knight commented that the book " ends on an ostensibly happy note , but the heartbreaking effects of war and loss aren 't sugar @-@ coated " and that it will have readers thinking about the effects of war on society . Katie Roiphe of The New York Times said it is " the perfect teenage story with its exquisitely refined rage against the cruel and arbitrary power of the adult world " . However , she criticized that it was not as " impeccably plotted " as The Hunger Games . Bob Minzesheimer of USA Today gave the book three out of four stars . The Christian Science Monitor reviewer Yvonne Zipp described it as " an entirely gripping read " .
While a review from The Sacramento Bee praised the action scenes and the battle in the Capitol , the reviewer also criticized Collins for not giving enough time to finish all the loose ends , writing that " the disappointment with Mockingjay hits primarily as Collins starts her home stretch . It 's almost as if she didn 't allocate enough time or chapters to handle all her threads " .
= = Film adaptation = =
The Hunger Games trilogy was adapted into a series of films , with the stars of the 2012 film The Hunger Games signed on for all four movies . Mockingjay was split into two parts ; Part 1 was released on November 21 , 2014 , and Part 2 was released on November 20 , 2015 . Francis Lawrence , director of The Hunger Games : Catching Fire , returned to direct the two final movies in the series . Julianne Moore played President Coin .
|
= Michael Pineda =
Michael Francisco Pineda Paulino ( born January 18 , 1989 ) is a Dominican professional baseball starting pitcher for the New York Yankees of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He signed as an international free agent with the Seattle Mariners in 2005 , and made his MLB debut for the Mariners in 2011 . In his rookie season , Pineda was named an All @-@ Star and finished fifth in balloting for American League Rookie of the Year . After his rookie season , he was traded to the Yankees .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor leagues = = =
Pineda signed with the Seattle Mariners of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) at age 16 on December 12 , 2005 . He made his professional debut with the Mariners of the Rookie @-@ level Dominican Summer League ( DSL ) in 2006 , pitching to a 2 – 1 win – loss record with a 0 @.@ 44 earned run average ( ERA ) , allowing only one earned run all season . In 2007 , he had a 6 – 1 record with a 2 @.@ 29 ERA in regular action for the DSL Mariners . Pineda pitched for the Wisconsin Timber Rattlers of the Class @-@ A Midwest League in 2008 and had an 8 – 6 record with a 1 @.@ 95 ERA . Opponents had a batting average of .216 against Pineda . He led the Seattle farm system in ERA , opponent average and strikeouts ( 128 ) . Baseball America rated Pineda as the Mariners ' tenth best prospect while the Mariners organization named him their Minor League Pitcher of the Year . Wisconsin pitching coach Jaime Navarro became Pineda 's mentor .
Pineda battled injuries during the 2009 season , missing most of the year due to elbow strain . He was 4 – 2 with a 2 @.@ 84 ERA for the High Desert Mavericks of the Class A @-@ Advanced California League while healthy and threw three shutout innings for the Mariners of the Rookie @-@ level Arizona League . He struck out 52 in 47 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched ( IP ) for the year .
Before the 2010 season , Baseball America ranked Pineda as the Mariners ' sixth best prospect . Back in good health in 2010 , Pineda was 8 – 1 with a 2 @.@ 22 ERA for the West Tenn Diamond Jaxx of the Class @-@ AA Southern League with 78 strikeouts and 17 walks in 77 IP and 3 – 3 with a 4 @.@ 76 ERA for the Tacoma Rainiers of the Class @-@ AAA Pacific Coast League with 76 strikeouts and 17 walks in 62 1 ⁄ 3 IP . The Mariners front office ended his season when he reached 140 IP as a precaution against injury . The Mariners again named Pineda their Minor League Pitcher of the Year in 2010 , and he was a finalist for the USA Today Minor League Player of the Year .
Baseball America rated Pineda as the second best prospect in the Mariners ' system before the 2011 season . Baseball America also rated him the sixteenth best prospect in all of baseball .
= = = Seattle Mariners ( 2011 ) = = =
Pineda made the Mariners ' starting rotation out of spring training 2011 as the number five starter , the third youngest player on a 2011 American League opening day roster after Chris Sale and Tim Collins . He made his MLB debut on April 5 , giving up three runs in six innings in a loss . Pineda pitched 7 1 ⁄ 3 innings , allowed two runs , struck out seven batters , and earned his first MLB win on April 12 , 2011 . Pineda struck out a career high nine batters against the Detroit Tigers on April 28 , including the first four batters he faced . He ended his first month in the majors with a 4 – 1 record and a 2 @.@ 01 ERA . He was named American League Rookie of the Month for April 2011 , pitching at least six innings in his first five starts , giving up only 22 hits and 12 walks over 31 1 ⁄ 3 innings , while striking out 30 opposing batters .
Pineda was selected to the All @-@ Star Game on July 10 as a replacement for Justin Verlander , who was ineligible to pitch in the All @-@ Star Game due to having pitched the day before the All @-@ Star break . He was 8 – 6 at that point , but with a 3 @.@ 03 ERA and 113 strikeouts in 113 innings , against only 36 walks . In the All @-@ Star Game , Pineda pitched one perfect inning , striking out Scott Rolen and Rickie Weeks .
Pineda finished the 2011 season with a 9 – 10 record and a 3 @.@ 74 ERA . He recorded no wins in his final seven starts over the last two months of the year , and the Mariners cut back on his work load as a precaution against an arm injury . In 28 starts , he struck out 173 hitters while walking just 55 over 171 innings . Pineda struck out 24 @.@ 9 % of all batters faced , which was the third highest strikeout percentage in MLB . He also finished fifth in voting for American League Rookie of the Year Award , behind Jeremy Hellickson , Mark Trumbo , Eric Hosmer , and Iván Nova , and ahead of teammate Dustin Ackley , who finished sixth . After the season , Keith Law ranked Pineda as the 20th best player under the age of 25 .
= = = New York Yankees ( 2012 – present ) = = =
The Mariners traded Pineda to the New York Yankees with José Campos , for Jesús Montero and Héctor Noesí on January 13 , 2012 . The Yankees needed a top @-@ tier starting pitcher to pair with CC Sabathia , and the Mariners felt they could afford to part with Pineda because of their depth of top @-@ tier pitching prospects , including Danny Hultzen , James Paxton , and Taijuan Walker .
Pineda was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list with tendinitis in his right shoulder at the culmination of spring training , causing him to miss the start of the 2012 season . During his rehabilitation , he suffered an anterior labral tear in his right shoulder . He underwent arthroscopic surgery on May 1 , 2012 , and was ruled out for the 2012 season . Pineda began the 2013 season on the 60 @-@ day DL as he was still recovering from the shoulder surgery . He was activated from the disabled list on July 8 , 2013 , and optioned to the minor leagues , where he pitched for the Scranton / Wilkes @-@ Barre RailRiders of the Class AAA International League . In six games pitched for the RailRiders , Pineda had a 1 – 1 record and a 3 @.@ 86 ERA .
Pineda competed for a spot in the Yankees ' starting rotation during spring training in 2014 . He was named the Yankees ' fifth starter towards the end of spring training . He made his first start for the Yankees on April 5 , 2014 . On April 10 , 2014 , during a start against the Boston Red Sox , Boston broadcasters noticed a substance that appeared to be pine tar on the palm of Pineda 's pitching hand in the early innings of the game . Midway through Pineda 's outing , the substance was wiped from his hand only to be added to his wrist . The umpires of the game were never notified and no action was taken against Pineda , who told reporters after the game that the substance on his hand was dirt . On April 23 , 2014 , during Pineda 's next game against the Red Sox , Red Sox manager John Farrell notified the umpires about pine tar on Pineda 's neck , and he was ejected from the game in the second inning . Pineda was suspended for 10 games for the incident . He had a 1 @.@ 83 ERA in 19 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched across his first four starts .
While pitching in a simulated game during the suspension , Pineda developed a strain in his teres major muscle , which was expected to require three to four weeks to heal . Following inflammation experienced in late May , Pineda 's return was pushed back to August . The Yankees activated Pineda to start on August 13 . Pineda finished the season with a 5 – 5 record and a 1 @.@ 89 ERA in 76 1 ⁄ 3 innings .
On May 10 , 2015 , in a win against the Baltimore Orioles , Pineda struck out a career @-@ high 16 batters over seven innings while also walking none , shattering his previous career @-@ high of 10 strikeouts in a single game . He also became the first pitcher since Johan Santana in 2007 with 16 strikeouts and no walks in a single game . Pineda went on the disabled list on July 30 due to a strained flexor muscle in his right forearm . He finished the season with a 12 – 10 record and a 4 @.@ 37 ERA in 160 2 ⁄ 3 innings across 27 games started .
= = Scouting profile = =
Pineda is listed at 6 feet 7 inches ( 2 @.@ 01 m ) and 265 pounds ( 120 kg ) . Baseball America rated Pineda as having the best fastball and control in the Mariners ' system in 2010 , while rating him as having the best fastball and slider in the Mariners season in 2011 . Pineda 's fastball in 2011 averaged 94 @.@ 7 miles per hour ( 152 @.@ 4 km / h ) , the highest among MLB rookies with at least 100 innings pitched , ranking fourth in the American League behind Alexi Ogando , Justin Verlander , and David Price . Pineda also throws a changeup . Since his shoulder surgery , his fastball is in the 92 @-@ 93 mph range , topping out around 96 @-@ 97 .
= = Personal life = =
Pineda 's family lives in the Dominican Republic . While pitching for the Mariners in 2011 , he roomed with Navarro , who had become the Mariners ' bullpen coach . He makes an effort to conduct his interviews in English , without the use of a translator , though he still receives some assistance from Yankees ' teammate Dellin Betances .
On August 20 , 2012 , Pineda was charged with driving under the influence ( DUI ) of alcohol while on injury rehab in Tampa , Florida . On February 20 , 2013 . Pineda pleaded no contest to driving under the influence and must serve 50 hours community service , up to one year of probation , attend DUI school and pay a $ 500 fine .
|
= Blind Ambition ( Family Guy ) =
" Blind Ambition " is the third episode of season four of Family Guy , which was first broadcast on Fox on May 15 , 2005 . In the episode , Peter swallows an excessive number of nickels , causing him to become blind . He later becomes a hero after unwittingly saving Horace the bartender from a fire at his bar , The Drunken Clam , and then retains his sight . Meanwhile , Quagmire is forced to refrain from perverse sexual behavior or risk being driven out of the neighborhood following his arrest for spying on Lois in a ladies ' lavatory .
= = Plot = =
At the bowling alley , Mort Goldman bowls a perfect game and becomes an overnight celebrity . Lois arrives to pick Peter up from the bowling alley , but discovers Quagmire spying on her from the ceiling of the ladies ' toilet . Quagmire is beaten up then arrested , but released shortly after by Joe . On his return , Lois , Bonnie and Loretta reveal that they 're petitioning the city of Quahog to have Quagmire removed from their neighborhood . As Peter and the other guys are defending Quagmire , Ernie the Giant Chicken attacks Peter and starts a fight that causes huge casualties inside and outside of Quahog . After the fight , Peter returns to the neighborhood to return to the conversation and tells the women that , " Quagmire 's a good guy , he 's just a little mixed up , that 's all ! " Eventually , the women agree to let Quagmire stay in the neighborhood so long as he manages to control his perverse behavior . Quagmire 's taught self @-@ control through operant conditioning by Peter and his friends , and is eventually allowed out in public . Soon , however , he is distracted by women playing in a fountain in the shopping mall and panics , running into a CCTV camera operation room monitoring women 's changing rooms . Discovering that a lady in a fitting room is having a heart attack , he appears to rush to her aid , performing CPR and saving her life . Quagmire is congratulated for his heroism , but his intention had been to molest the woman while she was unconscious ( which he reveals by asking " What the hell is CPR ? " ) .
This upsets Peter , who is jealous of his friends ' success . In the hope of becoming famous , Peter attempts to set a world record for eating the largest number of nickels , but develops nickel poisoning and loses his vision . Attempting to drown his sorrows , Peter visits his local bar , The Drunken Clam , with his guide dog , unaware that the bar is on fire ( caused by God trying to impress a woman ) . Discovering the bartender Horace trapped under debris , Peter saves his life and is proclaimed a hero by local newsman Tom Tucker . When told that he saved Horace from a burning building , Peter replied with disbelief , " That freakin ' place was on fire ? ! " For his inadvertent bravery , Peter is awarded a medal by the mayor and receives an eye transplant , the replacement eyes coming from a homeless man dragged to death when Peter accidentally tied his guide dog around the man 's neck thinking it was a parking meter . The end of this episode is an unconnected parody of the closing throne room scene from Star Wars Episode IV : A New Hope .
= = Production = =
During Family Guy 's third season , the show was cancelled by its network . In preparation in case the show was revived and began broadcasting again , five short scripts were written in 2001 for future episodes . Blind Ambition was developed from one of those scripts . A number of scenes in the episode were removed before broadcast and one , the reappearance of Ernie the Giant Chicken , had originally been set to broadcast in " The Cleveland – Loretta Quagmire " . The scene was moved to this episode because " The Cleveland @-@ Loretta Quagmire " already contained a lengthy fight sequence and overran its time allowance . Several of the removed scenes focused on gags showing Peter and his friends attempting to rehabilitate Quagmire , one of which saw Brian Griffin transporting a fork @-@ lift truck load of porn magazines away from Quagmire 's house . Since the episode aired , a selection of action figures have been created of Peter acting as Gary , The No Trash Cougar .
Show producer David Goodman received many telephone calls complaining about the scene where Peter attempts to seduce his son Chris , mistakenly believing him to be his wife , Lois . The scene was believed by some viewers to be encouraging child molestation . The show also received at least one letter of complaint regarding the scene where Quagmire watches Lois going to the toilet ; screenwriter Chris Sheridan comments on the DVD commentary that the number of complaints about this scene exceeded one . It is prohibited on Fox to use the term ' Jesus Christ ' without actually referring to the person himself , and so in the scene in which God vaporises a person and exclaims " Jesus Christ " , it was necessary for Jesus to physically appear before the two run away in order for the scene to be suitable for television airing .
In addition to the regular cast , actor Gary Cole , actress Gina Gershon , actor Judd Hirsch , voice actress Rachael MacFarlane and actress Lisa Wilhoit guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Lori Alan , actor John G. Brennan , writer Danny Smith , and actress Jennifer Tilly made minor appearances .
= = Cultural references = =
Stewie discovers the Keebler Elves after crashing into the tree , who plan to kill their competition : Snap , Crackle and Pop , with the help of Judd Hirsch 's nuclear weapon , which Peter views while peeking through a ball return at the bowling alley . Later on in the bar , Crackle and Pop are seen discussing an attack by the Keebler Elves which apparently resulted in Snap 's death .
Beforehand , a ship crashes through Quahog buildings , a reference to Speed 2 : Cruise Control .
In one cutaway scene , W. Frederick Gerhardt 's Cycleplane crashing is parodied .
Peter discusses Scrubs with Horace in the bar , a show for which both Neil Goldman and Garrett Donovan have written .
The entire scene in which Peter receives his award from Mayor West is a reenactment of the ending of the original 1977 Star Wars film , A New Hope ; Lucasfilm permitted the reproduction of the characters , music and sounds .
The airplane that defeats Ernie the Giant Chicken in the fight is a mirror reference to the climatic scene in Raiders of the Lost Ark .
Stewie being launched into a tree is a reference to The Brady Bunch .
= = Reception = =
PopMatters ' Kevin Wong gave the episode a positive review , feeling it was better than the two previous episodes of the season . He commented on the fight scene between Peter and Ernie the Giant Chicken as " a cartoon action sequence to end all cartoon action sequences : vehicles explode and limbs flail as Peter and the chicken beat each other senseless . " " Blind Ambition " was criticized by Mike Drucker of IGN , who found that " the long fight with the chicken in Blind Ambition was funny once before , but borderline tiring here " . However , Drucker also noted that the Star Wars ending was " one of my favorite jokes in the series " .
|
= Sweeney Todd : The Demon Barber of Fleet Street ( 2007 film ) =
Sweeney Todd : The Demon Barber of Fleet Street is a 2007 British @-@ American musical horror comedy film directed by Tim Burton . It is an adaptation of Stephen Sondheim and Hugh Wheeler 's Tony Award @-@ winning 1979 musical of the same name and re @-@ tells the Victorian melodramatic tale of Sweeney Todd , an English barber and serial killer who murders his customers with a straight razor and , with the help of his accomplice , Mrs. Lovett , processes their corpses into meat pies .
Having been struck by the cinematic qualities of Sondheim 's musical while still a student , Burton had entertained the notion of a film version since the early 1980s . However , it was not until 2006 that he had the opportunity to realize this ambition , when DreamWorks announced his appointment as replacement for director Sam Mendes , who had been working on such an adaptation . Sondheim , although not directly involved , was extensively consulted during the film 's production .
The film stars Johnny Depp as Benjamin Barker / Sweeney Todd and Helena Bonham Carter as Mrs. Lovett . Depp , not known for his singing , took lessons in preparation for his role , which producer Richard D. Zanuck acknowledged was something of a gamble . However , Depp 's vocal performance , despite being criticized as lacking certain musical qualities , was generally thought by critics to suit the part ( see Music section below ) .
Sweeney Todd : The Demon Barber of Fleet Street was released in the United States on December 21 , 2007 , and in the United Kingdom on January 25 , 2008 , to largely enthusiastic reviews . The film won a number of awards , including the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy , the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy and the Academy Award for Best Art Direction . Helena Bonham Carter was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy , and Johnny Depp was also nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor . Although not an outstanding financial success in the U.S. , it performed well worldwide , and has spawned a soundtrack album and various DVD releases .
= = Plot = =
In 1846 , Benjamin Barker , a barber , arrives in London , accompanied by sailor Anthony Hope . Fifteen years earlier , he was falsely convicted and sentenced to penal transportation by the corrupt Judge Turpin , who lusted after Barker 's wife Lucy . Barker adopts the alias " Sweeney Todd " and returns to his old Fleet Street shop , situated above Mrs. Nellie Lovett 's meat pie shop . He learns that Turpin raped Lucy , who then poisoned herself with arsenic . The couple 's daughter , Johanna , is now Turpin 's ward , and is the object of Turpin 's lust . Todd vows revenge , and re @-@ opens his barber shop after Mrs. Lovett returns his straight razors to him . Anthony becomes enamored with Johanna , but is caught by Turpin and driven away by his corrupt associate , Beadle Bamford .
Todd denounces faux @-@ Italian barber Adolfo Pirelli 's hair tonic as a fraudulent mix and humiliates him in a public shaving contest . A few days later , Pirelli arrives at Todd 's shop , with his boy assistant Tobias Ragg . Mrs. Lovett keeps Toby occupied while Pirelli identifies himself as Todd 's former assistant , Davy Collins , and threatens to reveal Todd 's secret unless Todd gives him half his earnings . Todd kills Collins to protect his secret , and hides his body in a trunk .
After receiving advice from Bamford , Turpin , intending marriage to Johanna , visits Todd 's shop for grooming . Todd shaves Turpin , preparing to slit his throat ; they are interrupted by Anthony , who reveals his plan to elope with Johanna before noticing Turpin . Turpin leaves enraged and Todd vents his rage by killing customers while waiting for another chance to kill Turpin , and Mrs. Lovett bakes the victims into pies . Todd rigs his barber 's chair with a pedal @-@ operated mechanism that deposits his victims through a trap door into Mrs. Lovett 's basement bake @-@ house . Anthony searches for Johanna , whom Turpin has sent to an insane asylum upon discovering her plans to elope with Anthony .
The barbering and pie @-@ making businesses prosper , and Mrs. Lovett takes Toby as her assistant . Mrs. Lovett tells an uninterested Todd of her plans to marry him and move to the seaside . Anthony discovers Johanna 's whereabouts and poses as a wig @-@ maker 's apprentice to rescue her . Todd has Toby deliver a letter to Turpin , telling him where Johanna will be brought when Anthony frees her . Toby has become wary of Todd and tells Mrs. Lovett of his suspicion .
Bamford arrives at the pie shop , informing Mrs. Lovett that neighbors have been complaining of the stink from her chimney . He is distracted by Todd 's offer of a free grooming and is murdered by Todd . Mrs. Lovett informs Todd of Toby 's suspicions , and the pair search for Toby , whom Mrs. Lovett has locked in the bake @-@ house . He has hidden himself in the sewers after seeing Bamford 's body drop into the room from the trap door above , as well as finding a human toe in a pie . Anthony brings Johanna , disguised as a sailor , to the shop , and has her wait there while he leaves to find a coach .
A beggar woman enters the shop in search of Bamford . She recognizes Todd , but upon hearing Turpin 's voice , Todd kills her and sends her through the trap door . As Turpin enters , Todd explains that Johanna had repented and offers a free shave ; when Turpin finally recognizes Todd as Benjamin Barker , Todd stabs him several times before cutting his throat . Upon seeing Johanna , Todd prepares to slit her throat as well , not recognizing her as his daughter . Hearing Mrs. Lovett scream in horror as a dying Turpin grabs her dress , Todd instead spares Johanna 's life .
Todd discovers that the beggar woman was his wife Lucy , whom he believed to be dead , and that Mrs. Lovett misled him about her death . Todd pretends to forgive her and dances with her before hurling her into the bake @-@ house oven , then cradles his wife 's dead body in his arms . Toby climbs from the sewers and Todd allows Toby to slit his throat with his own razor . He leaves the basement as Todd bleeds to death over his dead wife .
= = Cast = =
Johnny Depp as Benjamin Barker / Sweeney Todd
Helena Bonham Carter as Mrs. Lovett
Alan Rickman as Judge Turpin
Timothy Spall as Beadle Bamford
Jayne Wisener as Johanna Barker
Sacha Baron Cohen as Adolfo Pirelli
Laura Michelle Kelly as Lucy Barker / Beggar Woman
Jamie Campbell Bower as Anthony Hope
Ed Sanders as Tobias Ragg
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Tim Burton first saw Stephen Sondheim 's 1979 stage musical , Sweeney Todd : The Demon Barber of Fleet Street , as a CalArts student in London in 1980 . Burton recalled his experience of seeing the show , saying , " I was still a student , I didn 't know if I would be making movies or working in a restaurant , I had no idea what I would be doing . I just wandered into the theatre and it just blew me away because I 'd never really seen anything that had the mixture of all those elements . I actually went three nights in a row because I loved it so much . " Although not a fan of the musical genre , Burton was struck by how cinematic the musical was , and repeatedly attended subsequent performances . He described it as a silent film with music , and was " dazzled both by the music and its sense of the macabre . " When his directing career took off in the late 1980s , Burton approached Sondheim with a view to making a cinematic adaptation , but nothing came of it . In Sondheim 's words , " [ Burton ] went off and did other things . "
Meanwhile , director Sam Mendes had been working on a film version of the story for several years , and in June 2003 Sondheim was approached to write the script . Although he turned down the offer , Mendes and producer Walter F. Parkes obtained his approval to use writer John Logan instead . Logan had previously collaborated with Parkes on Gladiator , and claimed his biggest challenge in adapting the Sondheim stage play " was taking a sprawling , magnificent Broadway musical and making it cinematic , and an emotionally honest film . Onstage , you can have a chorus sing as the people of London , but I think that would be alienating in a movie . " Mendes left to direct the 2005 film Jarhead , and Burton leaped at taking over the direction after his project , Ripley 's Believe It or Not ! , fell apart due to its excessive budget .
On Burton 's hiring , he and Logan reworked the screenplay ; Logan felt they agreed over the film 's tone due to " share [ d ] stunted childhoods watching Amicus movies " . Turning a three @-@ hour stage musical into a two @-@ hour film required some changes . Some songs were shortened , while others were completely removed . Burton said " In terms of the show , it was three hours long , but we weren 't out to film the Broadway show , we were out to make a movie , so we tried to keep the pace like those old melodramas . Sondheim himself is not a real big fan of movie musicals , so he was really open to honing it down to a more pacey shape . " " Burton and Logan also reduced the prominence of other secondary elements , such as the romance between Todd 's daughter Johanna and Anthony , to allow them to focus on the triangular relationship between Todd , Mrs. Lovett , and Toby .
= = = Casting = = =
DreamWorks announced Burton 's appointment in August 2006 , and Johnny Depp was cast as Todd . Christopher Lee , Peter Bowles , Anthony Head , and five other actors were set to play the ghost narrators , but their roles were cut ( Head does appear in an uncredited cameo as a gentleman who congratulates Depp after the shaving contest ) . According to Lee , these deletions were due to time constraints caused by a break in filming during March 2007 , while Depp 's daughter recovered from an illness . Burton 's domestic partner Helena Bonham Carter was cast in October 2006 , as well as Sacha Baron Cohen . In December of 2006 , Alan Rickman was cast . In January of 2007 , Laura Michelle Kelly was cast as Lucy Barker . Timothy Spall was added to the cast , and said he was urged to audition by his daughter , who wanted him to work with Depp . He recalled , " I really wanted this one – I knew Tim was directing and that Johnny Depp was going to be in it . My daughter , my youngest daughter , really wanted me to do it for that reason – Johnny Depp was in it . ( She came on set to meet Depp ) and he was really delightful to her , she had a great time . Then , I took her to the junket – and ( Depp ) greeted her like an old pal when he saw her . I 've got plenty of brownie points at the moment . "
Three members of the cast had never been in a film before : Ed Sanders was cast as Toby , Jayne Wisener as Johanna , and Jamie Campbell Bower , who auditioned , and after four days got the part of Anthony said " I think I weed myself . I was out shopping at the time and I got this call on my mobile . I was just like , ' OH MY GOD ! ' Honestly , I was like a little girl running around this shop like oh @-@ my @-@ god @-@ oh @-@ my @-@ god @-@ oh @-@ my @-@ god . "
= = = Filming = = =
Filming began on February 5 , 2007 at Pinewood Studios , and was completed by May 11 , despite a brief interruption when Depp 's daughter was taken seriously ill . Burton opted to film in London , where he had felt " very much at home " since his work on Batman in 1989 . Production designer Dante Ferretti created a darker , more sinister London by adapting Fleet Street and its surrounding area . Burton initially planned to use minimal sets and film in front of a green screen , but decided against it , stating that physical sets helped actors get into a musical frame of mind : " Just having people singing in front of a green screen seemed more disconnected " .
Depp created his own image of Todd . Heavy purple and brown make @-@ up was applied around his eyes to suggest fatigue and rage , as if " he 's never slept " . Burton said of the character Sweeney Todd , " We always saw him as a sad character , not a tragic villain or anything . He 's basically a dead person when you meet him ; the only thing that 's keeping him going is the one single minded thing which is tragic . You don 't see anything else around him . " Depp said of the character , " He makes Sid Vicious look like the innocent paper boy . He 's beyond dark . He 's already dead . He 's been dead for years . " Depp also commented on the streak of white in Todd 's hair , saying , " The idea was that he 'd had this hideous trauma , from being sent away , locked away . That streak of white hair became the shock of that rage . It represented his rage over what had happened . It 's certainly not the first time anyone 's used it . But it 's effective . It tells a story all by itself . My brother had a white spot growing up , and his son has this kind of shock of white in his hair . "
Burton insisted that the film be bloody , as he felt stage versions of the play which cut back on the bloodshed robbed it of its power . For him , " Everything is so internal with Sweeney that [ the blood ] is like his emotional release . It 's more about catharsis than it is a literal thing . " Producer Richard D. Zanuck said that " [ Burton ] had a very clear plan that he wanted to lift that up into a surreal , almost Kill Bill kind of stylization . We had done tests and experiments with the neck slashing , with the blood popping out . I remember saying to Tim , ' My God , do we dare do this ? ' " On set , the fake blood was colored orange to render correctly on the desaturated color film used , and crew members wore bin liners to avoid getting stained while filming . This macabre tone made some studios nervous , and it was not until Warner Bros. , DreamWorks and Paramount had signed up for the project that the film 's $ 50 million budget was covered . Burton said " the studio was cool about it and they accepted it because they knew what the show was . Any movie is a risk , but it is nice to be able to do something like that that doesn 't fit into the musical or slasher movie categories . "
After the filming , Burton said of the cast , " All I can say is this is one of the best casts I 've ever worked with . These people are not professional singers , so to do a musical like this which I think is one of the most difficult musicals , they all went for it . Every day on the set was a very , very special thing for me . Hearing all these guys sing , I don 't know if I can ever have an experience like that again . " " Burton said of the singing , " You can 't just lip synch , you 'd see the throat and the breath , every take they all had to belt it out . It was very enjoyable for me to see , with music on the set everybody just moved differently . I 'd seen Johnny ( Depp ) act in a way I 'd never seen before , walking across the room or sitting in the chair , picking up a razor or making a pie , whatever . They all did it in a way that you could sense . "
Depp said of working with Baron Cohen , when asked what he was like in real life ( meaning , not doing one of his trademark characters ) , " He 's not what I expected . I didn 't look at those characters and think , ' This will be the sweetest guy in the world ' . He 's incredibly nice . A real gentleman , kind of elegant . I was impressed with him . He 's kind of today 's equivalent of Peter Sellers . "
= = Music = =
Burton wanted to avoid the traditional approach of patches of dialogue interrupted by song , " We didn 't want it to be what I 'd say was a traditional musical with a lot of dialogue and then singing . That 's why we cut out a lot of choruses and extras singing and dancing down the street . Each of the characters , because a lot of them are repressed and have their emotions inside , the music was a way to let them express their feelings . "
He cut the show 's famous opening number , " The Ballad of Sweeney Todd " , explaining , " Why have a chorus singing about ' attending the tale of Sweeney Todd ' when you could just go ahead and attend it ? " Sondheim acknowledged that , in adapting a musical to film , the plot has to be kept moving , and was sent MP3 files of his shortened songs by Mike Higham , the film 's music producer , for approval . Several other songs were also cut , and Sondheim noted that there were " many changes , additions and deletions ... [ though ] ... if you just go along with it , I think you 'll have a spectacular time . " To create a larger , more cinematic feel , the score was re @-@ orchestrated by the stage musical 's original orchestrator , Jonathan Tunick , who increased the orchestra from 27 musicians to 78 .
The Deluxe Complete Edition soundtrack was released on December 18 , 2007 . Depp 's singing was described by a New York Times reviewer as " harsh and thin , but amazingly forceful " . Another critic adds that , though Depp 's voice " does not have much heft or power " , " his ear is obviously excellent , because his pitch is dead @-@ on accurate ... Beyond his good pitch and phrasing , the expressive colorings of his singing are crucial to the portrayal . Beneath this Sweeney ’ s vacant , sullen exterior is a man consumed with a murderous rage that threatens to burst forth every time he slowly takes a breath and is poised to speak . Yet when he sings , his voice crackles and breaks with sadness . "
= = Marketing = =
The film 's marketing has been criticized for not advertising it as a musical . Michael Halberstam of the Writers ' Theatre said , " By de @-@ emphasizing the score to the extent they did in the trailer , it is possible the producers were condescending to us – a tactic which cannot ultimately end in anything but tears . " In the UK , a number of audience members walked out of the film on realizing it was a musical , and complaints that advertisements for the film were deliberately misleading were made to both the Advertising Standards Authority and Trading Standards agency . The studios involved opted for a low @-@ key approach to their marketing . Producer Walter Parkes stated , " All these things that could be described as difficulties could also be the movie 's greatest strengths . " Warner Bros. felt it should take a similar approach to marketing as with The Departed , with little early exposure and discouraging talk of awards .
= = Release = =
Sweeney Todd : The Demon Barber of Fleet Street officially opened at the United States box office on December 21 , 2007 in 1 @,@ 249 theatres , and took $ 9 @,@ 300 @,@ 805 in its opening weekend . Worldwide releases followed during January and February 2008 , with the film performing well in the United Kingdom and Japan . The film grossed $ 52 @,@ 898 @,@ 073 in the United States and Canada , and $ 99 @,@ 625 @,@ 091 in other markets , accumulating a worldwide total of $ 152 @,@ 523 @,@ 164 . In the United States , the Marcus Theaters Corporation was not initially planning to screen the film following its premiere , because it was unable to reach a pricing agreement with Paramount . However , the dispute was resolved in time for the official release .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Although Sondheim was cautious of a cinematic adaptation of his musical , he was largely impressed by the results . The film received critical acclaim , with Depp 's performance receiving critical praise from critics — the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 86 % of critics gave the film positive reviews , based on 221 reviews , and Metacritic gave the film an average score of 83 out of 100 , based on 39 reviews . Sweeney Todd appeared on many critics ' top ten lists of the best films of 2007 .
Of the reviewers , Time rated it an A @-@ minus and added , " Burton and Depp infuse the brilliant cold steel of Stephen Sondheim 's score with a burning passion . Helena Bonham Carter and a superb supporting cast bring focused fury to this musical nightmare . It 's bloody great . " Time 's Richard Corliss named the film one of its top ten movies of 2007 , placing it fifth . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave it four stars out of four , lauding Burton 's visual style . In his review in Variety , Todd McCarthy called it " both sharp and fleet " and " a satisfying screen version of Stephen Sondheim 's landmark 1979 theatrical musical ... things have turned out uniformly right thanks to highly focused direction by Tim Burton , expert screw @-@ tightening by scenarist John Logan , and haunted and musically adept lead performances from Johnny Depp and Helena Bonham Carter . Assembled artistic combo assures the film will reap by far the biggest audience to see a pure Sondheim musical , although just how big depends on the upscale crowd ’ s tolerance for buckets of blood , and the degree to which the masses stay away due to the whiff of the highbrow . " Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B @-@ plus in its Movie Reviews section and stated , " To stage a proper Sweeney Todd , necks must be slit , human flesh must be squished into pastries , and blood ought to spurt in fountains and rivers of death . Enter Tim Burton , who ... has tenderly art @-@ directed soup @-@ thick , tomato @-@ red , fake @-@ gore blood with the zest of a Hollywood @-@ funded Jackson Pollock . " She went on to refer to the piece as " opulent , attentive ... so finely minced a mixture of Sondheim 's original melodrama and Burton 's signature spicing that it 's difficult to think of any other filmmaker so naturally suited for the job . "
In its DVD Reviews section , EW 's Chris Nashawaty gave the film an A @-@ minus , stating , " Depp 's soaring voice makes you wonder what other tricks he 's been hiding ... Watching Depp 's barber wield his razors ... it 's hard not to be reminded of Edward Scissorhands frantically shaping hedges into animal topiaries 18 years ago ... and all of the twisted beauty we would 've missed out on had [ Burton and Depp ] never met . " In Rolling Stone , Peter Travers awarded it 3 ½ out of 4 stars and added , " Sweeney Todd is a thriller @-@ diller from start to finish : scary , monstrously funny and melodically thrilling ... [ the film ] is a bloody wonder , intimate and epic , horrific and heart @-@ rending as it flies on the wings of Sondheim 's most thunderously exciting score . " As with Time , the critic ranked it fifth on his list of the best movies of 2007 . Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter said , " The blood juxtaposed to the music is highly unsettling . It runs contrary to expectations . Burton pushes this gore into his audiences ' faces so as to feel the madness and the destructive fury of Sweeney 's obsession . Teaming with Depp , his long @-@ time alter ego , Burton makes Sweeney a smoldering dark pit of fury and hate that consumes itself . With his sturdy acting and surprisingly good voice , Depp is a Sweeney Todd for the ages . " Harry Knowles gave the film a highly positive review , calling it Burton 's best film since Ed Wood , his favorite Burton film , and said it was possibly superior . He praised all of the cast and the cinematography , but noted it would probably not appeal to non @-@ musical fans due to the dominance of music in the film .
= = Awards and nominations = =
Sweeney Todd : The Demon Barber of Fleet Street received four Golden Globe nominations for the January 2008 65th Golden Globe Awards , winning two . The film received the award for Best Motion Picture in the Musical or Comedy genre , and Depp for his performance as Sweeney Todd . Burton was nominated for Best Director , and Helena Bonham Carter was nominated for her performance as Mrs. Lovett . The film was included in the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures 's top ten films of 2007 , and Burton was presented with their award for Best Director . The film was also nominated for two BAFTA awards , in the categories of Costume Design and Make Up and Hair . Sweeney Todd further received three Oscar nominations at the 80th Academy Awards : Best Actor in a Leading Role for Depp ; Best Achievement in Costume Design ; and Best Achievement in Art Direction , which it won . Depp won the award for Best Villain at the 2008 MTV Movie Awards . He thanked his fans for " sticking with me on this very obtuse and strange road . " He also won the Choice Movie Villain award at the Teen Choice Awards ; and at Spike TV 's 2008 Scream Awards ( filmed on October 18 , 2008 , and aired three days later ) , the film won two awards : Best Horror Movie , and Best Actor in a Horror Movie or TV Show ( Depp ) .
It was listed as number 490 on Empire 's 500 Greatest films of all time .
= = Home release = =
Sweeney Todd : The Demon Barber of Fleet Street was released on DVD in North America on April 1 , 2008 , and the UK on May 19 . A Blu @-@ ray was released on October 21 , 2008 . An HD DVD release was announced for the same date , but due to the discontinuation of the format , Paramount canceled this version in preference for international distribution of the Blu @-@ ray release .
The DVD was released on April 1 , 2008 and has thus far sold approximately 1 @,@ 892 @,@ 489 copies , bringing in more than $ 38 million in revenue .
Sweeney Todd officially premiered on television on BBC America in October 2010 . An edited version of the film appeared as part of " Shocktober " , a Halloween themed month event for This TV network in October 2013 .
The film premiered on British television on Channel 4 on 27 November 2010 .
|
= Three Sisters Tavern =
Three Sisters Tavern , sometimes abridged as Three Sisters and nicknamed " Six Tits " , was a gay bar and strip club in Portland , Oregon , United States . The bar was founded in 1964 and began catering to Portland 's gay community in 1997 following the deaths of the original owners . The business evolved into a strip club featuring an all @-@ male revue . Also frequented by women , sometimes for bachelorette parties , Three Sisters was considered a hub of Portland 's nightlife before closing in 2004 .
= = Description and history = =
Three Sisters Tavern opened in 1964 as a family business . John P. Katchis and his wife Georgia owned and operated the business until his death four months later ( 1964 ) and her death in 1997 . The couple were survived by their three daughters , one of whom , Sotiria " Sandra " Katsavopoulos , along with her husband Athanasios " Saki " Katsavopoulos , acquired ownership and began catering to Portland 's gay community , eventually turning Three Sisters into a gay bar and strip club .
The bar was located at 1125 Southwest Stark Street and featured an all @-@ male nude revue , a dance floor , and shows . The Portland Mercury described it as an " institution of stiff drinks and stiffer male dancers " , where " hot men perform theatrical and acrobatic stripteases on stage , then get naked and wag their penises in your face " . Dancers often were costumed as angels , businessmen , construction workers , cowboys , police officers , or United Parcel Service ( UPS ) delivery men . After Three Sisters closed in 2004 , some of the featured dancers began performing at other Portland venues , including Jefferson Theatre .
Three Sisters catered both to gay men and to women , who sometimes attended as part of bachelorette parties . The Oregonian described the " bachelorette bunnies " who used to frequent this bar as well as two others : Silverado and the Viewpoint . The paper 's Lee Williams wrote :
Hippoty @-@ hoppity they go – these fuzzy , suburban @-@ soft little critters jump all over Stark Street and the Viewpoint running wild to celebrate one last night of ' Sex in the City ' singledom . They crowd downtown 's male strip @-@ club stages holding dollar bills up to get a glimpse of a few last carrots before hopping down that wedding @-@ trail home . They are particularly agile small mammals , able to hold a drink and a friend 's hair while she 's throwing up .
Rufus Wainwright recalled accompanying Thomas Lauderdale , the musician known for his work with the Portland @-@ based band Pink Martini , to the club .
= = Reception = =
In their book Secret Portland , Oregon : The Unique Guidebook to Portland 's Hidden Sites , Sounds and Tastes ( 2003 ) , Ann Carroll Burgess and Linda Rutenberg called Three Sisters " the hub of Portland 's gay bar nightlife " , offering a " great " dance floor and " impressive " entertainment . The Portland Mercury 's Katie Shimer called the bar " one million percent fun " and said , " Whatever your fetish , the strippers deliver ... Make sure you stuff your pockets with singles , ' cause you 'll be spending at least a good hour at the rack . " Similarly , the Seattle alternative weekly The Stranger said the venue was " perhaps the funnest place in all the world ... especially when the fellers trot on stage in a vast array of hilarious costumes " . The paper 's Wm . Steven Humphrey wrote , " These nudie cuties were born to entertain , and prove it by leaping from stage to tabletop , hanging naked upside down ( by the tops of their FEET ! ! ) , and if you 're extremely lucky , gingerly lifting a dollar bill off your forehead with their ass cheeks . Now that 's talent ! " Byron Beck of Willamette Week said the dancers at Three Sisters " [ turned ] a quaint queer tavern into the most mouthwatering of watering holes in P @-@ town " . The paper also called the club " the best place to view wiener @-@ wiggling " .
|
= Kameo =
Kameo : Elements of Power is a 2005 action @-@ adventure video game by Rare and Microsoft Studios released for the Xbox 360 . The player controls the title character , an elf , who journeys to recover her elemental powers and captive family from her evil sister and the troll king . Kameo 's ten elemental powers let her transform into creatures and use their varied abilities to solve combat @-@ oriented puzzles and progress through the game 's levels .
Kameo is known for its prolonged development cycle , which spanned four Nintendo and Microsoft consoles . It was conceived as a Pokémon @-@ style game of capturing and nurturing monsters , but traded its lighthearted Nintendo overtones for darker themes more befitting of Xbox audiences when Microsoft acquired the developer . In this process , Kameo was repurposed from a fairy to an elf — a transition the game 's director later concluded was unsuccessful . While nearly finished for the original Xbox console , the title was delayed to become an exclusive launch title for the upcoming Xbox 360 . Rare used the extra time to improve the game 's audiovisuals , including Rare 's first orchestra soundtrack , and add a local cooperative multiplayer mode . Kameo released alongside the Xbox 360 launches : November 2005 in North America and several weeks later in Europe .
The game received generally favorable reviews and sales estimates ranged from subpar to par . Reviewers praised Kameo 's graphics as setting standards for the new console , and noted its vivid color palette . Their criticism focused on the gameplay , in particular its repetition , awkward controls , easy combat , disorganized introduction , and overbearing tutorial . Reviewers found the story and Kameo 's character lackluster , but largely liked the other characters and the core morphing concept . They had high praise for the orchestral score and other technical features , apart from the game 's camera . Rare released several cosmetic downloadable content packs , and a free online cooperative mode upgrade .
Retrospective reviews remembered the game for its bright and impressive graphics . Kameo was included in Rare Replay , an August 2015 compilation of 30 Rare titles for the Xbox One , alongside documentary @-@ style videos about the game 's development and its planned sequel . The latter was canceled after a few months of production due to both poor sales of the original and Microsoft 's new focus on games for its Kinect peripheral .
= = Gameplay = =
In the third @-@ person action @-@ adventure game Kameo ( pronounced " cameo " ) , the player controls the title character , an elf , who journeys to recover her ten elemental powers and captive family from her evil sister and the troll king . Kameo uses elemental powers to transform into creatures with different abilities , which she switches between to solve puzzles and advance through the in @-@ game world . The player controls the player @-@ character with the left analog stick , the game 's camera view with the right thumbstick , and the character attacks and abilities with the controller 's triggers . The Xbox 360 controller 's face buttons swap between three active , elemental powers .
These ten " elemental warriors " include a fire @-@ breathing creature who lights torches , a gorilla who climbs walls and throws foes , and a plant who punches opponents . There are two each of five element types ( fire , ice , plant , rock , water ) . Some enemies have specific weaknesses and can only be affected by specific elemental powers or hazards in the environment . The game is structured such that new character abilities unlock just as their benefits are needed to solve a puzzle . Thus the game 's puzzles depend on combat more than logic . Each of the elemental forms has several ability upgrades , which the player can redeem by collecting and delivering fruit to a sacred tome called the Wotnot book . The Kameo character , herself , can move faster than the elemental warriors but has no special ability apart from breaking crates .
The game begins as Kameo advances through a castle — with the help of three elemental powers — to rescue her family . As the tutorial prologue ends , Kameo loses her elemental powers and is ejected from the castle into the Enchanted Kingdom to grow stronger and try again . Kameo travels through four themed worlds ( water , ice , fire , and swamp ) at the outskirts of the Badlands , the overworld that connects the areas . Each of the worlds are interspersed with townsfolk and combat @-@ oriented puzzles . Kameo can either travel to the worlds through the Badlands , where the elves and trolls skirmish , or warp from the Enchanted Kingdom . A help system built into the game provides hints or direct solutions for struggling players . Throughout the kingdom , Kameo finds and defeats the ten shadow creatures each guarding one of her elemental powers .
The player can slow time by landing successive hits and kills on enemies to fill an on @-@ screen meter . The player can return to levels to attempt a higher score . The game 's action sequences , more than half of the game , require the player to defeat groups of enemies before proceeding to the next room , and ultimately leading to a boss battle . Kameo has a two @-@ player , split @-@ screen cooperative gameplay mode in which players can fight alongside each other during the action scenes . Rare added support for online cooperative play ( via Xbox Live or System Link ) as a downloadable patch following the game 's release .
= = Development = =
Rare 's protracted development of Kameo spanned four consoles : Nintendo 's Nintendo 64 and GameCube , Microsoft 's Xbox , and ultimately , the Xbox 360 . The game became known for its long development cycle — IGN wrote that the game had received more IGN editor coverage during its development than " almost any other single game " . Shortly after Rare finished work on Donkey Kong 64 , Kameo began as a game in which the player catches and evolves creatures . In lead designer George Andreas 's concept , the creatures would follow the player and act of their own volition . This version had a " Nintendo feel " and Pokémon @-@ like conceit : the player nursed little monsters into adults . Kameo spent several years in development for the GameCube and Rare shared an early version of the game at Electronic Entertainment Expo , an annual video game conference . In the meantime , Microsoft acquired Rare in 2002 for a record price of $ 377 million . Kameo lost many of its Pokémon elements when development transferred to the Microsoft 's Xbox . Rare 's Phil Tossell liked the Pokémon @-@ style concept but ultimately felt that the platform change was a positive move for the game .
The team distilled the original concept into the core gameplay mechanics that players preferred , namely the abilities to morph into characters and to fight . In what became the core gameplay , the player would use a combination of Kameo 's elemental warriors to progress through levels . Rare later expanded the conceit to that of an adventure game , though its story was secondary to the gameplay . Kameo was designed for fluidity — the team tried to minimize player chores and player waiting times . The team simplified the set of characters from a hundred to a dozen , and expanded the skill sets of those remaining . Tossell designed these characters , and started with a boulder @-@ like animal . These creature designs later became Kameo 's morphing forms . As the game transitioned and Rare attempted to distance itself from its mawkish reputation for " cute characters with big eyes " , the team struggled to repurpose Kameo into an elf from the fairy of the original concept . Tossell felt that this task was impossible , as Microsoft simultaneously wanted to widen its base while it did not give Rare the room to grow out of its cutesy design . The Kameo character transitioned through a " tribal " look before becoming an elf , and her own attacks were ultimately repurposed into the elemental warriors ' . Kameo became an Xbox 360 launch title ( alongside Rare 's Perfect Dark Zero ) and received a graphics upgrade in the process . The game had been about 80 % complete for the original Xbox , but the transition freed the game 's vision from technical constraints .
With their timeframe extended , the development team added extra attacks for the ten characters , day – night transition interactions , in @-@ game scores and leaderboards , a cooperative multiplayer splitscreen mode , and a post @-@ release update that extends the cooperative mode over online and local network . The team revisited level ideas that did not fit on the previous console , and transitioned from synthesized music and a text @-@ based story to an orchestral soundtrack and voice acting . The cooperative mode was also added retroactively , which challenged the already finalized level design . The most pronounced improvements were in the game 's graphics and upgrades . Levels on the Xbox 360 could hold thousands of characters on @-@ screen at once . The team playtested the feel of each elemental warrior and spent extra time refining the gradual difficulty increase in the opening level . In reflection , the project 's biggest influences were ultimately Nintendo , Pokémon , and Resident Evil .
Around the time of Kameo 's release , lead designer George Andreas felt that the original Kameo concept of finding and using monsters had evolved and carried through to the final product . He said that there were enough ideas for a sequel within the new intellectual property if players were interested . Years later , Andreas reappraised and said that the game should never have been released and remains a sore subject for him to discuss . Since the project was nearly finished , they had opted for launch title release instead of starting over . Andreas felt that the effort to conceal the fairy Kameo as an elf was unsuccessful and that the character did not match the Xbox 's first @-@ person shooter demographic .
Rare and Microsoft Studios released Kameo alongside the Xbox 360 console as a launch title : on November 15 , 2005 , in North America , and December 2 in Europe . The game was available for purchase in retail stores ahead of the console 's launch date . At release , it was sold at a lower price than other Xbox 360 games . In advance of its February 2 , 2006 , Japanese release , Microsoft Japan held a Kameo promotional press event with celebrities Yoshinari Tsuji and Kaori Manabe in late January 2006 . 1UP.com reported the event as " subdued " but appropriate for Japanese games journalists to test Kameo , as the Xbox 360 had been selling poorly in the region .
= = = Audio = = =
Steve Burke served as the audio lead on the Kameo project , his first at Rare , for which he composed its soundtrack and contributed to its sound effects and voiceovers . As the game was originally planned for the GameCube , the first few months of development appeared to have no support for audio above the MIDI sample @-@ style compositions characteristic of Nintendo 's previous console , the Nintendo 64 . The game 's first demo at the 2001 Electronic Entertainment Expo used this type of audio . Of the first pieces he wrote for this project in the early months of 2001 , some were scrapped . Others were re @-@ recorded as streaming audio , which plays pre @-@ recorded audio files , when the developers added support . It became Rare 's first orchestral soundtrack . Other Rare staff members contributed their talents to the recording process , such as trumpet and voice recordings .
Burke experimented with a variety of musical styles throughout the game 's development . Burke 's original compositions were lighthearted as befitting for a Nintendo game , but became darker along with other parts of the game to match the Xbox audience when Microsoft acquired Rare . The composer thought that this transition was reflected in the soundtrack , with some Nintendo @-@ style music juxtaposed against the roaring orchestral tracks . Burke estimates that he had written four hours of audio for the project and ultimately recorded 80 minutes with an orchestra and choir over four days in Prague . The team recorded the orchestra and choir separately . Sumthing Else Music Works published the soundtrack on compact disc and for download via the iTunes Store and Amazon . It was nominated for the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences Outstanding Achievement in Original Music Composition award .
= = Reception = =
A year prior to Kameo 's release , GamesRadar wrote that while they highly anticipated the title and expected it to be of high quality , they thought the game 's continual delays would likely hurt the final product . Closer to release , Tom Bramwell ( Eurogamer ) added that he had expected the game to be the best among the Xbox 360 launch titles . Kameo 's core gameplay concept brought his anticipation to par with that customary for The Legend of Zelda titles , and he thought the game would reap the benefits of its long development through refined audiovisuals . Xbox executive Peter Moore announced Kameo as his favorite launch title in anticipation of the Xbox 360 's launch .
The game received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Market research company NPD Group reported that Kameo sold 300 @,@ 000 copies while Retro Gamer reported that the game sold over 700 @,@ 000 copies . GameSpot described the NPD Group figures as significantly below expectations and the sales of Rare 's other Xbox 360 launch title , Perfect Dark Zero . Retro Gamer described its figures as " respectable ... for a new franchise " . Rare senior software engineer Nick Burton said that while Kameo and Perfect Dark Zero had reputations for poor sales , the two games " sold phenomenally well " for launch titles . Kameo continued to sell three years after its release .
Reviewers praised the game 's graphics as setting standards for the new console . Clayman ( IGN ) saw Kameo as a good demonstration of the Xbox 360 's graphical possibilities , and Bramwell ( Eurogamer ) considered the degree of detail , even at long distances and in processor @-@ intensive scenes , " unprecedented in a console game " . Though he had few points of reference for the new console , Clayman ( IGN ) wrote that the extremely detailed high @-@ definition graphics appeared worthy of the Xbox 360 's " next generation " moniker . When paired with surround sound , the experience was " almost overwhelming " . Reviewers also noted the game 's vivid color palette . Kasavin ( GameSpot ) wrote that the developers balanced the visual elements to appeal to children and adults alike . Andrew Pfister ( 1UP.com ) wrote that the game looked marvelous but was sometimes distracted by too much occurring onscreen .
Critics praised the core morphing concept but criticized its repetitive gameplay , awkward controls , easy combat , disorganized introduction , and overemphasis on tutorial . Bramwell ( Eurogamer ) wrote that though the fundamental idea was good , the repetitious combinations of elemental attacks were rarely novel and often laborious . The excitement of realizing a puzzle 's solution , Bramwell said , was often ruined by the player 's struggle to perform the task correctly . He wrote that the game 's design constrained players and " bred apathy " . For example , tutorials followed the scenes in which they would have been useful , cutscenes left no puzzle solution to imagination , puzzle solutions were rarely revisited after their first use , and character dialogue overstated the importance of simple puzzles . Bramwell was " desperate " for the freedom to experiment without forced guidance . " The game " , he wrote , " hardly ever stops telling you what to do . " Clayman ( IGN ) agreed that there was too much help but alternatively appreciated the continual challenge and activity density of Kameo 's level design , with townspeople interspersed within the level 's action . He also liked to experiment in the Badlands as a break from the puzzles . Clayman found the game 's combat easy but fun . He especially enjoyed the slowed time combat . Bramwell ( Eurogamer ) said that the " relative pleasure " of Kameo 's combat was ultimately worth little , as the player could use basic attacks and avoid most major upgrades throughout the whole game . Phil Theobald ( GameSpy ) added that character upgrades were required for maintaining interest in the gameplay , but that the game does not incentivize finding such combinations . Pfister ( 1UP.com ) too found the gameplay balance and puzzle design insipid .
Reviewers found the story and Kameo 's character lackluster , but largely liked the other characters . Andrew Reiner ( Game Informer ) said that the story tracked through every imaginable video game cliché and failed to build emotional attachment . Clayman ( IGN ) noted that he spent little time as Kameo , the character . He found the elemental warriors more useful , interesting , and original , and felt that the ten powers were balanced so as to make each worth playing . Dave Halverson agreed that the multiple character options represent a rare breadth of player choice , while Pfister ( 1UP.com ) wrote that only a few of the characters had abilities worth regularly using and called the " terrible " character design typical for the developer . Clayman ( IGN ) thought that Kameo 's character was comparatively less interesting than that of the rest of the cast . Kasavin ( GameSpot ) agreed that Kameo visually appeared " generic " while other characters and environments had exceptional and inspired style . Alternatively , Halverson ( Play ) thought of the " breathtaking female lead " as the " quintessential fantasy icon " .
Reviewers made positive remarks about the game 's orchestral score and voice acting . Kasavin ( GameSpot ) wrote that added choral tracks during intense in @-@ game moments gave the game epic overtones , though Clayman ( IGN ) thought the score made the game environments feel delusively majestic . Bramwell ( Eurogamer ) found little joy in the verbose dialogue , which he often skipped even during important scenes , but Kasavin ( GameSpot ) considered the voice acting amusing , with good quality . He also praised the level of nuance in the sound effects , such as those made as characters walked .
Clayman ( IGN ) reported that the game had no major technical issues , which was a major concern in the protracted run @-@ up to the game 's release . He also found that most of its levels did not appear to leverage the Xbox 360 's advances in areas apart from graphics . Bramwell ( Eurogamer ) , on the other hand , fought the controls and camera throughout the game . He lamented a particular issue in which the camera would spin 180 degrees when Kameo was hit , which made the path of retreat harder to see . Theobald ( GameSpy ) also lamented the camera . Kasavin ( GameSpot ) found Kameo to be technically outstanding , and praised its automatic game save features , short loading times , steady frame rates , and detailed display on both standard- and high @-@ definition televisions . Pfister ( 1UP.com ) wrote that Kameo was technically impressive to the point of overwhelming the gameplay .
Critics noted the game 's length as shorter than expected , with about ten hours of content . Clayman ( IGN ) had little desire to replay the solved puzzles and Bramwell ( Eurogamer ) was even eager for the game to end . Halverson ( Play ) planned to return to the game but wrote that he would have preferred five more hours of the single @-@ player over the Xbox Live features . Reviewers were largely unimpressed with the extra Xbox Live cooperative play and score attack features . Halverson ( Play ) had hopes for Kameo and Psychonauts to rekindle developer interest in the 3D platforming genre , but concluded that such games were likely not to return . Clayman ( IGN ) did not find the game to live up to its publicity as a competitor against The Legend of Zelda series , though Theobald ( GameSpy ) thought Kameo 's boss battles were comparable . Pfister ( 1UP.com ) noted several traditional Rare flourishes — lots of color and graphics effects , puns for character names — but ultimately wrote that Kameo was proof that Microsoft had received " exactly what they paid for " in its acquisition of Rare . Theobald ( GameSpy ) said that Rare had avoided its usual tropes of making players collect lots of items and poor character design , and made a " worthy " launch title . Nigel Kendall ( The Times ) wrote that the game was " more cerebral " than the console 's other games , which were stereotypically about driving , football , or shooting . Kasavin ( GameSpot ) noted that Kameo was the most accessible launch title to players of all ages . In summary , he thought the game was a suitable fit for players ' first experiences on the new Xbox 360 .
= = Downloadable content = =
The game released without online support for co @-@ operative play , but Rare promised to add the feature as a free patch and did so in April 2006 . The patch let two players play the story simultaneously when their consoles were connected through Xbox Live or System Link . It also added new achievements . For a fee , players could download a series of costume packs that change the visual appearance of the game 's characters . In September 2006 , Rare released the Kameo " Power Pack " , which added leaderboards , a costume pack , new achievements , and three new modes of gameplay : Expert , Time Attack , and Rune Battle . Expert Mode remasters six of the game 's levels with added difficulty . Time Attack Mode lets two co @-@ op players ( local or online ) attempt to finish levels as fast as possible . Rune Battle Mode pits two co @-@ op players against each other to collect the most rune items . Ben Kuchera of Ars Technica wrote that Rare " did a good job " of supporting Kameo with post @-@ release content . He liked the idea of the time @-@ based mode and thought that the Expert mode would allay criticism of the game 's easiness .
= = Legacy = =
In retrospect , Kotaku wrote that Kameo would be remembered as " that pretty Xbox 360 launch game " , which IGN confirmed a year after its release . While some games journalists reported unfavorable views towards Kameo , they also reported its fanbase to be dedicated . Other games journalists described the game as underrated . Kameo was among the first batch of games to be sold digitally with the Xbox 360 's Games on Demand service in August 2009 .
Kameo was later included in Rare Replay , a compilation of 30 Rare titles , released for the Xbox One in August 2015 . The game runs through the Xbox One 's backward compatibility , which emulates select Xbox 360 titles on the newer console . Kameo was among the first batch of games to be supported for the feature . The Rare Replay emulated release includes all original downloadable content for free and lets players migrate their Xbox 360 cloud saves to their Xbox One . Kameo 's performance in the Xbox One 's emulator slightly improves upon its technical performance on the Xbox 360 itself . Stephen Totilo ( Kotaku ) was surprised at his positive response to replaying Kameo on Rare Replay , having found the introductory stage off @-@ putting when he sampled it at the Xbox 360 's launch . He planned to return to the title . Chris Carter ( Destructoid ) wrote that while Kameo was not worth full price at its release , it was a welcome addition worth playing in the compilation .
A sequel to Kameo was in production but was ultimately canceled . George Andreas began work on the sequel after finishing the first game . Kameo 2 was designed to be a darker take on the original . Rare redesigned Kameo to have smaller eyes and matured the other creatures . For instance , the trolls were given steampunk designs . The sequel put a heavier emphasis on the open world , as the team was influenced by Assassin 's Creed ( 2007 ) . Rare began to use Havok physics software for smoother inverse kinematics animations , and planned to incorporate assets from an unreleased game , Black Widow , which featured a giant , mechanical spider . For creature upgrades , the team planned to let Kameo fly as an eagle so the player could experience the grandeur of a bird 's @-@ eye view . Kameo composer Steve Burke said that he worked on the sequel for a year . He wrote several new audio tracks in a Celtic style and recorded voiceovers , which together were used in a concept demo pitched to Microsoft . The project was canceled after about three months of production as Rare re @-@ focused on Microsoft 's Kinect effort . At the time , Microsoft redirected its internal studios to support the project . The original 's lackluster sales also contributed to the cancelation . The public had heard reports of its cancelation during the 2009 restructure and had seen an artwork leak in 2011 , but the cancelation was not confirmed until Microsoft Studios vice president Phil Spencer did so in 2013 . 1UP.com questioned whether Kameo needed a sequel at all . Rare released a retrospective documentary of the unreleased game as part of its August 2015 Rare Replay collection . A Kameo 2 concept artist narrated the documentary , which focuses on art that would have been included in the game apart from a brief video clip . Rare later released a follow @-@ up making @-@ of Kameo video in March 2016 . The sequel 's video did not elaborate on why Microsoft canceled the project .
|
= 1991 Perfect Storm =
The 1991 Perfect Storm , also known as the The No @-@ Name Storm ( especially in the years immediately after it took place ) , was a nor 'easter that absorbed Hurricane Grace and ultimately evolved back into a small unnamed hurricane late in its life cycle . The initial area of low pressure developed off Atlantic Canada on October 29 . Forced southward by a ridge to its north , it reached its peak intensity as a large and powerful cyclone . The storm lashed the east coast of the United States with high waves and coastal flooding before turning to the southwest and weakening . Moving over warmer waters , the system transitioned into a subtropical cyclone before becoming a tropical storm . It executed a loop off the Mid @-@ Atlantic states and turned toward the northeast . On November 1 the system evolved into a full @-@ fledged hurricane with peak winds of 75 miles per hour ( 120 km / h ) , although the National Hurricane Center left it unnamed to avoid confusion amid media interest in the predecessor extratropical storm . It later received the name " the Perfect Storm " ( playing off the common expression ) after a conversation between Boston National Weather Service forecaster Robert Case and author Sebastian Junger . The system was the fourth hurricane and final tropical cyclone in the 1991 Atlantic hurricane season . The tropical system weakened , striking Nova Scotia as a tropical storm before dissipating .
Damage from the storm totaled over $ 200 million ( 1991 USD ) and the death toll was thirteen . Most of the damage occurred while the storm was extratropical , after waves up to 30 feet ( 10 m ) struck the coastline from Canada to Florida and southeastward to Puerto Rico . In Massachusetts , where damage was heaviest , over 100 homes were destroyed or severely damaged . To the north , more than 100 homes were affected in Maine , including the vacation home of then @-@ President George H. W. Bush . More than 38 @,@ 000 people were left without power , and along the coast high waves inundated roads and buildings . In portions of New England , the damage was worse than that caused by Hurricane Bob two months earlier .
Aside from tidal flooding along rivers , the storm 's effects were primarily concentrated along the coast . A buoy off the coast of Nova Scotia reported a wave height of 100 @.@ 7 feet ( 30 @.@ 7 m ) , the highest ever recorded in the province 's offshore waters . In the middle of the storm , Andrea Gail sank , killing her crew of six and inspiring the book , and later movie , The Perfect Storm . Off the shore of New York 's Long Island , an Air National Guard helicopter ran out of fuel and crashed ; four members of its crew were rescued , and one was killed . Two people died after their boat sank off Staten Island . High waves swept two people to their deaths , one in Rhode Island and one in Puerto Rico , and another person was blown off a bridge to his death . The tropical cyclone that formed late in the storm 's duration caused little impact , limited to power outages and slick roads ; one person was killed in Newfoundland from a traffic accident related to the storm .
= = Meteorological history = =
The Perfect Storm originated from a cold front that exited the east coast of the United States . On October 28 , the front spawned an extratropical low to the east of Nova Scotia . Around that time , a ridge extended from the Appalachian Mountains northeastward to Greenland , with a strong high pressure center over eastern Canada . The blocking ridge forced the extratropical low to track toward the southeast and later to the west . Hurricane Grace was swept aloft by its cold front into the warm conveyor belt circulation of the deep cyclone on October 29 . The cyclone significantly strengthened as a result of the temperature contrast between the cold air to the northwest and the warmth and humidity from the remnants of Hurricane Grace . The low pressure system continued deepening as it drifted toward the United States . It had an unusual retrograde motion for a nor 'easter , beginning a set of meteorological circumstances that occur only once every 50 to 100 years . Most nor 'easters affect New England from the southwest .
While situated about 390 miles ( 630 km ) south of Halifax , Nova Scotia , the storm attained its peak intensity with winds of up to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . The nor 'easter reached peak intensity at approximately 12 : 00 UTC on October 30 with its lowest pressure of 972 millibars . The interaction between the extratropical storm and the high pressure system to its north created a significant pressure gradient , which created large waves and strong winds . Between the southern New England coast and the storm 's center , the gradient was 70 mbar ( 2 @.@ 1 inHg ) . A buoy located 264 miles ( 425 km ) south of Halifax reported a wave height of 100 @.@ 7 feet ( 30 @.@ 7 m ) on October 30 . This became the highest recorded wave height on the Scotian Shelf , which is the oceanic shelf off the coast of Nova Scotia . East of Cape Cod , a NOAA buoy located at 41 @.@ 1 ° N 66 @.@ 6 ° W / 41 @.@ 1 ; -66.6 reported maximum sustained winds of 56 mph ( 90 km / h ) with gusts to 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) , and a significant wave height ( average height of the highest one @-@ third of all waves ) of 39 feet ( 12 m ) around 15 : 00 UTC on October 30 . Another buoy , located at 40 @.@ 5 ° N 69 @.@ 5 ° W / 40 @.@ 5 ; -69.5 , reported maximum sustained winds of 61 mph ( 98 km / h ) with gusts to 72 mph ( 116 km / h ) and a significant wave height of 31 feet ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) near 00 : 00 UTC on October 31 .
Upon peaking in intensity , the nor 'easter turned southward and gradually weakened ; by November 1 , its pressure had risen to 998 millibars ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) . The low moved over warm waters of the Gulf Stream , where bands of convection around the center began to organize . Around this time , the system attained subtropical characteristics . On November 1 , while the storm was moving in a counter @-@ clockwise loop , a tropical cyclone had been identified at the center of the larger low . ( Although these conditions are rare , Hurricane Karl during 1980 formed within a larger non @-@ tropical weather system . )
By around 14 : 00 UTC on November 1 , an eye feature was forming , and the tropical cyclone reached its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) ; these estimates , combined with reports from an Air Force Reserve Unit flight into the storm and confirmation that a warm @-@ core center was present , indicated that the system had become a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . The hurricane accelerated toward the northeast and quickly weakened back into a tropical storm . It made landfall near Halifax , Nova Scotia , at 14 : 00 UTC on November 2 with sustained winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) . While the storm was approaching the coast , weather radars depicted curved rainbands on the western side of the system . After crossing over Prince Edward Island , The storm fully dissipated late on November 2 .
= = Preparations and naming = =
For several days , weather models forecast the development of a significant storm off New England . However , the models were inadequate in forecasting coastal conditions , which in one instance failed to provide adequate warning . In addition , a post @-@ storm assessment found an insufficient number of observation sites along the coast . On October 27 , the Ocean Prediction Center noted that a " dangerous storm " would form within 36 hours , with its wording emphasizing the unusual nature of the storm . The National Weather Service likewise issued warnings for the potential storm , providing information to emergency service offices as well as the media . The public however was skeptical and did not recognize the threat . The timely warnings ultimately lowered the death toll ; whereas the Perfect Storm caused 13 deaths , the blizzard of 1978 killed 99 people , and the 1938 New England hurricane killed 564 people .
From Massachusetts to Maine , thousands of people evacuated their homes and sought shelter . A state of emergency was declared for nine counties in Massachusetts , including Suffolk County , as well as two in Maine . In North Carolina , the National Weather Service offices in Hatteras and Raleigh first issued a heavy surf advisory on October 27 , more than eight hours before the first reports of high waves . That same day , a coastal flood watch and later a warning was issued , along with a gale warning . The Hatteras NWS office ultimately released 19 coastal flood statements , as well as media reports explaining the threat from the wind and waves , and a state of emergency was declared for Dare County , North Carolina . The warnings and lead times in the region were described as " very good " .
In Canada , the threat from the storm prompted the cancellation of ferry service from Bar Harbor , Maine , to Yarmouth , Nova Scotia , as well as from Nova Scotia to Prince Edward Island and between Nova Scotia and Newfoundland .
In its tropical cyclone report on the hurricane , the National Hurricane Center only referred to the system as " Unnamed Hurricane " . The Natural Disaster Survey Report called the storm " The Halloween Nor 'easter of 1991 " . The " perfect storm " moniker was coined by author and journalist Sebastian Junger after a conversation with NWS Boston Deputy Meteorologist Robert Case in which Case described the convergence of weather conditions as being " perfect " for the formation of such a storm . Other National Weather Service offices were tasked with issuing warnings for this storm in lieu of the typical NHC advisories . The OPC posted warnings on the unnamed hurricane in its High Seas Forecasts . The National Weather Service State Forecast Office in Boston issued Offshore Marine Forecasts for the storm . Local NWS offices along the East coast covered the storm in their Coastal Waters Forecasts .
Beginning in 1950 , the National Hurricane Center named officially recognized tropical storms and hurricanes . The unnamed hurricane was reported to have met all the criteria for a tropical cyclone , but it was purposefully left unnamed . This was done to avoid confusion among the media and the public , who were focusing on the damage from the initial nor 'easter , as the hurricane itself was not expected to pose a major threat to land . It was the eighth nameable storm of the 1991 Atlantic hurricane season .
= = Impact = =
The Halloween Storm of 1991 left significant damage along the east coast of the United States , primarily in Massachusetts and southern New Jersey . Across seven states , damage totaled over $ 200 million ( 1991 USD ) . Over a three @-@ day period , the storm lashed the northeastern United States with high waves , causing damage to beachfront properties from North Carolina to Maine . The coastal flooding damaged or destroyed hundreds of homes and businesses and closed roads and airports . In addition , high winds left about 38 @,@ 000 people without power . The total without power was much less than for Hurricane Bob two months prior , and was fairly low due to little rainfall and the general lack of leaves on trees . Overall there were thirteen confirmed deaths , including six on board Andrea Gail , a swordfishing boat . The vessel departed Gloucester , Massachusetts , for the waters off Nova Scotia . After encountering high seas in the middle of the storm , the vessel made its last radio contact late on October 28 about 180 miles ( 290 km ) northeast of Sable Island . Andrea Gail sank while returning to Gloucester , her debris washing ashore over the subsequent weeks . The crew of six was presumed killed after a Coast Guard search was unable to find them . The storm and the boat 's sinking became the center @-@ piece for Sebastian Junger 's best @-@ selling non @-@ fiction book The Perfect Storm ( 1997 ) , which was adapted to a major Hollywood film in 2000 as The Perfect Storm starring George Clooney .
Despite the storm 's severity , it was neither the costliest nor the strongest to affect the northeastern United States . It was weakening as it made its closest approach to land , and the highest tides occurred during the neap tide , which is the time when tide ranges are minimal . The worst of the storm effects stayed offshore . A buoy 650 miles ( 1 @,@ 050 km ) northeast of Nantucket , which was 60 miles ( 97 km ) west of Andrea Gail 's last known position , recorded a 73 ft ( 22 m ) rise in wave height in 10 hours while the extratropical storm was still rapidly intensifying . Two buoys near the Massachusetts coast observed record wave heights , and one observed a record wind report . The United States Coast Guard rescued 25 people at sea at the height of the storm , including 13 people from Long Island Sound . A New York Air National Guard helicopter of the 106th Air Rescue Wing ditched during the storm , 90 miles ( 140 km ) south of Montauk , New York , after it was unable to refuel in flight and ran out of fuel . After the helicopter had attempted a rescue in the midst of the storm , an 84 @-@ person crew on the Coast Guard Cutter Tamaroa arrived and rescued four members of the crew of five after six hours in hypothermic waters . The survivors were pilots Dave Ruvola and Graham Bushor , flight engineer Jim Miolli , and pararescue jumper John Spillane . The fifth member , pararescue jumper Rick Smith , was never found . They were all featured on the show I Shouldn 't be Alive .
Following the storm 's damage , President George Bush declared five counties in Maine , seven counties in Massachusetts , and Rockingham County , New Hampshire to be disaster areas . The declaration allowed for the affected residents to apply for low @-@ interest repair loans . New Jersey governor Jim Florio requested a declaration for portions of the coastline , but the request was denied because of the funding needs of other disasters , such as Hurricane Hugo , Hurricane Bob , and the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake . The American Red Cross opened service centers in four locations in Massachusetts to assist the storm victims by providing food , clothing , medicine , and shelter . The agency deployed five vehicles carrying cleanup units and food , and allocated $ 1 @.@ 4 million to provide assistance to 3 @,@ 000 families .
= = = New England and Atlantic Canada = = =
Along the Massachusetts coastline , the storm produced 25 ft ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) wave heights on top of a 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) high tide . In Boston , the highest tide was 14 @.@ 3 ft ( 4 @.@ 4 m ) , which was only 1 ft ( 30 cm ) lower than the record from the blizzard of 1978 . High waves on top of the storm tide reached about 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) . The storm produced heavy rainfall in southeastern Massachusetts , peaking at 5 @.@ 5 inches ( 140 mm ) . Coastal floods closed several roads , forcing hundreds of people to evacuate . In addition to the high tides , the storm produced strong winds ; Chatham recorded a gust of 78 mph ( 126 km / h ) . Damage was worst from Cape Ann in northeastern Massachusetts to Nantucket , with over 100 homes destroyed or severely damaged at Marshfield , North Beach , and Brant Point . There were two injuries in the state , although there were no fatalities . Across Massachusetts , damage totaled in the hundreds of millions of dollars .
Elsewhere in New England , waves up to 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) reached as far north as Maine , along with tides that were 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) above normal . Significant flooding was reported in that state , along with high winds that left areas without power . A total of 49 houses were severely damaged , 2 were destroyed , and overall more than 100 were affected . In Kennebunkport , the storm blew out windows and flooded the vacation home of then @-@ President George H. W. Bush . The home sustained significant damage to its first floor . In Portland , tides were 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) above normal , among the ten highest tides since record @-@ keeping began in 1914 . Along the coast , damage was worse than that caused by Hurricane Bob two months prior . Across Maine , the storm left $ 7 @.@ 9 million ( 1991 USD ) in damage , mostly in York County . More than half of the damage total was from property damage , with the remainder to transportation , seawalls , and public facilities . Although there were no deaths , there were two injuries in the state . In neighboring New Hampshire , coastal flooding affected several towns , destroying two homes . The storm destroyed three boats and damaged a lighthouse . High waves destroyed or swept away over 50 @,@ 000 lobster traps , representing $ 2 million in losses ( 1991 USD ) . Damage was estimated at $ 5 @.@ 6 million ( 1991 USD ) . Further west , high winds and coastal flooding lashed the Rhode Island and Connecticut coasts , killing a man in Narragansett , Rhode Island . Winds reached 63 miles per hour ( 101 km / h ) in Newport , Rhode Island , causing power outages .
Off the coast of Atlantic Canada , the storm produced very high waves , flooding a ship near Sable Island and stranding another ship . Along the coast , the waves wrecked three small boats near Tiverton , Nova Scotia , as well as nine boats in Torbay , Newfoundland and Labrador . In Nova Scotia , where the storm made landfall , precipitation reached 1 @.@ 18 in ( 30 mm ) , and 20 @,@ 000 people in Pictou County were left without power . The storm also caused widespread power outages in Newfoundland from its high winds , which reached 68 mph ( 110 km / h ) near St. Lawrence . There were at least 35 traffic accidents , one fatal , in Grand Falls @-@ Windsor due to slick roads . Prior to the storm 's formation , there was a record 4 @.@ 4 in ( 116 mm ) of snowfall across Newfoundland . The storm caused no significant damage in Canada , other than these traffic accidents .
= = = Mid @-@ Atlantic states = = =
In New York and northern New Jersey , the storm system left the most coastal damage since the 1944 Great Atlantic hurricane . Numerous boats were damaged or destroyed , killing two people off Staten Island . High winds swept a man off a bridge , killing him . High waves flooded the beach at Coney Island . In Sea Bright , New Jersey , waves washed over a seawall , forcing 200 people to evacuate . Further inland , the Hudson , Passaic , and Hackensack rivers experienced tidal flooding . Outside Massachusetts , damage was heaviest in southern New Jersey , where the cost was estimated at $ 75 million ( 1991 USD ) . Across the area , tide heights reached their highest since the 1944 hurricane , leaving severe coastal and back bay flooding and closing many roads . The storm caused significant beach erosion , with 500 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 382 @,@ 000 cubic meters ) lost in Avalon , as well as $ 10 million damage to the beach in Cape May . The presence of a dune system mitigated the erosion in some areas . There was damage to the Atlantic City Boardwalk . Fire Island National Seashore was affected , washing away an entire row of waterfront houses in towns like Fair Harbor . Following the storm , there was a moratorium on clamming in the state 's bays , due to contaminated waters . Along the Delmarva Peninsula , there was widespread water damage to homes , including ten affected houses in Sandbridge Beach , Virginia . Tides in Ocean City , Maryland , reached a record height of 7 @.@ 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) , while elsewhere the tides were similar to the Ash Wednesday Storm of 1962 .
= = = Farther south = = =
In North Carolina along the Outer Banks , high waves were initially caused by Hurricane Grace and later its interaction with a high pressure system . This produced gale @-@ force winds and 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) waves in the town of Duck . Later , the extratropical predecessor to the unnamed hurricane produced additional high waves , causing oceanfront flooding from Cape Hatteras through the northern portions of Currituck County . Flooding was first reported on October 28 , when the ocean covered a portion of North Carolina Highway 12 north of Rodanthe ; the route is the primary thoroughfare in the Outer Banks . Nags Head , Kitty Hawk , and Kill Devil Hills had large portions covered with water for several blocks away from the beach . The resultant flooding damaged 525 houses and 28 businesses and destroyed two motels and a few homes . Damage was estimated at $ 6 @.@ 7 million ( 1991 USD ) . Farther south , the storm left 14 people injured in Florida . There was minor beach erosion and flooding , which damaged two houses and destroyed the pier at Lake Worth . In some locations , beaches gained additional sand from the wave action . Two people went missing off Daytona Beach after their boat lost power . High waves destroyed a portion of State Road A1A . Damage in the state was estimated at $ 3 million ( 1991 USD ) . High waves also affected Bermuda , the Bahamas , and the Dominican Republic . In Puerto Rico , waves of 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) affected the island 's north coast , which prompted 32 people to seek shelter . The waves swept a person off a large rock to their death .
|
= Siri Nilsen =
Siri Anne Nilsen ( born 12 April 1985 , Oslo , Norway ) is a Norwegian singer @-@ songwriter and voice actress . " As the daughter of two folksingers , Lillebjørn and Shari Nilsen , she grew up surrounded by music . " Nilsen is noted for the sincerity of her song writing and the clarity and range of her voice , characterized as " unique " and " beautiful " . During her first two albums she often accompanied her singing with a ukulele , which she plays in a fingerpicking style .
Nilsen made her stage debut in 2007 , and she was nominated for a Norwegian Grammy in the category of Best Female Artist in December , 2011 . Nilsen has had a career for several years as a voice actress , dubbing character roles into Norwegian for several feature films and television , mostly animation .
= = Biography = =
Siri Nilsen was born in Oslo , Norway where she grew up in the borough of Sagene . As a child she appeared in two Norwegian films , one of which , Maja Steinansikt ( 1996 ) , she co @-@ starred in .
Before deciding to devote herself to music as a career at around the age of twenty , Nilsen was a ballet dancer . At that time she turned to a " secret notebook full of songs that she had been compiling since her early teens " to express herself as an artist . Nilsen first performed publicly at Den Gode Kafe ( The Good Cafe ) in Oslo , April 2007 .
In October 2008 , Nilsen won a competition among new artists sponsored by the Norwegian record label , Grappa . In awarding Nilsen the prize for best debut artist , the jury described her as having " the courage to write simple , personal and intimate lyrics in Norwegian " . As part of the award , Nilsen received a record contract which produced 2009 's Vi som ser i mørket ( We Who See in the Dark ) .
As a voice actress in Norwegian @-@ version feature films and television , Nilsen played Carmen Cortez in Småspioner 2 ( Spy Kids 2 : The Island of Lost Dreams ) , Lisa Simpson in The Simpsons Movie , Haru in Katteprinsen ( 猫の恩返し Neko no Ongaeshi / The Cat Returns ) , among others .
= = = Vi som ser i mørket ( We Who See in the Dark ) = = =
Released on 5 October 2009 , Nilsen 's first record , Vi som ser i mørket ( We Who See in the Dark ) , features songs written mostly in Norwegian , but also in English ( Nilsen has mentioned that her American mother found it difficult to not want to proofread her English lyrics ) . The album was produced by musician Jan Martin Smørdal . Music critics were similar in their appraisal of Nilsen 's voice and lyrics . Norway 's largest newspaper , Aftenposten described Nilsen as " an artist who had already found her own voice . " It described her music as ranging from " sensitive melancholy moods to light and playful tones " , and " imparting joy and peace of mind .. " Nilsen 's lyrics are often described as " personal " . Remarking on this Nilsen has said that her songs are not completely just about herself but can also be about things that she 's observed or heard from others :
Each song is like a small movie , a little history ... Part of me is going to be in there for it to be interesting to sing about . As a person I am a little mysterious , a little direct , and so is my music too .
= = = Alle snakker sant ( They All Speak the Truth ) = = =
Siri Nilsen 's second album , Alle snakker sant ( They All Speak the Truth ) , was released 11 November 2011 . To produce , Nilsen collaborated with musicians Jens Carelius ( a solo artist also part of the group " Blues Run the Game , " with Siri Nilsen ) and Øyvind Røsrud Gundersen ( of the groups Rumble in Rhodos , Hanne Kolstø ) both of whom play on the record . Nilsen plays piano , Rhodes piano , guitar , percussion , ukulele and mini @-@ ukulele on the tracks . The album has been described as having a " distinctly modern tone " . Nilsen explained that the title ( of the album and single ) " They All Speak the Truth " refers to reconciling one ’ s gut feeling with the other messages received from the head and heart ; concluding that all three speak the truth .
Nilsen wrote the songs in the dead of winter . She said that at the time the words were meant to comfort her , but by early summer when she recorded them she was already in a different mindset ( The tracks were recorded at a rehearsal room next to where she lives ) .
Aftenposten characterized the album 's lyrics as " well written and honest " . Nilsen was described by one album reviewer as being " remarkably adept at combining bright colors with subtle hints of darkness , " adding , " this usually prevents this light , nimble music from becoming overly cute . "
Similar to the previous album , many reviewers focused on Nilsen 's voice . The single , " Alle snakker sant " , received praise in the pages of The Guardian and among Norwegian music critics . The album was released in the UK on 9 April 2012 .
= = = Skyggebokser ( Shadow Boxer ) = = =
Released in the fall of 2014 , the album 's title " refers to recurring themes in her work : the dichotomy of not feeling entirely present in your own life , and the feeling of having to fight against different aspects of yourself , while at the same time being drawn to what is fragile and raw . " Nilsen describes these songs as " more mature , darker " , and the ukulele is almost completely absent .
= = = Other work = = =
Nilsen released Siri Nilsen : Live fra Rockefeller Music Hall ( Siri Nilsen : Live from Rockefeller Music Hall ) in August 2012 . The tracks were recorded during her concert at the Rockefeller in Oslo the previous March , and features 12 tracks .
Siri Nilsen appears on the Susanna single , " Death Hanging " , along with Susanne Sundfør . It was released worldwide on 24 May 2013 .
= = Performer = =
In addition to her solo career , Nilsen is part of the Oslo @-@ based musician and poet community , " Blues Run The Game , " together with musicians Arild Hammerø and Jens Carelius , among others .
Nilsen sometimes incorporates effects pedals as part of her singing . The pedals enable her to sample elements of her singing which she then loops as a backing track while singing lead .
On 15 December 2011 it was announced that Siri Nilsen had been nominated for a Spellemannprisen ( Norwegian Grammy ) in the category of Best Female Artist for her album , Alle snakker sant – with the award ceremony being conducted at the National Theatre in Oslo on 14 January 2012 .
Nilsen performed at the annual Øyafestivalen ( Island festival ) on 10 August 2012 . The music festival is held at Middelalderparken ( Medieval park ) in Nilsen 's hometown of Oslo , Norway . Nilsen had previously performed there as a backing singer for Jens Carelius . The festival features four stages , and during Nilsen 's opening song , " Ta meg med " ( Take me with you ) , it was possible to hear the soundcheck of the black metal band , Nekromantheon , but Nilsen seemed unaffected . Among concert reviews , Nilsen was described by one writer as " a fascinating hybrid of melancholy , vulnerable sweetness and inner strength ... " This was Nilsen 's first concert since the Rockefeller in March 2012 , and since giving birth to a daughter two months previous . Commenting on the most recent phase of her life , Nilsen said , " Now I 've also got a million new things to write about , there 's so much I want to say . "
Nilsen is described as having a " strong artistic presence " and a voice which has a " large register " , which is " comfortably clear " with a " steady top and powerful down . " Concert reviews of Nilsen 's live performances note the clear softness of her voice juxtaposed against her vocal power ; and that she can convey more dimensionality with her voice live than what comes across on digitized recordings .
Nilsen performed at the SPOT music festival in Århus , Denmark on 3 May 2013 backed by an orchestra of 30 – 40 musicians performing some of Nilsen 's music such as " Brev " and " Snu , Ikke Snu . "
= = Personal life = =
As the daughter of folksingers , Nilsen grew up around music . Her father is Lillebjørn Nilsen ( born 1950 Oslo , Norway ) who first came to prominence in Norway in the early 1970s after the release of his first albums , and her mother is Shari Nilsen , who is American . Siri Nilsen first wrote a song when she was six years old , but grew up sheltered from the different aspects of the music industry . Lillebjørn tells an anecdote illustrating this point : one day Siri and her sister came home from school and sang a song to their father that they had learned that day , never realizing that it was he who had written it . ( Lillebjørn Nilsen wrote a popular song / guitar book that has been in print for decades ) .
In November 2011 , Nilsen performed with her father on the Norwegian late @-@ night talk show , Senkveld med Thomas og Harald ( Late Night with Thomas and Harald ) . She sang the single Alle snakker sant and played the ukulele while Lillebjørn accompanied on ukulele .
In June 2012 , Siri Nilsen gave birth to a daughter with Norwegian actor and comedian Anders Bye , with whom she has been in a relationship for several years .
= = Honors = =
2014 : Spellemannprisen in the class best lyricist , for the album Skyggebokser
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
Live albums
2012 : Siri Nilsen : Live fra Rockefeller Music Hall
= = = Singles = = =
Featured in
2013 : " Death Hanging " ( Susanna feat . Siri Nilsen & Susanne Sundfør )
= = Voice acting roles = =
live acting role in feature film *
|
= Tropical Storm Arthur ( 1996 ) =
Tropical Storm Arthur caused minimal flooding in the Carolinas in mid @-@ June 1996 . The first tropical cyclone and named storm of the annual Atlantic hurricane season , Arthur originated from an area of increased convection east of the Bahamas on June 16 . Gradually , the system increased in organization , and was designated as a tropical depression on June 17 . The depression tracked north @-@ northwest and became Tropical Storm Arthur while just offshore the Southeastern United States on June 19 . Later that day , Arthur peaked with maximum sustained winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) , but weakened slightly before making landfall in North Carolina early the following day . After striking North Carolina , Arthur tracked out to sea and weakened further to a tropical depression . By June 21 , Arthur transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . Overall , impact from Arthur was minimal , limited to light rainfall and moderate surf in North and South Carolina , as well as a tornado in Florida . Total damage amounted to $ 1 million ( 1996 USD ) , but no fatalities were reported . Oddly enough , 18 years later in 2014 , around the same time , another tropical cyclone with the same name impacted areas very similar to where this tropical storm impacted .
= = Meteorological history = =
On June 16 , satellite imagery revealed an area of increased convection east of the Bahamas , which was believed to have been associated with a tropical wave . On June 17 , the convection increased in organization at the lower levels of the atmosphere . By 1800 UTC , the system had organized sufficiently to be designated as a tropical depression , making it the first of the season . Initially , the depression tracked north @-@ northwest under the steering currents of the low @-@ level flow around the western periphery of the Atlantic subtropical ridge . Strong wind shear due to fast upper @-@ level winds associated with a cold @-@ core low over the eastern Gulf of Mexico hindered further intensification for a time , but on June 18 , an area of deep convection developed north of the center of circulation . Based on analysis of reconnaissance data , the tropical depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Arthur at 1900 UTC on June 19 .
Further strengthening occurred , as the storm attained peak winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . With time , Arthur gradually turned northeast and made landfall near Cape Lookout , North Carolina early on June 20 . The center moved over the Pamlico Sound and the Cape Hatteras National Seashore and exited into the Atlantic . Although the storm contained minimal deep convection , satellite imagery indicated that Arthur had a well @-@ defined low @-@ level center . The tropical storm weakened to a tropical depression about 100 mi ( 160 km ) northeast of Cape Hatteras , and accelerated towards the northeast when westerly steering currents increased . Deep convection increased once again on June 21 , although the lack of symmetry indicated that the remnants of Arthur were losing tropical characteristics . Forward speed increased to 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) and the storm subsequently lost all tropical characteristics at 1200 UTC on June 21 , while centered about 350 mi ( 560 km ) north @-@ northeast of Bermuda . The extratropical remnants tracked northeastward for 36 hours , and were last identified about midway between Newfoundland and the Azores , where it was absorbed by a much larger extratropical cyclone over the North Atlantic .
= = Preparations and impact = =
On June 18 , a tropical storm warning was issued for coastal locations from Edisto Beach , South Carolina to Cape Lookout , North Carolina . Shortly thereafter , a tropical storm watch was issued north of Cape Lookout to the North Carolina / Virginia border , including Pamlico and Albemarle Sounds . The tropical storm watch was later extended from the North Carolina / Virginia border to Cape Charles , Virginia , including Virginia Beach . By late on June 19 , all advisories were discontinued .
One tornado touched down in Florida , causing no known fatalities or injuries . As the center of Arthur passed 75 mi ( 121 km ) east of Cape Romain , South Carolina , minor increases in surf were reported . In North Carolina , swells ranged as high as 7 ft ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) . Rainfall peaked at 5 @.@ 85 inches ( 149 mm ) in Georgetown , South Carolina , though because it fell gradually , no significant flooding was reported , other than minor ponding of water on roads . In addition , Arthur also brought precipitation to Georgia and Virginia , though the amounts of rainfall recorded rarely exceeded 3 inches ( 76 mm ) . Sustained winds of 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) were reported , and offshore , the Atlantic Huron reported a sustained wind of 48 mph ( 77 km / h ) at 1500 UTC on June 19 , while located 35 mi ( 56 km ) southeast of Arthur 's center . In addition , a C @-@ Man station located about 34 @.@ 5 mi ( 55 @.@ 5 km ) southeast of Cape Fear , North Carolina reported sustained winds of 39 mph ( 64 km / h ) and gusts up to 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Overall , damage caused by Arthur was minimal , totaling only $ 1 million ( 1996 USD ) .
|
= 2012 phenomenon =
The 2012 phenomenon was a range of eschatological beliefs that cataclysmic or otherwise transformative events would occur on or around 21 December 2012 . This date was regarded as the end @-@ date of a 5 @,@ 126 @-@ year @-@ long cycle in the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar , and as such , festivities to commemorate the date took place on 21 December 2012 in the countries that were part of the Maya civilization ( Mexico , Guatemala , Honduras , and El Salvador ) , with main events at Chichén Itzá in Mexico , and Tikal in Guatemala .
Various astronomical alignments and numerological formulae were proposed as pertaining to this date . A New Age interpretation held that the date marked the start of a period during which Earth and its inhabitants would undergo a positive physical or spiritual transformation , and that 21 December 2012 would mark the beginning of a new era . Others suggested that the date marked the end of the world or a similar catastrophe . Scenarios suggested for the end of the world included the arrival of the next solar maximum , an interaction between Earth and the black hole at the center of the galaxy , or Earth 's collision with a planet called Nibiru .
Scholars from various disciplines quickly dismissed predictions of concomitant cataclysmic events as they arose . Professional Mayanist scholars stated that no extant classic Maya accounts forecast impending doom , and that the idea that the Long Count calendar ends in 2012 misrepresented Maya history and culture , while astronomers rejected the various proposed doomsday scenarios as pseudoscience , easily refuted by elementary astronomical observations .
= = Mesoamerican Long Count calendar = =
December 2012 marked the conclusion of a b 'ak 'tun — a time period in the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar , used in Central America prior to the arrival of Europeans . Although the Long Count was most likely invented by the Olmec , it has become closely associated with the Maya civilization , whose classic period lasted from 250 to 900 AD . The writing system of the classic Maya has been substantially deciphered , meaning that a corpus of their written and inscribed material has survived from before the European conquest .
Unlike the 260 @-@ day tzolk 'in still used today among the Maya , the Long Count was linear rather than cyclical , and kept time roughly in units of 20 : 20 days made a uinal , 18 uinals ( 360 days ) made a tun , 20 tuns made a k 'atun , and 20 k 'atuns ( 144 @,@ 000 days or roughly 394 years ) made up a b 'ak 'tun . Thus , the Maya date of 8 @.@ 3 @.@ 2 @.@ 10 @.@ 15 represents 8 b 'ak 'tuns , 3 k 'atuns , 2 tuns , 10 uinals and 15 days .
= = = Apocalypse = = =
There is a strong tradition of " world ages " in Maya literature , but the record has been distorted , leaving several possibilities open to interpretation . According to the Popol Vuh , a compilation of the creation accounts of the K 'iche ' Maya of the Colonial @-@ era highlands , we are living in the fourth world . The Popol Vuh describes the gods first creating three failed worlds , followed by a successful fourth world in which humanity was placed . In the Maya Long Count , the previous world ended after 13 b 'ak 'tuns , or roughly 5 @,@ 125 years . The Long Count 's " zero date " was set at a point in the past marking the end of the third world and the beginning of the current one , which corresponds to 11 August 3114 BC in the proleptic Gregorian calendar . This means that the fourth world reached the end of its 13th b 'ak 'tun , or Maya date 13 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 , on 21 December 2012 . In 1957 , Mayanist and astronomer Maud Worcester Makemson wrote that " the completion of a Great Period of 13 b 'ak 'tuns would have been of the utmost significance to the Maya . " In 1966 , Michael D. Coe wrote in The Maya that " there is a suggestion ... that Armageddon would overtake the degenerate peoples of the world and all creation on the final day of the 13th [ b 'ak 'tun ] . Thus ... our present universe [ would ] be annihilated ... when the Great Cycle of the Long Count reaches completion . "
= = = Objections = = =
Coe 's interpretation was repeated by other scholars through the early 1990s . In contrast , later researchers said that , while the end of the 13th b 'ak 'tun would perhaps be a cause for celebration , it did not mark the end of the calendar . " There is nothing in the Maya or Aztec or ancient Mesoamerican prophecy to suggest that they prophesied a sudden or major change of any sort in 2012 , " said Mayanist scholar Mark Van Stone . " The notion of a ' Great Cycle ' coming to an end is completely a modern invention . " In 1990 , Mayanist scholars Linda Schele and David Freidel argued that the Maya " did not conceive this to be the end of creation , as many have suggested . " Susan Milbrath , curator of Latin American Art and Archaeology at the Florida Museum of Natural History , stated that , " We have no record or knowledge that [ the Maya ] would think the world would come to an end " in 2012 . Sandra Noble , executive director of the Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies , said , " For the ancient Maya , it was a huge celebration to make it to the end of a whole cycle , " and , " The 2012 phenomenon is a complete fabrication and a chance for a lot of people to cash in . " " There will be another cycle , " said E. Wyllys Andrews V , director of the Tulane University Middle American Research Institute . " We know the Maya thought there was one before this , and that implies they were comfortable with the idea of another one after this . " Commenting on the new calendar found at Xultún , one archaeologist said " The ancient Maya predicted the world would continue – that 7 @,@ 000 years from now , things would be exactly like this . We keep looking for endings . The Maya were looking for a guarantee that nothing would change . It 's an entirely different mindset . "
Several prominent individuals representing Maya of Guatemala decried the suggestion that the world would end with the 13th b 'ak 'tun . Ricardo Cajas , president of the Colectivo de Organizaciones Indígenas de Guatemala , said the date did not represent an end of humanity but that the new cycle " supposes changes in human consciousness . " Martín Sacalxot , of the office of the Procurador de los Derechos Humanos ( Guatemala 's Human Rights Ombudsman , PDH ) , said that the end of the calendar has nothing to do with the end of the world or the year 2012 .
= = = Prior associations = = =
The European association of the Maya with eschatology dates back to the time of Christopher Columbus , who was compiling a work called Libro de las profecias during the voyage in 1502 when he first heard about the " Maia " on Guanaja , an island off the north coast of Honduras . Influenced by the writings of Bishop Pierre d 'Ailly , Columbus believed that his discovery of " most distant " lands ( and , by extension , the Maya themselves ) was prophesied and would bring about the Apocalypse . End @-@ times fears were widespread during the early years of the Spanish Conquest as the result of popular astrological predictions in Europe of a second Great Flood for the year 1524 .
In the early 1900s , German scholar Ernst Förstemann interpreted the last page of the Dresden Codex as a representation of the end of the world in a cataclysmic flood . He made reference to the destruction of the world and an apocalypse , though he made no reference to the 13th b 'ak 'tun or 2012 and it was not clear that he was referring to a future event . His ideas were repeated by archaeologist Sylvanus Morley , who directly paraphrased Förstemann and added his own embellishments , writing , " Finally , on the last page of the manuscript , is depicted the Destruction of the World ... Here , indeed , is portrayed with a graphic touch the final all @-@ engulfing cataclysm " in the form of a great flood . These comments were later repeated in Morley 's book , The Ancient Maya , the first edition of which was published in 1946 .
= = Maya references to b 'ak 'tun 13 = =
It is not certain what significance the classic Maya gave to the 13th b 'ak 'tun . Most classic Maya inscriptions are strictly historical and do not make any prophetic declarations . Two items in the Maya classical corpus , however , do mention the end of the 13th b 'ak 'tun : Tortuguero Monument 6 and La Corona Hieroglyphic Stairway 12 .
= = = Tortuguero = = =
The Tortuguero site , which lies in southernmost Tabasco , Mexico , dates from the 7th century AD and consists of a series of inscriptions mostly in honor of the contemporary ruler Bahlam Ajaw . One inscription , known as Tortuguero Monument 6 , is the only inscription known to refer to b 'ak 'tun 13 in any detail . It has been partially defaced ; Sven Gronemeyer and Barbara MacLeod have given this translation :
Very little is known about the god B 'olon Yokte ' . According to an article by Mayanists Markus Eberl and Christian Prager in British Anthropological Reports , his name is composed of the elements " nine " , ' OK @-@ te ' ( the meaning of which is unknown ) , and " god " . Confusion in classical period inscriptions suggests that the name was already ancient and unfamiliar to contemporary scribes . He also appears in inscriptions from Palenque , Usumacinta , and La Mar as a god of war , conflict , and the underworld . In one stele he is portrayed with a rope tied around his neck , and in another with an incense bag , together signifying a sacrifice to end a cycle of years .
Based on observations of modern Maya rituals , Gronemeyer and MacLeod claim that the stela refers to a celebration in which a person portraying Bolon Yokte ' K 'uh was wrapped in ceremonial garments and paraded around the site . They note that the association of Bolon Yokte ' K 'uh with b 'ak 'tun 13 appears to be so important on this inscription that it supersedes more typical celebrations such as " erection of stelae , scattering of incense " and so forth . Furthermore , they assert that this event was indeed planned for 2012 and not the 7th century . Mayanist scholar Stephen Houston contests this view by arguing that future dates on Maya inscriptions were simply meant to draw parallels with contemporary events , and that the words on the stela describe a contemporary rather than a future scene .
= = = La Corona = = =
In April – May 2012 , a team of archaeologists unearthed a previously unknown inscription on a stairway at the La Corona site in Guatemala . The inscription , on what is known as Hieroglyphic Stairway 12 , describes the establishment of a royal court in Calakmul in 635 AD , and compares the then @-@ recent completion of 13 k 'atuns with the future completion of the 13th b 'ak 'tun . It contains no speculation or prophecy as to what the scribes believed would happen at that time .
= = = Dates beyond b 'ak 'tun 13 = = =
Maya inscriptions occasionally mention predicted future events or commemorations that would occur on dates far beyond the completion of the 13th b 'ak 'tun . Most of these are in the form of " distance dates " ; Long Count dates together with an additional number , known as a Distance Number , which when added to them makes a future date . On the west panel at the Temple of Inscriptions in Palenque , a section of text projects forward to the 80th 52 @-@ year Calendar Round from the coronation of the ruler K 'inich Janaab ' Pakal . Pakal 's accession occurred on 9 @.@ 9 @.@ 2 @.@ 4 @.@ 8 , equivalent to 27 July 615 AD in the proleptic Gregorian calendar . The inscription begins with Pakal 's birthdate of 9 @.@ 8 @.@ 9 @.@ 13 @.@ 0 ( 24 March , 603 AD Gregorian ) and then adds the Distance Number 10 @.@ 11 @.@ 10 @.@ 5 @.@ 8 to it , arriving at a date of 21 October 4772 AD , more than 4 @,@ 000 years after Pakal 's time .
Another example is Stela 1 at Coba which marks the date of creation as 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 , or nineteen units above the b 'ak 'tun . According to Linda Schele , these 13s represent " the starting point of a huge odometer of time " , with each acting as a zero and resetting to 1 as the numbers increase . Thus this inscription anticipates the current universe lasting at least 2021 × 13 × 360 days , or roughly 2 @.@ 687 × 1028 years ; a time span equal to 2 quintillion times the age of the universe as determined by cosmologists . Others have suggested , however , that this date marks creation as having occurred after that time span .
In 2012 , researchers announced the discovery of a series of Maya astronomical tables in Xultún , Guatemala which plot the movements of the Moon and other astronomical bodies over the course of 17 b 'ak 'tuns .
= = New Age beliefs = =
Many assertions about the year 2012 form part of Mayanism , a non @-@ codified collection of New Age beliefs about ancient Maya wisdom and spirituality . The term is distinct from " Mayanist , " used to refer to an academic scholar of the Maya . Archaeoastronomer Anthony Aveni says that while the idea of " balancing the cosmos " was prominent in ancient Maya literature , the 2012 phenomenon did not draw from those traditions . Instead , it was bound up with American concepts such as the New Age movement , millenarianism , and the belief in secret knowledge from distant times and places . Themes found in 2012 literature included " suspicion towards mainstream Western culture , " the idea of spiritual evolution , and the possibility of leading the world into the New Age by individual example or by a group 's joined consciousness . The general intent of this literature was not to warn of impending doom but " to foster counter @-@ cultural sympathies and eventually socio @-@ political and ' spiritual ' activism . " Aveni , who has studied New Age and search for extraterrestrial intelligence ( SETI ) communities , describes 2012 narratives as the product of a " disconnected " society : " Unable to find spiritual answers to life 's big questions within ourselves , we turn outward to imagined entities that lie far off in space or time — entities that just might be in possession of superior knowledge . "
= = = Origins = = =
In 1975 , the ending of b 'ak 'tun 13 became the subject of speculation by several New Age authors , who asserted it would correspond with a global " transformation of consciousness . " In Mexico Mystique : The Coming Sixth Age of Consciousness , Frank Waters tied Coe 's original date of 24 December 2011 to astrology and the prophecies of the Hopi , while both José Argüelles ( in The Transformative Vision ) and Terence McKenna ( in The Invisible Landscape ) discussed the significance of the year 2012 without mentioning a specific day .
In 1983 , with the publication of Robert J. Sharer 's revised table of date correlations in the 4th edition of Morley 's The Ancient Maya , each became convinced that 21 December 2012 had significant meaning . By 1987 , the year in which he organized the Harmonic Convergence event , Arguelles was using the date 21 December 2012 in The Mayan Factor : Path Beyond Technology . He claimed that on 13 August 3113 BC the Earth began a passage through a " galactic synchronization beam " that emanated from the center of our galaxy , that it would pass through this beam during a period of 5200 tuns ( Maya cycles of 360 days each ) , and that this beam would result in " total synchronization " and " galactic entrainment " of individuals " plugged into the Earth 's electromagnetic battery " by 13 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 ( 21 December 2012 ) . He believed that the Maya aligned their calendar to correspond to this phenomenon . Anthony Aveni has dismissed all of these ideas .
In 2006 , author Daniel Pinchbeck popularized New Age concepts about this date in his book 2012 : The Return of Quetzalcoatl , linking b 'ak 'tun 13 to beliefs in crop circles , alien abduction , and personal revelations based on the use of hallucinogenic drugs and mediumship . Pinchbeck claims to discern a " growing realization that materialism and the rational , empirical worldview that comes with it has reached its expiration date ... [ w ] e 're on the verge of transitioning to a dispensation of consciousness that 's more intuitive , mystical and shamanic . "
= = = Galactic alignment = = =
There is no significant astronomical event tied to the Long Count 's start date . However , its supposed end date was tied to astronomical phenomena by esoteric , fringe , and New Age literature that placed great significance on astrology , especially astrological interpretations associated with the phenomenon of axial precession . Chief among these ideas is the astrological concept of a " galactic alignment . "
= = = = Precession = = = =
In the Solar System , the planets and the Sun lie roughly within the same flat plane , known as the plane of the ecliptic . From our perspective on Earth , the ecliptic is the path taken by the Sun across the sky over the course of the year . The twelve constellations that line the ecliptic are known as the zodiacal constellations and , annually , the Sun passes through all of them in turn . Additionally , over time , the Sun 's annual cycle appears to recede very slowly backward by one degree every 72 years , or by one constellation approximately every 2 @,@ 160 years . This backward movement , called " precession , " is due to a slight wobble in the Earth 's axis as it spins , and can be compared to the way a spinning top wobbles as it slows down . Over the course of 25 @,@ 800 years , a period often called a Great Year , the Sun 's path completes a full , 360 @-@ degree backward rotation through the zodiac . In Western astrological traditions , precession is measured from the March equinox , one of the two annual points at which the Sun is exactly halfway between its lowest and highest points in the sky . At the end of the 20th century and beginning of the 21st , the Sun 's March equinox position was in the constellation Pisces moving back into Aquarius . This signaled the end of one astrological age ( the Age of Pisces ) and the beginning of another ( the Age of Aquarius ) .
Similarly , the Sun 's December solstice position ( in the northern hemisphere , the lowest point on its annual path ; in the southern hemisphere , the highest ) was in the constellation of Sagittarius , one of two constellations in which the zodiac intersects with the Milky Way . Every year , on the December solstice , the Sun and the Milky Way , appeared ( from the surface of the Earth ) to come into alignment , and every year precession caused a slight shift in the Sun 's position in the Milky Way . Given that the Milky Way is between 10 ° and 20 ° wide , it takes between 700 and 1 @,@ 400 years for the Sun 's December solstice position to precess through it . In 2012 it was about halfway through the Milky Way , crossing the galactic equator . In 2012 , the Sun 's December solstice fell on 21 December .
= = = = Mysticism = = = =
Mystical speculations about the precession of the equinoxes and the Sun 's proximity to the center of the Milky Way appeared in Hamlet 's Mill ( 1969 ) by Giorgio de Santillana and Hertha von Deschend . These were quoted and expanded upon by Terence and Dennis McKenna in The Invisible Landscape ( 1975 ) . The significance of a future " galactic alignment " was noted in 1991 by astrologer Raymond Mardyks , who asserted that the winter solstice would align with the galactic plane in 1998 / 1999 . He wrote that this event " only occurs once each 26 @,@ 000 @-@ year cycle and would be most definitely of utmost significance to the top flight ancient astrologers . " Astrologer Bruce Scofield noted , " The Milky Way crossing of the winter solstice is something that has been neglected by Western astrologers , with a few exceptions . Charles Jayne made a very early reference to it , and in the 1970s Rob Hand mentioned it in his talks on precession but didn 't elaborate on it . Ray Mardyks later made a point of it , and after that John [ Major ] Jenkins , myself , and Daniel Giamario began to talk about it . "
Adherents to the idea , following a theory first proposed by Munro Edmonson , alleged that the Maya based their calendar on observations of the Great Rift or Dark Rift , a band of dark dust clouds in the Milky Way , which , according to some scholars , the Maya called the Xibalba be or " Black Road . " John Major Jenkins claims that the Maya were aware of where the ecliptic intersected the Black Road and gave this position in the sky a special significance in their cosmology . Jenkins said that precession would align the Sun precisely with the galactic equator at the 2012 winter solstice . Jenkins claimed that the classical Maya anticipated this conjunction and celebrated it as the harbinger of a profound spiritual transition for mankind . New Age proponents of the galactic alignment hypothesis argued that , just as astrology uses the positions of stars and planets to make claims of future events , the Maya plotted their calendars with the objective of preparing for significant world events . Jenkins attributed the insights of ancient Maya shamans about the galactic center to their use of psilocybin mushrooms , psychoactive toads , and other psychedelics . Jenkins also associated the Xibalba be with a " world tree , " drawing on studies of contemporary ( not ancient ) Maya cosmology .
= = = = Criticism = = = =
Astronomers such as David Morrison argue that the galactic equator is an entirely arbitrary line and can never be precisely drawn , because it is impossible to determine the Milky Way 's exact boundaries , which vary depending on clarity of view . Jenkins claimed he drew his conclusions about the location of the galactic equator from observations taken at above 11 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 400 m ) , an altitude that gives a clearer image of the Milky Way than the Maya had access to . Furthermore , since the Sun is half a degree wide , its solstice position takes 36 years to precess its full width . Jenkins himself noted that even given his determined location for the line of the galactic equator , its most precise convergence with the center of the Sun already occurred in 1998 , and so asserts that , rather than 2012 , the galactic alignment instead focuses on a multi @-@ year period centered in 1998 .
There is no clear evidence that the classic Maya were aware of precession . Some Maya scholars , such as Barbara MacLeod , Michael Grofe , Eva Hunt , Gordon Brotherston , and Anthony Aveni , have suggested that some Mayan holy dates were timed to precessional cycles , but scholarly opinion on the subject remains divided . There is also little evidence , archaeological or historical , that the Maya placed any importance on solstices or equinoxes . It is possible that only the earliest among Mesoamericans observed solstices , but this is also a disputed issue among Mayanists . There is also no evidence that the classic Maya attached any importance to the Milky Way ; there is no glyph in their writing system to represent it , and no astronomical or chronological table tied to it .
= = = Timewave zero and the I Ching = = =
" Timewave zero " is a numerological formula that purports to calculate the ebb and flow of " novelty , " defined as increase over time in the universe 's interconnectedness , or organized complexity . Terence McKenna claimed that the universe has a teleological attractor at the end of time that increases interconnectedness . He believed this which would eventually reach a singularity of infinite complexity in 2012 , at which point anything and everything imaginable would occur simultaneously . He conceived this idea over several years in the early to mid @-@ 1970s whilst using psilocybin mushrooms and DMT . The scientific community considers novelty theory to be pseudoscience .
McKenna expressed " novelty " in a computer program which produces a waveform known as " timewave zero " or the " timewave . " Based on McKenna 's interpretation of the King Wen sequence of the I Ching , an ancient Chinese book on divination , the graph purports to show great periods of novelty corresponding with major shifts in humanity 's biological and sociocultural evolution . He believed that the events of any given time are resonantly related to the events of other times , and chose the atomic bombing of Hiroshima as the basis for calculating his end date of November 2012 . When he later discovered this date 's proximity to the end of the 13th b 'ak 'tun of the Maya calendar , he revised his hypothesis so that the two dates matched .
The 1975 first edition of The Invisible Landscape referred to 2012 ( but no specific day during the year ) only twice . In the 1993 second edition , McKenna employed Sharer 's date of 21 December 2012 throughout .
Novelty theory has been criticized for " rejecting countless ideas presumed as factual by the scientific community , " depending " solely on numerous controversial deductions that contradict empirical logic , " and encompassing " no suitable indication of truth , " with the conclusion that novelty theory is a pseudoscience .
= = Doomsday theories = =
The idea that the year 2012 presaged a world cataclysm , the end of the world , or the end of human civilization , became a subject of popular media speculation as the date of 21 December 2012 approached . This idea was promulgated by many pages on the Internet , particularly on YouTube . The Discovery Channel was criticized for its " quasi @-@ documentaries " about the subject that " sacrifice [ d ] accuracy for entertainment . "
= = = Other alignments = = =
Some people interpreted the galactic alignment apocalyptically , claiming that its occurrence would somehow create a combined gravitational effect between the Sun and the supermassive black hole at the center of our galaxy ( known as Sagittarius A * ) , creating havoc on Earth . Apart from the " galactic alignment " already having happened in 1998 , the Sun 's apparent path through the zodiac as seen from Earth did not take it near the true galactic center , but rather several degrees above it . Even were this not the case , Sagittarius A * is 30 @,@ 000 light years from Earth ; it would have to have been more than 6 million times closer to cause any gravitational disruption to Earth 's Solar System . This reading of the alignment was included on the History Channel documentary Decoding the Past . John Major Jenkins complained that a science fiction writer co @-@ authored the documentary , and he went on to characterize it as " 45 minutes of unabashed doomsday hype and the worst kind of inane sensationalism " .
Some believers in a 2012 doomsday used the term " galactic alignment " to describe a different phenomenon proposed by some scientists to explain a pattern in mass extinctions supposedly observed in the fossil record . According to the Shiva Hypothesis , mass extinctions are not random , but recur every 26 million years . To account for this , it was suggested that vertical oscillations made by the Sun on its 250 @-@ million @-@ year orbit of the galactic center cause it to regularly pass through the galactic plane . When the Sun 's orbit takes it outside the galactic plane which bisects the galactic disc , the influence of the galactic tide is weaker . However , when re @-@ entering the galactic disc — as it does every 20 – 25 million years — it comes under the influence of the far stronger " disc tides " , which , according to mathematical models , increase the flux of Oort cloud comets into the inner Solar System by a factor of 4 , thus leading to a massive increase in the likelihood of a devastating comet impact . However , this " alignment " takes place over tens of millions of years , and could never be timed to an exact date . Evidence shows that the Sun passed through the plane bisecting the galactic disc three million years ago and in 2012 was moving farther above it .
A third suggested alignment was some sort of planetary conjunction occurring on 21 December 2012 ; however , conventional astronomy did not predict a conjunction on that date . Multi @-@ planet alignments did occur in both 2000 and 2010 , each with no ill result for the Earth . Jupiter is the largest planet in the Solar System ; larger than all other planets combined . When Jupiter is near opposition , the difference in gravitational force that the Earth experiences is less than 1 % of the force that the Earth feels daily from the Moon .
= = = Geomagnetic reversal = = =
Another idea tied to 2012 involved a geomagnetic reversal ( often incorrectly referred to as a pole shift by proponents ) , possibly triggered by a massive solar flare , that would release an energy equal to 100 billion atomic bombs . This belief was supposedly supported by observations that the Earth 's magnetic field was weakening , which could precede a reversal of the north and south magnetic poles , and the arrival of the next solar maximum , which was expected sometime around 2012 .
Most scientific estimates , however , say that geomagnetic reversals take between 1 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 years to complete , and do not start on any particular date . Furthermore , the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration predicted that the solar maximum would peak in late 2013 or 2014 , and that it would be fairly weak , with a below @-@ average number of sunspots . In any case , there was no scientific evidence linking a solar maximum to a geomagnetic reversal , which is driven by forces entirely within the Earth . Instead , a solar maximum would be mostly notable for its effects on satellite and cellular phone communications . David Morrison attributed the rise of the solar storm idea to physicist and science popularizer Michio Kaku , who claimed in an interview with Fox News that a solar peak in 2012 could be disastrous for orbiting satellites , and to NASA 's headlining a 2006 webpage as " Solar Storm Warning " , a term later repeated on several doomsday pages .
= = = Planet X / Nibiru = = =
Some believers in a 2012 doomsday claimed that a planet called Planet X , or Nibiru , would collide with or pass by the Earth . This idea , which appeared in various forms since 1995 , initially predicted Doomsday in May 2003 , but proponents abandoned that date after it passed without incident . The idea originated from claims of channeling alien beings and is widely ridiculed . Astronomers calculated that such an object so close to Earth would be visible to anyone looking up at the night sky .
= = = Other catastrophes = = =
Author Graham Hancock , in his book Fingerprints of the Gods , interpreted Coe 's remarks in Breaking the Maya Code as evidence for the prophecy of a global cataclysm . Filmmaker Roland Emmerich later credited the book with inspiring his 2009 disaster film 2012 .
Other speculations regarding doomsday in 2012 included predictions by the Web Bot project , a computer program that purports to predict the future by analyzing Internet chatter . However , commentators have rejected claims that the bot is able to predict natural disasters , as opposed to human @-@ caused disasters like stock market crashes .
The 2012 date was also loosely tied to the long @-@ running concept of the Photon Belt , which predicted a form of interaction between Earth and Alcyone , the largest star of the Pleiades cluster . Critics argued that photons cannot form belts , that the Pleiades , located more than 400 light years away , could have no effect on Earth , and that the Solar System , rather than getting closer to the Pleiades , was in fact moving farther away from it .
Some media outlets tied the fact that the red supergiant star Betelgeuse would undergo a supernova at some point in the future to the 2012 phenomenon . However , while Betelgeuse was certainly in the final stages of its life , and would die as a supernova , there was no way to predict the timing of the event to within 100 @,@ 000 years . To be a threat to Earth , a supernova would need to be no further than 25 light years from the Solar System . Betelgeuse is roughly 600 light years away , and so its supernova would not affect Earth . In December 2011 , NASA 's Francis Reddy issued a press release debunking the possibility of a supernova occurring in 2012 .
Another claim involved alien invasion . In December 2010 , an article , first published in examiner.com and later referenced in the English @-@ language edition of Pravda claimed , citing a Second Digitized Sky Survey photograph as evidence , that SETI had detected three large spacecraft due to arrive at Earth in 2012 . Astronomer and debunker Phil Plait noted that by using the small @-@ angle formula , one could determine that if the object in the photo were as large as claimed , it would have had to be closer to Earth than the Moon , which would mean it would already have arrived . In January 2011 , Seth Shostak , chief astronomer of SETI , issued a press release debunking the claims .
= = Public reaction = =
The phenomenon spread widely after coming to public notice , particularly on the Internet . Hundreds of thousands of websites were posted on the subject . " Ask an Astrobiologist " , a NASA public outreach website , received over 5 @,@ 000 questions from the public on the subject from 2007 , some asking whether they should kill themselves , their children or their pets . In May 2012 , an Ipsos poll of 16 @,@ 000 adults in 21 countries found that 8 percent had experienced fear or anxiety over the possibility of the world ending in December 2012 , while an average of 10 percent agreed with the statement " the Mayan calendar , which some say ' ends ' in 2012 , marks the end of the world " , with responses as high as 20 percent in China , 13 percent in Russia , Turkey , Japan and Korea , and 12 percent in the United States . At least one suicide was directly linked to fear of a 2012 apocalypse , with others anecdotally reported . Jared Lee Loughner , the perpetrator of the 2011 Tucson shooting , followed 2012 @-@ related predictions . A panel of scientists questioned on the topic at a plenary session at the Astronomical Society of the Pacific contended that the Internet played a substantial role in allowing this doomsday date to gain more traction than previous similar panics .
= = = Europe = = =
Beginning in 2000 , the small French village of Bugarach , population 189 , began receiving visits from " esoterics " — mystic believers who had concluded that the local mountain , Pic de Bugarach , was the ideal location to weather the transformative events of 2012 . In 2011 , the local mayor , Jean @-@ Pierre Delord , began voicing fears to the international press that the small town would be overwhelmed by an influx of thousands of visitors in 2012 , even suggesting he might call in the army . " We 've seen a huge rise in visitors " , Delord told The Independent in March 2012 . " Already this year more than 20 @,@ 000 people have climbed right to the top , and last year we had 10 @,@ 000 hikers , which was a significant rise on the previous 12 months . They think Pic de Bugarach is ' un garage à ovnis ' [ a garage for UFOs ] . The villagers are exasperated : the exaggerated importance of something which they see as completely removed from reality is bewildering . After 21 December , this will surely return to normal . " In December 2012 , the French government placed 100 police and firefighters around both Bugarach and Pic de Bugarach , limiting access to potential visitors . Ultimately , only about 1 @,@ 000 visitors appeared at the height of the " event " . Two raves were foiled , 12 people had to be turned away from the peak , and 5 people were arrested for carrying weapons . Jean @-@ Pierre Delord was criticised by members of the community for failing to take advantage of the media attention and promote the region .
The Turkish village of Şirince , near Ephesus , expected to receive over 60 @,@ 000 visitors on 21 December 2012 , as New Age mystics believed its " positive energy " would aid in weathering the catastrophe . Only a fraction of that number actually arrived , with a substantial component being police and journalists , and the expected windfall failed to materialise .
Similarly , the pyramid @-@ like mountain of Rtanj , in the Serbian Carpathians , attracted much apocalyptic attention , as many believed an artificial pyramid structure buried within it would emit a powerful force shield on the day , protecting those within it . Hotels around the base received up to 500 bookings a piece for rooms .
In Russia , inmates of a women 's prison experienced " a collective mass psychosis " in the weeks leading up to the supposed doomsday , while residents of a factory town near Moscow reportedly emptied a supermarket of matches , candles , food and other supplies . The Minister of Emergency Situations declared in response that according to " methods of monitoring what is occurring on the planet Earth , " there would be no apocalypse in December . When asked when the world would end in a press conference , Russian President Vladimir Putin said , " In about 4 @.@ 5 billion years . "
In December 2012 , Vatican astronomer Rev José Funes wrote in the Vatican newspaper L 'Osservatore Romano that apocalyptic theories around 2012 were " not even worth discussing " .
= = = Asia = = =
In China , up to one thousand members of the Christian cult Almighty God were arrested after claiming that the end of b 'ak 'tun 13 marked the end of the world , and that it was time to overthrow Communism . Shoppers were reported to be hoarding supplies of candles in anticipation of coming darkness , while online retailer Taobao sold tickets to board Noah 's Ark to customers . Bookings for wedding ceremonies on 21 December 2012 were saturated in several cities . On 14 December 2012 , a man in Henan province attacked and wounded twenty @-@ three children with a knife . Authorities suspected the man had been " influenced " by the prediction of the upcoming apocalypse . Academics in China attributed the widespread belief in the 2012 doomsday in their country to a lack of scientific literacy and a mistrust of the government @-@ controlled media .
On 6 December 2012 , Australian Prime Minister Julia Gillard delivered a hoax speech for the radio station triple J in which she declared " My dear remaining fellow Australians ; the end of the world is coming . Whether the final blow comes from flesh @-@ eating zombies , demonic hell @-@ beasts or from the total triumph of K @-@ Pop , if you know one thing about me it is this - I will always fight for you to the very end . " Radio announcer Neil Mitchell described the hoax as " immature " and pondered whether it demeaned her office .
= = = Mexico and Central America = = =
Those Mesoamerican countries that once formed part of the Maya civilization , Mexico , Guatemala , Honduras , and El Salvador , all organized festivities to commemorate the end of b 'ak 'tun 13 at the largest Maya sites . On 21 December 2011 , the Maya town of Tapachula in Chiapas activated an eight @-@ foot digital clock counting down the days until the end of b 'ak 'tun 13 . On 21 December 2012 , major events took place at Chichén Itzá in Mexico and Tikal in Guatemala . In El Salvador , the largest event was held at Tazumal , and in Honduras , at Copán . In all of these archaeological sites , Maya rituals were held at dawn led by shamans and Maya priests .
On the final day of b 'ak 'tun 13 , residents of Yucatán and other regions formerly dominated by the ancient Maya celebrated what they saw as the dawn of a new , better era . According to official figures from Mexico 's National Institute of Anthropology and History ( INAH ) , about 50 @,@ 000 people visited Mexican archaeological sites on 21 December 2012 . Of those , 10 @,@ 000 visited Chichén Itzá in Yucatán , 9 @,@ 900 visited Tulum in Quintana Roo , and 8 @,@ 000 visited Palenque in Chiapas . An additional 10 @,@ 000 people visited Teotihuacan near Mexico City , which is not a Maya site . The main ceremony in Chichén Itzá was held at dawn in the plaza of the Temple of Kukulkán , one of the principal symbols of Maya culture . The archaeological site was opened two hours early to receive thousands of tourists , mostly foreigners who came to participate in events scheduled for the end of b 'ak 'tun 13 .
The fire ceremony at Tikal was held at dawn in the main plaza of the Temple of the Great Jaguar . The ceremony was led by Guatemalan and foreign priests . The President of Guatemala , Otto Pérez , and of Costa Rica , Laura Chinchilla , participated in the event as special guests . During the ceremony the priests asked for unity , peace and the end of discrimination and racism , with the hope that the start of a new cycle will be a " new dawn " . About 3 @,@ 000 people participated in the event .
Most of these events were organized by agencies of the Mexican and Central American governments , and their respective tourism industries expected to attract thousands of visitors . Mexico is visited by about 22 million foreigners in a typical year . However , in 2012 , the national tourism agency expected to attract 52 million visitors just to the regions of Chiapas , Yucatán , Quintana Roo , Tabasco and Campeche . A Maya activist group in Guatemala , Oxlaljuj Ajpop , objected to the commercialization of the date . A spokesman from the Conference of Maya Ministers commented that for them the Tikal ceremony is not a show for tourists but something spiritual and personal . The secretary of the Great Council of Ancestral Authorities commented that living Maya felt they were excluded from the activities in Tikal . This group held a parallel ceremony , and complained that the date has been used for commercial gain . In addition , before the main Tikal ceremony , about 200 Maya protested the celebration because they felt excluded . Most modern Maya were indifferent to the ceremonies , and the small number of people still practising ancient rites held solemn , more private ceremonies .
Osvaldo Gomez , a technical advisor to the Tikal site , complained that many visitors during the celebration had illegally climbed the stairs of the Temple of the Masks , causing " irreparable " damage .
= = = South America = = =
In Brazil , Décio Colla , the Mayor of the City of São Francisco de Paula , Rio Grande do Sul , mobilized the population to prepare for the end of the world by stocking up on food and supplies . In the city of Corguinho , in the Mato Grosso do Sul , a colony was built for survivors of the expected tragedy . In Alto Paraíso de Goiás , the hotels also made specific reservations for prophetic dates . On 11 October 2012 , in the Brazilian city of Teresina , police interrupted what was believed to have been an attempted mass suicide by up to one hundred members of a cult headed by self @-@ proclaimed prophet Luis Pereira dos Santos , who predicted the end of the world on the feast day of Our Lady of Aparecida . Santos was subsequently arrested .
In Bolivia , President Evo Morales participated in Quechua and Aymara rituals , organized with government support , to commemorate the Southern solstice that took place in Isla del Sol , in the southern part of Lake Titicaca . During the event , Morales proclaimed the beginning of " Pachakuti " , meaning the world 's wake up to a culture of life and the beginning of the end to wild capitalism , and he proposed to dismantle the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank .
On 21 December 2012 , the Uritorco in Córdoba , Argentina was closed , as a mass suicide there had been proposed on Facebook .
= = = North America = = =
In the United States , sales of private underground blast shelters increased noticeably after 2009 , with many construction companies ' advertisements calling attention to the 2012 apocalypse . In Michigan , schools were closed for the Christmas holidays two days early , in part because rumours of the 2012 apocalypse were raising fears of repeat shootings similar to that at Sandy Hook . American reality TV stars Heidi Montag and Spencer Pratt revealed that they had spent most of their $ 10 million of accumulated earnings by 2010 because they believed the world would end in 2012 .
= = Cultural influence = =
The 2012 phenomenon was discussed or referenced in several media . Several TV documentaries , as well as some contemporary fictional references to the year 2012 , referred to 21 December as the day of a cataclysmic event .
The UFO conspiracy TV series The X @-@ Files cited 22 December 2012 as the date for an alien colonization of the Earth and mentioned the Mayan calendar " stopping " on this date . The History Channel aired a handful of special series on doomsday that included analysis of 2012 theories , such as Decoding the Past ( 2005 – 2007 ) , 2012 , End of Days ( 2006 ) , Last Days on Earth ( 2006 ) , Seven Signs of the Apocalypse ( 2009 ) , and Nostradamus 2012 ( 2008 ) . The Discovery Channel also aired 2012 Apocalypse in 2009 , suggesting that massive solar storms , magnetic pole reversal , earthquakes , supervolcanoes , and other drastic natural events could occur in 2012 . In 2012 , the National Geographic Channel launched a show called Doomsday Preppers , a documentary series about survivalists preparing for various cataclysms , including the 2012 doomsday .
Hundreds of books were published on the topic . The bestselling book of 2009 , Dan Brown 's The Lost Symbol , featured a coded mock email number ( 2456282 @.@ 5 ) that decoded to the Julian date for 21 December 2012 .
In cinema , the 2009 disaster film 2012 was inspired by the phenomenon , and advance promotion prior to its release included a stealth marketing campaign in which TV spots and websites from the fictional " Institute for Human Continuity " called on people to prepare for the end of the world . As these promotions did not mention the film itself , many viewers believed them to be real and contacted astronomers in panic . Although the campaign was heavily criticized , the film became one of the most successful of its year , grossing nearly $ 770 million worldwide . An article in The Daily Telegraph attributed the widespread fear of the 2012 phenomenon in China to the film , which was a smash hit in that country because it depicted the Chinese building " survival arks " . Lars von Trier 's 2011 film Melancholia featured a plot in which a planet emerges from behind the Sun on a collision course with Earth . Announcing his company 's purchase of the film , the head of Magnolia Pictures said in a press release , " As the 2012 apocalypse is upon us , it is time to prepare for a cinematic last supper " .
The phenomenon also inspired several rock and pop music hits . As early as 1997 , " A Certain Shade of Green " by Incubus referred to the mystical belief that a shift in perception would arrive in 2012 ( " Are you gonna stand around till 2012 A.D. ? / What are you waiting for , a certain shade of green ? " ) . More recent hits include " 2012 ( It Ain 't the End ) " ( 2010 ) performed by Jay Sean and " Till the World Ends " ( 2011 ) performed by Britney Spears . Towards mid @-@ December 2012 , an internet hoax related to South Korean singer Psy being one of the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse was widely circulated around social media platforms . The hoax purported that once Psy 's " Gangnam Style " YouTube video amassed a billion views , the world would end . Indian composer A. R. Rahman , known for Slumdog Millionaire , released his single " Infinite Love " to " instill faith and optimism in people " prior to the predicted doomsday .
A number of brands ran commercials tied to the 2012 apocalypse in the months and days leading to the date . In February 2012 , American automotive company GM aired an advertisement during the annual Super Bowl football game in which a group of friends drove Chevrolet Silverados through the ruins of human civilization following the 2012 apocalypse , while on 17 December 2012 , Jell @-@ O ran an ad saying that offering Jell @-@ O to the Mayan gods would appease them into sparing the world . John Verret , Professor of Advertising at Boston University , questioned the utility of tying large sums of money to such a unique and short @-@ term event .
|
= Mission House ( Stockbridge , Massachusetts ) =
The Mission House is an historic house located at 19 Main Street , Stockbridge , Massachusetts . It was built between 1739 and 1742 by a Christian missionary to the local Mahicans . It is a National Historic Landmark , designated in 1968 as a rare surviving example of a colonial mission house . It is now owned and operated as a nonprofit museum by the Trustees of Reservations .
The town of Stockbridge was established in the late 1730s as a mission community to the Mahicans . John Sergeant was the first missionary , formally beginning his service in 1735 . His first house , built in the valley where the Indians lived , has not survived ; this house was built in the white community on the hill above the town following his marriage in 1739 . It remained in the Sergeant family until the 1870s , and survived Gilded Age developments of the late 19th century .
In the 1920s the house was purchased by Mabel Choate , owner of the nearby Naumkeag estate , and moved down into the valley . She and landscape designer Fletcher Steele restored the building , furnished it with 18th century pieces , and designed gardens to Steele 's vision of what a colonial landscape might have been . Choate opened the house as a museum in 1930 , and donated it ( and eventually Naumkeag as well ) to the Trustees of Reservations , who operate both properties as museums .
= = Background = =
Before the arrival of British colonists , the area that is now southern Berkshire County , Massachusetts was inhabited by communities of the Mahican tribal confederation . The population of these communities changed over the 17th century as war ( sometimes with European settlers and sometimes with the neighboring Iroquois ) , disease , and migration made them smaller and more diverse . By the 1720s they had sold off most of their tribal lands , and lived in relative peace in two remaining tracts of land on the Housatonic River .
Beginning in the late 1720s the Mahicans became a point of interest to British missionary organizations , because they were seen as potential conversion targets and to counter the possibility of influence on them from Roman Catholic New France . This effort was managed in New England by a commission headed by the governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay , Jonathan Belcher . Belcher suggested in 1730 that the province lay out a town in the Mahican lands , and that London missionary groups pay for a mission there . Funds were allocated for this effort in 1733 .
In 1734 Massachusetts residents in the Northampton area met to organize the mission . John Sergeant , a recent graduate of Yale College , agreed to take on the task , and spent some time that fall among the Mahicans . After negotiations involving Governor Belcher and Mahican leaders , it was agreed in 1735 that a mission would be established , and Sergeant was ordained to serve as a minister among them . He immediately moved to the Mahican lands and began preaching to and baptizing them .
In 1736 a township of six square miles ( 16 km2 ) was formally granted to the Mahicans by the Province of Massachusetts Bay , which would be incorporated in 1739 as Stockbridge . Included in the grant were provisions that the minister and schoolteacher receive land grants , and that four English families settle the area , in part to set an example of Christian living for the natives . John Sergeant built a modest frontier house in the township , and the Indian village grew around this area , which included a meeting house used as a church and school .
= = House history = =
In 1739 Sergeant married Abigail Williams , the seventeen @-@ year @-@ old daughter of one of Stockbridge 's English settlers . She wanted to live outside the village , so Sergeant had a new house , the subject of this article , built on Prospect Hill , overlooking the village . The date of its construction is uncertain : Sergeant received the land in 1739 after Stockbridge 's incorporation , and the house is known to have been built by 1742 .
The Sergeants lived there until his death in 1749 . Abigail remarried and eventually moved out of the house , but it remained in the family . She returned to it after her second husband 's death , living with her son 's family until her own death in 1791 . Jonathan Edwards , a minister who rose to fame during the First Great Awakening , succeeded Sergeant as missionary to the Mahicans ( who also became known as " Stockbridge Indians " and " Mohicans " ) , but occupied the first house Sergeant built . That house has not survived , but its site is now marked by a sundial near 23 Main Street .
Sergeant 's second house remained in the family until 1879 , when the property was sold to David Dudley Field , Jr . , a New York lawyer . Field amassed an estate of some 115 acres ( 47 ha ) , on which he built a large summer house ; the mission house he rented out for several summers to friends . It subsequently fell into disrepair , and was rescued in the 1920s by Mabel Choate , the daughter of New York lawyer Joseph Hodges Choate and owner of the nearby Naumkeag estate , who sought to establish it as a museum in memory of her parents .
Sometime around 1926 , Choate purchased the mission house . The house was then disassembled , and its pieces carefully numbered . In 1927 she purchased the lot at 19 Main Street where the house now stands , formerly the site of the Stockbridge Casino ; the casino building she sold for $ 1 , and it was moved to its present location east of town , where it serves as the home of the Berkshire Theatre Festival . In 1928 the house was reconstructed at its present location under the guidance of landscape designer Fletcher Steele . The property on which it originally stood is now the site of the Roman Catholic National Shrine of The Divine Mercy .
The house 's gardens were created between 1928 – 1932 by Steele ( who was also responsible for significant work on Naumkeag 's gardens ) . The house was furnished under Choate 's guidance with pieces appropriate to the Sergeant period , and opened as a museum in 1930 . She donated the house and surrounding property to the Trustees of Reservations in 1948 , and bequeathed it part of her collection .
Included in Choate 's bequest to the museum was a two @-@ volume Bible that had been given to the Mahicans in 1745 by Francis Ayscough . Choate had in the 1930s convinced the elders of the Stockbridge @-@ Munsee tribe ( successors to the Mahicans ) to sell her the Bible for display in the museum . Tribe members objected to the sale after it took place , but no action was taken , and the Bible 's location was lost to the tribe until it was spotted by tribal members in the museum in 1975 . Following negotiations , the Trustees of Reservations returned the Bible to the tribe in 1991 .
= = House and gardens = =
The mission house now stands on a lot approximately 0 @.@ 4 acres ( 0 @.@ 16 ha ) in size . The layout of the house is a standard Georgian center @-@ hall plan , with fireplaced rooms ( a parlor to the left , and kitchen to the right ) on either side of a central hall , which has a stairway to the second floor . Behind the parlor is an office space where Sergeant would have met with Indians . A diversion from the typical Georgian plan is the presence of a second entrance on the right side of the house , and a narrow hallway running from that entrance to the office . This made it possible for Sergeant 's Indian visitors to reach his office without passing through the front of the house . The front door is adorned with a remarkably well @-@ preserved specimen of a Connecticut River valley front door pediment .
The property features several outbuildings , generally dating from the time of the restoration . A small one @-@ room frame building in the southwest corner serves as a visitor center . Behind the house is a long one @-@ story building that houses museum exhibits , as well as a storage and utility area . It is connected to the house itself by a 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) grape arbor . Northeast of the house is a large barn @-@ like building housing function facilities and a caretaker 's apartment .
The gardens and outbuildings of the property were designed to Fletcher Steele 's vision of what colonial garden should be . He drew on ideas seen in the gardens of George Washington 's estate at Mount Vernon to design a property where " a hundred forms of industry were carried on " . Rows of vegetables , fruit trees , and bushes , were lined with flowers for aesthetic appeal , and spaces for carved out that he envisioned would have been used for performing outdoor work such as chopping wood , churning butter , and preparing preserves . Echoing statements made in his Design of a Little Garden , published just a few years earlier , Steele laid out the outbuildings in such a way to provide the homeowners a private retreat .
The house was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1968 , and listed on the National Register of Historic Places . It contains a collection of eighteenth @-@ century American furniture and decorative arts . It is open to the public on summer weekends or by appointment .
|
= Donner Party =
The Donner Party ( sometimes called the Donner @-@ Reed Party ) was a group of American pioneers led by George Donner and James F. Reed who set out for California in a wagon train in May 1846 . They were delayed by a series of mishaps and mistakes , and spent the winter of 1846 – 47 snowbound in the Sierra Nevada . Some of the pioneers resorted to cannibalism to survive .
The journey west usually took between four and six months , but the Donner Party was slowed by following a new route called Hastings Cutoff , which crossed Utah 's Wasatch Mountains and Great Salt Lake Desert . The rugged terrain and difficulties encountered while traveling along the Humboldt River in present @-@ day Nevada resulted in the loss of many cattle and wagons and splits within the group .
By the beginning of November 1846 , the settlers had reached the Sierra Nevada where they became trapped by an early , heavy snowfall near Truckee ( now Donner ) Lake , high in the mountains . Their food supplies ran extremely low and , in mid @-@ December , some of the group set out on foot to obtain help . Rescuers from California attempted to reach the settlers , but the first relief party did not arrive until the middle of February 1847 , almost four months after the wagon train became trapped . Of the 87 members of the party , 48 survived to reach California , many of them having eaten the dead for survival .
Historians have described the episode as one of the most bizarre and spectacular tragedies in Californian history and western @-@ US migration .
= = Background = =
During the 1840s , the United States saw a dramatic increase in pioneers , people who left their homes in the east to settle in Oregon and California . Some , such as Patrick Breen , saw California as a place where they would be free to live in a fully Catholic culture , but many were inspired by the idea of Manifest Destiny , a philosophy which asserted that the land between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans belonged to Americans and they should settle it . Most wagon trains followed the Oregon Trail route from Independence , Missouri to the Continental Divide , traveling at about 15 miles ( 24 km ) a day on a journey that usually took between four and six months . The trail generally followed rivers to South Pass , a mountain pass in Wyoming , which was relatively easy for wagons to negotiate . From there , wagon trains had a choice of routes to their destination .
Lansford W. Hastings , an early immigrant , went to California in 1842 and saw the promise of the undeveloped country . To encourage settlers , he published The Emigrants ' Guide to Oregon and California . He described a direct route across the Great Basin which would bring emigrants through the Wasatch Mountains and across the Great Salt Lake Desert . Hastings had not traveled any part of his proposed shortcut until early 1846 on a trip from California to Fort Bridger . The fort was a scant supply station run by Jim Bridger and his partner Pierre Louis Vasquez in Blacks Fork , Wyoming . Hastings stayed at the fort to persuade travelers to turn south on his route . As of 1846 , Hastings was the second of two men documented to have crossed the southern part of the Great Salt Lake Desert and neither had been accompanied by wagons .
The most difficult part of the journey to California was the last 100 miles ( 160 km ) across the Sierra Nevada . This mountain range contains 500 distinct peaks over 12 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) high , and because of their height and proximity to the Pacific Ocean they receive more snow than most other ranges in North America . The eastern side of the range is also extremely steep . After leaving Missouri to cross the vast wilderness to Oregon or California , timing was crucial to ensure that wagon trains would not be bogged down by mud created by spring rains , nor by massive snowdrifts in the mountains from September onwards , and also that their horses and oxen would have enough spring grass to eat .
= = Families = =
In the spring of 1846 , almost 500 wagons headed west from Independence . At the rear of the train , a group of nine wagons containing 32 members of the Reed and Donner families and their employees left on May 12 . George Donner , born in North Carolina , had gradually moved west to Kentucky , Indiana , and Illinois , with a one @-@ year sojourn to Texas . In early 1846 , he was about 60 years old . With him were his 44 @-@ year @-@ old wife Tamsen and their three daughters Frances ( 6 ) , Georgia ( 4 ) , and Eliza ( 3 ) , and George 's daughters from a previous marriage : Elitha ( 14 ) and Leanna ( 12 ) . George 's younger brother Jacob ( aged 56 ) also joined the party with his wife Elizabeth ( 45 ) , teenaged stepsons Solomon Hook ( 14 ) and William Hook ( 12 ) , and five children : George ( 9 ) , Mary ( 7 ) , Isaac ( 6 ) , Lewis ( 4 ) , and Samuel ( 1 ) . Also traveling with the Donner brothers were teamsters Hiram O. Miller ( 29 ) , Samuel Shoemaker ( 25 ) , Noah James ( 16 ) , Charles Burger ( 30 ) , John Denton ( 28 ) , and Augustus Spitzer ( 30 ) .
James F. Reed , a 45 @-@ year @-@ old native of present @-@ day Northern Ireland , had settled in Illinois in 1831 . He was accompanied by his wife Margret ( 32 ) , step @-@ daughter Virginia ( 13 ) , daughter Martha Jane " Patty " ( 8 ) , sons James and Thomas ( 5 and 3 ) , and Sarah Keyes , Margret Reed 's 70 @-@ year @-@ old mother , who was in the advanced stages of consumption and died on May 28 ; she was buried by the side of the trail . In addition to leaving financial worries behind , Reed hoped that California 's climate would help Margret , who had long suffered from ill health . The Reeds hired three men to drive the ox teams : Milford ( Milt ) Elliot ( 28 ) , James Smith ( 25 ) , and Walter Herron ( 25 ) . Baylis Williams ( 24 ) went along as handyman and his sister Eliza ( 25 ) as the family 's cook .
Within a week of leaving Independence , the Reeds and Donners joined up with a group of 50 wagons nominally led by William H. Russell . By June 16 , the company had traveled 450 miles ( 720 km ) , with 200 miles ( 320 km ) to go before Fort Laramie , Wyoming . They had been delayed by rain and a rising river , but Tamsen Donner wrote to a friend in Springfield , " indeed , if I do not experience something far worse than I have yet done , I shall say the trouble is all in getting started . " Young Virginia Reed recalled years later that , during the first part of the trip , she was " perfectly happy . "
Several other families joined the wagon train along the way . Levinah Murphy ( 37 ) , a widow from Tennessee , headed a family of thirteen . Her five youngest children were John Landrum ( 16 ) , Meriam ( " Mary , " 14 ) , Lemuel ( 12 ) , William ( 10 ) , and Simon ( 8 ) . Levinah 's two married daughters and their families also came along : Sarah Murphy Foster ( 19 ) , her husband William M. ( 30 ) and son Jeremiah George ( 1 ) ; Harriet Murphy Pike ( 18 ) , her husband William M. ( 32 ) and their daughters Naomi ( 3 ) and Catherine ( 1 ) . William Eddy ( 28 ) , a carriage maker from Illinois , brought his wife Eleanor ( 25 ) and their two children James ( 3 ) and Margaret ( 1 ) . The Breen family consisted of Patrick Breen ( 51 ) , a farmer from Iowa , his wife Margaret ( " Peggy " , 40 ) and seven children : John ( 14 ) , Edward ( 13 ) , Patrick , Jr . ( 9 ) , Simon ( 8 ) , James ( 5 ) , Peter ( 3 ) , and 11 @-@ month @-@ old Isabelle . Their neighbor traveled with them , 40 @-@ year @-@ old bachelor Patrick Dolan . German immigrant Lewis Keseberg ( 32 ) joined with his wife Elisabeth Philippine ( 22 ) and daughter Ada ( 2 ) ; son Lewis Jr. was born on the trail . Two young single men named Spitzer and Reinhardt traveled with another German couple , the Wolfingers , who also had hired driver " Dutch Charley " Burger . An older man named Hardkoop rode with them . Luke Halloran was passed from family to family , a young man who seemed to get sicker with tuberculosis every day , as none could spare the time or resources to care for him .
= = Hastings Cutoff = =
To promote his new route , Hastings sent riders to deliver letters to traveling emigrants . On July 12 , the Reeds and Donners were given one of these letters . Hastings warned the emigrants that they could expect opposition from the Mexican authorities in California , and advised them therefore to band together in large groups . He also claimed to have " worked out a new and better road to California " , and said that he would be waiting at Fort Bridger to guide the emigrants along the new cutoff .
J. Quinn Thornton traveled part of the way with Donner and Reed , and in his book From Oregon and California in 1848 declared Hastings the " Baron Munchausen of travelers in these countries " . Tamsen Donner , according to Thornton , was " gloomy , sad , and dispirited " at the thought of turning off the main trail on the advice of Hastings , whom she considered " a selfish adventurer " .
On July 20 at the Little Sandy River , most of the wagon train opted to follow the established trail via Fort Hall . A smaller group opted to head for Fort Bridger and needed a leader . Most of the younger males in the group were European immigrants and not considered to be ideal leaders . James Reed had been living in the U.S. for a considerable time , was older , and had military experience , but his autocratic attitude had rubbed many in the party the wrong way , and they saw him as aristocratic , imperious , and ostentatious . By comparison , the mature , experienced , American @-@ born Donner 's peaceful and charitable nature made him the group 's first choice . The members of the party were comfortably well off by contemporaneous standards . Although they are called pioneers , all but a few lacked specific skills and experience for traveling through mountains and arid land , and had little knowledge about how to deal with Native Americans .
Journalist Edwin Bryant reached Blacks Fork a week ahead of the Donner Party . He saw the first part of the trail , and was concerned that it would be difficult for the wagons in the Donner group , especially with so many women and children . He returned to Blacks Fork to leave letters warning several members of the group not to take the shortcut . By the time the Donner Party reached Blacks Fork on July 27 , Hastings had already left , leading the forty wagons of the Harlan @-@ Young group . Jim Bridger 's trading post would fare substantially better if people used the Hastings Cutoff , and he told the party that the shortcut was a smooth trip , devoid of rugged country and hostile Native Americans , and would therefore shorten their journey by 350 miles ( 560 km ) . Water would be easy to find along the way , although a couple of days crossing a 30 – 40 @-@ mile ( 48 – 64 km ) dry lake bed would be necessary .
Reed was very impressed with this information , and advocated for the Hastings Cutoff . None of the party received Bryant 's letters warning them to avoid Hastings ' route at all costs ; in his diary account , Bryant states his conviction that Bridger deliberately concealed the letters , a view shared by Reed in his later testimony .
On July 31 , 1846 , the party left Blacks Fork after four days of rest and wagon repairs , eleven days behind the leading Harlan @-@ Young group . Donner hired a replacement driver , and the company was joined by the McCutcheon family , consisting of 30 @-@ year @-@ old William , his 24 @-@ year @-@ old wife Amanda , two @-@ year @-@ old daughter Harriet , and a 16 @-@ year @-@ old named Jean Baptiste Trudeau from New Mexico , who claimed to have knowledge of the Native Americans and terrain on the way to California .
= = = Wasatch Mountains = = =
The party turned south to follow the Hastings Cutoff . Within days , they found the terrain to be much more difficult than described , and the drivers were forced to lock the wheels of their wagons to prevent them from rolling down steep inclines . Several years of migrant traffic on the main Oregon Trail had left an easy and obvious path , whereas the Cutoff was more difficult to find . Hastings wrote directions and left letters stuck to trees . On August 6 , the party found a letter from Hastings advising them to stop until he could show them an alternative route to that taken by the Harlan @-@ Young Party . Reed , Charles Stanton , and William Pike rode ahead to get Hastings . They encountered exceedingly difficult canyons where boulders had to be moved and walls cut off precariously to a river below , a route likely to break wagons . Hastings had offered in his letter to guide the Donner Party around the more difficult areas , but he rode back only part way , indicating the general direction to follow .
Stanton and Pike stopped to rest , and Reed returned alone to the group , arriving four days after the party 's departure . Without the guide they had been promised , the group had to decide whether to turn back and rejoin the traditional trail , follow the tracks left by the Harlan @-@ Young Party through the difficult terrain of Weber Canyon , or forge their own trail in the direction that Hastings had recommended . At Reed 's urging , the group chose the new Hastings route . Their progress slowed to about a mile and a half ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) a day , and all the able @-@ bodied men were required to clear brush , fell trees , and heave rocks to make room for the wagons .
As the Donner Party made its way across the Wasatch Mountains , they were caught up by the Graves family , who had set off to find them . The Graves family consisted of 57 @-@ year @-@ old Franklin Graves , his 47 @-@ year @-@ old wife Elizabeth , their children Mary ( 20 ) , William ( 18 ) , Eleanor ( 15 ) , Lovina ( 13 ) , Nancy ( 9 ) , Jonathan ( 7 ) , Franklin , Jr . ( 5 ) , Elizabeth ( 1 ) , and married daughter Sarah ( 22 ) , plus son @-@ in @-@ law Jay Fosdick ( 23 ) , and a 25 @-@ year @-@ old teamster named John Snyder , traveling together in three wagons . Their arrival brought the Donner Party to 87 members in 60 – 80 wagons . The Graves family had been part of the last group to leave Missouri , confirming that the Donner Party was at the back of the year 's western exodus .
It was August 20 by the time that they reached a point in the mountains where they could look down and see the Great Salt Lake . It took almost another two weeks to travel out of the Wasatch Mountains . The men began to argue , and doubts were expressed about the wisdom of those who had chosen this route , in particular James Reed . Food and supplies began to run out for some of the less affluent families . Stanton and Pike had ridden out with Reed but had become lost on their way back ; by the time that the party found them , they were a day away from eating their horses .
= = = Great Salt Lake Desert = = =
Luke Halloran died of tuberculosis on August 25 . A few days later , the party came across a torn and tattered letter from Hastings . The pieces indicated that there were two days and nights of difficult travel ahead without grass or water . The party rested their oxen and prepared for the trip . After 36 hours they set off to traverse a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 300 m ) mountain that lay in their path . From its peak , they saw ahead of them a dry , barren plain , perfectly flat and covered with white salt , larger than the one which they had just crossed , and " one of the most inhospitable places on earth " according to Rarick . Their oxen were already fatigued and their water was nearly gone .
The party pressed onward on August 30 , having no alternative . In the heat of the day , the moisture underneath the salt crust rose to the surface and turned the soil to a gummy mass . The wheels of their wagons sank into it , in some cases up to the hubs . The days were blisteringly hot and the nights frigid . Several of the group saw visions of lakes and wagon trains , and believed that they had finally overtaken Hastings . After three days , the water was gone , and some of the party removed their oxen from the wagons to press ahead to find more . Some of the animals were so weakened they were left yoked to the wagons and abandoned . Nine of Reed 's ten oxen broke free , crazed with thirst , and bolted off into the desert . Many other families ' cattle and horses had also gone missing . The rigors of the journey resulted in irreparable damage to some of the wagons , but no human lives had been lost . Instead of the promised two days journey over 40 miles , the journey across the 80 miles of Great Salt Lake Desert had taken six .
None of the party had any remaining faith in the Hastings Cutoff as they recovered at the springs on the other side of the desert . They spent several days trying to recover cattle , retrieve the wagons left in the desert , and transfer their food and supplies to other wagons . Reed 's family incurred the heaviest losses , and Reed became more assertive , asking all the families to submit an inventory of their goods and food to him . He suggested that two men should go to Sutter 's Fort in California ; he had heard that John Sutter was exceedingly generous to wayward pioneers , and could assist them with extra provisions . Charles Stanton and William McCutchen volunteered to undertake the dangerous trip . The remaining serviceable wagons were pulled by mongrel teams of cows , oxen , and mules . It was the middle of September , and two young men who went in search of missing oxen reported that another 40 @-@ mile ( 64 km ) long stretch of desert lay ahead .
Their cattle and oxen were now exhausted and lean , but the Donner Party crossed the next stretch of desert relatively unscathed , and the journey seemed to get easier , particularly through the valley next to the Ruby Mountains . Despite their near hatred of Hastings , they had no choice but to follow his tracks , which were weeks old . On September 26 , two months after embarking on the cutoff , the Donner Party rejoined the traditional trail along a stream that became known as the Humboldt River . The shortcut had probably delayed them by a month .
= = Rejoining the Trail = =
= = = Reed banished = = =
Along the Humboldt , the group met Paiute Native Americans , who joined them for a couple of days but stole or shot several oxen and horses . By now , it was well into October , and the Donner families split off to make better time . Two wagons in the remaining group became tangled , and John Snyder angrily beat the ox of Reed 's hired teamster Milt Elliott . When Reed intervened , Snyder turned the whip on him . Reed retaliated by fatally plunging a knife under Snyder 's collarbone .
That evening , the witnesses gathered to discuss what was to be done . United States laws were not applicable west of the Continental Divide ( in what was then Mexican territory ) and wagon trains often dispensed their own justice . But George Donner , the party 's leader , was a full day ahead of the main wagon train with his family . Snyder had been seen to hit James Reed , and some claimed that he had also hit Margret Reed , but Snyder had been popular and Reed was not . Keseberg suggested that Reed should be hanged , but an eventual compromise allowed Reed to leave the camp without his family , who were to be taken care of by the others . Reed departed alone the next morning , unarmed , but his daughter Virginia rode ahead and secretly provided him with a rifle and food .
= = = Disintegration = = =
The trials that the Donner Party had so far endured resulted in splintered groups , each looking out for themselves and distrustful of the others . Grass was becoming scarce , and the animals were steadily weakening . To relieve the load of the animals , everyone was expected to walk . Keseberg ejected Hardkoop from his wagon , telling the elderly man that he had to walk or die . A few days later , Hardkoop sat next to a stream , his feet so swollen that they split open , and he was not seen again . William Eddy pleaded with the others to find Hardkoop , but they all refused , swearing that they would waste no more resources on a man who was almost 70 years old .
Meanwhile , Reed caught up with the Donners and went on with one of his teamsters , Walter Herron . The two shared a horse , and they were able to cover 25 – 40 miles ( 40 – 64 km ) per day . The rest of the party rejoined the Donners , but their bad luck continued . Native Americans chased away all of Graves ' horses , and another wagon was left behind . With grass in short supply , the cattle spread out more , which allowed the Paiutes to steal 18 more during one evening ; and several mornings later , the Paiutes shot another 21 . So far , the company had lost nearly 100 oxen and cattle , and their rations were almost completely depleted . One more stretch of desert lay ahead . The Eddys ' oxen had been killed by Native Americans and they were forced to abandon their wagon . The family had eaten all their stores , but the other families refused to assist their children . The Eddys were forced to walk , carrying their children and miserable with thirst . Margret Reed and her children were also now without a wagon . But the desert soon came to an end , and the party found the Truckee River in beautiful lush country .
They had little time to rest , and the company pressed on to cross the mountains before the snows came . Stanton found the company ( one of the two @-@ man party who had left a month earlier to seek assistance in California ) , and he brought mules , food , and two Miwok Native Americans named Luis and Salvador . He also brought news that Reed and Herron , although haggard and starving , had succeeded in reaching Sutter 's Fort in California . By this point , according to Rarick , " To the bedraggled , half @-@ starved members of the Donner Party , it must have seemed that the worst of their problems had passed . They had already endured more than many emigrants ever did . "
= = Snowbound = =
= = = Donner Pass = = =
Faced with one last push over mountains that were described as much worse than the Wasatch , the ragtag company had to decide whether to forge ahead or rest their cattle . It was October 20 and they had been told that the pass would not be snowed in until the middle of November . William Pike was killed when a gun being loaded by William Foster was discharged negligently , an event that seemed to make the decision for them ; family by family , they resumed their journey , first the Breens , then Kesebergs , Stanton with the Reeds , Graveses , and Murphys . The Donners waited and traveled last . After a few miles of rough terrain , an axle broke on one of the Donners ' wagons . Jacob and George went into the woods to fashion a replacement . George Donner sliced his hand open while chiseling the wood , but it seemed a superficial wound .
Snow began to fall . The Breens made it up the " massive , nearly vertical slope " 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) to Truckee Lake , 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from the summit , and camped near a cabin that had been built two years earlier by another group of pioneers . The Eddys and Kesebergs joined the Breens , attempting to make it over the pass , but they found 5 – 10 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 0 m ) drifts of snow , and were unable to find the trail . They turned back for Truckee Lake and , within a day , all the families were camped there except for the Donners , who were 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) below them — half a day 's journey . Over the next few days , several more attempts were made to breach the pass with their wagons and animals , but all efforts failed .
= = = Winter camp = = =
Sixty members and associates of the Breen , Graves , Reed , Murphy , Keseberg , and Eddy families set up for the winter at Truckee Lake . Three widely separated cabins of pine logs served as their homes , with dirt floors and poorly constructed flat roofs that leaked when it rained . The Breens occupied one cabin , the Eddys and Murphys another , and Reeds and Graveses the third . Keseberg built a lean @-@ to for his family against the side of the Breen cabin . The families used canvas or oxhide to patch the faulty roofs . The cabins had no windows or doors , only large holes to allow entry . Of the 60 at Truckee Lake , 19 were men over 18 , 12 were women , and 29 were children , 6 of whom were toddlers or younger . Farther down the trail , close to Alder Creek , the Donner families hastily constructed tents to house 21 people , including Mrs. Wolfinger , her child , and the Donners ' drivers : 6 men , 3 women , and 12 children in all . It began to snow again on the evening of November 4 — the beginning of a storm that lasted 8 days .
By the time the party made camp , very little food remained from the supplies that Stanton had brought back from Sutter 's Fort . The oxen began to die and their carcasses were frozen and stacked . Truckee Lake was not yet frozen , but the pioneers were unfamiliar with catching lake trout . Eddy , the most experienced hunter , killed a bear , but had little luck after that . The Reed and Eddy families had lost almost everything and Margret Reed promised to pay double when they got to California for the use of three oxen from the Graves and Breen families . Graves charged Eddy $ 25 — normally the cost of two healthy oxen — for the carcass of an ox that had starved to death .
Desperation grew in camp and some reasoned that individuals might succeed in navigating the pass where the wagons could not . On November 12 , the storm abated and a small party tried to reach the summit on foot , but found the trek through the soft , deep powder too difficult , and returned that same evening . Over the next week , two more attempts were made by other small parties , but both quickly failed . On November 21 , a large party of about 22 persons made an attempt and successfully reached the peak . The party traveled about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) west of the summit , but this trip too was aborted , and they returned to the lake on November 23 .
Patrick Breen began keeping a diary on November 20 . He primarily concerned himself with the weather , marking the storms and how much snow had fallen , but gradually began to include references to God and religion in his entries . Life at Truckee Lake was miserable . The cabins were cramped and filthy , and it snowed so much that people were unable to go outdoors for days . Diets soon consisted of oxhide , strips of which were boiled to make a " disagreeable " glue @-@ like jelly . Ox and horse bones were boiled repeatedly to make soup , and they became so brittle that they would crumble upon chewing . Sometimes they were softened by being charred and eaten . Bit by bit , the Murphy children picked apart the oxhide rug that lay in front of their fireplace , roasted it in the fire , and ate it . After the departure of the snowshoe party , two @-@ thirds of the emigrants at Truckee Lake were children . Mrs. Graves was in charge of eight , and Levinah Murphy and Eleanor Eddy together took care of nine . Emigrants caught and ate mice that strayed into their cabins . Many of the people at Truckee Lake were soon weakened and spent most of their time in bed . Occasionally one would be able to make the full @-@ day trek to see the Donners . News came that Jacob Donner and three hired men had died . One of them , Joseph Reinhardt , confessed on his deathbed that he had murdered Wolfinger . George Donner 's hand had become infected , which left four men to work at the Donner camp .
Margret Reed had managed to save enough food for a Christmas pot of soup , to the delight of her children , but by January they were facing starvation and considered eating the oxhides that served as their roof . Margret Reed , Virginia , Milt Elliott , and the servant girl Eliza Williams attempted to walk out , reasoning that it would be better to try to bring food back than sit and watch the children starve . They were gone for four days in the snow before they had to turn back . Their cabin was now uninhabitable ; the oxhide @-@ roof served as their food supply , and the family moved in with the Breens . The servants went to live with other families . One day , the Graveses came by to collect on the debt owed by the Reeds and took the oxhides , all that the family had to eat .
= = = " The Forlorn Hope " = = =
The mountain party at Truckee Lake began to fail . Spitzer died , then Baylis Williams ( a driver for the Reeds ) , more from malnutrition than starvation . Franklin Graves fashioned 14 pairs of snowshoes out of oxbows and hide . A party of 17 men , women , and children set out on foot in an attempt to cross the mountain pass . As evidence of how grim their choices were , four of the men were fathers , and three of the women mothers who gave their young children to other women . They packed lightly , taking what had become six days ' rations , a rifle , a blanket each , a hatchet , and some pistols , hoping to make their way to Bear Valley . Historian Charles McGlashan later called this snowshoe party the " Forlorn Hope " . Two of those without snowshoes , Charles Burger and 10 @-@ year @-@ old William Murphy , turned back early on . Other members of the party fashioned a pair of snowshoes for Lemuel on the first evening from one of the packsaddles that they were carrying .
The snowshoes proved to be awkward but effective on the arduous climb . The members of the party were neither well @-@ nourished nor accustomed to camping in snow 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) deep and , by the third day , most were snowblind . On the sixth day , Eddy discovered that his wife had hidden a half @-@ pound of bear meat in his pack . The group set out again the morning of December 21 ; Stanton had been straggling for several days , and he remained behind , saying that he would follow shortly . His remains were found in that location the following year .
The group became lost and confused . After two more days without food , Patrick Dolan proposed that one of them should volunteer to die in order to feed the others . Some suggested a duel , while another account describes an attempt to create a lottery to choose a member to sacrifice . Eddy suggested that they keep moving until someone simply fell , but a blizzard forced the group to halt . Antonio the animal handler was the first to die ; Franklin Graves was the next casualty .
As the blizzard progressed , Patrick Dolan began to rant deliriously , stripped off his clothes , and ran into the woods . He returned shortly afterwards and died a few hours later . Not long after , possibly because 12 @-@ year @-@ old Lemuel Murphy was near death , some of the group began to eat flesh from Dolan 's body . Lemuel 's sister tried to feed some to her brother , but he died shortly afterwards . Eddy , Salvador , and Luis refused to eat . The next morning , the group stripped the muscle and organs from the bodies of Antonio , Dolan , Graves , and Murphy and dried it to store for the days ahead , taking care to ensure that nobody would have to eat his or her relatives .
After three days ' rest , they set off again , searching for the trail . Eddy eventually succumbed to his hunger and ate human flesh , but that was soon gone . They began to take apart their snowshoes to eat the oxhide webbing and discussed killing Luis and Salvador for food , before Eddy warned the two men and they quietly left . Jay Fosdick died during the night , leaving only seven members of the party . Eddy and Mary Graves left to hunt , but when they returned with deer meat , Fosdick 's body had already been cut apart for food . After several more days — 25 since they had left Truckee Lake — they came across Salvador and Luis , who had not eaten for about nine days and were close to death . William Foster shot the pair , believing that the flesh of the Native Americans was the group 's last hope of avoiding imminent death from starvation .
On January 12 , the group stumbled into a Miwok camp looking so deteriorated that the Native Americans initially fled . The Miwoks gave them what they had to eat : acorns , grass , and pine nuts . After a few days , Eddy continued on with the help of a Miwok to a ranch in a small farming community at the edge of the Sacramento Valley . A hurriedly assembled rescue party found the other six survivors on January 17 . Their journey from Truckee Lake had taken 33 days .
= = Rescue = =
= = = Reed attempts a rescue = = =
James Reed made it out of the Sierra Nevada to Rancho Johnson in late October . He was safe and recovering at Sutter 's Fort , but each day he became more concerned for the fate of his family and friends . He pleaded with Colonel John C. Frémont to gather a team of men to cross the pass and help the company , in return for which Reed promised that he would join Frémont 's forces and fight in the Mexican @-@ American War . Reed was joined by McCutchen , who had been unable to return with Stanton , as well as some members of the Harlan @-@ Young party . The Harlan @-@ Young wagon train had arrived at Sutter 's Fort on October 8 , the last to make it over the Sierra Nevada that season . The party of roughly 30 horses and a dozen men carried food supplies , and expected to find the Donner Party on the western side of the mountain , along the Bear River below the steep approach to Emigrant Gap , perhaps starving but alive . When they arrived in the river valley , they found only a pioneer couple , immigrants who had been separated from their company and were near starvation .
Two guides deserted Reed and McCutchen with some of their horses , but they pressed on farther up the valley to Yuba Bottoms , walking the last mile on foot . Reed and McCutchen stood looking up at Emigrant Gap , only 12 miles ( 19 km ) from the top , blocked by snow , possibly on the same day that the Breens attempted to lead one last effort to crest the pass from the east . Despondent , they turned back to Sutter 's Fort .
= = = First relief = = =
Much of the military in California were engaged in the Mexican @-@ American War , and with them the able @-@ bodied men . For example , Colonel Frémont 's personnel were occupied at that precise time in capturing Santa Barbara . Throughout the region , roads were blocked , communications compromised , and supplies unavailable . Only three men responded to a call for volunteers to rescue the Donner Party . Reed was laid over in San Jose until February because of regional uprisings and general confusion . He spent that time speaking with other pioneers and acquaintances , and the people of San Jose responded by creating a petition to appeal to the U.S. Navy to assist the people at Truckee Lake . Two local newspapers reported that members of the snowshoe party had resorted to cannibalism , which helped to foster sympathy for those who were still trapped . Residents of Yerba Buena , many recent emigrants , raised $ 1 @,@ 300 ( $ 33 @,@ 000 as of 2015 ) and organized relief efforts to build two camps to supply a rescue party for the refugees .
A rescue party including William Eddy started on February 4 from the Sacramento Valley . Rain and a swollen river forced several delays . Eddy stationed himself at Bear Valley , while the others made steady progress through the snow and storms to cross the pass to Truckee Lake , caching their food at stations along the way so that they did not have to carry it all . Three of the rescue party turned back , but seven forged on .
On February 18 , the seven @-@ man rescue party scaled Frémont Pass ( now Donner Pass ) ; as they neared where Eddy told them the cabins would be , they began to shout . Mrs. Murphy appeared from a hole in the snow , stared at them and asked , " Are you men from California , or do you come from heaven ? " The relief party doled out food in small portions , concerned that it might kill them if the emaciated immigrants overate . All the cabins were buried in snow . Sodden oxhide roofs had begun to rot and the smell was overpowering . Thirteen people at the camps were dead , and their bodies had been loosely buried in snow near the cabin roofs . Some of the emigrants seemed emotionally unstable . Three of the rescue party trekked to the Donners and brought back four gaunt children and three adults . Leanna Donner had particular difficulty walking up the steep incline from Alder Creek to Truckee Lake , later writing " such pain and misery as I endured that day is beyond description . " George Donner 's arm was so gangrenous that he could not move . Twenty @-@ three people were chosen to go with the rescue party , leaving twenty @-@ one in the cabins at Truckee Lake and twelve at Alder Creek .
The rescuers concealed the fate of the snowshoe party , informing the rescued immigrants only that they did not return because they were frostbitten . Patty and Tommy Reed were soon too weak to cross the snowdrifts , and no one was strong enough to carry them . Margret Reed faced the agonizing predicament of accompanying her two older children to Bear Valley and watching her two frailest be taken back to Truckee Lake without a parent . She made rescuer Aquilla Glover swear on his honor as a Mason that he would return for her children . Patty Reed told her , " Well , mother , if you never see me again , do the best you can . " Upon their return to the lake , the Breens flatly refused them entry to their cabin but , after Glover left more food , the children were grudgingly admitted . The rescue party was dismayed to find that the first cache station had been broken into by animals , leaving them without food for four days . After struggling on the walk over the pass , John Denton slipped into a coma and died . Ada Keseberg died soon afterwards ; her mother was inconsolable , refusing to let the child 's body go . After several days ' more travel through difficult country , the rescuers grew very concerned that the children would not survive . Some of them ate the buckskin fringe from one of the rescuer 's pants , and the shoelaces of another , to the relief party 's surprise . On their way down from the mountains , they met the next rescue party , which included James Reed . Upon hearing his voice , Margret sank into the snow , overwhelmed .
After these rescued emigrants made it safely into Bear Valley , William Hook , Jacob Donner 's stepson , broke into food stores and fatally gorged himself . The others continued on to Sutter 's Fort , where Virginia Reed wrote " I really thought I had stepped over into paradise " . She was amused to note that one of the young men asked her to marry him , although she was only 12 years old and recovering from starvation , but she turned him down .
= = = Second relief = = =
On March 1 , a second relief party arrived at Truckee Lake . These rescuers were mostly experienced mountaineers who accompanied the return of Reed and McCutchen . Reed was reunited with his daughter Patty and his weakened son Tommy . An inspection of the Breen cabin found its occupants relatively well , but the Murphy cabin , according to author George Stewart , " passed the limits of description and almost of imagination " . Levinah Murphy was caring for her eight @-@ year @-@ old son Simon and the two young children of William Eddy and Foster . She had deteriorated mentally and was nearly blind . The children were listless and had not been cleaned in days . Lewis Keseberg had moved into the cabin and could barely move due to an injured leg .
No one at Truckee Lake had died during the interim between the departure of the first relief party and the arrival of the second relief party . Patrick Breen documented a disturbing visit in the last week of February from Mrs. Murphy , who said that her family was considering eating Milt Elliott . Reed and McCutchen found Elliott 's mutilated body . The Alder Creek camp fared no better . The first two members of the relief party to reach it saw Trudeau carrying a human leg . When they made their presence known , he threw it into a hole in the snow that contained the mostly dismembered body of Jacob Donner . Inside the tent , Elizabeth Donner refused to eat , although her children were being nourished by the organs of their father . The rescuers discovered that three other bodies had already been consumed . In the other tent , Tamsen Donner was well , but George was very ill because the infection had reached his shoulder .
The second relief evacuated 17 emigrants from Truckee Lake , only three of whom were adults . Both the Breen and Graves families prepared to go . Only five people remained at Truckee Lake : Keseberg , Mrs. Murphy and her son Simon , and the young Eddy and Foster children . Tamsen Donner elected to stay with her ailing husband after Reed informed her that a third relief party would arrive soon . Mrs. Donner kept her daughters Eliza , Georgia , and Frances with her .
The walk back to Bear Valley was very slow ; at one point , Reed sent ahead two of the men to retrieve the first cache of food , expecting the third relief to come at any moment , a small party led by Selim E. Woodworth . A violent blizzard arose after they scaled the pass . Five @-@ year @-@ old Isaac Donner froze to death , and Reed nearly died . Mary Donner 's feet were badly burned because they were so frostbitten that she did not realize she was sleeping with them in the fire . When the storm passed , the Breen and Graves families were too apathetic and exhausted to get up and move , not having eaten for days . The relief party had no choice but to leave without them .
Three members of the relief party stayed , one at Truckee Lake and two at Alder Creek . When one , Nicholas Clark , went hunting , the other two , Charles Cady and Charles Stone , made plans to return to California . Tamsen Donner arranged for them to carry three of her children to California , perhaps for $ 500 cash , according to Stewart . Cady and Stone took the children to Truckee Lake but then left alone , overtaking Reed and the others within days . Several days later , Clark and Trudeau agreed to leave together . When they discovered the Donner girls at Truckee Lake , they returned to Alder Creek to inform Tamsen Donner .
William Foster and William Eddy , both survivors of the snowshoe party , started from Bear Valley to intercept Reed , taking with them a man named John Stark . After one day , they met Reed helping his children , all frostbitten and bleeding but alive . Desperate to rescue their own children , Foster and Eddy persuaded four men , with pleading and money , to return to Truckee Lake with them . Halfway there they found the crudely mutilated and eaten remains of two children and Mrs. Graves , with one @-@ year @-@ old Elizabeth Graves crying beside her mother 's body . Eleven survivors were huddled around a fire that had sunk into a pit . The relief party split , with Foster , Eddy , and two others headed toward Truckee Lake . Two rescuers , hoping to save the healthiest , each took a child and left . John Stark refused to leave the others . Stark picked up two children and all the provisions , and assisted the nine remaining Breens and Graveses to Bear Valley .
= = = Third relief = = =
Foster and Eddy finally arrived at Truckee Lake on March 14 , where they found their children dead . Keseberg told Eddy that he had eaten the remains of Eddy 's son , and Eddy swore to murder Keseberg if they ever met in California . George Donner and one of Jacob Donner 's children were still alive at Alder Creek . Tamsen Donner had just arrived at the Murphy cabin , and she could have walked out alone but chose to return to her husband , even though she was informed that no other relief party was likely to be coming soon . Foster and Eddy and the rest of the third relief left with four children , Trudeau , and Clark .
Two more relief parties were mustered to evacuate any adults who might still be alive . Both turned back before getting to Bear Valley , and no further attempts were made . On April 10 , almost a month since the third relief had left Truckee Lake , the alcalde near Sutter 's Fort organized a salvage party to recover what they could of the Donners ' belongings . The belongings would be sold , with part of the proceeds used to support the orphaned Donner children . The salvage party found the Alder Creek tents empty except for the body of George Donner , who had died only days earlier . On their way back to Truckee Lake , they found Lewis Keseberg alive . According to him , Mrs. Murphy had died a week after the departure of the third relief . Some weeks later , Tamsen Donner had arrived at his cabin on her way over the pass , soaked and visibly upset . Keseberg said that he put a blanket around her and told her to start out in the morning , but she died during the night .
The salvage party were suspicious of Keseberg 's story , and found a pot full of human flesh in the cabin along with George Donner 's pistols , jewelry , and $ 250 in gold . They threatened to lynch Keseberg , who confessed that he had cached $ 273 of the Donners ' money at Tamsen 's suggestion , so that it could one day benefit her children . On April 29 , 1847 , Keseberg was the last member of the Donner Party to arrive at Sutter 's Fort .
= = = Response = = =
News of the Donner Party 's fate was spread eastward by Samuel Brannan , an elder of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints and journalist , who ran into the salvage party as they came down from the pass with Keseberg . Accounts of the ordeal first reached New York City in July 1847 . Reporting on the event across the U.S. was heavily influenced by the national enthusiasm for westward migration . In some papers , news of the tragedy was buried in small paragraphs despite the contemporary tendency to sensationalize stories . Several newspapers , including those in California , wrote about the cannibalism in graphic exaggerated detail . In some print accounts , the members of the Donner Party were depicted as heroes , and California a paradise worthy of significant sacrifices .
Emigration to the west decreased over the following years , but it is likely that the drop in numbers was caused more by fears over the outcome of the ongoing Mexican @-@ American War than by the cautionary tale of the Donner Party . In 1846 , an estimated 1 @,@ 500 people migrated to California . In 1847 , the number dropped to 450 and to 400 in 1848 . The California Gold Rush spurred a sharp increase , however , and 25 @,@ 000 people went west in 1849 . Most of the overland migration followed the Carson River , but a few forty @-@ niners used the same route as the Donner Party and recorded descriptions about the site .
In late June 1847 , members of the Mormon Battalion under General Steven Kearny buried the human remains , and partially burned two of the cabins . The few who ventured over the pass in the next few years found bones , other artifacts , and the cabin used by the Reed and Graves families . In 1891 , a cache of money was found buried by the lake . It had probably been stored by Mrs. Graves , who hastily hid it when she left with the second relief so that she could return for it later .
Lansford Hastings received death threats . An emigrant who crossed before the Donner Party confronted Hastings about the difficulties they had encountered , reporting : " Of course he could say nothing but that he was very sorry , and that he meant well " .
= = = Survivors = = =
Of the 87 people who entered the Wasatch Mountains , 48 survived . Only the Reed and Breen families remained intact . The children of Jacob Donner , George Donner , and Franklin Graves were orphaned . William Eddy was alone and most of the Murphy family had died . Only three mules reached California ; the remaining animals perished . Most of the Donner Party members ' possessions were discarded .
A few of the widowed women remarried within months ; brides were scarce in California . The Reeds settled in San Jose and two of the Donner children lived with them . Reed fared well in the California Gold Rush and became prosperous . Virginia wrote an extensive letter to her cousin in Illinois about " our trubels getting to Callifornia " , with editorial oversight from her father . Journalist Edwin Bryant carried it back in June 1847 , and it was printed in its entirety in the Illinois Journal on December 16 , 1847 , with some editorial alterations .
Virginia converted to Catholicism in fulfillment of a promise which she had made to herself while observing Patrick Breen pray in his cabin . The Murphy survivors lived in Marysville . The Breens made their way to San Juan Bautista where they operated an inn and became the anonymous subjects of J. Ross Browne 's story about his severe discomfort upon learning that he was staying with alleged cannibals , printed in Harper 's Magazine in 1862 . Many of the survivors encountered similar reactions .
George and Tamsen Donner 's children were taken in by an older couple near Sutter 's Fort . Eliza was three years old during the winter of 1846 – 1847 , the youngest of the Donner children . She published an account of the Donner Party in 1911 , based on printed accounts and those of her sisters . The Breens ' youngest daughter Isabella was one year old during the winter of 1846 – 1847 , and was the last survivor of the Donner Party . She died in 1935 .
The Graves children lived varied lives . Mary Graves married early , but her first husband was murdered . She cooked his killer 's food while he was in prison to ensure that the condemned man did not starve before his hanging . One of Mary 's grandchildren noted that she was very serious ; Graves once said , " I wish I could cry but I cannot . If I could forget the tragedy , perhaps I would know how to cry again . " Mary 's brother William did not settle down for any significant time .
Nancy Graves was nine years old during the winter of 1846 – 1847 . She refused to acknowledge her involvement even when contacted by historians interested in recording the most accurate versions of the episode . Nancy reportedly was unable to recover from her role in the cannibalism of her brother and mother .
Eddy remarried and started a family in California . He attempted to follow through on his promise to murder Lewis Keseberg , but was dissuaded by James Reed and Edwin Bryant . A year later , Eddy recollected his experiences to J. Quinn Thornton , who wrote the earliest comprehensive documentation of the episode , also using Reed 's memories of his experiences . Eddy died in 1859 .
Keseberg brought a defamation suit against several members of the relief party who accused him of murdering Tamsen Donner . The court awarded him $ 1 in damages , but also made him pay court costs . An 1847 story printed in the California Star described Keseberg 's actions in ghoulish terms and his near @-@ lynching by the salvage party , reporting that he preferred eating human flesh over the cattle and horses that had become exposed in the spring thaw . Historian Charles McGlashan amassed enough material to indict Keseberg for the murder of Tamsen Donner , but after interviewing Keseberg he concluded that no murder occurred . Eliza Donner Houghton also believed Keseberg to be innocent .
As Keseberg grew older , he did not venture outside , for he had become a pariah and was often threatened . He told McGlashan , " I often think that the Almighty has singled me out , among all the men on the face of the earth , in order to see how much hardship , suffering , and misery a human being can bear ! "
= = Legacy = =
The Donner Party episode was insignificant in comparison with the hundreds of thousands of emigrants to Oregon and California , but it has served as the basis for numerous works of history , fiction , drama , poetry , and film . The attention directed at the Donner Party is made possible by reliable accounts of what occurred , according to Stewart , and the fact that " the cannibalism , although it might almost be called a minor episode , has become in the popular mind the chief fact to be remembered about the Donner Party . For a taboo always allures with as great strength as it repels " . The appeal is that the events focused on families and ordinary people , according to Johnson , writing in 1996 , instead of on rare individuals , and that the events are " a dreadful irony that hopes of prosperity , health , and a new life in California 's fertile valleys led many only to misery , hunger , and death on her stony threshold " .
The site of the cabins became a tourist attraction as early as 1854 . In the 1880s , Charles McGlashan began promoting the idea of a monument to mark the site of the Donner Party episode . He helped to acquire the land for a monument and , in June 1918 , the statue of a pioneer family was placed on the spot where the Breen @-@ Keseberg cabin was thought to have been , dedicated to the Donner Party . It was made a California Historical Landmark in 1934 .
The State of California created the Donner Memorial State Park in 1927 . It originally consisted of 11 acres ( 0 @.@ 045 km2 ) surrounding the monument . Twenty years later , the site of the Murphy cabin was purchased and added to the park . In 1962 , the Emigrant Trail Museum was added to tell the history of westward migration into California . The Murphy cabin and Donner monument were established as a National Historic Landmark in 1963 . A large rock served as the back end of the fireplace of the Murphy cabin , and a bronze plaque has been affixed to the rock listing the members of the Donner Party , indicating who survived and who did not . The State of California justifies memorializing the site because the episode was " an isolated and tragic incident of American history that has been transformed into a major folk epic " . As of 2003 , the park is estimated to receive 200 @,@ 000 visitors a year .
= = = Mortality = = =
Most historians count 87 members of the party , although Stephen McCurdy in the Western Journal of Medicine includes Sarah Keyes — Margret Reed 's mother — and Luis and Salvador , bringing the number to 90 . Five people had already died before the party reached Truckee Lake : one from tuberculosis ( Halloran ) , three from trauma ( Snyder , Wolfinger , and Pike ) , and one from exposure ( Hardkoop ) . A further 34 died between December 1846 and April 1847 : twenty @-@ five males and nine females . Several historians and other authorities have studied the mortalities to determine what factors may affect survival in nutritionally deprived individuals . Of the fifteen members of the snowshoe party , eight of the ten men who set out died ( Stanton , Dolan , Graves , Murphy , Antonio , Fosdick , Luis , and Salvador ) , but all five of the women survived . A professor at the University of Washington stated that the Donner Party episode is a " case study of demographically @-@ mediated natural selection in action " .
The deaths at Truckee Lake , Alder Creek , and in the snowshoe party were probably caused by a combination of extended malnutrition , overwork , and exposure to cold . Several members became more susceptible to infection due to starvation , such as George Donner , but the three most significant factors in survival were age , sex , and the size of family group that each member traveled with . The survivors were on average 7 @.@ 5 years younger than those who died ; children aged between 6 and 14 had a much higher survival rate than infants and children under the age of 6 , of whom 62 @.@ 5 percent died , including the son born to the Kesebergs on the trail , or adults over the age of 35 . No adults over the age of 49 survived . Deaths were " extremely high " among males aged between 20 and 39 , at more than 66 percent . Men have been found to metabolize protein faster , and women do not require as high a caloric intake . Women also store more body fat , which delays the effects of physical degradation caused by starvation and overwork . Men also tend to take on more dangerous tasks and , in this particular instance , the men were required to clear brush and engage in heavy labor before reaching Truckee Lake , adding to their physical debilitation . Those traveling with family members had a higher survival rate than bachelor males , possibly because family members more readily shared food with each other .
= = = Claims of cannibalism = = =
Although some survivors disputed the accounts of cannibalism , Charles McGlashan , who corresponded with many of the survivors over a 40 @-@ year period , documented many recollections that it occurred . Some correspondents were not forthcoming , approaching their participation with shame , but others eventually spoke about it freely . McGlashan in his 1879 book History of the Donner Party declined to include some of the more morbid details – such as the suffering of the children and infants before death , or how Mrs. Murphy , according to Georgia Donner , gave up , lay down on her bed and faced the wall when the last of the children left in the third relief . He also neglected to mention any cannibalism at Alder Creek . The same year McGlashan 's book was published , Georgia Donner wrote to him to clarify some points , saying that human flesh was prepared for people in both tents at Alder Creek , but to her recollection ( she was four years old during the winter of 1846 – 1847 ) it was given only to the youngest children : " Father was crying and did not look at us the entire time , and we little ones felt we could not help it . There was nothing else . " She also remembered that Elizabeth Donner , Jacob 's wife , announced one morning that she had cooked the arm of Samuel Shoemaker , a 25 @-@ year @-@ old teamster . Eliza Donner Houghton , in her 1911 account of the ordeal , did not mention any cannibalism at Alder Creek .
Archaeological findings at the Alder Creek camp proved inconclusive for evidence of cannibalism . None of the bones tested at the Alder Creek cooking hearth could be conclusively identified as human . According to Rarick , only cooked bones would be preserved , and it is unlikely that the Donner Party members would have needed to cook human bones .
Eliza Farnham 's 1856 account of the Donner Party was based largely on an interview with Margaret Breen . Her version details the ordeals of the Graves and Breen families after James Reed and the second relief left them in the snow pit . According to Farnham , seven @-@ year @-@ old Mary Donner suggested to the others that they should eat Isaac Donner , Franklin Graves , Jr . , and Elizabeth Graves , because the Donners had already begun eating the others at Alder Creek , including Mary 's father Jacob . Margaret Breen insisted that she and her family did not cannibalize the dead , but Kristin Johnson , Ethan Rarick , and Joseph King – whose account is sympathetic to the Breen family – do not consider it credible that the Breens , who had been without food for nine days , would have been able to survive without eating human flesh . King suggests Farnham included this into her account independently of Margaret Breen .
According to an account published by H. A. Wise in 1847 , Jean Baptiste Trudeau boasted of his own heroism , but also spoke in lurid detail of eating Jacob Donner , and claimed he had eaten a baby raw . Many years later , Trudeau met Eliza Donner Houghton and denied cannibalizing anyone , which he reiterated in an interview with a St. Louis newspaper in 1891 , when he was 60 years old . Houghton and the other Donner children were fond of Trudeau , and he of them , in spite of their circumstances and the fact that he eventually left Tamsen Donner alone . Author George Stewart considers Trudeau 's accounting to Wise more accurate than what he told Houghton in 1884 , and asserted that he deserted the Donners . Kristin Johnson , on the other hand , attributes Trudeau 's interview with Wise to be a result of " common adolescent desires to be the center of attention and to shock one 's elders " ; when older , he reconsidered his story , so as not to upset Houghton . Historians Joseph King and Jack Steed call Stewart 's characterization of Trudeau 's actions as desertion " extravagant moralism " , particularly because all members of the party were forced to make difficult choices . Ethan Rarick echoed this by writing , " ... more than the gleaming heroism or sullied villainy , the Donner Party is a story of hard decisions that were neither heroic nor villainous " .
|
= Passenger pigeon =
The passenger pigeon or wild pigeon ( Ectopistes migratorius ) is an extinct species of pigeon that was endemic to North America . Its common name is derived from the French word passager , meaning " passing by " , due to the migratory habits of the species . The scientific name also refers to its migratory characteristics . The morphologically similar mourning dove ( Zenaida macroura ) was long thought to be its closest relative , and the two were at times confused , but genetic analysis has shown that the genus Patagioenas is more closely related to it than the Zenaida doves .
The passenger pigeon was sexually dimorphic in size and coloration . The male was 39 to 41 cm ( 15 @.@ 4 to 16 @.@ 1 in ) in length , mainly gray on the upperparts , lighter on the underparts , with iridescent bronze feathers on the neck , and black spots on the wings . The female was 38 to 40 cm ( 15 @.@ 0 to 15 @.@ 7 in ) , and was duller and browner than the male overall . The juvenile was similar to the female , but without iridescence . It mainly inhabited the deciduous forests of eastern North America and was also recorded elsewhere , but bred primarily around the Great Lakes . The pigeon migrated in enormous flocks , constantly searching for food , shelter , and breeding grounds , and was once the most abundant bird in North America , numbering around 3 to 5 billion at the height of its population . It was not always as abundant , and the population size fluctuated rapidly over time . A very fast flyer , it could reach 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) . The bird fed mainly on mast , as well as fruits and invertebrates . It practiced communal roosting and communal breeding , and its extreme gregariousness may be linked with searching for food and predator satiation .
Passenger pigeons were hunted by Native Americans , but hunting intensified after the arrival of Europeans , particularly in the 19th century . Pigeon meat was commercialized as cheap food , resulting in hunting on a massive scale for many decades . There were several other factors contributing to the decline and subsequent extinction of the species , including shrinking of the large breeding populations necessary for preservation of the species and widespread deforestation which destroyed its habitat . A slow decline between about 1800 and 1870 was followed by a rapid decline between 1870 and 1890 . The last confirmed wild bird is thought to have been shot in 1900 . The last captive birds were divided in three groups around the turn of the 20th century , some of which were photographed alive . Martha , thought to be the last passenger pigeon , died on September 1 , 1914 , at the Cincinnati Zoo . Eradication of the species has been described as one of the greatest and most senseless extinctions induced by humans .
= = Taxonomy = =
Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus coined the binomial name Columba macroura for both the mourning dove and the passenger pigeon in the 1758 edition of his work Systema Naturae ( the starting point of biological nomenclature ) , wherein he appears to have considered the two identical . This composite description cited accounts of these birds in two pre @-@ Linnean books . One of these was Mark Catesby 's description of the passenger pigeon , which was published in his 1731 – 1743 work Natural History of Carolina , Florida and the Bahama Islands , which referred to this bird as Palumbus migratorius , and was accompanied by the earliest published illustration of the species . Catesby 's description was combined with the 1743 description of the mourning dove by George Edwards , who used the name C. macroura for that bird . There is nothing to suggest Linnaeus ever saw specimens of these birds himself , and his description is thought to be fully derivative of these earlier accounts and their illustrations . In his 1766 edition of Systema Naturae , Linnaeus dropped the name C. macroura , and instead used the name C. migratoria for the passenger pigeon , and C. carolinensis for the mourning dove . In the same edition , Linnaeus also named C. canadensis , based on Turtur canadensis , as used by Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760 . Brisson 's description was later shown to have been based on a female passenger pigeon .
In 1827 William John Swainson moved the passenger pigeon from the genus Columba to the new monotypic genus Ectopistes , due in part to the length of the wings and the wedge shape of the tail . In 1906 Outram Bangs suggested that because Linnaeus had wholly copied Catesby 's text when coining C. macroura , this name should apply to the passenger pigeon , as E. macroura . In 1918 Harry C. Oberholser suggested that C. canadensis should take precedence over C. migratoria ( as E. canadensis ) , as it appeared on an earlier page in Linnaeus ' book . In 1952 Francis Hemming proposed that the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature ( ICZN ) secure the specific name macroura for the mourning dove , and the name migratorius for the passenger pigeon , since this was the intended use by the authors on whose work Linnaeus had based his description . This was accepted by the ICZN , which used its plenary powers to designate the species for the respective names in 1955 .
= = = Evolution = = =
The passenger pigeon was a member of the pigeon and dove family , Columbidae . Its closest living relatives were long thought to be the Zenaida doves , based on morphological grounds , particularly the physically similar mourning dove ( now Z. macroura ) . It was even suggested that the mourning dove belonged to the genus Ectopistes and was listed as E. carolinensis by some authors , including Thomas Mayo Brewer . The passenger pigeon was supposedly descended from Zenaida pigeons that had adapted to the woodlands on the plains of central North America . The passenger pigeon differed from the species in the genus Zenaida in being larger , lacking a facial stripe , being sexually dimorphic , and having iridescent neck feathers and a smaller clutch . In a 2002 study by American geneticist Beth Shapiro et al . , museum specimens of the passenger pigeon were included in an ancient DNA analysis for the first time ( in a paper focusing mainly on the dodo ) , and it was found to be the sister taxon of the cuckoo @-@ dove genus Macropygia . The Zenaida doves were instead shown to be related to the quail @-@ doves of the genus Geotrygon and the Leptotila doves .
A more extensive 2010 study instead showed that the passenger pigeon was most closely related to the New World Patagioenas pigeons , including the band @-@ tailed pigeon ( P. fasciata ) of western North America , which are related to the Southeast Asian species in the genera Turacoena , Macropygia and Reinwardtoena . This clade is also related to the Columba and Streptopelia doves of the Old World ( collectively termed the " typical pigeons and doves " ) . The authors of the study suggested that the ancestors of the passenger pigeon may have colonized the New World from South East Asia by flying across the Pacific Ocean , or perhaps across Beringia in the north . In a 2012 study , the nuclear DNA of the passenger pigeon was analyzed for the first time , and its relationship with the Patagioenas pigeons was confirmed . In contrast to the 2010 study , these authors suggested that their results could indicate that the ancestors of the passenger pigeon and its Old World relatives may have originated in the Neotropical region of the New World .
The cladogram below follows the 2012 DNA study showing the position of the passenger pigeon among its closest relatives :
DNA in old museum specimens is often degraded and fragmentary , and passenger pigeon specimens have been used in various studies to discover improved methods of analyzing and assembling genomes from such material . DNA samples are often taken from the toe pads of bird skins in museums , as this can be done without causing significant damage to valuable specimens . The passenger pigeon had no known subspecies . Hybridization occurred between the passenger pigeon and the Barbary dove ( Streptopelia risoria ) in the aviary of Charles Otis Whitman ( who owned many of the last captive birds around the turn of the 20th century , and kept them with other pigeon species ) but the offspring were infertile .
= = = Etymology = = =
The genus name , Ectopistes , translates as " moving about " or " wandering " , while the specific name , migratorius , indicates its migratory habits . The full binomial can thus be translated as " migratory wanderer " . The English common name " passenger pigeon " derives from the French word passager , which means " to pass by " in a fleeting manner . While the pigeon was extant , the name passenger pigeon was used interchangeably with " wild pigeon " . The bird also gained some less @-@ frequently used names , including blue pigeon , merne rouck pigeon , wandering long @-@ tailed dove , and wood pigeon . In the 18th century , the passenger pigeon was known as tourte in New France ( in modern Canada ) , but to the French in Europe it was known as tourtre . In modern French , the bird is known as tourte voyageuse or pigeon migrateur , among other names . In the Native American Algonquian languages , the pigeon was called amimi by the Lenape , omiimii by the Ojibwe , and mimia by the Kaskaskia Illinois . Other names in indigenous American languages include ori 'te in Mohawk , and putchee nashoba , or " lost dove " , in Choctaw . The Seneca people called the pigeon jahgowa , meaning " big bread " , as it was a source of food for their tribes . Chief Simon Pokagon of the Potawatomi stated that his people called the pigeon O @-@ me @-@ me @-@ wog , and that the Europeans did not adopt native names for the bird , as it reminded them of their domesticated pigeons , instead calling them " wild " pigeons , as they called the native peoples " wild " men .
= = Description = =
The passenger pigeon was sexually dimorphic in size and coloration . It weighed between 260 and 340 g ( 9 and 12 oz ) . The adult male was about 39 to 41 cm ( 15 @.@ 4 to 16 @.@ 1 in ) in length . It had a bluish @-@ gray head , nape , and hindneck . On the sides of the neck and the upper mantle were iridescent display feathers that have variously been described as being a bright bronze , violet or golden @-@ green , depending on the angle of the light . The upper back and wings were a pale or slate gray tinged with olive brown , that turned into grayish @-@ brown on the lower wings . The lower back and rump were a dark blue @-@ gray that became grayish @-@ brown on the upper tail @-@ covert feathers . The greater and median wing @-@ covert feathers were pale gray , with a small number of irregular black spots near the end . The primary and secondary feathers of the wing were a blackish @-@ brown with a narrow white edge on the outer side of the secondaries . The two central tail feathers were brownish gray , and the rest were white . The tail pattern was distinctive as it had white outer edges with blackish spots that were prominently displayed in flight . The lower throat and breast were richly pinkish @-@ rufous , grading into a paler pink further down , and into white on the abdomen and undertail covert feathers . The undertail coverts also had a few black spots . The bill was black , while the feet and legs were a bright coral red . It had a carmine @-@ red iris surrounded by a narrow purplish @-@ red eye @-@ ring . The wing of the male measured 196 – 215 mm ( 7 @.@ 7 – 8 @.@ 5 in ) , the tail 175 – 210 mm ( 6 @.@ 9 – 8 @.@ 3 in ) , the bill 15 – 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 – 0 @.@ 71 in ) , and the tarsus was 26 – 28 mm ( 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 1 in ) .
The adult female passenger pigeon was slightly smaller than the male at 38 to 40 cm ( 15 @.@ 0 to 15 @.@ 7 in ) in length . It was duller than the male overall , and was a grayish @-@ brown on the forehead , crown , and nape down to the scapulars , and the feathers on the sides of the neck had less iridescence than those of the male . The lower throat and breast were a buff @-@ gray that developed into white on the belly and undertail @-@ coverts . It was browner on the upperparts and paler buff brown and less rufous on the underparts than the male . The wings , back , and tail were similar in appearance to those of the male except that the outer edges of the primary feathers were edged in buff or rufous buff . The wings had more spotting than those of the male . The tail was shorter than that of the male , and the legs and feet were a paler red . The iris was orange red , with a grayish blue , naked orbital ring . The wing of the female was 180 – 210 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 – 8 @.@ 3 in ) , the tail 150 – 200 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) , the bill 15 – 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 – 0 @.@ 71 in ) , and the tarsus was 25 – 28 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 – 1 @.@ 10 in ) .
The juvenile passenger pigeon was similar in plumage to the adult female , but lacked the spotting on the wings , and was a darker brownish @-@ gray on the head , neck , and breast . The feathers on the wings had pale gray fringes ( also described as white tips ) , giving it a scaled look . The secondaries were brownish @-@ black with pale edges , and the tertial feathers had a rufous wash . The primaries were also edged with a rufous @-@ brown color . The neck feathers had no iridescence . The legs and feet were dull red , and the iris was brownish , and surrounded by a narrow carmine ring . The plumage of the sexes was similar during their first year .
Of the hundreds of surviving skins , only one appears to be aberrant in color — an adult female from the collection of Walter Rothschild , Natural History Museum at Tring . It is a washed brown on the upper parts , wing covert , secondary feathers , and tail ( where it would otherwise have been gray ) , and white on the primary feathers and underparts . The normally black spots are brown , and it is pale gray on the head , lower back , and upper @-@ tail covert feathers , yet the iridescence is unaffected . The brown mutation is a result of a reduction in eumelanin , due to incomplete synthesis ( oxidation ) of this pigment . This sex @-@ linked mutation is common in female wild birds , but it is thought the white feathers of this specimen are instead the result of bleaching due to exposure to sunlight .
The passenger pigeon was physically adapted for speed , endurance , and maneuverability in flight , and has been described as having a streamlined version of the typical pigeon shape , such as that of the generalized rock dove ( Columba livia ) . The wings were very long and pointed , and measured 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) from the wing @-@ chord to the primary feathers , and 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) to the secondaries . The tail , which accounted for much of its overall length , was long and wedge @-@ shaped ( or graduated ) , with two central feathers longer than the rest . The body was slender and narrow , and the head and neck were small .
The internal anatomy of the passenger pigeon has rarely been described . Robert W. Shufeldt found little to differentiate the bird 's osteology from that of other pigeons when examining a male skeleton in 1914 , but Julian P. Hume noted several distinct features in a more detailed 2015 description . The pigeon had particularly large breast muscles that indicate powerful flight ( musculus pectoralis major for downstroke and the smaller musculus supracoracoideus for upstroke ) . The coracoid bone ( which connects the scapula , furcula , and sternum ) was large relative to the size of the bird , 33 @.@ 4 mm ( 1 @.@ 31 in ) , with straighter shafts and more robust articular ends than in other pigeons . The furcula had a sharper V @-@ shape and was more robust , with expanded articular ends . The scapula was long , straight , and robust , and its distal end was enlarged . The sternum was very large and robust compared to that of other pigeons ; its keel was 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) deep . The overlapping uncinate processes , which stiffen the ribcage , were very well developed . The wing bones ( humerus , radius , ulna , carpometacarpus ) were short but robust compared to other pigeons . The leg bones were similar to those of other pigeons .
= = = Vocalizations = = =
The noise produced by flocks of passenger pigeons was described as deafening , audible for miles away , and the bird 's voice as loud , harsh , and unmusical . It was also described by some as clucks , twittering and cooing , and as a series of low notes instead of actual song . The birds apparently made croaking noises when building nests , and bell @-@ like sounds when mating . During feeding , some individuals would give alarm calls when facing a threat , and the rest of the flock would join the sound while taking off .
In 1911 American behavioral scientist Wallace Craig published an account of the gestures and sounds of this species as a series of descriptions and musical notations , based on observation of C. O. Whitman 's captive passenger pigeons in 1903 . Craig compiled these records to assist in identifying potential survivors in the wild ( as the physically similar mourning doves could otherwise be mistaken for passenger pigeons ) , while noting this " meager information " was likely all that would be left on the subject . According to Craig , one call was a simple harsh " keck " that could be given twice in succession with a pause in between . This was said to be used to attract the attention of another pigeon . Another call was a more frequent and variable scolding . This sound was described as " kee @-@ kee @-@ kee @-@ kee " or " tete ! tete ! tete ! " , and was used to call either to its mate or towards other creatures it considered to be enemies . One variant of this call , described as a long , drawn @-@ out " tweet " , could be used to call down a flock of passenger pigeons passing overhead , which would then land in a nearby tree . " Keeho " was a soft cooing that , while followed by louder " keck " notes or scolding , was directed at the bird 's mate . A nesting passenger pigeon would also give off a stream of at least eight mixed notes that were both high and low in tone and ended with " keeho " . Overall , female passenger pigeons were quieter and called infrequently . Craig suggested that the loud , strident voice and " degenerated " musicality was the result of living in populous colonies where only the loudest sounds could be heard .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The passenger pigeon was found across most of North America east of the Rocky Mountains , from the Great Plains to the Atlantic coast in the east , to the south of Canada in the north , and the north of Mississippi in the southern United States , coinciding with its primary habitat , the eastern deciduous forests . Within this range , it constantly migrated in search of food and shelter . It is unclear if the birds favored particular trees and terrain , but they were possibly not restricted to one type , as long as their numbers could be supported . It originally bred from the southern parts of eastern and central Canada south to eastern Kansas , Oklahoma , Mississippi , and Georgia in the United States , but the primary breeding range was in southern Ontario and the Great Lakes states south through states north of the Appalachian Mountains . Though the western forests were ecologically similar to those in the east , these were occupied by band @-@ tailed pigeons , which may have kept out the passenger pigeons through competitive exclusion .
The passenger pigeon wintered from Arkansas , Tennessee , and North Carolina south to Texas , the Gulf Coast , and northern Florida , though flocks occasionally wintered as far north as southern Pennsylvania and Connecticut . It preferred to winter in large swamps , particularly those with alder trees ; if swamps were not available , forested areas , particularly with pine trees , were favored roosting sites . There were also sightings of passenger pigeons outside of its normal range , including in several Western states , Bermuda , Cuba , and Mexico , particularly during severe winters . It has been suggested that some of these extralimital records may be considered as such more on the basis of the paucity of observers in what was then unsettled country than on the actual extent of wandering passenger pigeons , and that the bird may have appeared anywhere on the continent except for the far west . There were also records of stragglers in Scotland , Ireland , and France , although these birds may have been escaped captives , or the records simply incorrect .
More than 130 passenger pigeon fossils have been found scattered across 25 states and provinces of the United States , including in the La Brea Tar Pits of California . These records date as far back as 100 @,@ 000 years ago in the Pleistocene era , during which the pigeon 's range extended to several western states that were not a part of its modern range . The abundance of the species in these regions and during this time is unknown .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
The passenger pigeon was nomadic , constantly migrating in search of food , shelter , or nesting grounds . In his 1831 Ornithological Biography , American naturalist and artist John James Audubon described a migration he observed in 1813 as follows :
I dismounted , seated myself on an eminence , and began to mark with my pencil , making a dot for every flock that passed . In a short time finding the task which I had undertaken impracticable , as the birds poured in in countless multitudes , I rose and , counting the dots then put down , found that 163 had been made in twenty @-@ one minutes . I traveled on , and still met more the farther I proceeded . The air was literally filled with Pigeons ; the light of noon @-@ day was obscured as by an eclipse ; the dung fell in spots , not unlike melting flakes of snow , and the continued buzz of wings had a tendency to lull my senses to repose ... I cannot describe to you the extreme beauty of their aerial evolutions , when a hawk chanced to press upon the rear of the flock . At once , like a torrent , and with a noise like thunder , they rushed into a compact mass , pressing upon each other towards the center . In these almost solid masses , they darted forward in undulating and angular lines , descended and swept close over the earth with inconceivable velocity , mounted perpendicularly so as to resemble a vast column , and , when high , were seen wheeling and twisting within their continued lines , which then resembled the coils of a gigantic serpent ... Before sunset I reached Louisville , distant from Hardensburgh fifty @-@ five miles . The Pigeons were still passing in undiminished numbers and continued to do so for three days in succession .
These flocks were frequently described as being so dense that they blackened the sky and as having no sign of subdivisions . The flocks ranged from only 1 @.@ 0 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) above the ground in windy conditions to as high as 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) . These migrating flocks were typically in narrow columns that twisted and undulated , and they were reported as being in nearly every conceivable shape . A skilled flyer , the passenger pigeon is estimated to have averaged 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) during migration . It flew with quick , repeated flaps that increased the bird 's velocity the closer the wings got to the body . It was equally as adept and quick at flying through a forest as through open space . A flock was also adept at following the lead of the pigeon in front of it , and flocks swerved together to avoid a predator . When landing , the pigeon flapped its wings repeatedly before raising them at the moment of landing . The pigeon was awkward when on the ground , and moved around with jerky , alert steps .
The passenger pigeon was one of the most social of all land birds . Estimated to have numbered three to five billion at the height of its population , it may have been the most numerous bird on Earth ; researcher Arlie W. Schorger believed that it accounted for between 25 and 40 percent of the total land bird population in the United States . The passenger pigeon 's historic population is roughly the equivalent of the number of birds that overwinter in the United States every year in the early 21st century . One flock in 1866 in southern Ontario was described as being 1 @.@ 5 km ( 1 mi ) wide and 500 km ( 300 mi ) long , took 14 hours to pass , and held in excess of 3 @.@ 5 billion birds . Such a number would likely represent a large fraction of the entire population at the time , or perhaps all of it . Most estimations of numbers were based on single migrating colonies , and it is unknown how many of these existed at a given time . American writer Christopher Cokinos has suggested that if the birds flew single file , they would have stretched around the earth 22 times . A 2014 genetic study ( based on coalescent theory ) suggested that the passenger pigeon population fluctuated rapidly across the last million years , due to their dependence on availability of mast ( which itself fluctuates ) . The study suggested the bird was not always abundant , mainly persisting at around 1 / 10 @,@ 000 the amount of the several billions estimated in the 1800s . Some early accounts also suggest that the appearance of flocks in great numbers was an irregular occurrence .
A communally roosting species , the passenger pigeon chose roosting sites that could provide shelter and enough food to sustain their large numbers for an indefinite period . The time spent at one roosting site may have depended on the extent of human persecution , weather conditions , or other , unknown factors . Roosts ranged in size and extent , from a few acres to 260 km2 ( 100 square miles ) or greater . Some roosting areas would be reused for subsequent years , others would only be used once . The passenger pigeon roosted in such numbers that even thick branches on a tree would break under the strain . The birds frequently piled on top of each other 's backs to roost . They rested in a slumped position that hid their feet . They slept with their bills concealed by the feathers in the middle of the breast while holding their tail at a 45 @-@ degree angle . Dung could accumulate under a roosting site to a depth of over 0 @.@ 3 m ( 1 @.@ 0 ft ) .
If the pigeon became alert , it would often stretch out its head and neck in line with its body and tail , then nod its head in a circular pattern . When aggravated by another pigeon , it raised it wings threateningly , but passenger pigeons almost never actually fought . The pigeon bathed in shallow water , and afterwards lay on each side in turn and raised the opposite wing to dry it . The passenger pigeon drank at least once a day , typically at dawn , by fully inserting its bill into lakes , small ponds , and streams . Pigeons were seen perching on top of each other to access water , and if necessary , the species could alight on open water to drink . One of the primary causes of natural mortality was the weather , and every spring many individuals froze to death after migrating north too early . In captivity , a passenger pigeon was capable of living at least 15 years ; Martha , the last known living passenger pigeon , was at least 17 and possibly as old as 29 when she died . It is undocumented how long a wild pigeon lived .
The bird is believed to have played a significant ecological role in the composition of presettlement forests of eastern North America . For instance , while the passenger pigeon was extant , forests were dominated by white oaks . This species germinated in the fall , therefore producing acorns during the spring to be devoured and spread by the pigeons . The absence of the passenger pigeon 's seed dispersal may have led to the modern dominance of red oaks . At roosting sites , few plants grew for years after the pigeons left . Also , the immense amount of dung present at these sites increased both the frequency and intensity of forest fires . With the large numbers in the flocks , the excrement they produced was enough to destroy surface @-@ level vegetation , and along with the breaking of treelimbs under their collective weight , the passenger pigeons could do significant damage to forests . Due to these influences , some ecologists have considered the passenger pigeon a keystone species . The American chestnut trees that provided much of the mast on which the passenger pigeon fed was itself almost driven to extinction by an imported Asian fungus ( chestnut blight ) around 1905 . As many as thirty billion trees are thought to have died as a result in the following decades , but this did not affect the passenger pigeon , which was already extinct in the wild at the time .
= = = Diet = = =
Beeches and oaks produced the mast needed to support nesting and roosting flocks . The passenger pigeon changed its diet depending on the season . In the fall , winter , and spring , it mainly ate beechnuts , acorns , and chestnuts . During the summer , berries and softer fruits , such as blueberries , grapes , cherries , mulberries , pokeberries , and bunchberry , became the main objects of its consumption . It also ate worms , caterpillars , snails , and other invertebrates , particularly while breeding . Additionally , the passenger pigeon took advantage of cultivated grains , particularly buckwheat , when it found them . The species was especially fond of salt , which it ingested either from brackish springs or salty soil . Mast occurs in large quantities in different places at different times , and rarely in consecutive years , which is one of the reasons why the large flocks were constantly on the move . As mast is produced during autumn , there would have to be a large amount of it left by the summer , when the young were reared . It is unknown how they located this fluctuating food source , but their eyesight and flight powers aided them in surveying large areas for places that could provide food enough for a temporary stay .
The passenger pigeon foraged in flocks of tens or hundreds of thousands of individuals that overturned leaves , dirt , and snow with their bills in a frantic search for large quantities of food . One observer described the motion of such a flock in search of mast as having a rolling appearance , as birds in the back of the flock flew overhead to the front of the flock , dropping leaves and grass in flight . The flocks had wide leading edges to better scan the landscape for food sources . When nuts on a tree loosened from their caps , a pigeon would land on a branch and , while flapping vigorously to stay balanced , grab the nut , pull it loose from its cap , and swallow it whole . Collectively , a foraging flock was capable of removing nearly all fruits and nuts from their path . Birds in the back of the flock flew to the front in order to pick over unsearched ground ; however , birds never ventured far from the flock and hurried back if they became isolated . It is believed that the pigeons used social cues in order to identify abundant sources of food , and a flock of pigeons that saw others feeding on the ground often joined them . During the day , the birds left the roosting forest to forage on more open land . They regularly flew 100 to 130 km ( 62 to 81 mi ) away from their roost daily in search of food , and some pigeons reportedly traveled as far as 160 km ( 99 mi ) , leaving the roosting area early and returning at night .
The passenger pigeon had a very elastic mouth and throat , allowing for increased capacity , and a joint in the lower bill enabled it to swallow acorns whole . The bird was also able to store large quantities of food in its crop , which was capable of expanding to about the size of an orange , causing the neck to bulge . This allowed a bird to quickly grab any food it discovered in the highly competitive flock . The crop was described as being capable of holding at least 17 acorns or 28 beechnuts , 11 grains of corn , 100 maple seeds , plus other material ; it was estimated that a passenger pigeon needed to eat about 61 cm3 ( 3 @.@ 7 in3 ) of food a day in order to survive . If shot , a pigeon with a crop full of nuts would fall to the ground with a sound described as like the rattle of a bag of marbles . After feeding , the pigeons perched on branches and digested the food stored in their crop overnight . The pigeon could eat and digest 0 @.@ 100 kg ( 0 @.@ 22 lb ) of acorns per day . At the historic population of three billion passenger pigeons , this amounted to 210 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 L ( 55 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gal ) of food a day . The pigeon was also able to regurgitate food from its crop when more desirable food became available .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Other than finding roosting sites , the migrations of the passenger pigeon were connected with finding places appropriate for this communally breeding bird to nest and raise its young . It is not certain how many times a year the birds bred ; once seems most likely , but some accounts suggest more . The nesting period lasted around four to six weeks . The flock arrived at a nesting ground around March in southern latitudes , and some time later in more northern areas . The pigeon had no site fidelity , often choosing to nest in a different location each year . The formation of a nesting colony did not necessarily take place until several months after the pigeons arrived on their breeding grounds , typically during late March , April , or May .
The colonies , which were known as " cities " , were immense , ranging from 49 ha ( 120 acres ) to thousands of hectares in size , and were often long and narrow in shape ( L @-@ shaped ) , with a few areas untouched for unknown reasons . Due to the topography , they were rarely continuous . Since no accurate data were recorded , it is not possible to give more than estimates on the size and population of these nesting areas , but most accounts mention colonies containing millions of birds . The largest nesting area ever recorded was in central Wisconsin in 1871 ; it was reported as covering 2 @,@ 200 km2 ( 850 sq mi ) , with the number of birds nesting there estimated to be around 136 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . As well as these " cities " , there were regular reports of much smaller flocks or even individual pairs setting up a nesting site . The birds do not seem to have formed as vast breeding colonies at the periphery of their range .
Courtship took place at the nesting colony . Unlike other pigeons , courtship took place on a branch or perch . The male , with a flourish of the wings , made a " keck " call while near a female . The male then gripped tightly to the branch and vigorously flapped his wings up and down . When the male was close to the female , he then pressed against her on the perch with his head held high and pointing at her . If receptive , the female pressed back against the male . When ready to mate , the pair preened each other . This was followed by the birds billing , in which the female inserted its bill into and clasped the male 's bill , shook for a second , and separated quickly while standing next to each other . The male then scrambled onto the female 's back and copulated , which was then followed by soft clucking and occasionally more preening . John James Audubon described the courtship of the passenger pigeon as follows :
Thither the countless myriads resort , and prepare to fulfill one of the great laws of nature . At this period the note of the Pigeon is a soft coo @-@ coo @-@ coo @-@ coo much shorter than that of the domestic species . The common notes resemble the monosyllables kee @-@ kee @-@ kee @-@ kee , the first being the loudest , the others gradually diminishing In power . The male assumes a pompous demeanor , and follows the female , whether on the ground or on the branches , with spread tail and drooping wings , which it rubs against the part over which it is moving . The body is elevated , the throat swells , the eyes sparkle . He continues his notes , and now and then rises on the wing , and flies a few yards to approach the fugitive and timorous female . Like the domestic Pigeon and other species , they caress each other by billing , in which action , the bill of the one is introduced transversely into that of the other , and both parties alternately disgorge the contents of their crop by repeated efforts .
After observing captive birds , Wallace Craig found that this species did less charging and strutting than other pigeons ( as it was awkward on the ground ) , and thought it probable that no food was transferred during their brief billing ( unlike in other pigeons ) , and he therefore considered Audubon 's description partially based on analogy with other pigeons as well as imagination .
Nests were built immediately after pair formation and took two to four days to construct ; this process was highly synchronized within a colony . The female chose the nesting site by sitting on it and flicking its wings . The male then carefully selected nesting materials , typically twigs , and handed them to the female over her back . The male then went in search of more nesting material while the female constructed the nest beneath herself . Nests were built between 2 @.@ 0 and 20 @.@ 1 m ( 6 @.@ 6 and 65 @.@ 9 ft ) above the ground , though typically above 4 @.@ 0 m ( 13 @.@ 1 ft ) , and were made of 70 to 110 twigs woven together to create a loose , shallow bowl through which the egg could easily be seen . This bowl was then typically lined with finer twigs . The nests were about 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) wide , 6 @.@ 1 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) high , and 1 @.@ 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 75 in ) deep . Though the nest has been described as crude and flimsy compared to those of many other birds , remains of nests could be found at sites where nesting had taken place several years prior . Nearly every tree capable of supporting nests had them , often more than 50 per tree ; one hemlock was recorded as holding 317 nests . The nests were placed on strong branches close to the tree trunks . Some accounts state that ground under the nesting area looked as if it had been swept clean , due to all the twigs being collected at the same time , yet this area would also have been covered in dung . As both sexes took care of the nest , the pairs were monogamous for the duration of the nesting .
Generally , the eggs were laid during the first two weeks of April across the pigeon 's range . Each female laid its egg immediately or almost immediately after the nest was completed ; sometimes the pigeon was forced to lay it on the ground if the nest was not complete . The normal clutch size appears to have been a single egg , but there is some uncertainty about this , as two have also been reported from the same nests . Occasionally , a second female laid its egg in another female 's nest , resulting in two eggs being present . The egg was white and oval shaped and averaged 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) by 34 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) in size . If the egg was lost , it was possible for the pigeon to lay a replacement egg within a week . A whole colony was known to re @-@ nest after a snowstorm forced them to abandon their original colony . The egg was incubated by both parents for 12 to 14 days , with the male incubating it from midmorning to midafternoon and the female incubating it for the rest of the time .
Upon hatching , the nestling ( or squab ) was blind and sparsely covered with yellow , hairlike down . The nestling developed quickly and within 14 days weighed as much as its parents . During this brooding period both parents took care of the nestling , with the male attending in the middle of the day and the female at other times . The nestlings were fed crop milk ( a substance similar to curd , produced in the crops of the parent birds ) exclusively for the first days after hatching . Adult food was gradually introduced after three to six days . After 13 to 15 days , the parents fed the nestling for a last time and then abandoned it , leaving the nesting area en masse . The nestling begged in the nest for a day or two , before climbing from the nest and fluttering to the ground , whereafter it moved around , avoided obstacles , and begged for food from nearby adults . It was another three or four days before it fledged . The entire nesting cycle lasted about 30 days . It is unknown whether colonies re @-@ nested after a successful nesting . The passenger pigeon sexually matured during its first year and bred the following spring .
= = = Predators and parasites = = =
Nesting colonies attracted large numbers of predators , including American minks , American weasels , American martens , and raccoons that preyed on eggs and nestlings , birds of prey , such as owls , hawks , and eagles that preyed on nestlings and adults , and wolves , foxes , bobcats , bears , and mountain lions that preyed on injured adults and fallen nestlings . Hawks of the genus Accipiter and falcons pursued and preyed upon pigeons in flight , which in turn executed complex aerial maneuvers to avoid them ; Cooper 's hawk was known as the " great pigeon hawk " due to its successes , and these hawks allegedly followed migrating passenger pigeons . While many predators were drawn to the flocks , individual pigeons were largely protected due to the sheer size of the flock , and overall little damage could be inflicted on the flock by predation . Despite the number of predators , nesting colonies were so large that they were estimated to have a 90 % success rate if not disturbed . After being abandoned and leaving the nest , the very fat juveniles were vulnerable to predators until they were able to fly . The sheer number of juveniles on the ground meant that only a small percentage of them were killed ; predator satiation may therefore be one of the reasons for the extremely social habits and communal breeding of the species .
Two parasites have been recorded on passenger pigeons . One species of phtilopterid louse , Columbicola extinctus , was originally thought to have lived on just passenger pigeons and to have become coextinct with them . This was proven inaccurate in 1999 when C. extinctus was rediscovered living on band @-@ tailed pigeons . This , and the fact that the related louse C. angustus is mainly found on cuckoo @-@ doves , further supports the relation between these pigeons , as the phylogeny of lice broadly mirrors that of their hosts . Another louse , Campanulotes defectus , was thought to have been unique to the passenger pigeon , but is now believed to have been a case of a contaminated specimen , as the species is considered to be the still @-@ extant Campanulotes flavus of Australia . There is no record of a wild pigeon dying of either disease or parasites .
= = Relationship with humans = =
The passenger pigeon played a religious role for some northern Native American tribes . The Wyandot people ( or Huron ) believed that every twelve years during the Feast of the Dead , the souls of the deceased changed into passenger pigeons , which were then hunted and eaten . Before hunting the juvenile pigeons , the Seneca people made an offering of wampum and brooches to the old passenger pigeons , these were placed in a small kettle or other receptacle by a smoky fire . The Ho @-@ Chunk people considered the passenger pigeon to be the bird of the chief , as they were served whenever the chieftain gave a feast . The Seneca people believed that a white pigeon was the chief of the passenger pigeon colony , and that a Council of Birds had decided that the pigeons had to give their bodies to the Seneca because they were the only birds that nested in colonies . The Seneca developed a pigeon dance as a way of showing their gratitude .
French explorer Jacques Cartier was the first European to report on passenger pigeons , during his voyage in 1534 . The bird was subsequently observed and noted by historical figures such as Samuel de Champlain and Cotton Mather . Most early accounts dwell on the vast number of pigeons , the resulting darkened skies , and the enormous amount of hunted birds ( 50 @,@ 000 birds were reportedly sold at a Boston market in 1771 ) . The early colonists thought that large flights of pigeons would be followed by ill fortune or sickness . When the pigeons wintered outside of their normal range , some believed that they would have " a sickly summer and autumn . " In the 18th and 19th centuries , various parts of the pigeon were thought to have medicinal properties . The blood was supposed to be good for eye disorders , the powdered stomach lining was used to treat dysentery , and the dung was used to treat a variety of ailments , including headaches , stomach pains , and lethargy . Though they did not last as long as the feathers of a goose , the feathers of the passenger pigeon were frequently used for bedding . Pigeon feather beds were so popular that for a time in Saint @-@ Jérôme , Quebec , every dowry included a bed and pillows made of pigeon feathers . In 1822 , one family in Chautauqua County , New York , killed 4 @,@ 000 pigeons in a day solely for this purpose .
The passenger pigeon was featured in the writings of many significant early naturalists , as well as accompanying illustrations . Mark Catesby 's 1731 illustration , the first published depiction of this bird , is somewhat crude , according to some later commentators . The original watercolor that the engraving is based on was bought by the British royal family in 1768 , along with the rest of Catesby 's watercolors . The naturalists Alexander Wilson and John James Audubon both witnessed large pigeon migrations first hand , and published detailed accounts wherein both attempted to deduce the total number of birds involved . The most famous and often reproduced depiction of the passenger pigeon is Audubon 's illustration ( handcolored aquatint ) in his book The Birds of America , published between 1827 and 1838 . Audubon 's image has been praised for its artistic qualities , but criticized for its supposed scientific inaccuracies . As Wallace Craig and R. W. Shufeldt ( among others ) pointed out , the birds are shown perched and billing one above the other , whereas they would instead have done this side by side , the male would be the one passing food to the female , and the male 's tail would not be spread . Craig and Shufeldt instead cited illustrations by American artist Louis Agassiz Fuertes and Japanese artist K. Hayashi as more accurate depictions of the bird . Illustrations of the passenger pigeon were often drawn after stuffed birds , and Charles R. Knight is the only " serious " artist known to have drawn the species from life . He did so on at least two occasions ; in 1903 he drew a bird possibly in one of the three aviaries with surviving birds , and some time before 1914 , he drew Martha , the last individual , in Cincinnati Zoo . The bird has been written about ( including in poems , songs , and fiction ) and illustrated by many notable writers and artists , and is depicted in art to this day , for example in Walton Ford 's 2002 painting Falling Bough , and National Medal of Arts winner John A. Ruthven 's 2014 mural in Cincinnati , which commemorates the 100th anniversary of Martha 's death . The passenger pigeon mural on the wall of a six @-@ story building in Cincinnati which can be seen in the 2014 documentary From Billions To None by David Mrazek and Joel Greenberg .
= = = Hunting = = =
The passenger pigeon was an important source of food for the people of North America . The indigenous peoples ate pigeons , and tribes near nesting colonies would sometimes move to live closer to them and eat the juveniles , killing them at night with long poles . Many Native Americans were careful not to disturb the adult pigeons , and instead ate only the juveniles as they were afraid that the adults might desert their nesting grounds ; in some tribes , disturbing the adult pigeons was considered a crime . Away from the nests , large nets were used to capture adult pigeons , sometimes up to 800 at a time . Low @-@ flying pigeons could be killed by throwing sticks or stones . At one site in Oklahoma , the pigeons leaving their roost every morning flew low enough that the Cherokee could throw clubs into their midst , which caused the lead pigeons to try to turn aside and in the process created a blockade that resulted in a large mass of flying , easily hit pigeons . Among the game birds , passenger pigeons were second only to the wild turkey ( Meleagris gallopavo ) in terms of importance for the Native Americans living in the southeastern United States . The bird 's fat was stored , often in large quantities , and used as butter . Archaeological evidence supports the idea that Native Americans ate the pigeons frequently prior to colonization .
After European colonization , the passenger pigeon was hunted more intensely and with more sophisticated methods than the more sustainable methods practiced by the natives . Yet it has also been suggested that the species was rare prior to 1492 , and that the subsequent increase in their numbers may be due to the decrease in the Native American population ( who , as well as hunting the birds , competed with them for mast ) caused by European immigration , and the supplementary food ( agricultural crops ) the immigrants provided . It was of particular value on the frontier , and some settlements counted on the pigeon to support their population . The flavor of the flesh of passenger pigeons varied depending on how they were prepared . In general , juveniles were thought to taste the best , followed by birds fattened in captivity and birds caught in September and October . It was common practice to fatten trapped pigeons before eating them or storing their bodies for winter . Dead pigeons were commonly stored by salting or pickling the bodies ; other times , only the breasts of the pigeons were kept , in which case they were typically smoked . In the early 19th century , commercial hunters began netting and shooting the birds to sell as food in city markets , and even as pig fodder . Once pigeon meat became popular , commercial hunting started on a prodigious scale .
Passenger pigeons were shot with such ease that many did not consider them to be a game bird , as an amateur hunter could easily bring down six with one shotgun blast ; a particularly good shot with both barrels of a shotgun at a roost could kill 61 birds . The birds were frequently shot either in flight during migration or immediately after , when they commonly perched in dead , exposed trees . Hunters only had to shoot toward the sky without aiming , and many pigeons would be brought down . The pigeons proved difficult to shoot head @-@ on , so hunters typically waited for the flocks to pass overhead before shooting them . Trenches were sometimes dug and filled with grain so that a hunter could shoot the pigeons along this trench . Hunters largely outnumbered trappers , and hunting passenger pigeons was a popular sport for young boys . In 1871 , a single seller of ammunition provided three tons of powder and 16 tons ( 32 @,@ 000 lb ) of shot during a nesting . In the latter half of the 19th century , thousands of passenger pigeons were captured for use in the sports shooting industry . The pigeons were used as living targets in shooting tournaments , such as " trap @-@ shooting " , the controlled release of birds from special traps . Competitions could also consist of people standing regularly spaced while trying to shoot down as many birds as possible in a passing flock . The pigeon was considered so numerous that 30 @,@ 000 birds had to be killed to claim the prize in one competition .
There were a wide variety of other methods used to capture and kill passenger pigeons . Nets were propped up to allow passenger pigeons entry , then closed by knocking loose the stick that supported the opening , trapping twenty or more pigeons inside . Tunnel nets were also used to great effect , and one particularly large net was capable of catching 3 @,@ 500 pigeons at a time . These nets were used by many farmers on their own property as well as by professional trappers . Food would be placed on the ground near the nets to attract the pigeons . Decoy or " Stool pigeons " ( sometimes blinded by having their eyelids sewn together ) were tied to a stool . When a flock of pigeons passed by , a chord would be pulled that made the stool pigeon flutter to the ground , making it seem as if it had found food , and the flock would be lured into the trap . Salt was also frequently used as bait , and many trappers set up near salt springs . At least one trapper used alcohol @-@ soaked grain as bait to intoxicate the birds and make them easier to kill . Another method of capture was to hunt at a nesting colony , particularly during the period of a few days after the adult pigeons abandoned their nestlings , but before the nestlings could fly . Some hunters used sticks to poke the nestlings out of the nest , while others shot the bottom of a nest with a blunt arrow to dislodge the pigeon . Others cut down a nesting tree in such a way that when it fell , it would also hit a second nesting tree and dislodge the pigeons within . In one case , 6 km2 ( 1 @,@ 500 acres ) of large trees were speedily cut down to get birds , and such methods were common . An extreme method , practiced only by particularly unscrupulous hunters , was to set fire to the base of a tree nested with pigeons ; the adults would flee and the juveniles would fall to the ground . Sulfur was sometimes burned beneath the nesting tree to suffocate the birds , which fell out of the tree in a weakened state .
By the mid @-@ 1800s , railroads had opened new opportunities for pigeon hunters . While previously it had proved too difficult to ship masses of pigeons to eastern cities , the access provided by the railroad permitted pigeon hunting to become commercialized . An extensive telegraph system was introduced in the 1860s , which improved communication across the United States , making it easier to spread information about the whereabouts of pigeon flocks . After being opened up to the railroads , the town of Plattsburg , New York is estimated to have shipped 1 @.@ 8 million pigeons to larger cities in 1851 alone at a price of 31 to 56 cents a dozen . By the late 1800s , the trade of passenger pigeons had become commercialized . Large commission houses employed trappers ( known as " pigeoners " ) to follow the flocks of pigeons year @-@ round . A single hunter is reported to have sent three million birds to eastern cities during his career . In 1874 , at least 600 people were employed as pigeon trappers , a number which grew to 1 @,@ 200 by 1881 . Pigeons were caught in such numbers that by 1876 , shipments of dead pigeons were unable to recoup the costs of the barrels and ice needed to ship them . The price of a barrel full of pigeons dropped to below fifty cents , due to overstocked markets . Passenger pigeons were instead kept alive so their meat would be fresh when the birds were killed , and sold once their market value had increased again . Thousands of birds were kept in large pens , though the bad conditions led many to die from lack of food and water , and by fretting ( gnawing ) themselves ; many rotted away before they could be sold .
Hunting of passenger pigeons was documented and depicted in contemporaneous newspapers , wherein various trapping methods and uses were featured . The most often reproduced of these illustrations was captioned " Winter sports in northern Louisiana : shooting wild pigeons " , and published in 1875 . Passenger pigeons were also seen as agricultural pests , since entire crops could be destroyed by feeding flocks . The bird was described as a " perfect scourge " by some farming communities , and hunters were employed to " wage warfare " on the birds to save grain , as shown in another newspaper illustration from 1867 captioned as " Shooting wild pigeons in Iowa " . When comparing these " pests " to the bison of the Great Plains , it is possible to infer that the valuable resource needed was not the species of animals but the agriculture which was consumed by said animal . The crops that were eaten were seen as marketable calories , proteins , and nutrients all grown for the wrong species .
= = = Decline and conservation attempts = = =
The notion that the species could be driven to extinction was alien to the early colonists , both because the number of birds did not appear to diminish , but also because the concept of extinction itself was yet to be defined . The bird seems to have been slowly pushed westwards since the arrival of Europeans , becoming scarce or absent in the east , though there were still millions of birds in the 1850s . The population must have been decreasing in numbers for many years , though this went unnoticed due to the apparent vast number of birds , which clouded their decline . In 1856 Bénédict Henry Révoil may have been one of the first writers to voice concern about the fate of the passenger pigeon , after witnessing a hunt in 1847 :
Everything leads to the belief that the pigeons , which cannot endure isolation and are forced to flee or to change their way of living according to the rate at which North America is populated by the European inflow , will simply end by disappearing from this continent , and , if the world does not end this before a century , I will wager ... that the amateur of ornithology will find no more wild pigeons , except those in the Museums of Natural History .
By the 1870s , the decrease in birds was noticeable , especially after the last large scale nestings and subsequent slaughters of millions of birds in 1874 and 1878 . By this time , large nestings only took place in the north , around the Great Lakes . The last large nesting was in Petoskey , Michigan , in 1878 ( following one in Pennsylvania a few days earlier ) , where 50 @,@ 000 birds were killed each day for nearly five months . The surviving adults attempted a second nesting at new sites , but were killed by professional hunters before they had a chance to raise any young . Scattered nestings are reported into the 1880s , but the birds were now wary , and commonly abandoned their nests if persecuted .
By the time of these last nestings , laws had already been enacted to protect the passenger pigeon , but these proved ineffective , as they were unclearly framed and hard to enforce . H. B. Roney , who had witnessed the Petoskey slaughter , led campaigns to protect the pigeon , but was met with resistance , and accusations that he was exaggerating the severity of the situation . Few offenders were prosecuted , mainly some poor trappers , but the large enterprises were not affected . In 1857 , a bill was brought forth to the Ohio State Legislature seeking protection for the passenger pigeon , yet a Select Committee of the Senate filed a report stating that the bird did not need protection , being " wonderfully prolific " , and dismissing the suggestion that the species could be destroyed . Public protests against trap @-@ shooting erupted in the 1870s , as the birds were badly treated before and after such contests . Conservationists were ineffective in stopping the slaughter . A bill was passed in the Michigan legislature making it illegal to net pigeons within 3 km ( 2 miles ) of a nesting area . In 1897 , a bill was introduced in the Michigan legislature asking for a 10 @-@ year closed season on passenger pigeons . Similar legal measures were passed and then disregarded in Pennsylvania . The gestures proved futile , and by the mid @-@ 1890s , the passenger pigeon had almost completely disappeared , and was probably extinct as a breeding bird in the wild . Small flocks are known to have existed at this point , since large numbers of birds were still being sold at markets . Thereafter , only small groups or individual birds were reported , many of which were shot on sight .
= = = Last survivors = = =
The last recorded nest and egg in the wild were collected in 1895 near Minneapolis . The last wild individual in Louisiana was discovered among a flock of mourning doves in 1896 , and subsequently shot . Many late sightings are thought to be false or due to confusion with mourning doves . The last fully authenticated record of a wild passenger pigeon was near Sargents , Pike County , Ohio , on March 22 or 24 , 1900 , when a female bird was killed by a boy named Press Clay Southworth with a BB gun . The boy had not recognized the bird as a passenger pigeon , but his parents identified it , and sent it to a taxidermist . The specimen , nicknamed " buttons " due to the buttons used instead of glass eyes , was donated to the Ohio Historical Society by the family in 1915 . Though this is the most often cited last wild specimen , in 2014 , writer Joel Greenberg pointed out two later records , one of which involves a male shot in 1902 in Indiana , that was stuffed but later destroyed . The reliability of later accounts are in question . US President Theodore Roosevelt claimed to have seen a bird in Michigan in 1907 . Ornithologist Alexander Wetmore claimed that he saw a pair flying near Independence , Kansas , in April 1905 . In 1910 , the American Ornithologists ' Union offered a reward of $ 3 @,@ 000 for discovering a nest – the equivalent of $ 76 @,@ 990 @.@ 05 in 2015 .
Most captive passenger pigeons were kept for exploitative purposes , but some were housed in zoos and aviaries . Audubon alone claimed to have brought 350 birds to England in 1830 , distributing them among various noblemen , and the species is also known to have been kept at London Zoo . Being common birds , these attracted little interest , until the species became rare in the 1890s . By the turn of the 20th century , the last known captive passenger pigeons were divided in three groups ; one in Milwaukee , one in Chicago , and one in Cincinnati . There are claims of a few further individuals having been kept in various places , but these accounts are not considered reliable today . The Milwaukee group was kept by David Whittaker , who began his collection in 1888 , and possessed fifteen birds some years later , all descended from a single pair .
The Chicago group was kept by Professor Charles Otis Whitman , whose collection began with passenger pigeons bought from Whittaker beginning in 1896 . He had an interest in studying pigeons , and kept his passenger pigeons with other pigeon species . Whitman brought his pigeons with him from Chicago to Massachusetts by railcar each summer . By 1897 , Whitman had bought all of Whittaker 's birds , and upon reaching a maximum of 19 individuals , he gave seven back to Whittaker in 1898 . Around this time , a series of photographs were taken of these birds ; 24 of the photos survive to this day . Some of these images have been reproduced in various media , copies of which are now kept at the Wisconsin Historical Society . It is unclear exactly where , when , and by whom these photos were taken , but some appear to have been taken in Chicago in 1896 , others in Massachusetts in 1898 , the latter by a J. G. Hubbard . By 1902 , Whitman owned sixteen birds . Many eggs were laid by his pigeons , but few hatched , and many hatchlings died . A newspaper inquiry was published that requested " fresh blood " to the flock which had now ceased breeding . By 1907 , he was down to two female passenger pigeons that died that winter , and was left with two infertile male hybrids , whose subsequent fate is unknown . By this time , only four ( all males ) of the birds Whitman had returned to Whittaker were alive , and these died between November 1908 and February 1909 .
The Cincinnati Zoo , one of the oldest zoos in the US , kept passenger pigeons from its beginning in 1875 . The zoo kept more than twenty individuals , in a ten @-@ by @-@ twelve @-@ foot cage . Passenger pigeons do not appear to have been kept at the zoo due to their rarity , but to enable guests to have a closer look at a native species . Recognizing the decline of the wild populations , Whitman and the Cincinnati Zoo consistently strove to breed the surviving birds , including attempts at making a rock dove foster passenger pigeon eggs . In 1902 , Whitman gave a female passenger pigeon to the zoo ; this was possibly the individual later known as Martha , which would become the last living member of the species . Other sources argue that Martha was hatched at the Cincinnati Zoo , had lived there for 25 years , and was the descendant of three pairs of passenger pigeons purchased by the zoo in 1877 . It is thought this individual was named Martha because her last cage mate was named George , thereby honoring George Washington and his wife Martha , though it has also been claimed she was named after the mother of a zookeeper 's friends .
In 1909 , Martha and her two male companions at the Cincinnati Zoo became the only known surviving passenger pigeons . One of these males died around April that year , followed by George , the remaining male , on July 10 , 1910 . It is unknown whether the remains of George were preserved . Martha soon became a celebrity due to her status as an endling , and offers of a $ 1 @,@ 000 reward for finding a mate for her brought even more visitors to see her . During her last four years in solitude ( her cage was 5 @.@ 4 by 6 m ( 18 by 20 ft ) ) , Martha became steadily slower and more immobile ; visitors would throw sand at her to make her move , and her cage was roped off in response . Martha died of old age on September 1 , 1914 , and was found lifeless on the floor of her cage . It was claimed that she died at 1 p.m. , but other sources suggest she died some hours later . Depending on the source , Martha was between 17 and 29 years old at the time of her death , although 29 is the generally accepted figure . At the time , it was suggested that Martha might have died from an apoplectic stroke , as she had suffered one a few weeks before dying . Her body was frozen into a block of ice and sent to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington , where it was skinned , dissected , photographed , and mounted . As she was molting when she died , she proved difficult to stuff , and previously shed feathers were added to the skin . Martha was on display for many years , but after a period in the museum vaults , she was put back on display at the Smithsonian 's National Museum of Natural History in 2015 . A memorial statue of Martha stands on the grounds of the Cincinnati Zoo , in front of the " Passenger Pigeon Memorial Hut , " formerly the aviary wherein Martha lived , now a National Historic Landmark . Incidentally , the last specimen of the extinct Carolina parakeet , named " Incus , " died in Martha 's cage in 1918 ; the stuffed remains of that bird are exhibited in the " Memorial Hut . "
= = = Extinction causes = = =
The main reasons for the extinction of the passenger pigeon were the massive scale of hunting , the rapid loss of habitat , and the extremely social lifestyle of the bird , which made it highly vulnerable to the former factors . Deforestation was driven by the need to free land for agriculture and expanding towns , but also due to the demand for lumber and fuel . About 728 @.@ 000 km2 ( 180 million acres ) were cleared for farming between 1850 and 1910 . Though there are still large woodland areas in eastern North America , which support a variety of wildlife , it was not enough to support the vast number of passenger pigeons needed to sustain the population . In contrast , very small populations of nearly extinct birds , such as the kakapo ( Strigops habroptilus ) and the takahē ( Porphyrio hochstetteri ) , have been enough to keep those species alive to the present . The combined effects of intense hunting and deforestation has been referred to as a " Blitzkrieg " against the passenger pigeon , and it has been labeled one of the greatest and most senseless human @-@ induced extinctions in history . As the flocks dwindled in size , the passenger pigeon population decreased below the threshold necessary to propagate the species .
The 2014 study that demonstrated natural fluctuations in population numbers prior to human arrival also showed that the species routinely recovered from lows in the population , and suggested that one of these lows may have coincided with the intensified exploitation by humans in the 1800s , a combination which would have led to the rapid extinction of the species . A similar scenario may also explain the rapid extinction of the Rocky Mountain locust ( Melanoplus spretus ) during the same period . It has also been suggested that after the population was thinned out , it would be harder for few or solitary birds to locate suitable feeding areas . In addition to the birds killed or driven away by hunting during breeding seasons , many nestlings were also orphaned before being able to fend for themselves . Other , less convincing contributing factors have been suggested at times , including mass drownings , Newcastle disease , and migrations to areas outside their original range .
The extinction of the passenger pigeon aroused public interest in the conservation movement , and resulted in new laws and practices which prevented many other species from becoming extinct . The rapid decline of the passenger pigeon has influenced later assessment methods of the extinction risk of endangered animal populations . The International Union for the Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has used the passenger pigeon as an example in cases where a species was declared " at risk " for extinction even though population numbers are high .
= = = Re @-@ creation of the species = = =
Today , more than 1 @,@ 532 passenger pigeon skins ( along with 16 skeletons ) are in existence , spread across many institutions all over the world . It has been suggested that the passenger pigeon should be revived when available technology allows it ( a concept which has been termed " de @-@ extinction " ) , using genetic material from such specimens . In 2003 , the Pyrenean ibex ( Capra pyrenaica pyrenaica , a subspecies of the Spanish ibex ) was the first extinct animal to be cloned back to life ; the clone lived for only seven minutes before dying of lung defects . A hindrance to cloning the passenger pigeon is the fact that the DNA of museum specimens has been contaminated and fragmented , due to exposure to heat and oxygen . American geneticist George M. Church has proposed that the passenger pigeon genome can be reconstructed by piecing together DNA fragments from different specimens . The next step would be to splice these genes into the stem cells of rock pigeons ( or band @-@ tailed pigeons ) , which would then be transformed into egg and sperm cells , and placed into the eggs of rock pigeons , resulting in rock pigeons bearing passenger pigeon sperm and eggs . The offspring of these would have passenger pigeon traits , and would be further bred to favor unique features of the extinct species .
The general idea of re @-@ creating extinct species has been criticized , since the large funds needed could be spent on conserving currently threatened species and habitats , and because conservation efforts might be viewed as less urgent . In the case of the passenger pigeon , since it was very social , it is unlikely that enough birds could be created for revival to be successful , and it is unclear whether there is enough appropriate habitat left for its reintroduction . Furthermore , the parent pigeons that would raise the cloned passenger pigeons would belong to a different species , with a different way of rearing young .
|
= Triturus =
Triturus is a genus of newts comprising the crested and the marbled newts , which are found from Great Britain through most of continental Europe to westernmost Siberia , Anatolia , and the Caspian Sea region . Their English names refer to their appearance : marbled newts have a green – black colour pattern , while the males of crested newts , which are dark brown with a yellow or orange underside , develop a conspicuous jagged seam on their back and tail during their breeding phase .
Crested and marbled newts live and breed in vegetation @-@ rich ponds or similar aquatic habitats for two to six months and usually spend the rest of the year in shady , protection @-@ rich land habitats close to their breeding sites . Males court females with a ritualised display , ending in the deposition of a spermatophore that is picked up by the female . After fertilisation , a female lays 200 – 400 eggs , folding them individually into leaves of water plants . Larvae develop over two to four months before metamorphosing into land @-@ dwelling juveniles .
Historically , most European newts were included in the genus , but taxonomists have split off the alpine newt ( Ichthyosaura ) , the small @-@ bodied newts ( Lissotriton ) and the banded newts ( Ommatotriton ) as separate genera . The closest relatives of Triturus are the European brook newts ( Calotriton ) . Two species of marbled newts and seven species of crested newts are accepted , of which the Anatolian crested newt was only described in 2016 . Their ranges are largely contiguous but where they do overlap , hybridisation may take place .
Although not immediately threatened , crested and marbled newts suffer from population declines , caused mainly by habitat loss and fragmentation . Both their aquatic breeding sites and the cover @-@ rich , natural landscapes upon which they depend during their terrestrial phase are affected . All species are legally protected in Europe , and some of their habitats have been designated as special reserves .
= = Taxonomy and systematics = =
The genus name Triturus was introduced in 1815 by the polymath Constantine Samuel Rafinesque , with the northern crested newt ( Triturus cristatus ) as type species . That species was originally described as Triton cristatus by Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti in 1768 , but Linnaeus had already used the name Triton for a genus of sea snails ten years before , making a new genus name for the newts necessary .
Triturus included most European newt species until the end of the 20th century , but was substantially revised after it was shown to be polyphyletic . Three separate genera now accommodate former members of the genus : the small @-@ bodied newts ( Lissotriton ) , the banded newts ( Ommatotriton ) , and the alpine newt ( Ichthyosaura ) . The monophyly of the genus Triturus in the strict sense is supported by molecular data and synapomorphies such as a genetic defect causing 50 % embryo mortality ( see below , Egg deposition and development ) .
As of 2016 , the genus contains nine accepted species :
Crested newts
Marbled newts
Both the crested and the marbled newts were long considered as single species , Triturus cristatus and T. marmoratus , respectively . Substantial genetic differences between subspecies were , however , noted and eventually led to their recognition as full species , with the crested newts often collectively referred to as " T. cristatus superspecies " . The Balkan and the Anatolian crested newt , the most recent species formally described ( 2013 and 2016 , respectively ) , were only recognised through genetic data ; together with the Southern crested newt , they form a cryptic species complex with no morphological differences known .
= = Description = =
= = = Common characteristics = = =
Triturus is a genus of rather large @-@ bodied newts . They typically have a total length of between 10 and 16 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 and 6 @.@ 3 in ) , with some crested newts of up to 20 cm ( 8 in ) described . Size depends on sex and the environment : females are slightly larger and have a proportionally longer tail than males in most species , and the Italian crested newt seems to be larger in colder parts of its range .
Crested newts are dark brown , with black spots on the sides , and white stippling in some species . Their belly is yellow to orange with black blotches , forming a pattern characteristic for individuals . Females and juveniles of some species have a yellow line running down their back and tail . During breeding phase , crested newts change in appearance , most markedly the males . These develop a skin seam running along their back and tail ; this crest is the namesake feature of the crested newts and can be up to 1 @.@ 5 cm high and very jagged in the northern crested newt . Another feature of males at breeding time is a silvery @-@ white band along the sides of the tail .
Marbled newts owe their name to their green – black , marbled colour pattern . In females , an orange @-@ red line runs down back and tail . The crest of male marbled newts is smaller and fleshier than that of the crested newts and not indented , but marbled newt males also have a whitish tail band at breeding time .
= = = Species identification = = =
Apart from the obvious colour differences between crested and marbled newts , species in the genus also have different body forms . They range from stocky with sturdy limbs in the Anatolian , Balkan and the southern crested newt as well as the marbled newts , to very slender with short legs in the Danube crested newt . These types were first noted by herpetologist Willy Wolterstorff , who used the ratio of forelimb length to distance between fore- and hindlimbs to distinguish subspecies of the crested newt ( now full species ) ; this index however sometimes leads to misidentifications . The number of rib @-@ bearing vertebrae in the skeleton was shown to be a better species indicator . It ranges from 12 in the marbled newts to 16 – 17 in the Danube crested newt and is usually observed through radiography on dead or sedated specimens .
The two marbled newts are readily distinguished by size and colouration . In contrast , separating crested newt species based on appearance is not straightforward , but most can be determined by a combination of body form , coloration , and male crest shape . The Anatolian , Balkan , and southern crested newt however are cryptic , morphologically indistinguishable species . Triturus newts occupy distinct geographical regions ( see Distribution ) , but hybrid forms occur at range borders between some species and have intermediate characteristics ( see Hybridisation and introgression ) .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
Like other newts , Triturus species develop in the water as larvae , and return to it each year for breeding . Adults spend one half to three quarters of the year on land , depending on the species , and thus depend on both suitable aquatic breeding sites and terrestrial habitats . After larval development in the first year , juveniles pass another year or two before reaching maturity ; in the north and at higher elevations , this can take longer . The larval and juvenile stages are the riskiest for the newts , while survival is higher in adults . Once the risky stages passed , adult newts usually attain an age of seven to nine years , although individuals of the northern crested newts have reached 17 years in the wild .
= = = Aquatic phase = = =
The aquatic habitats preferred by the newts are stagnant , mid- to large @-@ sized , unshaded water bodies with abundant underwater vegetation but without fish , which prey on larvae . Typical examples are larger ponds , which need not be of natural origin ; indeed , most ponds inhabited by the northern crested newt in the UK are human @-@ made . Examples of other suitable secondary habitats are ditches , channels , gravel pit lakes , garden ponds , or ( in the Italian crested newt ) rice paddies . The Danube crested newt is more adapted to flowing water and often breeds in river margins , oxbow lakes or flooded marshland , where it frequently co @-@ occurs with fish . Other newts that can be found in syntopy with Triturus species include the smooth , the palmate , the Carpathian , and the alpine newt .
Adult newts begin moving to their breeding sites in spring when temperatures stay above 4 – 5 ° C ( 39 – 41 ° F ) . This usually occurs in March for most species , but can be much earlier in the southern parts of the distribution range . Southern marbled newts mainly breed from January to early March and may already enter ponds in autumn . The time adults spend in water differs among species and correlates with body shape : while it is only about three months in the marbled newts , it is six months in the Danube crested newt , whose slender body is best adapted to swimming . Triturus newts in their aquatic phase are mostly nocturnal and , compared to the smaller newts of Lissotriton and Ichthyosaura , usually prefer the deeper parts of a water body , where they hide under vegetation . As with other newts , they occasionally have to move to the surface to breathe air . The aquatic phase serves not only for reproduction , but also offers the animals more abundant prey , and immature crested newts frequently return to the water in spring even if they do not breed .
= = = Terrestrial phase = = =
During their terrestrial phase , crested and marbled newts depend on a landscape that offers cover , invertebrate prey and humidity . The precise requirements of most species are still poorly known , as the newts are much more difficult to detect and observe on land . Deciduous woodlands or groves are in general preferred , but conifer woods are also accepted , especially in the far northern and southern ranges . The southern marbled newt is typically found in Mediterranean oak forests . In the absence of forests , other cover @-@ rich habitats , as for example hedgerows , scrub , swampy meadows , or quarries , can be inhabited . Within such habitats , the newts use hiding places such as logs , bark , planks , stone walls , or small mammal burrows ; several individuals may occupy such refuges at the same time . Since the newts in general stay very close to their aquatic breeding sites , the quality of the surrounding terrestrial habitat largely determines whether an otherwise suitable water body will be colonised .
Juveniles often disperse to new breeding sites , while the adults in general move back to the same breeding sites each year . The newts do not migrate very far : they may cover around 100 metres ( 110 yd ) in one night and rarely disperse much farther than one kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) . For orientation , the newts likely use a combination of cues including odour and the calls of other amphibians , and orientation by the night sky has been demonstrated in the marbled newt . Activity is highest on wet nights ; the newts usually stay hidden during daytime . There is often an increase in activity in late summer and autumn , when the newts likely move closer to their breeding sites . Over most of their range , they hibernate in winter , using mainly subterranean hiding places , where many individuals will often congregate . In their southern range , they may instead sometimes aestivate during the dry months of summer .
= = = Diet and predators = = =
Like other newts , Triturus species are carnivorous and feed mainly on invertebrates . During the land phase , prey include earthworms and other annelids , different insects , woodlice , and snails and slugs . During the breeding season , they prey on various aquatic invertebrates , and also tadpoles of other amphibians such as the common frog or common toad , and smaller newts . Larvae , depending on their size , eat small invertebrates and tadpoles , and also smaller larvae of their own species .
The larvae are themselves eaten by various animals such as carnivorous invertebrates and water birds , and are especially vulnerable to predatory fish . Adults generally avoid predators through their hidden lifestyle but are sometimes eaten by herons and other birds , snakes such as the grass snake , and mammals such as shrews , badgers and hedgehogs . They secrete the poison tetrodotoxin from their skin , albeit much less than for example the North American Pacific newts ( Taricha ) . The bright yellow or orange underside of crested newts is a warning coloration which can be presented in case of perceived danger . In such a posture , the newts typically roll up and secrete a milky substance .
= = Reproduction = =
= = = Courtship = = =
A complex courting ritual performed underwater characterises the crested and marbled newts . Males are territorial and use leks , or courtship arenas , small patches of clear ground where they display and attract females . When they encounter other males , they use the same postures as described below for courting to impress their counterpart . Occasionally , they even bite each other ; marbled newts seem more aggressive than crested newts . Males also frequently disturb the courting of other males and try to guide the female away from their rival . Pheromones are used to attract females , and once a male has found one he will pursue her and position himself in front of her . After this first orientation phase , courtship proceeds with display and spermatophore transfer .
Courtship display serves to emphasise the male 's body and crest size and to waft pheromones towards the female . A position characteristic for the large Triturus species is the " cat buckle " , where the male 's body is kinked and often rests only on the forelegs ( " hand stand " ) . He will also lean towards the female ( " lean @-@ in " ) , rock his body , and flap his tail towards her , sometimes lashing it violently ( " whiplash " ) . If the female shows interest , the ritual enters the third phase , where the male creeps away from her , his tail quivering . When the female touches his tail with her snout , he deposits a packet of sperm ( a spermatophore ) on the ground . The ritual ends with the male guiding the female over the spermatophore , which she then takes up with her cloaca . In the southern marbled newt , courtship is somewhat different from the larger species in that it does not seem to involve male " cat buckles " and " whiplashes " , but instead slower tail fanning and undulating of the tail tip ( presumably to mimic a prey animal and lure the female ) .
= = = Egg deposition and development = = =
Females usually engage with several males over a breeding season . The eggs are fertilised internally in the oviduct . The female deposits them individually on leaves of aquatic plants , such as water cress or floating sweetgrass , usually close to the surface , and , using her hindlegs , folds the leaf around the eggs as protection from predators and radiation . In the absence of suitable plants , the eggs may also be deposited on leaf litter , stones , or even plastic bags . In the northern crested newt , a female takes around five minutes for the deposition of one egg . Crested newt females usually lay around 200 eggs per season , while the marbled newt ( T. marmoratus ) can lay up to 400 . Triturus embryos are usually light @-@ coloured , 1 @.@ 8 – 2 mm in diameter with a 6 mm jelly capsule , which distinguishes them from eggs of other co @-@ existing newt species that are smaller and darker @-@ coloured . A genetic particularity in the genus causes 50 % of the embryos to die : their development is arrested when they do not possess two different variants of chromosome 1 ( i.e. , when they are homozygous for that chromosome ) .
Larvae hatch after two to five weeks , depending largely on temperature . In the first days after hatching , they live on their remaining embryonic yolk supply and are not able to swim , but attach to plants or the egg capsule with two balancers , adhesive organs on their head . After this period , they begin to ingest small invertebrates , and actively forage about ten days after hatching . As in all salamanders and newts , forelimbs — already present as stumps at hatching — develop first , followed later by the backlegs . Unlike smaller newts , Triturus larvae are mostly nektonic , swimming freely in the water column . Just before the transition to land , the larvae resorb their external gills ; they can at this stage reach a size of 7 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) in the larger species . Metamorphosis takes place two to four months after hatching , but the duration of all stages of larval development varies with temperature . Survival of larvae from hatching to metamorphosis has been estimated at a mean of roughly 4 % for the northern crested newt , which is comparable to other newts . In unfavourable conditions , larvae may delay their development and overwinter in water , although this seems to be less common than in the small @-@ bodied newts . Paedomophic adults , retaining their gills and staying aquatic , have occasionally been observed in several crested newt species .
= = Distribution = =
Crested and marbled newts are found in Eurasia , from Great Britain and the Iberian Peninsula in the west to West Siberia and the southern Caspian Sea region in the east , and reach north to central Fennoscandia . Overall , the species have contiguous , parapatric ranges ; only the northern crested newt and the marbled newt occur sympatrically in western France , and the southern crested newt has a disjunct , allopatric distribution in Crimea , the Caucasus , and south of the Caspian Sea .
The northern crested newt is the most widespread species , while the others are confined to smaller regions , e.g. the southwestern Iberian Peninsula in the southern marbled newt , and the Danube basin and some of its tributaries in the Danube crested newt . The Italian crested newt ( T. carnifex ) has been introduced outside its native range in some European countries and the Azores . In the northern Balkans , four species of crested newt occur in close vicinity , and may sometimes even co @-@ exist .
Triturus species usually live at low elevation ; the Danube crested newt for example is confined to lowlands up to 300 m ( 980 ft ) above sea level . However , they do occur at higher altitudes towards the south of their range : the Italian crested newt is found up to 1 @,@ 800 m ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) in the Apennine Mountains , the southern crested newt up to 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) in the southern Caucausus , and the marbled newt up to around 2 @,@ 100 m ( 6 @,@ 900 ft ) in central Spain .
= = Evolution = =
Molecular phylogenetic data helped clarify relationships within the genus Triturus . A 2011 phylogeny based on complete mitochondrial DNA resolved all divergences with high statistical support . The crested and the marbled newts are sister groups , and within the crested newts , the Balkan – Asian group with T. anatolicus , T. karelinii and T. ivanbureschi is sister to the remaining species , results consistent with other studies . The mitochondrial analysis also supports the northern ( T. cristatus ) and the Danube crested newt ( T. dobrogicus ) , as well as the Italian ( T. carnifex ) and the Macedonian crested newt ( T. macedonicus ) , respectively , as sister species , but analysis of nuclear DNA gave some conflicting results regarding those divergences .
A 24 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old fossil belonging to Triturus , perhaps a marbled newt , shows that the genus already existed at that time and contradicts the earlier estimate of 8 @.@ 3 million years ago ( mya ) for the split between the crested and marbled newts and their sister genus , the European brook newts ( Calotriton ) . An age calibration study based on this and other fossils places that divergence much earlier , at around 39 mya in the Eocene , with an uncertainty range of 47 to 34 mya . Based on this estimation , authors have investigated diversification within the genus and related it to paleogeography : The crested and marbled newts split between 30 and 24 mya , and the two species of marbled newts have been separated for 4 @.@ 7 – 6 @.@ 8 million years .
The crested newts are believed to have originated in the Balkans and radiated in a brief time interval between 11 @.@ 5 and 8 mya : First , the Balkan – Asian group ( the Anatolian , Balkan and southern crested newt ) branched off from the other crested newts , probably in a vicariance event caused by the separation of the Balkan and Anatolian land masses . The origin of current @-@ day species is not fully understood so far , but one hypothesis suggests that ecological differences , notably in the adaptation to an aquatic lifestyle , may have evolved between populations and led to parapatric speciation . Alternatively , the complex geological history of the Balkan peninsula may have further separated populations there , with subsequent allopatric speciation and the spread of species into their current ranges .
= = = Glacial refugia and recolonisation = = =
At the onset of the Quaternary glacial cycles , around 2 @.@ 6 mya , the extant Triturus species had already emerged . They were thus affected by the cycles of expansion and retreat of cold , inhospitable regions , which shaped their distribution . A study using environmental niche modelling and phylogeography showed that during the Last Glacial Maximum , around 21 @,@ 000 years ago , crested and marbled newts likely survived in warmer refugia mainly in southern Europe . From there , they recolonised the northern parts after glacial retreat . The study also showed that species range boundaries shifted , with some species replacing others during recolonisation , for example the southern marbled newt which expanded northwards and replaced the marbled newt . Today 's most widespread species , the northern crested newt , was likely confined to a small refugial region in the Carpathian Basin during the last glaciation , and from there expanded its range north- , east- and westwards when the climate rewarmed .
= = = Hybridisation and introgression = = =
The northern crested newt and the marbled newt are the only species in the genus with a considerable range overlap ( in western France ) . In that area , they have patchy , mosaic @-@ like distributions and in general prefer different habitats . When they do occur in the same breeding ponds , they can form hybrids , which have intermediate characteristics . Individuals resulting from the cross of a crested newt male with a marbled newt female had mistakenly been described as distinct species Triton blasii de l 'Isle 1862 , and the reverse hybrids as Triton trouessarti Peracca 1886 . The first type is much rarer due to increased mortality of the larvae and consists only of males , while in the second , males have lower survival rates than females . Overall , viability is reduced in these hybrids and they rarely backcross with their parent species . Hybrids made up 3 – 7 % of the adult populations in different studies .
Other Triturus species only meet at narrow zones on their range borders . Hybridisation does occur in several of these contact zones , as shown by genetic data and intermediate forms , but is rare , supporting overall reproductive isolation . Backcrossing and introgression do however occur as shown by mitochondrial DNA analysis . In a case study in the Netherlands , genes of the introduced Italian crested newt were found to introgress into the gene pool of the native northern crested newt . The two marbled newt species can be found in proximity in a narrow area in central Portugal and Spain , but they usually breed in separate ponds , and individuals in that area could be clearly identified as one of the two species . Nevertheless , there is introgression , occurring in both directions at some parts of the contact zone , and only in the direction of the southern marbled newt where that species had historically replaced the marbled newt ( see also above , Glacial refugia and recolonisation ) .
= = Threats and conservation = =
Most of the crested and marbled newts are listed as species of " least concern " by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature , but population declines have been registered in all assessed species . The Danube crested newt and the southern marbled newt are considered " near threatened " because populations have declined significantly . Populations have been affected more heavily in some countries and species are listed in some national red lists . The Anatolian , Balkan and the Macedonian crested newt , recognised only recently , have not yet been evaluated separately for conservation status .
= = = Reasons for decline = = =
The major threat for crested and marbled newts is habitat loss . This concerns especially breeding sites , which are lost through the upscaling and intensification of agriculture , drainage , urban sprawl , and artificial flooding regimes ( affecting in particular the Danube crested newt ) . Especially in the southern ranges , exploitation of groundwater and decreasing spring rain , possibly caused by global warming , threaten breeding ponds . Aquatic habitats are also degraded through pollution with agricultural pesticides and fertiliser . Introduction of crayfish and predatory fish threatens larval development ; the Chinese sleeper has been a major concern in Eastern Europe . Exotic plants can also degrade habitats : the swamp stonecrop replaces natural vegetation and overshadows waterbodies in the United Kingdom , and its hard leaves are unsuitable for egg @-@ laying to crested newts .
Land habitats , equally important for newt populations , are lost through the replacement of natural forests by plantations or clear @-@ cutting ( especially in the northern range ) , and the conversion of structure @-@ rich landscapes into uniform farmland . Their limited dispersal makes the newts especially vulnerable to fragmentation , i.e. the loss of connections for exchange between suitable habitats . High concentrations of road salt have been found to be lethal to crested newts .
Other threats include illegal collection for pet trade , which concerns mainly the southern crested newt , and the northern crested newt in its eastern range . The possibility of hybridisation , especially in the crested newts , means that native species can be genetically polluted through the introduction of close species , as it is the case with the Italian crested newt introduced in the range of the northern crested newt . Warmer and wetter winters due to global warming may increase newt mortality by disturbing their hibernation and forcing them to expend more energy . Finally , the genus is potentially susceptible to the highly pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans , introduced to Europe from Asia .
= = = Conservation measures = = =
The crested newts are listed in Berne Convention Appendix II as " strictly protected " , and the marbled newts in Appendix III as " protected " . They are also included in Annex II ( species requiring designation of special areas of conservation ; crested newts ) and IV ( species in need of strict protection ; all species ) of the EU habitats and species directive . As required by these frameworks , their capture , disturbance , killing or trade , as well as the destruction of their habitats , are prohibited in most European countries . The EU habitats directive is also the basis for the Natura 2000 protected areas , several of which have been designated for the crested newts .
Habitat protection and management is seen as the most important element for the conservation of Triturus newts . This includes preservation of natural water bodies , reduction of fertiliser and pesticide use , control or eradication of introduced predatory fish , and the connection of habitats through sufficiently wide corridors of uncultivated land . A network of aquatic habitats in proximity is important to sustain populations , and the creation of new breeding ponds is in general very effective as they are rapidly colonised when other habitats are nearby . In some cases , entire populations have been moved when threatened by development projects , but such translocations need to be carefully planned to be successful . Strict protection of the northern crested newt in the United Kingdom has created conflicts with local development projects ; at the same time , the charismatic crested newts are seen as flagship species , whose conservation also benefits a range of other amphibians .
|
= Catch Me If You Can =
Catch Me If You Can is a 2002 American biographical crime film , based on the life of Frank Abagnale , who , before his 19th birthday , successfully performed cons worth millions of dollars by posing as a Pan American World Airways pilot , a Georgia doctor , and a Louisiana parish prosecutor . His primary crime was check fraud ; he became so experienced that the FBI eventually turned to him for help in catching other check forgers . The film was directed by Steven Spielberg and stars Leonardo DiCaprio and Tom Hanks , with Christopher Walken , Martin Sheen , Nathalie Baye and Amy Adams in supporting roles .
Development for the film started in 1980 but did not progress until 1997 when the film rights to Abagnale 's book were sold to Spielberg 's DreamWorks . David Fincher , Gore Verbinski , Lasse Hallström , Miloš Forman , and Cameron Crowe had all been possible candidates for director before Spielberg decided to direct . Filming took place from February to May 2002 . The film was a financial and critical success , and the real Abagnale reacted positively to it .
= = Plot = =
In 1963 , teen @-@ aged Frank Abagnale ( Leonardo DiCaprio ) lives in New Rochelle , New York with his father Frank Abagnale , Sr. ( Christopher Walken ) , and French mother Paula ( Nathalie Baye ) . When Frank Sr. is denied a business loan at Chase Manhattan Bank due to unknown difficulties with the IRS , the family is forced to move from their large home to a small apartment . Paula carries on an affair with Jack ( James Brolin ) , a friend of her husband . Meanwhile , Frank poses as a substitute teacher in his French class . Frank 's parents file for divorce , and Frank runs away . When he runs out of money , he begins relying on confidence scams to get by . Soon , Frank 's cons increase and he even impersonates an airline pilot . He forges Pan Am payroll checks and succeeds in stealing over $ 2 @.@ 8 million .
Meanwhile , Carl Hanratty ( Tom Hanks ) , an FBI bank fraud agent , begins tracking Frank . Carl and Frank meet at a hotel , where Frank convinces Carl his name is Barry Allen of the Secret Service , and that he was also after the fraud . Frank leaves , Carl angrily realizing a minute too late that he has been fooled . Later , at Christmas , Carl is still at work when Frank calls him , attempting to apologize for duping Carl . Carl rejects his apology and tells him he will soon be caught , but laughs when he realizes Frank actually called him because he has no one else to talk to . Frank hangs up , and Carl continues to investigate , suddenly realizing ( thanks to a waiter ) that the name " Barry Allen " is from the Flash comic books and that Frank is actually a teenager .
Frank , meanwhile , has expanded his con to include the identities of a doctor and lawyer . While playing Dr. Frank Conners , he falls in love with Brenda ( Amy Adams ) . While asking her father 's permission to marry her , he admits the truth about himself and asks for help with the Louisiana State Bar exam . Carl tracks him to his engagement party and Frank is able to sneak out a bedroom window minutes before Carl bursts in . Before leaving , Frank makes Brenda promise to meet him in Miami two days later so they can elope . Frank sees her waiting for him two days later , but also notices plainclothes agents waiting to arrest him , realizing he has been set up and escapes on a flight to Europe .
Seven months later , Carl shows his boss that Frank has been forging checks all over western Europe and asks permission to go to Europe to look for him . When his boss refuses , Carl brings Frank 's checks to printing professionals who claim that the checks were printed in France . From an interview with Frank 's mother , Carl remembers that she was actually born in Montrichard , France . He goes there and locates Frank , and tells him that the French police will kill him if he does not go with Carl quietly . Frank assumes he is lying at first , but Carl promises Frank he would never lie to him , and Carl takes him outside , where the French police escort him to prison .
The scene then flashes forward to a plane returning Frank home from prison , where Carl informs him that his father has died . Grief @-@ stricken , Frank escapes from the plane and goes back to his old house , where he finds his mother with the man she left his father for , as well as a girl who Frank realizes is his half @-@ sister . Frank gives himself up and is sentenced to 12 years in prison , getting visits from time to time from Carl . When Frank points out how one of the checks Carl is carrying as evidence is fake , Carl convinces the FBI to offer Frank a deal by which he can live out the remainder of his sentence working for the bank fraud department of the FBI , which Frank accepts . While working at the FBI , Frank misses the thrill of the chase and even attempts to fly as an airline pilot again . He is cornered by Carl , who insists that Frank will return to the FBI job since no one is chasing him . On the following Monday , Carl is nervous that Frank has not yet arrived at work . However , Frank eventually arrives and they discuss their next case .
The ending credits reveal that Frank has been happily married for 26 years , has three sons , lives in the Midwest , is still good friends with Carl , has caught some of the world 's most elusive money forgers , and earns millions of dollars each year because of his work creating unforgeable checks .
= = Cast = =
Leonardo DiCaprio as Frank Abagnale , Jr . Before his 19th birthday , Frank successfully conned millions of dollars ’ worth of checks as a Pan Am pilot , doctor , and Louisiana parish prosecutor .
Tom Hanks as Carl Hanratty , an FBI agent who pursues Frank for most of the film . Hanratty is often teased by other agents who take check fraud as a joke . Hanratty is divorced , and his daughter and ex @-@ wife live in Chicago . In the end , Carl and Frank become great friends .
Christopher Walken as Frank Abagnale , Sr. , Frank 's father , and a World War II veteran . Frank , Sr. loses his wife Paula and most of his wealth after he committed tax evasion . Frank , Sr. dies after falling down a staircase in a train station .
Nathalie Baye as Paula Abagnale . Frank , Sr. meets her when she is 18 years old in Montrichard , France during World War II . Five weeks later , the couple marries . They divorce when Frank Jr. is 16 , leaving Paula to marry Jack Barnes , with whom she has a daughter .
Amy Adams as Brenda Strong . Before becoming a nurse , Brenda had an abortion . Her strict Lutheran parents disown her , until they meet Frank , Jr .
Martin Sheen as Roger Strong , Brenda 's father , and Carol 's husband . Roger is a well @-@ recognized district attorney in Louisiana and is not easily convinced that Frank , Jr. graduated from law school .
James Brolin as Jack Barnes , an associate of Frank , Sr. at the New Rochelle , New York Rotary Club . Barnes later carries on an affair with Paula , leading to the divorce of Frank Jr . ' s parents .
Nancy Lenehan as Carol Strong , Brenda 's mother and Roger 's wife . When thinking that Frank , Jr. is a doctor , lawyer and Lutheran , she is highly ecstatic for her daughter 's marriage .
Brian Howe , Frank John Hughes and Chris Ellis portray FBI agents . Jennifer Garner cameos as a call girl . Ellen Pompeo , Elizabeth Banks , and Kaitlin Doubleday have small roles . The real Frank Abagnale appears in a cameo as a French police officer arresting his character .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Frank Abagnale sold the film rights to his autobiography in 1980 . Executive Producer Michel Shane purchased the film rights in 1990 , for Paramount Pictures . By December 1997 , Barry Kemp purchased the film rights from Shane , bringing the project to DreamWorks , with Jeff Nathanson writing the script . By April 2000 , David Fincher was attached to direct over the course of a few months , but dropped out in favor of Panic Room . In July 2000 , Leonardo DiCaprio had entered discussions to star , with Gore Verbinski to direct . Steven Spielberg signed on as producer , and filming was set to begin in March 2001 .
= = = Casting = = =
Verbinski cast James Gandolfini as Carl Hanratty , Ed Harris as Frank Abagnale , Sr. , and Chloë Sevigny as Brenda Strong . Verbinski dropped out because of DiCaprio 's commitment on Gangs of New York . Lasse Hallström was in negotiations to direct by May 2001 , but dropped out in July 2001 . At this stage Harris and Sevigny left the film , but Gandolfini was still attached . Spielberg , co @-@ founder of DreamWorks , offered the job of director to Miloš Forman , and considered hiring Cameron Crowe . During this negotiation period , Spielberg began to consider directing the film himself , eventually dropping projects such as Big Fish and Memoirs of a Geisha . Spielberg officially committed to directing in August 2001 .
The search for Strong 's portrayer lasted months but Amy Adams was eventually cast . Spielberg " loved " her tape and producer Walter F. Parkes commented that she was " as fresh and honest as anyone we ’ d seen , " which was an important element in the role . Christopher Walken was cast as Frank Abagnale , Sr. following Parkes ’ suggestion . Martin Sheen played Roger Strong as he had " intimidating presence " . Spielberg wanted a French actress to portray Paula Abagnale to stay true to the facts . He asked for the help of Brian De Palma , who was living in Paris and he did tests with several actresses such as Nathalie Baye . Spielberg had seen Jennifer Garner on Alias and wanted her to play a small role in the film due to her busy schedule .
= = = Filming = = =
The original start date was January 2002 , but was pushed to February 7 in Los Angeles , California . Other locations included Burbank , Downey , New York , LA / Ontario International Airport ( which doubled for Miami International Airport ) , Quebec City and Montreal . The film was shot in 147 different locations in only 52 days . DiCaprio reflected , " Scenes that we thought would take three days took an afternoon " . Filming ran from April 25 – 30 in Park Avenue , just outside the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel . Production moved to Orange , New Jersey and returned to Brooklyn for bank and courthouse scenes . Shooting also took place at the TWA Flight Center at John F. Kennedy International Airport . Quebec City was chosen for its European character and French feel . Place Royale , within Old Quebec , stands for Montrichard — the church in the background of the arrest scene is Notre @-@ Dame @-@ des @-@ Victoires . Filming ended on May 12 in Montreal .
= = Music = =
The film 's soundtrack was released on December 10 , 2002 by DreamWorks Records . The original score was composed by John Williams .
= = Fictions = =
Despite the various changes from real @-@ life events , Abagnale believed Spielberg was the only filmmaker who " could do this film justice " . However , Abagnale had little involvement with the film . In November 2001 , he had " never met nor spoken to Steven Spielberg and I have not read the script . I prefer not to . I understand that they now portray my father in a better light , as he really was . Steven Spielberg has told the screenplay writer ( Jeff Nathanson ) that he wants complete accuracy in the relationships and actual scams that I perpetrated " , Abagnale reported . " I hope in the end the movie will be entertaining , exciting , funny and bring home an important message about family , childhood and divorce " .
The real Abagnale never saw his father again after he ran away from home . Spielberg " wanted to continue to have that connection where Frank kept trying to please his father ; by making him proud of him ; by seeing him in the uniform , the Pan @-@ American uniform " . However , Abagnale praised the idea . " Even though I didn 't see my dad again , every night after living a brilliant day and meeting many women , and making much money , I 'd come back alone to a hotel room and I would just think of my mom and dad and fantasize about getting them back together again , and cry . It 's the justification of a fantasy . " Carl Hanratty ( portrayed by Tom Hanks ) is based on FBI agent Joseph Shea . In the shooting script the character was referred to as Joseph Shea , but was changed to Carl Hanratty for unknown reasons .
= = Themes = =
Catch Me if You Can deals with themes of broken homes and troubled childhoods . Spielberg 's parents divorced when he was a teenager , similar to Frank Abagnale 's situation . In the film , Carl Hanratty is also divorced from his wife , who lives with their daughter in Chicago . " Some of my films have had to do with broken homes and people on the run from their sad pasts " , Spielberg stated . " But there are those strands that got me to say : you know , there 's something also about me that I can say through the telling of this kind of lighthearted story " .
Spielberg also wanted to create a film that sympathized with a crook . He explained , " Frank was a 21st century genius working within the innocence of the mid ' 60s , when people were more trusting than they are now . I don 't think this is the kind of movie where somebody could say , ' I have a career plan . ' "
= = Release = =
Game Show Network aired the 1977 episode of the television game show To Tell the Truth that featured Frank Abagnale . Segments were shown on December 29 , 2002 and January 1 , 2003 as promotion . The marketing department was careful to market the film as " inspired by a true story " in order to avoid controversy similar to that surrounding A Beautiful Mind ( 2001 ) and The Hurricane ( 1999 ) , both of which deviated from history . The premiere took place at Westwood , Los Angeles , California on December 18 , 2002 .
= = = Box office = = =
Catch Me If You Can was released on December 25 , 2002 , earning slightly above $ 30 million in 3 @,@ 225 theaters during its opening weekend . The film went on to gross $ 164 @.@ 6 million in North America and $ 187 @.@ 5 million in foreign countries , coming at a worldwide total of $ 352 @.@ 1 million . The film was a financial success , recouping the $ 52 million budget six times over . Catch Me If You Can was the eleventh highest grossing film of 2002 . Minority Report ( also directed by Spielberg ) was tenth highest .
= = = Critical response = = =
On Rotten Tomatoes , the film has a rating of 96 % , based on 195 reviews , with the site 's critical consensus reading , " With help from a strong performance by Leonardo DiCaprio as real @-@ life wunderkind con artist Frank Abagnale , Steven Spielberg crafts a film that 's stylish , breezily entertaining , and surprisingly sweet . " On Metacritic the film has a score of 76 out of 100 , based on 38 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
Roger Ebert heavily praised DiCaprio 's performance , and concluded " This is not a major Spielberg film , although it is an effortlessly watchable one " . Mick LaSalle said it was " not Spielberg 's best movie , but one of his smoothest and maybe his friendliest . The colorful cinematography , smart performances and brisk tempo suggest a filmmaker subordinating every other impulse to the task of manufacturing pleasure . " Stephen Hunter believed DiCaprio shows " the range and ease and cleverness that Martin Scorsese so underutilized in Gangs of New York " .
James Berardinelli observed , " Catch Me if You Can never takes itself or its subjects too seriously , and contains more genuinely funny material than about 90 % of the so @-@ called ' comedies ' found in multiplexes these days " . In addition Berardinelli praised John Williams ' film score , which he felt was " more intimate and jazzy than his usual material , evoking ( intentionally ) Henry Mancini " . Peter Travers was one of few who gave the film a negative review . Travers considered Catch Me if You Can to be " bogged down over 140 minutes . A film that took off like a hare on speed ends like a winded tortoise . "
At the 75th Academy Awards , Christopher Walken and John Williams were nominated for Best Supporting Actor and Best Original Score . Walken won the same category at the 56th British Academy Film Awards , while Williams , costume designer Mary Zophres and screenwriter Jeff Nathanson received nominations . DiCaprio was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Drama . Williams also earned a Grammy Award nomination . Elements of the film were later parodied in The Simpsons episode " Catch ' Em If You Can " .
= = = Home media = = =
Catch Me If You Can was released on DVD on May 6 , 2003 and on Blu @-@ ray on December 4 , 2012 .
= = Musical adaptation = =
A musical adaptation of the same name premiered at the 5th Avenue Theatre in Seattle , Washington in July 2009 , starring Aaron Tveit and Norbert Leo Butz . It began previews on Broadway at the Neil Simon Theatre on March 11 , 2011 and officially opened April 10 , 2011 . The musical was nominated for four Tony Awards , including Best Musical .
|
= Kenesaw Mountain Landis =
Kenesaw Mountain Landis ( / ˈkɛnᵻsɔː ˈmaʊntᵻn ˈlændᵻs / ; November 20 , 1866 – November 25 , 1944 ) was an American jurist who served as a federal judge from 1905 to 1922 and as the first Commissioner of Baseball from 1920 until his death . He is remembered for his handling of the Black Sox scandal , in which he expelled eight members of the Chicago White Sox from organized baseball for conspiring to lose the 1919 World Series and repeatedly refused their reinstatement requests . His firm actions and iron rule over baseball in the near quarter @-@ century of his commissionership are generally credited with restoring public confidence in the game .
Landis was born in Millville , Ohio in 1866 , his name a spelling variation on the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain in the American Civil War , where his father was wounded in 1864 . Landis spent much of his youth in Indiana ; he left school at fifteen and worked in a series of positions in that state . His involvement in politics led to a civil service job . At age 21 , Landis applied to become a lawyer — there were then no educational or examination requirements for the Indiana bar . Following a year of unprofitable practice , he went to law school . After his graduation , he opened an office in Chicago , but left it when Walter Q. Gresham , the new United States Secretary of State , named him his personal secretary in 1893 . After Gresham 's death in 1895 , Landis refused an offer of an ambassadorship , and returned to Chicago to practice law and marry .
President Theodore Roosevelt appointed Landis a federal judge in 1905 . Landis received national attention in 1907 when he fined Standard Oil of Indiana more than $ 29 million for violating federal laws forbidding rebates on railroad freight tariffs . Though Landis was reversed on appeal , he was seen as a judge determined to rein in big business . During and after World War I , Landis , an ardent patriot , presided over several high @-@ profile trials of draft resisters and others whom he saw as opposing the war effort . He imposed heavy sentences on those who were convicted ; some of the convictions were reversed on appeal , and other sentences were commuted .
In 1920 , Judge Landis was a leading candidate when American League and National League team owners , embarrassed by the Black Sox scandal and other instances of players throwing games , sought someone to rule over baseball . Landis was given full power to act in the sport 's best interest , and used that power extensively over the next quarter @-@ century . Landis was widely praised for cleaning up the game , although some of his decisions in the Black Sox matter remain controversial : supporters of " Shoeless Joe " Jackson and Buck Weaver contend that he was overly harsh with those players . Others blame Landis for , in their view , delaying the racial integration of baseball . Landis was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame by a special vote shortly after he died in 1944 .
= = Early life and pre @-@ judicial career ( 1866 – 1905 ) = =
= = = Boyhood and early career ( 1866 – 1893 ) = = =
Kenesaw Mountain Landis was born in Millville , Ohio , the sixth child and fourth son of Abraham Hoch Landis , a physician , and Mary Kumler Landis , on November 20 , 1866 . The Landises descended from Swiss Mennonites who had emigrated to Alsace before coming to the United States . Abraham Landis had been wounded fighting on the Union side at the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain in Georgia , and when his parents proved unable to agree on a name for the new baby , Mary Landis proposed that they call him Kenesaw Mountain . At the time , both spellings of " Kenesaw " were used , but in the course of time , " Kennesaw Mountain " became the accepted spelling of the battle site .
Abraham Landis worked in Millville as a country physician . When Kenesaw was eight , the elder Landis moved his family to Delphi , Indiana and subsequently to Logansport , Indiana where the doctor purchased and ran several local farms — his war injury had caused him to scale back his medical practice . Two of Kenesaw 's four brothers , Charles Beary Landis and Frederick Landis , became members of Congress .
As " Kenny " , as he was sometimes known , grew , he did an increasing share of the farm work , later stating , " I did my share — and it was a substantial share — in taking care of the 13 acres ... I do not remember that I particularly liked to get up at 3 : 30 in the morning . " Kenesaw began his off @-@ farm career at age ten as a news delivery boy . He left school at 15 after an unsuccessful attempt to master algebra ; he then worked at the local general store . He left that job for a position as errand boy with the Vandalia Railroad . Landis applied for a job as a brakeman , but was laughingly dismissed as too small . He then worked for the Logansport Journal , and taught himself shorthand reporting , becoming in 1883 official court reporter for the Cass County Circuit Court . Landis later wrote , " I may not have been much of a judge , nor baseball official , but I do pride myself on having been a real shorthand reporter . " He served in that capacity until 1886 . In his spare time , he became a prize @-@ winning bicycle racer and played on and managed a baseball team . Offered a professional contract as a ballplayer , he turned it down , stating that he preferred to play for the love of the game .
In 1886 , Landis first ventured into Republican Party politics , supporting a friend , Charles F. Griffin , for Indiana Secretary of State . Griffin won , and Landis was rewarded with a civil service job in the Indiana Department of State . While employed there , he applied to be an attorney . At that time , in Indiana , an applicant needed only to prove that he was 21 and of good moral character , and Landis was admitted . Landis opened a practice in Marion , Indiana but attracted few clients in his year of work there . Realizing that an uneducated lawyer was unlikely to build a lucrative practice , Landis enrolled at Cincinnati 's YMCA Law School ( now part of the University of Cincinnati ) in 1889 . Landis transferred to Union Law School ( now part of Northwestern University ) the following year , and in 1891 , he took his law degree from Union and was admitted to the Illinois Bar . He began a practice in Chicago , served as an assistant instructor at Union and with fellow attorney Clarence Darrow helped found the nonpartisan Chicago Civic Centre Club , devoted to municipal reform . Landis practiced with college friend Frank O. Lowden ; the future commissioner and his law partner went into debt to impress potential clients , buying a law library secondhand .
= = = Washington years and aftermath ( 1893 – 1905 ) = = =
In March 1893 , President Grover Cleveland appointed federal judge Walter Q. Gresham as his Secretary of State , and Gresham hired Landis as his personal secretary . Gresham had a long career as a political appointee in the latter part of the 19th century ; though he lost his only two bids for elective office , he served in three Cabinet positions and was twice a dark horse candidate for the Republican presidential nomination . Although Gresham was a Republican , he had supported Cleveland ( a Democrat ) in the 1892 election because of his intense dislike for the Republican nominee , President Benjamin Harrison . Kenesaw Landis had appeared before Judge Gresham in court . According to Landis biographer J.G. Taylor Spink , Gresham thought Landis " had something on the ball " and believed that Landis 's shorthand skills would be of use .
In Washington , Landis worked hard to protect Gresham 's interests in the State Department , making friends with many members of the press . He was less popular among many of the Department 's senior career officials , who saw him as brash . When word leaked concerning President Cleveland 's Hawaiian policy , the President was convinced Landis was the source of the information and demanded his dismissal . Gresham defended Landis , stating that Cleveland would have to fire both of them , and the President relented , later finding out that he was mistaken in accusing Landis . President Cleveland grew to like Landis , and when Gresham died in 1895 , offered Landis the post of United States Ambassador to Venezuela . Landis declined the diplomatic post , preferring to return to Chicago to begin a law practice and to marry Winifred Reed , daughter of the Ottawa , Illinois postmaster . The two married July 25 , 1895 ; they had two surviving children , a boy , Reed , and a girl , Susanne — a third child , Winifred , died almost immediately after being born .
Landis built a corporate law practice in Chicago ; with the practice doing well , he deeply involved himself in Republican Party politics . He built a close association with his friend Lowden and served as his campaign manager for governor of Illinois in 1904 . Lowden was defeated , but would later serve two terms in the office and be a major contender for the 1920 Republican presidential nomination . A seat on the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois was vacant ; President Theodore Roosevelt offered it to Lowden , who declined it and recommended Landis . Other recommendations from Illinois politicians followed , and Roosevelt nominated Landis for the seat . According to Spink , President Roosevelt wanted " a tough judge and a man sympathetic with his viewpoint in that important court " ; Lowden and Landis were , like Roosevelt , on the progressive left of the Republican Party . On March 18 , 1905 , Roosevelt transmitted the nomination to the Senate , which confirmed Landis the same afternoon , without any committee hearing .
= = Judge ( 1905 – 1922 ) = =
Landis 's courtroom , room 627 in the Chicago Federal Building , was ornate and featured two murals ; one of King John conceding Magna Carta , the other of Moses about to smash the tablets of the Ten Commandments . The mahogany and marble chamber was , according to Landis biographer David Pietrusza , " just the spot for Landis 's sense of the theatrical . In it he would hold court for nearly the next decade and a half . " According to Spink , " It wasn 't long before Chicago writers discovered they had a ' character ' on the bench . " A. L. Sloan of the Chicago Herald @-@ American , a friend of Landis , recalled :
The Judge was always headline news . He was a great showman , theatrical in appearance , with his sharp jaw and shock of white hair , and people always crowded into his courtroom , knowing there would be something going on . There were few dull moments .
If Judge Landis was suspicious of an attorney 's line of questioning , he would begin to wrinkle his nose , and once told a witness , " Now let 's stop fooling around and tell exactly what did happen , without reciting your life 's history . " When an elderly defendant told him that he would not be able to live to complete a five @-@ year sentence , Landis scowled at him and asked , " Well , you can try , can 't you ? " When a young man stood before him for sentencing after admitting to stealing jewels from a parcel , the defendant 's wife stood near him , infant daughter in her arms , and Landis mused what to do about the situation . After a dramatic pause , Landis ordered the young man to take his wife and daughter and go home with them , expressing his unwillingness to have the girl be the daughter of a convict . According to sportswriter Ed Fitzgerald in SPORT magazine , " [ w ] omen wept unashamed and the entire courtroom burst into spontaneous , prolonged applause . "
Landis had been a lawyer with a corporate practice ; upon his elevation to the bench , corporate litigants expected him to favor them . According to a 1907 magazine article about Landis , " Corporations smiled pleasantly at the thought of a corporation lawyer being on the bench . They smile no more . " In an early case , Landis fined the Allis @-@ Chalmers Manufacturing Company the maximum $ 4 @,@ 000 for illegally importing workers , even though Winifred Landis 's sister 's husband served on the corporate board . In another decision , Landis struck down a challenge to the Interstate Commerce Commission 's ( ICC ) jurisdiction over rebating , a practice banned by the Elkins Act of 1903 in which railroads and favored customers agreed that the customers would pay less than the posted tariff , which by law was to be the same for all shippers . Landis 's decision allowed the ICC to take action against railroads which gave rebates .
= = = Standard Oil ( 1905 – 1909 ) = = =
By the first decade of the 20th century , a number of business entities had formed themselves into trusts , which dominated their industries . Trusts often sought to purchase or otherwise neutralize their competitors , allowing the conglomerates to raise prices to high levels . In 1890 , Congress had passed the Sherman Anti @-@ Trust Act , but it was not until the Theodore Roosevelt administration ( 1901 – 1909 ) that serious efforts were made to break up or control the trusts . The dominant force in the oil industry was Standard Oil , controlled by John D. Rockefeller . Modern @-@ day Exxon , Mobil , Atlantic Richfield , Chevron , Sohio , Amoco and Continental Oil all trace their ancestry to various parts of Standard Oil .
In March 1906 , Commissioner of Corporations James Rudolph Garfield submitted a report to President Roosevelt , alleging large @-@ scale rebating in Standard Oil shipments . Federal prosecutors in several states and territories sought indictments against components of the Standard Oil Trust . On June 28 , 1906 , Standard Oil of Indiana was indicted on 6 @,@ 428 counts of violation of the Elkins Act for accepting rebates on shipments on the Chicago & Alton Railroad . The case was assigned to Landis .
Trial on the 1 @,@ 903 counts that survived pretrial motions began on March 4 , 1907 . The fact that rebates had been given was not contested ; what was at issue was whether Standard Oil knew the railroad 's posted rates , and if it had a duty to enquire if it did not . Landis charged the jury that it " was the duty of the defendant diligently in good faith to get from the Chicago & Alton ... the lawful rate " . The jury found Standard Oil guilty on all 1 @,@ 903 counts .
The maximum fine that Landis could impose was $ 29 @,@ 240 @,@ 000 . To aid the judge in determining the sentence , Landis issued a subpoena for Rockefeller to testify as to Standard Oil 's assets . The tycoon had often evaded subpoenas , not having testified in court since 1888 . Deputy United States marshals visited Rockefeller 's several homes , as well as the estates of his friends , in the hope of finding him . After several days , Rockefeller was found at his lawyer 's estate , Taconic Farm in northwestern Massachusetts , and was served with the subpoena . The tycoon duly came to Landis 's Chicago courtroom , making his way through a mob anxious to see the proceedings . Rockefeller 's actual testimony , proffered after the judge made him wait through several cases and witnesses , proved to be anticlimactic , as he professed almost no knowledge of Standard Oil 's corporate structure or assets .
On August 3 , 1907 , Landis pronounced sentence . He fined Standard Oil the maximum penalty , $ 29 @,@ 240 @,@ 000 , the largest fine imposed on a corporation to that point . The corporation quickly appealed ; in the meantime , Landis was lionized as a hero . According to Pietrusza , " much of the nation could hardly believe a federal judge had finally cracked down on a trust — and cracked down hard " . President Roosevelt , when he heard the sentence , reportedly stated , " That 's bully . " Rockefeller was playing golf in Cleveland when he was brought a telegram containing the news . Rockefeller calmly informed his golfing partners of the amount of the fine , and proceeded to shoot a personal record score , later stating , " Judge Landis will be dead a long time before this fine is paid . " He proved correct ; the verdict and sentence were reversed by the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit on July 22 , 1908 . In January 1909 , the Supreme Court refused to hear the case , and in a new trial before another judge ( Landis recused himself ) , Standard Oil was acquitted .
= = = Federal League and Baby Iraene cases ( 1909 – 1917 ) = = =
A lifelong baseball fan , Landis often slipped away from the courthouse for a White Sox or Cubs game . In 1914 , the two existing major leagues were challenged by a new league , the Federal League . In 1915 , the upstart league brought suit against the existing leagues and owners under the Sherman Act and the case was assigned to Landis . Baseball owners feared that the reserve clause , which forced players to sign new contracts only with their former team , and the 10 @-@ day clause , which allowed teams ( but not players ) to terminate player contracts on ten days notice , would be struck down by Landis .
Landis held hearings in late January 1915 , and newspapers expected a quick decision , certainly before spring training began in March . During the hearings , Landis admonished the parties , " Both sides must understand that any blows at the thing called baseball would be regarded by this court as a blow to a national institution " . When the National League 's chief counsel , future Senator George Wharton Pepper referred to the activities of baseball players on the field as " labor " , Landis interrupted him : " As a result of 30 years of observation , I am shocked because you call playing baseball ' labor . ' " Landis reserved judgment , and the parties waited for his ruling . Spring training passed , as did the entire regular season and the World Series . In December 1915 , still with no word from Landis , the parties reached a settlement , and the Federal League disbanded . Landis made no public statement as to the reasons for his failure to rule , though he told close friends that he had been certain the parties would reach a settlement sooner or later . Most observers thought that Landis waited because he did not want to rule against the two established leagues and their contracts .
In 1916 , Landis presided over the " Ryan Baby " or " Baby Iraene " case . The recent widow of a prominent Chicago banker , Anna Dollie Ledgerwood Matters , had brought a baby girl home from a visit to Canada and claimed that the child was her late husband 's posthumous heir . Matters had left an estate of $ 250 @,@ 000 . However , a shop girl from Ontario , Margaret Ryan , claimed the baby was hers , and brought a writ of habeas corpus in Landis 's court . Ryan stated that she had given birth to the girl in an Ottawa hospital , but had been told her baby had died . In the era before blood and DNA testing , Landis relied on witness testimony and awarded the child to Ryan . The case brought comparisons between Landis and King Solomon , who had judged a similar case . Landis was reversed by the Supreme Court , which held he had no jurisdiction in the matter . A Canadian court later awarded the child to Ryan .
Although Landis was an autocrat in the courtroom , he was less so at home . In a 1916 interview , he stated ,
Every member of this family does exactly what he or she wants to do . Each one is his or her supreme court . Everything for the common good of the family is decided according to the wishes of the whole family . Each one knows what is right and each one can do whatever he thinks is best . It is purely democratic .
= = = Wartime cases ( 1917 – 1919 ) = = =
In early 1917 , Landis considered leaving the bench and returning to private practice — though he greatly enjoyed being a judge , the salary of $ 7 @,@ 500 was considerably lower than what he could make as an attorney . The entry of the United States into World War I in April ended Landis 's determination to resign ; a firm supporter of the war effort , he felt he could best serve the country by remaining on the bench . Despite this decision and his age , fifty , Landis wrote to Secretary of War Newton D. Baker , asking him to take him into the service and send him to France , where the war was raging . Baker urged Landis to make speeches in support of the war instead , which he did . The judge 's son , Reed , had already served briefly in the Illinois National Guard ; when war came he became a pilot and eventually became an ace .
Landis 's disdain for draft dodgers and other opponents of the war was evident in July 1917 , when he presided over the trials of some 120 men , mostly foreign @-@ born Socialists , who had resisted the draft and rioted in Rockford , Illinois . According to Pietrusza , Landis " was frequently brutal in his remarks " to the defendants , interrogating them on their beliefs . Landis tried the case in Rockford , and found all guilty , sentencing all but three to a year and a day in jail , the maximum sentence . The prisoners were ordered to register for the draft after serving their sentences — except 37 , whom he ordered deported .
On September 5 , 1917 , federal officers raided the national headquarters , in Chicago , of the Industrial Workers of the World ( IWW , sometimes " Wobblies " ) , as well as 48 of the union 's halls across the nation . The union had opposed the war and urged members and others to refuse conscription into the armed forces . On September 28 , 166 IWW leaders , including union head Big Bill Haywood were indicted in the Northern District of Illinois ; their cases were assigned to Landis . Some 40 of the indicted men could not be found ; a few others had charges dismissed against them . Ultimately , Landis presided over a trial against 113 defendants , the largest federal criminal trial to that point .
The trial began on April 1 , 1918 . Landis quickly dismissed charges against a dozen defendants , including one A.C. Christ , who showed up in newly @-@ obtained Army uniform . Jury selection occupied a month . Journalist John Reed attended the trial , and wrote of his impressions of Landis :
Small on the huge bench sits a wasted man with untidy white hair , an emaciated face in which two burning eyes are set like jewels , parchment @-@ like skin split by a crack for a mouth ; the face of Andrew Jackson three years dead ... Upon this man has devolved the historic role of trying the Social Revolution . He is doing it like a gentleman . In many ways a most unusual trial . When the judge enters the court @-@ room after recess , no one rises — he himself has abolished the pompous formality . He sits without robes , in an ordinary business suit , and often leaves the bench to come down and perch on the step of the jury box . By his personal orders , spittoons are placed by the prisoners ' seats ... and as for the prisoners themselves , they are permitted to take off their coats , move around , read newspapers . It takes some human understanding for a Judge to fly in the face of judicial ritual as much as that .
Haywood biographer Melvyn Dubofsky wrote that Landis " exercised judicial objectivity and restraint for five long months " . Baseball historian Harold Seymour stated that " [ o ] n the whole , Landis conducted the trial with restraint , despite his reputation as a foe of all radical groups . " Landis dismissed charges against an elderly defendant who was in obvious pain as he testified , and allowed the release of a number of prisoners on bail or on their own recognizances .
On August 17 , 1918 , following the closing argument for the prosecution ( the defendants waived argument ) , Landis instructed the jury . The lead defense counsel objected to the wording of the jury charge several times , but Haywood believed it to have been fair . After 65 minutes , the jury returned with guilty verdicts for all of the remaining accused , much to their shock ; they had believed that Landis 's charge pointed towards their acquittal . When the defendants returned to court on August 29 , Landis listened with patience to the defendants ' final pleas . For the sentencing , according to Richard Cahan in his history of Chicago 's district court , " mild @-@ mannered Landis returned a changed man " . Although two defendants received only ten days in jail , all others received at least a year and a day , and Haywood and fourteen others received twenty years . A number of defendants , including Haywood , obtained bail during the appeal ; even before Haywood 's appeals were exhausted , he jumped bail and took ship for the Soviet Union . The labor leader hung a portrait of Landis in his Moscow apartment , and when Haywood died in 1928 , he was interred near John Reed ( who had died of illness in Moscow after the Bolshevik Revolution ) in the Kremlin Wall — they remain the only two Americans so honored . President Calvin Coolidge commuted the sentences of the remaining incarcerated defendants in 1923 , much to the disgust of Landis , who issued an angry statement . After leaving his judgeship , Landis referred to the defendants in the Haywood case as " scum " , " filth " , and " slimy rats " .
Landis hoped that the Kaiser , Wilhelm II would be captured and tried in his court ; he wanted to indict the Kaiser for the murder of a Chicagoan who lost his life on the RMS Lusitania in 1915 . The State Department notified Landis that extradition treaties did not permit the rendition of the Kaiser , who fled into exile in the Netherlands as the war concluded . Nevertheless , in a speech , Landis demanded that Kaiser Wilhelm , his six sons , and 5 @,@ 000 German military leaders " be lined up against a wall and shot down in justice to the world and to Germany " .
Even with the armistice in November 1918 , the war @-@ related trials continued . The Socialist Party of America , like the IWW , had opposed the war , and had also been raided by federal authorities . Seven Socialist Party leaders , including Victor Berger , who was elected to Congress in November 1918 , were indicted for alleged anti @-@ war activities . The defendants were charged under the Espionage Act of 1917 , which made it illegal " to utter , print , write , or publish any disloyal , profane , scurrilous or abusive language " about the armed forces , the flag , the Constitution , or democracy . The defendants , who were mostly of German birth or descent , moved for a change of venue away from Landis 's courtroom , alleging that Landis had stated on November 1 , 1918 that " [ i ] f anybody has said anything about the Germans that is worse than I have said , I would like to hear it so I could use it myself . " Landis , however , examined the transcript of the trial in which the statement was supposedly made , failed to find it , declared the affidavit in support of the motion " perjurious " , and denied the motion . While the jury was being selected , Berger was indicted on additional espionage charges for supposedly violating the law during an earlier , unsuccessful political campaign . At the conclusion of the case , Landis took an hour to dramatically charge the jury , emphasizing the secretive nature of conspiracies and pointing at the jury box as he noted , " the country was then at war " . At one point , Landis leapt out of his seat , twirled his chair around , then sat on its arm . Later in his charge , he lay prone upon the bench . The jury took less than a day to convict Congressman @-@ elect Berger and his four remaining codefendants . Landis sentenced each defendant to twenty years in federal prison . Landis denied the defendants bail pending appeal ; but they quickly obtained it from an appellate court judge . The Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals declined to rule on the case itself , sending it on to the Supreme Court , which on January 31 , 1921 overturned the convictions and sentences by a 6 – 3 vote , holding that Landis should have stepped aside once he was satisfied that the affidavit was legally sufficient , leaving it for another judge to decide whether it was actually true . Landis refused to comment on the Supreme Court 's decision , which ordered a new trial . In 1922 , charges against the defendants were dropped by the government .
= = = Building trades award , controversy , and resignation ( 1920 – 1922 ) = = =
The postwar period saw considerable deflation ; the shortage of labor and materials during the war had led to much higher wages and prices , and in the postwar economic readjustment , wages were cut heavily . In Chicago , employers in the building trades attempted a 20 % wage cut ; when this was rejected by the unions , a lockout followed . Both sides agreed to submit the matter to a neutral arbitrator , and settled on Landis , who agreed to take the case in June 1921 . By this time , Landis was Commissioner of Baseball , and still a federal judge . In September , Landis issued his report , cutting wages by an average of 12 @.@ 5 % . To improve productivity , he also struck restrictions on machinery which saved labor , established a standardized overtime rate , and resolved jurisdictional conflicts between unions . The labor organizations were not completely satisfied , but Landis 's reforms were adopted in many places across the country and were credited with reviving the building industry .
Criticism of Landis having both the judicial and baseball positions began almost as soon as his baseball appointment was announced in November 1920 . On February 2 , 1921 , lame duck Congressman Benjamin F. Welty ( Democrat @-@ Ohio ) offered a resolution calling for Landis 's impeachment . On February 11 , Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer opined that there was no legal impediment to Landis holding both jobs . On February 14 , the House Judiciary Committee voted 24 – 1 to investigate Landis . Reed Landis later stated , " [ n ] one of the other congressmen wanted Father impeached but they did want him to come down and defend himself because they knew what a show it would be . "
Although Welty 's departure from office on March 4 , 1921 began a lull in criticism of Landis , in April , the judge made a controversial decision in the case of Francis J. Carey , a 19 @-@ year @-@ old bank teller , who had pleaded guilty to embezzling $ 96 @,@ 500 . Carey , the sole support of his widowed mother and unmarried sisters , gained Landis 's sympathy . He accused the bank of underpaying Carey , and sent the youth home with his mother . Two members of the Senate objected to Landis 's actions , and the New York Post compared Carey with Les Misérables 's Jean Valjean , noting " [ b ] etween a loaf of bread [ Valjean was incarcerated for stealing one ] and $ 96 @,@ 500 there is a difference . " A bill barring outside employment by federal judges had been introduced by Landis 's foes , but had expired with the end of the congressional session in March ; his opponents tried again in July , and the bill failed in the Senate on a tie vote . On September 1 , 1921 , the American Bar Association , a trade group of lawyers , passed a resolution of censure against Landis .
By the end of 1921 , the controversy was dying down , and Landis felt that he could resign without looking pressured . On February 18 , 1922 , he announced his resignation as judge effective March 1 , stating , " There are not enough hours in the day for all these activities " . In his final case , he fined two theatre owners for evading the federal amusement tax . One owner had refused to make restitution before sentencing ; he was fined $ 5 @,@ 000 . The owner who had tried to make his shortfall good was fined one cent .
= = Commissioner ( 1920 – 1944 ) = =
= = = Appointment = = =
= = = = Black Sox scandal = = = =
By 1919 , the influence of gamblers on baseball had been a problem for several years . Historian Paul Gardner wrote ,
Baseball had for some time been living uneasily in the knowledge that bribes were being offered by gamblers , and that some players were accepting them . The players knew it was going on , and the owners knew it was going on . But more important , the players knew that the owners knew — and they knew the owners were doing nothing about it for fear of a scandal that might damage organized baseball . Under such conditions it quite obviously did not pay to be honest .
The 1919 World Series between the Chicago White Sox and Cincinnati Reds was much anticipated , as the nation attempted to return to normalcy in the postwar period . Baseball had seen a surge of popularity during the 1919 season , which set several attendance records . The powerful White Sox , with their superstar batter " Shoeless Joe " Jackson and star pitchers Eddie Cicotte and Claude " Lefty " Williams , were believed likely to defeat the less @-@ well @-@ regarded Reds . To the surprise of many , the Reds defeated the White Sox , five games to three ( during 1919 – 1921 , the World Series was a best @-@ of @-@ nine affair ) .
Rumors that the series was fixed began to circulate after gambling odds against the Reds winning dropped sharply before the series began , and gained more credibility after the White Sox lost four of the first five games . Cincinnati lost the next two games , and speculation began that the Reds were losing on purpose to extend the series and increase gate revenues . However , Cincinnati won Game Eight , 10 – 5 , to end the series , as Williams lost his third game ( Cicotte lost the other two ) . After the series , according to Gene Carney , who wrote a book about the scandal , " there was more than the usual complaining from those who had bet big on the Sox and lost " .
The issue of the 1919 Series came to the public eye again in September 1920 , when , after allegations that a game between the Chicago Cubs and Philadelphia Phillies on August 31 had been fixed , a grand jury was empaneled in state court in Chicago to investigate baseball gambling . Additional news came from Philadelphia , where gambler Billy Maharg stated that he had worked with former boxer Abe Attell and New York gambler Arnold Rothstein to get the White Sox to throw the 1919 Series . Cicotte and Jackson were called before the grand jury , where they gave statements incriminating themselves and six teammates : Williams , first baseman Chick Gandil , shortstop Swede Risberg , third baseman Buck Weaver , center fielder Happy Felsch and reserve infielder Fred McMullin . Williams and Felsch were also called before the grand jury and incriminated themselves and their teammates . Through late September , the 1920 American League season had been one of the most exciting on record , with the White Sox , Cleveland Indians , and New York Yankees dueling for the league lead . By September 28 , the Yankees were close to elimination , but the White Sox and Indians were within percentage points of each other . On that day , however , the eight players , seven of whom were still on the White Sox , were indicted . They were immediately suspended by White Sox owner Charles Comiskey . The Indians were able to pull ahead and win the pennant , taking the American League championship by two games over Chicago .
= = = = Search for a commissioner = = = =
Baseball had been governed by a three @-@ man National Commission , consisting of American League President Ban Johnson , National League President John Heydler and Cincinnati Reds owner Garry Herrmann . In January 1920 , Herrmann left office at the request of other club owners , leaving the Commission effectively deadlocked between Johnson and Heydler . A number of club owners , disliking one or both league presidents , preferred a single commissioner to rule over the game , but were willing to see the National Commission continue if Herrmann was replaced by someone who would provide strong leadership . Landis 's name was mentioned in the press for this role , and the influential baseball newspaper The Sporting News sought his appointment .
Another proposal , known as the " Lasker Plan " after Albert Lasker , a shareholder in the Chicago Cubs who had proposed it , was for a three @-@ man commission to govern the game , drawn from outside baseball . On September 30 , 1920 , with the Black Sox scandal exposed , National League President Heydler began to advocate for the Lasker Plan , and by the following day , four major league teams had supported him . Among the names discussed in the press for membership on the new commission were Landis , former Secretary of the Treasury William Gibbs McAdoo , former President William Howard Taft , and General John J. Pershing .
The start of the 1920 World Series on October 5 distracted the public from baseball 's woes for a time , but discussions continued behind the scenes . By mid @-@ October , 11 of the 16 team owners ( all eight from the National League and the owners of the American League Yankees , White Sox and Boston Red Sox ) were demanding the end of the National Commission and the appointment of a three @-@ man commission whose members would have no financial interest in baseball . Heydler stated his views on baseball 's requirements :
We want a man as chairman who will rule with an iron hand ... Baseball has lacked a hand like that for years . It needs it now worse than ever . Therefore , it is our object to appoint a big man to lead the new commission .
On November 8 , the owners of the eight National League and three American League teams which supported the Lasker Plan met and unanimously selected Landis as head of the proposed commission . The American League clubs that supported the plan threatened to move to the National League , away from Johnson , who opposed the plan . Johnson had hoped that the minor leagues would support his position ; when they did not , he and the " Loyal Five " teams agreed to the Lasker Plan . In the discussions among the owners that followed , they decided that Landis would be the only commissioner – no associate members would be elected . On November 12 , the team owners came to Landis 's courtroom to approach him . Landis was trying a bribery case ; when he heard noise in the back of the courtroom from the owners , he gaveled them to silence . He made them wait 45 minutes while he completed his docket , then met with them in his chambers .
The judge heard out the owners ; after expressing initial reluctance , he took the job for seven years at a salary of $ 50 @,@ 000 , on condition he could remain on the federal bench . During Landis 's time serving as both judge and commissioner , he allowed a $ 7 @,@ 500 reduction in his salary as commissioner , to reflect his pay as judge . The appointment of Landis was met with acclaim in the press . A tentative agreement was signed by the parties a month later — an agreement which itemized Landis 's powers over baseball , and which was drafted by the judge . The owners were still reeling from the perception that baseball was crooked , and accepted the agreement virtually without dissent . Under the terms of the contract , Landis could not be dismissed by the team owners , have his pay reduced , or even be criticized by them in public . He also had nearly unlimited authority over every person employed in the major or minor leagues , from owners to batboys . The owners waived any recourse to the courts to contest Landis 's will . Humorist Will Rogers stated , " [ D ] on 't kid yourself that that old judicial bird isn 't going to make those baseball birds walk the chalkline " . Player and manager Leo Durocher later stated , " The legend has been spread that the owners hired the Judge off the federal bench . Don 't you believe it . They got him right out of Dickens . "
= = = Establishing control = = =
= = = = Banning the Black Sox = = = =
On January 30 , 1921 , Landis , speaking at an Illinois church , warned :
Now that I am in baseball , just watch the game I play . If I catch any crook in baseball , the rest of his life is going to be a pretty hot one . I 'll go to any means and to anything possible to see that he gets a real penalty for his offense .
The criminal case against the Black Sox defendants suffered unexpected setbacks , with evidence vanishing , including some of the incriminating statements made to the grand jury . The prosecution was forced to dismiss the original indictments , and bring new charges against seven of the ballplayers ( McMullin was not charged again ) . Frustrated by the delays , Landis placed all eight on an " ineligible list " , banning them from major and minor league baseball . Comiskey supported Landis by giving the seven who remained under contract to the White Sox their unconditional release . Public sentiment was heavily against the ballplayers , and when Jackson , Williams , Felsch , and Weaver played in a semi @-@ pro game , The Sporting News mocked the 3 @,@ 000 attendees , " Just Like Nuts Go to See a Murderer " .
The criminal trial of the Black Sox indictees began in early July 1921 . Despite what Robert C. Cottrell , in his book on the scandal , terms " the mysterious loss of evidence " , the prosecution was determined to pursue the case , demanding five @-@ year prison terms for the ballplayers for defrauding the public by throwing the World Series . On August 2 , 1921 , the jury returned not guilty verdicts against all defendants , leading to happy pandemonium in the courtroom , joined by the courtroom bailiffs , with even the trial judge , Hugo Friend , looking visibly pleased . The players and jury then repaired to an Italian restaurant and partied well into the night .
The jubilation proved short @-@ lived . On August 3 , Landis issued a statement :
Regardless of the verdict of juries , no player that throws a ball game ; no player that undertakes or promises to throw a ball game ; no player that sits in a conference with a bunch of crooked players and gamblers where the ways and means of throwing ball games are planned and discussed and does not promptly tell his club about it , will ever play professional baseball . Of course , I don 't know that any of these men will apply for reinstatement , but if they do , the above are at least a few of the rules that will be enforced . Just keep in mind that , regardless of the verdict of juries , baseball is competent to protect itself against crooks , both inside and outside the game .
According to ESPN columnist Rob Neyer , " with that single decision , Landis might have done more for the sport than anyone else , ever . Certainly , Landis never did anything more important . " According to Carney , " The public amputation of the eight Sox was seen as the only acceptable cure . " Over the years of Landis 's commissionership , a number of the players applied for reinstatement to the game , notably Jackson and Weaver . Jackson , raised in rural South Carolina and with limited education , was said to have been drawn unwillingly into the conspiracy , while Weaver , though admitting his presence at the meetings , stated that he took no money . Both men stated that their play on the field , and their batting percentages during the series ( .375 for Jackson , .324 for Weaver ) indicated that they did not help to throw the series . None was ever reinstated , with Landis telling a group of Weaver supporters that his presence at the meetings with the gamblers was sufficient to bar him . Even today , long after the deaths of all three men , efforts are periodically made to reinstate Jackson ( which would make him eligible for election to the National Baseball Hall of Fame ) and Weaver ( deemed by some the least culpable of the eight ) . In the 1990s , a petition drive to reinstate Jackson drew 60 @,@ 000 signatures . He has been treated sympathetically in movies such as Eight Men Out and Field of Dreams , and Hall of Famers Ted Williams and Bob Feller expressed their support for Jackson 's induction into the Hall . Landis 's expulsion of the eight men remains in force .
= = = = Cracking down on gambling = = = =
Landis felt that the Black Sox scandal had been initiated by people involved in horse racing , and stated that " by God , as long as I have anything to do with this game , they 'll never get another hold on it . " In 1921 , his first season as commissioner , New York Giants owner Charles Stoneham and manager John McGraw purchased Oriental Park Racetrack in Havana , Cuba . Landis insisted that they could be involved in baseball or horse racing , but not both . They sold the track .
Even before the Black Sox scandal had been resolved , Commissioner Landis acted to clean up other gambling cases . Eugene Paulette , a first baseman for the Philadelphia Phillies , had been with the St. Louis Cardinals in 1919 , and had met with gamblers . It is uncertain if any games were fixed , but Paulette had written a letter naming two other Cardinals who might be open to throwing games . The letter had fallen into the hands of Phillies President William F. Baker , who had taken no action until Landis 's appointment , then turned the letter over to him . Paulette met with Landis once , denying any wrongdoing , then refused further meetings . Landis placed him on the ineligible list in March 1921 . In November 1921 , Landis banned former St. Louis Browns player Joe Gedeon . The player had been released by the Browns after admitting to sitting in on meetings with gamblers who were trying to raise the money to bribe the Black Sox , and a minor league official asked if he was eligible . Landis settled the matter by placing Gedeon on the ineligible list .
Two other player gambling affairs marked Landis 's early years as commissioner . In 1922 , Giants pitcher Phil Douglas , embittered at McGraw for disciplining him for heavy drinking , wrote a letter to Cardinals outfielder Leslie Mann , suggesting that he would take a bribe to ensure the Giants did not win the pennant . Although Mann had been a friend , the outfielder neither smoked nor drank and had long been associated with the YMCA movement ; according to baseball historian Lee Allen , Douglas might as well have sent the letter to Landis himself . Mann immediately turned over the letter to his manager , Branch Rickey , who ordered Mann to contact Landis at once . The Giants placed Douglas on the ineligible list , an action backed by Landis after meeting with the pitcher . On September 27 , 1924 , Giants outfielder Jimmy O 'Connell offered Phillies shortstop Heinie Sand $ 500 if Sand didn 't " bear down too hard against us today " . Sand was initially inclined to let the matter pass , but recalling the fate of Weaver and other Black Sox players , told his manager , Art Fletcher . Fletcher met with Heydler , who contacted Landis . O 'Connell did not deny the bribe attempt , and was placed on the ineligible list .
In total , Landis banned eighteen players from the game . Landis biographer Pietrusza details the effect of Landis 's stand against gambling :
Before 1920 if one player approached another player to throw a contest , there was a very good chance he would not be informed upon . Now , there was an excellent chance he would be turned in . No honest player wanted to meet the same fate as Buck Weaver ... Without the forbidding example of Buck Weaver to haunt them , it is unlikely Mann and Sand would have snitched on their fellow players . After Landis ' unforgiving treatment of the popular and basically honest Weaver they dared not to . And once prospectively crooked players knew that honest players would no longer shield them , the scandals stopped .
= = = = Ruth @-@ Meusel barnstorming incident = = = =
At the time of Landis 's appointment as commissioner , it was common for professional baseball players to supplement their pay by participating in postseason " barnstorming " tours , playing on teams which would visit smaller cities and towns to play games for which admission would be charged . Since 1911 , however , players on the two World Series teams had been barred from barnstorming . The rule had been indifferently enforced — in 1916 , several members of the champion Red Sox , including pitcher George Herman " Babe " Ruth had barnstormed and had been fined a token $ 100 each by the National Commission .
Ruth , who after the 1919 season had been sold to the Yankees , and who by then had mostly abandoned his pitching role for the outfield , was the focus of considerable fan interest as he broke batting records in 1920 and 1921 , some by huge margins . Ruth 's major league record 29 home runs with the Red Sox in 1919 fell to his own efforts in 1920 , when he hit 54 . He then proceeded to hit 59 in 1921 , leading the Yankees to their first pennant . Eight major league teams failed to hit as many home runs in 1921 as Ruth hit by himself . The Yankees lost the 1921 World Series to the Giants ( Ruth was injured and missed several games ) and after the series , the outfielder proposed to capitalize on fan interest by leading a team of barnstormers , including Yankees teammate Bob Meusel , in violation of the rule . According to Cottrell ,
[ T ] he two men clashed who helped the national pastime overcome the Black Sox scandal , one through his seemingly iron will , the other thanks to his magical bat . Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis and Babe Ruth battled over the right of a ballplayer from a pennant @-@ winning squad to barnstorm in the off @-@ season . Also involved was the commissioner 's continued determination to display , as he had through his banishment of the Black Sox , that he had established the boundaries for organized baseball . These boundaries , Landis intended to demonstrate , applied even to the sport 's most popular and greatest star . Significant too , only Babe Ruth now contended with Commissioner Landis for the title of baseball 's most important figure .
Ruth had asked Yankees general manager Ed Barrow for permission to barnstorm . Barrow had no objection but warned Ruth he must obtain Landis 's consent . Landis biographer Spink , who was at the time the editor of The Sporting News , stated , " I can say that Ruth knew exactly what he was doing when he defied Landis in October , 1921 . He was willing to back his own popularity and well @-@ known drawing powers against the Judge . " Ruth , to the commissioner 's irritation , did not contact Landis until October 15 , one day before the first exhibition . When the two spoke by telephone , Landis ordered Ruth to attend a meeting with him ; Ruth refused , stating that he had to leave for Buffalo for the first game . Landis angrily refused consent for Ruth to barnstorm , and after slamming down the receiver , is recorded as saying , " Who the hell does that big ape think he is ? That blankety @-@ blank ! If he goes on that trip it will be one of the sorriest things he has ever done . " By one account , Yankees co @-@ owner Colonel Tillinghast Huston attempted to dissuade Ruth as he departed , only to be told by the ballplayer , " Aw , tell the old guy to jump in a lake . "
The tour also featured fellow Yankees Bob Meusel and Bill Piercy ( who had been called up late in the season and was ineligible for the World Series ) as well as Tom Sheehan , who had been sent to the minor leagues before the end of the season . Two other Yankees , Carl Mays and Wally Schang , had been scheduled to join the tour , but given Landis 's position , according to Spink , " wisely decided to pass it up " . Spink describes the tour as " a fiasco . " On Landis 's orders , it was barred from all major and minor league ballparks . In addition , it was plagued by poor weather , and was called off in late October . In early December , Landis suspended Ruth , Piercy , and Meusel until May 20 , 1922 . Yankee management was actually relieved ; they had feared Landis would suspend Ruth for the season or even longer . Both the Yankees and Ruth repeatedly asked Landis for the players ' early reinstatement , which was refused , and when Landis visited the Yankees during spring training in New Orleans , he lectured Ruth for two hours on the value of obeying authority . " He sure can talk " , noted Ruth .
When Ruth returned on May 20 , he batted 0 @-@ for @-@ 4 , and was booed by the crowd at the Polo Grounds . According to Pietrusza , " Always a politician , there was one boss Landis did fear : public opinion . He had no guarantee at the start of the Ruth controversy that the public and press would back him as he assumed unprecedented powers over baseball . Now , he knew they would .
= = = Policies as commissioner = = =
= = = = Major @-@ minor league relations ; development of the farm system = = = =
At the start of Landis 's commissionership , the minor league teams were for the most part autonomous of the major leagues ; in fact the minor leagues independently chose to accept Landis 's rule . To ensure players did not become mired in the minor leagues without a chance to earn their way out , major league teams were able to draft players who played two consecutive years with the same minor league team . Several minor leagues were not subject to the draft ; Landis fought for the inclusion of these leagues , feeling that the non @-@ draft leagues could prevent players from advancing as they became more skilled . By 1924 , he had succeeded , as the International League , the final holdout , accepted the draft .
By the mid @-@ 1920s , major league clubs were beginning to develop " farm systems " , that is , minor league teams owned or controlled by them , at which they could develop young prospects without the risk of the players being acquired by major league rivals . The pioneer in this development was Branch Rickey , who then ran the St. Louis Cardinals . As the 1921 National Agreement among the major and minor leagues which implemented Landis 's hiring lifted a ban on major league teams owning minor league ones , Landis was limited in his avenues of attack on Rickey 's schemes . Developing talent at little cost thanks to Rickey , the Cardinals dominated the National League , winning nine league titles in the years from 1926 to 1946 .
Soon after Landis 's appointment , he surprised the major league owners by requiring that they disclose their minor league interests . Landis fought against the practice of " covering up " , using transfers between two teams controlled by the same major league team to make players ineligible for the draft . His first formal act as commissioner was to declare infielder Phil Todt a free agent , dissolving his contract with the St. Louis Browns ( at the time run by Rickey , who soon thereafter moved across town to run the Cardinals ) ; in 1928 he ruled future Hall of Famer Chuck Klein a free agent as he held the Cardinals had tried to cover Klein up . The following year , he freed Detroit Tigers prospect and future Hall of Famer Rick Ferrell , who attracted a significant signing bonus from the Browns . In 1936 , Landis found that teenage pitching prospect Bob Feller 's signing by minor league club Fargo @-@ Moorhead had been a charade ; the young pitcher was for all intents and purposes property of the Cleveland Indians . However , Feller indicated that he wanted to play for Cleveland and Landis issued a ruling which required the Indians to pay damages to minor league clubs , but allowed them to retain Feller , who went on to a Hall of Fame career with the Indians .
Landis 's attempts to crack down on " covering up " provoked the only time he was ever sued by one of his owners . After the 1930 season , minor leaguer Fred Bennett , convinced he was being covered up by the Browns , petitioned Landis for his release . Landis ruled that the Browns could either keep Bennett on their roster for the entire 1931 season , trade him , or release him . Instead , Browns owner Phil Ball brought suit against Landis in his old court in Chicago . Federal Judge Walter Lindley ruled for Landis , noting that the agreements and rules were intended to " endow the Commissioner with all the attributes of a benevolent but absolute despot and all the disciplinary powers of the proverbial pater familias " . Ball intended to appeal , but after a meeting between team owners and Landis in which the commissioner reminded owners of their agreement not to sue , agreed to drop the case .
Landis had hoped that the large Cardinal farm system would become economically unfeasible ; when it proved successful for the Cardinals , he had tolerated it for several years and was in a poor position to abolish it . In 1938 , however , finding that the Cardinals effectively controlled multiple teams in the same league ( a practice disliked by Landis ) , he freed 70 players from their farm system . As few of the players were likely prospects for the major leagues , Landis 's actions generated headlines , but had little effect on the Cardinals organization , and the development of the modern farm system , whereby each major league club has several minor league teams which it uses to develop talent , proceeded apace . Rob Neyer describes Landis 's effort as " a noble effort in a good cause , but it was also doomed to fail . "
= = = = Baseball color line = = = =
One of the most controversial aspects of Landis 's commissionership is the question of race . From 1884 , black ballplayers were informally banned from organized baseball . No black ballplayer played in organized baseball during Landis 's commissionership ; Rickey ( then running the Brooklyn Dodgers ) broke the color line by signing Jackie Robinson to play for the minor league Montreal Royals in 1946 , after Landis 's death ; Robinson became the first black in the major leagues since the 19th century , playing with the Dodgers beginning in 1947 .
According to contemporary newspaper columns , at the time of his appointment as commissioner , Landis was considered a liberal on race questions ; two Chicago African @-@ American newspapers defended him against the 1921 efforts to impeach him from his judgeship . A number of baseball authors have ascribed racism to Landis , who they say actively perpetuated baseball 's color line . James Bankes , in The Pittsburgh Crawfords , tracing the history of that Negro League team , states that Landis , whom the author suggests was a Southerner , made " little effort to disguise his racial prejudice during 25 years in office " and " remained a steadfast foe of integration " . Negro League historian John Holway termed Landis " the hard @-@ bitten Carolinian [ sic ] Kennesaw [ sic ] Mountain Landis " . In a 2000 article in Smithsonian magazine , writer Bruce Watson states that Landis " upheld baseball 's unwritten ban on black players and did nothing to push owners toward integration " . A number of authors say that Landis banned major league play against black teams for fear the white teams would lose , though they ascribe various dates for this action , and the Dodgers are known to have played black teams in and around their Havana spring training base as late as 1942 .
Landis 's documented actions on race are inconsistent . In 1938 , Yankee Jake Powell was interviewed by a radio station , and when asked what he did in the offseason , made comments that were interpreted as meaning he worked as a police officer and beat up African Americans . Landis suspended Powell for ten days . In June 1942 , the Negro League Kansas City Monarchs played several games against the white " Dizzy Dean All @-@ Stars " at major league ballparks , attracting large crowds . After three games , all won by the Monarchs , Landis ordered a fourth canceled , on the ground that the games were outdrawing major league contests . On one occasion , Landis intervened in Negro League affairs , though he had no jurisdiction to do so . The Crawfords lost a game to a white semi @-@ pro team when their star catcher , Josh Gibson dropped a pop fly , and Gibson was accused of throwing the game at the behest of gamblers . Landis summoned the black catcher to his office , interviewed him , and announced Gibson was cleared of wrongdoing .
In July 1942 , Dodger manager Leo Durocher charged that there was a " grapevine understanding " keeping blacks out of baseball . He was summoned to Landis 's Chicago office , and after emerging from a meeting with the commissioner , alleged that he had been misquoted . Landis then addressed the press , and stated , "
Negroes are not barred from organized baseball by the commissioner and never have been in the 21 years I have served . There is no rule in organized baseball prohibiting their participation and never has been to my knowledge . If Durocher , or if any other manager , or all of them , want to sign one , or twenty @-@ five Negro players , it is all right with me . That is the business of the managers and the club owners . The business of the commissioner is to interpret the rules of baseball , and to enforce them .
In his 1961 memoir , Veeck as in Wreck , longtime baseball executive and owner Bill Veeck told of his plan , in 1942 , to buy the Phillies and stock the team with Negro League stars . Veeck wrote that he told Landis , who reacted with shock , and soon moved to block the purchase . In his book , Veeck placed some of the blame on National League President Ford Frick , but later reserved blame exclusively for Landis , whom he accused of racism , stating in a subsequent interview , " [ a ] fter all , a man who is named Kenesaw Mountain was not born and raised in the state of Maine . " However , when Veeck was asked for proof of his allegations against Landis , he stated , " I have no proof of that . I can only surmise . " According to baseball historian David Jordan , " Veeck , nothing if not a storyteller , seems to have added these embellishments , sticking in some guys in black hats , simply to juice up his tale . "
In November 1943 , Landis agreed after some persuasion that black sportswriter Sam Lacy should make a case for integration of organized baseball before the owners ' annual meeting . Instead of Lacy attending the meeting , actor Paul Robeson did . Robeson , though a noted black actor and advocate of civil rights , was a controversial figure due to his affiliation with the Communist Party . The owners heard Robeson out , but at Landis 's suggestion , did not ask him any questions or begin any discussion with him .
Neyer noted that " Landis has been blamed for delaying the integration of the major leagues , but the truth is that the owners didn 't want black players in the majors any more than Landis did . And it 's not likely that , even if Landis hadn 't died in 1944 , he could have prevented Branch Rickey from bringing Jackie Robinson to the National League in 1947 . " C.C. Johnson Spink , son of Landis biographer J.G. Taylor Spink and his successor as editor of The Sporting News , noted in the introduction to the reissue of his father 's biography of Landis ,
K.M. Landis was quite human and not infallible . If , for example , he did drag his feet at erasing baseball 's color line , he was grievously wrong , but then so were many others of his post @-@ Civil War generation .
= = = = World Series and All @-@ Star Game ; other innovations = = = =
Landis took full jurisdiction over the World Series , as a contest between representatives of the two major leagues . Landis was blamed when the umpires called a game on account of darkness with the score tied during the 1922 World Series , even though there was still light . Landis decided that such decisions in future would be made by himself , moved forward the starting time of World Series games in future years , and announced that proceeds from the tied game would be donated to charity . In the 1932 World Series , Landis ordered that tickets for Game One at Yankee Stadium only be sold as part of strips , forcing fans to purchase tickets for all Yankee home games during that Series . Bad weather and the poor economy resulted in a half @-@ filled stadium , and Landis allowed individual game sales for Game Two . During the 1933 World Series , he instituted a rule that only he could throw a player out of a World Series game , a rule which followed the ejection of Washington Senator Heinie Manush by umpire Charley Moran . The following year , with the visiting Cardinals ahead of the Detroit Tigers , 9 – 0 in Game Seven , he removed Cardinal Joe Medwick from the game for his own safety when Medwick , the left fielder , was pelted with fruit by Tiger fans after Medwick had been involved in a fight with one of the Tigers . Spink notes that Landis would most likely not have done so were the game within reach of the Tigers . In the 1938 World Series , umpire Moran was hit by a wild throw and suffered facial injuries . He was able to continue , but the incident caused Landis to order that World Series games and All @-@ Star Games be played with six umpires .
The All @-@ Star Game began in 1933 ; Landis had been a strong supporter of the proposal for such a contest , and after the first game remarked , " That 's a grand show , and it should be continued . " He never missed an All @-@ Star Game in his lifetime ; his final public appearance was at the 1944 All @-@ Star Game in Pittsburgh .
In 1928 , National League ball clubs proposed an innovation whereby each team 's pitcher , usually the weakest hitter in the lineup , would not bat , but be replaced for the purposes of batting and base @-@ running by a tenth player . There were expectations that at the interleague meetings that year , the National League teams would vote for it , and the American League teams against it , leaving Landis to cast the deciding vote . In the event , the proposal was withdrawn , and Landis did not disclose how he would have voted on this early version of the " designated hitter " rule .
Landis disliked the innovation of " night baseball " , played in the evening with the aid of artificial light , and sought to discourage teams from it . Despite this , he attended the first successful minor league night game , in Des Moines , Iowa , in 1930 . When major league night baseball began in the late 1930s , Landis got the owners to restrict the number of such games . During World War II , many restrictions on night baseball were reduced , with the Washington Senators permitted to play all their home games ( except those on Sundays and holidays ) at night .
= = = World War II , death , and legacy = = =
With the entry of the United States into World War II in late 1941 , Landis wrote to President Franklin D. Roosevelt , inquiring as to the wartime status of baseball . The President responded urging Landis to keep baseball open , foreseeing that even those fully engaged in war work would benefit from inexpensive diversions such as attending baseball games . Many major leaguers enlisted or were drafted ; even so Landis repeatedly stated , " We 'll play as long as we can put nine men on the field . " Although many of the teams practiced at their normal spring training sites in 1942 , beginning the following year they were required to train near their home cities or in the Northeast . Landis was as virulently opposed to the Axis Powers as he had been towards the Kaiser , writing that peace would not be possible until " about fifteen thousand little Hitler , Himmlers and Hirohitos " were killed .
Landis retained a firm hold on baseball despite his advancing years and , in 1943 , banned Phillies owner William D. Cox from baseball for betting on his own team . In 1927 , Landis 's stance regarding gambling had been codified in the rules of baseball : " Any player , umpire , or club or league official or employee who shall bet any sum whatsoever upon any baseball game in connection with which the bettor had a duty to perform shall be declared permanently ineligible . " Cox was required to sell his stake in the Phillies .
In early October 1944 , Landis checked into St. Luke 's Hospital in Chicago , where his wife Winifred had been hospitalized , with a severe cold . While in the hospital , he had a heart attack , causing him to miss the World Series for the first time in his commissionership . He remained fully alert , and as usual signed the World Series share checks to players . His contract was due to expire in January 1946 ; on November 17 , 1944 , baseball 's owners voted him another seven @-@ year term . However , on November 25 , he died surrounded by family , five days after his 78th birthday . His longtime assistant , Leslie O 'Connor , wept as he read the announcement for the press . Landis is buried at Oak Woods Cemetery in Chicago .
Two weeks after his death , Landis was voted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame by a special committee vote . The Baseball Writers ' Association of America renamed its Most Valuable Player Awards after Landis .
American League President Will Harridge said of Landis , " He was a wonderful man . His great qualities and downright simplicity impressed themselves deeply on all who knew him . " Pietrusza suggests that the legend on Landis 's Hall of Fame plaque is his true legacy : " His integrity and leadership established baseball in the esteem , respect , and affection of the American people . " Pietrusza notes that Landis was hired by the baseball owners to clean up the sport , and " no one could deny Kenesaw Mountain Landis had accomplished what he had been hired to do " . According to his first biographer , Spink ,
[ Landis ] may have been arbitrary , self @-@ willed and even unfair , but he ' called ' em as he saw ' em ' and he turned over to his successor and the future a game cleansed of the nasty spots which followed World War I. Kenesaw Mountain Landis put the fear of God into weak characters who might otherwise have been inclined to violate their trust . And for that , I , as a lifelong lover of baseball , am eternally grateful .
|
= William ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" William " is the sixteenth episode of the ninth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files , which originally aired on the Fox network on April 28 , 2002 . The teleplay of the episode was written by series creator Chris Carter , from a story by former series star David Duchovny , Carter , and executive producer Frank Spotnitz ; the entry was directed by Duchovny . " William " helps to explore the series ' overarching mythology . The episode received a Nielsen household rating of 5 @.@ 8 , being watched by 6 @.@ 1 million households and 9 @.@ 3 million viewers upon its initial broadcast . It received mixed reviews from television critics , many of whom were unhappy with the episode 's conclusion .
The show centers on FBI special agents who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files ; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . In this episode , Doggett finds a strange , disfigured man ( Chris Owens ) in the X @-@ Files office and , on his whim , they test his DNA . They learn that the man shares DNA with Fox Mulder ( Duchovny ) , and may possibly even be him . The answers become even more surprising when Scully 's son , baby William , is put on the line .
" William " marked the return of David Duchovny to the series , after his departure following the eighth season finale " Existence " . The genesis for the episode was a storyline Duchovny had developed during the series ' eighth season ; he originally pitched an idea featuring a mysteriously disfigured person introducing himself to Scully and admitting that he possessed a connection to Mulder . Chris Owens , whose character Jeffrey Spender had previously been killed off in the sixth season episode " One Son " , was asked to return to the series for the episode .
= = Plot = =
In the teaser , a couple , the Van De Kamps ( Adam Nelson and Shannon Hile ) , adopt Dana Scully 's ( Gillian Anderson ) infant son , William ( James and Travis Riker ) . The episode then jumps back a week . Scully takes William out of her car while an unknown man ( Chris Owens ) watches them . Later , John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) is attacked in the X @-@ Files office by the same man . After a struggle , Doggett subdues him . His face is revealed to be horribly scarred .
Later , Scully speaks with the man . He claims he received his burns due to alien testing and that he knew Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) . He further elaborates that he was sent to the FBI to retrieve certain files . Scully suspects the man is lying , but asks to examine his burns to investigate his strange claims . He notes that they are the result of an injection that failed to transform him into one of the aliens . The man claims a new conspiracy has formed after the previous one was destroyed ; the new one being hidden within the government and the conspirators involved being alien . Doggett theorizes that the man is actually Mulder . Scully takes the man to her house to give him the files he seeks . Suddenly , William begins to cry , only to be quieted when the scarred man picks him up . Meanwhile , Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) meets with Doggett and the two discuss the idea that the man is actually Mulder . Skinner points out the inconsistencies in Doggett 's reasoning , but a DNA test is undertaken anyway .
Scully is told by the scarred man that William is part alien and that she is being used to raise the child . Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) and Doggett tell Scully that the man 's DNA is a match to Mulder 's , but Scully refuses to believe it . While the three are talking , the scarred man quietly slips into William 's room with a syringe . Though William 's crying alerts the agents , the scarred man manages to sneak out of the room before they reach William . Reyes and Scully take the baby to the hospital and Doggett discovers the man 's syringe . The doctor reports that William is fine except for an elevated amount of iron in his blood . In interrogation , Scully confronts the scarred man about his motives . It is revealed that he is actually Jeffrey Spender , a former FBI agent supposedly killed by The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) three years earlier . Spender is also Mulder 's half @-@ brother . Spender admits his actions were a ruse and that the syringe contained magnetite meant to make William normal . He explains that the aliens need the child in order to successfully invade the world , but now they have lost him . However , he notes that the conspirators will always pursue the child , despite what he has done . Spender says that he acted out of his hatred for his father , since the new conspiracy was created by The Smoking Man after the alien rebels burned the original group .
Scully muses over Spender 's words and decides that the only way to truly protect William is to give him up for adoption so that he may have a better life . The episode then jumps to the Van De Kamps , who tuck in their new son . William looks at his mobile but he can no longer move it telekinetically , an event which happened in " Nothing Important Happened Today " .
= = Production = =
The story for " William " was written by former series co @-@ star David Duchovny , series creator Chris Carter , and executive producer Frank Spotnitz ; the screenplay was written solely by Carter , and the entry was directed by Duchovny . " William " marked the return of David Duchovny , in some capacity , to the series , after his departure following the eighth season finale " Existence " . In fact , Duchovny makes a cameo appearance in the episode , appearing as a reflection in Scully 's eye .
The genesis for the episode was a storyline Duchovny had developed during the series ' eighth season . He had originally pitched an idea featuring a mysteriously disfigured person introducing himself to Scully and admitting that he has a connection to Mulder . Reportedly , the idea for Scully to give William up for adoption was mandated by Carter and Spotnitz . Duchovny , Anderson , and executive producer John Shiban were not happy with this turn of events , due to them being parents and feeling that the action was not realistic , but " grudgingly consented " .
Three years after Spender had been written out of the series — in the sixth season episode " One Son " — and actor Chris Owens had moved to Toronto , Canada , Owens received an unexpected phone call from David Duchovny , who said that The X @-@ Files ' production crew was filming the series ' finale as well as another episode late in the season , and that he wanted to bring Spender back for these two episodes . Duchovny reassured Owens that Spender 's survival of the shooting years earlier could be explained away via the plot device of an alien injection but mentioned that the experience would not be fun for Owens , as he would be " under all that shit " ; Owens did not realize what Duchovny meant until he got to the studio and personally saw the makeup for Spender 's disfigured appearance , a sight that shocked Owens .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" William " originally aired on the Fox network on April 28 , 2002 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on March 2 , 2003 . The episode 's initial broadcast was viewed by approximately 6 @.@ 1 million households , and 9 @.@ 3 million viewers . " William " earned a Nielsen household rating of 5 @.@ 8 , meaning that roughly 5 @.@ 8 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , were tuned in to the episode . It was the fifty @-@ fourth most watched episode of television that aired during the week ending April 28 . The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 4 – Super Soldiers , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien super soldiers arc .
The episode received mixed reviews from television critics . Jessica Morgan from Television Without Pity gave the episode an A – grade . John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a largely positive review and awarded it an 8 out of 10 . He wrote , " Overall , this was an uneven yet highly enjoyable mythology episode , far better than the episode that appears to have spawned it ( ' Trustno1 ' ) [ sic ] . I look forward to whatever directorial / writing work David Duchovny might do in the future . And if this is indeed the last we see of William , well , I ’ m not going to complain ! Still , by now , Carter and Spotnitz ought to know how to write an episode with the time constraints in mind . "
Other reviews were not as positive . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three stars out of five . The two criticized the idea that Scully would give her child up for adoption solely based on the word of Jeffrey Spender , noting " if she wasn 't going to give it away for the sake of its own protection after a UFO cult abducted it [ in ' Provenance ' / ' Providence ' ] , then why should she because Jeffrey Spender of all people comes along and informs her that it 's under threat ? " Shearman and Pearson , however , did praise Chris Owens ' acting , writing that he did a " great job " . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , wrote a largely negative review of the episode and derided its plot . He heavily criticized the idea that Scully would offer William up for adoption . Kessenich did however praise Duchovny 's directing , noting that " [ he ] did a masterful job of luring me back to this world of The X @-@ Files " . Aaron Kinney from Salon wrote that the episode " scuttled the entire " baby William subplot . M.A. Crang , in his book Denying the Truth : Revisiting The X @-@ Files after 9 / 11 , praised the decision to conclude the William subplot but called the episode 's conclusion " sappy " .
|
= Russian monitor Charodeika =
The Russian monitor Charodeika was the lead ship of her class of monitors built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the 1860s . She served for her entire career with the Baltic Fleet , mostly as a training ship . She was decommissioned in 1907 , but was not broken up until 1911 – 12 .
= = Design and description = =
Charodeika was 206 feet ( 62 @.@ 8 m ) long at the waterline . She had a beam of 42 feet ( 12 @.@ 8 m ) and a maximum draft of 12 feet 7 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . The ship was designed to displace 1 @,@ 882 long tons ( 1 @,@ 912 t ) , but turned out to be overweight and actually displaced 2 @,@ 100 long tons ( 2 @,@ 100 t ) . Her crew numbered 13 officers and 171 crewmen in 1877 .
The ship had two simple horizontal direct @-@ acting steam engines , each driving a single propeller . The engines were designed to produce a total of 900 indicated horsepower ( 670 kW ) using steam provided by two coal @-@ fired rectangular fire @-@ tube boilers , but only achieved 786 ihp ( 586 kW ) and a speed of approximately 8 @.@ 5 knots ( 15 @.@ 7 km / h ; 9 @.@ 8 mph ) during her sea trials . She carried a maximum of 250 long tons ( 254 t ) of coal for her boilers .
Charodeika was initially armed with a pair of nine @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) rifled Model 1867 guns in the forward gun turret and a pair of fifteen @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) smoothbore Rodman guns in the aft turret . The Rodman guns were replaced by a pair of Obukhov 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) rifled guns in 1871 and all of the nine @-@ inch guns were replaced in their turn by longer , more powerful nine @-@ inch Obukhov guns in 1878 – 79 . No light guns for use against torpedo boats are known to have been fitted aboard the ship before the 1870s when she received 4 four @-@ pounder 3 @.@ 4 @-@ inch ( 86 mm ) guns mounted on the turret tops as well as a variety of smaller guns that included 45 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) Engström quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns , 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) Nordenfelt guns , single @-@ barreled QF 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns , QF 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss revolving cannon , and 25 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) Palmcrantz @-@ Nordenfelt guns .
The ship had a complete waterline belt of wrought iron that was 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick amidships and thinned to 3 @.@ 75 inches ( 95 mm ) at the bow and 3 @.@ 25 inches ( 83 mm ) at the stern . The armor was backed by 12 to 18 inches ( 300 to 460 mm ) of teak . The circular turrets were protected by armor 5 @.@ 5 inches ( 140 mm ) thick and the walls of the ship 's oval conning tower were also 4 @.@ 5 inches thick . Her deck was 1 inch ( 25 mm ) thick amidships , but reduced to 0 @.@ 25 – 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 6 @.@ 4 – 12 @.@ 7 mm ) at the ends of the ship .
= = Construction and service = =
Charodeika ( Sorceress ) was ordered on 26 January 1865 and construction began on 10 June at the Admiralty Shipyard , Saint Petersburg , although the formal keel @-@ laying was not until 6 June 1866 . She was launched on 12 September 1867 and completed in 1869 at the cost of 762 @,@ 000 rubles . Construction was considerably delayed by late deliveries of drawings , material , and the death of her original builder . The ship served her entire career with the Baltic Fleet and was later assigned to the Mine ( Torpedo ) Training Detachment . Charodeika was reclassified as a coast @-@ defense ironclad on 13 February 1892 and remained in service until 31 March 1907 when she was turned over to the Port of Kronstadt for disposal . The ship was stricken from the Navy List on 7 April and was finally scrapped in 1911 – 12 .
|
= No. 82 Wing RAAF =
No. 82 Wing is the strike and reconnaissance wing of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . It is headquartered at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland . Coming under the control of Air Combat Group , the wing operates F / A @-@ 18F Super Hornet multirole fighters and Pilatus PC @-@ 9 forward air control aircraft . Its units include Nos. 1 and 6 Squadrons , operating the Super Hornet , and No. 4 Squadron , operating the PC @-@ 9 .
Formed in August 1944 , No. 82 Wing operated B @-@ 24 Liberator heavy bombers in the South West Pacific theatre of World War II . Initially comprising two flying units , Nos. 21 and 24 Squadrons , the wing was augmented by 23 Squadron in 1945 . After the war its operational units became Nos. 1 , 2 and 6 Squadrons . It re @-@ equipped with Avro Lincolns in 1948 and , from 1953 , English Electric Canberra jets . Both types saw action in the Malayan Emergency during the 1950s ; the Canberras were also deployed in the Vietnam War from 1967 to 1971 .
Between 1970 and 1973 , as a stop @-@ gap pending delivery of the long @-@ delayed General Dynamics F @-@ 111C swing @-@ wing bomber , Nos. 1 and 6 Squadrons flew leased F @-@ 4E Phantoms . No. 2 Squadron continued to fly Canberras until it was disbanded in 1982 . After taking delivery of their F @-@ 111Cs in 1973 , Nos. 1 and 6 Squadrons operated the type for 37 years through numerous upgrades , augmented in the mid @-@ 1990s by ex @-@ USAF G models . The forward air control unit joined No. 82 Wing in 2002 . In 2010 , the wing retired its F @-@ 111s and replaced them with Super Hornets as an interim force until the planned entry into Australian service of the F @-@ 35 Lightning Joint Strike Fighter . Twelve Boeing EA @-@ 18G Growlers are scheduled to augment the Super Hornet fleet from 2017 .
= = History = =
= = = World War II = = =
No. 82 ( Heavy Bomber ) Wing — the RAAF 's first such wing — was formed at Ballarat , Victoria , on 25 August 1944 , under the command of Group Captain Deryck Kingwell . Comprising Nos. 21 and 24 Squadrons , both equipped with B @-@ 24 Liberators , the wing became operational on 11 January 1945 . By this time it was headquartered in the Northern Territory , and came under the control of the RAAF 's North @-@ Western Area Command ( NWA ) . Based at Fenton Airfield , the wing 's aircraft sank seven Japanese ships in the Dutch East Indies during March . On 6 April , all of its available Liberators joined B @-@ 25 Mitchells of No. 79 Wing in an assault on a Japanese convoy that included the cruiser Isuzu . Anti @-@ aircraft fire from the cruiser and other ships , as well as attacks by enemy fighters , resulted in the loss of two Liberators , and the crews ' standard of aerial gunnery was criticised afterwards . Allied submarines sank the damaged Isuzu the following day . Later that month , No. 23 Squadron , having recently converted to Liberators from A @-@ 31 Vengeances , was added to No. 82 Wing 's strength . The wing 's three flying squadrons identified themselves with black chevrons on the tail fins of their aircraft , No. 21 's facing backwards , No. 23 's downwards , and No. 24 's forwards .
The Liberator bombers of No. 82 Wing played both a tactical and a strategic role in the Borneo Campaign , beginning with the lead @-@ up to Operation Oboe One , the invasion of Tarakan on 1 May 1945 . During that month a detachment relocated from Fenton to Morotai , attacking targets in Celebes and Balikpapan prior to Operation Oboe Six , the invasion of Labuan . In June , while the final Allied offensive of the Borneo Campaign got under way as Operation Oboe Two , the Battle of Balikpapan , the remainder of No. 82 Wing transferred from NWA to the command of the Australian First Tactical Air Force in Morotai . In the middle of the month the wing dropped 120 tons of bombs on Balikpapan 's oil fields and surrounding areas , as well as coastal defence sites . During July it bombed targets at Celebes and Borneo , losing five Liberators for the month , including that of its new commanding officer , Group Captain Donald McLean . McLean died with most of his crew after being hit by anti @-@ aircraft fire and ditching into the sea , a notoriously risky operation in the Liberator owing to the fuselage 's tendency to break in two upon striking the water . Just before the end of hostilities in the Pacific , the recently established garrison headquarters No. 11 Group unofficially directed the wing 's operations . Following the Japanese surrender in September 1945 , No. 82 Wing 's Liberators were converted to transports and used to repatriate RAAF personnel from the South West Pacific . Over the course of its wartime existence , the wing 's personnel numbered between 3 @,@ 000 and 5 @,@ 000 , of whom more than half were ground crew . Along with its flying squadrons , its complement included No. 24 Air Stores Park , No. 6 Repair and Servicing Unit , and No. 30 Medical Clearing Station .
= = = Cold War and after = = =
No. 82 Wing moved to its present location at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , in 1946 , where it came under the control of the RAAF 's Eastern Area Command . In May that year , No. 482 ( Maintenance ) Squadron was formed from No. 4 Repair and Servicing Unit , to be responsible for repair and upkeep of the wing 's aircraft . Its flying complement now included Nos. 12 ( formerly of No. 85 Wing ) , 21 , and 23 Squadrons , but these were renumbered Nos. 1 , 2 and 6 Squadrons respectively in February 1948 . At the same time , the wartime Liberators were replaced by Avro Lincoln heavy bombers . During 1949 – 50 , some of the Lincolns were specially modified with advanced radar and other instrumentation to participate in Operation Cumulative , a joint program with the Royal Air Force gathering long @-@ range navigation and bombing data for use in potential air campaigns against the Soviet Union . Between 1950 and 1958 — for the first two years under the control of No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing — the Lincolns of No. 1 Squadron were deployed for service in the Malayan Emergency , tasked with the prime responsibility for the Commonwealth 's bombing campaign against Communist insurgents . This arrangement meant that No. 82 Wing 's flying units were reduced to Nos. 2 and 6 Squadrons . From 1952 to 1957 , the wing flew observation flights in connection with British atomic tests in Australia . No protective clothing was issued to air or ground crews during these flights and , following the second such operation in October 1953 , nine of the twelve Lincolns involved were found to be contaminated , four so heavily that they were parked in a remote corner of the Amberley air base and never flown again . On 9 April 1953 , the wing wrote off three Lincolns — without loss of life — in two separate incidents that collectively became known as " Black Thursday " ; one of the Lincolns crashed on landing at Amberley during the day , and that night another Lincoln collided with one of its brethren at Cloncurry Aerodrome , Queensland .
In December 1953 , No. 82 Wing took delivery of the RAAF 's first jet bomber , the Canberra Mk.20 , 48 of which re @-@ equipped the wing 's three squadrons over the next five years . The new bombers were acquired partly for their capacity to deliver nuclear weapons , an ordnance option the RAAF seriously investigated but never implemented . Following the re @-@ equipping of Nos. 2 and 6 Squadrons with the Canberra , a Lincoln Conversion Flight was formed in July 1955 under No. 82 Wing to provide training on the older bomber for crews preparing to deploy to Malaya for service with No. 1 Squadron ; it disbanded in March 1956 . Canberras from No. 2 Squadron relieved the Lincolns of No. 1 Squadron in Malaya during 1958 . In January 1959 , No. 1 ( Bomber ) Operational Conversion Unit ( No. 1 OCU ) was established at Amberley under the control of No. 82 Wing . Its role was to convert pilots and navigators to the Canberra , and train them for operations with the three bomber squadrons . In 1964 , No. 82 Wing 's Canberras were slated for possible bombing and reconnaissance tasks against Indonesian forces under Operation Handover , a little @-@ publicised contingency plan put into effect during the Indonesia – Malaysia Konfrontasi , although no combat ensued . No. 2 Squadron Canberras saw extensive action in the Vietnam War from 1967 to 1971 , under the control of the USAF 's 35th Tactical Fighter Wing . The Canberras flew almost 12 @,@ 000 sorties and delivered over 76 @,@ 000 pounds of bombs , for the loss of two aircraft to enemy action , and gained a high reputation for their accuracy . No. 1 OCU was made independent of No. 82 Wing in April 1968 ; its sole purpose from then until its disbandment in June 1971 was to supply trained crews to No. 2 Squadron in Vietnam . Nos. 1 and 6 Squadrons effectively ceased operations in 1968 , while their crews underwent conversion to the General Dynamics F @-@ 111C swing @-@ wing bomber , which was expected to enter service soon afterwards . Between 1970 and 1973 , as an interim measure pending the delayed delivery of the F @-@ 111 , Nos. 1 and 6 Squadrons flew leased F @-@ 4E Phantoms ; meanwhile No. 2 Squadron continued to operate the Canberra , mainly for aerial survey work in Australia and Indonesia , until disbanding in 1982 . The Air Force retained the option to purchase the Phantoms if the F @-@ 111C program was cancelled . Though not as sophisticated an aircraft as the F @-@ 111 , the Phantom was a significant advance over the Canberra , and was highly regarded by its RAAF crews .
On 1 June 1973 , the Officer Commanding No. 82 Wing , Group Captain Jake Newham , led the first F @-@ 111Cs in to land at Amberley , a gala occasion attended by the Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Defence , Lance Barnard , the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Marshal Charles Read , the Air Officer Commanding Operational Command , Air Vice Marshal Brian Eaton , and a large media contingent . Read ordered Newham to operate the F @-@ 111 with great caution initially , well within limits , lest the controversial aircraft suffer greater damage to its reputation through early attrition . Over its 37 @-@ year career with No. 82 Wing , the F @-@ 111 underwent numerous upgrades , including the Pave Tack infra @-@ red and laser @-@ guided precision weapons targeting system , Harpoon anti @-@ shipping missiles , and advanced digital avionics . Roles within the wing were demarcated such that No. 1 Squadron was the lead strike unit , while No. 6 Squadron was primarily tasked with providing crew conversion training ; No. 6 Squadron was also responsible for reconnaissance missions using specially modified RF @-@ 111Cs until these aircraft were transferred to No. 1 Squadron in 1996 , and flew leased Learjets for survey work between 1982 and 1987 . During 1982 – 83 , four F @-@ 111s from the RAAF 's original order that had been lost through accidents were replaced by four F @-@ 111As upgraded to C models . In 1992 an order was placed to augment the F @-@ 111C force with fifteen ex @-@ USAF G models , to be operated by No. 6 Squadron . No. 82 Wing was awarded the Duke of Gloucester Cup as most proficient RAAF unit of 1994 , in part for its success in introducing the F @-@ 111G with minimal additional staff . Alan Stephens , in the official history of the post @-@ war Air Force , described the F @-@ 111 as " the region 's pre @-@ eminent strike aircraft " and the RAAF 's most important acquisition . The closest the bombers came to being used in anger , however , was during the Australian @-@ led INTERFET intervention into East Timor in September 1999 . Both F @-@ 111 squadrons were deployed to RAAF Base Tindal , Northern Territory , to support the international forces , and remained there until December . From 20 September , when INTERFET began to arrive in East Timor , the aircraft were maintained at a high level of readiness to conduct reconnaissance flights or air strikes if the situation deteriorated . As it happened , INTERFET did not encounter significant resistance , and F @-@ 111 operations were limited to reconnaissance by the RF @-@ 111Cs from 5 November through 9 December .
No. 482 Squadron merged with Amberley 's No. 3 Aircraft Depot to form No. 501 Wing in March 1992 . The squadron completed its disbandment in June that year . In 1998 the RAAF became the only air force operating the F @-@ 111 , after the USAF retired the type . From 2001 , Boeing Australia performed all F @-@ 111 maintenance under contract . In February 2002 , No. 82 Wing came under the control of the newly established Air Combat Group ( ACG ) , formed by merging Tactical Fighter Group ( TFG ) and Strike Reconnaissance Group ( SRG ) . The reorganisation altered the wing 's responsibilities , as it transferred lead @-@ in training for the F @-@ 111s to No. 78 Wing at RAAF Base Williamtown , New South Wales , and put No. 82 Wing in charge of the strike capability of No. 81 Wing 's F / A @-@ 18 Hornet fighters , also based at Williamtown . No. 82 Wing 's role was reiterated as " precision strike and reconnaissance " ; the Forward Air Control Development Unit ( FACDU ) , flying Pilatus PC @-@ 9s , was added to its strength . The merger of TFG and SRG was designed to position the Air Force to replace both the F @-@ 111 and the F / A @-@ 18 with a single Joint Strike Fighter ( JSF ) . In 2007 , the Australian government decided to retire all of the F @-@ 111s by 2010 , and acquire 24 F / A @-@ 18F Super Hornets as an interim replacement , pending the arrival of the F @-@ 35 Lightning JSF then under development . The F @-@ 111 fleet was considered to be at risk due to fatigue issues , and too expensive to operate as each aircraft required 180 hours of maintenance for every hour of flying time . No. 82 Wing began re @-@ equipping with the Super Hornet in 2010 , and the last F @-@ 111s were retired on 3 December that year . FACDU was combined with the RAAF Special Tactics Project in July 2009 to form No. 4 Squadron . The following year , No. 82 Wing became home to No. 5 Flight , which was responsible for training personnel to operate the RAAF 's two IAI Heron unmanned aerial vehicles based at Kandahar in Afghanistan . The Air Force acquired a third Heron in 2011 , based in Australia and operated by No. 5 Flight . As of that year , the F @-@ 35 was not expected to enter Australian service until 2018 . The RAAF hoped to be able to sell off its Super Hornets " with very low kilometres on the clock " by 2020 , but this would depend on delivery of the replacement F @-@ 35s . In April 2013 , No. 5 Flight was transferred from No. 82 Wing to Surveillance and Response Group 's No. 92 Wing . The following month , the Federal government announced plans to purchase twelve Boeing EA @-@ 18G Growlers to supplement the Super Hornet fleet . No. 6 Squadron is expected to begin taking delivery of the Growlers in 2017 , at which point its Super Hornets will be transferred to No. 1 Squadron .
|
= Ice Princess ( song ) =
" Ice Princess " is a song recorded by American rapper Azealia Banks for her debut studio album Broke with Expensive Taste ( 2014 ) . It was released as the fourth single from the album on March 23 , 2015 . Production of the song was handled by AraabMuzik , while it was written by Banks , Kevin James , and Jonathan Harris . " Ice Princess " contains a sample of " In the Air " , originally produced by progressive house DJ Morgan Page . Lyrically , Banks brags about her wealth , with Jordan Sargent of Pitchfork Media describing it as Banks " spitting knotty rhymes about her diamonds " . " Ice Princess " garnered praise from music critics , with one describing the song as " Banks at her best " . To promote the song , an accompanying music video for the track was released on March 31 , 2015 . It features Banks ruling over a kingdom of ice warriors , flying through the sky destroying anything colorful while turning everything into ice .
= = Background = =
In 2011 , it was reported that Banks was working on a studio album with British producer Paul Epworth despite not having signed to a record label at that time . In January 2012 , Banks signed a record deal with Interscope and Polydor Records to work on new music , and a month later , she announced the title of the album – Broke with Expensive Taste . Approximately a year later , she handed a complete version of Broke with Expensive Taste in to the labels . Banks initially thought it would receive favorable reception from the labels ; however , the representatives told Banks that she had not recorded a " hit " single for the album . Ultimately , Banks ended the record deal with Interscope / Polydor in July 2014 . She later approached Jeff Kwatinetz and signed a contract with his company , Prospect Park . Banks eventually released the album on November 7 , 2014 .
= = Reception = =
" Ice Princess " received positive reviews from critics . Pitchfork Media gave the song their " Best New Track " honor , with Jordan Sargent commenting that it displayed " Banks at her best : doing something unexpected simply because she can . " While Brennan Carley of Spin described the song as having the potential to " be the single that finally breaks the Harlem MC on the radio , and it 's about time . " Kate Beaudoin from Mic commented on the song , praising Banks ' flow , " It 's a captivating video and an even better song . Her flow is unbelievable : ' You broke honey , and they call me Banks cause I can loan money / Colder than December , my diamonds on Anna Wintour / So that 's fly ice in my life / I don 't see no limits so I strive and I shine twice , ' Banks raps . Anyone who can fit Anna Wintour into a rhyme about winter automatically gets points . "
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
The video for " Ice Princess " was directed by duo WeWereMonkeys . It was released on March 31 , 2015 , via Banks ' VEVO channel . The video depicts Banks as the frozen leader of a robotic ninja army , with snakes for hair , in the style of Greek mythology 's Medusa . She leads her CGI army into battle with a volcano that produces multicolored clouds , that eventually end up destroying her . Reviews of the video were positive . Kate Beaudoin of Mic called the video " epic " , while Daily Mail 's Jennifer Pearson called it " spine @-@ tingling " and according to James Rettig from Stereogum , it 's a " slick " music video . Banks initially caused controversy with promotion for the song , posting pictures of her in makeup for the video , claiming she was in whiteface , which caused outrage on the internet . However , Banks ultimately revealed that she was trolling the media , and the makeup was not finished , being applied for the music video for " Ice Princess " . She later tweeted " Lol u crackers wish I cared enough to be doing whiteface . I 'm becoming the ICE PRINCESS YAAAAAAS " .
= = = Live performances = = =
On April 10 , 2015 , Banks performed " Ice Princess " at the Coachella Festival . On July 10 , 2015 , she performed it during her set at the Bilbao BBK Live festival in Bilbao , Spain .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Broke with Expensive Taste liner notes .
= = = Credits = = =
" Ice Princess " contains a sample of " In the Air " , a song by progressive house DJ Morgan Page .
= = = Personnel = = =
Azealia Banks – songwriting , vocals
Kevin James – songwriting
Jonathan Harris – songwriting
AraabMuzik – production
= = Release history = =
|
= Hurricane Bonnie ( 1986 ) =
Hurricane Bonnie caused moderate damage along the Gulf Coast of the United States in late June 1986 . The second named storm and first hurricane of the 1986 Atlantic hurricane season , Bonnie developed out of an area of low pressure over the central Gulf of Mexico on June 23 . The system gradually intensified and was declared Tropical Storm Bonnie the next day as it moved generally towards the west @-@ northwest . On June 25 , Bonnie was upgraded to a hurricane . Bonnie strengthened further and on the following day , the storm attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Shortly thereafter , Bonnie made Landfall near High Island , Texas . Following landfall , Bonnie quickly weakened below tropical storm status and dissipated over Missouri on June 28 .
Prior to Bonnie moving ashore , 22 @,@ 000 people were evacuated in Texas and Louisiana . Upon making landfall , Hurricane Bonnie produced a storm surge peaking at 5 @.@ 2 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) at Sabine Pass . Rainfall from the storm peaked at 13 inches ( 330 mm ) in Ace , Texas , which caused some street flooding and destroyed a small dam in Liberty County , Texas . Three fatalities were reported in the Port Arthur , Texas area ; two deaths were from separate car accidents and another occurred after a partially paralyzed woman died in a house fire . Flooding also impacted northwestern Louisiana . In the Shreveport area alone , 381 homes , 20 businesses , and 80 major highway intersections were flooded . The hurricane also spawned 11 tornadoes , destroying about 25 houses in southwestern Louisiana . Overall , Hurricane Bonnie caused $ 42 million ( 1986 USD ) in damage and five fatalities .
= = Meteorological history = =
In mid @-@ June , a mid @-@ level center of circulation formed in association with a quasi @-@ stationary cold front that stretched across northern Florida and the extreme northeast Gulf of Mexico . On June 20 , a weak and disorganized area of low pressure developed in conjunction with the front and it passed by Tampa Bay , Florida the following day . Upon moving into the eastern Gulf of Mexico , there was little convection on observed on satellite imagery , although a distinguishable wind @-@ shift was noted by an offshore buoy . However , by June 23 , the presence of deep convection atop a circulation had become well @-@ defined enough for the National Hurricane Center to classify the disturbance as a tropical depression , while centered 330 mi ( 535 km ) southwest of Cape Coral , Florida . Moving generally west to west @-@ northwestward across the central Gulf of Mexico , the National Hurricane Center sent a reconnaissance plane into the tropical depression at 1500 UTC on June 24 , at which time winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) were found . About three hours later , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Bonnie .
In the 24 hours after becoming a tropical storm , satellite imagery showed a substantial increase in upper @-@ level outflow as Tropical Storm Bonnie gradually intensified . A reconnaissance plane into the system shortly before 1200 UTC on June 25 revealed hurricane force winds 1 @,@ 500 ft ( 460 m ) above the surface . This evidence was the basis of Bonnie 's upgrade to a Category 1 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale at 1800 UTC on June 25 . During the afternoon hours of June 26 , Bonnie reached its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 992 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 23 inHg ) . While accelerating towards the northwest , the hurricane retained this intensity until landfall near High Island , Texas at 1000 UTC on June 26 . Eight hours later , Bonnie weakened to a tropical storm and was downgraded to tropical depression status at 0000 UTC on June 27 . The depression persisted until 1200 UTC on June 28 , at which time it was absorbed by a frontal zone while located over the U.S. state of Missouri .
= = Preparations = =
Upon the system being classified as a tropical depression , a high risk of landfall near Port Arthur , Texas was noted , giving federal officials sufficient lead time to warn local residents about a possible approaching hurricane . As the system neared landfall , tropical cyclone watches and warnings were issued for the Gulf Coast of the United States . At 1200 UTC on June 25 , the National Hurricane Center issued a gale warning and a hurricane watch , stretching from Port O 'Connor , Texas to the mouth of the Mississippi River . A few hours later , a hurricane warning was issued for area west of Morgan City , Louisiana to Freeport , Texas . In advance of the approaching storm , roughly 22 @,@ 000 residents were evacuated , with 10 @,@ 000 from Galveston County , Texas alone .
= = Impact = =
Due to the small size of Hurricane Bonnie , damage was relatively light , totaling to $ 42 million . The storm was also attributed to five deaths , four in Texas and one in Louisiana .
= = = Texas = = =
In some areas of eastern Texas , the storm dropped 10 to 13 in ( 250 to 330 mm ) of rain , with a peak total of 13 inches ( 330 mm ) in Ace . Heavy rains caused by Bonnie also lead a small dam collapse in northeastern Liberty County , Texas , resulting in severe flooding . In Hardin County , the Pine Island Bayou overflowed , causing water to enter hundreds of homes and businesses . Several major roadways were flooded due to flooding , including Highway 59 between Livingston and Shepherd , U.S. Route 79 in Panola County , and Interstate 20 and several farm @-@ to @-@ market roads in Harrison County . The Bear Foot Lake dam overflowed , damaging some homes and forcing 200 families to evacuate . Overall , approximately 1 @,@ 300 people in southeastern Texas fled their homes due to flooding . Severe flooding left behind by the heavy rains caused $ 5 million in damage .
In addition to rain and flooding , winds damaged more homes and businesses , and a tornado was spawned a few miles southwest of Port Arthur . More than 19 @,@ 000 power outages were reported in the area near where Bonnie made landfall . Texas State Highway 87 was closed in Jefferson County due to debris and electrical poles fallen on the roadway . The storm left broken windows , scattered tree limbs , and debris filled streets in Port Arthur and Beaumont . At the latter , strong winds toppled a radio tower at the Texas Department of Public Safety building , while several schools suffered damage to the roof and windows . Marinas and boats at Lake Sam Rayburn were damaged . Hank Creek Marina , located across the lake , broke free from its moorings and floated away , while portions of were submerged . Four indirect fatalities were confirmed in Texas , two from traffic accidents , one from a house fire ignited by a candle , and another from drowning . Several injuries were also reported , including four after a truck flipped over due to strong winds .
= = = Louisiana = = =
Most of the damage in Louisiana occurred in Cameron Parish . Twenty @-@ five homes , trailers , and cabins in southwestern Louisiana were destroyed , resulting in about $ 400 @,@ 000 in damages . Two tornadoes were spawned in Webster Parish . The first caused about $ 15 @,@ 000 in damage to the roofs of three homes . The other tornado destroyed three mobile homes and severely damaged an additional two as well as three permanent homes . Damage from this tornado totaled $ 200 @,@ 000 . Just south of Blanchard , 10 @.@ 2 in ( 260 mm ) of rain fell within a 12 @-@ hour period . Interstate 20 was closed from Shreveport to the Louisiana @-@ Texas state line due to flooding , with as much as 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) of standing water near Greenwood .
Torrential rains caused water inundation up to 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in some areas of Shreveport . Firefighters used boats to rescue some stranded Shreveport residents in their homes by sudden high water . Rescuers also had to bind themselves together to rescue some people stranded in a flooded trailer park . Flooding in the city forced police to barricade 50 major highway intersections . Along the shore of Cross Lake , about 80 homes were damaged by water intrusion . About 381 homes and 20 businesses in Shreveport were damaged by flooding . A tornado spawned in the city overturned an airplane at Shreveport Downtown Airport , damaged a roof from a house , and shattered a number of windows . No injuries were reported from the tornado . Damage in Louisiana from flooding alone totaled $ 11 – 13 million , with $ 4 million to highways and bridges , $ 1 – 2 million to vehicles , $ 5 million to property , and $ 1 – 2 million to boats . Three fishermen were tossed into a lake after a boat was capsized due to high winds . Two were rescued , but one perished .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Heavy rains from the remnant low @-@ pressure area of Bonnie led to heavy rains in several states in the Southeastern United States . Rainfall was generally minor in most areas , however in Arkansas , rains totaled up to 11 @.@ 75 in ( 254 mm ) at the South Arkansas Regional Airport . Several roads were washed out in Ouachita County near Elliott . A number of roads and bridges were also washed out in Union County , with damage totaling $ 200 @,@ 000 . U.S. Route 79 was closed between Magnolia and Stephens because of standing water . Three or four families evacuated near the Ouachita @-@ Union County line after the Smackover Creek overflowed its banks and flooded 20 homes . There was also a small area of heavy rains totaling up to 5 in ( 127 mm ) along the border of Tennessee and Georgia .
|
= Arad , Israel =
Arad ( Hebrew : עֲרָד ( audio ) ; Arabic : عِرَادَ ) is a city in the Southern District of Israel . It is located on the border of the Negev and Judean Deserts , 25 kilometres ( 16 miles ) west of the Dead Sea and 45 kilometres ( 28 miles ) east of Beersheba . The city is home to a diverse population of 24 @,@ 229 , including Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews , both secular and religious , Bedouins and Black Hebrews , as well as new immigrants . The city is notable for its clean , dry air and serves as a major attraction to asthmatics worldwide .
After attempts to settle the area in the 1920s , Arad was founded in November 1962 as an Israeli development town , the first planned city in Israel . Arad 's population grew significantly with the Aliyah from the Commonwealth of Independent States in the 1990s , and peaked in 2002 at 24 @,@ 500 residents .
Landmarks in Arad include the ruins of Tel Arad , Arad Park , a domestic airfield and Israel 's first legal race circuit . The city is known for its annual summer music festival , The Arad Festival .
= = History = =
= = = Antiquity = = =
Arad is named after the Biblical Canaanite town located at Tel Arad ( a Biblical archaeology site famous for the discovery of ostraca ) , which is located approximately 8 kilometers ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) west of modern Arad . The Bible ( Judges 1 : 16 ) describes it as a Canaanite stronghold whose king kept the Israelites from moving from the Negev to the Judean Mountains , although Tel Arad was destroyed over 1 @,@ 200 years before the arrival of the Israelites . However , Shoshenq I 's chronicles seem to mention a settlement in Tel Arad . During the Byzantine period , the location was still correctly identified by Eusebius , and the name " Arad " was preserved by the Bedouins . Ancient Arad became a Christian bishopric . Stephanus , one of its bishops , was a signatory of the synodal letter of John III of Jerusalem against Severus of Antioch in 518 and took part in the 536 synod of the three Roman provinces of Palaestina Prima , Palaestina Secunda , and Palaestina Salutaris ( to the last of which Arad belonged ) against Anthimus I of Constantinople . No longer a residential bishopric , Arad is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see .
= = = British Mandate era = = =
The first modern attempt to settle the area was made by the Yishuv , the body of Jewish residents in Mandatory Palestine , on 23 February 1921 , when the British Mandate government allowed discharged soldiers from the Jewish Legion to settle in the area . Nine men and two women attempted the task , but after four months were forced to leave because water was not found in the area .
= = = State of Israel = = =
On 15 November 1960 , a planning team ( followed by a full @-@ fledged committee on 29 December ) was appointed by the Israeli cabinet to examine the possibility of establishing a city in the northeastern Negev desert and Arad region . An initial budget of 50 @,@ 000 Israeli liras was granted for the project , headed by Aryeh Eliav . On 31 January 1961 , the final location was chosen ( 3 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) southwest of Mount Kidod ) , and plans were approved for roads and water connections . In March 1961 , blueprints for a city of 10,000- 20 @,@ 000 residents were drawn up . Yona Pitelson was the chief architect and planner .
The plan took into account topography and climate , with residential buildings constructed with large inner courtyards that offered protection from the desert sun and wind . High density residential areas were built first in order to create an urban milieu and shorten walking distances .
The oil company Nefta built a work camp in the area in July 1961 , consisting of six temporary sheds , after oil was found there in commercial quantities . The town itself was established in 1962 by a group of young ex @-@ kibbutz and ex @-@ moshav members seeking an environment free of overcrowding , traffic , noise , and pollution . The founding ceremony was held on 21 November , and attended by then @-@ Prime Minister David Ben @-@ Gurion . It was one of the last development towns to be founded . According to the city website , Arad was the first pre @-@ planned city in Israel .
Until 1964 Arad had about 160 families , most of whom were natives . After 1971 Arad began absorbing olim ( Jewish immigrants ) , mostly from the Soviet Union , but also from English speaking countries and Latin America , and its population increased from 4 @,@ 000 in 1969 to 10 @,@ 500 in 1974 . During the first half of the 1990s , Arad absorbed 6 @,@ 000 immigrants from the former Soviet Union . Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin declared Arad a city on 29 June 1995 .
= = Geography = =
Arad is located mostly on the western and southwestern Kidod Range , and the Arad Plain , which marks the southwestern end of the Judean Desert . It is located 23 kilometers ( 14 @.@ 3 mi ) west of the southern end of the Dead Sea , and is by road , 45 kilometers ( 28 @.@ 0 mi ) east of Beershea , 111 kilometers ( 69 @.@ 0 mi ) south of Jerusalem , 138 kilometers ( 85 @.@ 7 mi ) south east of Tel Aviv , and 219 kilometers ( 136 @.@ 1 mi ) north of the southern @-@ most city of Eilat .
The city spans an area of 93 @,@ 140 dunams ( 93 @.@ 1 km2 ; 36 @.@ 0 sq mi ) , one of the largest municipal areas in Israel , even though its urban area is much smaller . In 1993 , the city 's jurisdiction was 73 @,@ 934 @.@ 3 dunams ( 73 @.@ 9 km2 ; 28 @.@ 5 sq mi ) , still many times larger than the urban area . The historical site of Tel Arad and the Arad Park ( also known as Ran Grove ) can also be found within its municipal area , west of the urban core . Arad also has a commercial landing strip located slightly to the south of its urban core . It borders the Tamar and Abu Basma regional councils , and the closest local municipality to Arad is the Bedouin local council Kuseife .
= = Neighborhoods = =
Each neighborhood in Arad contains streets named in a thematic manner , for example , a neighborhood where all streets are named after jewels . The exception to this are the four central quarters , which have more conventional street names , and the original two neighborhoods ( Rishonim and Ne 'urim ) . The themed neighborhoods make up the entire city north of Highway 31 . South of the highway is Arad 's industrial zone ( the northern area being the light industry zone ) . The neighborhoods are as follows :
= = Geology and topography = =
The western part of Arad is made up of Loess land , while the eastern part is made up of sedimentary rock , including chalk , flint and dolomite .
Arad 's elevation ranges between approximately 361 @.@ 5 and 631 @.@ 1 metres ( 1 @,@ 186 and 2 @,@ 071 ft ) above sea level , a notable peak being Mount Kidod ( 600 m or 1 @,@ 969 ft ) , located at the northeastern point of the city and named after Ras al @-@ Kadadeh , the Arabic name for the hill . Other peaks within the municipal borders include Mount Kina ( 635 m or 2 @,@ 083 ft ) and Mount Brir ( 537 m or 1 @,@ 762 ft ) . There are several wadis that pass through Arad , notably the Ye 'elim Stream ( which runs along Highway 31 ) and Tze 'elim Stream . Others include the Hesed , Keisan , Kidod , Kina , Malhata , Pra 'im , Tavya , and other streams .
= = Climate = =
Between 1964 and 1974 , Arad 's average temperature in January was 11 ° C ( 52 ° F ) , and 27 ° C ( 81 ° F ) in July . The average yearly precipitation between 1960 and 1990 was 150 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) , and 158 millimetres ( 6 @.@ 2 in ) between 1962 and 1978 . Arad is thus situated in an arid area , where most precipitation falls in the winter months of December , January and February . It does however , on rare occasions , snow . Two examples are the massive snowstorm during the 1991 – 92 winter that swept through entire mountainous of the Negev and January 's snowstorm of 2008 .
= = Demographics = =
According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics , of Arad 's 23 @,@ 300 2005 population , 82 % were Jews , and another 17 @.@ 2 % were other non @-@ Arabs . 11 @,@ 100 ( ~ 47 @.@ 6 % ) were men and 12 @,@ 200 were women . 42 @.@ 9 % ( the second highest in the country ) were immigrants since 1990 . Arad 's population peaked in 2002 at 24 @,@ 500 . Arad 's former mayor , Moty Brill , said that the reason for the city 's decline is its failure to absorb the massive immigration from Russia . In early 2007 , a study ordered by the Israeli Housing and Construction Ministry found that Arad suffered from a negative image , and described it a " settlement that drives residents away " . In March , The Ministerial Committee on Development in the Negev and Galilee approved a plan to move the State Archives from Jerusalem to Arad and to subsidize the costs of land development for reserve soldiers , anticipating the IDF 's plan to relocate its training bases to the Negev .
In 2005 , Arad had 10 @,@ 227 ( ~ 43 @.@ 9 % ) salaried workers and 476 ( ~ 2 % ) self @-@ employed . 10 @,@ 474 were receiving children 's benefits , 290 were receiving unemployment benefits , and 2 @,@ 010 were receiving income guarantee . The average monthly income for self @-@ employed workers was NIS 5 @,@ 694 , up 10 @.@ 2 % from 2004 's 5 @,@ 165 , with salaried employees earning an average of NIS 5 @,@ 686 ( NIS 7 @,@ 531 for men and NIS 3 @,@ 904 for women ) .
The IDF 's City of Training Bases , under construction near Beersheba , hopes to bring thousands of soldiers ( mostly officers , senior NCOs and other staff ) to live in the Negev , including Arad . According to Orli Yehezkel , CEO of the Ministry for the Development of the Negev and Galilee , said NIS 4 @.@ 5 million will be invested in Arad , including a subsidy of NIS 1 @,@ 000 per family per month for two years for families of soldiers wishing to move to Arad .
The Negev and Galilee Development Ministry envisions a tripling of Arad 's population by 2025 .
= = Economy = =
Other than tourist venues , Arad 's commerce is mostly concentrated in the central commerce area , as envisioned in the original plan . There is one shopping mall in the city , the Arad Mall , in the northern block of the commerce sector . In addition to the main area , there are small shop clusters in most neighborhoods in the city , notably a building called The Star ( HaKokhav ) in the Tlalim quarter . A lone supermarket outside the center , Mega in the City , is located in the industrial zone , near the entrance to the city , and a major shopping complex is planned near it by a real estate company called Zim Centers . The Arad Market , open on Mondays , is located in the light industry zone .
Among the companies with manufacturing plants in Arad are Arad Textile Industries , one of Israel 's largest producers of towels , Flextronics Israel , A.M.S. Electronics who manufacture printed circuit boards and electronic products , El @-@ Ran Timber Industries , Jordael who manufacture cosmetic products , and a Unilever Shefa Israel cereal plant . Since 1971 , Arad has been producing phosphoric acid , made from brine collected from the Dead Sea , and phosphates from the nearby Tzefa . Rotem Amfert Negev Ltd , a subsidiary of Israel Chemicals Ltd ( ICL ) , has been planning a new phosphate plant in the Sdeh Brir area for several years . In 2008 , the Ministry of the Environment decided not to contest the company 's bid , despite studies showing it may increase air pollution @-@ related deaths in the area .
= = Tourism = =
In addition to the annual music festival , Arad 's fresh air attracts asthmatics from all over the world , and its proximity to the Dead Sea provides a less expensive accommodation alternative to the pricey hotel zone on the sea shore . The Arad municipality has begun to develop hiking and ecological tourism . Additionally , many visitors to Masada stay in Arad , which is the closest ( 22 km ( 13 @.@ 7 mi ) by road ) urban settlement to the site and provides the only access to its western side . On the outskirts of Arad , near the hotel area , there is a large white monument conceived by Yigal Tumarkin in 1968 , called Mitzpe Mo 'av ( Mo 'av Lookout ) , which also offers a view of the Judean Desert .
The Israel National Trail passes through Arad , between Mount Kina and Tel Arad , a major archeological site and national park . Although not located within Arad 's jurisdiction , the Zohar Peak ( 552 m or 1 @,@ 811 ft ) and Zohar Lookout ( Mitzpe Zohar ) are common hiking and biking destinations on the national trail . The trails codenamed 11335 and 11240 run along the national trail in this area .
= = Culture = =
Arad 's main cultural center is the Center for Culture , Youth and Sports ( Hebrew : מתנ " ס , Matnas ) , named after Samuel Rubin and located on Ben Yair Street near the city 's only mall , the Arad Mall . It was built in 1983 and contains the Arad Museum , Arad 's public library , a concert hall , a tourist information center about the Judean and Negev deserts ( called Arad Visitor Center , founded in 1989 ) , which is temporarily closed , and various related offices .
The Oron movie theater designed by the architect Menachem Cohen closed down during the tenure of Mayor Moty Brill . Eshet Lot , an artists quarter , is located in the city 's industrial zone , utilizing old warehouses . The city also has a conservatory and concert hall .
In accordance with the 7 March 2007 decision taken by the Ministry for the Development of the Negev and Galilee to move the national archive of Israel from Jerusalem to Arad , a museum is planned , which will display various gifts given to Israeli politicians over the years .
Arad was widely known for its Hebrew Music Festival , held annually since 1982 . The festival attracted Israel 's best musicians and bands until 18 July 1995 , when three teenagers were crushed to death by a falling gate during a farewell concert by the popular band Mashina . Since then the festival has become a minor event . Five of the festival 's organizers received prison sentences of up to one year .
The main public park and picnic area in Arad is the Arad Park , also called the Ran Grove ( after Ran Schochat , who was killed in the Yom Kippur War ) , which is located about 8 kilometers ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) west of the city center and measures 3 @,@ 000 dunams ( 3 @.@ 0 km2 ; 1 @.@ 2 sq mi ) . Other notable parks include :
Gan HaPsalim ( a.k.a. Park HaNsharim ) , the park at the entrance to the city , with monuments of various desert animals
Gan HaHamisha ( Garden of the Five ) , a memorial park for the five residents of Arad who were killed in action in the Six @-@ Day War . Includes a monument for the soldiers , as well as a stone structure called Amud HaBulbusim ( lit . Pillar of the Potatoes , because of its shape ) , which marks Arad 's place in the desert and their residents ' control of the territory according to Bedouin tradition – designed by Yona Pitelson .
Northern Park , to the north of the Halamish neighborhood
Gan Harpatka 'ot ( Adventure Park ) , a large playground and open grass area in the Rishonim neighborhood
The main cluster of recreational facilities in the city is located in a small neighborhood known as Ayanot , also called the Sports Town ( Kiryat HaSport ) . The area contains a swimming pool , tennis courts , a country club and various playgrounds . The city 's main football stadium is located outside this cluster , on the corner of Yehuda and Palmach Streets . The stadium is home to Hapoel Arad , who currently play in Liga Bet , the fourth tier of Israeli football .
Arad has also hosted a mountain biking tournament annually since 2000 , called Riding Arad , in honor of Itamar Ilya , a soldier killed in action in Lebanon in 1997 . In March 2008 , the tournament became part of an international Union Cycliste Internationale competition , which is co @-@ hosted by Misgav and Ma 'alot . Arad 's professional course is 37 kilometers ( 23 @.@ 0 mi ) long , while the expert course is 22 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 14 @.@ 0 mi ) .
= = Healthcare = =
Arad does not have a hospital , but there are numerous medical clinics , including Clalit , Leumit and Maccabi . Emergencies are handled by the single Magen David Adom station , located in the municipal compound .
A medical center was also built in the compound in 2004 , named Schaller Medical Centre after Leon and Freda Schaller from London , who were the prime donors . It serves as an emergency ward , but does not have the equipment needed to perform operations , and such patients are transferred to the Soroka Medical Center . On average , 10 % of the patients are transferred .
= = Law enforcement = =
Arad is served by a local Israel Police station , located next to the municipal compound and the Magen David Adom station . It is commanded by Superintendent Yuval Paz and has 58 members . Arad 's station also serves the Sodom area .
Arad 's police force was chosen as the exceptional force for 2007 , and awarded an award of excellence on 5 March 2008 . Among others , a severe reduction in property crime was cited . Arad 's force was able to reduce the amount of such crimes from 1 @,@ 092 in 2003 to just 168 in 2007 . On 18 July 2008 , Arad police , in a rare incident , shot dead a man threatening to kill his ex @-@ wife with a knife .
= = Education and religious institutions = =
Arad has a public elementary school in every central neighborhood ( Halamish , Tlalim , Avishur , Leva 'ot and Ye 'elim ( called Ye 'elim @-@ Ofarim ) ) , while Tlalim is a religious school . There is one public middle school , Re 'ut , located near the junction of the Yoshiyahu and HaKana 'im streets . The second middle school , Allon , was closed in 2007 and merged into ORT Arad , the city 's only public secondary school , which shares a building with the Re 'ut middle school and the former Yigal Allon school . In the 2006 – 07 school year , 57 @.@ 14 % of Arad 's 12th graders were eligible for a Bagrut ( matriculation ) certificate , compared to a national average of 45 @.@ 9 % . In the 2007 – 08 year , the number dropped to 49 @.@ 67 % , compared to a national average of 46 @.@ 3 % .
In addition , there are several private and Haredi schools in Arad , such as the Shuvu movement 's grades 1 – 8 school , and the Gerrer Haredi school . Other Haredi schools include the boys ' Beit Ya 'akov and girls ' Kol Ya 'akov in the Halamish neighborhood , the Lev Simcha Yeshiva , and the Beit Ya 'akov High School . Religious Zionist schools include the Ne 'ot Avraham Bnei Akiva Ulpana , which also provides young women with the guidance to perform volunteer activities in the community , and the Tlalim Elementary School , founded in 1971 .
Also in Arad is the Kedem Democratic School , which is an alternative school for students up through the high school level . It allows students to create their own schedules , and choose how they would like to spend their entire day at school .
SOS Children 's Village Arad ( known as Kfar Neradim ) was built in the southern outskirts of Arad and inaugurated on 27 October 1981 . It consists of twelve family houses , to accommodate up to 120 children . There is also an SOS Youth Facility to accommodate 12 to 14 youths from the SOS Children 's Village . In January 2005 , an SOS Social Centre was opened at Arad . It runs a day @-@ care center and various community outreach programmes to support socially weak families . Until fall 2008 , the World Union of Jewish Students ( WUJS ) , funded by Jews from New Jersey , had an institute in Arad which allowed post @-@ college young Jews from around the world to study Israeli society and the Hebrew language . When WUJS 's ownership changed , the institute was moved to the center of the country .
Arad has 22 synagogues , of which 11 are Ashkenazi , 9 are Sephardi , one is Yemenite , and one is Ethiopian . Both the central Ashkenazi and Sephardi synagogues are located in the Ye 'elim neighborhood . There are Gerrer synagogues in Avishur and Halamish , and a Chabad synagogue in Ye 'elim . There are two mikvehs in the city – in the Tlalim and Ayanot neighborhoods . The city also has a small Messianic community that is being accused of illegal missionary activities by the Haredim and certain right @-@ wing groups . Arad 's dead are mostly buried in the local cemetery , located in the northeastern outskirts of the city , close to the road to Masada .
= = Media = =
Arad 's local newspaper , Kidod , was published by the entrepreneurs Eli and Rochale Ziv , early founders of Arad . Kidod started as a small leaflet in December 1966 and grew to a become a full paper . At its peak , it was circulated , free of charge , in groceries , kiosks , etc . , in 3 @,@ 000 copies each week . Kidod ran for 23 years and had a key role in the cultural and community life of Arad . HaTzvi Arad is the local newspaper today .
= = Transportation = =
There are two ways to get to Arad : by air or road . The only highway connecting Arad with the rest of the country is Highway 31 , which connects it with Beersheba to the west , and the Dead Sea to the east . It has two junctions within Arad 's municipal area — the Arad Junction ( within the city itself , with Road 3199 ) , and the Tel Arad Junction ( with Highway 80 ) . The local Road 3199 connects Arad with Masada , but does not connect to the road next to the dead sea ( Highway 90 ) . It is therefore the only way to get to Masada 's western side .
Arad 's airfield , which was first used during the music festival of 1994 , is located to the south of the city , and serves domestic flights according to demand . A railway line , which would also go through the Nevatim Airbase , is in the planning stages . Its terminus will be adjacent to the central bus station .
The main bus station of Arad , Arad Central Bus Station , was located on the corner of Jerusalem ( Yerushalayim ) Street and Jeuda ( Yehuda ) Street . It has however been closed due to a legal battle between Arad 's municipality and the Egged Bus Cooperative , and its bus stops are now located nearby on Jerusalem St. Construction of the central station officially restarted 18 January 2009 . The new station will include seven platforms and a large parking lot for park and ride . The planned cost of the project is NIS 4 @.@ 5 million .
Buses in Arad are served by the Egged Bus Cooperative and , since 1 June 2007 , also the Metropoline company . A multitude of inter @-@ city bus routes are served by the main station , two more inter @-@ city Haredi routes which leave from the north , as well as five inner routes ( 1 , 2 , 3 , 11 , 12 ) . The inter @-@ city routes are as follows :
= = Local government = =
Arad has , since its inception in 1962 , been under the governance of a regional council and local council , before being designated as a city council in 1995 . Democratic elections have been held in Arad since 1966 , although only Avraham Shochat , Betzalel Tabib and Moty Brill were ever elected or re @-@ elected as the head of the municipality . The first mayor of the city of Arad was Betzalel Tabib who served as both head of the local council and city council . He was replaced by Mordechai Brill in 2003 , although due to his inability to pass a yearly budget , Brill was dismissed by the Minister of the Interior Meir Sheetrit in August 2007 , and a government @-@ appointed clerk , Gideon Bar @-@ Lev , took his place . An election took place again 13 April 2010 , won by Tali Ploskov of the Yisrael Beiteinu party . The longest serving head of Arad 's municipality was Avraham Shochat who served as head of the local council between 1967 and 1986 .
Arad 's yearly budget is over 100 million NIS and over $ 30 million USD . On 27 December 2007 , the 2008 budget was unanimously passed at NIS 123 million by the city council . The city 's total income for the year is estimated at approximately NIS 119 million .
While it is not customary for Israeli cities to have major unique / auxiliary laws , many cities have minor laws . In Arad , it is illegal to feed animals in public places . It is also illegal to sell or consume sunflower seeds , peanuts , etc. in public places , due to an anti @-@ littering law enacted in 1965 . There are in all 27 auxiliary laws in Arad , which were enacted between 1965 and 2000 .
= = = Municipal flag and emblem = = =
The emblem of Arad is a square with a hill and a flame . The hill represents Mount Kidod , a hill in the northeastern part of the city , and the flame represents natural gas , which was extracted in the area in Arad 's early days and spurred the city 's growth . The emblem was adopted on 19 May 1966 . The flag of Arad is a rectangle with a 2 : 3 ratio , which has a light blue background and shows the emblem in the center with the Hebrew text for " Municipality of Arad " at the top and the English text " City of ARAD Israel " ( or variations thereof ) and the bottom . This is the de facto flag , and there is no law or edict making it official .
= = Notable residents = =
Amos Oz ( born 1939 ) , writer
= = Twin towns — sister cities = =
Wilmington , Delaware became a sister city of Arad in 1973 , to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the State of Israel .
Dinslaken , Germany signed a twinning agreement with Arad in 1989 .
Burlington , Vermont , developed a sister city relationship with Arad in 1991 . Then Mayor Bezalel Tabib , along with Professor Walid Dajani , who represented Bethlehem , visited Burlington , Vermont to sign a three cities cooperative agreement — the first @-@ ever sister @-@ city pacts among American , Palestinian , and Israeli communities .
|
= Johari Window ( Fringe ) =
" Johari Window " is the 12th episode of the second season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . The episode , written by co @-@ executive producer Josh Singer and directed by filmmaker Joe Chappelle , is set in a fictional upstate New York town and begins with the discovery of a seemingly deformed child by a state trooper . The Fringe investigative team of Olivia Dunham , Walter Bishop , and Peter Bishop arrives on the scene , only to discover a secret government experiment gone awry , with signs from Walter 's past .
Originally called " Edina City Limits " , the episode 's title was changed shortly before it aired . It premiered in the United States on January 14 , 2010 , on Fox , to 6 @.@ 529 million viewers and a 2 @.@ 6 share 18 – 49 . The episode received average reviews , as many critics compared it either negatively or positively to a B @-@ movie , though most agreed that it seemed to be rehashed from older The X @-@ Files episodes . Several of the main actors , however , thoroughly enjoyed the episode ; Noble named it one of his favorite Fringe episodes . Critics also noted the popular culture references to The Wizard of Oz ( 1939 ) , Deliverance ( 1972 ) , and Joseph Merrick .
= = Plot = =
In upstate New York , a child is picked up on the road by a state trooper . While en route , the child suddenly morphs into a deformed creature . At the station , the troopers try to decide what to do with him , and one takes his picture . Two other deformed people enter the station , kill the troopers and take the boy .
The Fringe team comes on the scene to investigate and find the boy 's photograph , along with recorded sightings of deformed people going back 30 years . They arrive in Edina , the city these sightings occurred near , and Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) hears a buzz called the " Edina hum " . The sheriff explains it is coming from a nearby military base and offers to show them case files of past sightings . While driving , the SUV containing Olivia , Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) , and Walter ( John Noble ) is run off the road by another vehicle , whose driver then starts shooting at them before getting shot and leaving . The FBI find the abandoned vehicle and follow a blood trail to the shooter . Peter is visibly disturbed after killing his first person , and Olivia tries to comfort him .
Agent Broyles discovers that the army did classified experiments in Edina called " Project Elephant " , but most of the records are gone . The team brings the body , along with a butterfly Walter found in the town and thought Astrid would like , back to the lab in Boston . They discover that both have transformed into deformed versions of themselves . Peter and Olivia go back to Edina to talk with the sheriff and try to locate the owner of the truck . Meanwhile , back in the lab , Walter tries to remember why the case feels so familiar . Throughout the episode Walter had been humming some strange melody , and he and Astrid realize he might previously have worked on the project with the army . The melody was a memory trick Walter used to remind himself where he stored the experiment files so many years ago . The experiment was done by the army in the late 1970s to test how electromagnetic pulses can camouflage soldiers and was conducted on the townspeople ; the army was unaware of the long @-@ term effects of the study until it was too late , and the people were stuck in a deformed state . The " hum " hides their deformities from the human eye through a massive electromagnetic pulse that runs through the town , and once they leave and are out of the pulse 's reach , their true deformities show .
Walter and Astrid find the source of the electromagnetic pulse , and begin investigating the house the pulse was built on . At the same time , Peter and Olivia go to a rural meeting place where the sheriff said they would find the truck 's owner , only to be shot at by the sheriff and his deputy , who are hell bent on keeping the town 's secret . Walter manages to turn off the pulse , and all of the townsfolk revert to their deformed appearance . The daughter of one of the army scientists saves Olivia and Peter from getting shot , and explains that her father stayed in Edina to perfect the pulse . After Walter pleads to Broyles to let the townspeople keep their secret , the Fringe team decides to not report the case so that the remaining residents can live a normal life .
= = Production = =
The episode was the second written by co @-@ executive producer and writer Josh Singer , and was the third directed by co @-@ executive producer Joe Chappelle . It was originally titled " Edina City Limits " in press and promotional items , until Fox changed it to " Johari Window " without explanation on January 5 , a week before it broadcast . A johari window is a cognitive psychological tool used to help people better understand their interpersonal communication and relationships , and may have been chosen as the episode 's title because it corresponded to the transformative nature of the plot .
The sound mixing department 's inspiration for the " Edina hum " ( the frequency hiding the deformities of the townsfolk ) came from executive producer Jeff Pinkner . Supervising sound editor Paul Curtis later recalled Pinkner 's asking for it to sound like " 100 @-@ year locusts back east " , consequently what the crew " basically ... ended up with were bugs " . They also layered in a variety of machine sounds . Sound effects editor Bruce Tanis remarked that because the background sound lasted the entire episode , it had to be handled " thoughtfully " .
" What 's weird about the Edina hum is that you hear it all over the town . It goes to the borders of this little town : indoors , outdoors , down the street , in the basement ; you hear some level of it , but you don 't want to hear that for 44 minutes of a show . It 'll drive you nuts . So you have to blend it in , pick moments , bring it up , take it down , so that people can reference it , but you 're not listening to 44 minutes of hum " .
Actor Joshua Jackson later remarked that " Johari Window " was a " stand @-@ alone " episode in an interview : " There is nothing from that thing that broadens the story , except at the heart of it , is a story about love and acceptance and family ... Which of course , for these two guys , is the entire theme of the show for them . So I think we 've done that really well " . Actor John Noble added , " Tolerance . Acceptance . I loved ' Johari Window ' . I thought it was one of my favourite stories " .
= = Cultural references = =
When Walter refuses to get out of the car to enter a supermarket , he mentions he is " learning to appreciate cowardice " and that " the lion had a point " , a reference , he explains to Peter , about the cowardly lion from The Wizard of Oz ( 1939 ) . Walter also mentions flying monkeys and talking lions later in the episode , both also homages to the movie . Later , Walter excitedly says he remembers someone who played the banjo and looked like the kidnapped , deformed boy , and starts humming a tune . Peter completes the tune and explains it is from the movie Deliverance ( 1972 ) , which depicts murderous , inbred , and deformed people living in rural Georgia . The army experiment was titled " Project Elephant " , a possible reference to Joseph Merrick , a deformed person known as the " Elephant Man " . When Walter shows Astrid how the moth changes back to the butterfly when they enter the town , he says , " a friend once said ' any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic . ' " This was originally said by Arthur C. Clarke , originally appearing in Clarke 's 1973 revision of " Hazards of Prophecy : The Failure of Imagination " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Johari Window " was watched by more than 6 @.@ 529 million viewers , achieving a 2 @.@ 6 share of viewers aged 18 – 49 . It rose thirteen percent from the previous week 's episode , and was the highest rated night of Fringe since the season premiere .
= = = Reviews = = =
Ramsey Isler of IGN thought there was not much original or well @-@ done about the episode , and negatively compared it to previous episodes of The X @-@ Files . He wrote the " slow ... story [ lacked ] the intrigue and excitement that other episodes in the series had , " but praised its conclusion as a " pay off " . John McCracken of TV Guide also compared it to The X @-@ Files , and thought the episode was " tedious " and " largely felt like a by @-@ the @-@ numbers B @-@ movie affair " . Jane Boursaw of TV Squad enjoyed the " B @-@ movie " aspects of the plot however , calling them " fun " . She thought the episode felt like " a thriller movie , " and praised Noble 's acting as " brilliantly " . Noel Murray of The A.V. Club gave the episode a C , explaining that " despite some good makeup effects and a few emotional moments , " Johari Window " [ was ] distressingly average " . Andrew Hanson of the LA Times enjoyed how the " Edina hum " remained in the background of every town scene , but missed the " investigation exposition " -supplying presence of Charlie Francis ( Kirk Acevedo ) . Television Without Pity graded the episode a B- .
|
= Whitney High School ( Rocklin , California ) =
Whitney High School is a public magnet school located in the southern Placer County city of Rocklin , California , a settlement in the northern Sacramento metropolitan area . Whitney is one of two high schools in Rocklin Unified School District ; its counterpart is Rocklin High School . The school is the district 's newest educational facility , having opened in 2005 to freshmen and sophomores ; Whitney 's first freshmen graduated at the end of the 2008 – 09 school year . That same school year , Whitney was recognized as a California Distinguished School .
The school educates its students using a modified block schedule program that alternates four periods every two days . Students are subject to eight different periods in total . Students at the school are also taught through a standard @-@ based essential skills program , where students must demonstrate mastery of all skills deemed necessary in a class before credits can be earned ; additionally , students must achieve a grade higher than C by the year 's end , as scores lower than C equate to a " No mark " , and the course must be retaken . As of the end of the 2009 – 10 school year , the high school fielded twenty @-@ three clubs , including an award @-@ winning school yearbook ( known as Details ) , a school newspaper ( known as the Roar ) , and an Emmy winning broadcast program ( known as Unleashed ) . Whitney also ran twenty @-@ three sports teams as of the 2008 – 09 school year ; the football and girls ' soccer teams were champions at the 2009 Sac @-@ Joaquin Section Championships for the respective sports .
= = History = =
Whitney 's name was a significant subject of debate , as the school 's first two proposed names were associated too closely with other schools in the area . The school was initially designated Granite Ridge High School , which was deemed too similar to RUSD 's Granite Oaks Middle School . It was then designated as Liberty High School , but the name was associated with the rival Lincoln High School . Rocklin Unified School District finally decided on " Whitney " in honor of Joel Parker Whitney , the man who suggested that his successful Boston businessman father , George Whitney , invest in the 1854 development of Placer County , which was then a major locale for gold @-@ seeking Argonauts . George Whitney would later found and develop the city of Rocklin . Additional debate revolved around the school 's mascot and colors ; deliberation around data collected via survey from the city of Rocklin and other Rocklin Unified School District entities ultimately convinced the district administration to choose the wildcat and the colors of maroon and gold . Construction began in October 2003 with preliminary site work and underground utilities ; construction of the buildings started on April 2004 .
The high school opened its doors to over 721 ninth and tenth grade students on August 22 , 2005 , while still partially under construction . Its opening relieved the strain of overcrowding that had previously affected Rocklin High School .
Whitney was recognized as a California Distinguished institution on April 1 , 2009 , four years after its opening in 2005 ; the school was noted for this achievement , and is one of six in Placer County to merit the title . On May 19 , 2009 , Whitney and other recently designated California Distinguished Schools were congratulated in a ceremony in Anaheim .
Three petitions were issued by local charter school Rocklin Academy to found a 7 – 12 grade charter school called Western Sierra Collegiate Academy in 2008 and base it on the grounds of either Whitney or Rocklin High School . Rocklin Unified School District denied the school its facilities in its first two attempts , although the academy secured a location where Rocklin 's Sierra Christian Academy once operated by 2009 .
Whitney teacher Matthew Yamamoto was arrested in September 2012 on suspicion of molesting an underage student . The school district waited two days after the arrest before informing parents . In 2013 , Yamamoto pleaded no contest to oral copulation with a minor , attempted sexual intercourse with a minor and sexual penetration with a foreign object on a minor , and pleaded guilty to one felony count of conspiracy to obstruct justice . He received the maximum sentence of five years in prison , in light of his violation of a restraining order during the investigation .
= = = Facility = = =
The 50 @-@ acre ( 200 @,@ 000 m2 ) campus was designed to accommodate 1800 students and 175 employees . The area that Whitney 's thirteen campus buildings occupy total approximately 200 @,@ 000 square feet ( 19 @,@ 000 m2 ) and includes a total of 65 classrooms , while Whitney 's sports fields encompass 20 acres ( 81 @,@ 000 m2 ) of hard court and grass athletic areas . Of all structures on the campus , the theatre was amongst the last to be completed ; construction was finished the following January . In all , the school 's construction cost $ 82 million .
Excluding Whitney 's sports fields , the school 's outdoor facilities are composed of a number of circular gathering areas ( including an amphitheatre ) that were designed for use during lunch hour and for outdoor class excursions . In addition , Whitney 's class campus structures have private workspaces for the teaching faculty from which each of the structure 's classrooms branch off .
= = Academic curriculum = =
In accordance with recommendations made by the California 's Department of Education , Rocklin Unified School District students are taught using a standards @-@ based curriculum ; each student much fulfill a set of essential skills before they are allowed to pass the class . The program is initially implemented in district elementary schools . For some classes , like English , essential skills may be demonstrated by receiving a passing grade on assigned essays or tests . In classes like mathematics , Essential Skills must be demonstrated by receiving a passing grade in specific skills on cumulative tests . In addition , WHS policy does not allow F or D grades . Any grade below a grade of C is considered a No Mark ( NM ) or a No Credit ( NC ) ; the class must then be repeated to get a passing grade . This plan attempts to prepare students for the California High School Exit Exam , or CAHSEE test , which they are expected to pass prior to graduation ; CAHSEE is provided to students during their second year . The test covers grade 6 – 10 language arts concepts , as well as pre @-@ algebraic and Algebra I mathematics .
Whitney High School offers a college preparatory @-@ based curriculum where students are required to take four years of language arts , three and a half years of social studies , three years of mathematics and science each , three years of physical education , and one year 's worth of foreign languages , technology and applied sciences , and visual and performing arts ( VAPA ) . One semester of health education and ten semesters ' worth of electives are also mandatory for graduation , in addition to twenty @-@ five hours of completed community service .
Whitney sports fifteen advanced placement classes , ranging from subjects in foreign language and core classes to VAPA electives , such as art .
Each class is managed by one of eleven academic departments . Nine departments will be experienced by students before the end of their senior year , as one or more of their classes are mandatory for graduation . The other two departments are specialized courses ; one involves the Culinary Arts , while the other involves a precollegiate form of ROTC . This system of Professional Learning Communities was designed by Illinois 's former Adlai E. Stevenson High School principal , Richard Du Four .
Whitney High School runs along the Response to Intervention guideline ; the RTI model implements a three @-@ tiered research @-@ based plan to catch students who are struggling in their schooling . The model implements a number of measures intended to assist students , including an intervention period , an AVID program , night and summer school programs , and Section 504 plans . Among the programs , the intervention periods are twenty minutes set before lunch that is intended for students who need to fulfill the academic requirements in which they are lacking . The AVID program pertains to students who are socially or economically disadvantaged .
Whitney students undergo a full eight @-@ class period school day extended over two individual days in a modified block schedule . Each year , as a result , students complete eight classes . Of the 320 possible credits , 250 credits are required for graduation .
At the end of the 2007 – 2008 school year , 48 @.@ 6 % of Whitney 's graduating seniors were qualified for entry into a University of California or California State University campus ; 39 @.@ 6 % were accepted into four @-@ year institutions . 12 % of the graduating class motioned directly for employment or joined the US military .
= = Demographics = =
1 @,@ 438 students attended Whitney High School during the 2007 – 08 school year ; of these students , there were 361 freshmen , 424 sophomores , 355 juniors , and 298 seniors . The student body is predominantly Caucasian ( 70 @.@ 51 % ) , where the largest minorities represented are Hispanics ( 9 @.@ 18 % ) and Asians ( 5 @.@ 35 % ) . 9 @.@ 6 % of the school 's students marked their race as either " mixed " or did not respond at all . 14 % of the student body reported themselves socio @-@ economically disadvantaged , 8 % reported themselves as having a disability , and 3 % of the school population reported themselves as ESL students . 96 @.@ 1 % of the Whitney student body graduated in its first school year ; in the 2005 – 06 school year , every student passed the requirements for graduation . The school 's first dropout students were in the 2006 – 07 school year ; 1 @.@ 5 % of the school 's students were part of that group .
Class sizes had increased in all core classes between the school 's founding in 2005 and the School Accountability Report Card for the 2007 – 08 school year , where an average 23 @.@ 1 English class size and an average 21 @.@ 9 mathematics class size had increased to , respectively , average class sizes of 25 @.@ 4 and 25 @.@ 0 .
= = Extracurricular activities = =
= = = Clubs and publications = = =
As of April of the 2010 – 2011 school year , Whitney High School runs forty @-@ seven clubs . Many of these clubs , including those pertaining to art , dance , music ( the school 's band and orchestra ) , foreign language , and the United States Air Force Junior Reserve Officers ' Training Corps , directly correspond to official classes that are run by the school itself . Others , including the California Scholarship Federation and National Honor Society , can be used as catalysts to fulfill the community service graduation requirement . The high school 's yearbook , known as Details , was awarded a Silver Crown Award at the 2009 Scholastic Awards Convention at Columbia University alongside Rocklin High School 's yearbook ; in addition , Whitney 's yearbook placed first in the 2006 National Student Press Association Best @-@ of @-@ Show 's Yearbook length 1 – 224 pages category . The school 's newspaper , known as The Roar , was founded in the spring of 2005 by the school 's Journalism I course ; the first issue was released in March of the following year .
Whitney High School 's student government is known as the Associated Student Body , or ASB . The association is responsible for organizing rallies , dances , and other schoolwide activities .
= = = Sports = = =
Whitney High School fields eleven boys ' sports teams and twelve girls ' sports teams . Nearly all sports have teams of both genders , although exceptions do exist : baseball and football are specific to males , while cheerleading , drill team , softball , and team tennis are specific to females . Whitney 's sports teams participate in the Pioneer Valley League , which includes six other high schools in El Dorado County , Placer County , Nevada County , and Sacramento County . Whitney 's football team won the Sac @-@ Joaquin Section championships in 2008 ; they were runners @-@ up to Oakdale High School the previous year and reached the championships again in 2009 . Likewise , the girls ' soccer team won the Sac @-@ Joaquin Section championships in 2009 . Nazir Rasooli was the champion of the 2009 Sac @-@ Joaquin Section Wrestling Championship , and was the first Whitney wrestler to qualify for the State championship .
|
= Operation Auca =
Operation Auca was an attempt by five Evangelical Christian missionaries from the United States to bring Christianity to the Huaorani people of the rain forest of Ecuador . The Huaorani , also known by the pejorative Aucas ( a modification of awqa , the Quechua word for " savages " ) , were an isolated tribe known for their violence , against both their own people and outsiders who entered their territory . With the intention of being the first Christians to evangelize the previously uncontacted Huaorani , the missionaries began making regular flights over Huaorani settlements in September 1955 , dropping gifts , which were reciprocated . After several months of exchanging gifts , on January 3 , 1956 , the missionaries established a camp at " Palm Beach " , a sandbar along the Curaray River , a few kilometers from Huaorani settlements . Their efforts came to an end on January 8 , 1956 , when all five — Jim Elliot , Nate Saint , Ed McCully , Peter Fleming , and Roger Youderian — were attacked and speared by a group of Huaorani warriors . The news of their deaths was broadcast around the world , and Life magazine covered the event with a photo essay .
The deaths of the men galvanized the missionary effort in the United States , sparking an outpouring of funding for evangelization efforts around the world . Their work is still frequently remembered in evangelical publications , and in 2006 was the subject of the film production End of the Spear . Several years after the death of the men , the widow of Jim Elliot , Elisabeth , and the sister of Nate Saint , Rachel , returned to Ecuador as missionaries with the Summer Institute of Linguistics ( now SIL International ) to live among the Huaorani . This eventually led to the conversion of many , including some of those involved in the killing . While largely eliminating tribal violence , their efforts exposed the tribe to increased influence from the outside .
= = Huaorani = =
The Huaorani around the time of Operation Auca were a small tribe occupying the jungle of Eastern Ecuador between the Napo and Curaray Rivers , an area of approximately 20 @,@ 000 square kilometers ( 7 @,@ 700 mi ² ) . They numbered approximately 600 people , and were split into three groups , all mutually hostile — the Geketaidi , the Baïidi , and the Wepeidi . They lived on the gathering and cultivation of plant foods like manioc and plantains , as well as fishing and hunting with spear and blowgun . Family units consisted of a man and his wife or wives , their unmarried sons , their married daughters and sons @-@ in @-@ law , and their grandchildren . All of them would reside in a longhouse , which was separated by several kilometers from another longhouse in which close relatives lived . Marriage was always endogenous and typically between cousins , and arranged by the parents of the young people .
Before their first peaceful contact with outsiders ( cowodi ) in 1958 , the Huaorani fiercely defended their territory . Viewing all cowodi as cannibalistic predators , they killed rubber tappers around the turn of the 20th century and Shell Oil Company employees during the 1940s , in addition to any lowland Quechua or other outsiders who encroached on their land . Furthermore , they were prone to internal violence , often engaging in vengeance killing of other Huaorani . Raids were carried out in extreme anger by groups of men who attacked their victims ' longhouse by night and then fled . Attempts to build truces through gifts and exchange of spouses became more frequent as their numbers decreased and the tribes fragmented , but the cycle of violence continued .
= = Missionaries = =
Jim Elliot first heard of the Huaorani in 1950 from a former missionary to Ecuador , and afterwards indicated that God had called him to Ecuador to evangelize the Huaorani . He began corresponding with his friend Pete Fleming about his desire to minister in Ecuador , and in 1952 the two men set sail for Guayaquil as missionaries with the Plymouth Brethren . For six months they lived in Quito with the goal of learning Spanish . They then moved to Shandia , a Quechua mission station deep in the Ecuadorian jungle . There they worked under the supervision of a Christian Missions in Many Lands missionary , Wilfred Tidmarsh , and began exposing themselves to the culture and studying the Quechua language .
Another team member was Ed McCully , a man Jim Elliot had met and befriended while both attended Wheaton College . Following graduation , he married Marilou Hobolth and enrolled in a one @-@ year basic medical treatment program at the School of Missionary Medicine in Los Angeles . On December 10 , 1952 , McCully moved to Quito with his family as a Plymouth Brethren missionary , planning to soon join Elliot and Fleming in Shandia . In 1953 , however , the station in Shandia was wiped out by a flood , delaying their move until September of that year .
The team 's pilot , Nate Saint , had served in the military during World War II , receiving flight training as a member of the Army Air Corps . After being discharged in 1946 , he too studied at Wheaton College , but quit after a year and joined the Mission Aviation Fellowship in 1948 . He and his wife Marj traveled to Ecuador by the end of the year , and they settled at MAF headquarters in Shell Mera . Shortly after his arrival , Saint began transporting supplies and equipment to missionaries spread throughout the jungle . This work ultimately led to his meeting the other four missionaries , who he joined in Operation Auca .
Also on the team was Roger Youderian , a 32 @-@ year @-@ old missionary who had been working in Ecuador since 1953 . Under the mission board Gospel Missionary Union , he and his wife Barbara and daughter Beth settled in Macuma , a mission station in the southern jungle of Ecuador . There , he and his wife ministered to the Shuar people , learning their language and transcribing it . After working with them for about a year , Youderian and his family began ministering to a tribe related to the Shuar , the Achuar people . He worked with Nate Saint to provide important medical supplies ; but after a period of attempting to build relationships with them , he failed to see any positive effect and , growing depressed , considered returning to the United States . However , during this time Saint approached him about joining their team to meet the Huaorani , and he assented .
= = Initial contact = =
The first stage of Operation Auca began in September 1955 . Saint , McCully , Elliot , and fellow missionary Johnny Keenan decided to initiate contact with the Huaorani and began periodically searching for them by air . By the end of the month , they had identified several clearings in the jungle . Meanwhile , Elliot learned several phrases in the language of the Huaorani from Dayuma , a young Huaorani woman who had left her society and become friends with Rachel Saint , a missionary and the sister of Nate Saint . The missionaries hoped that by regularly giving gifts to the Huaorani and attempting to communicate with them in their language , they would be able to win them over as friends .
Because of the difficulty and risk of meeting the Huaorani on the ground , the missionaries chose to drop gifts to the Huaorani by fixed @-@ wing aircraft . Their drop technique , developed by Nate Saint , involved flying around the drop location in tight circles while lowering the gift from the plane on a rope . This kept the bundle in roughly the same position as it approached the ground . On October 6 , 1955 , Saint made the first drop , releasing a small kettle containing buttons and rock salt . The gift @-@ giving continued during the following weeks , with the missionaries dropping machetes , ribbons , clothing , pots , and various trinkets .
After several visits to the Auca village , which the missionaries called " Terminal City " , they observed that the Huaorani seemed excited to receive their gifts . Encouraged , they began using a loudspeaker to shout simple Huaorani phrases as they circled . After several more drops , in November the Huaorani began tying gifts for the missionaries to the line after removing the gifts the missionaries gave them . The men took this as a gesture of friendliness and developed plans for meeting the Huaorani on the ground . Saint soon identified a 200 @-@ yard ( 200 m ) sandbar along the Curaray River about 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 km ) from Terminal City that could serve as a runway and camp site , and dubbed it " Palm Beach " .
= = Palm Beach = =
At this point , Pete Fleming had still not decided to participate in the operation , and Roger Youderian was still working in the jungle farther south . On December 23 , the Flemings , Saints , Elliots and McCullys together made plans to land at Palm Beach and build a camp on January 3 , 1956 . They agreed to take weapons , but decided that they would only be used to fire into the air to scare the Huaorani if they attacked . They built a sort of tree house that could be assembled upon arrival , and collected gifts , first aid equipment , and language notes .
By January 2 , Youderian had arrived and Fleming had confirmed his involvement , so the five met in Arajuno to prepare to leave the following day . After minor mechanical trouble with the plane , Saint and McCully took off at 8 : 02 a.m. on January 3 and successfully landed on the sandy beach along the Curaray River . Saint then flew Elliot and Youderian to the camp , and then made several more flights , carrying equipment . After the last delivery , he flew over a Huaorani settlement and , using a loudspeaker , told the Huaorani to visit the missionaries ' camp . He then returned to Arajuno , and the next day , he and Fleming flew out to Palm Beach .
= = = First visit = = =
On January 6 , after the Americans had spent several days of waiting and shouting basic Huaorani phrases into the jungle , the first Huaorani visitors arrived . A young man and two women emerged on the opposite river bank around 11 : 15 a.m. , and soon joined the missionaries at their encampment . The younger of the two women had come against the wishes of her family , and the man , named Nankiwi , who was romantically interested in her , followed . The older woman ( about thirty years old ) acted as a self @-@ appointed chaperone . The men gave them several gifts , including a model plane , and the visitors soon relaxed and began conversing freely , apparently not realizing that the men 's language skills were weak . Nankiwi , whom the missionaries nicknamed " George " , showed interest in their aircraft , so Saint took off with him aboard . They first completed a circuit around the camp , but Nankiwi appeared eager for a second trip , so they flew toward Terminal City . Upon reaching a familiar clearing , Nankiwi recognized his neighbors , and leaning out of the plane , wildly waved and shouted to them . Later that afternoon , the younger woman became restless , and though the missionaries offered their visitors sleeping quarters , Nankiwi and the young woman left the beach with little explanation . The older woman apparently had more interest in conversing with the missionaries , and remained there most of the night .
After seeing Nankiwi in the plane , a small group of Huaorani decided to make the trip to Palm Beach , and left the following morning , January 7 . On the way , they encountered Nankiwi and the girl , returning unescorted . The girl 's brother , Nampa , was furious at this , and to defuse the situation and divert attention from himself , Nankiwi claimed that the foreigners had attacked them on the beach , and in their haste to flee , they had been separated from their chaperone . Gikita , a senior member of the group whose experience with outsiders had taught him that they could not be trusted , recommended that they kill the foreigners . The return of the older woman and her account of the friendliness of the missionaries was not enough to dissuade them , and they soon continued toward the beach .
= = = Attack = = =
On January 8 the missionaries waited , expecting a larger group of Huaorani to arrive sometime that afternoon , if only to get plane rides . Saint made several trips over Huaorani settlements , and on the following morning he noted a group of Huaorani men traveling toward Palm Beach . He excitedly relayed this information to his wife over the radio at 12 : 30 p.m. , promising to make contact again at 4 : 30 p.m.
The Huaorani arrived at Palm Beach around 3 : 00 p.m. , and in order to divide the foreigners before attacking them , they sent three women to the other side of the river . One , Dawa , remained hidden in the jungle , but the other two showed themselves . Two of the missionaries waded into the water to greet them , but were attacked from behind by Nampa . Apparently attempting to scare him , Elliot , the first missionary to be speared , drew his pistol and began firing . One of these shots mildly injured Dawa , still hidden , and another grazed the missionary 's attacker after he was grabbed from behind by one of the women . Accounts differ on the effect of that bullet . Missionaries interpreted the testimonies of Dawa and Dayuma to mean that Nampa was killed months later while hunting , but others , including missionary anthropologist James Yost , came to believe that his death was a result of the bullet wound . Rachel Saint did not accept this , holding that eyewitnesses supported her position , but researcher Laura Rival , a critic of the expedition , suggests that it is now commonly believed among Huaorani that Nampa died of the wound . The other missionary in the river , Fleming , before being speared , desperately reiterated friendly overtures and asked the Huaorani why they were killing them . Meanwhile , the other Huaorani warriors , led by Gikita , attacked the three missionaries still on the beach , spearing Saint first , then McCully as he rushed to stop them . Youderian ran to the airplane to get to the radio , but he was speared as he picked up the microphone to report the attack . The Huaorani then threw the men 's bodies and their belongings in the river , and ripped the fabric from their aircraft . They then returned to their village and , anticipating retribution , burned it to the ground and fled into the jungle .
= = = Search = = =
At 4 : 30 p.m. , Marj Saint and Pete Fleming 's wife , Olive , were waiting for the call from Saint . Not receiving word at 4 : 30 p.m. immediately caused his wife Marj to worry , but Marj and Olive did not tell anyone about the lack of communication until that evening . ( To avoid interference , the entire mission had been kept a secret from all those not directly involved at the time , thus making the timing of this announcement more difficult . ) The next morning , January 9 , Johnny Keenan flew to the camp site , and at 9 : 30 a.m. he reported via radio to the wives that the plane was stripped of its fabric , and that the men were not there . The Commander in Chief of the Caribbean Command , Lieutenant General William K. Harrison , was contacted , and Quito @-@ based radio station HCJB released a news bulletin saying that five men were missing in Huaorani territory . Soon , aircraft from the United States Air Rescue Service in Panama were flying over the jungle , and a ground search party consisting of missionaries and military personnel was organized . The first two of the bodies were found on Wednesday , January 11 , and on Thursday , Ed McCully 's body was identified by a group of Quechuas . They took his watch as evidence of the finding but did not move his body from its location on the bank of the Curaray ; it later washed away . Two more bodies were found on January 12 . The searchers hoped that one of the unidentified bodies would be McCully , thinking that perhaps one of the men had escaped . However , on January 13 , all four of the bodies found were positively identified by watches and wedding rings , and McCully 's body was not among them , confirming that all five were dead . In the midst of a tropical storm , they were buried in a common grave at Palm Beach on January 14 by members of the ground search party .
= = Aftermath = =
Life magazine covered the deaths of the men with a photo essay , including photographs by Cornell Capa and some taken by the five men before their deaths . The ensuing worldwide publicity gave several missionary organizations significant more visibility , especially in the United States and Latin America . Most notable among these was the Summer Institute of Linguistics ( SIL ) , the organization for which both Elisabeth Elliot and Rachel Saint worked . Because of the martyrdom of her brother , Saint considered herself spiritually bonded to the Huaorani , believing that what she saw as his sacrifice for the Huaorani was symbolic of Christ 's death for the salvation of humanity . In 1957 , Saint and her Huaorani companion Dayuma toured across the United States and appeared on the television show This Is Your Life . The two also appeared in a Billy Graham crusade in New York City , contributing to Saint 's increasing popularity among evangelical Christians and generating significant monetary donations for SIL .
Saint and Elliot returned to Ecuador to work among the Huaorani ( 1958 @-@ 1960 ) , establishing a camp called Tihueno near a former Huaorani settlement . Rachel Saint and Dayuma became bonded in Huaorani eyes through their shared mourning and Rachel 's adoption as a sister of Dayuma , taking the name Nemo from the latter 's deceased youngest sister . The first Huaorani to settle there were primarily women and children from a Huaorani group called the Guiquetairi , but in 1968 an enemy Huaorani band known as the Baihuari joined them . Elliot had returned to the United States in the early 1960s , so Saint and Dayuma worked to alleviate the resulting conflict . They succeeded in securing cohabitation of the two groups by overseeing numerous cross @-@ band weddings , leading to an end of inter @-@ clan warfare but obscuring the cultural identity of each group .
Saint and Dayuma , in conjunction with SIL , negotiated the creation of an official Huaorani reservation in 1969 , consolidating the Huaorani and consequently opening up the area to commerce and oil exploration . By 1973 , over 500 people lived in Tihueno , of which more than half had arrived in the previous six years . The settlement relied on aid from SIL , and as a Christian community , followed rules foreign to Huaorani culture like prohibitions on killing and polygamy . By the early 1970s , SIL began to question whether their impact on the Huaorani was positive , so they sent James Yost , a staff anthropologist , to assess the situation . He found extensive economic dependence and increasing cultural assimilation , and as a result , SIL ended its support of the settlement in 1976 , leading to its disintegration and the dispersion of the Huaorani into the surrounding area . SIL had hoped that the Huaorani would return to the isolation in which they had lived twenty years prior , but instead they sought out contact with the outside world , forming villages of which many have been recognized by the Ecuadorian government .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Christian views = = =
Among evangelical Christians , the five men are commonly considered martyrs and missionary heroes . Books have been written about them by numerous biographers , most notably Elisabeth Elliot . Anniversaries of their deaths have been accompanied by stories in major Christian publications , and their story , as well as the subsequent acceptance of Christianity among the Huaorani , has been turned into several motion pictures .
Even so , Christians have noted with concern the disintegration of traditional Huaorani culture and westernization of the tribe , beginning with Nate Saint 's own journal entry in 1955 and continuing through today . However , many continue to view as positive both Operation Auca and the subsequent missionary efforts of Rachel Saint , mission organizations such as Mission Aviation Fellowship , Wycliffe Bible Translators , HCJB World Radio , Avant Ministries ( formerly Gospel Missionary Union ) , and others . Specifically , they note the decline in violence among tribe members , numerous conversions to Christianity , and growth of the local church .
= = = Anthropologist views = = =
Anthropologists generally have less favorable views of the missionary work begun by Operation Auca , viewing the intervention as the cause for the recent and widely recognized decline of Huaorani culture . Leading Huaorani researcher Laura Rival says that the work of the SIL " pacified " the Huaorani during the 1960s , and argues that missionary intervention caused significant changes in fundamental components of Huaorani society . Prohibitions of polygamy , violence , chanting , and dancing were directly contrary to cultural norms , and the relocation of Huaorani and subsequent intermarrying of previously hostile groups eroded cultural identity . Others are somewhat less negative — Brysk , after noting that the work of the missionaries opened the area to outside intervention and led to the deterioration of the culture , says that the SIL also informed the Huaorani of their legal rights and taught them how to protect their interests from developers . Boster goes even further , suggesting that the " pacification " of the Huaorani was a result of " active effort " by the Huaorani themselves , not the result of missionary imposition . He argues that Christianity served as a way for the Huaorani to escape the cycle of violence in their community , since it provided a motivation to abstain from killing .
= = = Film depictions = = =
There have been several screen depictions of Operation Auca . The 2004 documentary Beyond the Gates of Splendor featured interviews with some of the Huaorani and surviving family members of the missionaries . The 2006 drama film End of the Spear grossed over $ 12 million .
|
= Greece in the Eurovision Song Contest 2006 =
Anna Vissi represented Greece in the Eurovision Song Contest 2006 with her song " Everything " . The Greek national broadcaster , Ellinikí Radiofonía Tileórasi ( ERT ) , internally selected Vissi to represent the country at the contest , which took place in Athens after Greece 's win at the 2005 contest with the song " My Number One " performed by Elena Paparizou . " Everything " , composed by Nikos Karvelas and written by Anna Vissi herself , was selected on March 14 , 2006 at a national final by a combination of a televoting / SMS vote ( 60 % ) and expert jury ( 40 % ) . At Eurovision , Vissi placed 9th , receiving 128 points .
= = Background = =
The Eurovision Song Contest 2006 marked Greece 's twenty @-@ seventh participation in the Contest since its first entry in 1974 . It won for the first time at the previous contest in 2005 with the song " My Number One " performed by Elena Paparizou , and had been placed third twice up to the Contest : in 2001 with the song " Die for You " performed by the duo Antique and in 2004 with " Shake It " performed by Sakis Rouvas . Following the introduction of semi @-@ finals for the 2004 contest , Greece has had a top ten placing each year . Greece 's least successful result was in 1998 when it placed twentieth with the song " Mia Krifi Evesthisia " by Thalassa , receiving only twelve points in total , all from Cyprus .
The Greek national broadcaster , Ellinikí Radiofonía Tileórasi ( ERT ) broadcasts the event in Greece each year and organizes the selection process for its entry . From 2001 to 2003 , ERT held a national final with several artists , but for 2004 and 2005 , it selected high @-@ profile artists internally and set up national finals to choose their song . ERT continued the internal selection of the artist for 2006 and subsequently held a national final to select the song .
= = Performer = =
As it had done in 2005 , ERT asked 2004 entrant Sakis Rouvas to represent Greece in the 2006 contest , but he once again denied . In an interview with Down Town magazine Rouvas recalled getting the proposal from the network in " either August or September " and considering it briefly ; however , he ultimately found there was no reason for him to go , especially when Greece was the reigning champion , making chances of winning little to none . Nevertheless , ERT still wanted Rouvas involved in some way and they asked him to host the competition , which he accepted . With the news leaked by the newspaper Ethnos , a public announcement was made on 1 November 2005 . Rouvas said of his decision " but when I received the proposal for the hosting of Eurovision I found it intriguing " and that it would challenge him . American television personality and actress Maria Menounos would eventually be announced as his female co @-@ host . The two presented all of the major Eurovision events , including the allocation draw , in addition to the semi @-@ final and final .
On August 6 , 2005 , MAD TV reported that Despina Vandi was " seriously considering " representing Greece in 2006 and would be or possibly already had been proposed to by ERT to be the Greek entrant . Vandi had been asked previously to represent the country at the 2005 contest , but declined , fearing a bad result while her international career was going well . A few months later on December 12 , 2005 , Star Channel announced that ERT would soon officially propose to a different artist , Anna Vissi , to be the representative . Vissi said in reply that she " never [ excludes ] a Eurovision Song Contest participation as long as everything is organized well " . She had participated in the contest twice before : in 1980 with " Autostop " for Greece and in 1982 for Cyprus with the song " Mono I Agapi " , placing 13th and 5th respectively . She had also attempted to take part in the contest on several other years , either failing to win against other artists or having deals not materialize . An official announcement was not made soon after as no agreement could be made at the time , but one month later on January 24 , 2006 , Vissi was officially announced as the artist for 2006 . A few days later in an interview with the press , she said " finally [ a decision is made ] , I want to go to Eurovision too much " . She said the reason that the final decision took so long to be announced was because she was still debating entering ; using opinion polls along with talking to her usual collaborators . It was also announced that Vissi would sing either four or five songs live at the national final to choose her song .
= = National final = =
The date of the final was set for March 14 , 2006 and took place at club Votanikos ; broadcast live as a television program titled Feel the Party . The show was hosted by Giorgos Capountzides and Zeta Makripoulia from the Greek television series Sto Para Pente and included a recap of Greece 's entries from 1974 to 2005 . Past entries such as " Mathima Solfege " , " Stop " , " I Anixi " , and " I Would Die for You " were shown on a large screen along with a video message by 2006 Eurovision host Maria Menounos , while Sakis Rouvas , Elena Paparizou , and Nana Mouskouri all sent personal messages via satellite . During the show , guest acts representing other countries partaking in Eurovision performed their entries and they included : Fabrizio Faniello of Malta with " I Do " , Sibel Tuzun of Turkey with " Süper Star " , Mihai Traistariu of Romania with " Tornerò " , Christine Guldbrandsen of Norway with " Alvedansen " , and Annet Artani of Cyprus with " Why Angels Cry " .
Four candidate songs were decided on for Vissi to sing at the national final by ERT : " Who Cares About Love " which was written and composed by Nikos Karvelas , " Everything " which was also composed by Karvelas , with lyrics by Anna Vissi , " Welcome to the Party " which was composed by Dimitris Kontopoulos with lyrics by Dimitris S , and " A Beautiful Night " which was written and composed by Pegasos ( Antonis and Dimitris Papavomvolakis ) . " Everything " is described as a ballad , while the three others are more upbeat .
The winning song was chosen by the public through televoting and a jury weighted at 60 % and 40 % of the result respectively . The jury panel was made up of Mimis Plessas , Antonis Andrikakis , Dimitris Starovas , Themos Anastasiadis , Christina Politi , Evangelia Piskera , Antonis Karatzikos , Rena Kapitsala , and a ninth vote was split between Sietse Bakker of ESCToday and Fotis Konstantopoulos of Oikotimes .
= = = Result of national final = = =
" Everything " was proclaimed the winner after receiving 47 @.@ 79 % of the total vote , representing over 200 @,@ 000 televotes . She received 55 @.@ 66 % of the vote from the viewers and 35 @.@ 98 % from the jury . " Welcome to the Party " placed second with 26 @.@ 32 % ( 27 @.@ 69 % from the viewers ; 24 @.@ 27 % from the jury ) , 13 @.@ 72 % ( 7 @.@ 25 % from the viewers ; 24 @.@ 43 % from the jury ) for " Who Cares About Love " in third place , and 12 @.@ 6 % ( 9 @.@ 39 % from the viewers ; 16 @.@ 32 % from the jury ) for " A Beautiful Night " which placed last . Vissi stated that she liked all four songs , and after seeing the results , pledged to sing " Everything " " from the heart and give all her best for Greece " .
= = Promotion = =
Before her appearance at the contest , Vissi went on a promotional tour , singing her song in several Eurovision countries . The first stop was Moscow on March 25 , 2006 , Greek Independence Day , and she attended a reception at the Greek embassy . She stayed for three days and gave seven television appearances , three newspaper interviews and posed for several magazines . Following Russia , Vissi traveled to Malta and then Cyprus where she performed at a large club in Nicosia . Cyprus was followed by Albania , where she appeared at the " Albania Awards Kult " , an awards show , and also gave a few interviews . The next stop was Serbia and Montenegro , followed by Romania . By the end of April , Vissi had visited Sweden where she gave several more interviews to the local press . Bosnia and Herzegovina was next at the beginning of May , followed by Belgium on the fourth . She met with Greek Orthodox Metropolitan Panteleimon of Belgium to whom she offered an autographed copy of her CD single " Everything " after having spoken to the media . Vissi then attended a reception at the Greek embassy before meeting up with Belgium entrant Kate Ryan with whom she visited a chocolate museum . After Belgium , Vissi returned to Greece for a break before leaving for Israel , the last stop on the tour , where she remained for ten days .
On April 25 , 2006 , Vissi re @-@ released her most recent album at the time , Nylon , as Nylon : Euro Edition to include the four tracks from the national final and to coincide with the ongoing international promotional tour . At the same time , " Welcome to the Party " had entered the American market , already being played on some radio stations .
= = At Eurovision = =
At a press conference on May 16 , Anna Vissi thanked her fans and God for everything that had been given to her . She also explained how important the competition was to her saying that she " really , really [ wants ] to win " and she also received several gifts from journalists and fans .
" Everything " was considered a favorite at the contest , placing in the top three in a majority of fan polls and first in online betting houses . British commentator for the semi @-@ final stated that " she 's massive in Greece , she 's even bigger than the country itself " . " None of the rehearsals were attended by so many people as Anna Vissi 's " , noted Sietse Bakker , one of the jury members from the national final , " not only a large amount of fans and journalists took seat in the arena [ ... ] but the president of Greek broadcaster ERT also entered the arena to see how ' his ' artist was doing " .
= = = Final = = =
As the winning country of the 2005 edition , Greece was automatically qualified for the final of the 2006 contest , and was drawn to present its song 16th on the night of the final , after the United Kingdom and before Finland .
At the final , held on May 20 , 2006 , Anna Vissi appeared on stage surrounded by a fog effect created by dry ice . She was alone on the large stage and wore an exclusive Jean Paul Gaultier black and white outfit with black leggings . By the end of the song , she was down on her knees singing . Her choreography for the final was arranged by Mia Michaels . Although considered a favorite , a ninth @-@ place finish was all Vissi could manage . She received 128 points , including the coveted " douze points " from Bulgaria and Cyprus .
The ninth @-@ place finish guaranteed Greece a place in the final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2007 .
= = After Eurovision = =
The day after the contest , Vissi could be seen crying in front of cameras while recounting her experience , but thanking the Greek public for all their love and support . She soon re @-@ released Nylon again as a dual disc with music videos , and also a remix of " Everything " by Valentino and Siganos . After Eurovision Vissi went on hiatus from the Greek music industry , performing a worldwide tour for the Greek diaspora in 2007 as well as recording English @-@ language material for her planned international album in Los Angeles , California with her then @-@ producer Greg Ladanyi . A court case also further postponed her Greek career . Since the second re @-@ release of Nylon in autumn 2006 , Vissi had not released any new material until October 29 , 2008 , when she released the song " To Parelthon Mou " ( my past ) as the lead soundtrack single for the Greek movie Bank Bang . On December 9 , 2008 she released the album Apagorevmeno ( 2008 ) which was certified double platinum in Greece under the new 2009 thresholds , denoting shipments of 24 thousand copies , one of her lowest selling albums and lowest of the 2000s . It was certified triple platinum in her native Cyprus . Her first album in the 2010s , Agapi Einai Esi , performed worse than its predecessor , being certified gold for shipments of six thousand copies and falling off of the charts after two months , while her concert attendances generally did not meet expectations , despite heavy promotion .
While Vissi 's popularity and commercial appeal had already begun declining by the early 2000s , as seen by the sales of albums such as Nylon — which although successful had relatively low sales compared to her other albums — Eurovision was considered to have had a detrimental affect to her career . The Greeks viewed the sudden departure and abstaining completely from the media as Vissi being ashamed about her result in the contest , furthered by Vissi 's own statements of the participation being a mistake . Although this was partially due to hardships faced by the Greek music industry including piracy , the financial crisis , and changing musical tastes , leading to a general decline of the laïko @-@ pop scene and image @-@ based singers , her career choices , such as the pursuit of an international career at a relatively advanced age , leading to several long absences from Greece and attempting to use Eurovision as a gateway , were thought to be major components . In an article about the " golden trio of Greek pop " consisting of Vissi , Despina Vandi , and Sakis Rouvas , Anna Vlavianou of To Vima considered Vissi to have " the most vociferous " decline of the group . Vlavianou interpreted her tears on the night :
" When America looked to big to be won , Anna Vissi turned towards Europe . She took part in Eurovision to conquer the summit of the Alps and lost Mount Olympus too . Her tears on the evening of the contest in 2006 , following her failure , showed that she was fully aware of her situation : not only had she not conquered the European audience , but she had lost the Greek one too . "
Vissi 's music rival Despina Vandi also became less prominent . While the supposed rivalry between the two was once a grand topic in the media , with speculation as to who would come out on top , the possible overexposure of the story and their subsequent absences allowed fellow laïko @-@ pop singer Elena Paparizou , fresh off of the momentum of her 2005 Eurovision win , to ultimately overshadow the two during the second half of the decade . While reviewing Apagorevmeno , Haris Simvoulidis of Avopolis felt that Vissi appeared to be attempting to catch up to her contemporaries , Paparizou and Peggy Zina . Vissi continued to make music and while her career never fully recovered to its previous state , she did continue to have some impact , being placed 15th in Forbes list of the most powerful and influential Greece celebrities in 2010 . Her time on hiatus in the late 2000s was filmed and used for a reality show called Oso Eho Foni in 2011 .
|
= Jim Wallhead =
Jim Wallhead ( born 14 March 1984 ) is an English professional mixed martial artist who competes in the Welterweight division . He has competed for BAMMA , Bellator , and M @-@ 1 Challenge .
Wallhead is a member of Team Rough House and Leicester Shootfighters . In addition to his training at Leicester Shootfighters , Wallhead also works as a coach . Wallhead joined Team Rough House after back @-@ to @-@ back losses at the beginning of his professional career and dropped his competing weight from Light Heavyweight and Middleweight to Welterweight .
= = Mixed martial arts career = =
= = = Background = = =
Wallhead comes from a judo background , where he holds a black belt . He was introduced to judo accidentally after being taken to a class that was believed to be a karate class . Wallhead was successful early in his judo career for the Beaumont Leys Judo club , before moving to a club in Coventry under Olympic silver medallist Neil Adams . Under Adams , Wallhead won three Under @-@ 21s British titles as well as placing 7th in the European youth Olympics .
Wallhead joined Team Rough House in 2005 , following back @-@ to @-@ back losses between May and July 2005 . Wallhead is still a member of Team Rough House to this date , alongside fighters such as Dan Hardy , Ross Pearson , Paul Daley and Andre Winner.Wallhead also trains Muay Thai with the former multi @-@ time Kickboxing champion Owen Comerie , who previously trained Dan Hardy . Wallhead works his strength and conditioning with Ollie Richardson at the Leicester Tigers Rugby Union training ground . Wallhead also trains Brazilian jiu @-@ jitsu under Victor Estima , he holds a Blue Belt under him .
= = = Early career = = =
Early in his career , Wallhead was associated with the Urban Combat Leicester team . He made his semi @-@ professional debut against Steve Matthews on 8 April 2005 , in a two @-@ round fight . This fight was fought at heavyweight , at the " Cage Warriors : Quest " event where Wallhead was able to defeat his opponent with a rear naked choke after 27 seconds of the first round .
Wallhead soon turned professional and on 30 April 2005 , he made his debut at Cage Warriors : Ultimate Force . Jim fought Leslee Ojugbana , utilising knee strikes from the clinch , whilst preventing Ojugbana from succeeding with takedown attempts . After one @-@ sided striking from Wallhead , Ojugbana gave up his back and Wallhead was able to pull off a rear naked choke for his debut win after just 64 seconds .
Wallhead competed just weeks later and made his second professional appearance against Boris Jonstomp at Cage Warriors : Strike Force . This fight was fought at the lower weight of middleweight and saw Wallhead succeed with judo throw attempts early in the fight . However , Wallhead 's ground game was not to the same standard at Jonstomp 's and he lost via first round submission ( neck crank ) after 4 : 20 .
This was followed up by his second consecutive loss , two months later at the Cage Warriors : Quest 2 event , at the hands of Chris Rice . Wallhead was TKOd 3 : 32 into the first round , resulting in a 1 – 2 record at the start of his professional MMA career . Following this loss , Wallhead joined Team Rough House after meeting Dan Hardy and receiving an invitation to join the team . Upon doing so , Wallhead dropped two weight categories to his current status as a welterweight .
= = = Early affiliation with Team Rough House = = =
In his welterweight debut and his first fight under Team Rough House affiliation , Wallhead was victorious . The fight took place at Cage Warriors : Strike Force 3 where Wallhead faced Greco @-@ Roman wrestler Steve Singh @-@ Sidhu . Though Wallhead had dropped to welterweight , he still had a considerable weight advantage over his opponent who weighed in at 3 @.@ 5 kg less than Wallhead . This perhaps was significant as Singh @-@ Sidhu 's strikes seemed to have little bearing on Wallhead , who was able to land takedowns and a standing choke . Midway through the first round , Singh @-@ Sidhu appeared to be backing away from Wallhead , who chased him down with punches and knees to the head . After a shin strike to the head , Singh @-@ Sidhu 's corner threw in the towel , resulting in a first round TKO victory for Wallhead .
In December 2005 , Wallhead fought Welshman Paul Jenkins . This was Wallhead 's first title fight in mixed martial arts , as they competed for the House of Pain Welterweight title in front of Jenkins ' home crowd of Cardiff , Wales . Wallhead won the fight via majority decision after five rounds , giving him the title . Just over two years to that day , Wallhead rematched Jenkins in a kickboxing bout ( thus not counting towards his pro @-@ MMA record ) ; this time in Wallhead 's hometown of Nottingham . Wallhead showed effective low kicks and combinations which earned him a unanimous decision victory .
After his third successive victory , with his win over Henning Svendsen in March 2006 , Wallhead made his first title defense of his House of Pain Welterweight title just two weeks later . His opponent was John Phillips who was making his second professional appearance . Wallhead defeated Phillips to retain the title , after a TKO victory due to elbows .
After going 4 – 0 under the tutelage of Team Rough House , Wallhead then faced Peter Angerer in May 2006 . Despite controlling the fight , Angerer defeated Wallhead via submission ( arm @-@ triangle choke ) . During the submission attempt , Wallhead 's arm was stuck , meaning he had to tap with his feet , earning the nickname " Scuba Steve " from his teammates .
= = = European and worldwide exposure = = =
Following his loss to Angerer , Wallhead entered the 2H2H 83 kg tournament in Holland , on just 72 hours notice , despite the tournament being at a higher weight than he was adjusted to . In the first round of the tournament , Wallhead defeated Camara Bouna via two @-@ round decision , before defeating Xander Nel in the final via TKO .
Wallhead then captured the Cage Gladiators British Welterweight Title , defeating the UFC veteran Jason Tan .
Returning to Cage Warriors , Wallhead faced the UFC @-@ bound Dennis Siver . Despite being on a three fight winning streak , Wallhead was submitted via armbar taking his record to 8 – 4 . Wallhead faced Lewis Barrow four months later and won via submission ( punches ) to begin a four fight win streak . Wallhead 's next three fights resulted in submission victories ; a victory via choke over Jordan James , an arm @-@ triangle choke victory over Soli Clichko and a rear naked choke victory over Steven Lynch .
Wallhead began to gain more recognition and exposure in the United States when his fight against Charles Blanchard was featured on Inside MMA on HDNet . Unfortunately for Wallhead , this fight resulted in a decision loss . Wallhead would later state : " I didn 't throw my hands enough in the first round when I was fresh and that 's my own fault . "
Wallhead then began to show improved boxing and knockout power in his next few fights , the first of which was against Tom Haddock in April 2008 who he defeated via submission due to punches .
Just under three months later , Wallhead faced off against Fabricio Nascimento . Wallhead kept the fight on their feet throughout , preventing Nascimento 's takedowns . Frustrated by Wallhead 's superior boxing , Nascimento visibly showed his disdain . Wallhead took the unanimous decision victory which was regarded as the most important victory he had claimed at that stage in his career .
Wallhead 's next fight came at M @-@ 1 Challenge UK in September 2008 and was intended to be against Jason Ball . However , Ball had to withdraw with a knee injury and was replaced by Igor Araújo . In preparation for his fight with Araújo , Wallhead temporarily joined Xtreme Couture Mixed Martial Arts in Las Vegas , Nevada to further polish his skills .
Araújo himself had just finished training at Xtreme Couture and entered the fight having won seven of his last eight fights . After just 79 seconds , Wallhead won via TKO due to punches - the fifth TKO victory of his career .
Wallhead then applied to become a castmember of The Ultimate Fighter : United States vs. United Kingdom . After passing the assessment and interview successfully , he was told he was " too experienced " for the show , though strangely , he was instead made into an " alternate " who would step up if another castmember withdrew with injury .
Wallhead would then have an eight @-@ month layoff . This was due to his signing with the debuting " British Fighting Championships " - an organisation aimed at combining domestic British MMA into one entity - that would eventually dissolve before its premiere broadcast . The knockout @-@ style tournament saw him drawn against the Brazilian Fabio Toldo . However , the BFC organisation would eventually dissolve and in May 2009 , the Ultimate Force organisation picked up the fight . The fight saw Wallhead continue to utilise his improved boxing after an early scare , where Toldo knocked Wallhead down . Wallhead would go on to defeat his opponent via knockout , which was described by one of Wallhead 's team mates as " one of the worst knockouts they 've seen " .
In September 2009 , Wallhead won the Clash of Warriors Welterweight title by defeating Marius Buzinskas .
In November 2009 , Wallhead scored arguably the most high profile win of his career when he defeated The Ultimate Fighter : United States vs. United Kingdom participant Che Mills at " Knuckleup At The Manor " in Newport , Wales . The fight , which was seen as " a clash between the UK ’ s two top unsigned welterweights , " was a close fight that was difficult to score for the judges . Mills was able to block Wallhead 's takedown attempts and get back up quickly when Wallhead was successful . In the first round , Wallhead was able to take Mills down and get into side mount , though Mills almost won the first round in the eyes of the judges after a late flurry of strikes . The second round saw Mills use foot stomps and elbows from the clinch , which prevented Wallhead from utilising his wrestling . In the final round , Wallhead continued with takedowns before hitting Mills with elbows . With 45 seconds of the fight remaining , Wallhead was able to cut Mills with his strikes .
Wallhead 's overall control , strategy and constant aggression led to him taking a unanimous decision .
= = = Bellator Fighting Championships = = =
Despite speculation about joining the UFC , in December 2009 , Wallhead was signed by the Bellator Fighting Championships to compete in their 2010 eight man , number 1 contender Welterweight Tournament , which began on 8 April 2010 .
Wallhead 's first appearance in the tournament was scheduled to be at Bellator 15 against the American Jacob McClintock .
However , on 20 April , just two days before his fight with McClintock , Wallhead was forced to withdraw from the Bellator tournament as he was grounded in England due to the 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull . Wallhead was replaced by Ryan Thomas .
A month later , Bellator CEO Bjorn Rebney stated that they were aiming to include Wallhead in the third season - despite the absence of a welterweight tournament - with a view to including him in the fourth season 's welterweight tournament .
In the meantime , Wallhead took a fight in Cage Warriors against Shaun Lomas and defeated him via rear naked choke in the first round . Due to an injury to Wallhead 's previous opponent , Lomas had to step in at short notice , meaning that Wallhead competed at middleweight for the first time in two years .
Bellator 's plans to include Wallhead in their third season were confirmed in September 2010 , when Wallhead signed to face Ryan Thomas on 14 October 2010 at Bellator 32 . Wallhead went on to defeat Thomas via unanimous decision ( 29 – 28 , 29 – 28 , 29 – 28 ) .
In the fourth season welterweight tournament opening round , Wallhead faced fellow judoka , Rick Hawn , losing via unanimous decision .
= = = BAMMA = = =
Wallhead made his BAMMA debut at BAMMA 7 against Frank Trigg . Trigg was set to face Tom ' Kong ' Watson for Watson 's middleweight title , but Watson suffered a back injury forcing his withdrawal and allowing Wallhead to step up as his replacement . In the opening round , Wallhead caught Trigg with a left hook which appeared to hurt him , before executing a successful takedown . He ended the first round landing ground @-@ and @-@ pound shots which opened up a cut on Trigg 's cheek . The second round saw Wallhead land the stronger strikes , but less often than Trigg . The final round was also close , though Wallhead once again managed to rock Trigg early in the round . The fight went to the judges , where Wallhead won via split decision ( 29 @-@ 28 , 28 @-@ 29 and 30 @-@ 27 ) .
He competed at BAMMA 8 in a welterweight bout against Joey Villasenor , winning via first round KO .
Wallhead faced off against UFC veteran Matt Veach in the main event of BAMMA 12 in Newcastle , England on 9 March 2013 . He won the fight via submission in the first round .
= = = Return to Bellator = = =
Wallhead returned to Bellator to compete in the season seven welterweight tournament . His opening round match was against Lyman Good . He lost the fight via unanimous decision .
= = = Back to BAMMA = = =
On 9 March 2013 he took on UFC veteran Matt Veach at BAMMA 12 , winning by first round submission due to Rear @-@ Naked Choke . Wallhead faced former TUF contestant Eddy Ellis at BAMMA 13 on 14 September 2013 . He lost the fight in a highly controversial decision after breaking Ellis ' jaw in the first round and stuffing many of his takedown attempts .
= = = KSW = = =
In mid @-@ 2015 , Wallhead signed with Poland @-@ based promotion Konfrontacja Sztuk Walki , and is currently expected to face Rafał Moks at KSW 32 : Road to Wembley in a welterweight bout on 31 October 2015 .
= = = WFCA = = =
On 9 April 2016 , Wallhead fought at WFCA 17 against Gennadiy Kovalev . He won the bout via unanimous decision
= = Mixed martial arts record = =
= = Titles and accomplishments = =
Judo
Three time Under @-@ 21 British Judo champion
Seventh place in the European Youth Olympics
Mixed Martial Arts
Former House of Pain Welterweight champion ( defended once , then relinquished )
2H2H 83 kg tournament winner
Former Cage Gladiators British Welterweight champion
Clash of Warriors Welterweight champion
= = Personal life = =
Wallhead has a son .
|
= Vision in White =
Vision In White is the first book of the Bride Quartet series of romance novels , written by Nora Roberts . It spent two weeks atop the New York Times Bestseller List and reached number 3 on the USA Today bestseller list , marking the first time one of Roberts ' books had become a bestseller in trade paperback format . A downloadable casual @-@ play computer game based on the book was introduced by I @-@ Play in 2010 .
In her thirty @-@ year career , Roberts had published almost 200 novels . Vision in White was one of ten Roberts novels published in 2009 , including five new releases and five reprints . When it was released on April 28 , 2009 , its cover premiered the use of a special logo to differentiate her new releases from reprints of her past works .
The novel marked Roberts ' return to contemporary romance . The new series revolved around a wedding planning enterprise run by four childhood friends . This first story featured the developing relationship between wedding photographer Mackensie " Mac " Elliot and English professor Carter Maguire . Like several other Roberts novels , Vision In White explored how a protagonist balanced a successful career with a dysfunctional family environment . Although the hero is a fairly typical representation of the romance novel archetype of the professor , the novel is slightly unusual for a romance in that the hero must convince the heroine to take a chance on love .
= = Background = =
Nora Roberts is a prolific author of romance and futuristic suspense novels . From 1979 through 2008 , almost 200 of her novels were published . On average , she completed a book every 45 days . She does not outline the novels in advance or create character biographies , preferring to develop the plot as she goes .
According to Publishers Weekly , three of the top @-@ ten bestselling mass market paperbacks of 2008 were Roberts novels . Her new releases focused primarily on paranormal and fantasy romance . In 2009 , Roberts returned to the traditional contemporary romance subgenre with Vision in White . The novel was the first in her Bride Quartet , which also included Bed of Roses , Savor the Moment , and Happy Ever After . Each novel in the series focuses on the love story of a different founder of Vows , a fictional wedding planning business .
Vision in White was released by Berkley Books on April 28 , 2009 . The novel was one of ten Roberts books released that year . Five of the releases were paperback reprints of books previously issued . Three were new hardcovers , including two published under the pseudonym J. D. Robb . Vision in White and its sequel , Bed of Roses , were released in trade paperback . To help readers differentiate the new releases from the reprints , the covers of the two trade paperbacks included a medallion with the initials NR .
= = Plot summary = =
The novel follows the relationship of photographer Mackensie " Mac " Elliot and English teacher Carter Maguire . Mac and her childhood friends Parker , Emma , and Laurel are the founders of Vows , a fictional wedding planning company in Connecticut . While accompanying his sister to a planning session at Vows , Carter renews his acquaintance with Mac , and confesses that he had been infatuated with her since high school . She is intrigued by his honesty and earnestness and decides to embark on a casual fling with him .
After seeing her parents ' numerous failed marriages , Mac does not trust the idea of commitment . Her determination to avoid emotional intimacy is reinforced as she struggles against her mother 's continued tactics of emotional manipulation .
Their relationship progresses slowly through the book . Each protagonist receives much advice from a large circle of friends and family . With the support of her friends and Carter , Mac develops the courage to stand up to her mother . By the end of the novel , she realizes that she does not have to relive her parents ' mistakes , and chooses to embrace her love for Carter .
= = Analysis = =
The four novels of the Bride Quartet share a strong emphasis on sisterhood . The heroines of the books bonded as children and have become sisters by choice . Throughout the series , they provide mutual support and acceptance of each other 's quirks . Focused on their careers , the heroines have little time for outside relationships , and they rely heavily on each other for comfort , help , and distractions . A similar theme is seen in several of Roberts ' other works ; her In Death series , written as J. D. Robb , has a heroine who has created a family from female friends and colleagues .
According to critic Betsy Prioleau , Vision In White 's hero is a typical representation of one of the eight archetypes of a romance hero : the professor . Several scenes in the novel show him teaching students or in parent @-@ teacher conferences . Like most intellectual romance heroes , Carter is a " sober good guy " , and the heroine is attracted to him primarily for his mind . In an unusual twist for a romance novel , however , the hero is the character who is ready for a commitment but must help the heroine overcome her fears . After seeing her mother divorce four husbands and discard countless boyfriends , Mac prefers to avoid emotional intimacy rather than risk the relationship splintering . Carter provides reassurance that their relationship is built on a solid foundation .
Critic Mary Ellen Snodgrass calls Vision In White a story of the New Woman , with a strong heroine who is extremely proud of her significant career accomplishments . Roberts uses the heroine 's choices of how to pose or spotlight her photography clients as pointed ways of celebrating both monogamy and " unconventional views of femininity " . In one scene , Mac convinces a heavily pregnant woman to pose nude , despite her feelings of awkwardness ; through the resulting photos , the client comes to believe that she is actually beautiful . In another poke at traditional stereotypes , Mac photographs a bride and groom posing together on a horse , evoking the metaphor of a knight coming to rescue the princess — but the couple are equals .
Roberts contrasts Mac 's competence in business matters with her difficulties in dealing with an extremely dysfunctional family , a theme Roberts had previously used in the Chesapeake Bay Series ( Rising Tides , Sea Swept , and Inner Harbor ) and the Calhoun Series . In Visions in White , the family difficulties are caused by the heroine 's mother , who is essentially a cross between the mothers in Carolina Moon and Tribute . Roberts shows that , as a result of her family 's dysfunction , Mac has chosen to distance herself from deeper emotions . The camera allows Mac to interact with other people 's happiness and lives without having to fully participate ; as the book progresses , she gradually develops the courage to come out of her shell and fully participate in life .
The use of the wedding industry is , per Snodgrass , " a wry reprise of Roberts ' career in fictional matchmaking " . The novel celebrates the joy of a traditional wedding ceremony , including the playful ceremonies arranged by children playing dress @-@ up . Roberts ' treatment of these themes " validates the dress @-@ up game of playing bride as both fantasy and a stabilizing preface on women 's devotion to mate and family " . Roberts included significant detail on the wedding planning industry , which Snodgrass posits is meant to highlight and celebrate the success the female characters had at niche marketing .
= = Reception = =
Jill M. Smith in Romantic Times gave the novel four out of five stars , labeling it a " wonderful and cozy read " . A Publishers Weekly review highlighted the " gentle humor and likable cast " and predicted that readers would be eager to follow the characters through the rest of the series . In Booklist , John Charles called the novel " thoroughly charming " and lauded the deep characterization and " sharp , clever writing " that combined to celebrate " friendship and love " .
In a survey of readers , Snodgrass found mixed opinions . Many were delighted to see Roberts return to traditional contemporary romances , minus the elements of fantasy and magic that had woven through her more recent novels . Some praised the tight bonds of sisterhood that Roberts created for the four founders of Vows , but other readers complained that the character voices were too similar . A vocal minority pointed out similarities between this novel and Roberts ' Calhoun series .
By February 2010 , Vision In White and Bed of Roses had sold a combined 1 million print copies . Over 100 @,@ 000 copies of Vision in White were sold in Canada alone between May and October 2009 . The novel spent 32 weeks on the USA Today bestseller list , peaking at number 3 . It was number 1 on the New York Times Bestseller List for trade paperback fiction for two weeks . It was the first of Roberts ' novels to be a bestseller in trade paperback format .
= = Computer game = =
Within months of the novel 's release , computer gaming company I @-@ Play began developing a downloadable casual @-@ play game based on the story . Roberts ' input was limited to approval of the graphics and the game 's interpretation of the story line . The game followed the general plot of the novel , from the perspective of the heroine . More than 40 different locations from the book were featured , including Mac 's office and Carter 's kitchen . There were hidden @-@ object tasks and several mini @-@ games featuring wedding @-@ related activities , such as cake decorating and floral arranging . Roberts was pleased with the final product , remarking that " to have a story translated into a game like this , it 's tremendous fun for me . It 's my initial vision , but I enjoy seeing how , when you translate it into that other medium , how somebody else 's vision manages to affect it but keep the core of the story . " The game was released in February 2010 . According to Roberts ' website , game sales did not match the developer 's expectations , and plans for sequels to the game were cancelled .
|
= Three Sisters ( Oregon ) =
The Three Sisters are a complex volcano of three volcanic peaks of the Cascade Volcanic Arc and the Cascade Range in the U.S. state of Oregon . Each exceeding 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) in elevation , they are the third , fourth , and fifth highest peaks in the state of Oregon , and are located in the Three Sisters Wilderness , about 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of the nearest town of Sisters . Diverse species of flora and fauna inhabit the area on and around the mountains , which is subject to frequent snowfall , occasional rain , and extreme temperature differences between seasons . The mountains , particularly South Sister , are popular for climbing and scrambling .
Although they are often grouped together and seen as one unit , the three mountains evolved under differing geologic situations , and the petrologic composition of each mountain can vary significantly . Whereas North Sister is extinct and Middle Sister is dormant , South Sister last erupted about 2 @,@ 000 years ago and still could erupt , threatening life within the region . After satellite imagery detected tectonic uplifting near South Sister in 2000 , the United States Geological Survey made plans to improve monitoring in the immediate area .
= = Geography and geology = =
The Three Sisters are located on the boundaries of Lane and Deschutes counties and the Willamette and Deschutes national forests in the U.S. state of Oregon , about 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of the nearest town of Sisters . The three peaks , the third , fourth , and fifth highest peaks in Oregon , have 15 named glaciers among them , nearly half of the 35 named glaciers in Oregon . The Sisters were named Faith , Hope , and Charity by early settlers , but " these names have not prevailed " , and instead they are named North Sister , Middle Sister , and South Sister .
A complex volcano that extends for 20 miles ( 32 km ) , the Three Sisters are located at latitude 44 @.@ 103 ° N and longitude 121 @.@ 768 ° W. Part of the Cascade Volcanic Arc and the Cascade Range , the volcanoes formed during separate time periods from several varieties of magma , and the amount of rhyolite found in the lava of the younger two mountains is unusual relative to nearby volcanoes . Like other Cascade volcanoes , the Three Sisters were fed by magma chambers produced by the subduction of the Juan de Fuca Plate under the western edge of the North American Plate . They were also affected by the changing atmosphere of the Pleistocene epoch , a geologic period during which an Ice Age occurred where glaciers ate away at mountains as they retreated . Specifically , Three Sisters join several other volcanoes in the eastern segment of the Cascade Range known as the High Cascades , which trends from north – south .
The Three Sisters form the centerpiece of a region of closely grouped volcanic peaks , an exception to the typical 40 @-@ to @-@ 60 @-@ mile ( 64 to 97 km ) spacing between volcanoes elsewhere in the Cascades . These nearby peaks include Belknap Crater , Mount Washington , Black Butte , and Three Fingered Jack to the north , and Broken Top and Mount Bachelor to the south . The region was active in the Pleistocene epoch , with eruptions between 700 @,@ 000 and 170 @,@ 000 years ago from an explosively active complex known as the Tumalo volcanic center . Basaltic lava flows from North Sister overlay the newest Tumalo pyroclastic deposits , placing the age of North Sister , the eldest , at less than 170 @,@ 000 years .
= = Wilderness and climate = =
The Three Sisters Wilderness covers an area of 281 @,@ 190 acres ( 1 @,@ 137 @.@ 9 km2 ) , making it the second largest wilderness area in Oregon . Created by the U.S. Congress in 1964 , it borders the Mount Washington Wilderness to the north and shares a southern edge with the Waldo Lake Wilderness . The Three Sisters Wilderness includes 260 miles ( 420 km ) of trails , in addition to many forests , lakes , waterfalls , and streams , such as the source of Whychus Creek . More specifically , the Three Sisters and Broken Top account for about a third of the Three Sisters Wilderness — an area known as the Alpine Crest Region . Rising from about 5 @,@ 200 feet ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) to 10 @,@ 358 feet ( 3 @,@ 157 m ) in elevation , it features the wilderness area 's most @-@ frequented glaciers , lakes , and meadows .
Weather in the area varies because of separation created by the mountain barrier . The west is wetter and the east is drier , and precipitation increases with elevation . The moisture , falling mostly as winter snow , originates from warm air pockets over the Pacific Ocean and cools as it ascends the mountains . In the western section , precipitation ranges from 80 to 125 inches ( 200 to 320 cm ) annually , varying from 40 to 80 inches ( 100 to 200 cm ) in the east . Temperature extremes reach 80 to 90 ° F ( 27 to 32 ° C ) in summers and − 20 to − 30 ° F ( − 29 to − 34 ° C ) during the winters .
In the wilderness , part of the National Wilderness Preservation System , motor vehicles and means of transport are prohibited . These include bicycles , wagons , motorboats , and helicopters . From Memorial Day to October 31 , permits are required for entry to the wilderness .
= = = Flora and fauna = = =
While Douglas fir and ponderosa pine trees predominate in the western and eastern parts of the Cascades , respectively , flora in the Three Sisters Wilderness also consists of lodgepole pine , Pacific silver fir , subalpine fir , western hemlock , western white pine , Englemann spruce , and western redcedar . White fir , once a common species in the area , has declined due to recent blights of mountain pine beetle . At higher altitudes , alpine meadows are common , and they feature the following flowers : lupine , red Indian paintbrush , heather , arnica , larkspur , sunflowers , columbines , and many other genera . Also common at high altitudes are mountain hemlock and whitebark pine trees .
The local fauna of the Three Sisters includes fish such as brook and rainbow trout , birds such as blue and ruffed grouse , and larger species like the Columbian black @-@ tailed deer , mule deer , Roosevelt elk , and American black bear . In addition to predator bobcats , cougars , and coyotes , raccoons , martens , weasels , and American minks live throughout the Three Sisters area .
= = Peaks = =
= = = North Sister = = =
North Sister , also known as " Faith , " is the oldest and most eroded of the three , with towering rock pinnacles and glaciers . A stratovolcano atop an ancient shield volcano named Little Brother , North Sister is 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) wide . Consisting primarily of basaltic andesite , it is more mafic ( rich in magnesium and iron ) than the other two volcanoes . Its deposits are rich in palagonite and red and black cinders , and grow progressively more iron @-@ rich with decreasing age . North Sister 's lava flows demonstrate similar composition throughout its eruptive history , which lasted for a long period of time . Estimates place the volcano 's last eruption at more than 100 @,@ 000 years ago , so the volcano is considered extinct . The North Sister possesses more dikes than any similar Cascade peak , and many dikes were pushed aside by the intrusion of a 980 @-@ foot ( 300 m ) -wide plug dome that now forms the mountain 's summits of Prouty Peak and the South Horn . The remainder of the peak is chiefly loose debris held in place by the dike system .
North Sister has not erupted since the late Pleistocene . Extensive erosion exposed the volcanic edifice , including magma pathways such as dikes and sills . At one point , the volcano stood more than 11 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 400 m ) in elevation , but this erosion claimed a quarter to a third of its original volume .
= = = Middle Sister = = =
Middle Sister also known as " Hope , " is a stratovolcano consisting primarily of basalt , but it also has erupted andesite , dacite , and rhyodacite . The smallest and most poorly @-@ studied of the trio , it is also the middle in age , its most recent flows dating to 14 @,@ 000 years ago , making them slightly older than South Sister 's . These flows , thick and rich in dacite , extended from the northern and southern sides . They stand in contrast to older , andesitic lava remains which reach as far as 4 @.@ 35 miles ( 7 @.@ 00 km ) from the volcano 's base .
The mountain has a cone shape that lost its eastern side to glaciation , but its western portion remains near @-@ intact . The Hayden and Diller glaciers continue to cut into the east face , while the Renfrew Glacier sits on the northwestern slope . The large but retreating Collier Glacier descends along the north side of Middle Sister , cutting into North Sister 's west side . Erosion from Pleistocene and Holocene glaciation exposed a plug near the center of Middle Sister .
= = = South Sister = = =
South Sister , also known as " Charity , " is the youngest and tallest volcano of the trio . Its eruptive products range from basaltic andesite to rhyolite and rhyodacite . It is a stratovolcano overlying an older shield structure , no more than 50 @,@ 000 years old , which last erupted about 2 @,@ 000 years ago . The first such episode , termed the Rock Mesa eruptive cycle , first spread tephra from flank vents from the south and southwest flanks , followed by a thick rhyolite lava flow . The second cycle , the Devils Hill eruptive cycle , was similar in result , but was caused by the intrusion of a dike of new silicic magma that erupted from about 20 vents on the southeast side and from a smaller line on the north side .
Unlike its sister peaks , South Sister has an uneroded summit crater about 1 ⁄ 4 mile ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) in diameter that holds a small crater lake known as Teardrop Pool , the highest lake in Oregon . The slopes of South Sister have a number of small glaciers , including the Lewis , Clark , Lost Creek and Prouty glaciers near the crater rim .
= = Climbing and recreation = =
The Three Sisters are a popular climbing destination for hikers and mountaineers . The United States Forest Service requires permits for use from Memorial Day until the beginning of September , and dogs must be kept on leashes on the Green Lakes , Moraine Lakes , South Sister , Soda Creek , Todd Lake , and Crater Ditch trails from July 15 through September 15 . Horses are prohibited , and ice axes are required during the winter climbing season for safety reasons .
Due to extensive erosion , which causes rockfall , North Sister is the most dangerous climb of the three volcanic peaks . However , one of its peaks , Little Brother , can be scrambled . The first recorded ascent of North Sister was made by six people , including Oregon politicians George Lemuel Woods and James McBride , in 1857 , according to a story published in Overland Monthly in 1870 . Today , the common trail lasts 11 miles ( 18 km ) round @-@ trip , gaining 3 @,@ 165 feet ( 965 m ) in elevation and lasting about 6 – 7 hours for the average climber . After passing through forest , lava flows , and meadows , from the summit scramblers can see various cinder cones as well as North Sister and nearby volcanoes .
Middle Sister can also be scrambled , for a round @-@ trip of 16 @.@ 4 miles ( 26 @.@ 4 km ) and an elevation gain of 4 @,@ 757 feet ( 1 @,@ 450 m ) . The trip lasts about 12 hours , beginning with a route through dense forest and ending on Middle Sister 's southern summit . In addition to views of North Sister , the summit offers sights of South Sister , Hayden Glacier , and other Cascade Volcanoes including Mount Hood .
The standard climbing route up the south ridge of South Sister runs for 12 @.@ 6 miles ( 20 @.@ 3 km ) round @-@ trip , and rises from 5 @,@ 446 feet ( 1 @,@ 660 m ) at the trailhead to 10 @,@ 358 feet ( 3 @,@ 157 m ) at its summit . Traveling over cinder cones , domes , and lava flows , the hike does not become demanding until the last mile as it ascends to the summit . In his book Into the Wild , Jon Krakauer notes that his first climb of South Sister with his father inspired him to pursue mountaineering . Popular starting points are the Green Lakes and Devils Lake trailheads . Although this path does not require any technical skills or much in the way of mountaineering knowledge , many environmental dangers remain the same , and rescue operations are common during the climbing season .
= = Recent history and potential hazards = =
Neither North nor Middle Sister is likely to resume volcanic activity , while South Sister could become active . If South Sister were to erupt , it would pose a threat to nearby life . The proximal danger zone extends from 1 @.@ 24 to 6 miles ( 2 @.@ 00 to 9 @.@ 66 km ) from the volcano 's summits . Tephra would accumulate to 1 to 2 inches ( 25 to 51 mm ) in the city of Bend , and lahars ( volcanically induced mudflows ) and pyroclastic flows would run down the flanks of the mountain , threatening any life in their paths .
South Sister was found to be potentially active when in 2000 , satellite imagery showed a deforming tectonic uplift 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) west of the mountain . The ground began to bulge in late 1997 , when magma started to pool about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) underground . Scientists were concerned that the volcano was awakening . A map at the Lava Lands Visitor Center of the Newberry National Volcanic Monument south of Bend shows the extent of the uplift , which reaches a maximum of 11 inches ( 28 cm ) . In 2004 an earthquake swarm occurred with an epicenter in the area of uplift , and the hundreds of small earthquakes subsided after several days . By 2007 the uplift had slowed somewhat , though the area was still considered potentially active . In February 2013 , scientists determined that the uplift had slowed to a rate of about 0 @.@ 3 inches ( 7 @.@ 6 mm ) per year , compared to up to 2 inches ( 51 mm ) per year in the early 2000s . Because of the uplift at South Sister , the United States Geological Survey planned to increase monitoring of the Three Sisters and their vicinity by installing a global positioning system ( GPS ) receiver , sampling airborne and ground @-@ based gases , and adding seismometers .
|
= 1950 Australian National Airways Douglas DC @-@ 4 crash =
On 26 June 1950 , a Douglas DC @-@ 4 Skymaster aircraft departed from Perth , Western Australia for an eight @-@ hour flight to Adelaide , South Australia . It crashed 18 minutes after take @-@ off , 32 nautical miles ( 59 km ) from Perth Airport . All but one of the 29 occupants were killed in the accident and the sole survivor died six days later . It was the worst civil aviation accident in Australia .
As the aircraft flew eastwards over the outer suburbs of Perth numerous witnesses observed that it was flying at a lower altitude than usual for the daily Skymaster services , and at least one of the engines was running roughly and backfiring at regular intervals . In the minutes before it crashed , witnesses heard a number of different engine noises – sometimes operating normally , sometimes all engine noise ceased , only to be replaced by a very loud , high @-@ pitched scream . When the wrecked engines were examined many weeks after the accident a significant amount of corrosion product was found in the fuel system within two of the engines . After a preliminary investigation , Investigators from the Department of Civil Aviation believed the water responsible for the corrosion was also responsible for rough running of at least one engine , and ultimately temporary loss of power from all engines on at least one occasion . The Investigators did not find a likely source for the water .
All but one of the 29 occupants on board the aircraft died , either from multiple injuries and burns , or from incineration . One elderly male passenger survived the crash . The first rescuers at the crash site found him wandering about , dazed and distressed . He suffered serious burns and was admitted to hospital where he died six days later .
The accident became the subject of an Inquiry chaired by a Supreme Court judge . In the absence of evidence indicating the source of any water in the fuel , the Inquiry dismissed the submission that water was responsible for the accident . The Inquiry did not determine the cause of the accident but it made recommendations to enhance the safety of aircraft operations .
= = The flight = =
Photo Frank Leyden 1948 ( NLA )
The aircraft was the Amana , a Douglas DC @-@ 4 @-@ 1009 registered VH @-@ ANA and the flagship of the Australian National Airways fleet . It flew for the first time on 28 January 1946 and was flown to Australia on 9 February 1946 .
The Amana departed from Perth Airport at 9 : 55 pm for the 8 @-@ hour flight to Adelaide . On board were 24 passengers , 3 pilots and two air hostesses .
A radio report was received from the Amana at 10 : 00 pm advising it was on course and climbing to 9 @,@ 000 feet . Nothing more was heard from the aircraft . As it flew east over the outer suburbs of Perth numerous people on the ground observed that it was flying unusually low , and heard at least one of its engines running roughly and backfiring repeatedly . Amana crashed at about 10 : 13 pm .
= = Crash = =
A number of residents on farming properties to the west of York heard a large aircraft flying low over the area . The aircraft seemed to be in trouble because the noise from the engines was changing significantly . At times the engines seemed to be operating normally but on at least one occasion all engine noise ceased for a brief time and then returned as a very loud , high @-@ pitched noise . One resident reported that when all engine noise ceased he could hear a rushing sound until the scream from the engines returned . Several residents reported seeing a bright flash of white light in the distance , followed by a loud crashing and scraping noise . Those closest to the crash could then see the yellow glow of a major fire .
Ten minutes after the Amana set course for Adelaide , a Douglas DC @-@ 4 operated by Trans Australia Airlines became airborne at Perth , also heading for Adelaide . As the TAA aircraft set course for Adelaide , the captain , Douglas MacDonald , saw a vivid white flash on the horizon in precisely the direction in which he was heading . It lasted about six seconds , long enough for him to draw it to the attention of the two other crew members . Eight minutes later , the TAA aircraft passed over a band of fire on the ground . MacDonald estimated the fire was 28 nautical miles ( 52 km ) east of Perth Airport . As MacDonald approached Cunderdin , he was aware the Amana , flying about ten minutes ahead of him , had not yet radioed its position report at Cunderdin . He became concerned that the vivid white flash and the ground fire might indicate some tragedy had befallen the Amana so he advised Air Traffic Control about his observations . Air Traffic Control was also concerned about the Amana 's failure to report at Cunderdin so on hearing MacDonald 's observations of the vivid white flash and the ground fire they activated emergency procedures . They asked MacDonald to fly back to the fire and determine its position . MacDonald did so and advised Air Traffic Control of bearings from the fire to York and Northam , the towns nearest the crash site .
= = Search and rescue = =
Frank McNamara ( 62 ) , an apiarist , and Geoff Inkpen ( 25 ) , a young farmer , heard the sound of a big aircraft in serious trouble , flying low nearby . McNamara described the noise from the engines as " terrifying " . They investigated and saw the bright light of a flash fire . McNamara sent his two teenage sons in his utility truck to York to alert the police . McNamara and Inkpen then set out on foot in the direction of the fire . As there was bright moonlight , they were able to hurry through the bush . After about half an hour , they came upon a scene of devastation . They were astonished to find an elderly man in a dazed state wandering around the burning wreckage . He gave his name and explained that he had been a passenger on a large aircraft . He had survived the crash despite being badly burned . No one else was found alive .
In response to notification from Air Traffic Control , three ambulances from Perth were despatched in the direction of the crash site , known to be somewhere between Chidlow and York . The crash site was several miles from the road so the ambulance crews travelled eastwards all the way to York without sighting a fire . The crews were eventually guided back along the main road and then along a dirt road that enabled them to drive to within three or four miles of the crash site . The crews then took their first @-@ aid boxes and set out on foot .
Frank McNamara made a bed of leaves for the survivor and built a fire to help keep him as warm and comfortable as possible . McNamara stayed with the survivor while Inkpen went to summon help . After several hours , ambulance crews arrived and administered first @-@ aid and morphia . Rescue workers constructed a stretcher using saplings , bandages and overcoats . They covered the survivor with an overcoat and carried him for two hours to cover about two miles through thickly wooded country to McNamara 's utility truck , which then carried him and his rescuers to a waiting ambulance .
Frank McNamara and Geoff Inkpen were publicly thanked by the Minister for Civil Aviation for the great assistance they rendered to the rescue effort throughout the night . In a public letter to Frank McNamara , the minister acknowledged the unrelenting effort of McNamara and his sons under extremely difficult conditions . He also acknowledged McNamara 's care of the survivor and regretted that McNamara was not rewarded by seeing the survivor recover . In a public letter to Geoff Inkpen , the Minister expressed his deep appreciation for Inkpen 's actions on the night of the crash . During World War II , Inkpen had served in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) as a navigator and the minister acknowledged that , in peacetime , Inkpen had continued to uphold " the fine traditions " of the RAAF .
= = Fate of those onboard = =
The survivor was Edgar Forwood , 67 @-@ year @-@ old Managing @-@ Director of Forwood Down and Company Ltd . , a South Australian engineering company . He was the oldest person on board the flight , and probably the most experienced air traveller . He was interviewed by police in hospital in Perth , but was not aware of much detail about the final minutes of the flight . He said there was no sign of fire prior to the crash and no announcement to passengers to fasten their seat belts . He died six days after the crash and was buried at the North Road cemetery in Adelaide , his home town .
Investigators believed the aircraft captain survived for a short time after the crash . His body was a short distance away from his seat and both were a few metres ahead of the wreckage where they had been thrown after the nose of the aircraft was split open in the impact with a large tree . The seat belt had not broken , but it had been undone . The captain 's tunic was pulled up over his head as though to protect his face from the heat of the nearby inferno . Investigators believed he survived the crash and undid his seat belt to drag himself away from the fire . His body was not burnt , but autopsy showed both his legs were broken and he died from a fractured skull .
Postmortem examinations were performed on the 28 victims of the crash . The two co @-@ pilots died from multiple injuries . Twenty @-@ three passengers and the two air hostesses were found to have died from multiple injuries and burns , or incineration . Only 12 of the 28 victims could be formally identified . The remaining 16 victims were either unrecognisable or identifiable and were buried in a mass grave at Perth 's Karrakatta cemetery .
= = Passengers = =
On its fatal flight the Amana was carrying 24 passengers , including 2 infants . All except Edgar Forwood died in the crash or the ensuing inferno . Passengers included :
Five Polish immigrants ( including an infant ) , previously of the Northam Migration Camp , travelling to Adelaide .
The Anglican Bishop of the Riverina , Bishop Charles Murray .
The Anglican Dean of Newcastle , the Very Reverend Norman Blow .
Victor Anquetil , an executive of Charles Read Limited in Melbourne .
Stan Baker , an employee of Ampol Petroleum Company . In 1931 Mr Baker was booked to fly on the fatal flight of the Southern Cloud but finally travelled by train instead .
Kenneth Douglas , the managing director of Winterbottom Motor Company .
Douglas Engler , secretary of the Pioneer Bus Company .
Vincent Finnigan , a world authority on diesel @-@ electric locomotives and electric traction .
Six other male passengers , four other female passengers and an infant .
= = Investigation = =
Three investigators from the Department of Civil Aviation began work at the crash scene the day after the accident . They found the Amana had crashed in a heavily timbered area on the Inkpen family property Berry Brow , on the easterly track between Perth airport and Kalgoorlie , at a point where the elevation was about 1 @,@ 100 feet ( 340 m ) above sea level . The aircraft struck the tops of tall gum trees while descending at an angle of about 15 ° below horizontal . Its speed at impact was estimated at 250 miles per hour ( 400 km / h ) . It crashed through large trees , breaking them off as if they were matchsticks , before impacting the ground violently and gouging a long , wide furrow . The left wing was torn away from the fuselage and then the aircraft broke up and burst into flames . Only the rear fuselage with the fin and rudder were not affected by fire . The wreckage trail was about 280 yards ( 260 m ) long and 35 yards ( 32 m ) wide . At the time of impact the Amana 's left wing was lower than its right , suggesting it may have been turning left . It was heading north , not east towards Cunderdin . Investigators speculated that the crew may have been turning with the intention of returning to Perth airport ; or they may have been preparing for a crash @-@ landing in a large clear area to the north of the crash site .
Possibly as a result of rough @-@ running of one or more of its engines , the Amana was observed flying over Perth 's outer @-@ eastern suburbs at an unusually low altitude . No witness report was received from anyone along the next 16 nautical miles ( 30 km ) of the Amana 's track from Perth 's outer suburbs to within 5 nautical miles ( 9 km ) of the crash site . In the minute before it crashed , eight witnesses heard a large aeroplane in distress and reported unusual engine noise , including engine noise ceasing on at least one occasion , followed by the sudden return of very loud engine noise . This suggested that , on at least one occasion , none of the engines were producing power , followed by a resumption of power on some of the engines . The investigation team concluded that the Amana failed to reach its assigned altitude of 9 @,@ 000 feet , and that it experienced intermittent engine problems of such severity that all engine power was lost on at least one occasion . Without power and with only one of its propellers feathered , a Douglas DC @-@ 4 loses altitude at a great rate , possibly as fast as 100 feet per second ( 6 @,@ 000 feet per minute ) .
Engines and propellers numbers 1 to 3 suffered substantial damage in the crash , but engine and propeller number 4 suffered much less damage . The investigators determined that at the time of impact , propellers 1 , 2 and 3 were turning normally and their engines were producing power but propeller number 4 was feathered and its engine was not operating . There was also some evidence that action was taken by the crew to unfeather propeller number 4 in the moments before impact . None of the engines contained evidence of any internal failure prior to impact . All the magnetos were tested and the results indicated normal ignition was available to all engines up to the time of impact .
Engine number 4 suffered only minor , external damage . It was dismantled by the investigation team in an attempt to determine why it might have been shut down by the crew . A substantial amount of corrosion product was found in the passages of the fuel flow meter on engine number 4 . Western Australia 's Deputy Mineralogist identified the corrosion product as magnesium hydroxide . This is a corrosion product formed by reaction of magnesium and water , suggesting the fuel passages had been filled with water in the months between the crash and the detailed examination of the engine . Charles Gibbs , an engine specialist employed by the Department of Civil Aviation , estimated at least 45 cubic centimetres of water must have been involved . Rain falling on the crash site before engine number 4 was removed could not account for this much water in the fuel passages . Gibbs first examined the fuel system of engine number 4 and discovered the corrosion about two months after the accident . He conducted a test on an identical flow meter and found that after he left water in the fuel flow passages for approximately 8 weeks a similar amount of corrosion product developed . This suggested the rough running heard by witnesses on the ground may have been caused by water in the fuel reaching engine number 4 . The steel rotor in the fuel pump of engine number 1 was slightly corroded but the fuel systems of engines 2 and 3 showed no evidence of corrosion . Investigators formed the opinion that the rough running heard by witnesses on the ground , and the crew 's decision to shut down engine number 4 and feather its propeller , may have been related to water in the fuel reaching that engine . Similarly , the intermittent loss of power on all engines in the final minutes of the flight may indicate that all engines were receiving fuel contaminated with water .
The only abnormality found in all four engines was the vapour vent float in the fuel strainer chamber of the carburettors . The floats had been crushed by extreme fuel pressure . Inquiries were made to the engine manufacturer and other civil aviation authorities but none had prior experience of vapour vent floats collapsing . Tests on carburettors were also carried out in Australia by the Aeronautical Research Laboratories but without finding any suitable explanation . Whether the floats were crushed in flight or in the crash could not be determined , but even if it had occurred in flight it would not have affected operation of the engines .
The earliest reports from the crash site speculated that the Amana was already on fire when it struck the tops of trees because those trees , and pieces of the aircraft 's left wing torn off in the impact with them , showed signs of scorching . Several eyewitnesses reported seeing flames in the sky before the aircraft struck the ground . Department of Civil Aviation investigators discounted this speculation because only one of the Amana 's push @-@ button engine fire extinguishers had activated and this had most likely occurred during the crash or the fire .
Australian National Airways ( ANA ) ground staff in Sydney checked the Amana 's fuel tanks for the presence of water prior to its first departure on 26 June . They found none . The Amana was subsequently re @-@ fuelled in Melbourne and Adelaide but no check of the fuel tanks was made on these occasions . After being re @-@ fuelled in Perth immediately prior to the fatal flight , the fuel filters in all 4 engines and the fuel drain serving the cross @-@ feed pipe in the wing centre @-@ section were all checked for the presence of water . The fuel tanks themselves were not checked , partly because , on the night of 26 June , the ground staff were " pressed for time " because one despatch engineer was absent due to illness .
ANA was of the opinion that if a small amount of water entered a fuel tank during refuelling it would only reach the drain cocks when the aircraft was in level flight so it could not be detected immediately after re @-@ fuelling . For 15 years ANA had operated in the knowledge that the only satisfactory time to check fuel tanks for the presence of water was prior to the first flight of the day , after the aircraft had been stationary overnight . Throughout this time ANA checked fuel tanks for the presence of water prior to the first flight of the day .
Prior to its final flight , the Amana received 1 @,@ 756 US gallons ( 6 @,@ 650 L ) of fuel from a tanker operated by the Vacuum Oil Company . The tanker had been checked for the presence of water in the morning and again at 6 : 30 pm , about 2 hours prior to re @-@ fuelling the Amana . It had also supplied fuel to 3 de Havilland Dove aircraft , none of which suffered any engine problems or were found to have water in the fuel .
The Department of Civil Aviation performed tests on parts of the DC @-@ 4 fuel system . Tests on the engine fuel system showed that when the engine boost pump was operating , a vortex formed in the engine fuel tank . If a small amount of water was present , this vortex held the water in suspension and prevented it from entering the engine . The tests also showed that when the boost pump was turned off , the vortex dissipated and any water would soon find its way into the engine . Investigators believed this might explain why all engines were operating normally during the takeoff but at least one engine began to run roughly around the time the engine boost pumps would be turned off .
= = Inquiry = =
The Minister for Civil Aviation , Thomas White , appointed Justice William Simpson of the ACT Supreme Court to conduct an Air Court of Inquiry into the crash of the Amana . The Inquiry opened in Perth on 7 February 1951 . Justice Simpson was assisted by two assessors – Captain J.W. Bennett , a pilot with British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines ; and Mr D.B. Hudson , an aeronautical engineer with Qantas Empire Airways . The Commonwealth Crown Solicitor was represented by L.D. Seaton and B. Simpson . Australian National Airways was represented by George Pape . The Department of Civil Aviation was represented by Henry Winneke . The Air Pilots ' Association was represented by Francis Burt . The Inquiry sat in Perth for 12 days ; heard evidence from 67 witnesses and concluded on Tuesday 20 February .
Western Australia 's Deputy Mineralogist gave evidence that he had identified magnesium hydroxide , a corrosion product , in fuel passages in one of Amana 's engines . Counsel for the Department of Civil Aviation explained that evidence gathered during investigation of the crash indicated water in some of the fuel on board Amana was responsible for the corrosion products found in engines numbers 1 and 4 ; for the rough running of an engine heard by a number of witnesses ; and for the intermittent failure of all engines , leading to the aircraft descending to ground level . The Inquiry heard evidence from the Department of Civil Aviation 's Acting Chief Inspector of Air Accidents , C.A.J. Lum , a former RAAF Douglas Dakota pilot , who described his personal experience of a flight in 1946 in which all fuel tanks were checked for the presence of water prior to take @-@ off and the flight proceeded normally for 20 minutes until both engines began running roughly . Lum returned to the aerodrome and checked again for water in the tanks , this time finding a significant amount of water . Counsel for the Vacuum Oil Co. explained that it was almost impossible for water to be introduced to an aircraft during refuelling , and vigorously rejected the theory that water in the fuel contributed to the crash .
Counsel for the Commonwealth Crown Solicitor presented evidence that the Amana was on fire before it first struck trees . Counsel for the widow of one of the victims suggested the crash may have been caused by the elevator trim tab jamming in the diving position .
In April 1951 Justice Simpson advised the Minister for Civil Aviation that new evidence had become available . The Minister gave permission for the Inquiry to be re @-@ opened . The Inquiry re @-@ opened in Melbourne on 4 June 1951 . The Department of Civil Aviation had recently completed tests on the DC @-@ 4 fuel system . The tests showed that when an engine boost pump was operating , a vortex in the engine fuel tank prevented water from entering the engine . The tests also showed that when the boost pump was turned off , any water would soon find its way into the engine . The Department of Civil Aviation believed this might explain why all engines were operating normally during the takeoff but at least one engine began to run roughly around the time the engine boost pumps would be turned off . However , Justice Simpson stated that the re @-@ opened Inquiry served only to confirm his view that the Amana 's loss of power was not due to water in the fuel .
Justice Simpson 's report was tabled in the House of Representatives on 28 June 1951 by the new Minister for Civil Aviation , Larry Anthony . The Inquiry found that the Amana suffered total loss of engine power on at least one occasion , followed by rapid loss of height until it struck the ground . However , the evidence did not allow the court to determine the cause of the total loss of engine power . Consequently , the court was unable to determine the cause of the accident . Simpson stated he was satisfied water had not been introduced into the Amana 's fuel system in Sydney , Melbourne , Adelaide or Perth .
The Inquiry uncovered two deviations from the Air Navigation Regulations although it did not consider these deviations contributed to the accident :
ANA was not in the practice of performing a fuel @-@ drain check immediately after each re @-@ fuelling , as required by Air Navigation Orders .
On the fatal flight , 8 @,@ 545 feet of photographic film were carried as cargo . Air Navigation Orders specified that a maximum of 3 @,@ 000 feet of photographic film may be carried .
The Inquiry also uncovered three irregularities in the safety regulation of civil aviation in Australia although none of these irregularities contributed to the accident . Justice Simpson 's report contained recommendations to deal with the irregularities :
fuel companies that supply fuel to aircraft should be required to check every compartment in a tanker wagon for the presence of water each time fuel in the tanker wagon is replenished .
when fuel was being drained from an aircraft 's tanks to check for the presence of impurities , the sample should be collected in a transparent vessel to allow more reliable identification of any water that might be present .
when pilots who regularly fly four @-@ engine aeroplanes perform 6 @-@ monthly checks for renewal of their commercial pilot licences , the check should be carried out in a four @-@ engine aeroplane rather than in a two @-@ engine aeroplane as was the common practice .
During the House of Representatives debate on the report , the Minister , Larry Anthony , stated that he had already asked fuel companies to check their tanker wagons for the presence of water after each replenishment , and the relevant Air Navigation Order would be amended to require fuel to be drained into transparent containers . He stated that his Department did not intend to amend the relevant Air Navigation Order to require pilots of four @-@ engine aeroplanes to perform the periodic checks in a four @-@ engine aeroplane because it considered it was more challenging to fly with one engine inoperative in a two @-@ engine aeroplane than in a four @-@ engine aeroplane .
= = Subsequent speculation about cause of the crash = =
Investigators from the Department of Civil Aviation believed water in some of the fuel tanks of VH @-@ ANA was responsible for rough running of one or more of the engines ; and this ultimately led to intermittent failure of all the engines . The Inquiry led by Mr Justice Simpson found no evidence that there was significant water in the fuel tanks . No radio call was received from Amana to indicate the nature of any problem , or even that the crew was aware of a problem . The Inquiry concluded without determining the cause of the crash .
In the weeks and months after conclusion of the Inquiry one possible explanation of the crash began to circulate among employees of ANA . This possibility began with one piece of evidence uncovered by the Inquiry during cross @-@ examination of ANA 's ground staff . It was reported that after sunrise the morning after the crash the one @-@ gallon container used to check Amana 's fuel filters was found empty and lying on its side on the apron a short distance from where Amana had been parked . The Inquiry attached no significance to this evidence and did not explore it further .
Employees of ANA believed the container had last been used to drain fuel from the cross @-@ feed drain cock , the fuel cock that serves the pipe in the wing centre @-@ section for cross @-@ feeding of fuel from tanks in one wing to engines in the other wing . Moments after this procedure commenced , the staff member was advised of a telephone call from his wife and he went to answer the telephone . With the cross @-@ feed selector valves closed , little fuel ran out when the drain cock was opened . Some employees believed that because no fuel was running out neither the staff member nor anyone else noticed the drain cock was still open . Due either to the wind or the slipstream from Amana 's propellers as it began to taxi prior to take @-@ off , the almost @-@ empty container was blown over and rolled some distance along the apron where it was found the next morning .
Some employees of ANA speculated that approximately ten minutes after take @-@ off the crew of Amana were aware of the seriousness of rough running on number 4 engine so decided to shut it down . Company procedures specified that if an operational problem occurred prior to reaching Kalgoorlie , 290 nautical miles ( 540 km ) east of Perth , the aircraft was to return to Perth ; but if a problem occurred after reaching Kalgoorlie the flight could continue to Adelaide . The Douglas DC @-@ 4 was capable of flying from Perth to Adelaide with one engine inoperative . The crew of Amana on the fatal flight might have decided to wait until past Kalgoorlie before making a radio call to report one engine had been shut down , and then continue to Adelaide . To manage fuel usage and balance the weight of fuel across the wing , the crew might have selected some of the operating engines to draw fuel from number 4 tank . The DC @-@ 4 had a complex fuel selection system and , either deliberately or inadvertently , all operating engines might have been connected to number 4 tank . If the drain cock in the cross @-@ feed pipe was still open to the atmosphere , air would be drawn into the pipe , causing an interruption of fuel supply to the engines , all engines to stop operating and their propellers to move to fine pitch . When the crew realised engines 1 , 2 and 3 had all suddenly failed and that cross @-@ feeding of fuel was the source of the problem they would have changed the fuel selections and restored fuel to the engines , causing the sudden screaming noise heard by witnesses as the engines burst back into life with their propellers in fine pitch . Amana had been flying at lower altitude than usual so there was inadequate height for the crew to arrest the high rate of descent before the aircraft struck high ground on the Inkpen family property . ( At the Air Court of Inquiry , George Pape , representing ANA , described as " fantastic " any suggestion that the crew of the Amana would be cross @-@ feeding fuel from one wing to the engines on the other wing at such an early stage of the flight . )
The Flight Superintendent and the Technical Superintendent of ANA simulated some of these events during a test flight in another DC @-@ 4 . They were satisfied that the time intervals between events were compatible with the likely sequence of events leading to the crash of the Amana , and that it was a plausible explanation of the accident . However , on legal advice this possible explanation of the crash was not made public . Two accidents involving Douglas DC @-@ 4s , one approaching Dublin Airport , Ireland , in 1961 and another approaching Stockport Airport , Manchester , United Kingdom , in 1967 were attributed to interruption of fuel supply when engines were supplied from the cross @-@ feed system which was open to an empty fuel tank , allowing air to be drawn into the cross @-@ feed pipe .
= = Memorials = =
After the accident , souvenir hunters proved to be such a problem that the owners of Berry Brow kept all gates locked . Geoff Inkpen stated that after completion of an Inquiry a bulldozer would be used to dig a ditch at the crash site and what remained of the Amana would be buried .
A small memorial to the loss of the Amana , its passengers and crew , has been created in the aeronautical museum in the town of Beverley , 29 miles ( 47 km ) south @-@ east of the crash site . The memorial includes the nose undercarriage from the Amana . A memorial plaque was erected in the main street of Beverley on 26 June 2001 , the fifty @-@ first anniversary of the crash .
= = Aftermath = =
Australian National Airways ( ANA ) never recovered from the crash of the Amana . Since the beginning of 1945 , 77 people had been killed in accidents in aircraft operated by ANA . In late 1948 , ANA suffered 4 crashes in 4 months . The loss of ANA 's reputation as a safe airline , together with the unblemished safety record and growing commercial success of its rival Trans Australia Airlines , sent ANA into decline . In 1957 ANA was taken over by Ansett Transport Industries Limited and merged with Ansett Airways to form the domestic airline Ansett @-@ ANA .
|
= Burnside Fountain =
The Burnside Fountain is a non @-@ functioning drinking fountain at the southeast corner of Worcester Common in Worcester , Massachusetts . It consists of two parts , a pink granite basin , and a bronze statue of a young boy riding a sea turtle . The basin was designed by architect Henry Bacon , who later designed the Lincoln Memorial in Washington , D.C. , and the figure was created by sculptor Charles Y. Harvey . Harvey committed suicide before finishing the sculpture , and Sherry Fry completed the bronze . The Burnside Fountain was commissioned in 1905 by the city of Worcester after Harriet F. Burnside bequeathed US $ 5 @,@ 000 to create a fountain to provide fresh water for people , horses and dogs , in the memory of her father , a prominent lawyer . The fountain was installed in 1912 in Central Square , then moved in 1969 to its current location on Worcester Common . In 1970 the statue was stolen , and was re @-@ installed two years later . An attempted theft occurred in 2004 .
The bronze is officially named Boy with a Turtle but is known to locals as Turtle Boy . Turtle Boy has become an unofficial mascot for Worcester , much in the same way the Manneken Pis is for Brussels . The Burnside Fountain 's popularity is derived mostly from viewers ' incorrect interpretation of the statue . Over its 100 @-@ year existence , it has been referenced in stories and songs , as well as having a music contest and a microbrew named after it .
= = Description = =
The Burnside Fountain is 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide , 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) tall , and consists of two parts , the basin and the sculpture . The pink granite basin is rectangular and has four large bowls , two on either end , carved into its top . These bowls were originally designed as water troughs for horses , and a smaller , lower , bowl located on the rear of the fountain was designed for dogs .
The bronze sculpture sits on a circular base in the middle of the basin . The sculpture is officially known as Boy with a Turtle , as its figure is of a young boy , in the nude , riding a sea turtle . In 1986 the Worcester municipal parks and recreation department described the statue with the sentence , " The boy holding the turtle , his hair flying , a sly smile on his face , is charming and disarming . "
= = Background = =
Samuel Burnside was a prominent lawyer in Worcester who studied law at Dartmouth College in the early 1800s . Burnside had three daughters , Sophia , Harriet , and Elizabeth , who went on to be called by Frederick Clifton Pierce " the most notable figures in the life of Worcester . " The notability of the three daughters was due in part to the prestige and wealth Samuel Burnside had accrued as Chief Justice of the Court of Common Pleas . Both before and after Samuel Burnside 's death on July 25 , 1850 , his three daughters were known for charitable works , having donated public gardens and a library to the city of Worcester . One daughter 's most well @-@ known donation to the city came in the form of a bequest in her will . In 1904 , Harriet Burnside died and left $ 5 @,@ 000 in her will to the city of Worcester to build a fountain as a memorial to her father .
= = History = =
When Burnside bequeathed the money for the fountain , she asked that it be designed for use as a drinking trough for horses and also for dogs . The commission was originally intended for Daniel Chester French , but , according to a paper by Zelotes W. Coombs , French turned down the commission due to " pressure of other engagements , however ... he did supervise the work . " French assigned the design of the basin to Henry Bacon , who would later work with French on the Lincoln Memorial . The sculpture was assigned to Charles Y. Harvey , a graduate of the American Academy in Rome , who had worked with Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens on the Robert Gould Shaw Memorial in Boston .
Charles Y. Harvey began work on Boy with Turtle at his studio in New York City , believing that this work was going to be his masterpiece . Almost immediately he began second guessing his design and feeling that it was inadequate . This negativity was a trait that he had shown many times in the past . Roughly a week after beginning the sculpture , Harvey began hearing voices commanding him to kill himself . A paper about restoring the sculpture written at Worcester Polytechnic Institute claims the voices he was hearing were coming from the partially carved sculpture itself . These voices set the date of Saturday January 27 , 1912 for Harvey to kill himself . On that date he laid down his tools , headed to Bronx Park with two razors , and slit his own throat along the west bank of the Bronx River .
After Harvey 's death , Sherry Fry , a fellow American Academy graduate , was invited to finish the work according to the original designs Harvey had laid out . Fry completed the sculpture , and it was delivered along with the basin to Worcester in 1912 . There had been much discussion about where to install the fountain . Central Square , just off the Worcester Common was chosen with only slight opposition from " market gardeners who had been using the east end of the Common for their summer outdoor market . " When it was installed in Central Square , There was no dedication ceremony or unveiling for the fountain . A news article on October 11 , 1912 stated that Worcester Mayor Philip O ’ Connell , " believes it will be well to have the fountain placed in use without ceremony . ” This lack of a ceremony is presumably due to Harvey 's suicide and the desire to not celebrate such an act .
By 1912 , the use of horse and buggy had fallen out of fashion , and the Burnside Fountain saw little use in its intended purpose . By 1939 citizens of Worcester were already calling for the fountain to be moved to a more suitable place where it could be of more use . It took until 1969 for the Burnside Fountain to be moved from Central Square . It was relocated to the Worcester Common and turned to face Salem Square . One year later , in May 1970 , the statue was ripped from its pedestal and stolen . It was returned later that same year , but it took until 1972 for the boy and turtle to be placed back on top of the basin . Another apparent theft attempt happened in 2004 when the bronze sculpture was toppled off its pedestal and left dangling off the basin . The city was quick to fix the statue this time , with it being righted and reattached within days .
In 2010 , the Burnside Fountain was named one of WAAF 's " Hill @-@ Man 's 25 Greatest Places in Massachusetts . " That same year , it was also nominated for " Worst Public Art in New England " by a regional Art blog . Around this same time a small group of volunteers began the " Turtle Boy Urban Gardeners , " a group dedicated to keeping the plantings around the Burnside Fountain presentable .
For the last few decades the Burnside Fountain has been in disrepair . A 1986 inventory of public memorials in Worcester , compiled by the municipal parks and recreation department , listed the fountains problems as " chipped stone , water system , bronze surface corrosion , rust staining , litter , " and the Smithsonian Art Inventories Catalog surveyed the fountain in September 1994 and listed its condition as " treatment urgent . " With the one @-@ hundredth anniversary of the Burnside Fountain coming in 2012 , there has been renewed interest in restoring the fountain . Restoration estimates run between USD $ 40 @,@ 000 to $ 60 @,@ 000 , which is more than the city is willing to spend . Probably because of this , there are no official plans to restore the fountain , as of June 2012 .
= = " Turtle Boy " = =
The statue that sits atop the Burnside Fountain is now commonly referred to as Turtle Boy . In the tradition of the Manneken Pis in Brussels , Turtle Boy has become an unofficial mascot for Worcester . Much of the local popularity of the statue is due to bawdy insinuations about how the boy and the turtle are portrayed . Anonymous members of the Worcester community sometimes dress the statue in festive clothes for holidays , local bands write crowd @-@ pleasing songs about it , and the statue has even graced postcards of the city .
The popularity of Turtle Boy began around the time it was installed in Central Square . In 1916 the Burnside Fountain 's boy and turtle appeared in The Cloud Bird , a children 's book by Margaret C. Getchell in which each chapter was about a Worcester landmark . In the eighth chapter , " The Adventurer in Armor , " a small girl finds a young , Peter Pan @-@ like faun who had agreed to hold back the turtle . They later go on an adventure upon the turtle 's back , but return at the end of the day . By the late 2000s " Turtle Boy " was a common term used to align events and objects with Worcester . A local music contest was named the " Turtle Boy Music Awards , " and the Wormtown Brewing Company in Worcester began selling a " Turtle Boy Blueberry Ale . "
Kristina Wilson , associate professor in the Department of Visual and Performing Arts at Worcester 's Clark University , asked people on campus what they thought of Turtle Boy . One person replied " Oh , that 's Worcester 's monument to bestiality . " Wilson said the sculpture is intended to portray " innocence , joy , and rebirth , " and that historically Charles Y. Harvey came from an artistic tradition in which " the human figure is the apex of beauty , and how well you can capture that is the demonstration of your artistic talents . " Regarding the artistic merit of the work , Wilson said : " It 's unfortunate , because it really does look like something untoward is going on . "
Mostly because of the ambiguity in what the Burnside Fountain is depicting , Turtle Boy pops up occasionally in social media . The sculpture also appeared on comedian Daniel Tosh 's Tosh.0 blog .
|
= Gisborough Priory =
Gisborough Priory is a ruined Augustinian priory in Guisborough in the borough of Redcar and Cleveland and ceremonial county of North Yorkshire , England . It was founded in 1119 as the Priory of St Mary by the Norman feudal magnate Robert de Brus , also an ancestor of the Scottish king , Robert the Bruce . It became one of the richest monastic foundations in England with grants from the crown and bequests from de Brus , other nobles and gentry and local people of more modest means . Much of the Romanesque Norman priory was destroyed in a fire in 1289 . It was rebuilt in the Gothic style on a grander scale over the following century . Its remains are regarded as among the finest surviving examples of early Gothic architecture in England .
The priory prospered until the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1540 , when it was abolished along with England 's other monastic communities . The priory buildings were demolished and the stone re @-@ used in other buildings in Guisborough . The east end of the priory church was left standing with its great window forming a distinctive arch , a well @-@ known landmark used as a symbol for Guisborough . It became part of the estate of the Chaloner family , who acquired it in 1550 . The east window was preserved by them as part of a Romantic vista adjoining their seat , Gisborough Hall , from which the priory takes its idiosyncratically spelled name . It is owned by the Chaloners but is in the care of English Heritage as a scheduled monument .
Since the 19th century archaeological excavations have taken place in the priory grounds , though a substantial part of the site has not yet been investigated . In addition to the east window , surviving visible fragments of the complex include the lower courses of the west range , a vaulted undercroft , a gateway and a 14th @-@ century dovecote still in use today . The adjoining Priory Gardens , laid out by the Chaloners in the 18th century , are under restoration by a volunteer group . The priory ruins and gardens are open to the public throughout the year .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
Guisborough was well @-@ established at the time of the priory 's founding ; the town 's name refers to the fortified place of a Scandinavian called Gigr , who may have taken over a site established by the Anglo @-@ Saxons or Romans who lived in the vicinity before the arrival of Vikings in the 8th and 9th centuries . A priest , church and mill were recorded in 1086 in the Domesday Book which refers to the town as " Ghigesburg " . Following the Norman Conquest , William the Conqueror gave lands in the area to the Count of Mortain . He passed them to his friend Robert de Brus , Lord of Skelton , one of the largest landowners in the north , owning more than 40 @,@ 000 acres ( 160 km2 ) in Yorkshire alone . William 's Harrying of the North left the region in a severely depressed and depopulated state . There were few monasteries north of the River Humber and opportunities existed for new agricultural and religious developments . The Augustinian order came to England at the start of the 12th century and established houses in England , including major ones at Bridlington , Nostell and Kirkham . They were communities of canons living under the rule of St. Augustine , wearing dark robes that earned them the name the " Black Canons " .
According to the priory 's founding charter , Robert de Brus " founded a certain Monastery of a religious order in Gysburne [ sic ] , to the honour of God , and the holy Virgin Mary " . He gave " to the same Church and the service of God in it , all Gysburne , with all things pertaining thereto it " . The gift included lands amounting to twenty carucates and two oxgangs ( roughly equivalent to about 2 @,@ 500 acres ( 10 km2 ) ) , churches , mills and other possessions , and grants from others . The charter started that the endowment was to provide " material for ever for their buildings , and all other necessities of their house " . The foundation was authorised by Pope Calixtus II and Thurstan , Archbishop of York . De Brus may have been emulating his peers in Yorkshire , who had founded monastic institutions for their religious obligations . The date of the foundation is unclear . The 14th @-@ century canon and historian Walter of Guisborough gives it as 1129 , but a charter of confirmation from Pope Calixtus dates to the period of his pontificate between 1119 – 24 . The priory may have had two foundation charters , a shorter one dating possibly to 1119 and a detailed one dating to 1129 that may have been the definitive document .
The rights and privileges of the prior and canons grew over the centuries added to by royal grants . Henry III granted the rights of soc and sac , thol and theam and infangtheof . He established a Monday market at Guisborough and the right to hold an annual three @-@ day fair to mark the feast of the Assumption ( 15 August ) . The proceeds and fees from these events supported the priory . The prior and canons were granted free warren in the lands around Guisborough and several nearby villages which was extended to more demesnes by Edward III , who permitted them to convert 80 acres ( 320 @,@ 000 m2 ) of land into a deer park ( now Park Wood ) . Henry IV gave them the twice @-@ yearly right of frankpledge , the right of waif and stray and the return of briefs and writs which gave the priory a steady income from rents , fines , licences and other fees . The canons of Guisborough owned 4 @,@ 000 sheep , mostly in Eskdale , in the 13th and 14th century .
The priory became known for its strict observance of the Augustinian rule and religious precepts . Its reputation for ducentes canonicam vitam ( " living a canonical life " ) attracted Saint Malachy from Ireland who , as Saint Bernard of Clairvaux had a long and close involvement with Gisborough . The canons were closely associated with the Cistercians who , like the Augustianians , had a reformist outlook . One Gisborough canon , William of Newminster , moved to the Cistercia 's Fountains Abbey to become its abbot . The priory was supported by the local people and records survive of numerous small grants , related to the almonry ( the place or chamber where alms were distributed to the poor ) and to support building work . The canons leased , bought and sold land and loanied money using property grants as collateral to benefit the priory 's building fund . As the priory became more wealthy , discipline among its canons slipped and the Archbishops of York found it necessary to take corrective action in the late 13th century . A number of canons were sent to Kirkham and Bridlington for correction and Gisborough in turn took in disobedient canons from other places . The priory also became embroiled in a dispute with a local landowner , Robert de Thweng , who raided its properties and tithe barns in 1232 under the alias of " Will Wither " , in the course of a dispute with the priory over the advowson of Kirkleatham parish church .
On 16 May 1289 , the priory suffered a catastrophic fire . According to an account by Walter of Guisborough , a plumber soldering the lead roof forgot to put out his fire , causing the roof timbers to catch fire and molten lead ran down into the church below . Much of the building was destroyed and many effects , costly books , chalices and vestments were lost . The canons sought to raise funds for rebuilding . They petitioned the king to grant them the advowsons of the parish churches of Barnham , Easington and Heslerton , and in 1309 and 1311 the Archbishop of York and the Bishop of Durham rewarded the priory 's donors with indulgences granting remission of temporal punishment for sins . Most of the nave and chancel was rebuilt with the support of the de Brus family , whose coat of arms was displayed on its buildings .
Rebuilding probably took around a century to complete . Work was slowed by high costs and civil unrest in the early 14th century , when Scottish raiders repeatedly plundered the north of England . The priory 's lands were reduced in value by the raids , diminishing its income . Its wealth was tapped by Archbishop Melton of York to make good his own losses in 1319 , and in 1320 it had to take in refugees from monastic houses that had been forced to disperse to escape the raiders . Probably as a consequence of the troubles , in 1328 the priory petitioned the king to be exempted from the " clerical tenth " ( a 10 % tax on clerical property ) and in 1344 it was granted permission to fortify its buildings . By 1380 its staff had diminished to 26 canons and two lay brothers .
The Yorkshire line of the de Brus family died out with the death of the childless Peter IV de Brus in 1272 but the priory was still patronised by the local nobility . The Fauconberg and Thweng families , who married Peter 's sisters Agnes and Lucia , took over the patronage which continued for several centuries . Many prominent local nobles were buried there , as was the Scottish Robert V de Brus , grandfather of King Robert the Bruce . At least nine patrons and their families were buried in the priory between 1295 and 1411 . The priory received substantial financial support from its patrons ; in 1381 William , Lord Latimer provided funds to complete the north nave and donated £ 333 6s 8d ( roughly equivalent to £ 1 @.@ 6 million today ) for a new belfry . He left the priory cattle from his manor at Ugthorpe , bequeathed a range of religious items , and made arrangements for his body to be interred there on his death .
= = = Dissolution and after = = =
In 1533 Henry VIII of England was excommunicated for divorcing Catherine of Aragon . The Act of Supremacy passed in 1534 declared Henry Supreme Head of the Church of England and the church 's estate in England became part of the king 's estate . In 1535 Henry ordered a comprehensive survey of the church 's property , the Valor Ecclesiasticus . It found that Gisborough Priory had an annual net value of £ 628.6s.8d. , which made it the fourth wealthiest monastic house in Yorkshire . In 1536 monasteries with less than £ 200 of annual income were suppressed , exempting the priory from the first wave of suppression .
A second survey carried out by the king 's commissioners , Thomas Legh and Richard Leyton , provided for the final suppression on charges of a lack of quality of religious life . Prior James Cockerell of Guisborough was forced to resign and was replaced by Robert Pursglove , who was loyal to the king . The priory 's dissolution was not welcomed by locals , who derived economic benefit from its presence – in 1536 , around 500 families depended on it for their livelihood . The strength of feeling was recorded in a letter from Lord Conyers and Sir John Bulmer to Thomas Cromwell : " On Sunday , 11th July [ 1539 ] , at Gysburn in Yorkshire , when the parish priest was declaring the articles [ of dissolution ] directed by the King to the Archbishop of York , one John Atkeynson alias Brotton came violently and took book forth of the priest 's hands , and pulled it in pieces . " Popular discontent sparked the Pilgrimage of Grace , in which Prior Cockerell was implicated . When the revolt failed , he was hanged at Tyburn with the Prior of Bridlington , the Abbot of Jervaulx and the former Abbot of Fountains .
The priory was formally dissolved on 8 April 1540 and surrendered to the king 's men on 22 December 1540 , making it one of the last monastic houses in England to be suppressed . A proposal to found a secular college there came to nothing and the priory buildings – with the exception of the gatehouses and the great east window – were demolished . On 21 November 1541 Thomas Legh was granted a lease " of the buildings with the site and precincts of the Priory to be then demolished and carried away . " Demolition was carried out by collapsing its central tower into the body of the church , crushing it in its fall and reducing it to rubble .
The site and lands were re @-@ let in 1550 to Sir Thomas Chaloner , who later purchased the property outright . The Chaloners occupied the former priors ' quarters in the west range before moving to their new mansion , Old Gisborough Hall , on Bow Street in the late @-@ 17th century . The priory remains were cleared and the fallen stonework looted or sold . The grounds were redeveloped as formal gardens within the grounds of Old Gisborough Hall . John Walker Ord , a local historian in the mid @-@ 19th century , described how the priory 's stonework could be seen in many buildings around Guisborough . He deplored the profane uses to which it had been put :
I have seen with my own eyes broken pillars and pedestals of this august pile desecrated to the vile uses of gateposts , stands for rainwater casks , and stepping @-@ stones over a common sewer . A richly ornamented doorway of the venerable priory forms the entrance to a privy . I have beheld with sorrow , shame , and indignation , the richly ornamented columns and carved architraves of God 's temple supporting the thatch of a pig @-@ house .
Some fragments of the priory travelled further afield . At Hardwick Hall near Sedgefield , a mock ruin was built incorporating sculptured stones brought from the priory . The priory 's wealth became the stuff of local legends , one of which claimed an underground passage led from the priory to a cave under the hills in which a raven stood guard over a chest of gold .
The priory 's lands around Guisborough were a source of wealth for the Chaloners . Around 1595 , Sir Thomas Chaloner 's son , also called Thomas , established England 's first alum works at Belman Bank south of the town . Alum was an important product with a variety of industrial uses . It was especially important to the cloth industry as a mordant ( a substance used to fix dyes on cloth ) . The supply of alum was controlled by a cartel controlled by the Papal States and Spain which were in conflict with England and exercised a virtual monopoly on the provision of alum to Christian Europe , as the import of cheaper Turkish alum was banned by Pope Paul II in the mid @-@ 15th century . Chaloner visited the Pope 's alum works at Tolfa near Rome and noticed the soil and vegetation around them resembled those of his estate at Guisborough . On his return he established alum works at Belman Bank with the aid of workmen smuggled from Rome , earning him a papal excommunication . John Walker Ord casts doubt on the story , noting an account published a few decades afterwards stated that the workmen came from France and does not mention Chaloner 's travels in Italy .
The only substantial part of the priory to survive was the eastern gable of the presbytery with its great east window . Its survival owed much to the rise of Romanticism in the 18th century . The portrayal of ruined buildings in idealised landscapes by J. M. W. Turner and his contemporaries inspired a fashion for the nobility and gentry to produce paintings of monasteries providing an incentive for landowners to preserve them as romantic ruins , rather than using them as quarries . Gisborough Priory 's east window was one of the first examples of a monastic ruin to be retained for its visual qualities . It was incorporated into the grounds of Old Gisborough Hall as a romantic ruin and the sill of the great window removed to ensure an uninterrupted view . Fittingly , given his role in inspiring the east window 's preservation , Turner himself sketched it in 1801 during a visit to Yorkshire .
East Lawn was laid out in front of the east window and was used for grand bazaars and fêtes until the early 20th century . A ha @-@ ha was installed behind to keep cattle out of the grounds . To the south of the priory buildings the Long Terrace ran almost the full length of the grounds . It afforded access to the ruins via a flight of steps flanked by two carved demi @-@ sea wolves , reflecting the coat of arms of the Chaloners . They were thought to be dragons by local people and the steps were referred to as the Dragon Steps .
Old Gisborough Hall was demolished around 1825 and the Chaloners built a mansion house , Gisborough Hall , about half a mile to the east in 1857 . In 1932 , Thomas Chaloner , 2nd Baron Gisborough transferred control of the priory to the Office of Works. which became the responsibility of the Ministry of Works , then the Department of the Environment and from 1984 , English Heritage . It remains the property of Lord Gisborough ; English Heritage is responsible for maintaining the ruins , while day @-@ to @-@ day running is managed by Redcar and Cleveland Borough Council .
According to folklore , the priory is haunted by the ghost of a monk in a black habit who returns annually to check that its buried treasure has not been disturbed . He is said to arrive at midnight on the year 's first new moon to lower a ghostly drawbridge spanning a vanished moat . In 1966 and 1967 a hundred people turned out to watch and allegedly managed to spot a cowled figure , but in 1968 the few spectators who turned up saw nothing .
= = Description of the priory buildings = =
Gisborough Priory is characterised by a few highly visible remains . The priory church survives in a fragmentary state , dominated by the east wall of the presbytery that stands to its full height . Several of the priory church 's column bases can also be seen , as can a number of excavated graves within the presbytery . Elsewhere on the site , the outline of the cloister is visible but is largely unexcavated , while the ruins of the west ( or cellarer 's ) range constitutes the largest area of other remains above ground . A ruined gatehouse and a still @-@ intact dovecote ( the latter off @-@ limits to visitors ) stand on the western edges of the site .
= = = Priory church = = =
The remains of the priory church are dominated by the eastern gable wall of the presbytery that still stands to its full height . Its great east window is regarded as one of the finest examples of late @-@ 13th @-@ century church architecture . The design is so close to that of the eastern arm of Ripon Cathedral , which was built around the same time , that it is thought to have been modelled on Ripon 's design . The window 's tracery has disappeared , as has its sill , but from the stubs and surviving fragments it can be deduced that it had seven major lights ( the glazed openings in the window ) . At its centre was a great circle of tracery filled with trefoiled lights . The main gable of the east wall is flanked by massive buttresses capped with gables and octagonal pinnacles . A similar pair of pinnacles top the main gable , flanking a window of unusual design ; a bracket projects from the lower lobe to support a statue ( no longer present ) , possibly of the Virgin Mary , to whom the priory was dedicated .
Little remains above ground of the rest of the priory , but much can be deduced from the surviving stonework . In its final form the priory church had a nave of eight bays and a quire and presbytery of nine bays , with a total length of 107 metres ( 351 ft ) . The survival of the east wall allows us to deduce that the ridge line of the roof stood 29 @.@ 6 metres ( 97 ft ) above ground . The presbytery 's arcades were supported by eight clustered shafts , the bases of which are still visible , with capitals carved with naturalistic foliage . The clerestory and triforium were combined into a single arch with the main arcade below . The presbytery 's high vault was executed in stone with bosses decorated in red and white paint and gold leaf , traces of which were still visible when several of the bosses were found in the 19th century . The eastern bay of the presbytery was divided into several chapels and the remnants of parclose screens are visible on the main aisle 's north and south responds . The main altar would have stood a short distance to the west , behind a tall screen .
At the angle of each aisle , a spiral staircase – still visible on each side of the surviving east wall – gave access to a passage inside the walls and to secondary stairs within the angles of the main gable enabling access to all parts of the building for maintenance and cleaning without requiring scaffolding . Nothing remains of the north or south transepts , which extended on the north side beyond the present boundary wall into the graveyard of St Nicholas 's Church .
Several burials ( presumably of high @-@ ranking benefactors and clergy ) were made within the priory and 19th @-@ century archaeologists found stone coffins during excavations . They are visible against the east wall , but their original location was not recorded . Two centrally placed grave slabs are visible below the east window . The priory once housed the Brus cenotaph , a memorial to its founders erected in 1521 . It was removed in 1540 and dismantled . Most of its parts were recovered and reassembled in the 19th century , and the reconstructed cenotaph is displayed in Saint Nicholas ' Church next to the ruins .
The priory church housed a shrine to the Virgin Mary which one of the most significant Marian shrines in the north , along with others at Walsingham , Lincoln , Scarborough , Jesmond and Carlisle . Although it was destroyed during the Reformation along with the priory , it was revived in 1949 by Father Arthur Mercer , Guisborough 's first Roman Catholic parish priest for 400 years , and is housed in the town 's St Paulinus Church .
= = = Ranges and cloister = = =
Fragments of other buildings associated with the priory can be seen on the site . There was a cloister measuring 36 @.@ 5 metres ( 120 ft ) square to the south of the priory church surrounded by domestic buildings or ranges . They replaced an earlier cloister and ranges destroyed in the fire of 1289 rebuilt to a new , larger , design . Processional doors on the cloister 's north wall gave access to the nave of the church . In 1854 , surviving arches and columns from the cloister were taken to London for display in the Crystal Palace where they provided the basis for a reconstruction of a medieval cloister in the " English National Art Court " section of the exhibition .
Fragments of the west range – the cellarer 's range – are extant . It was entered from the west by an outer parlour , projecting from the north end of the range , where members of the community received visitors . The prior lived on the upper floor which comprised a hall , chamber and chapel dedicated to Saint Hilda . The prior 's rooms were probably located above the outer parlour , as was the pattern at other monasteries , accessing the cloister and the outside world . The largest surviving fragment of the range comprises a cellarium or storehouse where supplies were kept . It is a vaulted undercroft of nine bays constructed from stone ashlar with its floor level below that of the cloister . It is relatively well @-@ preserved and believed to have been divided by timber partitions which were later replaced in stone .
Most of the refectory ( dining hall ) range to the south of the cloister and the dorter range to the east , which contained the chapter house and dormitory , have yet to be excavated . Only the western end of the refectory range has been excavated ; it presents a vaulted undercroft , three bays of which survive , above which the refectory was located on the first floor . A service passage survives between the kitchen and the refectory . The western part of the undercroft was used as a buttery in the late Middle Ages but would have had severely restricted headroom due to its raised floor .
= = = Outer buildings = = =
The priory buildings stood at the centre of a walled precinct arranged in two courts , inner and outer with gatehouses at the entrances to both ; the remains of the great gate of the inner court are extant but the outer gatehouse no longer survives . The gate comprised an outer porch , an inner gatehall and a porter 's lodge on the ground floor with chambers above the arch . It survived intact into the early 18th century but only the outer porch remains . The structure consists of a single large round @-@ headed archway on the outer side with two smaller arches of different sizes , both deeply rebated to accommodate doors , a few metres to the south . The larger arch was for wagons while pedestrians entered through the smaller arch . Little remains of the gatehall or the porter 's lodge ; the only remnants visible are the stub of its north wall and a latrine shaft .
The canons built an octagonal dovecote a short distance to the west of the west range . The dovecote is extant , though it cannot be visited and is not part of the priory grounds . Built in the 14th century , it was modified in the mid @-@ 18th century with the addition of a pyramidal roof tiled with Welsh slate and capped with an open @-@ sided timber cupola . The original nesting boxes have been removed and the dovecote is used as a garden store .
= = = Older buildings on the site = = =
Gisborough Priory was rebuilt three times ; the ruins visible today are principally those of the third rebuild . The site was occupied in Anglo @-@ Saxon times by at least one structure , possibly a timber @-@ framed church or boundary wall , indicated by a number of postholes . It is believed there was a Saxon settlement in the vicinity as late @-@ Saxon potsherds and an 8th @-@ century coin have been found buried under the remains of the priory 's west nave . The site was abandoned at some point and by the time the priory was built the land on which it stood was mostly under cultivation . Part of it was used as a graveyard in the early 12th century and an early Norman building was erected in the vicinity , possibly a temporary church .
The Norman priory , completed around 1180 , was relatively short and narrow . It was constructed in the Romanesque style with twin aisles either side of the nave and a single tower at the west end , aligned with the main axis of the church . It could be entered from the north , via an external door , and the south via the cloister . The existence of the northward door suggests it was used by a secular congregation , possibly the local nobility and patrons . A number of graves associated with the first priory have been found in the south aisle 's floor and against the north wall .
The priory was rebuilt around 1200 on a larger scale with the Romanesque church demolished to its first course of ashlar . The construction of the new church continued through much of the 13th century . The enlarged priory had twin towers at the west end flanking a large double doorway above which was a central rose window ; piped water was provided using lead pipes from the cloister , under the church to buildings or standpipes to the north or west of the priory . The main body of the church comprised a nave with two aisles , transepts and a choir . The aisles were laid with geometric coloured tiles adjoining the sandstone columns of the nave . The north aisle was divided into alcoves or private chapels where a number of people – probably local nobles and gentry – were buried . An unusual feature of the church was a well , sunk into the nave , possibly built in an effort to safeguard its water supplies .
The effects of the fire that destroyed the priory in 1289 can be seen in scorched paving between the surviving pillars . It was thought the church had been completely rebuilt , but excavations in the 1980s show that a substantial amount of the less damaged west end was reused which resulted in a distinct inconsistency between the two ends , which were constructed in different architectural styles . Rebuilding was a major task that took several generations and was probably not completed until the end of the 14th century . It is unclear how much of the second priory survived the fire . Where the priory was rebuilt , its builders reused as much as possible ; the core of the surviving eastern gable wall is full of fragments from the destroyed second priory .
= = = Priory Gardens and Monks ' Pond = = =
Land immediately south of the priory was used by the Chaloners for formal gardens attached to Old Gisborough Hall . In the early 18th century they planted an oval @-@ shaped double avenue of trees , the Monks ' Walk , where stonework recovered from mid @-@ 19th century excavations was deposited . In between the trees was a manicured lawn used to hold musical and theatrical productions . The Monks ' Walk fell into disuse and became overgrown but is under restoration by the Gisborough Priory Project .
In the late 19th century , Margaret Chaloner , wife of the first Lord Gisborough , laid out formal gardens of a typical late @-@ Victorian and Edwardian design with elaborate bedding schemes and gravelled paths . There was a rose garden and a sunken Italian garden with an ornamental pool at its centre . They were open to the public for a small fee and could be entered through a gateway on Bow Street . The gardens are now freely accessible .
Further east , off the Whitby Road , is the Monks ' Pond , the canons ' fish pond . It presents a dramatic vista in which the priory arch is reflected and has often been photographed and painted . In 1908 , the pond was the scene of an elaborate water tableau organised by Lady Gisborough to raise funds for the restoration of St Nicholas ' Church . The pond was home to a number of exceptionally large fish , but pollution in 2000 caused by a sewage leak led to the death of more than 5 @,@ 000 fish .
= = = Other properties owned by the priory = = =
The priory was responsible for St Leonard 's leper hospital at Hutton Lowcross to the south @-@ west of Guisborough . The hospital was probably founded in the 12th century and became a dependency of the priory in 1275 . It was last documented in 1339 . Its fate is unclear but it probably survived until the Dissolution in 1540 .
The priory may also have owned a cell at Scarth Wood at Whorlton . A grant issued by Stephen de Meynell in the reign of Henry I records the donation of the hamlet of Scarth to enable the priory to establish a cell for habitation by a single monk or canon . It is unclear whether the cell was built as Scarth is not mentioned in the priory 's deeds or in Henry VIII 's commissioners ' valuation of its property . Fragmentary building remains at Scarth are recorded as existing in the mid @-@ 18th century . They were cleared by the start of the 19th century so there is no trace of whatever might once have stood there or indication of what it might have been used for .
= = Excavations = =
In 1865 – 1867 Captain Thomas Chaloner and William Downing Bruce carried out the first major excavation by cutting a trench across the site . A number of features were discovered , including a stone coffin containing the skeleton of a tall man thought to be Robert de Brus , the remnants of a monumental shrine and painted roof bosses . Evidence of the 1289 fire was discovered in the form of pieces of fused metal – an amalgam of lead , silver and iron that had melted and penetrated the floor in the heat of the fire . The Office of Works carried out excavations in 1932 in conjunction with work to consolidate the walls and grounds so they could be opened to the public . Further work was carried out by Roy Gilyard Beer between 1947 – 54 for the Ministry of Works , which exposed more of the site and cleared material from the 19th century .
In 1985 – 86 Cleveland County Archaeology Section carried out a major excavation of the west end of the nave to consolidate an area of subsidence . Its cause was the collapse of an unrecorded burial vault . The excavations found more evidence of the fire of 1289 including scorched masonry , a shattered bell and broken grave @-@ slabs . The remains of 47 people – 21 men , 17 women , 6 children and 3 of undetermined gender – were discovered , some of whom had been buried with grave goods including a gold finger ring and jet crosses . Two chalices and patens were found alongside the remains of two priests . The skeletons were cremated and the ashes scattered in the Monks ' Walk in the Priory Gardens . A geophysical survey carried out to the west and east of the west range , indicated the existence of the remains of other monastic buildings which have yet to be excavated .
= = Priors = =
Between its establishment and its dissolution , 24 priors were recorded holding office at Gisborough Priory . Their names and dates of taking office or periods when they held office , where known , were as follows :
William de Brus ( 1119 – 45 ? )
Cuthbert ( 1146 – 54 )
Ralph ( 1174 ? – 80 )
Roald ( 1199- ? )
Lawrence ( 1211 – 12 )
Michael ( 1218 – 34 )
John ( 1239 – 51 , 1257 )
Simon ( date uncertain )
Ralph de Irton ( 1262 )
Adam de Newland ( 1280 )
William de Middleburgh ( 1281 )
Robert de Wilton ( 1320 – 1 )
John de Darlington ( 1346 )
John de Horeworth or Hurworth ( 1364 – 93 )
Walter de Thorp ( 1393 )
John de Helmesley ( 1408 )
John Thweng ( 1425 )
Richard Ayreton ( 1437 )
Richard de Hoton ( 1452 )
Thomas Darlington ( 1455 )
John Moreby ( 1475 )
John Whitby ( 1491 – 1505 )
John Moreby ( 1505 )
William Spires ( 1511 )
James Cockerill ( 1519 – 1534 ? )
Robert Pursglove ( 1537 , 1539 )
|
= John Collins Covell =
John Collins Covell ( December 19 , 1823 – June 4 , 1887 ) was a 19th @-@ century American educator and school administrator specializing in deaf education in the U.S. states of Virginia and West Virginia .
Born in 1823 in Rhode Island , Covell was the son of Episcopal minister Reverend Joseph S. Covell and the grandson of Rhode Island Governor John Collins . Covell attended Trinity College and graduated from the institution in 1847 . He was recommended as a candidate for Holy Orders in the Episcopal Diocese of Connecticut and received the orders of a deacon .
Covell accepted a teaching position in the Deaf Department of the Virginia School for the Deaf and the Blind and relocated there in 1847 . Covell was made a vice @-@ principal of the institution and given charge of the entire Deaf Mute Department in 1852 . During the American Civil War , Covell entered the Confederate States Army with the rank of major and served on the staff of Brigadier General Henry A. Wise . Covell served on General Wise 's staff only briefly before returning to the Virginia School for the Deaf and Blind to serve as its principal in 1862 , a position he held until 1872 . In 1874 , Covell was selected to serve as the principal of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind . Under his leadership , the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind experienced " unprecedented success " and its student body began to grow due to his initiatives . He served as the institution 's principal until his death in 1887 .
Covell was an active and prominent member of the Episcopal Diocese of West Virginia and was appointed the first churchwarden of Saint Stephen 's Episcopal Church in Romney . Covell played an instrumental role in the construction of the church through his donation of property for the building site and his financial contribution of the majority of its construction costs .
= = Early life and education = =
John Collins Covell was born on December 19 , 1823 , in Newport , Rhode Island , and was the son of Episcopal minister , Reverend Joseph S. Covell . Covell was named for his maternal grandfather , Rhode Island Governor John Collins . He spent his childhood in Princess Anne , Maryland , where he received his education from the common schools for eight years before attending an academy in Connecticut . Covell then worked as a store clerk for three years . Seeking to further his education , Covell attended Trinity College in Hartford , Connecticut , and graduated from the institution in 1847 . After graduating from Trinity College , Covell was recommended as a candidate for Holy Orders in the Episcopal Diocese of Connecticut and received the orders of a deacon in the Episcopal Church .
= = Educator and school administrator = =
= = = Virginia School for the Deaf and the Blind = = =
Upon graduating from Trinity College , Covell accepted a teaching position in the Deaf Department of the Virginia School for the Deaf and the Blind in Staunton , Virginia and relocated there in September 1847 . Covell continued teaching until 1852 when he was made a vice @-@ principal of the institution and given charge of the entire Deaf Mute Department .
Following the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 , Covell entered the Confederate States Army with the rank of major and served on the staff of Brigadier General Henry A. Wise . Covell served on General Wise 's staff only briefly before the state of Virginia recalled him to the Virginia School for the Deaf and Blind in 1862 to become the institution 's principal . According to the National Conference of Superintendents and Principals of Institutions for Deaf Mutes in 1888 , the state of Virginia considered Covell 's services " of more value as manager of one of her noblest public institutions than as a soldier in the field . " While serving as principal , Covell continued to head and instruct in the school 's Deaf Mute Department . Covell remained principal of the Virginia School for the Deaf and Blind for nine years until his resignation from the institution in 1872 .
In an 1870 address entitled " The Nobility , Dignity , and Antiquity of the Sign Language " which Covell delivered at the Convention of American Instructors of the Deaf in Indianapolis , Indiana , he asserted that sign language would gain in popularity among hearing people and would be taught alongside philology as part of the basic curricula of universities . Over a century after Covell 's 1870 prediction , American Sign Language has been added to curricula of language departments in a growing number of American universities .
= = = West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind = = =
In June – July 1874 , Covell was selected by the Board of Regents of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind in Romney , West Virginia to serve as the institution 's principal , and he began his tenure there in August of that year . Upon his arrival , Covell found the schools " in a chaotic condition " with decreasing attendance , but the situation improved after Covell provided leadership , order , and a process of reorganization . Under his leadership , the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind experienced " unprecedented success " and its student body began to grow due to Covell 's initiatives . Covell found that 12 out of West Virginia 's 54 counties had no representatives at the schools , so he urged the Board of Regents to canvass the state for students eligible to attend the institution . The board approved Covell 's recommendation , and the resulting investigation identified students in those counties , which validated Covell 's request . By the schools ' tenth anniversary in 1880 , the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind 's attendance reached 120 , consisting of 87 " deaf @-@ mute " and 33 blind students . At his death in 1887 , the institution had grown from a student body of 60 pupils in 1874 to 130 .
Among his other reforms , Covell undertook to modernize the facilities of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind by urging the state to install gas lighting and to install plumbing for the purposes of providing tap water . In addition to the school 's infrastructure , Covell overhauled the school 's levels of comprehension in 1875 by introducing a classification system in which students were arranged in grades . Covell also introduced the tradition of publishing biennial reports , then annual reports , which have continued to be released every year since 1876 . In 1877 , at Covell 's recommendation , the schools ' board established the Department of Visible Speech in which deaf @-@ mute students were instructed in the manner of articulation and lip reading .
As an educator , Covell was described as " an instructor of rare ability , being well @-@ versed in literature , science , and the arts " and as " a gentleman of fine abilities and ripe experience " . He had great personal influence on his students and took an interest in their religious well @-@ being . Covell continued serving as principal of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind until his death from stomach cancer on Saturday , June 4 , 1887 , in Romney . Known for his excellence as an executive and administrative officer , all his affairs were found by the president of the school 's Board of Regents " to be finished , so that nothing remained to be done " on the day of his death .
Following his death , Covell was honored in 1888 at the National Conference of Superintendents and Principals of Institutions for Deaf Mutes in Jackson , Mississippi , by W. O. Connor , Principal of the Georgia School for the Deaf , who stated :
[ W ] e greatly deplore his [ Covell 's ] loss to the Institution over which he presided with such universal acceptability ; and that in his death we recognize the loss of a friend worthy of the fullest confidence , and an official of marked ability and adaptation to his duties , which he always performed with a faithfulness and efficiency unexcelled .
His obituary in The Churchman remarked of Covell :
[ W ] ith untiring zeal and fidelity , he has labored in the noble work of elevating and educating the deaf , dumb and the blind . He stood without an equal in methods entirely original .
= = Personal life = =
Covell married on December 24 , 1850 in Staunton , Virginia to Anita " Annie " E. Eskridge ( June 18 , 1810 – July 26 , 1895 ) . Covell is interred with his wife Annie at Indian Mound Cemetery in Romney . He and his wife had five children together , including two daughters :
Covell was an active and prominent member of the Episcopal Diocese of West Virginia and belonged to Saint Stephen 's Episcopal Church in Romney . He was appointed the first churchwarden of Saint Stephen 's by Bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of West Virginia , George William Peterkin . Covell played an instrumental role in the construction of a church for Saint Stephen 's in 1885 through his donation of property for the building site across the Northwestern Turnpike from the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind and through his financial contribution of the majority of the $ 1 @,@ 800 USD construction cost . Covell 's efforts were described in The Churchman as the " crowning work of his life . " Prior to the church 's construction , it is likely Covell that allowed Saint Stephen 's to utilize the chapel at the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind to hold their services . In addition to his affiliation with the Episcopal Church , Covell was a Mason of " high standing " and a member of the Romney Literary Society .
|
= No. 38 Squadron RAAF =
No. 38 Squadron is a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) transport unit . It was formed in 1943 and saw service during World War II transporting supplies and personnel between Australia and the combat zones in New Guinea and Borneo , using Douglas Dakota aircraft . Following the war , the squadron conducted regular courier flights between Australia and Japan in 1947 and 1948 . No. 38 Squadron was deployed to Singapore from 1950 to 1952 , supplying Commonwealth forces engaged in the Malayan Emergency and undertaking courier flights across Asia . In 1954 it became responsible for training RAAF personnel to operate Dakotas .
After being re @-@ equipped with de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 4 Caribous in 1964 , No. 38 Squadron served as the RAAF 's operational conversion unit for the type and also conducted transport tasks within Australia and its territories . Throughout Australia 's involvement in the Vietnam War , it prepared aircrew for operational service with No. 35 Squadron , and maintained a detachment in Papua New Guinea to provide pilots with experience flying in tropical conditions . A Caribou was deployed to Pakistan from 1975 to 1978 to support United Nations peacekeepers , and detachments were established within Australia during the 1980s to provide search and rescue capabilities and work with Australian Army units . From 1999 until 2001 , a detachment was deployed to East Timor as part of the Australian @-@ led peacekeeping force in the newly independent nation . No. 38 Squadron continued to operate Caribous after No. 35 Squadron was disbanded in 2000 , though the age of the aircraft increasingly affected its operations .
Following the retirement of the Caribous from service in 2009 , No. 38 Squadron was re @-@ equipped with eight Beechcraft King Air 350 aircraft . The squadron is currently stationed at RAAF Base Townsville , Queensland , and is responsible for training RAAF pilots to operate King Airs , and performing light transport tasks .
= = History = =
= = = World War II = = =
No. 38 Squadron was formed as a transport unit at RAAF Base Richmond near Sydney on 15 September 1943 . Equipped with Lockheed Hudsons , the squadron conducted its first operation on 17 December , when one of its aircraft flew from Richmond to RAAF Base Darwin . During the period No. 38 Squadron was equipped with Hudsons , it operated only within Australia .
The squadron 's activities expanded in early 1944 , when its obsolescent Hudsons were replaced with more capable Douglas Dakota transports . It received its first Dakota on 3 March 1944 , and was completely equipped with the type by the end of May . While the squadron continued to fly to locations within Australia after receiving Dakotas , it also began transporting supplies to Allied forces fighting the Japanese in western New Guinea . During return flights from New Guinea , the Dakotas typically carried wounded personnel to Australia for treatment . In October 1944 , No. 38 Squadron was given the additional task of supporting the RAAF 's Paratroop Training Unit at Richmond . The squadron moved to RAAF Station Archerfield near Brisbane in early December 1944 , but continued to maintain a detachment at Richmond . By this time No. 38 Squadron was mainly tasked with transporting supplies to the battle zone in New Guinea , which included making supply drops to Australian Army units in the field and evacuating casualties to the mainland . From 17 July 1945 , the squadron maintained a detachment at Morotai Island , which dropped supplies to Army units fighting in Borneo . No. 38 Squadron 's only loss during World War II was a Dakota that crashed on a mountain in western New Guinea while flying between Biak and Morotai ; the wreckage of this aircraft was not located until 1970 .
Following the end of the war , No. 38 Squadron flew into Singapore , Bangkok and locations in Borneo to evacuate released Australian prisoners of war . In addition , the squadron transported other service personnel back to Australia until 1946 as part of the demobilisation of the Australian military . During May 1946 , three of No. 38 Squadron 's Dakotas were assigned the unusual task of flying 25 tonnes of pig bristles from Chongqing in China to Hong Kong , from where the bristles were shipped to Australia . This mission , which was designated " Operation Pig Bristle " , took two weeks to complete and sought to rectify a shortage of paint brushes , which was hindering the Australian construction industry .
= = = Asian deployments = = =
No. 38 Squadron relocated to RAAF Station Schofields near Sydney on 15 August 1946 . It became part of No. 86 Wing , along with Nos. 36 and 37 Squadrons , which also operated Dakotas , and No. 486 ( Maintenance ) Squadron , which serviced the wing 's flying units . Commencing on 22 January 1947 , one of No. 38 Squadron 's main responsibilities was to conduct thrice @-@ weekly courier flights to Japan to support the Australian element of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force . These flights were the longest regular air route serviced by twin @-@ engined aircraft at the time , and took several days to complete . The courier flights continued until 13 January 1948 , after which chartered Qantas aircraft were used to support the force in Japan . In August 1948 , five of No. 38 Squadron 's air crews were dispatched to Europe where , as members of the RAAF Squadron Berlin Air Lift , they participated in the international efforts to fly supplies into Berlin during the Soviet blockade of the city . These personnel remained in Europe for 12 months , and their absence greatly disrupted No. 38 Squadron 's operations . Overall , twenty members of No. 86 Wing were sent to Europe ; the resulting shortage of personnel forced Nos. 36 and 38 Squadrons to operate for a period as a single unit , all flying hours being attributed to No. 38 Squadron in official records . No. 86 Wing moved to Richmond between 22 June and 1 July 1949 .
In 1950 , No. 38 Squadron was selected to form part of the Australian force assigned to the Commonwealth Far East Air Force . As an element of this force , the Australian Government agreed for the unit to be tasked with courier flights across Asia and providing support for the British @-@ led counterinsurgency operations in Malaya . The squadron 's advance party arrived at RAF Changi in Singapore on 19 June 1950 , and all of its personnel and eight Dakotas were operational there by 6 July . While in Malaya the squadron came under the command of No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing , along with the Avro Lincoln @-@ equipped No. 1 Squadron . Half the squadron 's aircrew were veterans of the Berlin Airlift , but none had any direct experience of tropical environments . No. 38 Squadron began flying transport missions in Malaya in early July , with British and New Zealand pilots accompanying its aircrews during the first two weeks of operations to help them become familiar with local conditions . From July 1950 until February 1951 , No. 38 Squadron 's main task was to conduct courier flights to Borneo , Ceylon , Hong Kong , Indonesia , Japan and the Philippines , and these remained an important responsibility throughout the period it was based at Singapore . Following the outbreak of the Korean War , the squadron flew British troops and supplies from Singapore to Japan and Korea , and four of No. 38 Squadron 's Dakotas were transferred to No. 30 Communication Unit in Japan during November 1950 .
After losing half its strength , No. 38 Squadron remained at Changi and conducted supply and aeromedical evacuation flights throughout Malaya to support the British @-@ led forces there . The squadron 's aircraft were also occasionally used to mark targets ahead of bombing raids and to drop propaganda leaflets . From April to July 1951 , No. 38 Squadron and an attached flight from No. 41 Squadron RNZAF was stationed at RAF Kuala Lumpur , and was the main unit tasked with dropping supplies to Commonwealth forces in the field . The squadron made another deployment to Kuala Lumpur between November 1951 and February 1952 . In February 1952 , No. 38 Squadron successfully parachuted 54 personnel from the British 22nd Special Air Service Regiment into a remote area near the Malaya @-@ Thailand border .
Supporting the Australian units in Korea placed heavy demands on the RAAF 's transport force , which was too small to fully meet its domestic and international responsibilities , and it became increasingly difficult to sustain the four Dakotas in Malaya during 1952 . As a result , the Australian Government decided in September that year to return the squadron to Australia . No. 38 Squadron left Changi for Richmond on 8 December . The squadron 's only fatality during the deployment was an airman who was killed when the No. 110 Squadron RAF Dakota he was co @-@ piloting crashed during a flight between Changi and Saigon on 31 August 1950 .
= = = Operational conversion unit = = =
After returning to Richmond , No. 38 Squadron was mainly tasked with routine transport duties . The squadron also occasionally provided aircraft for CSIRO rainmaking experiments . During the 1950s and early 1960s , No. 38 Squadron developed a reputation as a " cowboy " unit with lax flying standards . The squadron did not conduct proper conversion courses , and new Dakota pilots received only ad @-@ hoc instruction on the type while serving as the co @-@ pilot during operational tasks . On 8 March 1953 , No. 38 Squadron absorbed No. 36 Squadron 's Dakotas , after which No. 30 Transport Unit ( previously No. 30 Communication Unit ) in Japan was renamed No. 36 Squadron . From late March until September 1954 , No. 38 Squadron conducted VIP flights out of RAAF Station Canberra . In November that year , it was renamed the Transport Training Squadron and became responsible for instructing new Dakota crews and RAAF air movements personnel . It resumed its previous name on 13 June 1963 .
No. 38 Squadron was re @-@ equipped with new de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 4 Caribou tactical transport aircraft during 1964 . In January 1964 the unit 's commanding officer , five other pilots and three navigators undertook conversion training on the type in Canada . At the completion of this course the personnel flew the RAAF 's first three Caribous from Toronto to RAAF Base Richmond between 17 March and 22 April . The process of fully converting No. 38 Squadron to Caribous was delayed by the government 's decision to deploy several of the aircraft to Vietnam ; at the time this decision was made , in June 1964 , the squadron had received six of its planned allocation of nine aircraft , and the next batch of three aircraft was sent directly to Vietnam . No. 38 Squadron was the last operational RAAF squadron to fly Dakotas , though several other units did so until the 1990s . After receiving its Caribous , No. 38 Squadron 's main role was to train aircrews for operational service with the RAAF Transport Flight Vietnam ( later redesignated No. 35 Squadron ) . On 1 July 1964 , one of the squadron 's Caribous suffered severe damage when it made a crash landing at HMAS Albatross ; this aircraft was subsequently written off and its fuselage used for training purposes by the Army 's 1st Commando Regiment . The squadron became an independent unit under Headquarters RAAF Base Richmond in August that year , following the disbandment of No. 86 Wing . On 13 October 1965 , Detachment A of No. 38 Squadron began operations from Port Moresby in Papua New Guinea , equipped with two Caribous . One of the detachment 's tasks was to give Caribou pilots experience in tropical and mountainous conditions , and all aircraft captains were required to complete at least one two @-@ month deployment to Port Moresby before serving with No. 35 Squadron in Vietnam . In addition to its training role , No. 38 Squadron undertook transport flights in and around Australia , taking part when required in relief efforts following natural disasters .
= = = Peacekeeping deployments = = =
The squadron undertook two operational deployments during the mid @-@ 1970s . From March 1975 until November 1978 Detachment B , comprising a single Caribou and support staff , was stationed at Rawalpindi , Pakistan , and transported personnel and supplies for the United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan . From August to October 1975 , a No. 38 Squadron Caribou was assigned to transport Red Cross supplies and personnel from Darwin to East Timor after a civil war broke out in that country . On 4 September that year this aircraft was hijacked by East Timorese soldiers , who forced the pilot to fly 54 refugees to Darwin ; it remains the only RAAF aircraft ever to have been hijacked . Detachment A was no longer required after Papua New Guinea achieved independence from Australia and established its own defence force , and the unit was disbanded on 17 January 1976 . Three Caribous were lost while operating with the detachment ; A4 @-@ 202 crashed near Porgera on 3 June 1965 , A4 @-@ 147 was written off after it landed short of the runway at Tapini Airport on 6 October 1968 and A4 @-@ 233 was destroyed when it crashed at Kudjeru Gap on 28 August 1972 . The last of these crashes caused the deaths of 25 aircrew and passengers , making it the RAAF 's worst peacetime disaster ; 21 of the people killed were high school students returning from an army cadet camp . Following the end of its permanent presence at Port Moresby , No. 38 Squadron continued to fly periodic training sorties in Papua New Guinea . During the 1980s , detachments of No. 38 Squadron were established at RAAF Base Darwin and RAAF Base Pearce near Perth to provide these regions with a search @-@ and @-@ rescue capability and to exercise with Army units . The Pearce detachment was nicknamed " Blackduck Airlines " .
No. 38 Squadron moved from Richmond to RAAF Base Amberley , west of Brisbane , in October 1992 . At this time the squadron continued to be responsible for all Caribou conversion training , as well as conducting tactical transport operations . The permanent detachment of No. 38 Squadron aircraft to RAAF Base Pearce ceased in 1999 , and Detachment B of the squadron was established at RAAF Base Townsville in North Queensland during 2000 . From 1999 until early 2001 , elements of No. 38 Squadron , designated No. 86 Wing Detachment C , were stationed in East Timor and supported the international peacekeeping force which had been deployed there to end the violence that had broken out following a successful referendum on independence conducted in August 1999 . At its peak strength , four Caribous were assigned to the detachment . The air and ground crew deployed to East Timor endured difficult living conditions until their accommodation and recreation facilities were upgraded in mid @-@ 2000 , and the pilots were regularly required to fly into poorly maintained air strips . Despite the age of the Caribous and shortages of spare parts , Detachment C 's ground crew managed to maintain a high aircraft serviceability rate . In 2000 No. 35 Squadron was deactivated , leaving No. 38 Squadron the RAAF 's sole Caribou operator . By September 2002 , No. 38 Squadron was equipped with 14 Caribous . In July 2003 , two aircraft were deployed to the Solomon Islands as part of the Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands peacekeeping force . Both Caribous were based at Honiara International Airport , and a detachment remained in the country until July 2004 . All of No. 38 Squadron moved to RAAF Base Townsville during 2008 .
By the late 2000s the Caribous were becoming difficult to maintain , and were no longer capable of operating in war zones as they lacked electronic warfare systems and other forms of self @-@ protection . As a result , it was decided in late 2008 to retire the aircraft and replace them with Beechcraft King Air 350s on an interim basis until another tactical transport entered service . The Caribous were gradually retired from May 2009 , the last leaving service on 27 November that year when A4 @-@ 140 was flown to Canberra and handed over to the Australian War Memorial for preservation . By the time the aircraft were retired , No. 38 Squadron had been operating Caribous for 45 years . Three King Air 350s were transferred to No. 38 Squadron from the Army 's 173rd Surveillance Squadron on 20 November 2009 , and deliveries of a further five newly built aircraft were completed in July 2010 . In March 2015 two No. 38 Squadron King Airs were deployed to Vanuatu as part of Australia 's aid effort following Cyclone Pam . The aircraft were used to conduct flights over the affected areas to assess the extent of the damage , and also evacuated Australian and New Zealand citizens . In February 2016 it was reported that the RAAF was considering consolidating its two squadrons equipped with King Airs into a single squadron located at RAAF Base East Sale .
= = Current role = =
No. 38 Squadron is currently responsible for providing conversion training on the King Air and conducting light transport operations . The unit has a strength of 60 RAAF personnel as well as 25 aircraft maintenance contractors from Hawker Pacific . It is organised into two flights ; A Flight undertakes transport operations , and B Flight is responsible for delivering training courses . Along with Nos. 33 and 36 Squadrons , No. 38 Squadron forms part of No. 86 Wing .
The RAAF has been pleased with the King Air 's performance in the light transport role , though the aircraft cannot be deployed into combat areas . No. 38 Squadron often operates with the Army 's Townsville @-@ based 3rd Brigade , as well as the 51st Battalion , Far North Queensland Regiment , which conducts operational patrols across Far North Queensland during peacetime . The unit is also frequently tasked with transporting senior politicians and other VIPs . The King Airs often operate in Papua New Guinea , as well as other parts of the Asia @-@ Pacific region . The Australian Government ordered 10 Alenia C @-@ 27J Spartan battlefield transports in May 2012 , and these aircraft will be operated by No. 35 Squadron from 2015 . No. 38 Squadron marked its 70th anniversary in 2013 , and has the longest period of continual operation of any of the RAAF 's flying squadrons .
|
= Katy Hudson ( album ) =
Katy Hudson is the eponymous debut studio album by American singer Katy Hudson , who subsequently adopted the stage name Katy Perry . It was released on February 8 , 2001 by Red Hill Records . It primarily incorporates Christian rock and contemporary Christian music elements with lyrical themes of childhood , adolescence and Hudson 's faith in God . Reviews of the album were mixed and it sold fewer than 200 copies . Later , due to Hudson 's increased popularity , demand for the album increased as well .
= = Composition = =
Katy Hudson saw Hudson exploring Christian rock and contemporary Christian music ( CCM ) . Amongst what was described as an alternative direction were prominent influences of pop rock . During an interview for her official website at the time , Hudson cited artists Jonatha Brooke , Jennifer Knapp , Diana Krall , and Fiona Apple as her musical influences . " Trust in Me " , " Naturally " , and " My Own Monster " were said to capture " loneliness , fear and doubt often ascribed to teens " .
The first features " haunting " strings with " electronica effects " and " solid rock roots " . An aggressive track , " Piercing " depicts the infatuation people have with expendable things . In " Piercing " , Hudson sings : " Lord , help me see the reality / That all I 'll ever need is You " . " Last Call " was written by Hudson while reading the book Last Call for Help : Changing North America One Teen at a Time , written by Dawson McAllister . Musically , it sees Hudson going into a more jazz @-@ oriented sound . Hudson described " Growing Pains " as an anthem for children and adolescents , explaining that society shares a misconstructed image of them , often viewing them as individuals that do not believe in or do not know much about God . Written by Hudson when she was in eighth grade , the song " Spit " addresses the hypocrisy she faced in Christian school .
" Faith Won 't Fail " was inspired by faith always sufficing in Bible situations and chapters ; and Hudson commented on " Search Me " : " I was struggling with the fact that I would have the huge responsibility of how others would be affected through what I was doing or saying on stage . I don 't want to put on some kind of front that everything is good when it 's not . I wanted to keep it real , but still give people hope . " The record closes with " When There 's Nothing Left " , which has been described as a " crisp and clean ' love note ' to God " . The album was described as not being in the vein of the bubble gum pop variety rather evoking comparisons to the Christian pop songstresses Rachel Lampa and Jaci Velasquez .
= = Promotional tour = =
To promote the album Hudson went on a tour , opening for Phil Joel , Earthsuit , and V * Enna and later a 46 @-@ state solo tour .
= = Reception = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic awarded Katy Hudson three stars out of five , stating that with the album , Hudson had " betray [ ed ] a heavy , heavy debt to Alanis Morissette " . Erlewine also interpreted some of the songs ' lyrics as having sexual overtones , and identifying those as " the most interesting things " in the album , describing the record 's overall sound as " the kind of assaultive , over @-@ produced Wall of Sound that some CCM rockers do in order to prove they 're contemporary " .
Christianity Today writer Russ Breimeier was positive about Katy Hudson , highlighting Hudson 's songwriting style for being " insightful and well matched to the emotional power " of Hudson 's music . He further deemed Hudson a " young talent " and expected to hear more from her in the next year . Similarly , Tony Cummings from Cross Rhythms also considered Hudson to be a " vocal talent " , recommending readers to listen to the album . The Phantom Tollbooth 's Andy Argyrakis stated that Hudson having been reared in church had " paid off " , and noted that " Although a mere pop lightweight , it 's hard to ignore Hudson 's sincerity and lyrical maturity . " DEP from Billboard , also calling Hudson a talent , classified the record as " textured modern @-@ rock collection that is equal parts grit and vulnerability " and " impressive " . The album was a commercial failure for Red Hill Records , selling between 100 and 200 copies .
= = Musical change = =
Some time after the album 's release , the label Red Hill Records went bankrupt . Katy Hudson is the only Christian music @-@ influenced album by Hudson , who subsequently adopted Katy Perry as a stage name . After her popularity increased , copies of Katy Hudson have become a sought @-@ after item amongst her fans .
= = Track listing = =
Credits extracted from Katy Hudson liner notes .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Adapted from Katy Hudson liner notes .
|
= Action of 21 October 1794 =
The Action of 21 October 1794 was a minor naval engagement between Great Britain and France fought off the Breton coast of France during the second year of the French Revolutionary Wars . French frigates had been raiding British Atlantic trade routes with considerable success since the outbreak of the war , and in response the Admiralty had formed a frigate squadron to patrol the French Channel and Atlantic coasts in search of French raiders . On 13 October 1794 , the large , modern and powerful 40 @-@ gun French frigate Révolutionnaire under the command of Captain Antoine René Thévenard sailed from Le Havre for a raiding cruise against British trade routes in the Atlantic . Eight days later , while rounding the Breton headland of Ushant about 25 – 30 nautical miles ( 56 km ) miles out to sea , Révolutionnaire encountered the British frigate squadron , commanded by Commodore Sir Edward Pellew , which had secured a number of victories over French raiding frigates during the previous two years .
Pellew ordered his ships to give chase , as Thévenard fled towards the French coast before the British numerical supremacy . One British ship was faster than the others , the 38 @-@ gun HMS Artois under Captain Edmund Nagle cutting Révolutionnaire off from the shore and bringing the larger French ship to action . For 45 minutes Artois battled Révolutionnaire until support arrived , at which point the French frigate 's crew surrendered their ship in defiance of their captain 's orders . Casualties and damage were light on both sides , and Révolutionnaire was rapidly commissioned into the Royal Navy , joining the squadron that had captured her and subsequently capturing the French frigate Unité at the Action of 13 April 1796 .
= = Background = =
Following the French Republic 's declaration of war on Great Britain in February 1793 , the French Navy immediately launched squadrons , individual cruisers and privateers against British trade routes in the Eastern Atlantic . The French Atlantic fleet , based at the fortified port of Brest in Brittany , was in a state of political turmoil during the early years of the war , suffering a mutiny in August 1793 , and then defeat at the battle of Glorious First of June in 1794 . In spite of these difficulties , the independent raiders caused considerable damage to British commerce , and in response the Admiralty ordered a squadron of frigates from the Channel Fleet to cruise the French coastline in search of these raiders . This force , known as the flying squadron and initially commanded by Sir John Borlase Warren , achieved a number of successes in the first year of the war , most notably in the Action of 23 April 1794 , when a French frigate squadron was destroyed .
By the autumn of 1794 , the squadron was under the command of Commodore Sir Edward Pellew in the frigate HMS Arethusa , accompanied by HMS Artois under Captain Edmund Nagle , HMS Diamond under Captain Sir Sidney Smith and HMS Galatea under Captain Richard Goodwin Keats . All four ships had specially selected crews and equipment and the squadron formed the elite force of the Channel Fleet 's light warships . Pellew led his squadron out of Cawsand Bay on 19 October with the intention of cruising off the entrance to Brest and intercepting shipping entering or leaving the port . The French fleet , its principal squadrons blockaded in Brest , continued to send raiders to sea . One such ship , was the large newly commissioned 40 @-@ gun frigate Révolutionnaire under Captain Antoine René Thévenard with a hastily assembled and disaffected crew and a main battery of 18 – pounder cannon , which departed from the Channel port of Le Havre on 13 October , sailing westwards towards the Atlantic .
= = Battle = =
On 21 October , eight days after leaving Le Havre , and between 25 – 30 nautical miles ( 56 km ) off the island of Ushant at the tip of the Breton Peninsula , Révolutionnaire was discovered at dawn by Pellew 's squadron . Pellew immediately ordered his ships to give chase while Thévenard turned away in an effort to reach the shoreline before the larger British squadron could overwhelm his ship . Pellew 's squadron was however to windward of the French ship , thus cutting it off from the relative safety of the shore and instead Révolutionnaire swung southeast in an effort to outdistance the British squadron and pull ahead of Pellew 's ships in the hazy weather .
One British frigate , Nagle 's Artois , was however faster than the others . Artois was a strong modern frigate with a main battery of 9 – pounder cannon and 32 – pounder carronades on the quarterdeck , and Nagle was able to bring his frigate alongside the slightly larger French vessel . For forty minutes the two frigates traded broadsides , Nagle 's fire damaging the French ship 's rigging and slowing Révolutionnaire enough that the rest of Pellew 's squadron could come up . Captain Smith 's Diamond was the first to reach the combat , Smith ranging his ship up below Thévenard 's stern and firing two warning shots to indicate that unless the French ship surrendered he would fire a devastating raking broadside into the French ship 's stern . Arethusa and Galatea were close behind Diamond , and although Thévenard wished to continue the engagement , his men refused and the French captain was forced to surrender . At the point Révolutionnaire surrendered , breakers from the waves striking the Saints Rocks could be seen dead ahead .
= = = Combatant summary = = =
In this table , " Guns " refers to all cannon carried by the ship , including the maindeck guns which were taken into consideration when calculating it 's rate , as well as any carronades carried aboard . Broadside weight records the combined weight of shot which could be fired in a single simultaneous discharge of an entire broadside .
= = Aftermath = =
Casualties were light on both sides ; Révolutionnaire lost five men killed and four wounded , including Thévenard who had suffered minor wounds , while Artois was the only British ship engaged , losing two sailors and a lieutenant of Royal Marines killed and five men wounded . Pellew 's squadron brought Révolutionnaire back to Falmouth immediately , having discovered an outbreak of small pox among the prisoners of war taken from the French frigate . Subsequently , the light damage the ship had suffered enabled the Royal Navy to rapidly purchase and commission the frigate as the 38 @-@ gun HMS Révolutionnaire under the command of Captain Francis Cole and attach the ship to Pellew 's squadron . Eighteen months later , Révolutionnaire fought and captured the French frigate Unité at the Action of 12 April 1796 , and remained in the Royal Navy throughout the following 21 years of warfare . The arrival of Révolutionnaire in Britain caused a stir among naval architects as the frigate was significantly larger than those produced in Britain at the time . The ship was extensively planned and modelled and a ship was commissioned for the Royal Navy to the design of Révolutionnaire , although severe delays at the shipyards meant that HMS Forte , as the ship was eventually named , was not launched until 1814 .
In reward for his action against Révolutionnaire , Nagle was made a Knight Bachelor , and first Lieutenant Robert Dudley Oliver was promoted to commander . Pellew , in his report on the action , stated that " the cripped state of the Enemy allows me the Opportunity of saying , that her Resiliance could have been of no Avail , had the Artois been alone " , but historian William James was more reserved , noting in 1827 that the ships " would have been a well matched pair of combatants , had the Artois been alone . " The prize money was extensive : part payment of £ 10 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @,@ 036 @,@ 111 as of 2016 ) was made in January 1795 , the reward shared between the entire squadron . Pellew , who had been knighted the previous year following the Action of 18 June 1793 , was reported to be unhappy that Nagle had been honoured for his part in this action and complained to the Admiralty about the condition and speed of Arethusa , requesting a faster vessel . The following year he would receive command of the 44 @-@ gun razee HMS Indefatigable as a result .
|
= U.S. Route 23 in Michigan =
US Highway 23 ( US 23 ) is a United States Numbered Highway that runs from Jacksonville , Florida , to Mackinaw City , Michigan . In the US state of Michigan , it is a major , 362 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 583 km ) , north – south state trunkline highway that runs through the Lower Peninsula ( LP ) . The trunkline is a freeway from the Michigan – Ohio state line near Lambertville to the city of Standish , and it follows the Lake Huron shoreline from there to its northern terminus . Serving the cities of Ann Arbor and Flint , US 23 acts as a freeway bypass of the Metro Detroit area . Overall , the highway runs through rural areas of the state dominated by farm fields or woodlands ; some segments are urban in character in the Ann Arbor , Flint and Tri @-@ Cities areas . The section from Flint north to Standish also carries Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) along a concurrency that includes a segment that carries almost 70 @,@ 000 vehicles on a daily basis .
The first transportation routes along what is now US 23 in the state were sections of two Indian trails . The route of what is now US 23 follows portions of two separate trails . In the early 20th century , four different auto trail names were applied to roads now a part of the highway . These roads were included as part of two state highways in the initial state highway system in 1919 . When the United States Numbered Highway System was first designated on November 11 , 1926 , the new US 23 replaced the other designations along its route . Since creation , the road has been moved and realigned several times . Through the 1930s and 1940s , the lakeshore routing was created to replace a path that ran further inland through the northern portion of the state . Starting in the early 1950s , various sections in the southeastern and central areas of the LP were upgraded to freeways , bypassing several major cities in the area . These improvements were completed by the end of the 1960s . Since then a new crossing of the Saginaw River at Zilwaukee was built to replace a drawbridge that carried the I @-@ 75 / US 23 freeway over a shipping channel .
Various memorial or tourist route designations have been applied to US 23 in the state since the 1980s . The highway has been a part of the Lake Huron Circle Tour since the creation of the Great Lakes Circle Tours in 1986 . The non @-@ freeway section was designated the Sunrise Side Coastal Highway by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) in 2004 as a part of what is now the Pure Michigan Byway Program . Since 2009 , it has been called the Huron Shores Heritage Route . The highway has also carried two memorial designations related to war veterans and a third related to local civic leaders since a 2001 consolidation of related legislation in the state . MDOT has listed two of the highway 's bridges on its historic bridge list , one of which is also on the National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) . Future improvements to the route of US 23 include a proposed northerly extension of the freeway from Standish to one of several locations along the Lake Huron shoreline . Another freeway has been proposed in the Flint area that could connect US 23 directly to the south end of I @-@ 475 .
= = Route description = =
US 23 runs for 362 @.@ 152 miles ( 582 @.@ 827 km ) through the LP of Michigan , serving as a freeway bypass to the west of Metro Detroit and a scenic highway through the northern portion of the state along Lake Huron . Between Flint and Standish , US 23 runs concurrently with I @-@ 75 ; the combined freeway section from Flint to Bay City can contain between six and eight lanes total while the rest of the US 23 freeway is mostly four lanes . Non @-@ freeway segments of US 23 in the state are two lanes . Like other state trunkline highways , it is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . All of US 23 in the state south of the M @-@ 32 junction in Alpena has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . From the Standish area north , the highway is also a part of the Lake Huron Circle Tour and the Huron Shores Heritage Route , a Pure Michigan Byway .
= = = Southeastern Michigan = = =
US 23 enters Michigan on a freeway northwest of Toledo , Ohio , concurrent with US 223 . This freeway runs north through farm fields in rural western Monroe County near Lambertville . About five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) north of the state line , US 223 leaves the freeway and turns west onto St. Anthony Road ; US 23 continues northward on the freeway . South of Dundee , US 23 crosses the River Raisin before coming to an interchange with M @-@ 50 next to the Cabela 's store west of town . North of town , the freeway passes near an industrial area . Farther north , it crosses a line of the Ann Arbor Railroad near Azalia as the trunkline runs to the east of Milan at the Monroe @-@ Washtenaw county line . North of Milan , the freeway crosses a line of the Norfolk Southern Railway .
The landscape takes on a more suburban residential character as the freeway approaches the Ann Arbor area . There are separate interchanges for US 12 ( Michigan Avenue ) and I @-@ 94 on the southeast side of the city . Between I @-@ 94 and Washtenaw Avenue , US 23 carries the Business Loop I @-@ 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) moniker as well . That secondary designation leaves the freeway and runs west on Washtenaw Avenue into downtown Ann Arbor and the campus of the University of Michigan . At the same interchange , a Business US 23 ( Bus . US 23 ) designation also follows Washtenaw Avenue to the west ; east of US 23 , M @-@ 17 follows Washtenaw Avenue and connects the freeway with Ypsilanti . North of this interchange , US 23 crosses the Huron River near the campus of the local community college and continues north to a junction with the M @-@ 14 freeway . The two merge and run westward along the north side of the city before US 23 turns north and M @-@ 14 curves south .
North of Ann Arbor , the freeway runs through woodlands and near several lakes . In the community of Whitmore Lake , US 23 crosses into Livingston County near the city 's namesake body of water . East of Brighton , the freeway intersects I @-@ 96 and continues north to an intersection with M @-@ 59 south of Hartland . The highway turns northeasterly by Runyon Lake and runs toward the city of Fenton . The trunkline passes through town and bends back toward the northwest , running between lakes Ponemah and Fenton . Continuing north , the environment around US 23 transitions to rural farm fields as the freeway approaches the south side of the Flint area .
= = = Flint and the Tri @-@ Cities area = = =
West of Grand Blanc , US 23 meets I @-@ 75 , and the two freeways merge near the Bishop International Airport and continue along the west side of the Flint metro area . I @-@ 75 / US 23 has an interchange with I @-@ 69 near the crossing with the Canadian National Railway line . Continuing northwards through suburban residential areas , the highway crosses the Flint River while running along the west side of the city . In Mount Morris Township , the freeway intersects the northern end of I @-@ 475 before meeting M @-@ 57 near Clio . The highest traffic totals along US 23 in the state of Michigan were recorded by MDOT near the M @-@ 57 interchange ; in 2009 an average 68 @,@ 800 vehicles used that section of freeway daily . These traffic counts are expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway .
Near Birch Run , the highway turns northwesterly next to a large outlet mall . Between here and the Saginaw area , the freeway runs through more wooded lands , crossing the Cass River near Bridgeport . I @-@ 75 / US 23 enters the Tri @-@ Cities ( named for Saginaw , Bay City and Midland ) when it bypasses Saginaw to the east . The freeway intersects M @-@ 46 in Buena Vista Township south of the junction with I @-@ 675 . North of downtown Saginaw , the freeway crosses the Saginaw River on the Zilwaukee Bridge , a " post @-@ tensioned , segmental , [ concrete ] box girder bridge " that is " infamous " for a series of " construction mishaps , cost overruns , and government foibles . "
Past the bridge , I @-@ 75 / US 23 meets the northern end of I @-@ 675 and continues through fields and woods to the Bay City area . At exit 162 , the freeway meets the eastern terminus of US 10 and the western terminus of M @-@ 25 west of downtown . The next interchange north is with the Connector M @-@ 13 ( CONN M @-@ 13 ) freeway , which was the previous northern end of US 23 's freeway in Michigan . The connector runs due northward , and I @-@ 75 / US 23 turns northwesterly to bypass around Kawkawlin . The highway veers north , crosses the Kawkawlin River and the Pinconning Creek before coming to an interchange southwest of Standish . There , US 23 curves east , separating from I @-@ 75 . US 23 continues for about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) as a freeway which ends at the intersection with M @-@ 13 south of Standish . The lowest AADT along any freeway section of US 23 in Michigan is the section immediately east of I @-@ 75 ; here the traffic levels drop from 20 @,@ 763 to 4 @,@ 466 vehicles per day after US 23 separates from I @-@ 75 .
= = = Northern Michigan = = =
US 23 runs north from the end of its freeway along Huron Road through the community of Standish . The trunkline turns northeasterly through lakeshore woodlands after the intersection with Old M @-@ 76 . Northeast of this intersection , the highest , non @-@ freeway AADT level on US 23 was recorded by MDOT at 16 @,@ 757 vehicles daily . Running through Omer , the highway crosses the Rifle River and a line of the Lake State Railway . In between the two crossings , it curves due east on its way out of town . At Hale Road , US 23 meets the southern end of M @-@ 65 before it continues east to Au Gres , where it runs along the Saginaw Bay and crosses the Au Gres River . Huron Road meanders northward along the lakeshore , staying inland near Point Lookout . US 23 runs through woods as it follows the Saginaw Bays shoreline northeasterly through Alabaster to Tawas City . The highway intersects the eastern terminus of M @-@ 55 , runs north and east around Tawas Bay to East Tawas and follows the Lake Huron shoreline to Oscoda . Through this area , US 23 runs parallel to the Lake State Railway and crosses into the Huron National Forest .
Oscoda is the location of the eastern termini of both the River Road National Scenic Byway and County Road F @-@ 41 . In between those two junctions , the highway crosses the Au Sable River near its mouth , and the trunkline passes by the former Wurtsmith Air Force Base . Huron Road continues north , running next to Van Etten Lake as it leaves the national forest . Further north , it runs along Cedar Lake when it crosses into Alcona County . The highway meets the eastern termini of F @-@ 30 and M @-@ 72 in Greenbush and Harrisville respectively . It also passes Harrisville State Park in the latter community . The highway shifts a bit further inland north of Harrisville , continuing to parallel the railroad through the Mackinaw State Forest . Near Ossineke , the trunkline turns back toward the lake , running along the shoreline of Thunder Bay .
When US 23 enters Alpena , it follows State Street through town and turns northwesterly on Chisholm Street . The intersection of Chisholm and Washington streets marks the eastern terminus of M @-@ 32 . Chisholm Street runs along the Thunder Bay River and crosses the river near Lake Besser . The highway leaves town and runs through rural woodlands to the south shore of Long Lake , curving around the eastern side of the lake . Near the northern end of the lake , US 23 crosses into Presque Isle County and runs along the west shore of Grand Lake . At the north end of that lake , the highway turns west along the Lake Huron shoreline near Thompson 's Harbor State Park . The trunkline continues to Rogers City where it bypasses town to the south and west , intersecting F @-@ 21 and M @-@ 68 in the process ; Bus . US 23 runs through downtown . On the other side of Rogers City , US 23 runs along the lake past Hoeft State Park and along Hammond Bay before crossing into Cheboygan County . This area had the lowest AADT levels in 2009 at 1 @,@ 097 vehicles per day .
US 23 follows the Lake Huron shoreline through Cheboygan County through woodlands past Cheboygan State Park and Duncan Bay . On the eastern edge of Cheboygan the highway intersects F @-@ 05 before following State Street through a commercial district . State Street crosses the Cheboygan River on the Cheboygan Bascule Bridge near the mouth of the river and the dock for the USCGC Mackinaw . On the west side of the river , US 23 meets the northern terminus of M @-@ 27 at the intersection with Main Street . State Street continues westerly as C @-@ 66 as US 23 turns north on Main Street for a block before resuming west on Mackinaw Avenue . The highway continues along the lake toward Mackinaw City . As it approaches the village , it passes Historic Mill Creek State Park and several motels . At Nicolet Street in town , the highway crosses into Emmet County for the short distance to the highway 's national northern terminus at I @-@ 75 's exit 338 .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Before Michigan became a state , the first land transportation corridors were the Indian trails . The original Shore Trail ran roughly parallel to the route of the modern US 23 from the Bay City area to Cheboygan . Another section of the current highway followed the Saginaw Trail between Flint and Saginaw .
Later , during the auto trail era , the modern US 23 also coincided with the east branch of the Dixie Highway and part of the Lower Peninsula section of the Theodore Roosevelt International Highway . The Dixie Highway was created by William S. Gilbreath after he developed the Lincoln Highway . The highway was designed to link the Great Lakes with the Gulf of Mexico , and to commemorate a half century of peace between the North and the South after the American Civil War . At the urging of Governor Woodbridge Ferris , the northern terminus was located at the Straits of Mackinac . The highway had two branches in the Lower Peninsula ; the eastern branch followed what later became US 23 north of Standish . The Theodore Roosevelt International Highway was named for former US president Theodore Roosevelt after his death in 1919 . Overall , this highway ran from Portland , Oregon , to Portland , Maine , by way of Michigan and the Canadian province of Ontario . In Michigan , it also followed US 23 north of Standish .
The highway was also part of the East Michigan Pike , designed to be a counterpart of the West Michigan Pike on the other side of the LP . The original route of the East Michigan Pike included a section along the coast of The Thumb between Bay City and Port Huron and used the same route as the Dixie Highway north of Bay City . Backers of this auto trail lost out in terms of name recognition to the Dixie Highway , relegating the East Michigan Pike to the list of failed auto trails . The southern part of what is now US 23 in the state was also part of the auto trail craze . The Top of Michigan Trail was designated in 1917 from the state line north to the Bay City area , before turning inland along other roadways . The name faded from shortly after the time the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) assigned the first highway numbers in the state .
The first state highways along the US 23 corridor were numbered M @-@ 65 from the Ohio line north to the Flint area and M @-@ 10 from Flint north to Mackinaw City by July 1 , 1919 . When originally designated , M @-@ 65 was in two sections : the southern segment ran from the Ohio state line north to the Dundee area ; the northern section ran between Ann Arbor and Flint by way of Brighton and Fenton . The gap between the two segments was eliminated by the middle of 1926 .
= = = United States Numbered Highways = = =
US 23 was commissioned on November 11 , 1926 , with the debut of the United States Numbered Highway System . The MSHD removed the M @-@ 10 and M @-@ 65 designations from the highway at the time . As it was originally designated , US 23 crossed into Michigan from Ohio south of Temperance and ran north to Ypsilanti via Ida and Maybee . Once the highway entered Ann Arbor , it followed the roads that preceded the modern freeway up to Flint . From Flint to Saginaw , US 23 ran concurrently with US 10 . On the way north to Bay City , the highway ran on the west side of the Saginaw River before turning north to the Standish area . From Standish to Mackinaw City , US 23 initially took a more inland route through the northeastern LP .
Starting in 1929 , MSHD started updating the route that US 23 followed through the Lower Peninsula . Late that year , the routing was moved to the east side of the Saginaw River , and M @-@ 47 was extended along the former course on the west side of the river . During 1930 , a set of changes realigned the highway 's route through the southeast corner of the state . Near Ida , US 23 was rerouted along M @-@ 50 to Dundee and north through Milan to Ann Arbor , bypassing Maybee and Whittaker . US 23 was moved from its inland routing between Omer and Tawas City via Whittemore to follow a shoreline alignment by way of Au Gres along Saginaw Bay around 1932 ; the former route through Twining and Whittemore became an extension of M @-@ 65 and the section from Whittemore east to Tawas City was added to M @-@ 55 as a part of these changes .
In 1932 , US 23 was moved closer to the lakeshore between Spruce and Alpena ; the former routing was redesignated M @-@ 171 . The highway was also moved to a route closer to the lakeshore between Tawas City and Oscoda , with part of the old inland route taking the designation Old US 23 . A few years later in 1936 , US 23 replaced M @-@ 72 between Oscoda and Harrisville and followed a new roadway north to the Spruce area . The M @-@ 171 designation was removed from its original routing and applied to the 1932 routing of US 23 by way of Mikado and Lincoln . In the middle of 1937 , US 27 was extended concurrently along US 23 between Cheboygan and Mackinaw City . Around the end of the decade , US 23 's routing was moved in another location to follow the lakeshore ; this time the highway was rerouted between Alpena and Rogers City . M @-@ 65 was extended northwards from Lachine through Posen to terminate over the former US 23 routing .
US 23 was moved to its current lakeshore routing between Rogers City and Cheboygan in 1940 , and M @-@ 33 was extended westerly from Onaway to Afton and north to Cheboygan over the former US 23 roadway while M @-@ 68 was extended eastward through Onaway to Rogers City . In early 1941 , a bridge across the Saginaw River connecting Salzburg and Lafayette avenues in Bay City was added to the route of US 23 in the city ; at the same time the former routing was redesignated Bus . US 23 . The highway was also realigned between Hartland and Fenton in 1941 . By 1945 , the northernmost segment of M @-@ 65 in downtown Rogers City was redesignated Bus . US 23 , and M @-@ 65 was truncated to its junction with US 23 southeast of town , removing the concurrency that existed since 1940 . North of Dundee , a more direct alignment to Azalia was added to US 23 , turning the former routing back to local control in late 1947 or early 1948 ; at the same time , the last gravel section of the highway was paved near Hammond Bay in northwestern Presque Isle County .
= = = Freeway conversion = = =
One of the first pieces of what would later become part of US 23 's freeway route was completed in late 1951 or early 1952 , when a two @-@ lane bypass was built around the eastern side of Milan . Two years later , a similar bypass was built from Bridgeport to M @-@ 81 on the east side of Saginaw , with the old route becoming a Bus . US 23 designation . Both bypasses would later be upgraded to four @-@ lane freeways by 1961 , with the Saginaw one later incorporated into the route of I @-@ 75 . When the Mackinac Bridge opened on November 1 , 1957 , US 23 , US 27 and US 31 were extended along the access roadways to the foot of the bridge .
The first future freeway portion of US 23 was built in 1957 from north of Ann Arbor to Whitmore Lake as a divided highway . On June 30 , 1958 , the first stretch of the " Fenton – Clio Expressway " opened , stretching from Fenton to Birch Run . The freeway connection from Dundee south to Ohio was opened on October 1 , 1959 . In late 1959 , the portion from Flint to Birch Run also gained the I @-@ 75 designation .
In late 1960 or early 1961 , a new I @-@ 75 / US 23 / US 10 freeway was built from the north end of the Saginaw bypass to Kawkawlin , utilizing the Zilwaukee drawbridge ( later replaced by the Zilwaukee Bridge ) over the Saginaw River ; when it opened , MSHD extended M @-@ 13 along the former route of US 23 from the northside of Saginaw into Bay City to the end of the freeway at Kawkawlin . Another section connected the Whitmore Lake area with Brighton in the same timeframe . General Motors was bidding in 1961 to construct an electronic highway . US 23 between Ann Arbor and Toledo was under consideration to be the location of this project ; the testing for such a roadway was ultimately done at Ohio State University instead . By the end of the year , freeway sections opened to bypass Saginaw south and ran south to Birch Run , another connected south from Fenton to Hartland , and a third connected Milan with Dundee . The remaining gaps were eliminated with additional freeway openings in 1962 : Brighton to Hartland opened in September , and Milan to Ann Arbor opened in November . The I @-@ 75 / US 23 freeway north of the Kawkawlin area to Standish opened in 1967 , and M @-@ 13 was shown on maps following US 23 's former route through Linwood and Pinconning after the change .
The MSHD requested additional Interstate Highway mileage in 1968 under the Federal @-@ Aid Highway Act of 1968 including a freeway along US 23 between Standish and Mackinaw City . This extension was rejected by Congress on December 13 , 1968 ; instead , Michigan was allotted additional mileage for an extension of I @-@ 69 to Flint . Once the last piece of I @-@ 75 was completed along the M @-@ 76 corridor in November 1973 , the I @-@ 75 designation was extended north of Bay City on US 23 .
The MSHD first proposed a realignment of US 223 in 1965 ; this change would reroute that highway to replace M @-@ 151 in southern Monroe County , and use the US 23 freeway to connect to Sylvania , Ohio . The rerouting change was made in 1977 when Michigan shifted its segment of US 223 as proposed twelve years prior . Instead of running south through Ottawa Lake , US 223 continued east to the US 23 freeway and south into Ohio .
The original bridge across the Saginaw River at Zilwaukee was built in 1960 as a bascule bridge to allow shipping traffic to use the river . Opening the drawbridge would back traffic up on I @-@ 75 / US 10 / US 23 for upwards of four hours on holiday weekends . Approved in 1974 , construction on the replacement bridge started in October 1979 . A major construction accident in August 1982 delayed completion of the new Zilwaukee Bridge ; a bridge pier partially collapsed when contractors overloaded a section under construction . The affected 300 @-@ foot ( 91 m ) deck segment tilted to rest three feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) higher on one end and five feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) lower on the other . The structure was originally supposed to cost $ 76 @.@ 8 million with a 1983 completion date ; in the end it cost $ 131 @.@ 3 million ( equivalent to $ 342 million in 2015 ) when the southbound span finally opened on September 19 , 1988 . The structure is the largest segmental concrete bridge in the country .
While that construction was being done , MDOT truncated US 10 at Bay City in 1986 ; this removed the concurrency between US 10 and US 23 that existed since 1926 . A few years later in 1992 , the freeway concept for the northeastern LP was revived again when MDOT initiated plans to study and build a new US 23 freeway from Standish northerly to Tawas City , Oscoda or Alpena . This proposal was brought up due to a high level of tourist traffic along the current routing since the mid @-@ 1960s . The FHWA mandated additional environmental studies for the project in 2000 , and MDOT withdrew the proposals two years later .
In 2015 , work began to reconfigure the interchange with I @-@ 96 near Brighton . The new configuration will add express lanes for I @-@ 96 in the previous median of that freeway while the existing carriageways will be converted into collector @-@ distributor lanes . Work on the project is expected to continue into 2016 .
= = Future = =
Officials in the Flint area have proposed extending a freeway to directly connect I @-@ 475 to US 23 . Such an extension , if built , would " include a new freeway coming out of I @-@ 475 , which would snake across Fenton and Cook roads before connecting into US 23 at Baldwin Road " . Proposals for the freeway connection have been around since the late 1990s , but they were indefinitely postponed in 2011 .
= = Memorial highway designations and tourist routes = =
Most of US 23 , along with US 2 in the Upper Peninsula , has been designated the United Spanish War Veterans Memorial Highway . The designation was conferred in Public Act 207 of 1945 , with companion legislation for US 2 in 1949 . Signs marking the highway were not erected until 1968 when Governor George W. Romney had them installed .
North of Standish , US 23 is a part of the Lake Huron Circle Tour ( LHCT ) . This tour was created in May 1986 as part of the overall Great Lakes Circle Tour through a joint effort between MDOT and its counterparts in Wisconsin , Minnesota and Ontario .
When the Michigan State Legislature consolidated the statutes defining the various memorial highways in 2001 , they included the Veterans of World War I Memorial Highway in the law . Defined along I @-@ 75 / US 23 between Saginaw and Bay City , the designation was included in Public Act 142 . That act also affected another previously designated moniker between the two cities . The Roberts @-@ Linton Highway was named in 1931 for local leaders who championed the construction of a highway along the Saginaw River . This name was applied to the original highway routing between Saginaw and Bay City ( now a part of M @-@ 13 ) . After the 2001 change , the name was moved to the US 23 freeway .
In May 2004 , the highway north of Standish was named the Sunrise Side Coastal Highway , a scenic highway designation through what is now called the Pure Michigan Byway Program . Since 2009 , they local committee that manages the byway designation has started using the Huron Shores Heritage Route name for the corridor . At the end of 2011 , the Northeast Michigan Council of Governments ( NEMCOG ) was working on funding a tourist promotion called " Telling Stories of the Sunrise Coast " through the US 23 Heritage Route Interpretive Program . Past efforts by NEMCOG included print media , logos , and other marketing efforts .
= = Historic bridges = =
MDOT maintains a listing of the historic bridges in the state ; along US 23 , the department has listed two structures . The bridge over the Ocqueoc River in Ocqueoc Township in Presque Isle County was built in 1937 . The 106 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 32 m ) structure is one of the last three deck truss bridges in the state . The roadway on the bridge is 38 feet ( 11 @.@ 6 m ) wide and carries two lanes of traffic . The bridge was reconstructed in 1994 .
The second bridge is the Cheboygan Bascule Bridge in Cheboygan . This bascule bridge was built in 1940 over the Cheboygan River as the last of its kind before World War II . It was built as a " two @-@ leaf bridge in a place where a single @-@ leaf bridge probably would have sufficed . " The initial construction of the structure was delayed when the contractor died , but it was completed in December 1940 . It was the second moveable bridge on the site , replacing an iron swing bridge built in 1877 . The structure is 155 feet ( 47 m ) long , composed of two 42 @-@ foot ( 13 m ) spans on either side of the central 70 @-@ foot ( 21 m ) span ; the roadway is 40 feet ( 12 m ) wide with four lanes for vehicle traffic . There are also pedestrian sidewalks on either side of the roadway . When the bridge is opened to allow river traffic to pass , boats have a 60 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 18 m ) channel for navigation . The bridge was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 1 , 2000 , and reconstructed in 2003 .
= = Exit list = =
|
= HMS Temeraire ( 1798 ) =
HMS Temeraire was a 98 @-@ gun second @-@ rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy . Launched in 1798 , she served during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars , mostly on blockades or convoy escort duties . She fought only one fleet action , the Battle of Trafalgar , but became so well known for her actions and her subsequent depictions in art and literature that she has been remembered as " The Fighting Temeraire " .
Built at Chatham Dockyard , Temeraire entered service on the Brest blockade with the Channel Fleet . Missions were tedious and seldom relieved by any action with the French fleet . The first incident of note came when several of her crew , hearing rumours they were to be sent to the West Indies at a time when peace with France seemed imminent , refused to obey orders . This act of mutiny eventually failed and a number of those responsible were tried and executed . Laid up during the Peace of Amiens , Temeraire returned to active service with the resumption of the wars with France , again serving with the Channel Fleet , and joined Horatio Nelson 's blockade of the Franco @-@ Spanish fleet in Cadiz in 1805 . At the Battle of Trafalgar on 21 October , the ship went into action immediately astern of Nelson 's flagship , HMS Victory . During the battle Temeraire came to the rescue of the beleaguered Victory , and fought and captured two French ships , winning public renown in Britain .
After undergoing substantial repairs , Temeraire was employed blockading the French fleets and supporting British operations off the Spanish coasts . She went out to the Baltic in 1809 , defending convoys against Danish gunboat attacks , and by 1810 was off the Spanish coast again , helping to defend Cadiz against a French army . Her last action was against the French off Toulon , when she came under fire from shore batteries . The ship returned to Britain in 1813 for repairs , but was laid up . She was converted to a prison ship and moored in the River Tamar until 1819 . Further service brought her to Sheerness as a receiving ship , then a victualling depot , and finally a guard ship . The Admiralty ordered her to be sold in 1838 , and she was towed up the Thames to be broken up .
This final voyage was depicted in a J. M. W. Turner oil painting greeted with critical acclaim , entitled The Fighting Temeraire tugged to her last Berth to be broken up , 1838 . The painting continues to be held in high regard and was voted Britain 's favourite painting in 2005 .
= = Construction and commissioning = =
Temeraire was ordered from Chatham Dockyard on 9 December 1790 , to a design developed by Surveyor of the Navy Sir John Henslow . She was one of three ships of the Neptune class , alongside her sisters HMS Neptune and HMS Dreadnought . The keel was laid down at Chatham in July 1793 . Her construction was initially overseen by Master Shipwright Thomas Pollard and completed by his successor Edward Sison . Temeraire was launched on 11 September 1798 and the following day was taken into the graving dock to be fitted for sea . Her hull was fitted with copper sheathing , a process that took two weeks to complete . Refloated , she finished fitting out , and received her masts and yards . Her final costs came to £ 73 @,@ 241 , and included £ 59 @,@ 428 spent on the hull , masts and yards , and a further £ 13 @,@ 813 on rigging and stores .
She was commissioned on 21 March 1799 under Captain Peter Puget , becoming the second ship of the Royal Navy to bear the name Temeraire . Her predecessor had been the 74 @-@ gun third @-@ rate HMS Temeraire , a former French ship taken as a prize at the Battle of Lagos on 19 August 1759 by a fleet under Admiral Edward Boscawen . Puget was only in command until 26 July 1799 , during which time he oversaw the process of fitting the new Temeraire for sea . He was superseded by Captain Thomas Eyles on 27 July 1799 , while the vessel was anchored off St Helens , Isle of Wight .
= = With the Channel Fleet = =
Under Eyles 's command Temeraire finally put to sea at the end of July , flying the flag of Rear Admiral Sir John Borlase Warren , and joined the Channel Fleet under the overall command of Admiral Lord Bridport . The Channel Fleet was at that time principally engaged in the blockade of the French port of Brest , and Temeraire spent several long cruises of two or three months at a time patrolling the area . Eyles was superseded during this period by Temeraire 's former commander , Captain Puget , who resumed command on 14 October 1799 , and the following month Temeraire became the flagship of Rear Admiral James Whitshed .
Lord Bridport had been replaced as commander of the Channel Fleet by Admiral Lord St Vincent in mid @-@ 1799 , and the long blockade cruises were sustained throughout the winter and into the following year . On 20 April 1800 Puget was superseded as commander by Captain Edward Marsh . Marsh commanded Temeraire through the remainder of that year and for the first half of 1801 , until his replacement , Captain Thomas Eyles , arrived to resume command on 31 August . Rear Admiral Whitshed had also struck his flag by now , and Temeraire became the flagship of Rear Admiral George Campbell . By this time the Second Coalition against France had collapsed , and negotiations for peace were underway at Amiens . Lord St Vincent had been promoted to First Lord of the Admiralty , and command of the Channel Fleet passed to Admiral Sir William Cornwallis . With the end of the war imminent , Temeraire was taken off blockade duty and sent to Bantry Bay to await the arrival of a convoy , which she would then escort to the West Indies . Many of the crew had been serving continuously in the navy since the start of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1793 , and had looked forward to returning to England now that peace seemed imminent . On hearing rumours that instead they were to be sent to the West Indies , around a dozen men began to agitate for the rest of the crew to refuse orders to sail for anywhere but England .
= = Mutiny = =
The first open clash between the mutineers and officers came on the morning of 3 December , when a small group of sailors gathered on the forecastle and , refusing orders to leave , began to argue with the officers . Captain Eyles asked to know their demands , which were an assurance that Temeraire would not go to the West Indies , but instead would return to England . Eventually Rear Admiral Campbell came down to speak to the men , and having informed them that the officers did not know the destination of the ship , he ordered them to disperse . The men went below decks and the incipient mutiny appeared to have been quashed . The ringleaders , numbering around a dozen , remained determined however , and made discreet inquiries among the rest of the crew . Having eventually determined that the majority of the crew would , if not actually support a mutiny , at least not oppose it , and that the Temeraire 's crew would be supported by the ship 's marines as well as the crews of some of the other warships in Bantry Bay , they decided to press ahead with their plans . The mutiny began with the crew closing the ship 's gunports , effectively barricading themselves below deck . Having done so , they refused orders to open them again , jeered the officers and threatened violence . The crew then came up on deck and once again demanded to know their destination and refused to obey orders to sail for anywhere but England . Having presented their demands they returned below decks and resumed the usual shipboard routine as much as they could .
Alarmed by the actions of the Temeraire 's crew , Campbell met with Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Andrew Mitchell the following day and informed him of the mutineers ' demands . Mitchell reported the news to the Admiralty while Campbell returned to Temeraire and summoned the crew on deck once more . He urged them to return to duty , and then dismissed them . Meanwhile , discipline had begun to break down among the mutineers . Several of the crew became drunk , and some of the officers were struck by rowdy seamen . When one of the marines who supported the mutiny was placed in irons for drunken behaviour and insolence , a crowd formed on deck and tried to free him . The officers resisted these attempts and as sailors began to push and threaten them , Campbell gave the order for the marines to arrest those he identified as the ringleaders . The marines hesitated , but then obeyed the order , driving the unruly seamen back and arresting a number of them , who were immediately placed in irons . Campbell ordered the remaining crew to abandon any mutinous actions , and deprived of its leaders , the mutiny collapsed , though the officers were on their guard for several days afterwards and the marines were ordered to carry out continuous patrols .
News of the mutiny created a sensation in England , and the Admiralty ordered Temeraire to sail immediately for Spithead while an investigation was carried out . Vice @-@ Admiral Mitchell was granted extraordinary powers regarding the death sentence and Temeraire 's marine complement was hastily augmented for the voyage to England . On the ship 's arrival , the 14 imprisoned ringleaders were swiftly court @-@ martialled in Portsmouth aboard HMS Gladiator , some on 6 January 1802 and the rest on 14 January . After deliberations , twelve were sentenced to be hanged , and the remaining two were to receive two hundred lashes each . Four men were duly hanged aboard Temeraire , and the remainder were hanged aboard several of the ships anchored at Portsmouth , including HMS Majestic , HMS Formidable , HMS Achille and HMS Centaur .
= = West Indies and the peace = =
After the executions , Temeraire was immediately sent to sea , sailing from Portsmouth for the Isle of Wight the day after and beginning preparations for her delayed voyage to the West Indies . She sailed for Barbados , arriving there on 24 February , and remained in the West Indies until the summer . During her time there the Treaty of Amiens was finally signed and ratified , and Temeraire was ordered back to Britain . She arrived at Plymouth on 28 September and Eyles paid her off on 5 October . Because of the drawdown in the size of the active navy as a result of the peace , Temeraire was laid up in the Hamoaze for the next eighteen months .
= = Return to service = =
The peace of Amiens was a brief interlude in the wars with Revolutionary France , and in 1803 the War of the Third Coalition began . Temeraire had deteriorated substantially during her long period spent laid up , and she was taken into dry dock on 22 May to repair and refit , starting with the replacement of her copper sheathing . Work was delayed when a heavy storm hit Plymouth in January 1804 , causing appreciable damage to Temeraire , but was finally completed by February 1804 , at a cost of £ 16 @,@ 898 . Command was assigned to Captain Eliab Harvey , and he arrived to take up his commission on 1 January 1804 . On putting to sea he sailed to join the Channel Fleet , still under the overall command of Admiral Cornwallis .
Temeraire now resumed her previous duties blockading the French at Brest . Heavy weather took its toll , forcing her to put into Torbay for extensive repairs after her long patrols , repairs which eventually amounted to £ 9 @,@ 143 . During this time Harvey was often absent from his command , usually attending to his duties as Member of Parliament for Essex . He was temporarily replaced by Captain William Kelly on 27 August 1804 , and he in turn was succeeded by Captain George Fawke on 6 April 1805 . Harvey returned to his ship on 9 July 1805 , and it was while he was in command that the reinforced Rochefort squadron under Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Robert Calder intercepted and attacked a Franco @-@ Spanish fleet at the Battle of Cape Finisterre . The French commander , Pierre @-@ Charles Villeneuve , was thwarted in his attempt to join the French forces at Brest , and instead sailed south to Ferrol , and then to Cadiz . When news of the Franco @-@ Spanish fleet 's location reached the Admiralty , they appointed Vice @-@ Admiral Horatio Nelson to take command of the blockading force at Cadiz , which at the time was being commanded by Vice @-@ Admiral Cuthbert Collingwood . Nelson was told to pick whichever ships he liked to serve under him , and one of those he specifically chose was Temeraire .
= = Battle of Trafalgar = =
Temeraire duly received orders to join the Cadiz blockade , and having sailed to rendezvous with Collingwood , Harvey awaited Nelson 's arrival . Nelson 's flagship , the 100 @-@ gun HMS Victory , arrived off Cadiz on 28 September , and he took over command of the fleet from Collingwood . He spent the next few weeks forming his plan of attack in preparation for the expected sortie of the Franco @-@ Spanish fleet , issuing it to his captains on 9 October in the form of a memorandum . The memorandum called for two divisions of ships to attack at right angles to the enemy line , severing its van from the centre and rear . A third advance squadron would be deployed as a reserve , with the ability to join one of the lines as the course of the battle dictated . Nelson placed the largest and most powerful ships at the heads of the lines , with Temeraire assigned to lead Nelson 's own column into battle . The fleet patrolled a considerable distance from the Spanish coast to lure the combined fleet out , and the ships took the opportunity to exercise and prepare for the coming battle . For Temeraire this probably involved painting her sides in the Nelson Chequer design , to enable the British ships to tell friend from foe in the confusion of battle .
The combined fleet put to sea on 19 October 1805 , and by 21 October was in sight of the British ships . Nelson formed up his lines and the British began to converge on the distant Franco @-@ Spanish fleet . Contrary to his original instructions , Nelson took the lead of the weather column in Victory . Concerned for the commander @-@ in @-@ chief 's safety in such an exposed position , Henry Blackwood , a long @-@ standing friend of Nelson and commander of the frigate HMS Euryalus that day , suggested that Nelson come aboard his ship to better observe and direct the battle . Nelson refused , so Blackwood instead tried to convince him to let Harvey come past him in the Temeraire , and so lead the column into battle . Nelson agreed to this , and signalled for Harvey to come past him . As Temeraire drew up towards Victory , Nelson decided that if he was standing aside to let another ship lead his line , so too should Collingwood , commanding the lee column of ships . He signalled Collingwood , aboard his flagship HMS Royal Sovereign , to let another ship come ahead of him , but Collingwood continued to surge ahead . Reconsidering his plan , Nelson is reported to have hailed the Temeraire , as she came up alongside Victory , with the words " I 'll thank you , Captain Harvey , to keep in your proper station , which is astern of the Victory " . Nelson 's instruction was followed up by a formal signal and Harvey dropped back reluctantly , but otherwise kept within one ship 's length of Victory as she sailed up to the Franco @-@ Spanish line .
Closely following Victory as she passed through the Franco @-@ Spanish line across the bows of the French flagship Bucentaure , Harvey was forced to sheer away quickly , just missing Victory 's stern . Turning to starboard , Harvey made for the 140 @-@ gun Spanish ship Santísima Trinidad and engaged her for twenty minutes , taking raking fire from two French ships , the 80 @-@ gun Neptune and the 74 @-@ gun Redoutable , as she did so . Redoutable 's broadside carried away Temeraire 's mizzen topmast , and while avoiding a broadside from Neptune , Temeraire narrowly avoided a collision with Redoutable . Another broadside from Neptune brought down Temeraire 's fore @-@ yard and main topmast , and damaged her fore mast and bowsprit . Harvey now became aware that the Redoutable had come up alongside the Victory and swept her decks with musket fire and grenades . A large party of Frenchmen now gathered on her decks ready to board the Victory . Temeraire was brought around ; appearing suddenly out of the smoke of the battle and slipping across Redoutable 's stern , Temeraire discharged a double @-@ shotted broadside into her . Jean Jacques Étienne Lucas , captain of the Redoutable , recorded that " ... the three @-@ decker [ Temeraire ] – who had doubtless perceived that the Victory had ceased fire and would inevitably be taken – ran foul of the Redoutable to starboard and overwhelmed us with the point @-@ blank fire of all her guns . It would be impossible to describe the horrible carnage produced by the murderous broadside of this ship . More than two hundred of our brave lads were killed or wounded by it . "
= = = Temeraire and Redoutable = = =
Temeraire then rammed into the Redoutable , dismounting many of the French ship 's guns , and worked her way alongside , after which her crew lashed the two ships together . Temeraire now poured continuous broadsides into the French ship , taking fire as she did so from the 112 @-@ gun Spanish ship Santa Ana lying off her stern , and from the 74 @-@ gun French ship Fougueux , which came up on Temeraire 's un @-@ engaged starboard side . Harvey ordered his gun crews to hold fire until Fougueux came within point blank range . Temeraire 's first broadside against Fougueux at a range of 100 yards caused considerable damage to the Frenchman 's rigging , and she drifted into Temeraire , whose crew promptly lashed her to the side . Temeraire was now lying between two French 74 @-@ gun ships . As Harvey later recalled in a letter to his wife " Perhaps never was a ship so circumstanced as mine , to have for more than three hours two of the enemy 's line of battle ships lashed to her . " Redoutable , sandwiched between Victory and Temeraire , suffered heavy casualties , reported by Captain Lucas as amounting to 300 dead and 222 wounded . During the fight grenades thrown from the decks and topmasts of Redoutable killed and wounded a number of Temeraire 's crew and set her starboard rigging and foresail on fire . There was a brief pause in the fighting while both sides worked to douse the flames . Temeraire narrowly escaped destruction when a grenade thrown from Redoutable exploded on her maindeck , nearly igniting the after @-@ magazine . Master @-@ At @-@ Arms John Toohig prevented the fire from spreading and saved not only Temeraire , but the surrounding ships , which would have been caught in the explosion .
After twenty minutes fighting both Victory and Temeraire , the Redoutable had been reduced to a floating wreck . Temeraire had also suffered heavily , damaged when Redoutable 's main mast fell onto her poop deck , and having had her own topmasts shot away . Informed that his ship was in danger of sinking , Lucas finally called for quarter to the Temeraire . Harvey sent a party across under the second lieutenant , John Wallace , to take charge of the ship .
= = = Temeraire and Fougueux = = =
Lashed together , Temeraire and Fougueux exchanged fire , Temeraire initially clearing the French ship 's upper deck with small arms fire . The French rallied , but the greater height of the three @-@ decked Temeraire compared to the two @-@ decked Fougueux thwarted their attempts to board . Instead Harvey dispatched his own boarding party , led by First @-@ Lieutenant Thomas Fortescue Kennedy , which entered Fougueux via her main deck ports and chains . The French tried to defend the decks port by port , but were steadily overwhelmed . Fougueux 's captain , Louis Alexis Baudoin , had suffered a fatal wound earlier in the fighting , leaving Commander Francois Bazin in charge . When he learned that nearly all of the officers were dead or wounded and that most of the guns were out of action , Bazin surrendered the ship to the boarders .
Temeraire had by now fought both French ships to a standstill , at considerable cost to herself . She had sustained casualties of 47 killed and 76 wounded . All her sails and yards had been destroyed , only her lower masts remained , and the rudder head and starboard cathead had been shot away . Eight feet of her starboard hull was staved in and both quarter galleries had been destroyed . Harvey signalled for a frigate to tow his damaged ship out of the line , and HMS Sirius came up to assist . Before Sirius could make contact , Temeraire came under fire from a counter @-@ attack by the as @-@ yet unengaged van of the combined fleet , led by Rear Admiral Pierre Dumanoir le Pelley . Harvey ordered that the few guns that could be brought to bear be fired in response , and the attack was eventually beaten off by fresh British ships arriving on the scene .
= = Storm = =
Shortly after the battle had ended , a severe gale struck the area . Several of the captured French and Spanish ships foundered in the rising seas , including both of Temeraire 's prizes , the Fougueux and the Redoutable . Lost in the wrecks were a considerable number of their crews , as well as 47 Temeraire crewmen , serving as prize crews . Temeraire rode out the storm following the battle , sometimes being taken in tow by less damaged ships , sometimes riding at anchor . She took aboard a number of Spanish and French prisoners transferred from other prizes , including some transferred from the Euryalus , which was serving as the temporary flagship of Cuthbert Collingwood . Harvey took the opportunity to go aboard the Euryalus and present his account of the battle to Collingwood , and so became the only captain to do so before Collingwood wrote his dispatch about the victory .
= = = Return to England = = =
Temeraire finally put into Gibraltar on 2 November , eleven days after the battle had been fought . After undergoing minor repairs she sailed for England , arriving at Portsmouth on 1 December , three days before Victory passed by carrying Nelson 's body . The battle @-@ damaged ships quickly became tourist attractions , and visitors flocked to tour them . Temeraire was particularly popular on her arrival , being the only ship singled out by name in Collingwood 's dispatch for her heroic conduct . Collingwood wrote
A circumstance occurred during the action which so strongly marks the invincible spirit of British seamen , when engaging the enemies of their country , that I cannot resist the pleasure I have in making it known to their Lordships ; the Temeraire was boarded by accident ; or design , by a French ship on one side , and a Spaniard on the other ; the contest was vigorous , but , in the end the combined ensigns were torn from the poop and the British hoisted in their places .
Collingwood 's account , probably based largely on Harvey 's report in the immediate aftermath of the battle , contained several errors . Temeraire had closely engaged two French ships , rather than a French and a Spanish ship , and had not been boarded by either during the action . Nevertheless , the account was popular and a print was rushed out purporting to show Harvey taking the lead in clearing Temeraire 's decks of enemy seamen .
A number of artists visited the newly returned Trafalgar ships , including John Livesay , drawing master at the Royal Naval Academy . Livesay produced several sketches of battle @-@ damaged ships , sending them to Nicholas Pocock to be used for Pocock 's large paintings of the battle . Temeraire was one of the ships he sketched . Another visitor to Portsmouth was J. M. W. Turner . It is not known whether he visited Temeraire , though he did go aboard Victory , making preparatory notes and sketches and interviewing sailors who had been in the battle . The story of the Temeraire had become firmly ingrained in the public mind , so much so that when the House of Commons passed a vote of thanks to the men who had fought at Trafalgar , only three were specifically named . Nelson , Collingwood , and Harvey of the Temeraire .
= = Mediterranean and Baltic service = =
The battle @-@ damaged Temeraire was almost immediately dry @-@ docked in Portsmouth to undergo substantial repairs , which eventually lasted sixteen months and cost £ 25 @,@ 352 . She finally left the dockyard in mid @-@ 1807 , now under the command of Captain Sir Charles Hamilton . Having fitted her for sea , Hamilton sailed to the Mediterranean in September and joined the fleet blockading the French in Toulon . The service was largely uneventful , and Temeraire returned to Britain in April 1808 to undergo repairs at Plymouth . During her time in Britain the strategic situation in Europe changed as Spain rebelled against French domination and entered the war against France . Temeraire sailed in June to join naval forces operating off the Spanish coast in support of anti @-@ French forces in the Peninsular War .
This service continued until early 1809 , when she returned to Britain . By now Britain was heavily involved in the Baltic , protecting mercantile interests . An expedition under Sir James Gambier in July 1807 had captured most of the Danish Navy at the Battle of Copenhagen , in response to fears that it might fall into Napoleon 's hands , but precipitating war with the Danes . Captain Hamilton left the ship , and was superseded by Captain Edward Sneyd Clay . Temeraire now became the flagship of Rear Admiral Sir Manley Dixon , with orders to go to the Baltic to reinforce the fleet stationed there under Sir James Saumarez . Temeraire arrived in May 1809 and was sent to blockade Karlskrona on the Swedish coast .
While on patrol with the 64 @-@ gun HMS Ardent and the frigate HMS Melpomene , Temeraire became involved in one of the heaviest Danish gunboat attacks of the war . A party of men from Ardent had been landed on the island of Romsø , but were taken by surprise in a Danish night attack , which saw most of the Ardent men captured . The Melpomene was sent under a flag of truce to negotiate for their release , but on returning from this mission , was becalmed . A flotilla of thirty Danish gunboats then launched an attack , taking advantage of the stranded Melpomene 's inability to bring her broadside to bear on them . Melpomene signalled for help to the Temeraire , which immediately dispatched boats to her assistance . They engaged and then drove off the Danish ships , and then helped the Melpomene to safety . She had been heavily damaged and suffered casualties of five killed and twenty @-@ nine wounded . Temeraire 's later Baltic service involved being dispatched to observe the Russian fleet at Reval , during which time she made a survey of the island of Nargen . After important blockading and convoy escort work , Temeraire was ordered back to Britain as winter arrived , and she arrived in Plymouth in November 1809 .
= = Iberian service = =
After a period under repair in Plymouth , Temeraire was recommissioned under the command of Captain Edwin H. Chamberlayne in late January 1810 . The Peninsular War had reached a critical stage , with the Spanish government besieged in Cadiz by the French . Temeraire , now the flagship of Rear Admiral Francis Pickmore , was ordered to reinforce the city 's water defences , and provided men from her sailor and marine complement to crew batteries and gunboats . Men from Temeraire were heavily involved in the fighting until July 1810 , when Pickmore was ordered to sail to the Mediterranean and take up a new position as port admiral at Mahón . Temeraire was thereafter based either at Mahón or off Toulon with the blockading British fleet under Admiral Sir Edward Pellew . Chamberlayne was replaced by Captain Joseph Spear in March 1811 , and for the most part the blockade was uneventful . Though possessing a powerful fleet , the French commander avoided any contact with the blockading force and stayed in port , or else made very short voyages , returning to the harbour when the British appeared .
Temeraire 's one brush with the French during this period came on 13 August 1811 . Having received orders to sail to Minorca , Spear attempted to tack out of Hyères Bay . As he tried to do so , the wind fell away , leaving Temeraire becalmed and caught in a current which caused her to drift towards land . She came under fire from a shore battery on Pointe des Medes , which wounded several of her crew . Her boats were quickly manned , and together with boats sent from the squadron , Temeraire was towed out of range of the French guns . She then sailed to Minorca and underwent repairs . During this period an epidemic of yellow fever broke out , infecting nearly the entire crew and killing around a hundred crewmen . Pellew ordered her back to Britain , and health gradually improved as she sailed through the Atlantic .
= = Retirement = =
Temeraire arrived in Plymouth on 9 February 1812 and was docked for a survey several weeks later . The survey reported that she was " A well built and strong ship but apparently much decay 'd " . Spear was superseded on 4 March by Captain Samuel Hood Linzee , but Linzee 's command was short @-@ lived . Temeraire left the dock on 13 March and was paid off one week later . Advances in naval technology had developed more powerful and strongly built warships , and though still comparatively new , Temeraire was no longer considered desirable for front @-@ line service . While laid up the decision was taken to convert her into a prison ship to alleviate overcrowding caused by large influxes of French prisoners from the Peninsular War campaigns . Conversion work was carried out at Plymouth between November and December 1813 , after which she was laid up in the River Tamar as a prison hulk . From 1814 she was under the nominal command of Lieutenant John Wharton . Despite being laid up and disarmed Temeraire and the rest of her class were nominally re @-@ rated as 104 @-@ gun first rates in February 1817 .
Temeraire 's service as a prison ship lasted until 1819 , at which point she was selected for conversion to a receiving ship . She was extensively refitted at Plymouth between September 1819 and June 1820 at a cost of £ 27 @,@ 733 , and then sailed to Sheerness Dockyard . As a receiving ship she served as a temporary berth for new naval recruits until they received a posting to a ship . She fulfilled this role for eight years , until becoming a victualling depot in 1829 . Her final role was as a guard ship at Sheerness , under the title " Guardship of the Ordinary and Captain @-@ Superintendent 's ship of the Fleet Reserve in the Medway " . This final post as flagship of the Medway Reserve involved her being repainted and rearmed , and she was used to train boys belonging to The Marine Society . For the last two years of her service , from 1836 to 1838 she was under the nominal command of Captain Thomas Fortescue Kennedy , in his post as Captain @-@ Superintendent of Sheerness . Kennedy had been Temeraire 's first @-@ lieutenant at Trafalgar .
= = Sale and disposal = =
Kennedy received orders from the Admiralty in June 1838 to have Temeraire valued in preparation for her sale out of the service . She fired her guns for the last time on 28 June in celebration of the Coronation of Queen Victoria , and work began on dismantling her on 4 July . Kennedy delegated this task to Captain Sir John Hill , commander of HMS Ocean . Her masts , stores and guns were all removed and her crew paid off , before Temeraire was put up for sale with twelve other ships . She was sold by Dutch auction on 16 August 1838 to John Beatson , a shipbreaker based at Rotherhithe for £ 5 @,@ 530 . Beatson was then faced with the task of transporting the ship 55 miles from Sheerness to Rotherhithe , the largest ship to have attempted this voyage . To accomplish this he hired two steam tugs from the Thames Steam Towing Company and employed a Rotherhithe pilot named William Scott and twenty five men to sail her up the Thames , at a cost of £ 58 .
= = Last voyage = =
The tugs took the hulk of the Temeraire in tow at 7 : 30 am on 5 September , taking advantage of the beginning of the slack water . They had reached Greenhithe by 1 : 30 pm at the ebb of the tide , where they anchored overnight . They resumed the journey at 8 : 30 am the following day , passing Woolwich and then Greenwich at noon . They reached Limehouse Reach shortly afterwards and brought her safely to Beatson 's Wharf at 2 pm . The Temeraire was hauled up onto the mud , where she lay as she was slowly broken up . The final voyage was announced in a number of papers , and thousands of spectators came to see her towed up the Thames or laid up at Beatson 's yard . The shipbreakers undertook a thorough dismantling , removing all the copper sheathing , rudder pintles and gudgeons , copper bolts , nails and other fastenings to be sold back to the Admiralty . The timber was mostly sold to house builders and shipyard owners , though some was retained for working into specialist commemorative furniture .
= = Legacy = =
The immediate legacy of the Temeraire was the use of the timber taken from her as she was broken up . A gong stand made from Temeraire timber was a wedding present to the future King George V on the occasion of his marriage to Mary of Teck , and is held at Balmoral Castle . A barometer , gavel , and some miscellaneous timber are in the collections of the National Maritime Museum , and chairs made from Temeraire oak are in the possession of the Royal Naval Museum , Portsmouth , Lloyd 's Register , London and the Whanganui Regional Museum , Whanganui . An altar , communion rail and two bishop 's chairs survive in St. Mary 's Church , Rotherhithe . A ship model of the Temeraire made by prisoners of war uses a stand made from wood taken from her , and is currently in the Watermen 's Hall in London . Other relics of the Temeraire known to exist or have existed are a tea caddy made for her signal midshipman at Trafalgar , James Eaton , and sold at auction in 2000 , the frame for an oil painting by Sir Edwin Landseer titled Neptune , and a mantelpiece made for Beatson 's office , supported by figures of Atlas supposedly taken from Temeraire 's stern gallery . The mantelpiece can no longer be traced , nor can a plaque once fixed to Temeraire 's deck commemorating Nelson 's signal at Trafalgar , nor a wooden leg made for a Trafalgar veteran from Temeraire 's wood . John Ruskin foreshadowed the fate of the Temeraire 's wood in an essay which claimed that " Perhaps , where the low gate opens to some cottage garden , the tired traveller may ask , idly , why the moss grows so green on its rugged wood , and even the sailor 's child may not answer nor know that the night dew lies deep in the war rents of the wood of the old Temeraire . "
= = = Art = = =
Temeraire features in a number of paintings and prints , the earliest commemorating her role in the battle of Trafalgar . She can be seen at least partially in paintings of the battle by Clarkson Frederick Stanfield , John Christian Schetky , Nicholas Pocock , Thomas Buttersworth and Thomas Whitcombe . A fictionalised depiction of her launch was produced by Philip Burgoyne . Later representations of the retired Temeraire were also popular . Though no known contemporary image of her in the prison ship role exists , she was painted while a guardship on the Medway in 1833 by Edward William Cooke , and by William Beatson and J. J. Williams while laid up at Rotherhithe in 1838 . More recently she has been the subject of paintings by Geoff Hunt . The most famous painting of Temeraire was made by J. M. W. Turner and titled The Fighting Temeraire tugged to her last Berth to be broken up , 1838 . Turner depicts the Temeraire on her last voyage , towed up the Thames by a small black steam tug as the sun sets ( or dawns ) . In choosing his title Turner created an enduring appellation , as previously she had been known to her crew as the " saucy " Temeraire . Turner presented it for exhibition at the Royal Academy in 1839 with an accompanying excerpt , slightly altered , of Thomas Campbell 's poem Ye Mariners of England .
The flag which braved the battle and the breeze ,
no longer owns her .
Turner 's painting achieved widespread critical acclaim , and accolades from the likes of John Ruskin and William Makepeace Thackeray . It was Turner 's particular favourite ; he only lent it once and refused to ever do so again . He also refused to sell it at any price , and on his death bequeathed it to the nation . It hangs today in the National Gallery , and in 2005 it was voted the nation 's favourite painting in a poll organized by BBC Radio 4 's Today programme .
= = = Poetry and songs = = =
The Temeraire became the subject of a number of poems and songs commemorating her life and fate . An early work by James Duff written between 1813 and 1819 referenced her role as a prison ship , and was set to music in 1857 under the title The Brave Old Temeraire . More generally , an anonymous poem entitled The Wooden Walls of Old England appeared in Fraser 's Magazine shortly after Temeraire 's arrival at Rotherhithe , and lamented the fate of the great sailing warships . Turner 's painting created an enduring interest in the story of the Temeraire and several poems appeared in the decades following her breaking up . Gerald Massey wrote The Fighting Temeraire Tugged to Her Last Berth , Herman Melville produced The Temeraire , and Henry Newbolt wrote The Fighting Temeraire , with its closing lines
Now the sunset 's breezes shiver ,
And she 's fading down the river ,
But in England 's song forever ,
She 's the Fighting Temeraire .
|
= Murasaki Shikibu =
Murasaki Shikibu ( 紫 式部 , English : Lady Murasaki ; c . 973 or 978 – c . 1014 or 1031 ) was a Japanese novelist , poet and lady @-@ in @-@ waiting at the Imperial court during the Heian period . She is best known as the author of The Tale of Genji , written in Japanese between about 1000 and 1012 . Murasaki Shikibu is a nickname ; her real name is unknown , but she may have been Fujiwara Takako , who was mentioned in a 1007 court diary as an imperial lady @-@ in @-@ waiting .
Heian women were traditionally excluded from learning Chinese , the written language of government , but Murasaki , raised in her erudite father 's household , showed a precocious aptitude for the Chinese classics and managed to acquire fluency . She married in her mid @-@ to late twenties and gave birth to a daughter before her husband died , two years after they were married . It is uncertain when she began to write The Tale of Genji , but it was probably while she was married or shortly after she was widowed . In about 1005 , Murasaki was invited to serve as a lady @-@ in @-@ waiting to Empress Shōshi at the Imperial court , probably because of her reputation as a writer . She continued to write during her service , adding scenes from court life to her work . After five or six years , she left court and retired with Shōshi to the Lake Biwa region . Scholars differ on the year of her death ; although most agree on 1014 , others have suggested she was alive in 1031 .
Murasaki wrote The Diary of Lady Murasaki , a volume of poetry , and The Tale of Genji . Within a decade of its completion , Genji was distributed throughout the provinces ; within a century it was recognized as a classic of Japanese literature and had become a subject of scholarly criticism . Early in the 20th century her work was translated ; a six @-@ volume English translation was completed in 1933 . Scholars continue to recognize the importance of her work , which reflects Heian court society at its peak . Since the 13th century her works have been illustrated by Japanese artists and well @-@ known ukiyo @-@ e woodblock masters .
= = Early life = =
Murasaki Shikibu was born c . 973 in Heian @-@ kyō , Japan , into the northern Fujiwara clan descending from Fujiwara no Yoshifusa , the first 9th @-@ century Fujiwara regent . The Fujiwara clan dominated court politics until the end of the 11th century through strategic marriages of Fujiwara daughters into the imperial family and the use of regencies . In the late 10th century and early 11th century , Fujiwara no Michinaga arranged his four daughters into marriages with emperors , giving him unprecedented power . Murasaki 's great @-@ grandfather , Fujiwara no Kanesuke , had been in the top tier of the aristocracy , but her branch of the family gradually lost power and by the time of Murasaki 's birth was at the middle to lower ranks of the Heian aristocracy — the level of provincial governors . The lower ranks of the nobility were typically posted away from court to undesirable positions in the provinces , exiled from the centralized power and court in Kyoto .
Despite the loss of status , the family had a reputation among the literati through Murasaki 's paternal great @-@ grandfather and grandfather , both of whom were well @-@ known poets . Her great @-@ grandfather , Fujiwara no Kanesuke , had fifty @-@ six poems included in thirteen of the Twenty @-@ one Imperial Anthologies , the Collections of Thirty @-@ six Poets and the Yamato Monogatari ( Tales of Yamato ) . Her great @-@ grandfather and grandfather both had been friendly with Ki no Tsurayuki , who became notable for popularizing verse written in Japanese . Her father , Fujiwara no Tametoki , attended the State Academy ( Daigaku @-@ ryō ) and became a well @-@ respected scholar of Chinese classics and poetry ; his own verse was anthologized . He entered public service around 968 as a minor official and was given a governorship in 996 . He stayed in service until about 1018 . Murasaki 's mother was descended from the same branch of northern Fujiwara as Tametoki . The couple had three children , a son and two daughters .
The names of women were not recorded in the Heian era . Murasaki 's real name is not known ; as was customary for women of the period , she went by a nickname , Murasaki Shikibu . Women took nicknames associated with a male relative : " Shikibu " refers to Shikibu @-@ shō , the Ministry of Ceremonials where her father was a functionary ; " Murasaki " may be derived from the color violet associated with wisteria , the meaning of the word fuji , although it is more likely that " Murasaki " was a court nickname . Michinaga mentions the names of a few ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting in a 1007 diary entry ; one , Fujiwara Takako ( Kyōshi ) , may be Murasaki 's real name .
In Heian @-@ era Japan , husbands and wives kept separate households ; children were raised with their mothers , although the patrilineal system was still followed . Murasaki was unconventional because she lived in her father 's household , most likely on Teramachi Street in Kyoto , with her younger brother Nobunori . Their mother died , perhaps in childbirth , when the children were quite young . Murasaki had at least three half @-@ siblings raised with their mothers ; she was very close to one sister who died in her twenties .
Murasaki was born at a period when Japan was becoming more isolated , after missions to China had ended and a stronger national culture was emerging . In the 9th and 10th centuries , Japanese gradually became a written language through the development of kana , a syllabary based on abbreviations of Chinese characters . In Murasaki 's lifetime men continued to write in Chinese , the language of government , but kana became the written language of noblewomen , setting the foundation for unique forms of Japanese literature .
Chinese was taught to Murasaki 's brother as preparation for a career in government , and during her childhood , living in her father 's household , she learned and became proficient in classical Chinese . In her diary she wrote , " When my brother ... was a young boy learning the Chinese classics , I was in the habit of listening to him and I became unusually proficient at understanding those passages that he found too difficult to understand and memorize . Father , a most learned man , was always regretting the fact : ' Just my luck , ' he would say , ' What a pity she was not born a man ! ' " With her brother she studied Chinese literature , and she probably also received instruction in more traditional subjects such as music , calligraphy and Japanese poetry . Murasaki 's education was unorthodox . Louis Perez explains in The History of Japan that " Women ... were thought to be incapable of real intelligence and therefore were not educated in Chinese . " Murasaki was aware that others saw her as " pretentious , awkward , difficult to approach , prickly , too fond of her tales , haughty , prone to versifying , disdainful , cantankerous and scornful " . Asian literature scholar Thomas Inge believes she had " a forceful personality that seldom won her friends . "
= = Marriage = =
Aristocratic Heian women lived restricted and secluded lives , allowed to speak to men only when they were close relatives or household members . Murasaki 's autobiographical poetry shows that she socialized with women but had limited contact with men other than her father and brother ; she often exchanged poetry with women but never with men . Unlike most noblewomen of her status , she did not marry on reaching puberty ; instead she stayed in her father 's household until her mid @-@ twenties or perhaps even to her early thirties .
In 996 when her father was posted to a four @-@ year governorship in Echizen Province , Murasaki went with him , although it was uncommon for a noblewoman of the period to travel such a distance on a trip that could take as long as five days . She returned to Kyoto , probably in 998 , to marry her father 's friend Fujiwara no Nobutaka ( c . 950 – c . 1001 ) , a much older second cousin . Descended from the same branch of the Fujiwara clan , he was a court functionary and bureaucrat at the Ministry of Ceremonials , with a reputation for dressing extravagantly and as a talented dancer . In his late forties at the time of their marriage , he had multiple households with an unknown number of wives and offspring . Gregarious and well known at court , he was involved in numerous romantic relationships that may have continued after his marriage to Murasaki . As was customary , she would have remained in her father 's household where her husband would have visited her . Nobutaka had been granted more than one governorship , and by the time of his marriage to Murasaki he was probably quite wealthy . Accounts of their marriage vary : Richard Bowring writes that the marriage was happy , but Japanese literature scholar Haruo Shirane sees indications in her poems that she resented her husband .
The couple 's daughter , Kenshi ( Kataiko ) , was born in 999 . Two years later Nobutaka died during a cholera epidemic . As a married woman Murasaki would have had servants to run the household and care for her daughter , giving her ample leisure time . She enjoyed reading and had access to romances ( monogatari ) such as The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter and The Tales of Ise . Scholars believe she may have started writing The Tale of Genji before her husband 's death ; it is known she was writing after she was widowed , perhaps in a state of grief . In her diary she describes her feelings after her husband 's death : " I felt depressed and confused . For some years I had existed from day to day in listless fashion ... doing little more than registering the passage of time ... The thought of my continuing loneliness was quite unbearable " .
According to legend , Murasaki retreated to Ishiyama @-@ dera at Lake Biwa , where she was inspired to write The Tale of Genji on an August night while looking at the moon . Although scholars dismiss the factual basis of the story of her retreat , Japanese artists often depicted her at Ishiyama Temple staring at the moon for inspiration . She may have been commissioned to write the story and may have known an exiled courtier in a similar position to her hero Prince Genji . Murasaki would have distributed newly written chapters of Genji to friends who in turn would have re @-@ copied them and passed them on . By this practice the story became known and she gained a reputation as an author .
In her early to mid @-@ thirties , she became a lady @-@ in @-@ waiting ( nyōbō ) at court , most likely because of her reputation as an author . Chieko Mulhern writes in Japanese Women Writers , a Biocritical Sourcebook that scholars have wondered why Murasaki made such a move at a comparatively late period in her life . Her diary evidences that she exchanged poetry with Michinaga after her husband 's death , leading to speculation that the two may have been lovers . Bowring sees no evidence that she was brought to court as Michinaga 's concubine , although he did bring her to court without following official channels . Mulhern thinks Michinaga wanted to have Murasaki at court to educate his daughter Shōshi .
= = Court life = =
Heian culture and court life reached a peak early in the 11th century . The population of Kyoto grew to around 100 @,@ 000 as the nobility became increasingly isolated at the Heian Palace in government posts and court service . Courtiers became overly refined with little to do , insulated from reality , preoccupied with the minutiae of court life , turning to artistic endeavors . Emotions were commonly expressed through the artistic use of textiles , fragrances , calligraphy , colored paper , poetry , and layering of clothing in pleasing color combinations — according to mood and season . Those who showed an inability to follow conventional aesthetics quickly lost popularity , particularly at court . Popular pastimes for Heian noblewomen — who adhered to rigid fashions of floor @-@ length hair , whitened skin and blackened teeth — included having love affairs , writing poetry and keeping diaries . The literature that Heian court women wrote is recognized as some of the earliest and among the best literature written in the Japanese canon .
= = = Rival courts and women poets = = =
When in 995 Michinaga 's two brothers Fujiwara no Michitaka and Fujiwara no Michikane died leaving the regency vacant , Michinaga quickly won a power struggle against his nephew Fujiwara no Korechika ( brother to Teishi , Emperor Ichijō 's wife ) , and , aided by his sister Senshi , he assumed power . Teishi had supported her brother Korechika , who was later discredited and banished from court , causing her to lose power . Four years later Michinaga sent Shōshi , his eldest daughter , to Emperor Ichijō 's harem when she was about 12 . A year after placing Shōshi in the imperial harem , in an effort to undermine Teishi 's influence and increase Shōshi 's standing , Michinaga had her named Empress although Teishi already held the title . As historian Donald Shively explains , " Michinaga shocked even his admirers by arranging for the unprecedented appointment of Teishi ( or Sadako ) and Shōshi as concurrent empresses of the same emperor , Teishi holding the usual title of " Lustrous Heir @-@ bearer " kōgō and Shōshi that of " Inner Palatine " ( chūgū ) , a toponymically derived equivalent coined for the occasion " . About five years later , Michinaga brought Murasaki to Shōshi 's court , in a position that Bowring describes as a companion @-@ tutor .
Heian Imperial court life was immensely fashionable , but also dissolute . Court women lived in seclusion , were known by nicknames and , through strategic marriages , were used to gain political power . Despite their seclusion , some women wielded considerable influence , often achieved through competitive salons , dependent on the quality of the attendants . Ichijō 's mother and Michinaga 's sister , Senshi , had an influential salon , and Michinaga probably wanted Shōshi to surround herself with skilled women such as Murasaki to build a rival salon .
Shōshi was 16 to 19 when Murasaki joined her court . According to Arthur Waley , Shōshi was a serious @-@ minded young lady , whose living arrangements were divided between her father 's household and her court at the Imperial Palace . She gathered around her talented women writers such as Izumi Shikibu and Akazome Emon — the author of an early vernacular history , The Tale of Flowering Fortunes . The rivalry that existed among the women is evident in Murasaki 's diary , where she wrote disparagingly of Izumi : " Izumi Shikibu is an amusing letter @-@ writer ; but there is something not very satisfactory about her . She has a gift for dashing off informal compositions in a careless running @-@ hand ; but in poetry she needs either an interesting subject or some classic model to imitate . Indeed it does not seem to me that in herself she is really a poet at all . "
Sei Shōnagon , author of the The Pillow Book , had been in service as lady @-@ in @-@ waiting to Teishi when Shōshi came to court ; it is possible that Murasaki was invited to Shōshi 's court as a rival to Shōnagon . Teishi died in 1001 , before Murasaki entered service with Shōshi , so the two writers were not there concurrently , but Murasaki , who wrote about Shōnagon in her diary , certainly knew of her , and to an extent was influenced by her . Shōnagon 's The Pillow Book may have been commissioned as a type of propaganda to highlight Teishi 's court , known for its educated ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting . Japanese literature scholar Joshua Mostow believes Michinaga provided Murasaki to Shōshi as an equally or better educated woman , so as to showcase Shōshi 's court in a similar manner .
The two writers had different temperaments : Shōnagon was witty , clever , and outspoken ; Murasaki was withdrawn and sensitive . Entries in Murasaki 's diary show that the two may not have been on good terms . Murasaki wrote , " Sei Shōnagon ... was dreadfully conceited . She thought herself so clever , littered her writing with Chinese characters , [ which ] left a great deal to be desired . " Keene thinks that Murasaki 's impression of Shōnagon could have been influenced by Shōshi and the women at her court because Shōnagon served Shōshi 's rival empress . Furthermore , he believes Murasaki was brought to court to write Genji in response to Shōnagon 's popular Pillow Book . Murasaki contrasted herself to Shōnagon in a variety of ways . She denigrated the pillow book genre and , unlike Shōnagon who flaunted her knowledge of Chinese , Murasaki pretended to not know the language .
= = = " Our Lady of the Chronicles " = = =
Although the popularity of the Chinese language diminished in the late Heian era , Chinese ballads continued to be popular , including those written by Bai Juyi . Murasaki taught Chinese to Shōshi who was interested in Chinese art and Juyi 's ballads . Upon becoming Empress , Shōshi installed screens decorated with Chinese script , causing outrage because written Chinese was considered the language of men , far removed from the women 's quarters . The study of Chinese was thought to be unladylike and went against the notion that only men should have access to the literature . Women were supposed to read and write only in Japanese , which separated them through language from government and the power structure . Murasaki , with her unconventional classical Chinese education , was one of the few women available to teach Shōshi classical Chinese . Bowring writes it was " almost subversive " that Murasaki knew Chinese and taught the language to Shōshi . Murasaki , who was reticent about her Chinese education , held the lessons between the two women in secret , writing in her diary , " Since last summer ... very secretly , in odd moments when there happened to be no one about , I have been reading with Her Majesty ... There has of course been no question of formal lessons ... I have thought it best to say nothing about the matter to anybody . "
Murasaki most likely earned her second nickname , " Our Lady of the Chronicles " ( Nihongi no tsubone ) , for teaching Shōshi Chinese literature . A lady @-@ in @-@ waiting who disliked Murasaki accused her of flaunting her knowledge of Chinese and began calling her " Our Lady of the Chronicles " — an allusion to the Chronicles of Japan — after an incident in which chapters from Genji were read aloud to the Emperor and his courtiers , one of whom remarked that the author showed a high level of education . Murasaki wrote in her diary , " How utterly ridiculous ! Would I , who hesitate to reveal my learning to my women at home , ever think of doing so at court ? " Although meant to be insulting , Mulhern believes Murasaki was probably flattered by the nickname .
The attitude toward the Chinese language was contradictory . In Teishi 's court , Chinese had been flaunted and considered a symbol of imperial rule and superiority . Yet , in Shōshi 's salon there was a great deal of hostility towards the language — perhaps owing to political expedience during a period when Chinese began to be rejected in favor of Japanese — even though Shōshi herself was a student of the language . The hostility may have affected Murasaki and her opinion of the court , and forced her to hide her knowledge of Chinese . Unlike Shōnagon , who was both ostentatious and flirtatious , as well as outspoken about her knowledge of Chinese , Murasaki seems to have been humble , an attitude which possibly impressed Michinaga . Although Murasaki used Chinese and incorporated it in her writing , she publicly rejected the language , a commendable attitude during a period of burgeoning Japanese culture .
Murasaki seems to have been unhappy with court life and was withdrawn and somber . No surviving records show that she entered poetry competitions ; she appears to have exchanged few poems or letters with other women during her service . In general , unlike Sei Shōnagon , Murasaki gives the impression in her diary that she disliked court life , the other ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting , and the drunken revelry . She did , however , become close friends with a lady @-@ in @-@ waiting named Lady Saishō , and she wrote of the winters that she enjoyed , " I love to see the snow here " .
According to Waley , Murasaki may not have been unhappy with court life in general but bored in Shōshi 's court . He speculates she would have preferred to serve with the Lady Senshi , whose household seems to have been less strict and more light @-@ hearted . In her diary , Murasaki wrote about Shōshi 's court , " [ she ] has gathered round her a number of very worthy young ladies ... Her Majesty is beginning to acquire more experience of life , and no longer judges others by the same rigid standards as before ; but meanwhile her Court has gained a reputation for extreme dullness " .
Murasaki disliked the men at court whom she thought to be drunken and stupid . However , some scholars , such as Waley , are certain she was involved romantically with Michinaga . At the least , Michinaga pursued her and pressured her strongly , and her flirtation with him is recorded in her diary as late as 1010 . Yet , she wrote to him in a poem , " You have neither read my book , nor won my love . " In her diary she records having to avoid advances from Michinaga — one night he snuck into her room , stealing a newly written chapter of Genji . However , Michinaga 's patronage was essential if she was to continue writing . Murasaki described his daughter 's court activities : the lavish ceremonies , the complicated courtships , the " complexities of the marriage system " , and in elaborate detail , the birth of Shōshi 's two sons .
It is likely that Murasaki enjoyed writing in solitude . She believed she did not fit well with the general atmosphere of the court , writing of herself : " I am wrapped up in the study of ancient stories ... living all the time in a poetical world of my own scarcely realizing the existence of other people .... But when they get to know me , they find to their extreme surprise that I am kind and gentle " . Inge says that she was too outspoken to make friends at court , and Mulhern thinks Murasaki 's court life was comparatively quiet compared to other court poets . Mulhern speculates that her remarks about Izumi were not so much directed at Izumi 's poetry but at her behavior , lack of morality and her court liaisons , of which Murasaki disapproved .
Rank was important in Heian court society and Murasaki would not have felt herself to have much , if anything , in common with the higher ranked and more powerful Fujiwaras . In her diary , she wrote of her life at court : " I realized that my branch of the family was a very humble one ; but the thought seldom troubled me , and I was in those days far indeed from the painful consciousness of inferiority which makes life at Court a continual torment to me . " A court position would have increased her social standing , but more importantly she gained a greater experience to write about . Court life , as she experienced it , is well reflected in the chapters of Genji written after she joined Shōshi . Her nickname , Murasaki , was most probably given at a court dinner in an incident she recorded in her diary : in c . 1008 the well @-@ known court poet Fujiwara no Kintō inquired after the " Young Murasaki " — an allusion to the character named Murasaki in Genji — which would have been considered a compliment from a male court poet to a female author .
= = Later life and death = =
When Emperor Ichijō died in 1011 , Shōshi retired from the Imperial Palace to live in a Fujiwara mansion in Biwa , most likely accompanied by Murasaki , who is recorded as being there with Shōshi in 1013 . George Aston explains that when Murasaki retired from court she was again associated with Ishiyama @-@ dera : " To this beautiful spot , it is said , Murasaki no Shikibu retired from court life to devote the remainder of her days to literature and religion . There are sceptics , however , Motoöri being one , who refuse to believe this story , pointing out ... that it is irreconcilable with known facts . On the other hand , the very chamber in the temple where the Genji was written is shown — with the ink @-@ slab which the author used , and a Buddhist Sutra in her handwriting , which , if they do not satisfy the critic , still are sufficient to carry conviction to the minds of ordinary visitors to the temple . "
Murasaki may have died in 1014 . Her father made a hasty return to Kyoto from his post at Echigo Province that year , possibly because of her death . Writing in A Bridge of Dreams : A Poetics of " The Tale of Genji " , Shirane mentions that 1014 is generally accepted as the date of Murasaki Shikibu 's death and 973 as the date of her birth , making her 41 when she died . Bowring considers 1014 to be speculative , and believes she may have lived with Shōshi until as late as 1025 . Waley agrees given that Murasaki may have attended ceremonies with Shōshi held for her son , Emperor Go @-@ Ichijō around 1025 .
Murasaki 's brother Nubonori died in around 1011 , which , combined with the death of his daughter , may have prompted her father to resign his post and take vows at Miidera temple where he died in 1029 . Murasaki 's daughter entered court service in 1025 as a wet nurse to the future Emperor Go @-@ Reizei ( 1025 – 68 ) . She went on to become a well @-@ known poet as Daini no Sanmi .
= = Works = =
Three works are attributed to Murasaki : The Tale of Genji , The Diary of Lady Murasaki and Poetic Memoirs , a collection of 128 poems . Her work is considered important because her writing reflects the creation and development of Japanese writing during a period when Japanese shifted from an unwritten vernacular to a written language . Until the 9th century , Japanese language texts were written in Chinese characters using the man 'yōgana writing system . A revolutionary achievement was the development of kana , a true Japanese script , in the mid @-@ to late 9th century . Japanese authors began to write prose in their own language , which led to genres such as tales ( monogatari ) and poetic journals ( Nikki Bungaku ) . Historian Edwin Reischauer writes that genres such as the monogatari were distinctly Japanese and that Genji , written in kana , " was the outstanding work of the period " .
= = = Diary and poetry = = =
Murasaki began her diary after she entered service at Shōshi 's court . Much of what we know about her and her experiences at court comes from the diary , which covers the period from about 1008 to 1010 . The long descriptive passages , some of which may have originated as letters , cover her relationships with the other ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting , Michinaga 's temperament , the birth of Shōshi 's sons — at Michinaga 's mansion rather than at the Imperial Palace — and the process of writing Genji , including descriptions of passing newly written chapters to calligraphers for transcriptions . Typical of contemporary court diaries written to honor patrons , Murasaki devotes half to the birth of Shōshi 's son Emperor Go @-@ Ichijō , an event of enormous importance to Michinaga : he had planned for it with his daughter 's marriage which made him grandfather and de facto regent to an emperor .
Poetic Memoirs is a collection of 128 poems Mulhern describes as " arranged in a biographical sequence " . The original set has been lost . According to custom , the verses would have been passed from person to person and often copied . Some appear written for a lover — possibly her husband before he died — but she may have merely followed tradition and written simple love poems . They contain biographical details : she mentions a sister who died , the visit to Echizen province with her father and that she wrote poetry for Shōshi . Murasaki 's poems were published in 1206 by Fujiwara no Teika , in what Mulhern believes to be the collection that is closest to the original form ; at around the same time Teika included a selection of Murasaki 's works in an imperial anthology , New Collections of Ancient and Modern Times .
= = = The Tale of Genji = = =
Murasaki is best known for her The Tale of Genji , a three @-@ part novel spanning 1100 pages and 54 chapters , which is thought to have taken a decade to complete . The earliest chapters were possibly written for a private patron either during her marriage or shortly after her husband 's death . She continued writing while at court and probably finished while still in service to Shōshi . She would have needed patronage to produce a work of such length . Michinaga provided her with costly paper and ink , and with calligraphers . The first handwritten volumes were probably assembled and bound by ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting .
In his The Pleasures of Japanese Literature , Keene claims Murasaki wrote the " supreme work of Japanese fiction " by drawing on traditions of waka court diaries , and earlier monogatari — written in a mixture of Chinese script and Japanese script — such as The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter or The Tales of Ise . She drew on and blended styles from Chinese histories , narrative poetry and contemporary Japanese prose . Adolphson writes that the juxtaposition of formal Chinese style with mundane subjects resulted in a sense of parody or satire , giving her a distinctive voice . Genji follows the traditional format of monogatari — telling a tale — particularly evident in its use of a narrator , but Keene claims Murasaki developed the genre far beyond its bounds , and by doing so created a form that is utterly modern . The story of the " shining prince " Genji is set in the late 9th to early 10th centuries , and Murasaki eliminated from it the elements of fairy tales and fantasy frequently found in earlier monogatari .
The themes in Genji are common to the period , and are defined by Shively as encapsulating " the tyranny of time and the inescapable sorrow of romantic love " . The main theme is that of the fragility of life , " the sorrow of human existence " , mono no aware — she used the term over a thousand times in Genji . Keene speculates that in her tale of the " shining prince " , Murasaki may have created for herself an idealistic escape from court life , which she found less than savory . In Prince Genji she formed a gifted , comely , refined , yet human and sympathetic protagonist . Keene writes that Genji gives a view into the Heian period ; for example love affairs flourished , although women typically remained unseen behind screens , curtains or fusuma .
Helen McCullough describes Murasaki 's writing as of universal appeal and believes The Tale of Genji " transcends both its genre and age . Its basic subject matter and setting — love at the Heian court — are those of the romance , and its cultural assumptions are those of the mid @-@ Heian period , but Murasaki Shikibu 's unique genius has made the work for many a powerful statement of human relationships , the impossibility of permanent happiness in love ... and the vital importance , in a world of sorrows , of sensitivity to the feelings of others . " Prince Genji recognizes in each of his lovers the inner beauty of the woman and the fragility of life , which according to Keene , makes him heroic . The story was popular : Emperor Ichijō had it read to him , even though it was written in Japanese . By 1021 all the chapters were known to be complete and the work was sought after in the provinces where it was scarce .
= = Legacy = =
Murasaki 's reputation and influence have not diminished since her lifetime when she , with other Heian women writers , was instrumental in developing Japanese into a written language . Her writing was required reading for court poets as early as the 12th century as her work began to be studied by scholars who generated authoritative versions and criticism . Within a century of her death she was highly regarded as a classical writer . In the 17th century , Murasaki 's work became emblematic of Confucian philosophy and women were encouraged to read her books . In 1673 Kumazawa Banzan argued that her writing was valuable for its sensitivity and depiction of emotions . He wrote in his Discursive Commentary on Genji that when " human feelings are not understood the harmony of the Five Human Relationships is lost . "
The Tale of Genji was copied and illustrated in various forms as early as a century after Murasaki 's death . The Genji Monogatari Emaki , is a late Heian era 12th @-@ century handscroll , consisting of four scrolls , 19 paintings , and 20 sheets of calligraphy . The illustrations , definitively dated to between 1110 and 1120 , have been tentatively attributed to Fujiwara no Takachika and the calligraphy to various well @-@ known contemporary calligraphers . The scroll is housed at the Gotoh Museum and the Tokugawa Art Museum .
Female virtue was tied to literary knowledge in the 17th century , leading to a demand for Murasaki or Genji inspired artifacts , known as genji @-@ e . Dowry sets decorated with scenes from Genji or illustrations of Murasaki became particularly popular for noblewomen : in the 17th century genji @-@ e symbolically imbued a bride with an increased level of cultural status ; by the 18th century they had come to symbolize marital success . In 1628 , Tokugawa Iemitsu 's daughter had a set of lacquer boxes made for her wedding ; Prince Toshitada received a pair of silk genji @-@ e screens , painted by Kanō Tan 'yū as a wedding gift in 1649 .
Murasaki became a popular subject of paintings and illustrations highlighting her as a virtuous woman and poet . She is often shown at her desk in Ishimyama Temple , staring at the moon for inspiration . Tosa Mitsuoki made her the subject of hanging scrolls in the 17th century . The Tale of Genji became a favorite subject of Japanese ukiyo @-@ e artists for centuries with artists such as Hiroshige , Kiyonaga , and Utamaro illustrating various editions of the novel . While early Genji art was considered symbolic of court culture , by the middle of the Edo period the mass @-@ produced ukiyo @-@ e prints made the illustrations accessible for the samurai classes and commoners .
In Envisioning the " Tale of Genji " Shirane observes that " The Tale of Genji has become many things to many different audiences through many different media over a thousand years ... unmatched by any other Japanese text or artifact . " The work and its author were popularized through its illustrations in various media : emaki ( illustrated handscrolls ) ; byōbu @-@ e ( screen paintings ) , ukiyo @-@ e ( woodblock prints ) ; films , comics , and in the modern period , manga . In her fictionalized account of Murasaki 's life , The Tale of Murasaki : A Novel , Liza Dalby has Murasaki involved in a romance during her travels with her father to Echizen Province .
The Tale of the Genji is recognized as an enduring classic . McCullough writes that Murasaki " is both the quintessential representative of a unique society and a writer who speaks to universal human concerns with a timeless voice . Japan has not seen another such genius . " Keene writes that The Tale of Genji continues to captivate , because , in the story , her characters and their concerns are universal . In the 1920s , when Waley 's translation was published , reviewers compared Genji to Austen , Proust , and Shakespeare . Mulhern says of Murasaki that she is similar to Shakespeare , who represented his Elizabethan England , in that she captured the essence of the Heian court and as a novelist " succeeded perhaps even beyond her own expectations . " Like Shakespeare , her work has been the subject of reams of criticism and many books .
Kyoto held a year @-@ long celebration commemorating the 1000th anniversary of Genji in 2008 , with poetry competitions , visits to the Tale of Genji Museum in Uji and Ishiyama @-@ dera ( where a life size rendition of Murasaki at her desk was displayed ) , and women dressing in traditional 12 @-@ layered Heian court Jūnihitoe and ankle @-@ length hair wigs . The author and her work inspired museum exhibits and Genji manga spin @-@ offs . The design on the reverse of the first 2000 yen note commemorated her and The Tale of Genji . A plant bearing purple berries has been named after her .
A Genji Album , only in the 1970s dated to 1510 , is housed at Harvard University . The album is considered the earliest of its kind and consists of 54 paintings by Tosa Mitsunobu and 54 sheets of calligraphy on shikishi paper in five colors , written by master calligraphers . The leaves are housed in a case dated to the Edo period , with a silk frontispiece painted by Tosa Mitsuoki , dated to around 1690 . The album contains Mitsuoki 's authentication slips for his ancestor 's 16th @-@ century paintings .
= = Gallery = =
|
= Great Fire of London =
The Great Fire of London was a major conflagration that swept through the central parts of the English city of London from Sunday , 2 September to Wednesday , 5 September 1666 . The fire gutted the medieval City of London inside the old Roman city wall . It threatened but did not reach the aristocratic district of Westminster , Charles II 's Palace of Whitehall , and most of the suburban slums . It consumed 13 @,@ 200 houses , 87 parish churches , St Paul 's Cathedral , and most of the buildings of the City authorities . It is estimated to have destroyed the homes of 70 @,@ 000 of the City 's 80 @,@ 000 inhabitants . The death toll is unknown but traditionally thought to have been small , as only six verified deaths were recorded . This reasoning has recently been challenged on the grounds that the deaths of poor and middle @-@ class people were not recorded , while the heat of the fire may have cremated many victims , leaving no recognisable remains . A melted piece of pottery on display at the Museum of London found by archaeologists in Pudding Lane , where the fire started , shows that the temperature reached 1700 ° C.
The Great Fire started at the bakery of Thomas Farriner ( or Farynor ) on Pudding Lane shortly after midnight on Sunday , 2 September and spread rapidly west across the City of London . The major firefighting technique of the time was to create firebreaks by means of demolition ; this , however , was critically delayed owing to the indecisiveness of Lord Mayor of London Sir Thomas Bloodworth . By the time that large @-@ scale demolitions were ordered on Sunday night , the wind had already fanned the bakery fire into a firestorm which defeated such measures . The fire pushed north on Monday into the heart of the City . Order in the streets broke down as rumours arose of suspicious foreigners setting fires . The fears of the homeless focused on the French and Dutch , England 's enemies in the ongoing Second Anglo @-@ Dutch War ; these substantial immigrant groups became victims of lynchings and street violence . On Tuesday , the fire spread over most of the City , destroying St Paul 's Cathedral and leaping the River Fleet to threaten Charles II 's court at Whitehall , while coordinated firefighting efforts were simultaneously mobilising . The battle to quench the fire is considered to have been won by two factors : the strong east winds died down , and the Tower of London garrison used gunpowder to create effective firebreaks to halt further spread eastward .
The social and economic problems created by the disaster were overwhelming . Evacuation from London and resettlement elsewhere were strongly encouraged by Charles II , who feared a London rebellion amongst the dispossessed refugees . Despite numerous radical proposals , London was reconstructed on essentially the same street plan used before the fire .
= = London in the 1660s = =
By the 1660s , London was by far the largest city in Britain , estimated at half a million inhabitants . John Evelyn compared London to the Baroque magnificence of Paris , calling it a " wooden , northern , and inartificial congestion of Houses , " and expressing alarm about the fire hazard posed by the wood and about the congestion . By " inartificial " , Evelyn meant unplanned and makeshift , the result of organic growth and unregulated urban sprawl . London had been a Roman settlement for four centuries and had become progressively more crowded inside its defensive city wall . It had also pushed outwards beyond the wall into squalid extramural slums such as Shoreditch , Holborn , and Southwark , and had reached far enough to include the independent City of Westminster .
By the late 17th century , the City proper — the area bounded by the City wall and the River Thames — was only a part of London , covering some 700 acres ( 2 @.@ 8 km2 ; 1 @.@ 1 sq mi ) , and home to about 80 @,@ 000 people , or one sixth of London 's inhabitants . The City was surrounded by a ring of inner suburbs where most Londoners lived . The City was then , as now , the commercial heart of the capital , and was the largest market and busiest port in England , dominated by the trading and manufacturing classes . The aristocracy shunned the City and lived either in the countryside beyond the slum suburbs , or in the exclusive Westminster district ( the modern West End ) , the site of Charles II 's court at Whitehall . Wealthy people preferred to live at a convenient distance from the traffic @-@ clogged , polluted , unhealthy City , especially after it was hit by a devastating outbreak of bubonic plague in the Plague Year of 1665 .
The relationship was often tense between the City and the Crown . The City of London had been a stronghold of republicanism during the Civil War ( 1642 – 1651 ) , and the wealthy and economically dynamic capital still had the potential to be a threat to Charles II , as had been demonstrated by several republican uprisings in London in the early 1660s . The City magistrates were of the generation that had fought in the Civil War , and could remember how Charles I 's grab for absolute power had led to that national trauma . They were determined to thwart any similar tendencies in his son , and when the Great Fire threatened the City , they refused the offers that Charles made of soldiers and other resources . Even in such an emergency , the idea of having the unpopular Royal troops ordered into the City was political dynamite . By the time that Charles took over command from the ineffectual Lord Mayor , the fire was already out of control .
= = = Fire hazards in the City = = =
The City was essentially medieval in its street plan , an overcrowded warren of narrow , winding , cobbled alleys . It had experienced several major fires before 1666 , the most recent in 1632 . Building with wood and roofing with thatch had been prohibited for centuries , but these cheap materials continued to be used . The only major stone @-@ built area was the wealthy centre of the City , where the mansions of the merchants and brokers stood on spacious lots , surrounded by an inner ring of overcrowded poorer parishes whose every inch of building space was used to accommodate the rapidly growing population . These parishes contained workplaces , many of which were fire hazards — foundries , smithies , glaziers — which were theoretically illegal in the City but tolerated in practice .
The human habitations were crowded to bursting point , intermingled with these sources of heat , sparks , and pollution , and their construction increased the fire risk . The typical six- or seven @-@ storey timbered London tenement houses had " jetties " ( projecting upper floors ) . They had a narrow footprint at ground level , but maximised their use of land by " encroaching " on the street , as a contemporary observer put it , with the gradually increasing size of their upper storeys . The fire hazard was well perceived when the top jetties all but met across the narrow alleys ; " as it does facilitate a conflagration , so does it also hinder the remedy " , wrote one observer — but " the covetousness of the citizens and connivancy [ corruption ] of Magistrates " worked in favour of jetties . In 1661 , Charles II issued a proclamation forbidding overhanging windows and jetties , but this was largely ignored by the local government . Charles 's next , sharper message in 1665 warned of the risk of fire from the narrowness of the streets and authorised both imprisonment of recalcitrant builders and demolition of dangerous buildings . It , too , had little impact .
The river front was important in the development of the Great Fire . The Thames offered water for firefighting and the chance of escape by boat , but the poorer districts along the riverfront had stores and cellars of combustibles which increased the fire risk . All along the wharves , the rickety wooden tenements and tar paper shacks of the poor were shoehorned amongst " old paper buildings and the most combustible matter of tarr , pitch , hemp , rosen , and flax which was all layd up thereabouts . " London was also full of black powder , especially along the river front . Much of it was left in the homes of private citizens from the days of the English Civil War , as the former members of Oliver Cromwell 's New Model Army still retained their muskets and the powder with which to load them . Five to six hundred tons of powder was stored in the Tower of London . The ship chandlers along the wharves also held large stocks , stored in wooden barrels .
= = = 17th century firefighting = = =
Fires were common in the crowded wood @-@ built city with its open fireplaces , candles , ovens , and stores of combustibles . There was no police or fire brigade to call , but London 's local militia , known as the Trained Bands , was available for general emergencies , at least in principle , and watching for fire was one of the jobs of the watch , a thousand watchmen or " bellmen " who patrolled the streets at night . Self @-@ reliant community procedures were in place for dealing with fires , and they were usually effective . Public @-@ spirited citizens would be alerted to a dangerous house fire by muffled peals on the church bells , and would congregate hastily to fight the fire .
The methods available for this relied on demolition and water . By law , the tower of every parish church had to hold equipment for these efforts : long ladders , leather buckets , axes , and " firehooks " for pulling down buildings ( see illustration right , see also pike pole ) . Sometimes taller buildings were levelled to the ground quickly and effectively by means of controlled gunpowder explosions . This drastic method of creating firebreaks was increasingly used towards the end of the Great Fire , and modern historians believe that it was what finally won the struggle .
= = Failures in fighting the fire = =
London Bridge was the only physical connection between the City and the south side of the river Thames and was itself covered with houses . It had been noted as a deathtrap in the fire of 1632 and , by dawn on Sunday , these houses were burning . Samuel Pepys observed the conflagration from the Tower of London and recorded great concern for friends living on the bridge . There were fears that the flames would cross London Bridge to threaten the borough of Southwark on the south bank , but this danger was averted by an open space between buildings on the bridge which acted as a firebreak . The 18 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) high Roman wall enclosing the City put the fleeing homeless at risk of being shut into the inferno . Once the river front was on fire and the escape route cut off by boat , the only exits were the eight gates in the wall . During the first couple of days , few people had any notion of fleeing the burning City altogether . They would remove what they could carry of their belongings to the nearest " safe house " , in many cases the parish church or the precincts of St Paul 's Cathedral , only to have to move again hours later . Some moved their belongings and themselves " four and five times " in a single day . The perception of a need to get beyond the walls only took root late on the Monday , and then there were near @-@ panic scenes at the narrow gates as distraught refugees tried to get out with their bundles , carts , horses , and wagons .
The crucial factor which frustrated firefighting efforts was the narrowness of the streets . Even under normal circumstances , the mix of carts , wagons , and pedestrians in the undersized alleys was subject to frequent traffic jams and gridlock . During the fire , the passages were additionally blocked by refugees camping in them amongst their rescued belongings , or escaping outwards , away from the centre of destruction , as demolition teams and fire engine crews struggled in vain to move in towards it .
Demolishing the houses downwind of a dangerous fire was often an effective way of containing the destruction by means of firehooks or explosives . This time , however , demolition was fatally delayed for hours by the Lord Mayor 's lack of leadership and failure to give the necessary orders . By the time that orders came directly from the King to " spare no houses " , the fire had devoured many more houses , and the demolition workers could no longer get through the crowded streets .
The use of water to extinguish the fire was also frustrated . In principle , water was available from a system of elm pipes which supplied 30 @,@ 000 houses via a high water tower at Cornhill , filled from the river at high tide , and also via a reservoir of Hertfordshire spring water in Islington . It was often possible to open a pipe near a burning building and connect it to a hose to play on a fire or fill buckets . Further , Pudding Lane was close to the river . Theoretically , all the lanes from the river up to the bakery and adjoining buildings should have been manned with double rows of firefighters passing full buckets up to the fire and empty buckets back down to the river . This did not happen , or at least was no longer happening by the time that Pepys viewed the fire from the river at mid @-@ morning on the Sunday . Pepys comments in his diary that nobody was trying to put it out , but instead they fled from it in fear , hurrying " to remove their goods , and leave all to the fire . " The flames crept towards the river front with little interference from the overwhelmed community and soon torched the flammable warehouses along the wharves . The resulting conflagration cut off the firefighters from the immediate water supply from the river and set alight the water wheels under London Bridge which pumped water to the Cornhill water tower ; the direct access to the river and the supply of piped water failed together .
London possessed advanced fire @-@ fighting technology in the form of fire engines , which had been used in earlier large @-@ scale fires . However , unlike the useful firehooks , these large pumps had rarely proved flexible or functional enough to make much difference . Only some of them had wheels ; others were mounted on wheelless sleds . They had to be brought a long way , tended to arrive too late , and had limited reach , with spouts but no delivery hoses . On this occasion , an unknown number of fire engines were either wheeled or dragged through the streets , some from across the City . The piped water had already failed which they were designed to use , but parts of the river bank could still be reached . Gangs of men tried desperately to manoeuvre the engines right up to the river to fill their reservoirs , and several of the engines toppled into the Thames . The heat from the flames by then was too great for the remaining engines to get within a useful distance ; they could not even get into Pudding Lane .
= = Development of the fire = =
The personal experiences of many Londoners during the fire are glimpsed in letters and memoirs . The two best @-@ known diarists of the Restoration are Samuel Pepys ( 1633 – 1703 ) and John Evelyn ( 1620 – 1706 ) , and both recorded the events and their own reactions day by day , and made great efforts to keep themselves informed of what was happening all over the City and beyond . For example , they both travelled out to the Moorfields park area north of the City on the Wednesday — the fourth day — to view the mighty encampment of distressed refugees there , which shocked them . Their diaries are the most important sources for all modern retellings of the disaster . Books on the fire by Tinniswood ( 2003 ) and Hanson ( 2001 ) also rely on the brief memoirs of William Taswell ( 1651 – 82 ) , who was a fourteen year @-@ old schoolboy at Westminster School in 1666 .
= = = Sunday Morning = = =
After two rainy summers in 1664 and 1665 , London had lain under an exceptional drought since November 1665 , and the wooden buildings were tinder @-@ dry after the long hot summer of 1666 . A fire broke out at Thomas Farriner 's bakery in Pudding Lane a little after midnight on Sunday 2 September . The family was trapped upstairs but managed to climb from an upstairs window to the house next door , except for a maidservant who was too frightened to try , who became the first victim . The neighbours tried to help douse the fire ; after an hour , the parish constables arrived and judged that the adjoining houses had better be demolished to prevent further spread . The householders protested , and Lord Mayor Sir Thomas Bloodworth was summoned , who alone had the authority to override their wishes .
When Bloodworth arrived , the flames were consuming the adjoining houses and creeping towards the paper warehouses and flammable stores on the river front . The more experienced firemen were clamouring for demolition , but Bloodworth refused on the grounds that most premises were rented and the owners could not be found . Bloodworth is generally thought to have been appointed to the office of Lord Mayor as a yes man , rather than by possessing requisite capabilities for the job . He panicked when faced with a sudden emergency and , when pressed , made the oft @-@ quoted remark , " Pish ! A woman could piss it out " , and left . After the City had been destroyed , Samuel Pepys looked back on the events and wrote in his diary on 7 September 1666 : " People do all the world over cry out of the simplicity [ the stupidity ] of my Lord Mayor in general ; and more particularly in this business of the fire , laying it all upon him . "
Pepys was a senior official in the Navy Office by then , and he ascended the Tower of London on Sunday morning to view the fire from a turret . He recorded in his diary that the eastern gale had turned it into a conflagration . It had burned down several churches and , he estimated , 300 houses and reached the river front . The houses on London Bridge were burning .
He took a boat to inspect the destruction around Pudding Lane at close range and describes a " lamentable " fire , " everybody endeavouring to remove their goods , and flinging into the river or bringing them into lighters that lay off ; poor people staying in their houses as long as till the very fire touched them , and then running into boats , or clambering from one pair of stairs by the water @-@ side to another . " Pepys continued westward on the river to the court at Whitehall , " where people come about me , and did give them an account dismayed them all , and word was carried in to the King . So I was called for , and did tell the King and Duke of Yorke what I saw , and that unless His Majesty did command houses to be pulled down nothing could stop the fire . They seemed much troubled , and the King commanded me to go to my Lord Mayor from him , and command him to spare no houses , but to pull down before the fire every way . " Charles ' brother James , Duke of York offered the use of the Royal Life Guards to help fight the fire .
Young schoolboy William Taswell had bolted from the early morning service in Westminster Abbey . He saw some refugees arrive in hired lighter boats near Westminster Stairs , a mile west of Pudding Lane , unclothed and covered only with blankets . The services of the lightermen had suddenly become extremely expensive , and only the luckiest refugees secured a place in a boat .
= = = Sunday Afternoon = = =
The fire spread quickly in the high wind and , by mid @-@ morning on Sunday , people abandoned attempts at extinguishing it and fled . The moving human mass and their bundles and carts made the lanes impassable for firemen and carriages . Pepys took a coach back into the city from Whitehall , but only reached St Paul 's Cathedral before he had to get out and walk . Pedestrians with handcarts and goods were still on the move away from the fire , heavily weighed down . The parish churches not directly threatened were filling up with furniture and valuables , which soon had to be moved further afield .
Pepys found Bloodworth trying to co @-@ ordinate the fire @-@ fighting efforts and near to collapse , " like a fainting woman " , crying out plaintively in response to the King 's message that he was pulling down houses . " But the fire overtakes us faster then [ sic ] we can do it . " Holding on to his civic dignity , he refused James 's offer of soldiers and then went home to bed . King Charles II sailed down from Whitehall in the Royal barge to inspect the scene . He found that houses were still not being pulled down , in spite of Bloodworth 's assurances to Pepys , and daringly overrode the authority of Bloodworth to order wholesale demolitions west of the fire zone . The delay rendered these measures largely futile , as the fire was already out of control .
By Sunday afternoon , 18 hours after the alarm was raised in Pudding Lane , the fire had become a raging firestorm that created its own weather . A tremendous uprush of hot air above the flames was driven by the chimney effect wherever constrictions narrowed the air current , such as the constricted space between jettied buildings , and this left a vacuum at ground level . The resulting strong inward winds did not tend to put the fire out , as might be thought ; instead , they supplied fresh oxygen to the flames , and the turbulence created by the uprush made the wind veer erratically both north and south of the main easterly direction of the gale which was still blowing .
Pepys went again on the river in the early evening with his wife and some friends , " and to the fire up and down , it still encreasing " . They ordered the boatman to go " so near the fire as we could for smoke ; and all over the Thames , with one 's face in the wind , you were almost burned with a shower of firedrops " . When the " firedrops " became unbearable , the party went on to an alehouse on the South Bank and stayed there till darkness came and they could see the fire on London Bridge and across the river , " as only one entire arch of fire from this to the other side of the bridge , and in a bow up the hill for an arch of above a mile long : it made me weep to see it " . Pepys described this arch of fire as " a bow with God 's arrow in it with a shining point " .
= = = Monday = = =
The fire was principally expanding north and west by dawn on Monday , 3 September , the turbulence of the fire storm pushing the flames both farther south and farther north than the day before . The spread to the south was mostly halted by the river , but it had torched the houses on London Bridge and was threatening to cross the bridge and endanger the borough of Southwark on the south bank of the river . Southwark was preserved by a pre @-@ existent firebreak on the bridge , a long gap between the buildings which had saved the south side of the Thames in the fire of 1632 and now did so again . Flying embers started a fire in Southwark but it was quickly stopped .
The fire 's spread to the north reached the financial heart of the City . The houses of the bankers in Lombard Street began to burn on Monday afternoon , prompting a rush to get their stacks of gold coins to safety before they melted away , so crucial to the wealth of the city and the nation . Several observers emphasise the despair and helplessness which seemed to seize Londoners on this second day , and the lack of efforts to save the wealthy , fashionable districts which were now menaced by the flames , such as the Royal Exchange — combined bourse and shopping centre – and the opulent consumer goods shops in Cheapside . The Royal Exchange caught fire in the late afternoon , and was a smoking shell within a few hours . John Evelyn , courtier and diarist , wrote :
Evelyn lived in Deptford , four miles ( 6 km ) outside the City , and so he did not see the early stages of the disaster . He went by coach to Southwark on Monday , joining many other upper @-@ class people , to see the view which Pepys had seen the day before of the burning City across the river . The conflagration was much larger now : " the whole City in dreadful flames near the water @-@ side ; all the houses from the Bridge , all Thames @-@ street , and upwards towards Cheapside , down to the Three Cranes , were now consumed " . In the evening , Evelyn reported that the river was covered with barges and boats making their escape piled with goods . He observed a great exodus of carts and pedestrians through the bottleneck City gates , making for the open fields to the north and east , " which for many miles were strewed with moveables of all sorts , and tents erecting to shelter both people and what goods they could get away . Oh , the miserable and calamitous spectacle ! "
= = = = Suspicion and Fear = = = =
Suspicion soon arose in the threatened city that the fire was no accident . The swirling winds carried sparks and burning flakes long distances to lodge on thatched roofs and in wooden gutters , causing seemingly unrelated house fires to break out far from their source and giving rise to rumours that fresh fires were being set on purpose . Foreigners were immediately suspects because of the current Second Anglo @-@ Dutch War . Fear and suspicion hardened into certainty on Monday , as reports circulated of imminent invasion and of foreign undercover agents seen casting " fireballs " into houses , or caught with hand grenades or matches . There was a wave of street violence . William Taswell saw a mob loot the shop of a French painter and level it to the ground , and watched in horror as a blacksmith walked up to a Frenchman in the street and hit him over the head with an iron bar .
The fears of terrorism received an extra boost from the disruption of communications and news as facilities were devoured by the fire . The General Letter Office in Threadneedle Street burned down early on Monday morning , through which post passed for the entire country . The London Gazette just managed to put out its Monday issue before the printer 's premises went up in flames ( this issue contained mainly society gossip , with a small note about a fire that had broken out on Sunday morning and " which continues still with great violence " ) . The whole nation depended on these communications , and the void which they left filled up with rumours .
There were also religious alarms of renewed Gunpowder Plots . Suspicions rose to panic and collective paranoia on Monday , and both the Trained Bands and the Coldstream Guards focused less on fire fighting and more on rounding up foreigners , Catholics , and any odd @-@ looking people , arresting them or rescuing them from mobs , or both together .
The inhabitants were growing desperate to remove their belongings from the City , especially the upper class . This provided a source of income for the able @-@ bodied poor , who hired out as porters ( sometimes simply making off with the goods ) , and it was especially profitable for the owners of carts and boats . Hiring a cart had cost a couple of shillings on the Saturday before the fire ; on Monday , it rose to as much as £ 40 , a fortune equivalent to more than £ 4 @,@ 000 in 2005 .
Seemingly every cart and boat owner within reach of London made their way towards the City to share in these opportunities , the carts jostling at the narrow gates with the panicked inhabitants trying to get out . The chaos at the gates was such that the magistrates ordered the gates shut on Monday afternoon , in the hope of turning the inhabitants ' attention from safeguarding their own possessions to fighting the fire : " that , no hopes of saving any things left , they might have more desperately endeavoured the quenching of the fire . " This headlong and unsuccessful measure was rescinded the next day .
Monday marked the beginning of organised action , even as order broke down in the streets , especially at the gates , and the fire raged unchecked . Bloodworth was responsible as Lord Mayor for co @-@ ordinating the fire @-@ fighting , but he had apparently left the City ; his name is not mentioned in any contemporaneous accounts of the Monday 's events . In this state of emergency , Charles again overrode the City authorities and put his brother James , Duke of York in charge of operations .
James set up command posts round the perimeter of the fire , press @-@ ganging into teams of well @-@ paid and well @-@ fed firemen any men of the lower classes found in the streets . Three courtiers were put in charge of each post , with authority from Charles himself to order demolitions . This visible gesture of solidarity from the Crown was intended to cut through the citizens ' misgivings about being held financially responsible for pulling down houses . James and his life guards rode up and down the streets all Monday , rescuing foreigners from the mob and attempting to keep order . " The Duke of York hath won the hearts of the people with his continual and indefatigable pains day and night in helping to quench the Fire , " wrote a witness in a letter on 8 September .
On Monday evening , hopes were dashed that the massive stone walls of Baynard 's Castle , Blackfriars would stay the course of the flames , the western counterpart of the Tower of London . This historic royal palace was completely consumed , burning all night .
A contemporary account said that King Charles in person worked manually , that day or later , to help throw water on flames and to help demolish buildings to make a firebreak .
= = = Tuesday = = =
Tuesday , 4 September was the day of greatest destruction . The Duke of York 's command post at Temple Bar , where Strand meets Fleet Street , was supposed to stop the fire 's westward advance towards the Palace of Whitehall . He hoped that the River Fleet would form a natural firebreak , making a stand with his firemen from the Fleet Bridge and down to the Thames . However , early on Tuesday morning , the flames jumped over the Fleet and outflanked them , driven by the unabated easterly gale , forcing them to run for it . There was consternation at the palace as the fire continued implacably westward ; " Oh , the confusion there was then at that court ! " wrote Evelyn .
Working to a plan at last , James 's firefighters had also created a large firebreak to the north of the conflagration . It contained the fire until late afternoon , when the flames leapt across and began to destroy the wide , affluent luxury shopping street of Cheapside .
Everybody had thought St. Paul 's Cathedral a safe refuge , with its thick stone walls and natural firebreak in the form of a wide , empty surrounding plaza . It had been crammed full of rescued goods and its crypt filled with the tightly packed stocks of the printers and booksellers in adjoining Paternoster Row . However , an enormous stroke of bad luck meant that the building was covered in wooden scaffolding , undergoing piecemeal restoration by a relatively unknown Christopher Wren . The scaffolding caught fire on Tuesday night . Leaving school , young William Taswell stood on Westminster Stairs a mile away and watched as the flames crept round the cathedral and the burning scaffolding ignited the timbered roof beams . Within half an hour , the lead roof was melting , and the books and papers in the crypt caught with a roar . " The stones of Paul 's flew like grenados , " reported Evelyn in his diary , " the melting lead running down the streets in a stream , and the very pavements glowing with fiery redness , so as no horse , nor man , was able to tread on them . " The cathedral was quickly a ruin .
During the day , the flames began to move eastward from the neighbourhood of Pudding Lane , straight against the prevailing east wind and towards Pepys 's home on Seething Lane and the Tower of London with its gunpowder stores . The garrison at the Tower took matters into their own hands after waiting all day for requested help from James 's official firemen who were busy in the west . They created firebreaks by blowing up houses on a large scale in the vicinity , halting the advance of the fire .
= = = Wednesday = = =
The wind dropped on Tuesday evening , and the firebreaks created by the garrison finally began to take effect on Wednesday 5 September . Stopping the fire caused much fire and demolition damage in the lawyers ' area called the Temple . Pepys walked all over the smouldering city , getting his feet hot , and climbed the steeple of Barking Church , from which he viewed the destroyed City , " the saddest sight of desolation that I ever saw . " There were many separate fires still burning themselves out , but the Great Fire was over .
Pepys visited Moorfields , a large public park immediately north of the City , and saw a great encampment of homeless refugees , " poor wretches carrying their good there , and every body keeping his goods together by themselves " . He noted that the price of bread had doubled in the environs of the park . Evelyn also went out to Moorfields , which was turning into the main point of assembly for the homeless , and was horrified at the numbers of distressed people filling it , some under tents , others in makeshift shacks : " Many [ were ] without a rag or any necessary utensils , bed or board ... reduced to extremest misery and poverty . " Evelyn was impressed by the pride of these distressed Londoners , " tho ' ready to perish for hunger and destitution , yet not asking one pennie for relief . "
Fears were as high as ever among the traumatised fire victims , fear of foreign arsonists and of a French and Dutch invasion . There was an outbreak of general panic on Wednesday night in the encampments at Parliament Hill , Moorfields , and Islington . A light in the sky over Fleet Street started a story that 50 @,@ 000 French and Dutch immigrants had risen , widely rumoured to have started the fire , and were marching towards Moorfields to finish what the fire had begun : to cut the men 's throats , rape the women , and steal their few possessions . Surging into the streets , the frightened mob fell on any foreigners whom they happened to encounter , and were only appeased , according to Evelyn , " with infinite pains and great difficulty " and pushed back into the fields by the Trained Bands , troops of Life Guards , and members of the court . The mood was now so volatile that Charles feared a full @-@ scale London rebellion against the monarchy . Food production and distribution had been disrupted to the point of non @-@ existence ; Charles announced that supplies of bread would be brought into the City every day , and safe markets set up round the perimeter . These markets were for buying and selling ; there was no question of distributing emergency aid .
= = Deaths and destruction = =
Only a few deaths from the fire are officially recorded , and deaths are traditionally believed to have been few . Porter gives the figure as eight and Tinniswood as " in single figures " , although he adds that some deaths must have gone unrecorded and that , besides direct deaths from burning and smoke inhalation , refugees also perished in the impromptu camps .
Hanson takes issue with the idea that there were only a few deaths , enumerating known deaths from hunger and exposure among survivors of the fire , " huddled in shacks or living among the ruins that had once been their homes " in the cold winter that followed , including , for instance , dramatist James Shirley and his wife . Hanson also maintains that " it stretches credulity to believe that the only papists or foreigners being beaten to death or lynched were the ones rescued by the Duke of York " , that official figures say very little about the fate of the undocumented poor , and that the heat at the heart of the firestorms was far greater than an ordinary house fire , and was enough to consume bodies fully or leave only a few skeletal fragments .
The fire was fed not merely by wood , fabrics , and thatch , Hanson points out , but also by the oil , pitch , coal , tallow , fats , sugar , alcohol , turpentine , and gunpowder stored in the riverside district . It melted the imported steel lying along the wharves ( melting point between 1 @,@ 250 and 1 @,@ 480 ° C ( 2 @,@ 300 and 2 @,@ 700 ° F ) ) and the great iron chains and locks on the City gates ( melting point between 1 @,@ 100 and 1 @,@ 650 ° C ( 2 @,@ 000 and 3000 ° F ) ) . Nor would anonymous bone fragments have been of much interest to the hungry people sifting through the tens of thousands of tons of rubble and debris after the fire , looking for valuables , or to the workmen clearing away the rubble later during the rebuilding . Hanson appeals to common sense and " the experience of every other major urban fire down the centuries " , emphasising that the fire attacked the rotting tenements of the poor with furious speed , surely trapping at the very least " the old , the very young , the halt and the lame " and burying the dust and ashes of their bones under the rubble of cellars , producing a death toll not of four or eight , but of " several hundred and quite possibly several thousand . "
The material destruction has been computed at 13 @,@ 500 houses , 87 parish churches , 44 Company Halls , the Royal Exchange , the Custom House , St Paul 's Cathedral , the Bridewell Palace and other City prisons , the General Letter Office , and the three western city gates — Ludgate , Newgate , and Aldersgate . The monetary value of the loss , first estimated at £ 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in the currency of the time , was later reduced to an uncertain £ 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( over £ 1 billion in 2005 pounds ) . Evelyn believed that he saw as many as " 200 @,@ 000 people of all ranks and stations dispersed , and lying along their heaps of what they could save " in the fields towards Islington and Highgate .
= = Aftermath = =
An example of the urge to identify scapegoats for the fire is the acceptance of the confession of a simple @-@ minded French watchmaker named Robert Hubert , who claimed that he was an agent of the Pope and had started the Great Fire in Westminster . He later changed his story to say that he had started the fire at the bakery in Pudding Lane . Hubert was convicted , despite some misgivings about his fitness to plead , and hanged at Tyburn on 28 September 1666 . After his death , it became apparent that he had been on board a ship in the North Sea , and had not arrived in London until two days after the fire started . These allegations that Catholics had started the fire were exploited as powerful political propaganda by opponents of pro @-@ Catholic Charles II 's court , mostly during the Popish Plot and the exclusion crisis later in his reign .
Abroad in the Netherlands , the Great Fire of London was seen as a divine retribution for Holmes 's Bonfire , the burning by the English of a Dutch town during the Second Anglo @-@ Dutch War .
In the chaos and unrest after the fire , Charles II feared another London rebellion . He encouraged the homeless to move away from London and settle elsewhere , immediately issuing a proclamation that " all Cities and Towns whatsoever shall without any contradiction receive the said distressed persons and permit them the free exercise of their manual trades . " A special Fire Court was set up to deal with disputes between tenants and landlords and decide who should rebuild , based on ability to pay . The Court was in session from February 1667 to September 1672 . Cases were heard and a verdict usually given within a day ; without the Fire Court , lengthy legal wrangles would have seriously delayed the rebuilding which was so necessary if London was to recover .
Radical rebuilding schemes poured in for the gutted City and were encouraged by Charles . If it had been rebuilt under some of these plans , London would have rivalled Paris in Baroque magnificence ( see Evelyn 's plan on the right ) . The Crown and the City authorities attempted to establish " to whom all the houses and ground did in truth belong " to negotiate with their owners about compensation for the large @-@ scale remodelling that these plans entailed , but that unrealistic idea had to be abandoned . Exhortations to bring workmen and measure the plots on which the houses had stood were mostly ignored by people worried about day @-@ to @-@ day survival , as well as by those who had left the capital ; for one thing , with the shortage of labour following the fire , it was impossible to secure workmen for the purpose . Apart from Wren and Evelyn , it is known that Robert Hooke , Valentine Knight , and Richard Newcourt proposed rebuilding plans .
With the complexities of ownership unresolved , none of the grand Baroque schemes could be realised for a City of piazzas and avenues ; there was nobody to negotiate with , and no means of calculating how much compensation should be paid . Instead , much of the old street plan was recreated in the new City , with improvements in hygiene and fire safety : wider streets , open and accessible wharves along the length of the Thames , with no houses obstructing access to the river , and , most importantly , buildings constructed of brick and stone , not wood . New public buildings were created on their predecessors ' sites ; perhaps the most famous is St Paul 's Cathedral and its smaller cousins , Christopher Wren 's 50 new churches .
On Charles ' initiative , a Monument to the Great Fire of London was erected near Pudding Lane , designed by Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke , standing 61 metres ( 200 ft ) tall and known simply as " The Monument " . It is a familiar London landmark which has given its name to a tube station . In 1668 , accusations against the Catholics were added to the inscription on the Monument which read , in part :
The inscription remained in place until 1830 and the passage of the Catholic Emancipation Act , aside from the four years of James II 's rule from 1685 to 1689 .
Another monument marks the spot where the fire stopped : the Golden Boy of Pye Corner in Smithfield . According to the inscription , it was evidence of God 's wrath on the City of London for the sin of gluttony that the fire started at Pudding Lane and stopped at Pye Corner .
The Great Plague epidemic of 1665 is believed to have killed a sixth of London 's inhabitants , or 80 @,@ 000 people , and it is sometimes suggested that the fire saved lives in the long run by burning down so much unsanitary housing with their rats and their fleas which transmitted the plague , as plague epidemics did not recur in London after the fire . Historians disagree as to whether the fire played a part in preventing subsequent major outbreaks . The Museum of London website claims that there was a connection , while historian Roy Porter points out that the fire left the most insalubrious parts of London untouched , the slum suburbs .
Following the Fire , the thoroughfares of Queen Street and King Street were newly laid out , cutting across more ancient thoroughfares in the City , creating a new route up from the Thames to the Guildhall ; they were the only notable new streets following the fire 's destruction of much of the City .
= = In culture = =
William Harrison Ainsworth 's novel Old St Paul 's is set during the events of the fire .
The Great Fire was released on ITV television in 2014 . It was shown in four episodes . It constructs a fictional scenario involving the Pudding Lane baker 's family in an alleged popish plot .
The round " London 's Burning " is said to be about the Great Fire . However , the first notation of a song in this theme dates from 1580 as " Scotland 's Burning " .
|
= Widerøe Flight 839 =
Widerøe Flight 839 , also known as the Værøy Accident ( Norwegian : Værøy @-@ ulykken ) , was a crash into water of a de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 6 @-@ 300 Twin Otter just after take @-@ off from Værøy Airport in Norway . The incident occurred on 12 April 1990 at 14 : 44 , and killed all five people on board . The cause of the accident were strong winds that exceeded the structure 's tolerance , causing the tail rudder and tailplane to crack so the plane became uncontrollable . Impact occurred 63 seconds after take @-@ off and 8 seconds after the crack . The aircraft crashed into the water , and a search was conducted for several days to find the wreck .
Uneven and strong winds had given the airport low regularity , and prior to take @-@ off , wind speeds of 57 knots ( 106 km / h ) had been recorded.The accident caused the airport to be permanently closed , and replaced by Værøy Heliport . The incident was investigated by the Accident Investigation Board Norway , who published their conclusions in 1991 . Three years later , a new investigation was conducted , after an engineer had stated that the cause of the accident could instead have been fatigue . The second investigation came to the same conclusion as the first and all involved parties have since supported the causes made in the initial report .
= = Accident = =
Widerøe Flight 839 was a scheduled flight from Værøy Airport to Bodø Airport operated with a de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 6 @-@ 300 Twin Otter . The aircraft had registration LN @-@ BNS and serial number 536 , and was delivered to Widerøe on 27 April 1977 . It was insured with Norsk Flyforsikringspool . The aircraft left Bodø Airport at 13 : 36 as Flight 838 to Røst Airport , where it landed at 14 : 04 . It continued to Værøy as Flight 839 , leaving Røst at 14 : 14 . During this flight the crew received information that the wind at the east end of the runway was from 270 ° , varying from 18 to 26 knots ( 33 to 48 km / h ) — a moderate gale . When the plane landed at 14 : 30 , the tower had stated that the wind was from 270 ° and max 23 knots ( 43 km / h ) . The crew commented on the wind after landing , and stated that the wind blew from all directions . At Værøy Airport , three passengers disembarked , two passengers boarded and the plane fueled . There was also a passenger in transit from Røst to Bodø , so the total ridership was three passengers , plus the two pilots . Take @-@ off weight was 4 @,@ 548 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 10 @,@ 028 lb ) , including 640 kg ( 1 @,@ 410 lb ) of fuel .
The aircraft taxied to runway 25 . During the departure briefing , the captain decided not to follow the company 's standard procedure and have a climb at 320 ° instead of 280 ° . Maximum measured wind had been recorded at 57 knots ( 106 km / h ) while the aircraft had been parked . The aircraft asked for clearance at 14 : 42 : 10 ; this was granted , and the air control informed that the wind at the west end was between 210 ° and 290 ° , varying from 18 to 34 knots ( 33 to 63 km / h ) . The eastern wind was not communicated to the aircraft , but was 270 ° , varying from 20 to 40 knots ( 37 to 74 km / h ) . The take @-@ off started at 14 : 42 : 43 and the aircraft was airborne after having passed half the runway . Witnesses described that the aircraft after take @-@ off climbed quickly , but then started falling , and then climbed quickly again . It then entered clouds west of the airport . During climb , the captain wanted to keep the flaps at 10 ° , contradictory to standard procedure that involved decreasing the flaps . At 14 : 43 : 09 , a rattling sound was registered on the cockpit voice recorder ( CVR ) . Thirty @-@ five seconds later , sounds from unsynchronized propellers were registered . The co @-@ pilot indicates that the flight was in difficulty . Eight seconds later , at 14 : 43 : 52 , the CVR stopped recording . At 14 : 43 : 54 , the control tower at Værøy registered a distress signal , that lasted four seconds , followed by a loud bang . The aircraft was then repeatedly called by radio . At 14 : 50 , Bodø Air Traffic Control Center was contacted .
The Joint Rescue Coordination Centre of Northern Norway in Bodø dispatched two helicopters and two ships , but one helicopter and one ship had to return due to the bad weather that soon had increased to a hurricane . At 16 : 45 , parts of the aircraft were found 3 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 6 @.@ 5 km ) northwest of Værøy Airport . After the weather improved , one rescue ship , four fishing vessels and one Westland Sea King were used to find the wreck . On 13 April , twelve ships and two helicopters were being used , and several parts from the wreck were found . This allowed the searching crew to use divers search for the wreck . The aircraft was found on 15 April , 2 @,@ 300 metres ( 7 @,@ 500 ft ) from the airport . Eighty percent of the wreck was found within an area of 300 by 400 m ( 980 by 1 @,@ 310 ft ) and at about 10 m ( 33 ft ) depth .
The deceased were Captain Idar Nils Persen ( 40 ) , Co @-@ pilot Arnt Vidar Grønneflåta ( 31 ) , and passengers Stig Myrvoll ( 25 ) , Frank Bakkeli ( 27 ) and Runa Dagny Søraa ( 23 ) . All passengers died immediately upon impact , but the Captain 's body was never found .
= = Cause = =
The runway at Værøy Airport , that runs east – west , ran parallel to a mountain to the south that is about 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) tall . Prior to construction , Widerøe had performed test flights in the area , and these had concluded with unacceptable wind conditions , particularly from the south over the mountain . From 31 October 1988 , Widerøe introduced self @-@ imposed restrictions on landing at Værøy . Aircraft were not allowed to land or take off if the wind came from 090 ° – 240 ° ( though south ) if the wind speed exceeded 20 knots ( 37 km / h ) , including gusts . Additional restrictions were introduced following an incident on 18 January 1989 ; these were again modified on 1 November 1989 . Flight 839 took off within the permitted limits of these restrictions . However , Twin Otters were not to operate on the ground during winds that exceeded 50 knots ( 93 km / h ) , and since the aircraft started taxiing following a report of wind speeds of 57 knots ( 106 km / h ) , this was a breach of procedure . The wind also changed direction immediately after take @-@ off .
The aircraft had not had any mechanical or technical errors or problems prior to take @-@ off . The turbulence and wind shear caused a crack in either the tail rudder , the tailplane , or both . This was caused by strong winds acting on both sides of the structure , due to shifting winds . These structural failures caused the aircraft to crash . Out of the 63 seconds from take @-@ off to impact , the aircraft was under control for the first 55 seconds ; only during the last 8 seconds did the crew not have control over the aircraft .
The Accident Investigation Board Norway stated in its report that the crew should not have landed with the amounts of wind that were reported , and that they definitively should not have taken off . However , since the wind came from the west , which by pilots was reported to cause less fewer problems than from other directions , they may have decided to ignore the wind exceeding the permitted values . In particular , the Accident Investigation Board criticized the choice of taxiing in 57 knots ( 106 km / h ) , 7 knots ( 13 km / h ) above the permitted wind speed for ground operation and far over the permitted levels for take @-@ off from the airport . The board commented that although it was common to cancel flights to Værøy , no flights had been canceled after the plane had landed , instead being canceled prior to landing . The board commented that the flight being the last before Easter , it may have influenced the pilots ' sense of duty towards getting the passengers to their destinations . This may have been aggravated by the very low regularity that was at Værøy . The board also commented that pilots did not trust the wind data they received , since they often experienced it to be incorrect and that the wind could vary considerably within the airport . While the plane was at the ground , it had been raining . Pilots at Værøy often experienced that weather was better between rain showers , and there were indications that the captain wanted to take @-@ off before the next rain shower hit .
The Accident Investigation Board concluded :
The cause of the accident is that the plane during climb was subject to wind that succeeded the planes construction criteria . This caused a crack in the tail rudder / tailplane causing the plane to become uncontrollable . "
= = Aftermath = =
= = = New airport = = =
Værøy Airport had opened on 1 July 1986 as part of the regional airport network in Northern Norway operated by Widerøe . Prior to this , Værøy and Røst had been served by helicopters using a heliport ; that had replaced previous services with seaplanes . All services to the airport were suspended immediately after the incident . On 7 May , Widerøe stated that they would not use Værøy Airport , and that they would decline the concession to operate to Værøy if the island community did not receive a new airport . They commented that the restrictions caused by the wind forced the airline to terminate up to half the departures . The chairman of the Widerøe 's Pilots ' Union , Cpt . Helge Høvik , stated the same day that the airline might have to lower the number of calls at some other regional airports , namely Mosjøen Airport , Kjærstad , Mo i Rana Airport , Røssvold , Sandnessjøen Airport , Stokka and Sandane Airport , Anda . Høvik stated that he felt that many of the airports were located in the wrong place , for instance at the bottom of valleys , on top of hills and between mountains . Widerøe stated that there was not a safety problem at any other regional airports .
The report from the Accident Investigation Board was highly critical to the Norwegian Civil Aviation Administration , stating that the airport should never have been built where it was and that it was " clearly unsuitable for regular traffic " . It stated that the administration had overlooked comments from meteorologists and test flights in the area that had concluded that the wind conditions in the area were not suitable for an airport . The commission that wrote the report and conducted the investigation , stated that the Civil Aviation Administration had not proceeded correctly while planning the airport — they had chosen Nordlandet early as a location and ignored negative comments . After the Norwegian Meteorological Institute had made a favorable report about the weather in the area , the administration had failed to conduct the necessary test flights to test the wind conditions , since this was not determined in the initial recommendation . The commission also commented that the safety division had been critical to the localization of the airport , but had withdrawn their disputes following pressure from higher ranks in the administration . The commission also criticized the Civil Aviation Administration for not conducting investigations following the reports of low regularity and the incidents in 1988 and 1989 .
No aircraft has ever taken off from Værøy Airport after the accident , except in June 1992 , when a Cessna 172 brought 3 skydivers from Bodø Skydiving Club ( Bodø Fallskjermklubb ) to the island , accompanied by a Piper Cherokee 140 from Bodø Flyklubb and an experimental plane . The Cessna made 2 landings and take @-@ offs , and dropped the skydivers over the runway at approx . 8000 feet . The Piper and experimental craft made at least one landing and take @-@ off each , during a public show held close to the airport . In 1992 , the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications decided to permanently close the airport , after it had been temporarily closed since the accident . In 1995 , Værøy Heliport was opened further south on the island , and Helikopter Service was awarded the public service obligation to operate the route . The helicopter service sometimes uses the closed airport as a reserve airport during bad weather .
= = = Second investigation = = =
In an article published in the newspaper Fremover ( Narvik , Norway ) , in May 1994 , the English aviation engineer Hugh Tyrer stated that the cause of the accident was probably due to fatigue in the end piece of the transfer mechanism to the elevator . The end piece was in such a state that it would have failed sooner or later in ordinary use . Following this discovery in the wreck , Widerøe had grounded all their Twin Otters and checked these pieces , but without finding any other defect parts. de Havilland Canada had also sent an alert to all operators of the Twin Otter to check the component , and had canceled the contract with the subcontractor . On 800 operating Twin Otters , 86 end pieces were replaced shortly after the accident , although none had fatigue similar to that of LN @-@ BNS . The commission 's chair , Ragnar Rygnestad , stated that they had not considered the end piece to be part of the cause of the accident , and that they therefore had not stress @-@ tested it or the elevator to see what forces were needed to cause a crack . Rygnestad stated that the board knew about the fatigue . He also said that he had no problems with the opening of a new inquiry . Widerøe stated that they trusted the report from the Accident Investigation Board .
Member of parliament , Inge Myrvoll , and president of the Norwegian Airline Pilots Association , Cpt.Peter Helland , both stated that the Accident Investigation Board should make a new inquiry about the accident . Cpt . Helland stated that the report 's credibility was weakened due to the influence de Havilland Canada had during the process . On 10 June , the commission reopened the case , after having held meetings with Tyrer . The commission stated that there was disagreement as to if the tail rudder and tail plane or the end piece had cracked first , which would be crucial in determining the cause of the accident . Among the inquiries would be to re @-@ investigate the tape of cockpit sound with new technology . The Accident Investigation Board used the National Aerospace Laboratory in the Netherlands to conduct tests on the end pieces . The report from the National Aerospace Laboratory was published on 23 March 1995 , and supported the conclusion in the commissions report . The journalist Oddvar Kristoffersen in Fremover won the SKUP Award for 1994 for his work related to uncovering the controversy . The pilots ' union in Widerøe was initially critical of the report , but by July it stated that it supported the conclusion . In addition , Det Norske Veritas withdrew its critical comments concerning the commission . With this , all officially involved parties supported the report .
|
= SECR K and SR K1 classes =
The SECR K class was a type of 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 tank locomotive designed in 1914 by Richard Maunsell for express passenger duties on the South Eastern and Chatham Railway ( SECR ) , which operated between London and south @-@ east England . The Southern Railway ( SR ) K1 class was a three @-@ cylinder variant of the K class , designed in 1925 to suit a narrower loading gauge . They were among the first non @-@ Great Western Railway ( GWR ) types to use and improve upon the basic design principles of power and standardisation established by GWR Chief Mechanical Engineer ( CME ) George Jackson Churchward . The locomotives were based on the GWR 4300 class , improved by the Midland Railway 's ideals of simplicity and ease of maintenance .
The K class was designed to be mechanically similar to the SECR N class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 mixed @-@ traffic locomotives . The class was the earliest large @-@ scale use of the 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 wheel arrangement in Britain . Production began towards the end of the First World War , and the prototype rolled out of Ashford Works three years after design work was completed due to wartime production constraints . The class replaced obsolete 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 passenger locomotives in an SECR fleet standardisation programme .
Twenty @-@ one locomotives were built : twenty K class ( two cylinders ) and one K1 class ( three cylinders ) , the first in 1917 and the remainder between 1925 and 1926 . They operated over the Eastern section of the Southern Railway network and were given the names of rivers , being referred as the River class from 1925 . Crews referred to the K and K1 classes as " Rolling Rivers " because of their instability when travelling at speed . They were rebuilt as 2 @-@ cylinder SR U class and 3 @-@ cylinder SR U1 class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0s ( respectively ) following a railway accident at Sevenoaks , Kent in 1927 . They continued in service with British Railways ( BR ) until the last was withdrawn in 1966 . One K class rebuild ( No. 31806 ) is preserved on the Swanage Railway in Dorset and as of 2016 is operational .
= = Background = =
Three factors dictated the type of locomotive that could operate on the South Eastern and Chatham Railway ( SECR ) : the heavy passenger train loadings ; the poor track quality ; and the weak , lightly built bridges . On the lines of the former London , Chatham and Dover Railway ( LCDR ) – inherited by the SECR in 1899 – beach pebbles had been used for ballast instead of conventional ballast , which has irregular shapes that lock together to keep the track in place . These economies in construction meant that only locomotives with low axle loadings could operate safely over the track . The SECR was therefore unable to follow a coherent strategy to reduce the number of locomotive types inherited from the two constituent railways . Despite increased passenger and freight traffic between London Charing Cross and the Kentish coast during the first decades of the 20th century , the Operating Department had to use mismatched classes of underpowered and obsolete 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 and 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 locomotives , which could operate within the restrictions imposed by the infrastructure . This resulted in frequent double @-@ heading , adding to operational costs .
Richard Maunsell was appointed CME of the SECR in 1913 , following the enforced retirement of Harry Wainwright , who had left a range of competent but unspectacular locomotive classes that struggled to cope with the increased train lengths and loadings . Maunsell reviewed the situation and planned to introduce six standard classes – using only two boiler designs – which would work the entire traffic of the railway . The first of these was the N class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 , which gave the SECR a capable mixed @-@ traffic locomotive . For the express passenger design that could cope with the heavy boat trains , Maunsell wanted to enlarge the existing L class 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 with Walschaerts valve gear and an enlarged superheater , but this design would have resulted in a too heavy axle loading . Maunsell 's newly recruited assistants , G.H. Pearson and Harold Holcroft from the Great Western Railway at Swindon and James Clayton from the Midland Railway at Derby , had recently been involved in the design of large passenger tank engines and persuaded him to use the 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 wheel arrangement , which would allow the class to operate at high speeds on the poor @-@ quality track in north Kent .
= = Design and construction = =
The 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 wheel arrangement was not in common use in Great Britain at this time , as many railway companies operated routes that required locomotives with greater fuel capacity , or short branch lines that necessitated smaller locomotives . The 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 tank engine design had only been used once before for standard gauge locomotives in Britain , on the Great Central Railway 's 1B class freight locomotives of 1914 . However , the configuration was ideal for the SECR , because of its shorter mainlines , and allowed for a long wheelbase with a leading axle to permit greater stability at speed on track curves . The tightness of the curves on the former LCDR mainlines had constrained the size of locomotives operating on the SECR , as they had been hastily erected during the nineteenth century to compete with those of the South Eastern Railway ( SER ) . The longer locomotive could also accommodate a larger boiler than a 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 , giving sufficient power to avoid double @-@ heading of locomotives on heavier trains .
The K class design used a " Bissel bogie " leading axle and a plain trailing bogie . The trailing bogie permitted the use of a large coal bunker that was capable of sustaining the locomotive over the run between London Charing Cross and Dover Marine , and side water tanks of 2 @,@ 000 imp gal ( 9 @,@ 100 l ; 2 @,@ 400 US gal ) capacity were used , negating the need for a tender . The coupled wheelbase between the rear and centre driving wheels was reduced from that used on the mechanically identical N class to 7 ft 9 in ( 2 @.@ 362 m ) to accommodate the bogie . The cab was fully enclosed , although the set of four small front spectacle plates ( the windows on the front face of the cab for forward visibility ) were the same as those used on the N class .
The K class was designed by Maunsell 's team in 1914 as part of his proposed standardisation programme following the N class , but the designs were not shown to the railway directors until early 1915 to enable all six designs to be shown at once . The design incorporated the principles of power and reliability established by George Churchward , using a Belpaire firebox that sloped downwards towards the cab instead of a round @-@ topped version , a regulator located in the smokebox , long @-@ travel valves for free running at high speeds , a sharply tapered and domeless boiler , and a right @-@ hand driving position . The inclusion of these features is attributed to Holcroft , Maunsell 's personal assistant , who had worked on the GWR 4300 class and the N class . James Clayton , Maunsell 's Chief Locomotive Draughtsman , brought simpler and more functional Midland Railway influences to the design , such as the shape of the cab and the drumhead @-@ type smokebox , which sat on a saddle that was of wider diameter than the fully lagged and clad boiler . The latter was fitted with Ross pop safety valves and pressed to 200 psi ( 1 @.@ 38 MPa ) .
Other innovations by Maunsell 's team included greater superheating surface area , locating the boiler water top feed inside a dome @-@ like cover with external clackboxes and water feed pipes mounted on either side , outside Walschaerts valve gear , and parts that could be shared with similar locomotive classes to reduce maintenance costs . The firebox was narrower towards the rear and featured a continuously sloping grate , whilst the ashpan was fitted with front and rear damper doors , the latter adjusted to clear the rear driving axle . The lower part of the coal bunker incorporated a water tank of 760 imp gal ( 3 @,@ 500 l ; 910 US gal ) capacity . This was connected to two 620 imp gal ( 2 @,@ 800 l ; 740 US gal ) side tanks by two rectangular pipes on either side of the locomotive that also formed supports for the cab footplate .
= = = K class = = =
In January 1915 Maunsell received authority to build six examples , but , as with the N class , production was delayed due to the use of the Ashford works for wartime armaments manufacture . Assembly began in 1917 and the first , No. 790 , emerged in July of that year . It was based at Bricklayers Arms depot , preceding the earlier N class design into service by one month . Further construction was deferred until after Ashford had caught up with the maintenance backlog caused by the war .
Ten more locomotives were ordered by the SECR from Ashford works in June 1920 , and to speed delivery the construction of frames , cylinders and side tanks was subcontracted to the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich . However , further severe delays at Ashford caused by the backlog of repair work meant that the boilers had to be supplied by the North British Locomotive Company . Construction of these locomotives had not begun by 1 January 1923 , when the Railways Act 1921 merged the SECR with other railways in southern England to form the Southern Railway .
Maunsell was appointed CME of the newly formed Southern Railway in 1923 , and inherited the 1920 SECR order for ten K class locomotives . The order was still outstanding in 1924 , although most of the component parts had been made . On 14 January 1925 , Maunsell ordered No. 790 to be overhauled and trialled on the Central section . As the locomotive proved suitable for the operating conditions of this section , the Southern Railway 's Locomotive Committee proceeded with the assembly of the K class parts using outside contractors . Nine sets of parts ( Nos. A791 – A799 ) were conveyed to Armstrong Whitworth for assembly and the finished locomotives delivered in May and June 1925 . These were dual @-@ fitted with vacuum and Westinghouse ( air ) brakes for use with the former London , Brighton and South Coast Railway ( LBSCR ) rolling stock on the Central section . Other differences from the prototype included the relocation of the regulator to the dome and an increase in superheater area . The tenth set of parts was retained by Ashford and used for the first member of the K1 class later that year .
In May 1925 Maunsell ordered a further ten locomotives from Brighton works ( Nos. A800 – A809 ) , which only had vacuum brakes for the SECR stock on the Eastern section . They were delivered between July and December 1926 . This group had modified suspension on the bogie and leading axle , in an attempt to address complaints from the crews of rough riding experienced with earlier members of the class . A further 20 members of the class were ordered in March 1926 ( ten each from Ashford and Brighton works ) , despite strong reservations expressed by the Operating Department concerning " the wisdom or desirability of placing so many large passenger tanks in service " . These were allocated the numbers A610 – A629 , and work had begun on building the frames and cylinders when the order was cancelled following an accident at Sevenoaks in 1927 involving locomotive No . A800 . These numbers were later allocated to the first production batch of U class locomotives .
= = = K1 class = = =
In August 1919 , a proposal was put to the SECR ’ s Locomotive , Carriage and Wagon Committee for 2 and 3 @-@ cylinder tank engines of 2 @-@ 8 @-@ 0 wheel arrangement for heavy shunting of freight wagons . They were to use the same boiler as the K and N classes and the general layout was similar to designs used by the GWR in South Wales . Nothing came of this proposal because of other commitments and the absorption of the SECR into the Southern Railway . In 1922 , Holcroft suggested that 3 @-@ cylinder 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 tender locomotives with 6 ft ( 1 @,@ 830 mm ) driving wheels should be built instead of tank locomotives . Despite the benefit of a greater operational range , Holcroft 's immediate superior , Clayton , refused to pass this suggestion on to Maunsell . The 3 @-@ cylinder principle was therefore applied to the K class .
At the Southern Railway ’ s January 1925 Locomotive Committee meeting , when it was decided to use outside contractors to build the K class , Maunsell received authority to retain one set of parts at Ashford works to construct a prototype 3 @-@ cylinder 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 tank . The modification was based upon that used on N class No. 822 to produce a 3 @-@ cylinder locomotive in 1922 , although it retained the 6 ft ( 1 @,@ 830 mm ) driving wheels and shorter wheelbase of the K class . The modification was the inclusion of an additional ( inside ) cylinder between the frames , and a crank axle was fitted to the middle driving wheels . The axle was connected to the inside cylinder assembly by a connecting rod inclined at 1 in 8 to clear the front driving axle . This arrangement was supplemented by two smaller @-@ diameter outside cylinders with 16 in ( 406 mm ) bore ( compared to the 19 in ( 483 mm ) cylinders of the K class ) , and a greater chimney diameter . The resulting prototype 3 @-@ cylinder " K1 " was narrower than the K class and hence could work on routes with restricted loading gauge . As with No. 822 , this locomotive used Holcroft 's derivative of the Gresley conjugated valve gear to drive the inside cylinder . To accommodate this , the boiler had to be raised by 3 in ( 76 mm ) above the inside gear , raising the centre of gravity on the locomotive .
The main visual difference between the K and K1 classes was at the front end : the K1 incorporated a vertical metal cover above the front buffer beam to protect the third cylinder and associated Holcroft valve gear assembly from the elements . It also featured a new cab design with redesigned single front spectacle plates , and a pair of substantially constructed steps were fitted behind both outside cylinders to provide access to the running plate . The lack of a middle cylinder on the K class locomotives had allowed the provision of a footplate that curved from the buffers to the water tanks . The K1 prototype emerged from Ashford works as No . A890 , and underwent trials from 1 December 1925 before entering regular service . Only one locomotive of the K1 class was built ; plans to build a further ten ( Nos. A891 @-@ A900 ) alongside a batch of five N1 class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0s were cancelled after the Sevenoaks accident in August 1927 . Following rebuilding as a 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 tender locomotive in 1928 , No . A890 was reclassified U1 and was the forerunner of twenty more basically similar locomotives built in 1931 .
= = = K and K1 class construction history = = =
= = = Naming the locomotives = = =
For details of K and K1 class locomotive names , see : List of SECR K and SR K1 class locomotives
The K class prototype operated without a name until 1925 , when the Southern Railway 's publicity department decided to name all express passenger locomotives . The locomotives constructed from 1925 were named after rivers found within the Southern Railway 's operating area , and the class became known collectively as the River class . The first @-@ completed Southern Railway K class No . A791 was named River Adur whilst the former SECR prototype was given the name River Avon ; names were also allocated to the cancelled 1926 batch of locomotives . The K1 class locomotive No . A890 was named River Frome . The names were displayed on a rectangular brass nameplate fitted to the water tank sides .
= = Operational details = =
The K class was intended to haul the SECR 's Kent expresses , and was trialled between Charing Cross , Tonbridge , Canterbury East and Folkestone East . A trial non @-@ stop run between Cannon Street and Folkestone Harbour by No. 790 pulling a train of 300 long tons ( 305 t ) had proved the water capacity of the side tanks to be insufficient for such runs . No. 790 was also tested on fast Cannon Street , Redhill and Tonbridge trains during the spring of 1922 , although rough riding between the latter two stations meant slower speeds over that part of route on subsequent runs .
The Southern Railway 's motive power re @-@ organisation following the Grouping of 1923 expanded the class for operations over the Central section . The Westinghouse @-@ fitted Armstrong Whitworth batch was used on the air @-@ braked Eastbourne and Brighton expresses and regular passenger service trains to Portsmouth . The vacuum @-@ braked Brighton batch was run @-@ in on the Portsmouth route in preparation for operating the Redhill – Reading line , the class regularly hauling the daily Birkenhead – Dover through train . The K1 was mainly rostered to haul the early evening express from Cannon Street to Dover Marine .
= = = Performance of the tank locomotives = = =
The K class proved successful on well @-@ maintained track . It was capable of high speeds on express passenger duties , although their use was limited by the lower storage capacity of tank locomotives , which meant the K and K1 classes were prone to water shortages on the long Kent Coast routes , and precluded them from working many of the former London and South Western Railway ( LSWR ) routes west of London . The need to save weight meant that compromises were made in some aspects of the design . The boiler size was constrained by the SECR ’ s axle @-@ loading restrictions , with the result that the design ’ s full steaming potential was not realised . The failure to capitalise upon a larger boiler would also affect Maunsell ’ s subsequent 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 classes , as they were given the same boiler despite their lower axle @-@ loadings .
On the Southern Railway 's Central and Eastern sections , crews complained that the locomotives rolled heavily and unpredictably on the cheaply laid track of the former SECR and LBSCR networks , leading to their nickname , " Rolling Rivers " . The rolling was in part caused by the type of coil suspension and steadying springs used on the Bissel truck and bogie axles , which caused adverse springing on poor track . These were modified in later batches , with limited success . The rough @-@ riding was also attributed to the frames , which were of insubstantial construction to save weight . The bracing proved incapable of counteracting the stresses applied to the frames when travelling at speed and caused excessive vibration on the footplate at higher outputs .
The K1 prototype was slightly faster and more powerful than the K class , and gave a smoother ride at low speeds . It was also found to have a wider route availability due to the smaller outside cylinders . However , the Holcroft valve gear proved to be difficult to maintain in everyday service . This locomotive was also noted for particularly poor riding characteristics at high speed , derailing twice in 1927 . The first derailment occurred at Borough Green & Wrotham , near Maidstone on 31 March , when the flanges of the lead coupled wheel mounted the rails at 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) . The second derailment was at Bearsted on 20 August , when the lead driving wheel mounted and completely dropped off the rails at 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) , derailing the train and causing serious damage to the track . These derailments were attributed to the slightly higher centre of gravity of the boiler on the K1 . Although the official reports of these accidents blamed the poor quality of the track , a group of directors sought to have both classes banned from use on passenger services , but were overruled by the Southern Railway 's Chairman of the Board of Directors , Everard Baring on grounds of cost .
= = = Accidents and incidents = = =
In March 1927 , locomotive No. 890 River Frome was hauling a train which derailed at Wrotham , Kent .
On 2 August 1927 , Locomotive No. 800 River Cray was derailed at Maidstone , Kent .
On 20 August 1927 , locomotive No. 890 River Frome was hauling a passenger train which was derailed at Bearsted , Kent . The cause was attributed to track defects . The locomotive was repaired and re @-@ entered service on 23 August . It was involved in a serious accident the next day .
= = = = Sevenoaks disaster = = = =
The K and K1 classes suffered from stability problems when travelling at speed over points and curves . The locomotive would initially roll ( briefly lean heavily ) to one side , followed by several further rolls of gradually reducing amplitude , combined with a side @-@ slipping movement that caused the driving wheels to mount the rails . Several minor derailments of members of the class were followed by the serious derailment of No . A800 River Cray at Sevenoaks , Kent , in August 1927 , caused by a combination of a surge in the water tanks and the flanges of the locomotive 's lead driving wheels mounting the rail at speed due to poor quality track @-@ work . The locomotive was hauling a Cannon Street to Deal express with a Pullman carriage when the leading driving wheels derailed at 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) over catch points in a cutting . Several carriages were flung against a road bridge , injuring 40 and killing 13 passengers .
In the days following the accident , two K and K1 class engines were trialled on the London and North Eastern Railway 's ( LNER ) Great Northern mainline under the supervision of that company 's CME , Nigel Gresley , to gain an unbiased review of their riding qualities . Locomotives No . A803 ( K ) and No . A890 ( K1 ) , and King Arthur class No . E782 , were tested on the well @-@ maintained LNER line between Huntingdon and St. Neots in October 1927 , where few problems were found with locomotive stability . On runs between Kings Cross and Potters Bar with the LNER 's dynamometer car , No . A890 was recorded at a top speed of 83 miles per hour ( 134 km / h ) and A803 at 79 miles per hour ( 127 km / h ) , with no problems in riding . When these engines returned from the LNER , the Southern Railway 's General Manager , Sir Herbert Walker ordered further trials to be led by Sir John Aspinall on the Western section main line near Woking . These were terminated by the Southern Railway 's Operating Department , as the riding of the locomotives at speeds near 80 miles per hour ( 130 km / h ) rendered the locomotives unsafe . The instability of No . A890 at speed was attributed to the helical springs on the Bissel truck and bogie .
The 1928 accident inquiry did not attach blame to the Southern Railway for track maintenance or locomotive performance issues , and noted that the prototype had run for eight years over the same stretch of line without complaint . However , it identified the Brighton batch and No . A890 as being more susceptible to rolling on sharp curves with weak rail joints , although the entire class operated without incident on the former LBSCR network . The management of the Southern Railway realised that to have any success in operating the K class tanks on other parts of the network , vast stretches of track would require upgrading . With the prospect of storing 20 locomotives whilst the necessary upgrading took place , the management recommended the class be fully withdrawn from service . To recoup the expense of constructing the engines , Maunsell was given permission to rebuild them to the new SR U class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 tender engine design in 1928 . This decision also reduced the adverse publicity generated by the accident . However , many of the components discarded during the rebuilding process would later be re @-@ used on another 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 tank locomotive designed to haul heavy freight on short trips : the 3 @-@ cylinder W class of 1932 .
= = Rebuilding = =
The rebuilding of the class as tender locomotives was cheaper than relaying track , particularly as in most respects the class had performed well . Rebuilding took place at Ashford , Brighton and Eastleigh railway works between March and December 1928 , where the water tanks , rear bogie and coal bunker were removed . The straight @-@ sided 3 @,@ 500 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 15 @,@ 900 l ) variant of Maunsell tender was attached , allowing a greater operational range for the locomotives . The rear bogies were later used on the SR W class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 tank locomotives ( the only subsequent use of this wheel arrangement by the Southern Railway , and their use was restricted to freight operations around London ) . The solitary K1 class locomotive was rebuilt in June 1928 , and so became the three @-@ cylinder prototype of the SR U1 class . The Holcroft valve gear was later replaced with a third set of Walschaerts valve gear in February 1932 , thus reducing maintenance . None of the rebuilds retained their names .
= = = Performance of the rebuilt locomotives and withdrawal = = =
As members of the U and U1 classes , rebuilds were used mainly on mixed @-@ traffic as well as secondary passenger duties on lines between the main routes . They were used all over the Southern Railway network , but were little @-@ used over the steep track gradients west of Exeter . The smaller @-@ wheeled N class was preferred amongst crews for the same duties , as high @-@ speed running was rare away from the main lines in the West Country . Heavier passenger work was allocated to Bulleid 's Unrebuilt Light Pacifics , which were within weight restrictions in this area . The 21 rebuilt locomotives entered British Railways service in 1948 . From 1955 a few were given replacement frames at overhaul : these had a shallower curve between the front buffer beam and the smokebox .
Withdrawals took place between 1962 and 1966 , by which time many of the rebuilds were based at Guildford shed . Work was taken over by Oliver Bulleid 's Light Pacifics , and the electrification of much of the former Southern Railway network was imminent , making all the 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0s surplus to requirements from 1963 . The final rebuild was withdrawn from service in June 1966 .
= = Livery and numbering = =
= = = SECR and Southern Railway = = =
The K class prototype was painted in an unlined dark grey livery with white lettering and numbering . This Maunsell grey livery was introduced by the SECR as a wartime economy measure . On Grouping in 1923 , the SR replaced the liveries of the constituent companies with a standard sage green livery ( the colour being that previously used by Urie on the LSWR ) with black and white lining , primrose yellow numbering and " Southern " on the tender . From 1925 , the K and K1 classes were repainted in a darker olive green livery , introduced by Maunsell , with plain white lining and primrose yellow markings . When rebuilt into the U and U1 classes , the locomotives were repainted in the olive green livery with " Southern " added to the tender tank . This was carried into the Second World War when labour shortages meant that many U class locomotives were painted in plain black , with the result that by 1945 all the class were running in black .
The class prototype was initially numbered 790 , with the rest following consecutively with a prefix " A " to denote a locomotive designed for the former SECR . The system of prefixes had been adopted by the SR to distinguish between locomotives with identical numbers acquired from different companies , and the K1 class became No . A890 when built in 1925 . This system was replaced from 1928 by a renumbering of all locomotives into one sequence , in which the K class rebuilds became Nos. 1790 – 1809 , and the K1 class rebuild became No. 1890 .
= = = Rebuilds in British Railways service = = =
The K and K1 classes were absorbed by British Railways as part of the U and U1 classes in 1948 , which were given the BR power classification 4MT ( mixed @-@ traffic ) in 1950 . This was later revised to 4P3F in the light of operational experience on freight trains . The locomotives at first retained their Southern Railway livery , with " British Railways " added to the tender when repaints were due . From 1949 to 1955 , the U and U1 class locomotives were gradually repainted in the British Railways mixed @-@ traffic lined black livery with red , cream and grey lining and the British Railways crest on the tender . Numbers were changed to the British Railways standard numbering system : the series 31790 – 31809 was allocated to the K class rebuilds , and 31890 to the K1 class .
= = Operational assessment and preservation = =
For location details and current status of the preserved ( rebuilt ) locomotive , see : List of K and K1 class locomotives .
Sir Nigel Gresley 's independent report on the K and K1 classes during the mainline stability trials stated that they were well designed , mechanically reliable and capable of hauling expresses at high speeds on well @-@ maintained track , which meant that they could have been useful additions to the Southern Railway 's suburban commuter fleet . However , they were undoubtedly prone to rough riding and instability , and not only on the poorest quality tracks . The restricted water capacity also limited their use outside the Southern Railway 's Central section . The impending electrification of the Brighton Main Line , scheduled for 1932 also meant that fewer duties suitable for heavy passenger tank locomotives would be available in the 1930s . The lack of a suitable role for both classes was considered when the decision was made to rebuild them as U / U1 tender engines following the Sevenoaks disaster . In rebuilt form they continued to operate until the 1960s , and were capable of attaining speeds in excess of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) with a greater degree of stability .
One K class rebuild has survived : No . A806 River Torridge – converted to U class No. 1806 – was rescued from Woodham Brothers scrap yard in Barry , Vale of Glamorgan , South Wales in October 1976 for use on the Watercress Line . It was restored to ex @-@ British Railways condition as No. 31806 . In August 2014 , the locomotive entered service with the Swanage Railway .
|
= Golden Age of Trucking Museum =
The Golden Age of Trucking Museum is a defunct trucking museum in Middlebury , Connecticut , United States . Founded in 1998 by Richard and Frances Guerrera , it was non @-@ profit organization dedicated to trucking that focused on trucks of the 1950s . The museum was dedicated on September 23 , 2002 and housed in a 32 @,@ 000 square foot building . It featured a collection of historic and antique vehicles including the first registered car in Connecticut , a 1928 Pierce @-@ Arrow Motor Car Company dump truck . Among the trucks in the museum were Mack Trucks , GMC and Autocar Company trucks , including a 1963 Mack B61 motivated Guerrera to found the museum . The Golden Age of Trucking Museum also featured a collection of toy trucks , hats , state license plates and images relating to trucking . Throughout its entire operation , the museum ran a deficit and it closed after a 2009 fund raising campaign failed . The museum 's final day of operation was on July 20 , 2010 . The economic impact of the museums closure was expected to be low , but according to Steven Frischling of the Boston Globe. the Golden Age of Trucking Museum made its mark on the auto world .
= = History = =
Founded in 1998 by Richard and Frances Guerrera , the Golden Age of Trucking Museum was a non @-@ profit organization dedicated to trucking . The Guerreras owned and operated R.J. Guerrera , a liquid transportation trucking company . Originally , a collection of trucks were restored and stored in barns and garages throughout Connecticut . The Golden Age of Trucking Museum was opened to bring the collection under a single roof . After the property for the museum was purchased in July 1998 , Richard Guerrera was diagnosed with cancer . In June 1999 , he was transported to the site for an unofficial groundbreaking event . Richard Guerrera died a month later and the facility was completed in 2002 . The museum was designed by Francis Guerrera 's son @-@ in @-@ law , a general contractor . On September 23 , 2002 , the museum was formally opened with a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony in the complete 32 @,@ 000 square foot building .
The museum never was able to sustain itself through its visitors and it ran a deficit throughout its entire operation ; the museums operating costs that were covered by Frances Guerrera . In 2009 , a $ 100 @,@ 000 funding raising campaign was undertaken , but it only resulted in a total of $ 20 @,@ 000 being raised prior to July 2010 . On July 6 , 2010 , the board of directors came to the conclusion to close the museum . The museum 's final day was on July 20 , 2010 and also featured a gathering of antique cars in a " Cruise Night " event .
= = Collection = =
The Golden Age of Trucking Museum featured a collection of historic trucks , cars and other items related to the trucking operation , with a special focus on trucking in the 1950s . Many of the historic vehicles on display were noted for their rarity or otherwise unique quality . These include the first registered car in Connecticut , a 1902 Merry Oldsmobile , and a 1928 Pierce @-@ Arrow Motor Car Company five @-@ to @-@ seven ton dump truck , one of only 55 Pierce @-@ Arrow trucks produced . The displays included a 1916 Mack Paddy Wagon , a 1929 Diamond T truck , a 1931 Ford Model AA Service Car , a 1936 Ford Roadster Deluxe and a Model T Ford Tank Truck . A 1953 Fageol moving van with original owner 's banner was located near some surreys and carriages . Other early period vehicles on display included a 1912 Autocar two @-@ cylinder transit bus , a 1914 Trumbull , a 1915 Barker , and a 1917 Republic Model 10 1 @-@ ton express and a 1920 3 ½ ton Model AC Mack .
Trucks of the 1930s and 1940s included a 1937 Ford tow truck , a 1940 Dodge VK , a 1940 Mack FN , a 1941 Federal Model 25K and a 1942 Dodge WC @-@ 21 . The 1950s ' vehicles were represented by a 1952 Diamond T 950RSa , 1955 IH DFC405 and a 1955 GMC Model 860 . Later vehicles included two Autocar Company trucks , a 1962 DC75T and a 1974 DC9364 10 @-@ wheel dump truck . The 1963 Mack B61 was of special importance to the founder Richard Guerrera who acquired the truck with the purchase of a local company , Oil Transport . Guerrera sold the truck and reacquired the same vehicle in 1985 to restore it . This Mack B61 was described as the " impetus " for the museum . Also on display was a 1996 Volvo prototype truck cab .
Other items on display included " Bumpers " , a dog sculpture made of Mack Truck bumpers and a collection of toy trucks , hats , state license plates and images relating to trucking . The museum also included an exhibit featuring kerosene lamps . According to Stephen Wood , the kerosene lamps might have come from the defunct Kerosene Lamp Museum . Also on display was Stephen Guman 's Guinness World Record breaking Popsicle stick structure , made of 396 @,@ 000 sticks .
= = Impact = =
Throughout its operation , the Golden Age of Trucking Museum was one of two trucking museums in Connecticut . Steven Frischling of the Boston Globe wrote , " It may seem strange that two trucking museums would be located in the same state , but [ t ] he Haul of Fame truck museum and [ t ] he Golden Age of Trucking Museum make their individual marks on the auto world . " The economic impact of the museum 's closure was not expected to be large according to John Cookson , co @-@ chairman of Economic and Industrial Development Commission . Janet Serra , the director for the Western Connecticut Convention and Visitor 's Bureau , said the effect of closure would not be immediate , but noted it could impact tourism and area hotels .
|
= SAS ( software ) =
SAS ( Statistical Analysis System ) is a software suite developed by SAS Institute for advanced analytics , multivariate analyses , business intelligence , data management , and predictive analytics .
SAS was developed at North Carolina State University from 1966 until 1976 , when SAS Institute was incorporated . SAS was further developed in the 1980s and 1990s with the addition of new statistical procedures , additional components and the introduction of JMP . A point @-@ and @-@ click interface was added in version 9 in 2004 . A social media analytics product was added in 2010 .
= = Technical overview and terminology = =
SAS is a software suite that can mine , alter , manage and retrieve data from a variety of sources and perform statistical analysis on it . SAS provides a graphical point @-@ and @-@ click user interface for non @-@ technical users and more advanced options through the SAS programming language . In order to use Statistical Analysis System , Data should be in an Excel table format or SAS format . SAS programs have a DATA step , which retrieves and manipulates data , usually creating a SAS data set , and a PROC step , which analyzes the data .
Each step consists of a series of statements . The DATA step has executable statements that result in the software taking an action , and declarative statements that provide instructions to read a data set or alter the data 's appearance . The DATA step has two phases , compilation and execution . In the compilation phase , declarative statements are processed and syntax errors are identified . Afterwards , the execution phase processes each executable statement sequentially . Data sets are organized into tables with rows called " observations " and columns called " variables " . Additionally , each piece of data has a descriptor and a value .
The PROC step consists of PROC statements that call upon named procedures . Procedures perform analysis and reporting on data sets to produce statistics , analyses and graphics . There are more than 300 procedures and each one contains a substantial body of programming and statistical work . PROC statements can also display results , sort data or perform other operations . SAS Macros are pieces of code or variables that are coded once and referenced to perform repetitive tasks .
SAS data can be published in HTML , PDF , Excel and other formats using the Output Delivery System , which was first introduced in 2007 . The SAS Enterprise Guide is SAS ' point @-@ and @-@ click interface . It generates code to manipulate data or perform analysis automatically and does not require SAS programming experience to use .
The SAS software suite has more than 200 components Some of the SAS components include :
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The development of SAS began in 1966 after North Carolina State University re @-@ hired Anthony Barr to program his analysis of variance and regression software so that it would run on IBM System / 360 computers . The project was funded by the National Institute of Health and was originally intended to analyze agricultural data to improve crop yields . Barr was joined by student James Goodnight , who developed the software 's statistical routines , and the two became project @-@ leaders . In 1968 , Barr and Goodnight integrated new multiple regression and analysis of variance routines . In 1972 , after issuing the first release of SAS , the project lost its funding . According to Goodnight , this was because NIH only wanted to fund projects with medical applications . Goodnight continued teaching at the university for a salary of $ 1 and access to mainframe computers for use with the project , until it was funded by the University Statisticians of the Southern Experiment Stations the following year . John Sall joined the project in 1973 and contributed to the software 's econometrics , time series , and matrix algebra . Another early participant , Caroll G. Perkins , contributed to SAS ' early programming . Jolayne W. Service and Jane T. Helwig created SAS ' first documentation .
The first versions of SAS were named after the year in which they were released . In 1971 , SAS 71 was published as a limited release . It was used only on IBM mainframes and had the main elements of SAS programming , such as the DATA step and the most common procedures in the PROC step . The following year a full version was released as SAS 72 , which introduced the MERGE statement and added features for handling missing data or combining data sets . In 1976 , Barr , Goodnight , Sall , and Helwig removed the project from North Carolina State and incorporated it into SAS Institute , Inc .
= = = Development = = =
SAS was re @-@ designed in SAS 76 with an open architecture that allowed for compilers and procedures . The INPUT and INFILE statements were improved so they could read most data formats used by IBM mainframes . Generating reports was also added through the PUT and FILE statements . The ability to analyze general linear models was also added as was the FORMAT procedure , which allowed developers to customize the appearance of data . In 1979 , SAS 79 added support for the CMS operating system and introduced the DATASETS procedure . Three years later , SAS 82 introduced an early macro language and the APPEND procedure .
SAS version 4 had limited features , but made SAS more accessible . Version 5 introduced a complete macro language , array subscripts , and a full @-@ screen interactive user interface called Display Manager . In 1985 , SAS was rewritten in the C programming language . This allowed for the SAS ' Multivendor Architecture that allows the software to run on UNIX , MS @-@ DOS , and Windows . It was previously written in PL / I , Fortran , and assembly language .
In the 1980s and 1990s , SAS released a number of components to complement Base SAS . SAS / GRAPH , which produces graphics , was released in 1980 , as well as the SAS / ETS component , which supports econometric and time series analysis . A component intended for pharmaceutical users , SAS / PH @-@ Clinical , was released in the 1990s . The Food and Drug Administration standardized on SAS / PH @-@ Clinical for new drug applications in 2002 . Vertical products like SAS Financial Management and SAS Human Capital Management ( then called CFO Vision and HR Vision respectively ) were also introduced . JMP was developed by SAS co @-@ founder John Sall and a team of developers to take advantage of the graphical user interface introduced in the 1984 Apple Macintosh and shipped for the first time in 1989 . Updated versions of JMP were released continuously after 2002 with the most recent release being from 2012 .
SAS version 6 was used throughout the 1990s and was available on a wider range of operating systems , including Macintosh , OS / 2 , Silicon Graphics , and Primos . SAS introduced new features through dot @-@ releases . From 6 @.@ 06 to 6 @.@ 09 , a user interface based on the windows paradigm was introduced and support for SQL was added . Version 7 introduced the Output Delivery System ( ODS ) and an improved text editor . ODS was improved upon in successive releases . For example , more output options were added in version 8 . The number of operating systems that were supported was reduced to UNIX , Windows and z / OS , and Linux was added . SAS version 8 and SAS Enterprise Miner were released in 1999 .
= = = Recent history = = =
In 2002 , the Text Miner software was introduced . Text Miner analyzes text data like emails for patterns in Business Intelligence applications . In 2004 , SAS Version 9 @.@ 0 was released , which was dubbed " Project Mercury " and was designed to make SAS accessible to a broader range of business users . Version 9 @.@ 0 added custom user interfaces based on the user 's role and established the point @-@ and @-@ click user interface of SAS Enterprise Guide as the software 's primary graphical user interface ( GUI ) . The Customer Relationship Management ( CRM ) features were improved in 2004 with SAS Interaction Management . In 2008 SAS announced Project Unity , designed to integrate data quality , data integration and master data management .
SAS sued World Programming , the developers of a competing implementation , World Programming System , alleging that they had infringed SAS 's copyright in part by implementing the same functionality . This case was referred from the United Kingdom 's High Court of Justice to the European Court of Justice on 11 August 2010 . In May 2012 , the European Court of Justice ruled in favor of World Programming , finding that " the functionality of a computer program and the programming language cannot be protected by copyright . "
A free version was introduced for students in 2010 . SAS Social Media Analytics , a tool for social media monitoring , engagement and sentiment analysis , was also released that year . SAS Rapid Predictive Modeler ( RPM ) , which creates basic analytical models using Microsoft Excel , was introduced that same year . JMP 9 in 2010 added a new interface for using the R programming language from JMP and an add @-@ in for Excel . The following year , a High Performance Computing appliance was made available in a partnership with Teradata and EMC Greenplum . In 2011 , the company released Enterprise Miner 7 @.@ 1 . The company introduced 27 data management products from October 2013 to October 2014 and updates to 160 others . At the 2015 SAS Global Forum , it announced several new products that were specialized for different industries , as well as new training software .
= = Software products = =
As of 2011 SAS 's largest set of products is its line for customer intelligence . Numerous SAS modules for web , social media and marketing analytics may be used to profile customers and prospects , predict their behaviors and manage and optimize communications . SAS also provides the SAS Fraud Framework . The framework 's primary functionality is to monitor transactions across different applications , networks and partners and use analytics to identify anomalies that are indicative of fraud . SAS Enterprise GRC ( Governance , Risk and Compliance ) provides risk modeling , scenario analysis and other functions in order to manage and visualize risk , compliance and corporate policies . There is also a SAS Enterprise Risk Management product @-@ set designed primarily for banks and financial services organizations .
SAS ' products for monitoring and managing the operations of IT systems are collectively referred to as SAS IT Management Solutions . SAS collects data from various IT assets on performance and utilization , then creates reports and analyses . SAS ' Performance Management products consolidate and provide graphical displays for key performance indicators ( KPIs ) at the employee , department and organizational level . The SAS Supply Chain Intelligence product suite is offered for supply chain needs , such as forecasting product demand , managing distribution and inventory and optimizing pricing . There is also a " SAS for Sustainability Management " set of software to forecast environmental , social and economic effects and identify causal relationships between operations and an impact on the environmental or ecosystem .
SAS has product sets for specific industries , such as government , retail , telecommunications and aerospace and for marketing optimization or high @-@ performance computing .
= = = Comparison to other products = = =
In a 2005 article for the Journal of Marriage and Family comparing statistical packages from SAS and its competitors Stata and SPSS , Alan C. Acock wrote that SAS programs provide " extraordinary range of data analysis and data management tasks , " but were difficult to use and learn . SPSS and Stata , meanwhile , were both easier to learn ( with better documentation ) but had less capable analytic abilities , though these could be expanded with paid ( in SPSS ) or free ( in Stata ) add @-@ ons . Acock concluded that SAS was best for power users , while occasional users would benefit most from SPSS and Stata . A comparison by the University of California , Los Angeles , gave similar results .
Competitors such as Revolution Analytics and Alpine Data Labs advertise their products as considerably cheaper than SAS ' . In a 2011 comparison , Doug Henschen of InformationWeek found that start @-@ up fees for the three are similar , though he admitted that the starting fees were not necessarily the best basis for comparison . SAS ' business model is not weighted as heavily on initial fees for its programs , instead focusing on revenue from annual subscription fees .
= = Adoption = =
According to IDC , SAS is the largest market @-@ share holder in " advanced analytics " with 35 @.@ 4 percent of the market as of 2013 . It is the fifth largest market @-@ share holder for business intelligence ( BI ) software with a 6 @.@ 9 % share and the largest independent vendor . It competes in the BI market against conglomerates , such as SAP BusinessObjects , IBM Cognos , SPSS Modeler , Oracle Hyperion , and Microsoft BI . SAS has been named in the Gartner Leader 's Quadrant for Data Integration Tools and for Business Intelligence and Analytical Platforms . A study published in 2011 in BMC Health Services Research found that SAS was used in 42 @.@ 6 percent of data analyses in health service research , based on a sample of 1 @,@ 139 articles drawn from three journals .
|
= The Voice Within =
" The Voice Within " is a song recorded by American singer Christina Aguilera for her fourth studio album , Stripped ( 2002 ) . The song was written by Aguilera and Glen Ballard , with production handled by Ballard . It is a piano @-@ driven ballad that talks about trusting oneself and one 's instincts . " The Voice Within " was released as the fifth and final single from Stripped on October 27 , 2003 by RCA Records .
Upon its release , " The Voice Within " received mainly positive reviews from music critics , who called it an inspirational ballad and praised Aguilera 's strong vocals on the track . Some likened the song to works by Celine Dion and Mariah Carey . Commercially , " The Voice Within " achieved moderate success on charts worldwide , peaking within the top ten of charts in several countries including Australia , Ireland , Switzerland and the United Kingdom , and it reached number 33 on the US Billboard Hot 100 .
An accompanying music video for " The Voice Within " was directed by David LaChapelle . It was filmed in black and white as a one shot . The video was nominated for three MTV Video Music Awards at the 2004 ceremony . In support of Stripped , Aguilera performed the track on her two major concert tours : Justified and Stripped Tour ( 2002 – 03 ) and The Stripped Tour ( 2003 ) . " The Voice Within " has been covered on several television talent shows .
= = Recording and composition = =
" The Voice Within " was written by Christina Aguilera and Glen Ballard , and was produced by Ballard . The track was recorded by Scott Campbell at The Record Plant in Hollywood , Los Angeles , California and at NRG Recording Studios in North Hollywood , LA , CA , while it was mixed by Peter Mokran . Bass was performed by Mike Elizondo , while Matt Chamberlain played drums . Ballard also played guitar with John Goux , and played keyboards with Randy Kerber . Musically , " The Voice Within " is a piano @-@ driven ballad . Composed in the key of G major , it has a moderately slow tempo of 66 beats per minute . Aguilera 's vocal range on the track spans from the low @-@ note of D3 to the high @-@ note of F ♯ 5 . Her vocals on the song were been described as strong and powerful by critics . Lyrically , " The Voice Within " is an inspirational song that says that one should trust one 's heart and own mind , and find inner strength . The motivational lyrics include , " When there 's no @-@ one else , look inside yourself , like your oldest friend just trust the voice within " . As recalled by Aguilera , " I wrote this song when I was 20 , 21 , and it was a time in my life when you 're being pushed and pulled in so many directions . "
= = Release and reception = =
" The Voice Within " was released to US contemporary hit and adult contemporary radio stations on October 27 , 2003 as the fifth and final single from Stripped by RCA Records . It was also available for Maxi single sales in stores .
= = = Critical = = =
Upon its release , " The Voice Within " received generally favorable reviews from music critics . Chuck Taylor of Billboard praised the " breathtaking and organically flowing " melody , noting that " Aguilera delivers what is perhaps her most assured vocal yet , punching through the clouds and taking her place as a fist @-@ shaking member of the heavenly choir . " Taylor also highlighted that the track " is an inspired recording and a showcase for all that this artist can accomplish when she lets the voice precede that offputting image . " Josh Kun from Spin labelled it a " swoony Celine @-@ for @-@ teens ballad " . Sal Cinquemani for Slant Magazine gave the song a very positive review , naming it an " inspirational " ballad and praised her powerful vocals . CD Universe also praised Aguilera 's " rich , throaty style " vocals on the track and compared the song to works by Mariah Carey . Sputnikmusic 's critic Amanda Murray commented that the song is " tacky " yet " powerful all the same " . Rachel McRady of Wetpaint complimented the song 's inspiration melody , declaring that it " basically reduces us to tears every time we hear it " .
= = = Commercial = = =
On November 29 , 2003 , " The Voice Within " made it chart debut on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 62 , becoming the week 's " Hot Shot Debut " . On the chart issue dated December 6 , 2003 , the single jumped to number 57 . During the following week , the song rose to number 46 . In its fourth week charting , it charted at number 36 . Finally , it reached its peak at number 33 on January 10 , 2004 . The song became Aguilera 's eleventh top @-@ forty hit on the chart , and remained on the Hot 100 for a total of 16 weeks . It also charted at number 11 on the Pop Songs chart , number 16 on the Adult Contemporary chart , and number 33 on the Adult Pop Songs chart . The song reached number ten on the Canadian Hot 100 chart . Throughout Europe , " The Voice Within " achieved moderate success on charts , reaching the top ten on many of them . It was also a top @-@ ten song in Australia , peaking at number eight in the country , making the fifth single from the album to reach the top @-@ ten . In Switzerland , " The Voice Within " was Stripped 's highest charting @-@ single along with the lead @-@ single " Dirrty " , peaking at number three .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Music video = =
The song 's music video was directed by David LaChapelle , who previously directed the music videos for " Dirrty " ( 2002 ) and " Can 't Hold Us Down " ( 2003 ) . He explained to MTV News that the video 's concept , " There 's all kinds of connotations to the word ' stripped . ' I wanted to strip it down to one take . Just her and this incredible voice . And really not have anything that is going to overshadow that . She 's trying to grow as an artist and along the way she 's taking all kinds of risks and a lot of times people let those things overshadow her ability and her talent . I wanted to bring it all back as a sort of bookend to this album " . The video begins with a close @-@ up scene of Aguilera and zooms out to her wearing a slip and sitting in an abandoned prop room . In one continuous black and white shot , Aguilera walks through several rooms , exits the building , and finally lays on a light box . The video was filmed at a deserted theater in downtown Los Angeles . It was inspired by neorealist works . The video was nominated for three 2004 MTV Video Music Awards : Best Female Video , Viewer 's Choice , and Best Cinematography .
= = Live performances and covers = =
Aguilera performed " The Voice Within " for the first time during the Justified & Stripped Tour ( 2003 ) , a tour held in support of Aguilera 's Stripped and Justin Timberlake 's album Justified ( 2002 ) . During the tour 's late 2003 extension , The Stripped Tour , Aguilera also performed the track . The performance is included in the video release Stripped Live in the U.K. ( 2004 ) . Aguilera included the song on her setlist at a concert in Kuala Lumpur in 2014 . In 2016 , Aguilera also performed the track during her set at the 15th edition of Mawazine Festival .
On October 3 , 2005 , Roxane LeBrasse covered " The Voice Within " during the top nine show of the third season of Australian singing contest Australian Idol . Despite being well received by judges , she was eliminated that night . On March 28 , 2006 , Katharine McPhee performed the track live on the 24th show of the fifth season of American Idol , which resulted McPhee as one of the bottom two . Simon Cowell compared McPhee 's abilities to those of Aguilera , commenting that her performance was almost as good as the original singer . " The Voice Within " was also covered by Meliz Serman on the 2006 TV series How Do You Solve a Problem like Maria ? . In 2009 , British girl group The Nolans performed " The Voice Within " live during there I 'm in the Mood Again Tour , which was held to support their 2009 comeback album I 'm in the Mood Again .
Hong Kong singer G.E.M. recorded a cover version of the song , which is included in her album My Secret Limited Edition ( 2010 ) . The same year , " The Voice Within " was also performed by Jessica Robinson on Over the Rainbow . On May 26 , 2012 , contestant Ruth Brown performed the song live during the semi @-@ finals of the first season of The Voice UK , which left tears on her eyes . Brown revealed that the song was personal to her because she had a hard time at school . Judge Sir Tom Jones complimented her performance , " The story of the song means a lot to her , I think this girl is stronger than even she realises it herself " , " You didn ’ t just sing it , you lived it " . On June 8 , 2013 , eleven @-@ year @-@ old Ariksandra Libantino sang " The Voice Within " during the final round of the seventh series of Britain 's Got Talent . The song was also played during the first season of Ghost Whisperer on an episode entitled " The Vanishing " . Chris Mann and Jacquie Lee , both contestants and team members of Aguilera 's team on The Voice , performed the track during the second and fifth seasons , respectively .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording places
Recorded at The Record Plant in Hollywood , Los Angeles , California and NRG Recording Studios in North Hollywood , Los Angeles , California
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Stripped , RCA Records .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
|
= Priscilla Duffield =
Priscilla Duffield ( April 8 , 1918 – July 21 , 2009 ) worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II . She was secretary to Ernest O. Lawrence at the Radiation Laboratory , and to J. Robert Oppenheimer at the Los Alamos Laboratory . After the war she was executive assistant to directors of Scripps Institute of Oceanography and the National Accelerator Laboratory .
A graduate of the University of California , from which she obtained a degree in political science , Priscilla Greene started working for Lawrence in February 1942 , and then for Oppenheimer later that year . She arrived in Santa Fe , New Mexico , on March 1943 , and established the Los Alamos Laboratory 's office . She became the office manager at Los Alamos , greeting visitors , answering the telephone , making travel arrangements , arranging security passes and accommodation , and taking notes of telephone calls . In September 1943 , she married Robert Duffield , a chemist working at the Los Alamos laboratory , and changed her surname from Greene to Duffield .
In the post @-@ war years , Duffield was secretary and executive assistant to Roger Revelle , the director of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography . In November 1967 , she became secretary and executive assistant to Robert R. Wilson , the founding director of the National Accelerator Laboratory , and once again she helped establish a new scientific laboratory on a new site . In later life she moved to Colorado , where she served on the board of the Uncompahgre Medical Clinic .
= = Early life = =
Priscilla Greene was born in Berkeley , California , on April 8 , 1918 , and grew up in Corning , California . She entered the University of California , from which she obtained a degree in political science . After graduation , she studied and travelled in New York and Europe before returning to Berkeley , where she got a job as secretary to Ernest O. Lawrence , the director of the Radiation Laboratory at the University of California , in February 1942 , replacing Helen Griggs , who had left to marry Glenn Seaborg .
= = Manhattan Project = =
When J. Robert Oppenheimer began working on the nuclear weapon design for the Manhattan Project during World War II , Lawrence loaned Greene part @-@ time to take dictation and do general secretarial work for Oppenheimer , while still working full @-@ time for himself . " When Robert returned from travel and told me that he had just been to a beautiful place , all I could say is , ' take me too ! ' " she later recalled . Lawrence reluctantly let her go . She immediately started working for Oppenheimer full @-@ time , taking over the disused office of a physics professor who was absent on leave in November 1942 .
Greene arrived in Santa Fe , New Mexico , on March 18 , 1943 with Oppenheimer 's son Peter and his nurse . She found Los Alamos , New Mexico , " a pretty appalling place . It was windy , dusty , cold , snowy ... and nothing was finished . " " Everything was put together amazingly fast ... ( but ) it was nothing spectacular . There were unfinished buildings , mud and trucks everywhere . " Since there was no telephone line to Los Alamos , the office was initially established at 109 East Palace in Santa Fe . There was no purchasing system in place either , so she bought a typewriter in Santa Fe with her own money . She would spend the rest of the war trying to get reimbursed for it .
When the office moved to Los Alamos , Greene became the office manager , greeting visitors and answering the telephone . She would listen in on all of Oppenheimer 's calls and take notes , except when the director of the Manhattan Project , Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , told her to get off the line . She typed Oppenheimer 's correspondence . Numerous typed documents would end with " JRO : pg " . She handled travel arrangements , security passes and accommodation . Alex Wellersten noted that :
While Oppenheimer gets much credit for keeping the entire bomb project in his head , it was actually Greene who managed the director ’ s office and kept it organized ; it was Greene who took notes on phone conversations and managed the correspondence with far @-@ flung sites ; it was Greene who helped Oppenheimer , a man who had never managed anything in his life , stay on top of the innumerable tasks assigned to him .
Greene married Robert Duffield , a chemist working on the project , in a ceremony at Dorothy McKibbin 's house on September 5 , 1943 . McKibben had a local judge conduct the ceremony , but due to the project 's security , he was not allowed to know the surnames of the couple . Nor was any family allowed to attend , although Greene 's brother DeMotte , whom she had recruited to work on the project as a technician , was on hand to give the bride away , and guests included Robert Serber , Robert R. Wilson , Harold Agnew and Katherine Oppenheimer . Three weeks later everyone assembled there again for the wedding of her bridesmaid , Marjorie Hall , to Hugh Bradner .
When Duffield became pregnant , she wanted to quit working , but the demands of the project were so great that Oppenheimer kept refusing her requests . He eventually recruited Anne Wilson from Groves 's office as her replacement .
= = Later life = =
After the war , Duffield became secretary and executive assistant to Roger Revelle , the director of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography . On November 6 , 1967 , she became secretary and executive assistant to Robert R. Wilson , the founding director of the National Accelerator Laboratory , and served in that capacity until December 31 , 1972 . Duffield likened this job to working for Oppenheimer at Los Alamos :
" There was the same close feeling of a group of people in a strange land , ... a group of people who were isolated from the rest of the world and trying to do something special . " Duffield said that moving to the Weston site evoked memories of the esprit de corps at Los Alamos , and " that did really make it a frontier . " She also recalled The feeling of independence and adventure in those early days on the Weston site . " We had a flagpole and a big fancy colorful tent was put alongside the house " As she explained , " It was a place to sit and have a meeting : but it also " was a symbol . " And at both labs , " everyone did sort of everything — there was a crisis every day . " Duffield emphasized : " Bob managed to give people the feeling of tremendous urgency , of getting the thing done and getting it done fast and getting it done cheap . " Later , secretary Barb ( Rozic ) Kristen recalled that many new employees considered it hard to know just what to do in those early days , but Duffield , unlike everyone else , knew exactly what was needed and how to get things done .
Duffield moved to Norwood , Colorado , where she served on the board of the Uncompahgre Medical Clinic . She died of natural causes at her home there on July 21 , 2009 . She was survived by her daughters Deborah and Libby . Her husband Robert died in 2000 .
|
= Hurricane John ( 1994 ) =
Hurricane John , also known as Typhoon John , formed during the 1994 Pacific hurricane season and became both the longest @-@ lasting and the farthest @-@ traveling tropical cyclone ever observed . John formed during the El Niño of 1994 – 95 and peaked as a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale , the highest categorization for hurricanes .
Over the course of its existence , it followed a 7 @,@ 165 @-@ mile ( 13 @,@ 280 @-@ km ) path from the eastern Pacific to the western Pacific and back to the central Pacific , lasting 31 days in total . Because it existed in both the eastern and western Pacific , John was one of a small number of tropical cyclones to be designated as both a hurricane and a typhoon . Despite lasting for a full month , John barely affected land at all , bringing only minimal effects to the Hawaiian Islands and the United States military base on Johnston Atoll . Its remnants later affected Alaska .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane John were thought by the United States National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) to be from a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on July 25 , 1994 . The wave subsequently moved across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean without distinction , before it crossed Central America and moved into the Eastern Pacific Ocean on or around August 8 . Upon entering the Eastern Pacific the wave gradually developed , before the NHC initiated advisories on the system and designated it as Tropical Depression Ten @-@ E during August 11 . The system was at this time moving westwards and located around 345 miles ( 555 km ) to the south @-@ southeast of Acapulco , Mexico . Conditions were not ideal for development , but it quickly developed banding features and well @-@ defined outflow , and was upgraded to a tropical storm and named John later that day .
A strong ridge of high pressure over the northeastern Pacific Ocean forced John westward , where upper level wind shear kept John a tropical storm . Intensity fluctuated considerably , however , as shear levels varied . More than once , shear cleared away most of the clouds above John and nearly caused it to weaken to a tropical depression . However , after eight days of slow westward movement across the Pacific Ocean , shear lessened greatly on August 19 , and John intensified significantly and was designated as a hurricane at 1700 PDT . During an eighteen @-@ hour period between August 19 and August 20 , John further strengthened from a weak Category 1 hurricane to a major Category 3 hurricane . Around 1100 PDT on August 20 , it crossed into the central Pacific , the first of three basin crosses John would make .
After entering the central Pacific , John left the area monitored by the NHC and was instead monitored by the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) . As it moved slowly westward , Hurricane John continued to strengthen considerably in an increasingly favorable environment well south of the Hawaiian Islands ; on 22 August John was designated a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale ( the highest classification for hurricanes ) and later that day ( by Hawaii Standard Time ) reached its peak winds of 175 miles per hour ( 280 km / h ) . Also on August 22 ( by Hawaii Standard Time ) , John made its closest approach to the Hawaiian Islands , 345 miles ( 500 km ) to the south . John had threatened to turn north and affect the islands days before , but the ridge of high pressure that typically shields the islands from hurricanes kept John on its southerly path . Nonetheless , heavy rains and wind from the outer bands of John affected the islands .
With the Hawaiian Islands behind it , John began a slow turn to the north , taking near @-@ direct aim at Johnston Atoll , a small group of islands populated only by a United States military base . The storm slowly weakened from its peak as a Category 5 hurricane in the face of increasing shear , dropping down to a Category 1 hurricane with 90 miles per hour ( 145 km / h ) maximum winds . On August 25 local time , John made its closest approach to the Johnston Atoll only 15 miles ( 24 km ) to the north . On Johnston Atoll , sustained winds were reported up to 60 miles per hour ( 95 km / h ) , the equivalent of a strong tropical storm , and gusts up to 75 miles per hour ( 120 km / h ) were recorded .
Clearing Johnston Atoll , John turned to the northwest and began strengthening again as shear decreased . On August 27 local time , John reached a secondary peak strength of 135 miles per hour ( 210 km / h ) , and shortly thereafter it crossed the International Date Line at approximately 22 ° N and came under the surveillance of the Guam branch of the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) . By crossing into the western Pacific , John also became a typhoon and was referred to as Typhoon John during its time in the western Pacific . Immediately after crossing the Date Line , John again weakened and its forward motion stalled . By September 1 , John had weakened to a tropical storm and was nearly motionless just west of the Date Line . There , John lingered for six days while performing a multi @-@ day counterclockwise loop . On September 7 , a trough moved into the area and quickly moved John to the northeast . John crossed the Date Line again on September 8 and reentered the central Pacific .
After reentering the central Pacific , John briefly reached a tertiary peak strength of 90 miles per hour ( 145 km / h ) , a strong Category 1 hurricane , well to the north of Midway Island . However , the trough was rapidly pulling apart John 's structure , and the cold waters of the northern central Pacific were not conducive to a tropical cyclone . On September 10 , the 120th advisory was released on the system , finally declaring John to have become extratropical approximately 1000 miles ( 1600 km ) south of Unalaska Island .
= = Forecasting difficulties = =
During John 's time in the Western North Pacific , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) had particular difficulty in forecasting and even estimating the strength of John . John weakened considerably after entering the Western North Pacific , and , before estimates were later revised , four consecutive advisories were issued that declared John a tropical depression . Each of these advisories called for imminent dissipation . As John persisted and did not dissipate as the JTWC had predicted , it was upgraded to a minimal tropical storm in the next advisory . At the same time , however , two separate ship reports indicated that John had sustained winds of at least 55 knots ( 100 km / h , 65 mph ) , far stronger than the advisory strength of 35 knots ( 65 km / h , 40 mph ) . John would go on to restrengthen into a strong Category 1 hurricane after reentering the Central North Pacific , defying all JTWC predictions . After later reanalysis , the JTWC raised the estimated wind speeds of John for every advisory from 1200 UTC September 1 to its final advisory exactly a week later by at least 5 knots ( 9 km / h , 6 mph ) and as much as 25 knots ( 46 km / h , 29 mph ) .
= = Records = =
Its 31 @-@ day existence made John the longest @-@ lasting tropical cyclone recorded in both the Pacific Ocean and worldwide , surpassing both Hurricane Tina 's previous record in the Pacific of 24 days in the 1992 season and the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane 's previous world record of 28 days in the 1899 Atlantic season . In addition , despite its slow movement throughout much of its path , John was the farthest @-@ traveling tropical cyclone in both Pacific Ocean and worldwide , with a distance traveled of 7 @,@ 165 miles ( 13 @,@ 280 km ) , out @-@ distancing previous record holders Hurricane Fico in the Pacific of 4 @,@ 700 miles ( 8 @,@ 700 km ) in the 1978 season and Hurricane Faith worldwide of 6 @,@ 850 miles ( 12 @,@ 700 km ) in the 1966 Atlantic season .
Pressure readings from John 's peak are not consistently available as the CPHC did not monitor pressures at the time , but Air Force Reserve aircraft did measure a surface pressure of 929 mbar ( hPa ) , making John one of the most intense hurricanes recorded in the central Pacific ; both Hurricane Emilia and Hurricane Gilma recorded a lower pressure in the central Pacific earlier in the 1994 season , but with lower wind speeds . ( Intensity is measured by minimum central pressure , which correlates with but is not directly linked to wind speeds ) . John was also only the fourth Category 5 hurricane recorded in the central Pacific ( the first was Hurricane Patsy in 1959 , the second was Hurricane Emilia and the third one was Hurricane Gilma , both earlier in 1994 ) , and possessed the highest recorded wind speed in a central Pacific hurricane , 175 mph ( 280 km / h ) . Since 1994 , only one Category 5 hurricane , Hurricane Ioke , has formed in or entered into the Central Pacific ; Ioke , like Emilia and Gilma , had a lower central pressure but lower wind speeds than John . However , John 's pressure record is incomplete ; the 929 mbar reading was only measured when the winds were 160 mph ; there is no pressure reading when it had winds of 175 mph , so it could have been stronger than Emilia , Gilma or Ioke . Also , John was the first hurricane formed in the eastern Pacific that become a typhoon , a feat only matched by Hurricane Genevieve in 2014 .
Additionally , John was only the fourth of seven tropical cyclones to exist in all three tropical cyclone basins in the Pacific Ocean . The others were Typhoon Georgette and hurricanes Enrique , Li , Dora , Jimena and Genevieve in 1986 , 1991 , earlier in 1994 , 1999 , 2003 and 2014 , respectively . Also , was the sixth of nine tropical cyclones to enter the central Pacific from the western Pacific . Typhoon June , hurricanes Patsy and Skip and tropical storms Virginia and Carmen in 1958 , 1959 , 1985 , 1968 and 1980 , respectively , had done so previously , and only Tropical Depression 17W , and tropical storms Wene and Omeka in 1996 , 2000 and 2010 , respectively , did so later . Finally , John was one of only six tropical cyclones to cross the Date Line twice , alongside Typhoon June , hurricanes Patsy and Skip , Tropical Storm Carmen and Tropical Depression 17W .
= = Impact = =
John affected both the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll , but only lightly . While John passed over 345 miles ( 550 km ) to the south of Hawaiʻi , the islands did experience strengthened trade winds and rough surf along the southeast- and south @-@ facing shores , and , as John moved westward , on west @-@ facing shores as well . The waves , ranging from 6 to 10 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 0 m ) in height , flooded beach parks in Kailua @-@ Kona . Additionally , heavy rains on the Big Island of Hawaiʻi caused minor , localized flooding and some short @-@ term road closures . No deaths , injuries or significant damages were reported in Hawaiʻi .
Although John passed within 25 km ( 16 mi ) of Johnston Atoll , it had weakened greatly to a Category 1 system by closest approach . Prior to the storm 's arrival , waves between 20 and 30 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 and 9 @.@ 1 m ) were reported on the island . Additionally , in the Northern Hemisphere , the strongest winds and heaviest rain lie to the north of a tropical cyclone , so the atoll , which lay to the south of the storm 's path , was spared the brunt of the storm . Nonetheless , the 1 @,@ 100 @-@ man personnel for the United States military base on Johnston Atoll had been evacuated to Honolulu as a precaution while John approached . Damage to structures was considerable , but the size of the island and relative functionality of the base led to low damage ; monetary losses were estimated at close to $ 15 million ( 1994 US $ ) .
The remnants of John moved through the Aleutian Islands , producing a wind gust of 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) in Unalaska . The storm brought a plume of warm air , and two stations recorded a high temperature of 66 ° F ( 19 ° C ) .
|
= Remixed & Revisited =
Remixed & Revisited is a remix album by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna . It was released on November 24 , 2003 by Maverick Records and Warner Bros. Records . The album contains four songs , in remixed form , from her 2003 ninth studio album American Life and a previously unreleased song , " Your Honesty , " originally written for her 1994 sixth studio album Bedtime Stories . The other tracks included are the live performance of " Like a Virgin " and " Hollywood " on the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards — which ended with Madonna kissing co @-@ performers Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera — and a remix of 1985 single " Into the Groove " . The release peaked at number 115 on the Billboard 200 in the United States . It received mixed reviews from critics ; " Your Honesty " was generally the only song to receive praise . The remix album also marked the closing release under her contract with Maverick Records .
= = Conception = =
In 2003 , Madonna planned to release a special commemorative box set to celebrate her twentieth anniversary in the music business and the release of her first studio album , Madonna , in 1983 . The plan for the box set was eventually cancelled and Remixed & Revisited was conceived in its place . The compilation contains remixed versions of four songs from American Life and a previously unreleased song called " Your Honesty " ; co @-@ written and co @-@ produced by Dallas Austin , the track is from Madonna 's sixth studio album Bedtime Stories era ( 1994 ) . " Nobody Knows Me " was remixed by performance artist Mount Sims , Headcleanr mixed " American Life " and " Love Profusion " . DJ Jason Nevins remixed " Nothing Fails " , while " Into the Hollywood Groove " was created by The Passengerz . On December 9 , 2003 , Warner Music France released a box set version containing both the remix collection and the original album American Life in a cardboard sleeve entitled Édition Spéciale 2CDs : American Life + Remixed & Revisited .
= = = 2003 MTV VMA performance = = =
The medley track " Like a Virgin / Hollywood " was performed during the opening of the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards on August 27 , 2003 , where Madonna was joined by Britney Spears , Christina Aguilera , and Missy Elliott . The performance started with Spears appearing on stage on top of a giant wedding cake while wearing a wedding gown and veil ; she sang the first few lines of " Like a Virgin " before Aguilera appeared from behind the cake and joined her . Madonna then emerged from the cake wearing a black coat and a hat and started singing " Hollywood " before proceeding to kiss Spears and Aguilera on the lips . Missy Elliott came out from a wedding chapel to sing her song " Work It " halfway through the performance . The kiss generated strong reaction from the media . Feminist author Camille Paglia described the moment as great ; she noted that the kiss was like Madonna saying to Spears , " I 'm passing the torch to you . " However , according to her , Spears could not take advantage of the kiss as later her career and lifestyle came under immense media scrutiny and criticism . Paglia said that " literally from that kiss , from that moment onward , Britney has spiraled out of control . It ’ s like Madonna gave her the kiss of death ! " Madonna commented on the kiss ; " I am the mommy pop star and she is the baby pop star . And I am kissing her to pass my energy on to her . " This performance was listed by Blender magazine as one of the twenty @-@ five sexiest music moments on television history . MTV listed the performance as the number @-@ one opening moments in the history of MTV Video Music Awards .
= = Commercial reception = =
In the United States , Remixed & Revisited debuted at number 115 on the Billboard 200 , selling 22 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It also debuted and peaked at number 128 on the Top Comprehensive Albums chart . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the EP has sold 114 @,@ 000 copies as of August 2005 in the United States . The Nevins ' mix of " Nothing Fails " charted on the Canadian Singles Chart at seven and topped the Hot Dance Club Play chart . It also debuted on the album charts of Belgium , in Flanders and Wallonia , and Switzerland . The album charted in Italy as a song , reaching a peak of number two . It also charted in Finland and Denmark as an EP on the singles charts .
= = Critical response = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic felt that the presence of a " strong hook and a strong sense of fun " was missing from the compilation , except for the song " Your Honesty " , which he declared as the best track despite feeling its beats to be a little outdated . He compared the work of the remixers as " as subtle as a jackhammer , whether it 's on the metallic @-@ flaked " American Life " by Headcleanr or the ' 90s @-@ retro Nevins mix of " Nothing Fails " . On all these mixes , Madonna sounds as if she 's out of step with the music of 2003 " . Erlewine also compared Spears ' vocals with that of Madonna 's during her early days and Aguilera 's with that of Cher 's . Nathan Brackett of Rolling Stone commented that the release " improves upon American Life 's standout single " Love Profusion " , but the rest botches an opportunity to revive interest on its parent album " . Fabian from Daily Breeze commented that Remixed & Revisited " is an amusing collection of novelties . " Sarah Crompton from Boston Herald proclaimed the album to be " more fun than her full @-@ length 2003 offering American Life . " The Malay Mail said that the remixes from the album are for " true blue Madonna fans . "
A writer for The Miami Herald was negative towards the release saying that " Madonna 's latest misstep is this pointless Remixed & Revisited seven @-@ track EP in which she tries to resell five songs from her recent American Life CD to an audience who deserve far better efforts from the queen , than this . " Ricardo Baca from The Denver Post compared Madonna to actress Drew Barrymore on the cover of the EP , feeling that the singer looked foolish and that the tracks were weal attempts at " spicing up " the already non @-@ commercial songs from American Life . Kevin C. Johnson from St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch said that with the remixes , Madonna " put some life " back into the songs of American Life , complementing " Your Honesty " and wondering why it was left from the Bedtime Stories sessions . Keith Caulfield of Billboard was impressed with " Your Honesty " and the remixes of " Love Profusion " and " Nobody Knows Me " . He said , " Die @-@ hard fans , even those unenamored of American Life will dig this EP . " In his book The Essential Rock Discography , Martin Charles Strong called the release as " equally dispensable as its parent album " .
= = Track listing = =
Additional notes
^ a signifies an additional producer
^ b signifies a remixer and additional producer
^ c signifies a co @-@ producer
^ d signifies an editor
^ e signifies an remixer
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits and personnel as per Remixed & Revisited Allmusic credits .
= = Charts = =
|
= Telopea truncata =
Telopea truncata , commonly known as the Tasmanian waratah , is a plant in the family Proteaceae . It is endemic to Tasmania where it is found on moist acidic soils at altitudes of 600 to 1200 m ( 2000 – 4000 ft ) . Telopea truncata is a component of alpine eucalypt forest , rainforest and scrub communities . It grows as a multistemmed shrub to a height of 3 metres ( 10 ft ) , or occasionally as a small tree to 10 m ( 35 ft ) high , with red flower heads , known as inflorescences , appearing over the Tasmanian summer ( November to February ) and bearing 10 to 35 individual flowers . Yellow @-@ flowered forms are occasionally seen , but do not form a population distinct from the rest of the species .
Collected by French botanist Jacques Labillardière in 1792 – 93 , Telopea truncata was first scientifically described in 1805 . Genetic analysis revealed that the Tasmanian waratah is the most distinctive of the five waratah species . It can be cultivated in temperate climates , requiring soils with good drainage and ample moisture in part @-@ shaded or sunny positions . Several commercially available cultivars that are hybrids of T. truncata with the New South Wales waratah ( T. speciosissima ) and Gippsland waratah ( T. oreades ) have been developed .
= = Description = =
The Tasmanian waratah is a large erect shrub up to 3 metres ( 10 ft ) in height with several stems , although it sometimes grows as a single @-@ stemmed tree to 10 m ( 35 ft ) high . Unlike the New South Wales waratah ( T. speciosissima ) , which has a few stems topped with flowers , the stems of the Tasmanian waratah branch freely , with numerous smaller branches topped with flower heads . Younger branches and flower heads frequently have a coating of brownish hairs . The narrow adult leaves are 3 – 14 cm ( 1 1 ⁄ 8 – 5 1 ⁄ 2 in ) long and 0 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 2 cm ( 1 ⁄ 4 – 7 ⁄ 8 in ) across and have a rough texture . Spathulate ( spoon @-@ shaped ) to obovate in shape , they have smooth , slightly down @-@ curved margins . The undersurface of the leaves is hairy . Occasional lobed leaves are seen .
Flowering occurs from October to January , and is related to altitude : plants at lower elevations flower earlier than ones higher up . The flower heads , known as inflorescences , are terminal — that is , they arise on the ends of small branches — and are surrounded by small inconspicuous hairy bracts . This sets T. truncata apart from all other waratah species , which have hairless bracts . In the shape of a flattened raceme , the flower heads are 3 @.@ 5 – 6 cm ( 1 3 ⁄ 8 – 2 3 ⁄ 8 in ) in diameter and composed of 10 to 35 individual flowers . They are most commonly bright red , though scattered yellow @-@ flowered plants occur . These were described as forma lutea but are mere colour variations and not genetically distinct . Yellow @-@ flowered plants have both red- and yellow @-@ flowered progeny . Anthesis is basipetal ; that is , the flowers at the base ( edges ) of the flower head open first . The flower is composed of a 2 cm @-@ long perianth on a 1 cm @-@ long stalk , with a pronounced kink in the style above the ovary ; all other waratah species have gently incurving styles . Anatomically , the individual flower bears a sessile anther ( that is , it lacks a filament ) , which lies next to the stigma at the end of the style . The ovary lies at the base of the style and atop a stalk known as the gynophore , and it is from here that the seed pod then develops . Meanwhile , a crescent @-@ shaped nectary lies at the base of the gynophore .
After flowering , the curved leathery to woody follicles develop . Hanging downwards on wooden stalks , these are roughly oblong in shape , and measure around 5 cm ( 2 in ) long . They split longitudinally to release the winged seeds , which are ripe around March . There are around 16 seeds , which are arranged in two rows . Wooden structures known as lamellae separate the seeds from each other and the follicle walls .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
While exploring Van Diemen 's Land ( Tasmania ) in 1792 – 3 , French botanist Jacques Labillardière collected specimens of what he later formally described as Embothrium truncatum in his 1805 work Novae Hollandiae Plantarum Specimen . The specific epithet is the Latin adjective truncatus , meaning " truncated " or " ending abruptly " , referring to the end of the seed wing . This characteristic is not specific to the Tasmanian waratah ; all members of the subtribe Embothriinae have truncate seed wings . Embothrium was a wastebasket taxon at the time , and Robert Brown proposed placing the species in a new genus , Telopea , in a talk he gave in 1809 , publishing the new name Telopea truncata in 1810 . Richard Salisbury had attended the talk and controversially published the species as Hylogyne australis , or southern hylogyne , in Joseph Knight 's 1809 book On the cultivation of the plants belonging to the natural order of Proteeae , thus claiming precedence over Brown 's formal 1810 description . Salisbury was involved in disputes with several prominent naturalists of the time , and his preemption of Brown was seen as unethical , so his names were largely ignored by his contemporaries in favor of Brown 's .
James Ross described a new species of waratah , Telopea tasmaniana , in his Hobart Town Almanack in 1835 , but it is now considered a synonym of T. truncata . In 1891 , German botanist Otto Kuntze published Revisio generum plantarum , his response to what he perceived as a lack of method in existing nomenclatural practice . He revived the genus Hylogyne on the grounds of priority , and correctly made the new combination Hylogyne truncata for T. truncata . However , Kuntze 's revisionary program was not accepted by the majority of botanists . Ultimately , the genus Telopea was nomenclaturally conserved over Hylogyne by the International Botanical Congress of 1905 .
Telopea truncata is one , and possibly the most distinctive , of five species from southeastern Australia which make up the genus Telopea . It is the earliest offshoot of a lineage that gives rise to the Gippsland waratah ( T. oreades ) and Monga waratah ( T. mongaensis ) of southeastern mainland Australia . The perianths of T. truncata are of a single shade of red , whereas those of its mainland relatives are coloured with two distinct shades of red — the surfaces facing the centre of the flower head are a much brighter red than those facing away .
The genus is classified in the subtribe Embothriinae of the Proteaceae , along with the tree waratahs ( Alloxylon ) from eastern Australia and New Caledonia , and the South American genera Oreocallis and Embothrium . Almost all of these species have red terminal flowers , and hence the subtribe 's origin and floral appearance most likely pre @-@ dated the splitting of Gondwana into Australia , Antarctica , and South America over 60 million years ago . Propylipollis ambiguus ( formerly Triporopollenites ambiguus ) is the oldest identifiable member of the Embothriinae . It is known only from pollen deposits , and was originally described from Eocene deposits in Victoria . The fossil pollen closely resembles that of T. truncata , Alloxylon pinnatum and Oreocallis grandiflora . Fossil remains of Telopea truncata have been recovered from early to middle Pleistocene strata at Regatta Point in western Tasmania . The leaves are small , and these beds housed a subalpine plant community in what is now lowland terrain . Leaves identical to ( and classified as ) Telopea truncata have been recovered from early Oligocene deposits around Lake Cethana near Sheffield .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The species is found in central , southern , and western Tasmania and is absent from warmer , dryer areas . It grows on moist acidic soils in wet sclerophyll forest or subalpine scrub at altitudes of 600 to 1200 m ( 2000 – 4000 ft ) . It is an understory component of subalpine forest stands of alpine ash ( Eucalyptus delegatensis ) and alpine yellow gum ( E. subcrenulata ) , as well as Athrotaxis selaginoides – Nothofagus gunnii short rainforest , Athrotaxis selaginoides rainforest , Leptospermum @-@ with @-@ rainforest scrub , the tall Nothofagus – Atherosperma rainforest and Nothofagus – Phyllocladus short rainforest . It is occasionally found in the Leptospermum scoparium – Acacia mucronata forest community of western Tasmania .
= = Ecology = =
The prominent position and striking colour of the flowers of T. truncata and many of its relatives within the subtribe Embothriinae in both Australia and South America strongly suggest it is adapted to pollination by birds , and has been for over 60 million years . The flower heads produce abundant nectar , which is fed upon by many bird species . The Tasmanian waratah has a swollen woody base largely under the soil known as a lignotuber , which stores energy and nutrients as a resource for rapid growth after a bushfire .
Like most Proteaceae , T. truncata has fine proteoid roots that arise from larger roots . These are roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter . They are particularly efficient at absorbing nutrients from nutrient @-@ poor soils , including the phosphorus @-@ deficient native soils of Australia . Waratah seeds are often eaten — and destroyed — by animals and do not travel far ( just several metres ) from the parent plants .
= = Cultivation = =
The flowers of the Tasmanian waratah provide ample nectar and hence are a food source for bird visitors to the garden . The species can be propagated by seed , though seedlings may succumb to damping off . Growing in a natural shady location delays flowering by two to four weeks , while growing in a cooler conditions ( due either to latitude or altitude ) can delay flowering by up to six weeks . Pruning flower heads can promote subsequent growth of leaves and branches . It grows best in a cool climate with ample water and good drainage , and has done well in cultivation in England . The Royal Horticultural Society gave it an Award of Merit in 1934 and a First Class Certificate in 1938 . The relationship between light duration and intensity , temperature , vegetative growth and flower production is poorly known . Yellow forms in cultivation were originally propagated from a plant found on Mount Wellington .
= = = Cultivars = = =
Telopea ' Champagne ' is a cultivar registered under plant breeders ' rights ( PBR ) in 2006 . Its creamy @-@ yellow flowerheads appear from October to December . It is a three @-@ way hybrid between T. speciosissima , T. oreades and the yellow @-@ flowered form of T. truncata .
Telopea ' Golden Globe ' is a cultivar registered under PBR in 2006 . Larger than ' Champagne ' , it is also a three @-@ way hybrid between T. speciosissima , T. oreades and the yellow @-@ flowered form of T. truncata . It has been propagated and sold as ' Shady Lady Yellow ' . It was originally bred in the Dandenongs east of Melbourne .
= = Uses = =
The flowers of T. truncata were once used extensively for decoration . Geoffrey Smith observed in 1909 that the collection of the flowers for this purpose had caused the decline of some populations on Mount Wellington . The timber of larger specimens has been used for inlays ; it has an attractive grain and a pale red color .
|
= John Harrison Clark =
John Harrison Clark or Changa @-@ Changa ( c . 1860 – 1927 ) effectively ruled much of what is today southern Zambia from the early 1890s to 1902 . Alone and unassisted , he arrived from South Africa in about 1887 , reputedly as an outlaw , and assembled and trained a private army of Senga natives , which he used to drive off various bands of slave @-@ raiders . He took control of a swathe of territory on the north bank of the Zambezi river called Mashukulumbwe , became known as Chief " Changa @-@ Changa " and , through a series of treaties with local chiefs , gained mineral and labour concessions covering much of the region .
Starting in 1897 , Clark attempted to secure protection for his holdings from the British South Africa Company . The Company took little notice of him . When a local chief , Chintanda , complained to the Company in 1899 that Clark had secured his concessions while passing himself off as a Company official and had been collecting hut tax for at least two years under this pretence , the Company resolved to remove him from power , and did so in 1902 . Clark then farmed for about two decades , with some success , and moved in the late 1910s to Broken Hill , where he became a prominent local figure , and a partner in the first licensed brewery in Northern Rhodesia . Remaining in Broken Hill for the rest of his life , he died there in 1927 .
= = Early life = =
Not much is known about John Harrison Clark 's early life . The son of a man " in the hardware business " ( according to a military officer who knew him , Major G R Deare ) , he was born in Port Elizabeth , Cape Colony around 1860 , and engaged for a time in the Cape Mounted Riflemen during the 1880s . A tall , physically strong man , he wore a large black moustache and was regarded as a fine shot and a capable hunter .
Harrison Clark left South Africa in 1887 , but it is unclear why ; according to a story that may be apocryphal , he fled the country as an outlaw soon after his revolver fired — by accident , so the story goes — and killed a man . Whatever the truth , he travelled to Mozambique , then a Portuguese territory , where he made his way upriver along the Zambezi until he reached Feira , a long @-@ abandoned Portuguese settlement at the confluence of the Zambezi and Luangwa Rivers , in what is today southern Zambia . Feira was founded by missionaries from Portugal in about 1720 , but by 1887 it was a ghost town . Its last inhabitants had fled amid a native rising about half a century before , and since then it had been deserted .
David Livingstone , who visited Feira in 1856 , described it as utterly ruined at that time , but still conspicuous by the ramshackle monastery buildings on the site . When Clark arrived about three decades later , the Portuguese still maintained a boma ( fort ) called Zumbo on the opposite bank of the Luangwa , but the surrounding country , then called Mashukulumbwe , was largely wild , and out of the control of any government . Harrison Clark settled at Feira , initially alone . According to a letter he wrote in 1897 , he flew the British Merchant Navy 's Red Ensign flag over his house .
= = Rise to power = =
Slave @-@ raiding was rife in Mashukulumbwe , with gangs of Arab , Portuguese and mixed Chikunda @-@ Portuguese ethnicity competing for the capture of local Baila and Batonga people for use as slaves . Clark , who became known to the locals as " Changa @-@ Changa " , raised and trained an " army " from among the Senga people , and issued these men a vague uniform . How he became a chief is equivocal — Deare asserted that Clark arrived in Mashukulumbwe " on the very day the chief died ... [ and ] was finally made chief of the tribe " . According to a story told by an acquaintance , Harry Rangeley , and partly corroborated by Alexander Scott in the Central African Post in 1949 , he became chief by virtue of winning a battle . Rangeley 's version has him defeating a rival chief ; Scott has Clark coming to the rescue of a Baila village under attack by Portuguese slavers , " liberat [ ing ] the slaves " and thereupon being proclaimed chief by the grateful villagers .
As chief , Clark secured his authority with his army of Senga warriors , defined and collected " taxes " and oversaw the activities of foreign traders in the area . Locals paid tribute in the form of cattle , and overseas merchants had to obtain a " trading licence " from Harrison Clark before they could operate in his territory . Where a trader was harvesting ivory to sell overseas , Clark levied every other tusk as an " export tax " . As well as regulating local trade , Clark encouraged the people to make paths between their villages , and repeatedly defended them against the various slave @-@ raiding gangs . As his Senga troops expanded , he conferred various grandiose titles on himself , including " King of the Senga " and " Chief of the Mashukulumbwe " .
All of this caused considerable annoyance to the Portuguese at Zumbo , though the boma coexisted with Clark 's settlement for the most part . The most prominent trans @-@ river clash came when Clark demonstrated the strength of his army by overpowering the fort 's garrison , pulling down the Portuguese flag and running up the Union Jack in its place . He then returned to Feira , leaving the British flag flying over Zumbo . His point made , he made no attempt to stop the Portuguese garrison from returning . The Portuguese arrested Clark at one point , according to one story , but released him after the native troopers refused to guard him , saying he was " too great a man to be arrested " . A similar tale has Harrison Clark being captured in Mozambique and deported to Feira under guard by two Portuguese soldiers ; these men found the journey so harrowing that Clark ended up escorting them back . According to one of Clark 's indigenous followers , he once put an intruding Chikunda force to flight simply by bellowing at the enemy leader to " voetsek you bloody nigger " .
Clark consolidated his chieftainship by marrying a daughter of Mpuka , the chief of the Chikunda people ; according to Deare this was just one of " the usual assortment of wives " . In 1895 he relocated north to the confluence of the Lukasashi and Lunsemfwa Rivers , where he established his own village . He named the settlement " Algoa " after the Portuguese name for Port Elizabeth , and lived in a small stone fort he built . Writing in 1954 , the historian W V Brelsford described Clark 's sphere of influence from Algoa as " the Luano Valley and the uplands as far westwards as the Kafue and southwards to Feira " .
= = Contact with the British South Africa Company = =
The British South Africa Company ( BSAC ) , established by Cecil Rhodes in 1889 , was designed to occupy and develop the area immediately north of the Transvaal , with the ultimate goal of aiding Rhodes 's dream of a Cape to Cairo railway through British territory . Having a firm hold over Matabeleland , Mashonaland and Barotseland by 1894 , the Company began officially calling its domain " Rhodesia " in 1895 . The BSAC sought to further expand its influence north of the Zambezi , and to that end regularly sent expeditions into what was dubbed North @-@ Eastern Rhodesia to negotiate concessions with local rulers and found settlements .
In 1896 , Major Deare led one such expedition north from the main seat of Company administration , Fort Salisbury , to meet with the Ngoni chief Mpezeni , who ruled to the east of Harrison Clark . One day , to Deare 's surprise , a small group of warriors approached his party from the west , carrying a letter . This message , written in English and signed " Changa @-@ Changa , Chief of the Mashukulumbwe " — the name John Harrison Clark was given in the body of the letter — said that its author had heard of a white man being entertained recently by Mpezeni , and wished to provide the same hospitality at Algoa . " Really , wonders never cease ! " Deare recalled . " I had heard of this man on the Zambezi and had known him well many years ago in the Cape Colony ... We had both lived in the same town for years . I learnt his story later . " It is unclear whether Deare took up Clark 's invitation to Algoa .
Harrison Clark subsequently sought protection from the British South Africa Company . He negotiated concessions with two neighbouring chiefs , Chintanda and Chapugira , each of whom signed over the mining and labour rights for his respective territory in return for a specified fee whenever Clark wished to use them . In August 1897 , Clark wrote to the Company administrator in Salisbury , Earl Grey , requesting that the Company honour these holdings , enclosing copies of the concessions he had secured . Also providing a cursory description of gold mining prospects in the region , Clark criticised the actions of Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Robert Warton , who was in the vicinity representing the North Charterland Exploration Company , a BSAC subsidiary . " Mashukulumbwe can be occupied without fighting , " he wrote . " I am on friendly terms with all the natives , and , if necessary , can raise a force of three to seven thousand to operate on Mfisini [ Mpezeni ] or Mashukulumbwe . Colonel Warton 's Administration of this country has been a mistake ; the country is rich in alluvial and reef gold . " The Company took little notice of Clark , but he continued in the same vein , acquiring similar concessions from the chiefs Chetentaunga , Luvimbie , Sinkermeronga and Mubruma over the following two years .
Clark wrote to the Company again on 12 April 1899 , once more attaching copies of his concessions , with an offer to supply the BSAC settlements in Southern Rhodesia with contract labourers taken from among his neighbouring chiefs ' populations . He said he had permission from all of the chiefs involved to do so . He requested as his fee £ 1 per man , and said that he had agreed a monthly wage of 10 shillings for each worker plus food , accommodation and fuel . Having split his concessions into two sections to draw labour from , Clark proposed to provide Salisbury with workers from his eastern concessions , and Bulawayo with those from the west . The chiefs had agreed to provide workers on contracts lasting six months , but Clark wrote that he could attempt to supply labour all year round if the Company wished .
= = Decline and fall = =
On 14 April 1899 , Chief Chintanda gave a BSAC commissioner at Mazoe , Southern Rhodesia a statement in which , among other things , he asserted that Clark had been claiming to be a Company official and had been collecting tariffs such as hut tax under that pretence for at least two years . Clark 's labour and mining concessions , Chintanda said , had been agreed under the impression that he represented the BSAC . Chintanda furthermore claimed that Clark was a prolific womaniser who had once raped a pregnant woman . " Whenever Clark sees a girl he fancies he takes her as his mistress for a few days , and when tired of her sends her home , " Chintanda said . " The fathers and husbands of these girls are constantly complaining to me about Clark 's actions , but I can do nothing as Clark is a white man , and professed to be representing the government . " The chief asked the Company to send a genuine representative .
Chintanda 's affidavit caused the BSAC to become concerned about Clark 's continued authority in North @-@ Eastern Rhodesia and to begin investigating him more thoroughly . The situation was complicated when , after a month 's perusal , the Company 's lawyers resolved that the courts in Salisbury and Bulawayo held no jurisdiction outside Southern Rhodesia and therefore could not hear any case brought against Clark . On 4 July 1899 , Arthur Lawley , the Company 's administrator in Matabeleland , wrote to Cape Town to report the situation to the resident High Commissioner for Southern Africa , Alfred Milner . Lawley briefly summarised the charges against Clark and requested permission to hold a court north of the Zambezi under the supervision of one of three chiefs friendly to the Company . Milner replied on 17 August that he could not legally sanction this , and that Lawley should pursue the matter further only when authority extended over Clark 's area .
On 24 August 1899 , Sub @-@ Inspector A M Harte @-@ Barry of the British South Africa Police interviewed Chief Mubruma , who corroborated much of what Chintanda had said regarding Clark 's claims to represent the Company . Mubruma said that Clark had visited the previous week and had told him to have his men ready for work south of the river within a month . When told that Clark had no connection with the BSAC , Mubruma said that he would not give Clark the workers , but would readily take part in the kind of scheme he had suggested if the Company wished . He made no comment relevant to Clark 's alleged sexual misconduct .
The BSAC established two forts to the north @-@ west of Algoa in 1900 , then a boma at Feira in 1902 , bringing Mashukulumbwe under Company control . Harrison Clark said that his concessions gave him authority over the area and demanded that the Company pay him for them . The BSAC said Clark 's documents were illegal and refused to deal with him . It offered him compensation , the form of which differs by source ; Brelsford and a man who knew Clark personally during the 1920s , Colonel N O Earl Spurr , say that he was given farms as compensation , while a 1920s business acquaintance , A M Bentley , writes that the Company promised grants of land and the right to reserve some mining claims . Clark reluctantly accepted the compensation when he realised that to challenge the BSAC he would have to travel a great distance , possibly to England , and invest heavily in a court case he could not be sure of winning .
= = Later life and death = =
Clark became a successful farmer , experimenting with the growing of rubber , cotton and other plants previously absent from the area . His cotton plantation developed promisingly for a few years , but he abandoned it after heavy rain destroyed an entire crop around 1909 . He remained on the farm until the late 1910s , when he either gave or sold it to Catholic missionaries , and moved to Broken Hill , one of the largest settlements in what had become Northern Rhodesia in 1911 . Here he lived for the rest of his life . Retaining " Changa @-@ Changa " as a nickname , he helped to develop various businesses and events , acted as a partner in the first licensed brewery in Northern Rhodesia ( alongside Lester Blake @-@ Jolly ) , and became " one of the pillars of society in the Broken Hill of those days " , according to Spurr . He owned one of the first automobiles in Northern Rhodesia — a dark green Ford Model T.
According to Brelsford , the elderly Harrison Clark remained highly respected among the indigenous people and was sometimes called upon to settle disputes . His last job was personnel manager at a local mine . He dedicated his final years to the writing of a book about his life , the manuscript for which was lost when his house burned down . Clark alleged that the BSAC orchestrated the fire to stop him from publishing unflattering information about the early days of Company rule . He died from heart disease in Broken Hill on 9 December 1927 , aged about 67 , and was buried in the Protestant section of the town cemetery . The modest savings he possessed at the time of his death were left to his sister in Port Elizabeth .
According to M D D Newitt , Clark embodied much of the pioneering spirit of the time and was " an object of legend " to his fellow frontiersmen . " He had led a wild , tough life but it had not turned him either into a rascal or into an uncouth bush dweller , " Brelsford writes . " Changa @-@ Changa " endured in the local vernacular as a word roughly meaning " boss " , and was still in use in Zambia in the 1970s . Summarising Clark 's life , Peter Duignan and Lewis Gann conclude that he " experienced in his own person the transition from bush feudalism to capitalism . "
|
= New York Rescue Workers Detoxification Project =
The New York Rescue Workers Detoxification Project was founded in New York City in 2003 with the stated purpose of treating rescue workers for toxins inhaled from the smoke of the September 11 attacks . It has two clinics : Downtown Medical on Fulton Street , two blocks from the site of the World Trade Center , and another at Williston Park , Long Island . The project 's co @-@ founder and top fundraiser is the actor Tom Cruise . It uses the Purification Rundown , a " detoxification " program invented by L. Ron Hubbard as part of Scientology 's Bridge to Total Freedom . This rundown has been criticized by many doctors as pseudoscientific and medically dangerous , although it has produced positive testimonials from some recipients . It was reported in October 2007 that 838 people had completed the program .
The project has been supported by some public officials , and received some public funding , but received criticism for its financial ties to the Church of Scientology , for exposing rescue workers to potential medical dangers , and for discouraging their use of orthodox medicine . Sources in the Fire Department told a reporter that several participants had joined Scientology , even disconnecting from their families .
= = Background = =
= = = Scientologists criticise EPA = = =
Tom Cruise explained his motivation for setting up the project in a Scientology promotional video that leaked onto the internet in January 2008 . The Environmental Protection Agency had stated after the World Trade Center attack that the air was safe to breathe . The video narration contradicted this , saying , " The devastation had spread an unprecedented combination of toxins through the air — and it was lethal . " Cruise is seen dismissing the EPA 's all @-@ clear :
" Of course , as a Scientologist , you go , that 's a lie . Outright lie . Liar . Fine . Finally you say , dammit , just go there and do it . Put it there , let 's go , here 's the money , let 's go . Let 's just get one person treated . I can 't sleep another night . "
In an appearance on CNN 's Larry King Live , Cruise said that he founded the project out of concern that 9 / 11 survivors would suffer leukemia , parkinsonism , multiple sclerosis or cancer as a result of toxins in their fatty tissue . He advocated Hubbard 's " research " as the only way to deal with these problems , claiming , " Doctors do not know how to diagnose chemical exposures [ ... ] You go to a doctor and now he 's going to put you on more and more drugs , steroids and things that are ineffective . "
= = = " Detoxification " in Scientology = = =
The " detoxification " program was created by L. Ron Hubbard , who set out the procedure in Clear Body , Clear Mind , one of the canonical texts of Scientology . Known as the " Purification rundown " or " Purif , " it is promoted through various groups affiliated with the Church of Scientology , including Narconon drug rehabilitation and the Second Chance Program . It claims to flush poisons from the body 's fat stores using exercise , saunas , and high doses of vitamins , particularly niacin . Medical professionals have judged it to be unproven , ineffective and / or potentially dangerous . A report for the Department of Health in California described the mega @-@ doses of vitamins as " hazardous " and " in some cases lethal . " Scientology 's own literature reports dehydration , electrolyte disturbances including hyponatremia ( low sodium level ) and hypokalemia ( low potassium level ) , and heat @-@ related illnesses as being frequent side @-@ effects of the program . Testimonials from some participants credit it with improvements in physical and mental health , but several families blame the Rundown for the death of a relative .
The project 's clients were required to attend this programme three hours each day , for between twenty @-@ one and forty days . This was promoted as a way to treat memory loss , respiration problems , fatigue and other problems suffered by the Ground Zero workers .
= = Finances and organization = =
From 2003 to 2007 , Downtown Medical received US $ 900 @,@ 000 in public funding , including $ 630 @,@ 000 from the City of New York . The project also received private funding , the biggest supporter being Tom Cruise . Other celebrity donors included Paul Newman , Paul McCartney , Adam Sandler , Leah Remini , Will Smith and Jada Pinkett Smith . By late 2004 , these donations amounted to $ 2 @.@ 3 million . The detoxification program has been offered for free to rescue workers , and also offered to other New York City residents , some of whom paid $ 5 @,@ 000 .
According to tax filings , the project pays on some of its money to two bodies , related to the Church of Scientology , that promote the Purification Rundown . These are the Association for Better Living and Education ( ABLE ) , which receives 5 % of all contributions , and the Foundation for Advancements in Science and Education ( FASE ) . The Executive Director of the Church of Scientology was involved in creating the Foundation and later described it as a " front group " . In one year , $ 173 @,@ 300 of Downtown Medical 's income went to Dr. Steven Lager , a Scientologist . As of 2007 , the director of the project was Jim Woodworth , a former drug addict who credits his recovery to the Purification Rundown . He was formerly the executive director of HealthMed , a Sacramento , California group which promotes Hubbard 's approach to detoxification .
= = Endorsements and criticism = =
The project had a mixed response from public officials . Margarita López , a former member of New York City Council , endorsed the program and helped it to win public funding . Subsequently , she received nearly $ 115 @,@ 000 in campaign contributions from Scientologists . Another councillor , Joseph Addabbo , Jr . , also supported the project , telling reporters , " The project seems to work . I 've seen it firsthand . " Mayor Michael Bloomberg spoke out against Addabbo and López for their connections with the program , saying that Scientology is " not science , and we should only fund those programs that reputable scientists believe will stand the light of day . "
Another supportive member of the City Council was Hiram Monserrate . Monserrate went through the program himself , and drafted official proclamations honoring both Tom Cruise and L. Ron Hubbard . Describing himself as a Christian , he distanced himself from Scientology but said he believes in the Purification Rundown . Another councillor ( and chair of the Public Safety Committee ) , Peter Vallone , Jr. vocally criticized the detoxification project and argued that public money should not be spent on it . He accused Monserrate of crossing the line between " cult and state . "
The project 's publicity included favorable quotations from Senator Charles Schumer and from Michael Balboni , New York 's deputy secretary for Public Security , though Schumer later withdrew his support and Balboni denied ever making the statement . Council speaker Christine C. Quinn denounced the program as meritless . U.S. Representative Carolyn B. Maloney wrote a letter supporting the project . Dr. Bob Hoffman of the New York City Poison Control Center warned that the Purification Rundown is potentially dangerous , calling it " hocus pocus . " Mayor Doreen Ehrbar of Williston Park took part in the opening ceremony for the Long Island clinic .
Neither the police nor the fire department officially supported the project . The Uniformed Firefighters Association initially supported it , but withdrew when the connection to the Church of Scientology was revealed . Firefighter Union President Patrick Bahnken said his members ' lives had benefited from the program , and that it had involved no religious rhetoric . Deputy Fire Commissioner Frank Gribbon of the FDNY told the New York Times , " while we are aware some members of the department have availed themselves of the program , we in no way endorse it . " Officials at the department raised concerns that firefighters were giving up existing medications in order to take part . The department 's deputy chief medical officer Dr. David Prezant said , " It 's not our job to say you can 't go . All we can do is say there 's no proven evidence it works . "
Actress and radio show host Janeane Garofalo drew criticism by allowing actress Leah Remini , then a Scientologist , to promote the project on her Air America Radio show .
= = Outcomes = =
It was reported in October 2007 that 838 people had completed the program . The clinic displayed towels with colored stains , as evidence that toxic material had been sweated out in the saunas . According to its Director , Jim Woodworth , during the Purification Rundown firefighters had passed odd @-@ colored bowel movements and sweated out mercury , aluminium and magnesium . The Fire Department 's chief medical officer , Dr. Kerry Kelly , criticized the lack of objective evidence , saying , " I have trouble believing in these purple @-@ stained towels . "
An investigation by the New York Press asked a number of independent doctors about the evidence for the Purification Rundown . None of them endorsed the program 's effectiveness and some explicitly described it as dangerous . Several said that no peer @-@ reviewed research on the rundown had been published in any medical journal . Some apparently supportive studies have been published , but these lack control groups and have other scientific failings . According to Deputy Fire Commissioner Frank Gribbon , doctors investigating the program on behalf of the Fire Department concluded that it was not detoxifying . University of Georgia bioterrorism expert Cham Dallas also denied that the procedure could detoxify , saying " It sounds great and they mean well , but it just doesn 't work . "
In 2007 , James Dahlgren and colleagues published a small @-@ sample pilot study assessing the project . Dahlgren is a doctor who promotes the Purification Rundown as a method of detoxification . The study claimed to find evidence both of elevated levels of polychlorinated biphenyls ( PCBs ) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans ( PCDFs ) in the rescue workers and improvement during the regime . Two scientists from Cambridge Environmental , Inc. published a thorough critique of the study . They questioned the premise that WTC rescue workers needed detoxification , citing studies that had found that their blood concentration of toxins was no greater than normal .
" [ W ] ith few exceptions , people 's body burdens of PCBs and other ' dioxin @-@ like compounds ' are determined almost exclusively by the food we eat , not by the air we breathe . Firefighters may occasionally receive on @-@ the @-@ job exposures to PCBs and PCDFs , but these would be from having fought PCB @-@ containing electrical transformer fires , not from 9 / 11 . "
The paper argues that the project never properly tested its outcomes and concludes that application of the " potentially dangerous " Purification Rundown to the health problems of 9 / 11 workers is " unconscionable " .
Many of the participants spoke favorably of the program and reported improved physical and mental health . Others said they were just taking advantage of the free saunas . One Fire Department lieutenant was quoted describing colleagues as desperate for help with the distress they felt in the aftermath of the attacks , to the point that they would try anything . Fire Department officials raised concerns about the project , saying that firefighters were being required to give up inhalers , pills and other orthodox medication . Two weeks into the program , one firefighter passed out and was taken to an emergency room with severe asthma , later saying that he had been asked to stop using his inhaler . According to the clinic 's associate medical director , Dr. Kawabena Nyamekye , participants were being helped off medication at their own insistence , not at the request of Downtown Medical . A former worker at Downtown Medical told reporters that staff were discouraged from calling for an ambulance even in an emergency , and that one of them had been required to break off contact with her boyfriend because he had left Scientology . A spokesman responded that the clinic had " a clear policy of calling 911 when needed . "
|
= Three @-@ cent nickel =
The copper @-@ nickel three @-@ cent piece , often called a three @-@ cent nickel piece or three @-@ cent nickel , was designed by US Mint Chief Engraver James B. Longacre and struck by the United States Bureau of the Mint from 1865 to 1889 . It was initially popular , but its place in commerce was supplanted by the five @-@ cent piece , or nickel .
With precious metal federal coinage hoarded during the economic turmoil of the American Civil War , including the silver three @-@ cent piece , and even the copper @-@ nickel cent commanding a premium , Congress issued paper money in denominations as small as three cents to replace the hoarded coins in commerce . These small slips of paper became ragged and dirty , and the public came to hate " shinplasters " . After the issuance in 1864 of a lighter bronze cent and a two @-@ cent piece of that metal , both of which circulated freely , there were proposals for a three @-@ cent piece in copper @-@ nickel to replace the three @-@ cent note . The advocates were led by Pennsylvania industrialist Joseph Wharton , who then controlled the domestic supply of nickel ore . On the last legislative day of the congressional session , March 3 , 1865 , a bill for a three @-@ cent piece in copper @-@ nickel alloy was introduced in Congress , passed both houses without debate , and was signed by President Abraham Lincoln .
The three @-@ cent nickel piece initially circulated well , but became less popular when the five @-@ cent nickel was introduced in 1866 , a larger , more convenient coin , with a value of five cents better fitting the decimal system . After 1870 , most years saw low annual mintages for the three @-@ cent nickel , and in 1890 Congress abolished it . The last were struck in 1889 ; many were melted down to coin more five @-@ cent pieces . The issue is not widely collected , and prices for rare dates remain low by the standards of American collectible coinage .
= = Background = =
The great influx of bullion from the California Gold Rush and other finds caused the price of silver relative to gold to increase starting in 1848 , and silver coins were hoarded or exported for melting . In 1851 , a bill for a three @-@ cent piece in 75 % silver and 25 % copper was introduced in Congress by New York Senator Daniel S. Dickinson , who wanted to lower postage rates from five to three cents . This percentage of silver was less than the normal 90 % so that the coins would circulate at a time of hoarding . The copper large cent did not circulate in the Pacific Coast region or South due to prejudice against coins that did not contain precious metal , and some means of allowing the purchase of a postage stamp without the use of copper cents was necessary . Dickinson 's bill passed on March 3 , 1851 , and in addition to authorizing the new three @-@ cent silver , lowered rates for most domestic mails . By 1854 , the imbalance had abated , and Congress increased the silver content of the three @-@ cent piece to the standard 90 % for silver coins , though its weight was reduced .
The large cent was replaced by a smaller version made of 88 % copper and 12 % nickel in 1857 . In 1861 , the Civil War began , and when efforts to finance the war via borrowing failed , the Treasury stopped paying out gold in December 1861 . The United States shifted to a paper money @-@ based economy with little disruption . By June 1862 , the price of silver had risen to the point where coins of that metal vanished from circulation , many exported to Canada , where they were both acceptable in circulation , and could be exchanged for gold . This departure of low @-@ value coins was far more disruptive to commerce than the loss of the high @-@ denomination gold coins , and change in transactions was made by a variety of makeshifts . These included currency issues by cities and businesses , encased postage stamps , and federally issued fractional currency — paper notes in denominations as small as three cents . The low @-@ value paper currency , whether issued by government or business , were called shinplasters by the public , which disliked them . On the Pacific Coast , where paper money was not favored , silver and gold continued to circulate .
Since fractional currency in three @-@ cent denominations did not appear until late 1864 , the cent was the only means then circulating of making change from the five @-@ cent note , and came , in 1862 and 1863 , to command a premium when sold in lots , of about 4 % . The Philadelphia Mint tried to keep up with demand , limiting public purchases of cents to five dollars , and sending shipments to major cities . Despite these attempts , Mint Director James Pollock noted in his annual reports that cents were almost unobtainable , hoarded despite the fact that their metallic value remained less than one cent each . Numismatist Neil Carothers theorized that they were put aside by the public as the only circulating federal coinage , made of metal at a time when the public was forced to accept flimsy pieces of paper instead of silver and gold .
With cents from the Philadelphia Mint selling at a premium , many private token issues were issued in 1863 , and passed as cents in commerce . Mint officials took notice that the tokens , often made of bronze rather than the copper @-@ nickel alloy then being used in the cent , were not hoarded and began to consider issuing bronze coins . When Pollock proposed legislation for bronze one- , two- , and three @-@ cent pieces , it was opposed by industrialist Joseph Wharton , owner of the major source of nickel in the United States at the time , a mine at Gap , Pennsylvania . Pollock 's bill , as introduced , provided for one- and two @-@ cent pieces of bronze , and the Wharton interests opposed it . According to Carothers ,
Congress declined to compromise with the nickel interests ... In the House , its opponents managed to delay its passage for a month . Thaddeus Stevens , one of the most influential men in the House , fought it bitterly , admitting , however , that he objected to it because it adversely affected Wharton 's interests .
The Coinage Act of 1864 passed into law on April 22 of that year . After entering circulation several months later , the bronze cent and two @-@ cent piece circulated in trade without being hoarded . The bronze alloy was easier to strike than the copper @-@ nickel one , allowing details to be brought forth sharply and extending the life of coinage dies .
= = Legislation = =
Nickel , formerly used in the cent , now had no place in American coinage . This was unsatisfactory to Wharton , who sought its return . Although Pollock made no mention of further nickel coinage in his 1864 annual report , Wharton in April of that year published a pamphlet proposing that all non @-@ precious metal coinage be composed of 75 % copper and 25 % nickel . The copper @-@ nickel cents had contained only 12 % nickel , and even so had been difficult for the Mint to strike due to the hardness of the metal , the use of which damaged equipment and quickly broke dies . An alloy of 25 % nickel would be even more difficult to coin . Wharton argued that the tough alloy would be difficult to counterfeit .
Congress had by the Act of March 3 , 1863 authorized fractional currency in the denomination of 3 cents ; when these notes reached circulation the following year they proved wildly unpopular . The 1864 law which had substituted bronze for copper @-@ nickel had also outlawed " copperheads " or private token issues . Even though these could now only be issued anonymously , and so could not be redeemed , the copperheads were preferred to the 3 @-@ cent shinplasters . Some copperhead tokens even read " Substitute for shinplasters " . The notes soon became filthy and ragged , making them even more disliked . They were more difficult to value in quantity than notes with denominations divisible by five . According to Walter Breen , " This was the moment Wharton 's supporters had been waiting for . " Wharton and his advocates argued that the three @-@ cent notes should be redeemed with equivalent coins . They contended that were Congress to order a three @-@ cent bronze coin , such a piece would be as big as an obsolete large cent , and might be used to deceive the blind into accepting the pre @-@ 1857 cent rather than the more valuable coin . Pollock , previously an opponent of nickel coinage , had a change of heart and became a supporter .
There are several slightly varying accounts of why the bill for the three @-@ cent nickel passed . Breen told of the pressure advocates for nickel put on House Coinage Committee chairman John Adam Kasson , finally winning him over to the position that even 25 % nickel coins ( which would be hard on the Mint 's equipment ) would be better than the continued use of shinplasters , and presenting him with a draft of a bill for a three @-@ cent piece of that alloy . The bill made the new coin legal tender to sixty cents . The 1864 act had made the cent legal tender to ten cents , and the two @-@ cent piece to twenty ; both limits were reduced to four cents . The bill did not abolish the three @-@ cent silver piece , which was still being struck in small quantities . The new copper @-@ nickel coins would be issued in exchange for three @-@ cent shinplasters — the Currency Bureau was instructed to print no more three @-@ cent notes .
The bill passed the House of Representatives on the evening of March 3 , 1865 . At the time , it was usual to extend the final day of the congressional session in odd @-@ numbered years to noon on March 4 , and this occurred . The Senate took up the bill late on the morning of March 4 . Action was repeatedly interrupted , first by Ohio Senator John Sherman reporting progress on an appropriations bill , then by Iowa 's James Grimes stating that ticket holders for the inaugural festivities at noon were being soaked by rain outside the Capitol , causing some debate as to whether they should be admitted early . Once female guests were admitted ( males were left outside ) , the Senate passed the three @-@ cent nickel bill without debate , and it was shortly thereafter signed by President Abraham Lincoln .
Q. David Bowers said of the sudden passage of the legislation " We can only guess what happened behind the scenes " . Carothers wrote that Kasson had opposed nickel coinage , but nevertheless introduced the bill for it during the rush of the final day of the congressional session , " There was no report and no explanation ... The influences that brought about the passage of the measure in this fashion were never revealed . " Numismatic historian Don Taxay suggested that by March 3 , 1865 , " the wide circulation of the bronze cent and two @-@ cent piece had made a three @-@ cent coin superfluous . "
= = Design = =
Mint Chief Engraver James B. Longacre had , since 1849 , designed coins with various visages of the goddess Liberty , based on a bust , Venus Accroupie , he had seen in a Philadelphia museum on loan from the Vatican . Although the Liberty as used on the three @-@ cent nickel piece is closest to Longacre 's experimental cents of 1857 and quarter eagles of 1860 , she resembles most of the Chief Engraver 's other depictions of Liberty . On the three @-@ cent piece , she wears a coronet with her name on it , and a ribbon binds her hair . For the reverse , Longacre combined the Roman numeral III as rendered on the silver three @-@ cent piece with the laurel wreath used on the 1859 Indian Head cent reverse . Breen suggested that the similarity of design to other Longacre coins has contributed to the low level of collector interest in the three @-@ cent nickel .
According to Lange , " resourceful as always , J.B. Longacre simply revised an existing image of Liberty for the obverse of the nickel three @-@ cent piece . The same classical profile that appears on the Indian Head cent , the gold dollar , and the $ 3 piece is seen fitted with a new hairstyle and a studded coronet inscribed Liberty . " The act that authorized the three @-@ cent nickel contained a provision requiring the use of the motto " In God We Trust " on all pieces large enough to bear it , but the new coin was deemed too small . No change was made to the design of the three @-@ cent piece in nickel during its lifetime .
= = Production = =
= = = Early years ( 1865 – 73 ) = = =
The three @-@ cent nickel piece was very popular when it entered circulation in mid @-@ 1865 . More convenient than the larger two @-@ cent bronze piece , it largely replaced that coin , starting the two @-@ cent on its way to decreased popularity and abolition in 1873 . The hard alloy , though , caused high levels of die breakage . Between 1865 and 1876 , some 17 million three @-@ cent pieces were used by the government to redeem the three @-@ cent fractional currency notes .
The Wharton nickel interests were not satisfied by the issuance of the three @-@ cent piece , and soon began to agitate for the passage of a five @-@ cent coin , to be made of the same alloy as the three @-@ cent piece . The Act of May 16 , 1866 introduced the five @-@ cent nickel piece , or " nickel " , as it has come to be known . According to David Lange in his history of the Mint , the five @-@ cent piece has " become one of the mainstays of the country 's coinage " . The new five @-@ cent coin was legal tender up to a dollar .
The introduction of the five @-@ cent copper @-@ nickel piece greatly decreased the popularity and use of the three @-@ cent piece . The three @-@ cent piece had debuted in 1865 with a mintage of over eleven million and nearly five million in 1866 ; thereafter strikings declined , falling to under a million by 1871 , a figure the coin would thereafter exceed only twice . The public had preferred small bronze coins to paper money , then the three @-@ cent nickel piece rather than the bronze ; they now preferred the five @-@ cent nickel to the three . One reason for this was that the base metal five @-@ cent piece would be redeemed by the government if presented in $ 100 lots pursuant to a provision in the authorizing legislation . There was no such provision for the three @-@ cent nickel piece ; neither was there any for the other base metal coins . Following Pollock 's resignation in 1866 over his objections to President Johnson 's Reconstruction policies , the new Mint Director was Henry Linderman , who in his first annual report in 1867 , described the redemption clause in the nickel 's authorizing legislation as " a most wise and just provision " , urging its extension to the cent , two @-@ cent piece , and three @-@ cent piece . Postmasters were compelled to take three @-@ cent nickel pieces in exchange for stamps , but had difficulty in depositing them in the Treasury in payment of their obligations , as the government would take no more than sixty cents worth of them in a single transaction . Private individuals and firms similarly refused them beyond the legal tender limit ; those with a surplus of base metal coins often sold them at a discount .
Congress took no action on a redemption bill , and in 1868 Linderman wrote again in his annual report , urging that the public be allowed to redeem small @-@ denomination coins , as commerce was flooded with them . He disclosed that he had been redeeming the old copper @-@ nickel cents with three @-@ cent pieces and nickels . Carothers pointed out that exchanging the copper @-@ nickel pieces for cents violated the 1865 and 1866 acts , that stated the three @-@ cent piece and nickel could not be purchased with cents , but only for greenbacks or specie . Linderman strongly advocated a redemption law to relieve the glut of small coins :
But the government that sold these tokens at par for their face value , or paid them as money to its creditors , now turns round and refuses to receive them back in payment from its own officers ... Was there ever an act of the government of a respectable people that , for meanness , can compare with this ? An individual that practiced such a confidence game would be branded as a two @-@ penny thief , and would soon be consigned to a house of correction . A government that practices such frauds upon the people cannot hope long to receive the respect of anybody .
In 1866 , Treasury Department official John Jay Knox was sent to examine the San Francisco Mint . After his return to Washington , he submitted a report that recommended many changes to how the Mint did business , including reform of the base @-@ metal coinage . Knox complained that the various enactments for non @-@ specie coinage were " entirely disconnected and incongruous " . Linderman submitted legislation to discontinue fractional currency of less than 25 cents , and authorizing copper @-@ nickel coins of one , three and five cents , legal tender and redeemable , and in the case of the three @-@ cent piece , larger and heavier than the existing coin . Linderman 's bill was introduced by Pennsylvania Representative William D. Kelley in February 1868 . It passed the House in amended form , but was not voted on in the Senate . Kelley tried again in the following term of Congress , and the bill met the same fate as its predecessor .
Pollock returned to office as Mint Director in 1869 . Although Pollock opposed redemption , Treasury Secretary George S. Boutwell did not , and a bill allowing for redemption of base @-@ metal coins in lots of at least $ 20 was signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 3 , 1871 . By then , early versions of what became the Coinage Act of 1873 were being considered by Congress . This was a major piece of legislation that reformed the laws relating to the Mint . As introduced by Ohio Senator John Sherman on April 28 , 1870 , it included Linderman 's proposal for the use of copper @-@ nickel in the minor coins . The debate over the bill stretched over the next three years . The use of nickel was a sticking point for the legislation ; some congressmen alleged that the whole point of the bill was to benefit Wharton . Between 1870 and 1872 , different versions of the bill , with a larger three @-@ cent piece , twice passed the House and once the Senate , but differences between the houses could not be reconciled . After the second House passage , in May 1872 , the Senate Finance Committee struck the provisions for copper @-@ nickel coinage . After a conference committee met , both houses passed a version that left the cent , three @-@ cent nickel piece , and nickel unaltered , and it was signed by President Grant on February 12 , 1873 . The act eliminated the two @-@ cent piece , silver three @-@ cent piece , silver half dime and the standard silver dollar ( the last denomination was reinstated in 1878 ) . The three @-@ cent piece was made legal tender to twenty @-@ five cents , as were the other two base @-@ metal coins , the cent and nickel ( the surviving silver coins were legal tender to five dollars ) . Numismatic writer Breen deemed the decision to eliminate the silver three @-@ cent piece and the half dime , which might directly compete with the two copper @-@ nickel coins , a favor to Wharton . Carothers called the abolition of the silver three- and five @-@ cent pieces " a necessity if the 3 cent and 5 cent nickel pieces were to be continued after the revival of silver coinage " .
= = = Decline and end ( 1873 – 90 ) = = =
On January 18 , 1873 , Philadelphia Mint Chief Coiner A. Loudon Snowden formally complained to Pollock that on the new year 's coins , the digit " 3 " too closely resembled an " 8 " . Pollock ordered Chief Engraver William Barber ( Longacre had died in office on January 1 , 1869 ) to redo the logotypes for the date . Thus , most denominations of American coinage dated 1873 , including the three @-@ cent nickel piece , have varieties : the Close ( or Closed ) 3 from early in the year , and the Open 3 from after Barber made his modifications . A total of 390 @,@ 000 Closed 3 and 783 @,@ 000 Open 3 of the three @-@ cent nickel were minted .
Numismatist Bruce C. Goldstein indicated that several factors combined to keep the nickel three @-@ cent piece in decline after the passage of the 1873 act . Less and less fractional currency was being redeemed , as almost a decade had passed since the issuance of three @-@ cent notes . Rich silver strikes in the West lowered the price of that metal to the point where old silver coins emerged from hoarding and circulated again . These factors , combined with ample stocks of cents and nickels , made the three @-@ cent nickel , a non @-@ silver coin of odd denomination , less desirable . By 1876 , the mintage for circulation had declined to 162 @,@ 000 . None were struck for circulation in 1877 and 1878 , though some proof coins were minted for sale to the public .
Although more than a million were minted in 1881 , another blow to the three @-@ cent piece occurred on October 1 , 1883 , when first @-@ class mail rates were lowered from three to two cents for the first 0 @.@ 5 ounces ( 14 g ) . Although the rate for pieces weighing up to 1 ounce ( 28 g ) initially remained at three cents , the two @-@ cent rate was extended to one ounce effective July 1 , 1885 . Deprived of the original reason for the denomination 's existence , no three @-@ cent pieces were struck for circulation in 1886 ( though several thousand proof coins were produced ) , and in the three remaining years of the piece 's life , a total of less than 60 @,@ 000 circulation strikes were minted . As the production of three @-@ cent pieces dwindled , the other non @-@ specie coins prospered , with record numbers of cents being struck in the 1880s to address the need to make change , and for penny arcade machines . The nickel proved popular in slot machines and street railways , which often set fares at five cents . With silver again circulating , the three @-@ cent piece became more unpopular because it was almost the same diameter as the dime , leading to confusion and small frauds .
Beginning in 1880 , in their annual reports , the Mint Director and Treasury Secretary appealed to Congress to discontinue the three @-@ cent piece . The last three @-@ cent pieces were struck in 1889 , and the denomination was discontinued , along with the gold dollar and the three @-@ dollar piece , by the Act of September 26 , 1890 . Many of the coins from 1888 and 1889 were still held at the Treasury Department and were melted after passage of the act , the fate of millions more as they flowed back from banks . The resultant metal contributed to large mintages of the Liberty Head nickel between 1890 and 1893 .
One proposal to revive the three @-@ cent piece was made in 1911 , when Mayors Brand Whitlock of Toledo , Ohio , and Newton D. Baker of Cleveland sent a joint memorial to Congress urging its return . The following year , a subcommittee of the House Committee on Coinage , Weights and Measures held a hearing on bills to authorize a copper @-@ nickel three @-@ cent piece and to change the composition of the cent to copper @-@ nickel . Mint Director George E. Roberts testified and indicated he had no objection to a three @-@ cent piece , as there was at least limited demand for a coin larger than the cent and smaller than the nickel . In 1936 , a bill for a three @-@ cent nickel was among various coin legislation considered by the Senate Banking Committee . In 1942 , Congress granted the Treasury Secretary the temporary authority to change the composition of the nickel because of wartime metal shortages , and if public demand for the five @-@ cent piece required it , the Mint could strike three @-@ cent pieces . Nothing came of any of the proposals . The three @-@ cent piece was made fully legal tender by the Coinage Act of 1965 , which proclaimed all coin and currency of the United States good to any amount for payment of public and private debt . By then , that coin had long since passed from the scene .
= = Collecting = =
According to the 2015 edition of R.S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins , only the pieces from 1882 to 1887 catalog for more than $ 100 in worn Good @-@ 4 condition ; common dates list for $ 18 in that condition . The highest value listed is for the 1877 , struck only in proof with a mintage of 900 , at $ 2 @,@ 000 . David F. Fanning , in his 2001 article on the three @-@ cent pieces , suggested that rarer specimens of the nickel three @-@ cent piece are relatively inexpensive compared with coins of similar mintage in more popular series , such as the Morgan dollar .
The design of the three @-@ cent nickel piece remained stable throughout its run , and there are few varieties . An overdate is known , 1887 / 6 . The die that struck those coins was originally dated 1886 , when no circulation strikes were made . So the die would not be wasted , the Mint altered the last digit from a 6 to a 7 ; evidence of both numbers is visible . Some 1865 pieces in proof condition display a wreath on the reverse that comes much closer to touching the rim than on later issues . These were most likely pattern coins but they are accepted as issued because the Mint placed them in some 1865 proof sets . Many of the three @-@ cent nickel pieces were not fully struck , and are missing details of the design ; this is because the head of Liberty is directly opposite the III , and the Mint had trouble getting the hard metal alloy to adequately flow to the high points of both sides .
|
= Chicxulub crater =
The Chicxulub crater ( pronunciation : / ˈtʃiːkʃᵿluːb / ; Mayan : [ tʃʼikʃuluɓ ] ) is an impact crater buried underneath the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico . Its center is located near the town of Chicxulub , after which the crater is named . The date of the Chicxulub impactor , which created it , coincides precisely with the Cretaceous – Paleogene boundary ( K – Pg boundary ) , around 66 million years ago . The crater is more than 180 kilometers ( 110 miles ) in diameter and 20 km ( 12 mi ) in depth , well into the continental crust of the region of about 10 – 30 km depth . It makes the feature the third of the largest confirmed impact structures on Earth ; the impacting bolide that formed the crater was at least 10 km ( 6 mi ) in diameter .
The crater was discovered by Antonio Camargo and Glen Penfield , geophysicists who had been looking for petroleum in the Yucatán during the late 1970s . Penfield was initially unable to obtain evidence that the geological feature was a crater and gave up his search . Later , through contact with Alan Hildebrand in 1990 , Penfield obtained samples that suggested it was an impact feature . Evidence for the impact origin of the crater includes shocked quartz , a gravity anomaly , and tektites in surrounding areas .
= = Discovery = =
In 1978 , geophysicists Antonio Camargo and Glen Penfield were working for the Mexican state @-@ owned oil company Petróleos Mexicanos , or Pemex , as part of an airborne magnetic survey of the Gulf of Mexico north of the Yucatán peninsula . Penfield 's job was to use geophysical data to scout possible locations for oil drilling . In the data , Penfield found a huge underwater arc with " extraordinary symmetry " in a ring 70 km ( 40 mi ) across . He then obtained a gravity map of the Yucatán made in the 1960s . A decade earlier , the same map suggested an impact feature to contractor Robert Baltosser , but he was forbidden to publicize his conclusion by Pemex corporate policy of the time . Penfield found another arc on the peninsula itself , the ends of which pointed northward . Comparing the two maps , he found the separate arcs formed a circle , 180 km ( 110 mi ) wide , centered near the Yucatán village Chicxulub ; he felt certain the shape had been created by a cataclysmic event in geologic history .
Pemex disallowed release of specific data but let Penfield and company official Antonio Camargo present their results at the 1981 Society of Exploration Geophysicists conference . That year 's conference was underattended and their report attracted scant attention . Coincidentally , many experts in impact craters and the K – Pg boundary were attending a separate conference on Earth impacts . Although Penfield had plenty of geophysical data sets , he had no rock cores or other physical evidence of an impact .
He knew Pemex had drilled exploratory wells in the region . In 1951 , one bored into what was described as a thick layer of andesite about 1 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 4 @,@ 300 ft ) down . This layer could have resulted from the intense heat and pressure of an Earth impact , but at the time of the borings it was dismissed as a lava dome — a feature uncharacteristic of the region 's geology . Penfield tried to secure site samples , but was told such samples had been lost or destroyed . When attempts at returning to the drill sites and looking for rocks proved fruitless , Penfield abandoned his search , published his findings and returned to his Pemex work .
At the same time , in 1980 , geologist Walter Alvarez and his father , Nobel Prize @-@ winning scientist Luis Walter Alvarez , put forth his hypothesis that a large extraterrestrial body had struck Earth . In 1981 , unaware of Penfield 's discovery , University of Arizona graduate student Alan R. Hildebrand and faculty adviser William V. Boynton published a draft Earth @-@ impact theory and sought a candidate crater . Their evidence included greenish @-@ brown clay with surplus iridium containing shocked quartz grains and small weathered glass beads that looked to be tektites . Thick , jumbled deposits of coarse rock fragments were also present , thought to have been scoured from one place and deposited elsewhere by a kilometers @-@ high tsunami resulting from an Earth impact . Such deposits occur in many locations but seem concentrated in the Caribbean basin at the K – Pg boundary . So when Haitian professor Florentine Morás discovered what he thought to be evidence of an ancient volcano on Haiti , Hildebrand suggested it could be a telltale feature of a nearby impact . Tests on samples retrieved from the K – Pg boundary revealed more tektite glass , formed only in the heat of asteroid impacts and high @-@ yield nuclear detonations .
In 1990 , Houston Chronicle reporter Carlos Byars told Hildebrand of Penfield 's earlier discovery of a possible impact crater . Hildebrand contacted Penfield in April 1990 and the pair soon secured two drill samples from the Pemex wells , stored in New Orleans . Hildebrand 's team tested the samples , which clearly showed shock @-@ metamorphic materials .
A team of California researchers including Kevin Pope , Adriana Ocampo , and Charles Duller , surveying regional satellite images in 1996 , found a cenote ( sinkhole ) ring centered on Chicxulub that matched the one Penfield saw earlier ; the sinkholes were thought to be caused by subsidence of the impact crater wall . More recent evidence suggests the actual crater is 300 km ( 190 mi ) wide , and the 180 km ring is in fact an inner wall of it .
= = Impact specifics = =
Researchers at the University of Glasgow dated tektites samples from the impact as 66 @,@ 038 @,@ 000 ± 11 @,@ 000 years old .
The Chicxulub impactor had an estimated diameter of 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) or larger , and delivered an estimated energy of 420 zettajoules ( over a billion times the energy of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ) . By contrast , the most powerful man @-@ made explosive device ever detonated , the Tsar Bomba , had an energy of only 210 petajoules ( the yield of 50 megatons of TNT ) , making the Chicxulub impact roughly 2 million times more powerful . Even the most energetic known volcanic eruption , which released an estimated energy of 1 zettajoule ( the equivalent of approximately 240 gigatons of TNT ) and created the La Garita Caldera , delivered only 0 @.@ 1 % of the energy of the Chicxulub impact . The impact is estimated to have displaced almost 200 @,@ 000 cubic kilometers ( 48 @,@ 000 cubic miles ) of sediment , two orders of magnitude more than the amount displaced by the second @-@ largest instantaneous deposit , the Nuuanu debris flow in Hawaii .
= = = Effects = = =
The impact would have caused some of the largest megatsunamis in Earth 's history that would have reached all the way to Texas and Florida . A cloud of super @-@ heated dust , ash and steam would have spread from the crater as the impactor burrowed underground in less than a second . Excavated material along with pieces of the impactor , ejected out of the atmosphere by the blast , would have been heated to incandescence upon re @-@ entry , broiling the Earth 's surface and possibly igniting wildfires ; meanwhile , colossal shock waves would have triggered global earthquakes and volcanic eruptions .
The emission of dust and particles could have covered the entire surface of the Earth for several years , possibly a decade , creating a harsh environment for living things . The shock production of carbon dioxide caused by the destruction of carbonate rocks would have led to a sudden greenhouse effect . Over a longer period , sunlight would have been blocked from reaching the surface of the Earth by the dust particles in the atmosphere , cooling the surface dramatically . Photosynthesis by plants would also have been interrupted , affecting the entire food chain . A model of the event developed by Lomax et al . ( 2001 ) suggests that net primary productivity ( NPP ) rates may have increased to higher than pre @-@ impact levels over the long term because of the high carbon dioxide concentrations .
In February 2008 , a team of researchers led by Sean Gulick at the University of Texas at Austin 's Jackson School of Geosciences used seismic images of the crater to determine that the impactor landed in deeper water than was previously assumed . They argued that this would have resulted in increased sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere . According to the press release , that " could have made the impact deadlier in two ways : by altering climate ( sulfate aerosols in the upper atmosphere can have a cooling effect ) and by generating acid rain ( water vapor can help to flush the lower atmosphere of sulfate aerosols , causing acid rain ) . "
A long @-@ term local effect of the impact was the creation of the Yucatán sedimentary basin which " ultimately produced favorable conditions for human settlement in a region where surface water is scarce . "
= = = Geology and morphology = = =
In their 1991 paper , Hildebrand , Penfield , and company described the geology and composition of the impact feature . The rocks above the impact feature are layers of marl and limestone reaching to a depth of almost 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) . These rocks date back as far as the Paleocene . Below these layers lie more than 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) of andesite glass and breccia . These andesitic igneous rocks were only found within the supposed impact feature , as is shocked quartz . The K – Pg boundary inside the feature is depressed to 600 to 1 @,@ 100 m ( 2 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 600 ft ) compared with the normal depth of about 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) measured 5 km ( 3 mi ) away from the impact feature . Along the edge of the crater are clusters of cenotes or sinkholes , which suggest that there was a water basin inside the feature during the Neogene period , after the impact . The groundwater of such a basin would have dissolved the limestone and created the caves and cenotes beneath the surface . The paper also noted that the crater seemed to be a good candidate source for the tektites reported at Haiti .
= = = Astronomical origin of asteroid = = =
In September 2007 , a report published in Nature proposed an origin for the asteroid that created the Chicxulub Crater . The authors , William F. Bottke , David Vokrouhlický , and David Nesvorný , argued that a collision in the asteroid belt 160 million years ago resulted in the Baptistina family of asteroids , the largest surviving member of which is 298 Baptistina . They proposed that the " Chicxulub asteroid " was also a member of this group . The connection between Chicxulub and Baptistina is supported by the large amount of carbonaceous material present in microscopic fragments of the impactor , suggesting the impactor was a member of a rare class of asteroids called carbonaceous chondrites , like Baptistina . According to Bottke , the Chicxulub impactor was a fragment of a much larger parent body about 170 km ( 106 mi ) across , with the other impacting body being around 60 km ( 37 mi ) in diameter . In 2011 , new data from the Wide @-@ field Infrared Survey Explorer revised the date of the collision which created the Baptistina family to about 80 million years ago . This makes an asteroid from this family highly improbable to be the asteroid that created the Chicxulub Crater , as typically the process of resonance and collision of an asteroid takes many tens of millions of years . In 2010 , another hypothesis was offered which implicated the newly discovered asteroid P / 2010 A2 , a member of the Flora family of asteroids , as a possible remnant cohort of the K / Pg impactor .
= = = Chicxulub and mass extinction = = =
The Chicxulub Crater lends support to the theory postulated by the late physicist Luis Alvarez and his son , geologist Walter Alvarez , that the extinction of numerous animal and plant groups , including non @-@ avian dinosaurs , may have resulted from a bolide impact ( the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event ) . Luis and Walter Alvarez , at the time both faculty members at the University of California , Berkeley , postulated that this enormous extinction event , which was roughly contemporaneous with the postulated date of formation for the Chicxulub crater , could have been caused by just such a large impact . The age of the rocks marked by the impact shows that this impact structure dates from roughly 66 million years ago , the end of the Cretaceous period , and the start of the Paleogene period . It coincides with the K – Pg boundary , the geological boundary between the Cretaceous and Paleogene . The impact associated with the crater is thus implicated in the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event , including the worldwide extinction of non @-@ avian dinosaurs . This conclusion has been the source of controversy . In March 2010 , 41 experts from many countries reviewed the available evidence : 20 years ' worth of data spanning a variety of fields . They concluded that the impact at Chicxulub triggered the mass extinctions at the K – Pg boundary . In 2013 a study compared isotopes in impact glass from the Chicxulub impact with the same isotopes in ash from the boundary where the extinction event occurred in the fossil record ; the study concluded that the impact glasses were dated at 66 @.@ 038 ± 0 @.@ 049 Ma , and the deposits immediately above the discontinuity in the geological and fossil record was dated to 66 @.@ 019 ± 0 @.@ 021 Ma , the two dates being within 19 @,@ 000 years of each other , or almost exactly the same within experimental error . The theory is now widely accepted by the scientific community . Some critics , including paleontologist Robert Bakker , argue that such an impact would have killed frogs as well as dinosaurs , yet the frogs survived the extinction event . Gerta Keller of Princeton University argues that recent core samples from Chicxulub prove the impact occurred about 300 @,@ 000 years before the mass extinction , and thus could not have been the causal factor . However , this conclusion is unsupported by radioactive dating and sedimentology .
The main evidence of such an impact , besides the crater itself , is contained in a thin layer of clay present in the K – Pg boundary across the world . In the late 1970s , the Alvarezes and colleagues reported that it contained an abnormally high concentration of iridium . Iridium levels in this layer reached 6 parts per billion by weight or more compared to 0 @.@ 4 for the Earth 's crust as a whole ; in comparison , meteorites can contain around 470 parts per billion of this element . It was hypothesized that the iridium was spread into the atmosphere when the impactor was vaporized and settled across the Earth 's surface amongst other material thrown up by the impact , producing the layer of iridium @-@ enriched clay . Similarly , an iridium anomaly in core samples from the Pacific Ocean suggested the Eltanin impact of about 2 @.@ 5 million years ago .
= = Multiple impact hypothesis = =
In recent years , several other craters of around the same age as Chicxulub have been discovered , all between latitudes 20 ° N and 70 ° N. Examples include the disputed Silverpit crater in the North Sea and the Boltysh crater in Ukraine . Both are much smaller than Chicxulub , but are likely to have been caused by objects many tens of meters across striking the Earth . This has led to the hypothesis that the Chicxulub impact may have been only one of several impacts that happened nearly at the same time . Another possible crater thought to have been formed at the same time is the larger Shiva crater , though the structure 's status as a crater is contested .
The collision of Comet Shoemaker – Levy 9 with Jupiter in 1994 demonstrated that gravitational interactions can fragment a comet , giving rise to many impacts over a period of a few days if the comet should collide with a planet . Comets undergo gravitational interactions with the gas giants , and similar disruptions and collisions are very likely to have occurred in the past . This scenario may have occurred on Earth at the end of the Cretaceous , though Shiva and the Chicxulub craters might have been formed 300 @,@ 000 years apart .
In late 2006 , Ken MacLeod , a geology professor from the University of Missouri , completed an analysis of sediment below the ocean 's surface , bolstering the single @-@ impact theory . MacLeod conducted his analysis approximately 4 @,@ 500 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 800 mi ) from the Chicxulub Crater to control for possible changes in soil composition at the impact site , while still close enough to be affected by the impact . The analysis revealed there was only one layer of impact debris in the sediment , which indicated there was only one impact . Multiple @-@ impact proponents such as Gerta Keller regard the results as " rather hyper @-@ inflated " and do not agree with the conclusion of MacLeod 's analysis , arguing that there might only be gaps of hours to days between impacts in a multiple @-@ impact scenario ( cf . Shoemaker @-@ Levy 9 ) which would not leave a detectable gap in deposits .
= = Scientific studies = =
During April and May 2016 , a joint IODP @-@ ICDP Mission Specific Platform Expedition obtained the first offshore core samples from the peak ring , the central zone of the crater . During Expedition 364 , DES drillers on the L / B Myrtle collected core for ECORD Science Party members to study how the peak ring formed and what was the total impact energy .
Their target depth was 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) below the bottom of the ocean , but reached to an acceptable 1 @,@ 300 m . The main study will be done after the cores have been shipped to Bremen , Germany . Chicxulub is the only known Earth crater with a remaining impact peak ring , but it is under 600 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) of sediment .
|
= Don 't Forget About Us =
" Don 't Forget About Us " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey . It was written by Carey , Jermaine Dupri , Bryan @-@ Michael Cox and Johntá Austin , and released as the fifth single on December 12 , 2005 , for the re @-@ issue of her tenth studio album , The Emancipation of Mimi ( 2005 ) . Co @-@ produced by the former three , the song is influenced by R & B and hip hop soul music genres , and lyrically chronicles the emotions felt by the protagonist after the loss of their relationship . Carey explained that the true meaning of the song is to be interpreted by the listener , therefore not disclosing its entire meaning publicly .
The song received generally positive reviews from music critics , with many heavily comparing it to Carey 's previous single " We Belong Together " . Several reviewers felt the song 's similarity marked Carey 's lack of creativity with it , while others embraced its radio @-@ friendly formula . " Don 't Forget About Us " became Carey 's seventeenth chart topping single on the US Billboard Hot 100 , tying the record for most number @-@ one singles by a solo artist set by Elvis Presley 36 years before . Internationally , the song topped the singles chart in Belgium and Finland , and reached the top @-@ ten in Hungary and the Netherlands .
Carey performed the song at the 33rd annual American Music Awards , and during the half @-@ time of the Thanksgiving game between the Detroit Lions and the Atlanta Falcons . Additionally , the song was included on the set @-@ lists of Carey 's The Adventures of Mimi and Angels Advocate Tours . The song 's music video chronicles the two time frames , Carey in the present , as well as the past memories she shared with her ex @-@ lover that continue to haunt her . At the 49th annual Grammy Awards , " Don 't Forget About Us " was nominated for two awards during the ceremony held on February 11 , 2007 .
= = Background and recording = =
After being branded Carey 's " comeback album " by music critics , and becoming the highest selling album of her career post @-@ Glitter ( 2001 ) , The Emancipation of Mimi inspired Carey to return to the studio , in hopes of writing and producing new material for her next studio album . During a writing session with Jermaine Dupri , Carey wrote " Don 't Forget About Us " as a possible single for her next album , reminiscent of the material on The Emancipation of Mimi . After hearing the unfinished version of the song , L.A. Reid , CEO at the time of Carey 's label Island Records , was very satisfied with the song . He convinced Carey to continue writing and producing new songs , and suggested on re @-@ releasing the album , which had already sold over four million units in the United States alone . Carey agreed to the idea of re @-@ releasing The Emancipation of Mimi , feeling eager to release the song , as well as other material to her fans , instead of making them wait for a brand new album . In an interview with MTV News , Carey discussed the decision of releasing the song immediately , as well as the re @-@ release of the album :
'Don 't Forget About Us ' was a song that Jermaine [ Dupri ] and I started writing and didn 't finish , and L.A. Reid heard it . He was excited about it and he was like , ' We should re @-@ release the album . I agreed because were trying to figure out what to do with the song because we loved it so much , and we didn 't want to wait until the next album to send it to radio .
After completing the song , Carey announced on October 13 , 2005 via her official website , that she would be re @-@ releasing The Emancipation of Mimi . Additionally , she explained how the album would contain four new songs , and would be promoted internationally by the new single , " Don 't Forget About Us " . The song was released throughout the globe as the fifth official single from The Emancipation of Mimi , and the first from the re @-@ release , tentatively titled , Ultra Platinum Edition .
= = Composition = =
" Don 't Forget About Us " is a mid @-@ tempo song lasting three minutes and fifty @-@ three seconds , while drawing influence from pop and R & B with downtempo beats music genres . Written by Carey , Jermaine Dupri , Bryan @-@ Michael Cox and Johntá Austin , and produced by the former three , the song drew comparisons to Carey 's " We Belong Together " . According to Michael Paoletta from Billboard , the song features a similar tempo , lyrical style , instrumentation and production as the latter song , and incorporates a reminiscent vocal performance from Carey . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Music Publishing , the song is set in common time with a moderate tempo of 72 beats per minute . The song is composed in the key of G minor , with Carey 's vocal range spanning from the low @-@ note of D3 to the high @-@ note of F6 . Lyrically , the song describes the potency of a " first love " , and features a protagonist pleading to her lover to " not forget about them " . Critics noted that the song 's lyrics both let go of a lover , as well as cherishing their memory . Carey sings " Just let it die / With no goodbyes " , indicating a relationship that has long decayed , and how she has let it drift away , while also adding " here 's only one me and you / And how we used to shine / No matter what you go through / We are one , that 's a fact / That you can 't deny " , indicating that while they are no longer together , she will continue to cherish the memory of them , and how strong their love was . According to Carey , she refrained from giving away too much of the song 's lyrical meaning , in order to allow fans to possibly interpret the song in their own way :
I try not to get too specific so that people can apply the lyrics to their own lives . When I was growing up and listening to the radio and I would hear a song that reminded me of a certain person or a situation or whatever , I would want to be able to completely connect it to that moment . And then if I heard someone explaining it and making it into something totally different , it ruined it for me . So I kind of like to keep it open for people 's imaginations . It evokes something different depending on who listens to it and at what time . " Don 't Forget About Us " could give you a good , happy memory , or you could be miserable , crying , listening to it over and over . All in all , I think it 's good to have music you can live vicariously through , and that 's what a lot of people have told me this record has been for them .
= = Critical reception = =
" Don 't Forget About Us " garnered generally positive reviews from music critics , though many compared it to , and felt it shared several similarities with Carey 's previous single , " We Belong Together " . Bill Lamb from About.com rated the song four out of five stars , who while noting the song 's careful formula , complimented Carey 's more mature and lower range vocals : " Mariah is clearly settling into a more mature style and lower range vocals than in her early career . " Additionally , Lamb commented that although not as " strong " as " We Belong Together " , the song was marginally better than another single from The Emancipation of Mimi , " Shake It Off " . Billboard 's Michael Paoletta drew heavy comparisons to " We Belong Together " , noting the song 's similar tempo , lyrical style , instrumentation and vocal stamp . He commented that although " Don 't Forget About Us " was " satisfying " on its own , it suggested that Carey had hit a creative wall . Andre Meyer from CBC News described the song as " stronger " than anything Carey released from 2001 – 2005 , and wrote " [ It ] cops the jittery R & B vibe that made Destiny ’ s Child so potent . " Reviewers from The New Yorker and Music Week were both taken aback by the single , calling it " beautiful " and " gentle " , respectively . Todd Martens from the Los Angeles Times compared it heavily to Carey 's 2008 single " Bye Bye " , describing their piano melody as " a close match " . In 2007 , " Don 't Forget About Us " was nominated for two Grammy Awards , in the " Best Female R & B Vocal Performance " and " Best R & B Song " categories , although not winning either .
= = Chart performance = =
" Don 't Forget About Us " was released as the fourth international single from The Emancipation of Mimi ( 2005 ) , and the first from its re @-@ release , the Ultra Platinum Edition . The song reached the top of the Billboard Hot 100 in its eleventh week , spending two consecutive weeks at the position . " Don 't Forget About Us " became Carey 's 17th chart @-@ topping single in the United States , tying the record set by Elvis Presley for most number @-@ one singles by a solo artist ( Carey has since surpassed this record with " Touch My Body " in 2008 ) . Currently , the only act to hold more US number @-@ one singles than Carey are The Beatles , who gained twenty throughout their career . " Don 't Forget About Us " stayed in the top forty for eighteen weeks and reached number one on other Billboard component charts , including the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs . The song was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 units .
Outside the United States , the song achieved moderate international charting . In Australia , " Don 't Forget About Us " debuted at its peak position of number twelve on the singles chart , during the week of December 18 , 2005 . In its second week , the song stalled at number twelve , before beginning its eleven @-@ week decent on the chart . On both the Finnish and Italian singles charts , " Don 't Forget About Us " charted for only one week , placing at number one and eleven , respectively . In both the Wallonian and Flemish territories in Belgium , the song peaked at numbers two and one , although plummeting outside the top @-@ fifty the following week . On the Dutch Top 40 chart , " Don 't Forget About Us " debuted at number ninety @-@ two during the week dated February 2 , 2006 . Spending one week at its peak position of number four , the song dropped to thirty @-@ two the following week . In New Zealand , it peaked at number twelve , and spent a total of four weeks fluctuating in the singles chart . Similarly on February 26 , 2006 , the song debuted and peaked at number nineteen on the Swiss Singles Chart , and spent a total of five weeks on the chart . On the UK Singles Chart week dated December 12 , 2005 , " Don 't Forget About Us " began its seven @-@ week run at its peak of number eleven .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
Filmed in Los Angeles , the music video reunited Carey with Paul Hunter , director of the video for her 1997 single , " Honey " . Since its release , Carey claimed it to be one of her favorite videos , due to its complex scenery and fun nature . She explained that she had wanted to work with Hunter again for some time , and was happy to be able to film another music video alongside him . In an interview with MTV News , Carey described her feelings regarding the video , as well as sentiments towards the video 's director , Hunter : " But I was so happy to work with him again ' cause ever since ' Honey ' I 've been trying to relive the splendor of that moment . It 's more of just a plain beauty piece with sentimental overtones , but it was great to work with Paul again . " Following a tale of love and separation , the video alternates between two different time frames . The first of these involves a tearful Carey in the present , while the second invokes memories of a relationship with a former lover ( played by Dolce & Gabbana model Christian Monzon ) . When questioned regarding a possible relationship with Monzon , Carey said " Erm , how do we play this ? OK , he ’ s a very nice guy , he ’ s been in a fabulous Dolce & Gabbana advert - did you see it ? And we ’ ve had some nice conversations and , um , a nice time . OK , I ’ ll say he definitely did a very good job in the video . " Additionally , Carey and Hunter placed several secrets within the video 's scenery , that would be intended for the " die @-@ hard fans " . Following the video 's completion , it premiered on MTV and several other music video channels on November 1 , 2005 . Aside from the video 's script , Carey channeled Marilyn Monroe , one of her icons growing up . During a pool scene , Carey re @-@ enacts a part from Monroe 's film Something 's Got to Give ( 1962 ) . In an interview with MTV News , Carey spoke of the re @-@ enactment :
That shot was totally and completely inspired by ' Something 's Got to Give , ' Marilyn Monroe 's last movie that never got finished . It 's an homage to her , because I 've never seen anyone re @-@ create it . So many people have emulated so many of Marilyn 's classic moments , but it 's just that I 'm a big fan of hers , and I thought it was really pretty at night with the pool . No one could ever be as fabulous as Marilyn was , but it 's in honor and homage to her .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The music video chronicles two alternative time frames , with the first of Carey in the present , tearful and remorseful their separation , while the other of several different past memories in which she shared with her lover . The video begins with Carey wearing a long brown blouse , laying on a sofa in an elegantly furnished home . As the song begins , she stands up and walks around the living room , while remembering and lamenting her failed relationship . As the first memory of Carey and her lover together on a soccer field is shown , she is once again shown in the present , however clothed in a large white sweater while tears trickle down her cheek . As the memory continues of that night on the soccer field , they are seen together , caressing each other and holding each other in a tight embrace . Carey , in the present , makes her way into a heated pool , where she lays her leg on the deck , re @-@ enacting a famed scene from Marilyn Monroe 's unreleased film , Something 's Got to Give ( 1962 ) . The next memory is of the pair together in the same pool , however in happier times . During the song 's bridge , the scenes alternate from Carey at her home in the present , to the duo holding each other intimately in a car . The video ends with Carey alone in the car , while wearing her lover 's jacket .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Don 't Forget About Us " music video peaked at # 1 on Billboard 's Hot Videoclip Tracks chart .
= = Remixes = =
The main remix of " Don 't Forget About Us " was produced by Jermaine Dupri and is known as the Mr. Dupri mix . It features guest appearances from rappers Juelz Santana , Krayzie Bone and Layzie Bone . The Mr. Dupri mix was added to iTunes Music Store for download , while several dance remixes ( by Ralphi Rosario & Craig J. , Quentin Harris and Tony Moran & Warren Rigg ) were produced and made available for sale at other download retailers . In January 2007 , a new remix titled the Desert Storm remix , produced by DJ Clue ( who also remixed " We Belong Together " and " Shake It Off " ) featuring Styles P and Fabolous , was released to U.S. radio . This remix appeared on DJ Clue 's album Fidel Cashflow 2006 . A video was also helmed for the Desert Storm mix and can be found on Clue 's official MySpace page ; it has shots of Carey , Styles P , DJ Clue and Fabolous in the studio and enjoying themselves .
= = Live performances = =
Carey performed " Don 't Forget About Us " on several televised appearances , as well on all of her tours following its release . On November 15 , 2005 , the Chicago Tribune announced that Carey would perform during the half @-@ time on the Thanksgiving game between the Detroit Lions and the Atlanta Falcons . Airing on the 24th , Carey performed " Shake It Off " , as well as her newly released single from the album 's re @-@ release , " Don 't Forget About Us " . On November 22 , 2005 , Carey opened the 33rd annual American Music Awards with a performance of " Don 't Forget About Us " , held at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles . Appearing on stage in a " sequined , silver , spaghetti @-@ strap gown slit to the waist " , Carey completed the song before accepting the first award of the evening . Dave West from Digital Spy described it as a " blistering performance " , and claimed Carey " wowed " the crowd with her live rendition of the song . Two months later , she celebrated the new year on television , placing as the featured performer at the Times Square Ball drop on New Year 's Eve in New York . The special , titled Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve with Ryan Seacrest , aired on ABC at 10 pm on December 31 , and featured Carey on stage wearing a short sparkling dress , and performing a selection of the album 's singles .
On Carey 's 2006 The Adventures of Mimi Tour stop at Madison Square Garden , she sang " Don 't Forget About Us " while wearing a sparkling bikini top and black leggings . She introduced the song as a " thank you " to fans for " making this my 17th number one single " . Four years later during Carey 's Angels Advocate Tour in 2010 , she had not performed the song on the first few runs of the tour . At the show in Phoenix , she told the crowd that she had forgotten the song until that night : " I had forgotten about this song the whole tour and I don 't know why . Funny I should forget it , considering the title . " Dressed in a " form @-@ fitting short dress with a flared , tutu @-@ like bottom " for the first portion of the night , Carey completed the song as the fourth on the set @-@ list .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from The Emancipation of Mimi liner notes .
Mariah Carey – songwriter , producer , vocalist
Jermaine Dupri – songwriter , producer
Bryan @-@ Michael Cox – songwriter , producer
Johntá Austin – songwriter
Brian Garten – recording
= = Charts and certifications = =
|
= Droungarios of the Watch =
The Droungarios of the Watch ( Greek : δρουγγάριος τῆς βίγλης / βίγλας , droungarios tēs viglas / viglēs ) , sometimes anglicized as " Drungary of the Watch " , was originally a senior Byzantine military post . Attested since the late 8th century , the droungarios commanded the Vigla or " Watch " , one of the elite professional cavalry regiments ( tagmata ) of the middle Byzantine period , and was in charge of the Byzantine emperor 's personal security . From ca . 1030 , the office was disassociated from its military origin and was transformed into a senior judicial position , thereafter usually referred to as the Grand Droungarios of the Watch ( μέγας δρουγγάριος τῆς βίγλης / βίγλας , megas droungarios tēs viglas / viglēs ) . The office continued to exist as a mostly honorific court dignity in the Palaiologan era , until the very end of the Byzantine Empire in the mid @-@ 15th century .
= = Military office = =
The Droungarios of the Watch was originally the commander of the Vigla ( " guard watch " ) or Arithmos ( " number " ) , the third of the tagmata , professional cavalry regiments headquartered in and around Constantinople , and distinct from the provincial or thematic troops . The title of droungarios itself means " commander of a droungos " , a term of Gaulish origin which came to be used as a term for a kind of tactical cavalry formation in the East Roman army of Late Antiquity . The term droungarios ( Greek : δρουγγάριος ) is not documented before the early 7th century but might have been used as an informal or unofficial designation before that date . The office and the corresponding unit appear to have initially referred to ad hoc arrangements , but during the early 7th century these were formalized , like much of the East Roman army 's rank structure .
Judging from the unit 's name and the peculiar titles of its officers , it also had a considerable ancestry , dating back to the East Roman army , but it is unknown exactly when it was constituted as a tagma . The office of the Droungarios of the Watch at any rate is first attested ca . 791 , when Alexios Mosele is recorded as " spatharios and droungarios of the Watch " . In contrast to the other tagmata , the Watch and its commanders had special duties related to the safety of the Emperor and the imperial palace . Within Constantinople , the Watch provided guards for the palace precinct , and kept a permanent garrison at the Covered Hippodrome ( also the droungarios 's seat
As detailed in the De Ceremoniis , the Droungarios of the Watch always accompanied the Emperor and was a frequent participant in various imperial ceremonies , often accompanied by his principal aide , the akolouthos . His ceremonial dress is indicated as the skaramangion tunic and a red sagion cloak , while on some occasions he bore a sword , a mace and an axe . The latter weapon was highly unusual for a Byzantine officer , and Guilland suggests that this was connected to his command of foreign troops via the akolouthos ( who later notably became the commander of the axe @-@ bearing Varangian Guard ) . In the 10th century , when several holders of the post were scions of the most prominent families of the military aristocracy , including Eustathios Argyros , John Kourkouas and Manuel Kourtikes , the droungarios occupied the 36th place in the imperial hierarchy and usually held the senior court dignities of anthypatos , patrikios or prōtospatharios .
= = = List of known holders = = =
Note : the list does not include holders known only through their seals but otherwise unidentified , or anonymous holders .
= = Judicial office = =
In ca . 1030 , the office changed from military to purely judicial , and was further distinguished by acquiring the epithet " Grand " ( megas ) in the 1070s . It seems that the droungarios took over the Court of the Hippodrome , extant since the mid @-@ 9th century and so known after its location in the Covered Hippodrome ( or , according to an alternative interpretation , in the substructures of the main Hippodrome of Constantinople ) . This was followed by the creation of new courts and the restructuring of the Byzantine judicial system , so that in the Komnenian period ( 1081 – 1185 ) , the Court of the Hippodrome or " Court of the Droungarios " ( τὸ δρουγγαρικὸν δικαστήριον , to droungarikon dikastērion ) was one of the seven superior civil courts , alongside those of the Eparch of the City , the dikaiodotēs , the koiaistōr , the epi tōn kriseōn , the prōtasēkrētis and the katholikos , who headed the court for fiscal affairs ( dēmosiaka pragmata ) . The droungarios also served as an appellate court for the decisions of the epi tōn kriseōn . The holders of the post belonged to some of the most distinguished families of the civil aristocracy , including such men as Eustathios Rhomaios , John Skylitzes and Andronikos Kamateros .
= = = List of known holders = = =
Note : the list does not include holders known only through their seals but otherwise unidentified , or anonymous holders .
= = Palaiologan era = =
Following the sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204 , the office 's continuity was broken , and when it reappears in the sources of the Palaiologan period , it had lost any judicial functions and resembled more its original military character : according to the mid @-@ 14th century Book of Offices of Pseudo @-@ Kodinos , the Grand Droungarios of the Watch was a subordinate of the Grand Domestic , charged with the night watch and with supervising the army 's scouts . In reality , however , it had become more of a sinecure and was essentially a court dignity devoid of any but ceremonial duties .
In Pseudo @-@ Kodinos ' work , the Grand Droungarios of the Watch ranks 24th in the imperial hierarchy , between the Eparch and the megas hetaireiarches . The Grand Droungarios 's distinctive court dress , as reported by Pseudo @-@ Kodinos , consisted of a gold @-@ brocaded hat ( skiadion ) , a plain silk kabbadion tunic and a staff ( dikanikion ) with a gilded knob on top , and covered with golden @-@ red braid below . For ceremonies and festivities , he bore the domed skaranikon , of yellow and golden silk and decorated with gold wire embroidery , and with a portrait of the emperor seated on a throne in front and another with the emperor on horseback on the rear .
The dignity survived until the end of the Byzantine Empire . The historian Sphrantzes equated the Ottoman post of Agha of the Janissaries to the Grand Droungarios of the Watch .
= = = List of known holders = = =
Note : the list does not include holders known only through their seals but otherwise unidentified , or anonymous holders .
|
= Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad =
The Nawabs of Bengal ( full title , the Nawab Nizam of Bengal , Bihar and Orissa ) were the rulers of the then provinces of Bengal , Bihar and Orissa . Between 1717 and 1765 , they served as the rulers of the subah ( or province ) of Bengal . However , they were subordinate to the Mughal Empire . Siraj ud @-@ Daulah , the last independent Nawab of Bengal was betrayed in the Battle of Plassey by Mir Jafar . He lost to the British , who took over the charge of Bengal in 1757 , installed Mir Jafar on the Masnad ( throne ) and established itself to a political power in Bengal .
In 1765 the system of Dual Government was established , in which the Nawabs ruled on behalf of the British and were mere puppets to the British . In 1772 the system was abolished and Bengal was brought under direct control of the British . In 1793 , when the Nizamat ( governorship ) of the Nawab was also taken away from them , they remained as the mere pensioners of the British East India Company . The last Nawab of Bengal , Mansur Ali Khan abdicated on 1 November 1880 in favour of his eldest son .
Nawabs of Murshidabad succeeded the Nawabs of Bengal as Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad , following Mansur Ali Khan 's abdication They got the title changed as the title of the Nawab of Bengal was abolished in 1880 . They had little or no say in the share of the revenue collected and were ceased to use any force . After Indian Independence in 1947 it was declared that the princely states must accede to either India or Pakistan ( East / West Pakistan ) . It is a fact that Murshidabad ( the capital city ) became a part of East Pakistan ( now Bangladesh ) for two days , as it had a Muslim majority . The Pakistani flag was brought down from the Hazarduari Palace and the Indian tricolour was hoisted atop the palace . After merging with India , they had no power as the Government of India took over all the princely states in India . The house of the Nawabs came to end in 1969 with Waris Ali Mirza being the last Nawab . Although he left three sons and three daughters there has been no clear successor to the title since his death as he died without declaring one .
= = Bengal = =
The term " Bengal " incorporates to delineate the ethno @-@ linguistic region of Bengal which including but not limited is all districts within the People 's Republic of Bangladesh , as well as West Bengal , India . During the first partition of Bengal in the early 20th century a new province , Eastern Bengal was created as a Lieutenant @-@ Governorship along with Assam . In 1911 , East Bengal ( now Bangladesh ) was reunited with Bengal , and the new provinces in the east became : Assam , Bengal Province , Bihar and Orissa . The Nawab thus gained rule over Bihar and Orissa , which were earlier part of Bengal . So sometimes That is why the Nawabs of Bengal were also mentioned as " Nawab of Bengal , Bihar and Orissa " or " Nawab Nazim of Bengal , Bihar and Orissa " - where Nazim ( or , Subahdar ) means the provincial governor - as they ruled over three subahs while the Nawabs of Murshidabad were the local ruler of the city of Murshidabad . The majority of modern Bengal is inhabited by Bengali people who speak the Bengali language .
= = History before the Nawab 's rule = =
= = = Sultans of Bengal = = =
The early Sultans of Bengal ruled until 1282 which was followed by the rule of several successive dynasties . Ilyas Shah founder of the Ilyas Shahi dynasty , took complete charge of the then Bengal and the capital was shifted to Sonargaon ( near present day , Dhaka in Bangladesh ) . He was one of the independent rulers of Bengal . His son , Sikandar Shah , who succeeded him , built the Adina Mosque at Pandua , near Gour , Adina Mosque in the medieval times , was considered to be the largest in undivided Bengal , as well as the entire Indian subcontinent .
= = = Mughal Empire = = =
The Mughal Empire emerged as a powerful Empire in northern India . Babur , who was related to two legendary warriors – Timur and Genghis Khan , invaded north India and defeated Ibrahim Lodi of the Lodi dynasty . Babur thus became the first Mughal emperor . He was succeeded by his son , Humayun . At the same time , Sher Shah Suri ( alias Farid Khan ) of the Suri dynasty rose to prominence and established himself as the ruler of the present day Bihar by defeating Ghiyasuddin Shah . But he lost to capture the kingdom because of sudden expedition of Humayun . In 1539 , Sher Khan faced Humayun in the battle of Chausa . He forced Humayun out of India . Assuming the title Sher Shah , he ascended the throne of Delhi . He also captured Agra and established control from Bengal in the east until the Indus River in the west . After his death he was succeeded by his son , Islam Shah Suri . But in 1544 the Suris were torn apart by internal conflicts . Humayun took this advantage and captured Lahore and Delhi , but he died in 1556 AD . He was succeeded by Akbar , who defeated Daud Khan Karrani of Bengal 's Karrani Dynasty ( or , Karnani Dynasty ) . After this , the administration of the entire region of Bengal passed into the hands of governors appointed by the Mughal emperors , who ruled Bengal till 1716 AD .
There were several posts under the Mughal administrative system during Akbar 's reign . Diwani was a system of provincial revenue administration under the Mughals . Nizamat ( civil administration ) and Diwani ( revenue administration ) were the two main branches of the provincial administration under the Mughals . A Subahdar ( provincial viceroy or governor ) , also called a Nizam was in @-@ charge of the Nizamat . There was a chain of subordinate officials under the Nizams on the executive side and under Diwans on the revenue and judicial side .
= = = Emergence of the Nawab Nizam of Bengal = = =
Murshid Quli Khan arrived as the Diwan of Bengal in 1717 AD . Before his arrival , there were four Diwans . And , after his arrival , Azim @-@ ush @-@ Shan held the Nizam 's office . Azim got into conflict with Murshid Quli Khan over imperial financial control . Considering the complaint of Khan , the then Mughal emperor , Aurangzeb ordered Azim to move to Bihar . Upon his departure the two posts united in one and Murshid Quli Khan became the first Nizam cum Diwan of Bengal . Murshid Khan was appointed the " Nawab Nizam of Bengal " and he emerged as the ruler of Bengal under the Mughals . Murshidabad remained the capital of the Nawabs of Bengal until their rule . The Nawab Siraj ud @-@ Daulah , was betrayed in the Battle of Plassey by Mir Jaffer . He lost to the British East India Company , who took installed Mir Jaffer on the Masnad ( throne ) , as a " puppet ruler " and established itself to a political power in Bengal .
In 1765 , Robert Clive , of the British East India Company , became the first British Governor of Bengal . He secured in perpetuity for the Company the Diwani ( revenue and civil justice ) of the then Bengal subah from the then Mughal Emperor , Shah Alam II and thus the system of Dual Government was established and the Bengal Presidency was formed . In 1772 the Dual Government system was abolished and Bengal was brought under direct control of the British . In 1793 , when the Nizamat ( military power and criminal justice ) of the Nawab was also taken away from them , they remained as the mere pensioners of the British East India Company . After the Revolt of 1857 , Company rule in India ended and the British Crown took over the territories which were under the direct rule of the British East India Company in 1858 , which marked the beginning of the British Raj . These territories , including the territory of the Nawab Nazims came under the direct rule of the British Crown and British Raj was established in India . Thus , the Nawab Nizams remained just the titular heads of their territory , which was now ruled by the British Crown , and they had no political or any other kind of control over the territory . The last Nawab of Bengal , Mansoor Ali Khan abdicated on 1 November 1880 in favour of his eldest son .
= = History during the Nawab 's rule = =
= = = Dynasties = = =
From 1717 until 1880 , three successive Islamic dynasties – Nasiri , Afshar and Najafi – ruled what was then known as Bengal .
The first dynasty , the Nasiri , ruled from 1717 until 1740 . The founder of the Nasiri , Murshid Quli Khan , was born a poor Deccani Odia Brahmin before being sold into slavery and bought by one Haji Shafi Isfahani , a Persian merchant from Isfahan who converted him to Islam . He entered the service of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb and rose through the ranks before becoming the Nawab Nizam of Bengal in 1717 , a post he held until his death in 1727 . He in turn was succeeded by his son @-@ in @-@ law , Shuja @-@ ud @-@ Din Muhammad Khan . After Shuja @-@ ud @-@ Din 's death in 1739 he was succeeded by his son , Sarfaraz Khan , who held the rank , until he was killed in the Battle of Giria in 1741 , and was succeeded by Alivardi Khan , former ruler of Patna , of the Afshar Dynasty in 1740 .
The second dynasty , the Afshar , ruled from 1740 to 1757 . Siraj ud @-@ Daulah ( Alivardi Khan 's grandson ) , the last Afshar Nawab was killed in the Battle of Plassey in 1757 . They were succeeded by the third and final dynasty to rule the whole Bengal , the Najafi .
= = = Under the Mughals = = =
Bengal Subah was one of the wealthiest parts of the Mughal empire . As the Mughal empire began to decline , the Nawabs grew in power , although nominally subordinate to the Mughal emperor . They wielded great power in their own right and finally became independent rulers of the Bengal region , for all practical purposes , by the early 1700s .
= = = Maratha expeditions = = =
Marathas undertook six expeditions in Bengal from 1741 – 1748 . Maratha general , Raghunath Rao was able to annex Orissa to his kingdom and the larger confederacy permanently as he successfully exploited the chaotic conditions prevailing in Bengal , Bihar and Orissa after the death of Murshid Quli Khan in 1727 . Constantly harassed by the Bhonsles , Orissa , Bengal and parts of Bihar were economically ruined . Alivardi Khan made peace with Raghunathrao in 1751 ceding in perpetuity Orissa up to the river Suvarnarekha , and agreeing to pay ₹ 12 lacs annually in lieu of the Chauth of Bengal and Bihar .
The treaty included ₹ 20 lacs as Chauth for Bengal ( includes both West Bengal and Bangladesh ) and ₹ 12 lacs for Bihar ( including Jharkhand ) . After this , Maratha promised never to cross the boundary of the Nawab of Bengal 's territory .
Thus , Baji Rao is hailed as the greatest Maratha chief after Shivaji because of his success in subjecting Muslim rulers of east India in states such as Bengal , Bihar and Orissa to the Maratha rule .
= = = Nawabs of Bengal under British rule and their decline = = =
The break @-@ up of the centralised Mughal empire by 1750 , led to the creation of numerous semi @-@ independent kingdoms ( all provinces of the former Mughal empire ) . Nawab Siraj ud @-@ Daulah was defeated by the British forces of Sir Robert Clive in the Battle of Plassey in 1757 . Thereafter the Nawab of Bengal became a " puppet ruler " depending on military support from British East India company to secure their throne . Siraj @-@ ud @-@ Daulah was replaced by Mir Jaffer . He was personally led to the throne by Robert Clive , after triumph of the British in the battle . He briefly tried to re @-@ assert his power by allying with the Dutch , but this plan was ended by the Battle of Chinsurah . After the defeat at Battle of Buxar and grant of the Diwani ( revenue collection ) of Bengal by the then Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II , to the British East India Company in August 1765 and the appointment of Warren Hastings by the East India Company as their first Governor General of Bengal in 1773 , the Nawabs authority became restricted . By 1773 , British East India company asserted much authority and formed the Bengal Presidency over areas ruled by the Nawabs i.e. the Bengal subah , along with some other regions and abolished the system of Dual Government . In 1793 ( during Nawab Mubarak ud @-@ Daulah 's reign ) , the Nizamat ( military power , civil and criminal justice ) was abolished , British East India company thus annexed this former Mughal province as part of their empire and took complete control of the region , and the Nawabs of Bengal became mere pensioners of the British East India Company . All the Diwan offices except the Diwan Ton were also abolished .
After the Revolt of 1857 , Company rule in India ended , and all the territories which were under the rule of the British East India Company came under the British Crown in 1858 , which marked the beginning of the British Raj . And administrative control of India came under the Indian Civil Service , which had administrative control over all areas in India , except the Princely States .
Mansoor Ali Khan ( aka Feradun Jah ) was the last Nawab of Bengal . During his reign the Nizamat at Murshidabad became involved in debts . The then Government of India involved it into an action of preventing further claims . Feradun Jah left Murshidabad in February 1869 and started living in England . The title of " Nawab of Bengal " was abolished in 1880 . He returned to Bombay in October 1880 but spent most of his time pleading his case against the orders of the Government of India . After it was not resolved the Nawab renounced his styles and titles of Nawab Nizam of Bengal , Bihar and Orissa and abdicated in favour of his eldest son at St. Ives , Maidenhead , on 1 November 1880 .
= = = Emergence of the Nawab of Murshidabad and the Nawabs post Indian independence = = =
The Nawabs of Murshidabad succeeded the Nawab Nizams of Bengal , Bihar and Orissa as Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad , following Mansoor Ali Khan 's abdication Nawabs of Murshidabad were the successors of the Nawabs of Bengal . After Lord Clive secured the Diwani of Bengal from Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II in 1765 for the East India Company they did not have any effective authority . So they lavishly enjoyed their title , privileges alongside with the honours they received . They got the title changed as the title of the Nawab of Bengal was abolished in 1880 . They had little or no say and ceased to control any significant force .
After Indian Independence in 1947 , all the non @-@ princely states were subject to a test of religious majority in which the Muslim majority areas formed the Dominion of Pakistan , while the other regions formed the Dominion of India . It is a fact that Murshidabad ( the capital city for both , the Nawabs of Bengal and the Nawabs of Murshidabad ) became a part of East Pakistan ( now Bangladesh ) for two days , as it had a Muslim majority . However , it became a part of India on 17 August 1947 . The Pakistani flag was brought down from the Hazarduari Palace and the Indian tricolour was hoisted atop the palace . The Nawabs , after the takeover by the British had no actual power and after merging with India too , they had yielded power , as the Government of India took over control of all the areas that merged with India . Furthermore , with the promulgation of the Indian Constitution on 26 January 1950 , the Dominion of India was transformed into the Republic of India , and the Article 18 of the Indian Constitution ( which is a part of the Right to Equality , a fundamental right in India ) , titles were abolished . The Article prevents the state from confirming any title except those titles given by the Government to those who have made their mark in military and academic fields . Such titles and awards include the Bharat Ratna , the Padma Shri and the Padma Vibhushan ( the Supreme Court of India , on 15 December 1995 , upheld the validity of such awards ) . Thus , with the promulgation of the Constitution , the title of the Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad was abolished . And although , the Nawab Waris Ali Meerza held titles such as Raes ud @-@ Daulah , they were not officially or legally recognised .
Although , the Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad had no political power the office continued to be held by the second Nawab Bahadur Syed Wasif Ali Meerza Khan Bahadur , who had held the office since 1906 , and after his death in 1959 , he was succeeded by his son , Syed Wasif Ali Meerza Khan Bahadur . Waris Ali Meerza died in 1969 , survived by his three sons and three daughters . According to the Nawab ’ s law , the eldest son of the Nawab succeeded him , however , Waris Ali 's eldest son , Wakif Ali Meerza Bahadur , was excluded from the succession by his father for contracting a non @-@ Muslim marriage and for not professing the Muslim religion .
Waris Ali Meerza , the third Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad , died in 1969 , and he took no steps during his lifetime to establish his succession . And before declaring his successor Waris Ali died . There was no clear successor to Waris Ali .
Since then there was no clear successor to Waris Ali and the titular office / post was in dispute , and a legal battle ensued . And following this as the title was in dispute , a legal battle ensued . Abbas Ali Meerza claimed to be the legal heir of Waris Ali on the basis of being the son of the daughter of Waris Alis ' father , the second Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad , Wasif Ali Meerza ; while Sajid Ali Meerza claimed the same on the basis of being the son by mut ‘ ah marriage of Wasif Ali . The case reached the Supreme Court and finally , the Supreme Court judges , Justice Ranjan Gogoi and Justice R K Agrawal , gave their judgement on 13 August 2014 , declaring the then 72 @-@ year @-@ old Abbas Ali Meerza ( full name , Syed Mohammed Abbas Ali Meerza ) , who happened to be the son of the only daughter of Waris Ali ’ s father , Wasif Ali Meerza ( the third Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad ) , the successor and the legal heir to the former Nawab of Murshidabad , Waris Ali Meerza . The Court directed Abbas Ali Meerza , son of Syed Md . Sadeque Ali Meerza , to be the direct descendant of Waris Ali Meerza . However , the case against the state 's annexation of the Murshidabad Estate , which is worth several thousand crores , is still on , as of 2014 .
However , as titles have been abolished in India , the title of the Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad no longer exists . However , Abbas Ali Meerza can now legally succeed Waris Ali Meerza 's office legally , but his title of the fourth Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad would be unofficial , as the title is not legally and officially recognised .
= = List of the Nawabs of Bengal = =
The following is a list of all the Nawabs of Bengal . Sarfaraz Khan and Mir Mohammad Jaffer Ali Khan ( Mir Jaffer ) were the only Nawabs to become the Nawab twice . The chronology started in 1717 with Murshid Quli Khan and ended in 1881 with Mansoor Ali Khan 's abdication .
= = List of the Nawabs of Murshidabad = =
The Nawabs of Murshidabad succeeded the Nawabs of Bengal after the abdication in 1881 and the abolition of the title of Nawab of Bengal in 1880 . There have been four Nawabs of Murshidabad , as of 2014 , as follows :
|
= Sydney Johnson =
Sydney Johnson ( born April 26 , 1974 ) is an American college basketball coach and the current head coach at Fairfield University for the Fairfield Stags men 's basketball team . Previously , Johnson was the head coach at Princeton University from 2007 to 2011 where he led the Princeton Tigers men 's basketball team to the 2011 Ivy League Title and the 2011 NCAA Tournament . A 1997 Princeton alumnus , Johnson played for the Tigers from 1993 to 1997 .
As a player he was a member of the 1995 – 96 Ivy League champions and undefeated ( in conference ) 1996 – 97 Princeton Tigers . He earned Ivy League Men 's Basketball Player of the Year recognition for the undefeated 1997 team . He continues to hold the Ivy League record for consecutive three point shots made and the league record for most single @-@ game three point shots made without a miss as well as the Princeton Tigers record for career steals . His college career was marked by many memorable overtime performances , game @-@ winning shots and game @-@ clinching free throws . Nonetheless , his greatest recognition came for his defense .
During a seven @-@ year professional career , he won three championships in Europe . After being hired in 2007 , he has been the youngest coach in the Ivy League for his entire four @-@ year tenure there . In his fourth season , he coached the 2010 – 11 Princeton Tigers men 's basketball team to a league championship . Previously as an assistant he was part of the 2006 – 07 Big East Conference champions .
= = Playing career = =
Johnson spent much of his childhood in Baltimore . He played his sophomore and junior season of high school basketball at Moorhead Senior High School in Moorhead , Minnesota . Johnson transferred from Minnesota to Towson Catholic High School prior to his senior season . During the early signing period from November 13 through November 20 , 1991 , Johnson , who was considering several Ivy League schools as well as Northeastern University , verbally committed to Boston University . On December 1 , 1991 , Boston University announced that Johnson signed a letter of intent . During his senior season , Johnson lead Towson to the Baltimore Catholic Basketball League Championship . Following the season , he earned Baltimore Catholic Basketball League All @-@ league first @-@ team recognition . He was also selected to participate in the Rodney Beasley East vs. West All @-@ Star Games , sponsored by the Baltimore Metro Coaches Association . He was also a second team All @-@ metro selection and following his 1992 graduation attended the Fork Union Military Academy in Virginia for a postgraduate year . In April 1993 , after playing a year a Fork Union , Johnson signed a letter of intent with Herb Sendek 's Miami ( OH ) team , but upon being accepted by Princeton University in June of that year , he revoked his letter .
Johnson showed strong leadership skills early at Princeton and is the only three @-@ time captain in university history . During his freshman year , he was twice named Ivy League Men 's Basketball Rookie of the Week for the 1993 – 94 team . That season the 11 – 3 Tigers could not match the Penn Quakers who were led by Jerome Allen and Matt Maloney . Johnson provided heroics for the 1994 – 95 Tigers on a couple of occasions . On December 27 , 1994 , he hit what The New York Times described as " a falling @-@ down 3 @-@ point basket with three seconds left in regulation " . The basket forced overtime . At the end of the third overtime period Johnson converted two foul shots with three seconds left to cement a 71 – 66 victory over Texas A & M. Later that season , he set a career @-@ high with a 25 @-@ point performance against Harvard in a double @-@ overtime victory . He recorded seven steals in a game against Brown on February 3 , 1995 , which is one shy of the school record . Again the Tigers could not get past Penn .
As a junior , he was named Ivy League Player of the week for the second weekend in February as he led the team on both ends of the court . The following week , he posted 21 points against Yale , which established his season @-@ high . Even after Allen and Maloney graduated , Princeton 's only two losses were to Penn . After Princeton and Penn ended the 1995 – 96 season tied as Ivy League Co @-@ Champions , Johnson made the decisive three point shot with one minute and four seconds remaining in overtime in the one @-@ game playoff , corralled a defensive rebound , added a pair of free throws with 24 seconds left and then made a steal . The win ended an eight @-@ game losing streak to Penn . The win earned the team the conference automatic bid to the 1996 NCAA Tournament and following the game head coach Pete Carril announced his retirement . The thirteen seeded team was matched against the defending national champion UCLA Bruins in its first round pairing . He was the team 's leading scorer with 11 points in the 43 – 41 first round victory over UCLA in the 1996 NCAA Tournament . The team fell behind 41 – 34 with over six minutes remaining . His 3 @-@ of @-@ 7 three point shooting performance included a shot to bring the team to within 4 . He also made the game @-@ tying layup to knot the score at 41 . He also defended Toby Bailey 's last second shot after Princeton took the lead with 3 @.@ 9 seconds remaining . During the game , UCLA jumped out to a 7 – 0 lead at the first TV timeout , and Johnson 's leadership held the team together early when UCLA looked strong .
As a senior , his new head coach , Bill Carmody described him as a shutdown defender . He was 1997 Ivy League Men 's basketball Player of the Year . Johnson earned the award for his defense and was the first winner with a single @-@ digit scoring average . He scored 15 on February 22 , when Princeton clinched the Ivy League regular season championship by defeating Dartmouth . The following week , he established Ivy League records for most consecutive three @-@ point field goals made , with 11 , and the most single @-@ game three @-@ point field goals made with no misses ( 6 for 6 ) against Columbia Lions men 's basketball on February 28 , 1997 and Cornell Big Red men 's basketball ( first 5 ) on March 1 , 1997 . He had twelve points in the regular season finale during which Princeton tied the school record with its nineteenth consecutive win . In the 1997 NCAA Tournament opening round matchup against the Cal Bears , when a final second pass was intercepted , he attempted to shoulder the blame with the press . He retired as the Princeton University all @-@ time leader in steals . His 169 total steals were fifth in Ivy League history at the end of his career and was eleventh at the end of the 2009 @-@ 10 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season . He retired second in Princeton history in career three point shots and fourth in career assists .
After writing his senior thesis on Kenyan education under British colonial rule and graduating with a bachelor 's degree in history , Johnson declined the postgraduate scholarship that he was awarded and played five years in Italy followed by two in Spain . Johnson played professional basketball in the Lega Basket Serie A and Legadue Basket in Italy and Liga Española de Baloncesto in Spain , one season each for Gorizia Pallacanestro A2 , Viola Reggio Calabria , Adecco Milano / Ducato Siena , Casademont Girona and Montepaschi Siena . He played two seasons with the Avellino in Italy from 2000 – 2002 . He had a seven @-@ year professional career before becoming a coach . In 1998 , he won an Italian Second Division championship as a starter for Gorizia Pallacanestro . In 1999 , he earned another league championship with for Reggio Calabria , and in his final professional season in 2004 he earned a league title with Siena . With Reggio Calabria , he teamed with Brent Scott , Brian Oliver , and Manu Ginobili to win a championship .
= = Coaching career = =
= = = Georgetown = = =
Johnson was then brought on as an assistant to the newly appointed head coach at Georgetown , John Thompson III in 2004 . The team was coming off of a losing record and made it to a 2005 National Invitation Tournament . The team reached the Sweet Sixteen round of the 2006 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . During his tenure at Georgetown , he helped coach the team to an overall 72 – 30 record over 3 seasons and the 2006 – 07 team the 2007 Big East regular season championship , the 2007 Big East Men 's Basketball Tournament championship , and a trip to the Final Four of the 2007 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament .
= = = Princeton = = =
When Scott abandoned his struggling Princeton team to coach at Denver in 2007 , athletic director Gary Walters hired Sydney Johnson to take over the program . Johnson emerged from a field of Princeton offense veterans that included Mike Brennan , Robert Burke , Craig Robinson , Bill Carmody , Armond Hill , Chris Mooney , and Mitch Henderson . Johnson 's demeanor as a coach is said by players to be more benevolent than his predecessor , Joe Scott , who left for the University of Denver after compiling a losing record in three years at Princeton . He was regarded as an inexperienced coach because he only had three years of experience as an assistant coach . He became the youngest coach in the Ivy League . Johnson inherited a team that had gone 2 – 12 in conference the prior season and 38 – 45 overall during the prior three season . Among the lowlights that the team had achieved during the Scott era was a 21 @-@ point performance that tied the record for fewest points since the inception of the three point shot and the shot clock . The team had ranked last in the nation in scoring in both 2006 and 2007 . Although race is an issue among collegiate coaching ranks , in Johnson 's first year , he was one of six African @-@ American men 's basketball head coaches in the 8 @-@ team Ivy League . Johnson employs the Princeton offense . Former Tiger stars Brian Earl and Scott Greenman were among Johnson 's assistants at Princeton .
After a tumultuous first season of rebuilding during which it posted a 3 – 11 record , Princeton began to show great improvement in 2008 – 2009 . Even with only three games left on their schedule and a 7 – 4 conference record , they still controlled their own destiny for a possible postseason bid . They finished 13 – 14 with an 8 – 6 record in the Ivy League , which tied them with Yale for second place . Along the way , the Tigers defeated Fordham , UNC @-@ Greensboro , and Lehigh during their non @-@ conference schedule and also notched wins over Harvard twice . One highlight of the season was an early season victory over eventual Ivy League champs Cornell who had possessed a 19 @-@ game Ivy League winning streak . The Ivy League does not name a coach of the year in any sport , but Collegeinsider.com named Johnson Ivy League Coach of the Year .
During Johnson 's third season , the 2009 – 10 team rebounded from a 2 – 4 start to win 20 of its final 25 games and earn a berth in the 2010 College Basketball Invitational . Princeton 's 22 wins were its most since 1999 , as were its two postseason wins , and the postseason berth was its first since 2004 . In the March 17 , opening round game at home , Princeton defeated the Duquesne Dukes 65 – 51 . The game was Princeton 's first postseason appearance since the 2003 – 04 team went to the 2004 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament and the first postseason victory since the 1998 – 99 team won two games in the 1999 National Invitation Tournament . On March 22 , the team defeated IUPUI 74 – 68 in double overtime at IUPUI Gymnasium in Indianapolis , Indiana . The Tigers had previously won in the postseason in Indianapolis when the Johnson @-@ led 1995 – 96 team pulled off a first round upset of the national defending champion UCLA in the 1996 Tournament . In the tournament semifinals the team was defeated by Saint Louis University 69 – 59 at Chaifetz Arena in St. Louis , Missouri on March 24 . Johnson again earned Collegeinsider.com Coach of the Year .
In 2010 , Johnson tweaked the motion Princeton offense to be a bit more uptempo , resulting in more possessions and higher scores . On March 5 , 2010 , the 2010 – 11 team had a chance to clinch an outright 2010 – 11 Ivy League men 's basketball season championship , but lost to Harvard who clinched a share of the title . Following the game , Johnson made his team sit on the bench and watch the Harvard fans celebrate . On March 8 , Princeton defeated Penn to force a one @-@ game playoff at the Payne Whitney Gymnasium in New Haven , Connecticut . On March 12 , Princeton earned the Ivy League 's automatic bid to the 2011 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , making the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament for the first time since 2004 and 24th time in school history by defeating Harvard 63 – 62 . Princeton was awarded the number thirteen seed and a first round match against the Kentucky Wildcats . Kentucky had eliminated Ivy League representative Cornell the prior season . Kentucky emerged victorious by a 59 – 57 margin on a last second layup . He was named as a finalist for the Hugh Durham Award , the Ben Jobe Award , and the Skip Prosser Award .
= = = Fairfield = = =
In April 2011 , Johnson accepted a head coaching position at Fairfield University , replacing Ed Cooley . He coached the 2011 – 12 Stags to the semifinals of the 2012 CollegeInsider.com Postseason Tournament where they lost to Mercer , after defeating Yale , Manhattan and Robert Morris to finish with a 22 – 15 record . Mercer went on to win the tournament . For the second season in a row , he was a finalist for the Ben Jobe Award . The 2012 – 13 team started the season 10 – 10 ( 2 – 6 ) before winning five consecutive and seven out of eight Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference games . The team then lost its two final conference games to finish 9 – 9 in conference . Eventually the team finished 19 – 15 ( 9 – 9 ) .
= = Personal = =
Johnson 's history professor father , LeRoy , divorced from his mother when Johnson was young . He grew up in a series of college towns . Johnson 's father played basketball for Indiana in the early 1960s . He was also one of the first Americans to play professionally in France . His brother Steve was on the California Bears team that defeated the two @-@ time defending champion Duke Blue Devils men 's basketball team in the 1993 NCAA Tournament . While at Princeton , Johnson was a member of the Cap and Gown Club . Johnson met his wife Jennifer ( née Zarr ) Johnson when they were freshmen in Princeton 's Wilson College . When he was initially hired by Princeton the couple had two children : 2 @-@ year @-@ old son , Jalen , and newborn daughter , Julia .
Johnson had been very involved with the university as a whole during his head coaching career , participating in a task force charged with surveying the impact of Princeton 's eating clubs on campus life , and sitting with his players in the student section at many home football games .
= = Head coaching record = =
|
= Battle of the Chinese Farm =
The Battle of the Chinese Farm took place during October 15 to October 17 , 1973 between the Egyptian Army and the Israel Defense Forces ( IDF ) , as part of the Yom Kippur War . It was fought in the Sinai Peninsula , north of the Great Bitter Lake and just east of the Suez Canal , near an Egyptian agricultural research station . The farm featured specialized Japanese @-@ made machinery ; Israeli soldiers mistook Japanese characters on this equipment for Chinese , leading to the area being labeled ' Chinese Farm ' on Israeli military maps . The battle began when the IDF launched Operation Abiray @-@ Lev ( " Stouthearted Men " ) , attempting to establish a corridor to the canal and allow bridges to be laid for a crossing . Accordingly , the Israelis attacked Egyptian forces in and around the Chinese Farm .
Determined Egyptian resistance made progress extremely slow for the Israelis , who suffered heavy losses . The Israelis were repeatedly reinforced with armor but were unable to make much headway , only managing to seize an important crossroad on the second day . Suffering from a lack of infantry , the Israelis brought up paratroopers during the night of October 16 / 17 . They were tasked with clearing anti @-@ tank defenses for the armor , but they became pinned down by heavy Egyptian fire . The paratroopers drew Egyptian attention long enough for the Israelis to move bridging equipment to the canal undetected . Armored forces later extricated the paratroopers .
The Egyptians attempted to restore their defenses to their initial dispositions with an armored attack on October 17 . It initially succeeded , but was pushed back by Israeli counterattacks in an armored battle lasting the entire day . Seriously depleted by the continuous fighting , the Egyptians relinquished control of the routes to the canal , opening them up to the Israelis . The battle is remembered as one of the most costly and brutal battles of the war .
= = Background = =
On October 6 , 1973 , Egypt launched Operation Badr , intending to cross the Suez Canal and establish bridgeheads on the opposite bank of the Sinai Peninsula , which had been occupied by Israel since 1967 . Coordinated with a Syrian assault on the Golan Heights , the crossing achieved tactical surprise and was a success . Thereafter , counterattacks by Israeli reserves were unsuccessful . By October 10 , fighting along the front had come to a lull . The Egyptians dug in and hoped to wear down the Israelis by attrition , while remaining within range of their ground surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles , which provided air cover from the west bank of the canal , while the Israelis focused on directing their main efforts against the Syrians in the Golan and reorganizing their battered forces . Israeli failures led to the replacement of the chief of the Israeli Southern Command , Major General Shmuel Gonen , with Chaim Bar @-@ Lev , although Gonen was retained as his aide .
The situation changed when Sadat , in the face of protests from his senior commanders , ordered an offensive to seize the strategic Sinai mountain passes , hoping to relieve Israeli pressure on the Syrians . The resulting offensive was ill @-@ planned and ill @-@ executed , culminating in heavy Egyptian losses without achieving any of its objectives . This gave the Israelis the initiative to launch a counteroffensive .
On October 14 , immediately following the Egyptian offensive , Israeli Chief of Staff David Elazar presented the general outlines of a crossing operation of the Suez Canal to the Israeli cabinet in a meeting in Tel Aviv . Elazar emphasized the military and political gains of the operation , and the expected collapse that would occur in the Egyptian forces on the east bank when their supply routes became threatened . Elazar received unanimous support from the cabinet . Later that day , Bar @-@ Lev headed a meeting attended by the senior and main division commanders in the Sinai theatre : Major Generals Abraham Adan , Ariel Sharon and Kalman Magen . Bar @-@ Lev informed the Israeli officers of the decision to begin the crossing operation on the night of October 15 / 16 , and assigned duties and responsibilities to the division commanders .
= = Operation Abirey @-@ Lev = =
According to the plan set for the Israeli crossing , Operation Abirey @-@ Halev ( Hebrew for " Stouthearted Men " ) , the designated crossing point lay near to Deversoir , at the northern end of the Great Bitter Lake on the Suez Canal . The Israelis had to open the principal route to Deversoir and secure a corridor stretching 5 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) north of the crossing site ( known as " The Yard " ) . Paratroopers and armor would then cross the canal to establish a 5 @-@ kilometer @-@ deep bridgehead ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) , after which the bridges would be laid , with at least one to be operational by the morning of October 16 . The Israelis would then cross to the west bank and attack south and west , with the end goal of reaching Suez , thus encircling and cutting off two Egyptian divisions on the east bank . Southern Command allotted 24 hours for the setting up of the bridgehead and 24 hours for Israeli forces to reach Suez , with the latter expected to be under Israeli control by October 18 at the latest . It would soon be shown that the execution of Operation Stouthearted Men would deviate from planning and schedules and that the time @-@ frame had been highly optimistic and extremely unrealistic .
= = = Order of Battle = = =
Major General Ariel Sharon 's 143rd Armored Division was giveen the critical tasks of opening the corridors and laying the bridges . His division included Tuvia Raviv 's 600th Armored Brigade , Colonel Amnon Reshef 's 14th Armored Brigade , and the ' Haim ' Brigade commanded by Colonel Haim Erez . Major General Abraham Adan 's 162nd Armored Division was tasked with crossing the canal and achieving an encirclement with its 300 tanks . The division included Colonel Natke Nir 's 217th Armored Brigade , Colonel Gabi Amir 's 460th Armored Brigade and Aryeh Keren 's 500th Armored Brigade . A paratrooper brigade would be transferred to Adan 's division during the course of the battle . Kalman Magen 's 252nd Armored Division would initially launch diversionary attacks elsewhere to draw attention from Sharon 's operations at Deversoir . Thereafter the division would hold and secure the corridor and bridgehead .
Egyptian forces in the area formed the southern flank of the Second Field Army . These units were the 21st Armored Division , commanded by Brigadier General Ibrahim Oraby , and the 16th Infantry Division , commanded by Brigadier General Abd Rab el @-@ Nabi Hafez . In addition to being the division commander , Hafez also commanded forces within his division 's bridgehead , which included the 21st Division . Oraby 's unit included the 1st Armored Brigade , under Colonel Sayed Saleh ; the 14th Armored Brigade , under Colonel Othman Kamel ; and the 18th Mechanized Brigade , under Colonel Talaat Muslim . Hafez 's 16th Division included the 16th Infantry Brigade , commanded by Colonel Abd el @-@ Hamid Abd el @-@ Sami ' , as well as the 116th Infantry and the 3rd Mechanized Brigades .
= = = Location of battle and deployment of forces = = =
Two main roads led to Deversoir . The first was the Tasa @-@ Tel Salam Road , codenamed Akavish by the Israelis . This road connected Artillery Road ( running north to south 15 kilometers ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) east of the canal ) to Lexicon Road ( running north to south directly east of the canal ) . The Lexicon @-@ Akavish junction fell on Tel Salaam , near the Great Bitter Lake and 6 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) south of Deveroir , where Fort Lakekan ( part of the Bar Lev Line ) was located . The second road , codenamed Tirtur , ran north of Akavish . It too connected Artillery Road to Lexicon , but provided a direct route to " the Yard " . The Lexicon @-@ Tirtur junction fell on Fort Matzmed . This fortification , which consisted of two strongpoints 500 meters ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) apart , had been captured on October 9 by a small assault force , while Fort Lakekan had been evacuated without any combat on October 8 . The importance of both fortifications lay in their control of the Lexicon @-@ Akavish and Lexicon @-@ Tirtur junctions . Both forts , however , were in the designated buffer zone , 35 kilometers ( 22 mi ) long , between the Second and Third Armies . It was believed this area would not need defending , as it was both adjacent to the Great Bitter Lake , a natural obstacle , and most of it lay outside the range of the Egyptian SAMs . Thus they were left unoccupied by the local Egyptian commander , who chose not to extend his defenses southwards . The Egyptian negligence to occupy and defend both forts would greatly assist the Israelis in Operation Stouthearted Men .
Just north of the Lexicon @-@ Tirtur junction was the village of al @-@ Galaa . Prior to the 1967 Six Day War , the village had been the site of an agricultural project . This agricultural station incorporated several irrigation ditches and specialized Japanese @-@ made machinery . When the Sinai came under Israeli occupation , Israeli soldiers unwittingly mistook the Japanese characters for Chinese ones , leading to the location being labeled ' Chinese Farm ' on military maps . Just north and north @-@ west of Chinese Farm was a hill mass known by its Israeli codename ' Missouri ' . During Operation Badr , al @-@ Galaa and the Chinese Farm fell within the designated bridgehead of the 16th Infantry Division . Abd el @-@ Hamid 's 16th Infantry Brigade occupied and defended these locations . After partaking in the initial canal @-@ crossing , the brigade , along with the rest of the division , faced an attack by Raviv 's brigade on October 9 . The Israelis achieved some initial gains , but were repelled by the end of the day . Also located within 16th Division 's bridgehead , as of October 13 , was the 21st Armored Division . Its units were positioned in the center and the north of the bridgehead . The 14th Brigade had been involved in the crossing and , along with the 1st Brigade , participated in the Egyptian offensive on October 14 ; as a result , it had lost half of its operational tank strength . In the aftermath , Oraby 's efforts to reorganize and replace armored losses were hampered by frequent artillery barrages and air strikes . On October 15 , there were 136 tanks in the Egyptian bridgehead , unevenly split among Oraby 's brigades : 66 with the 1st Armored Brigade , 39 with the 14th Armored Brigade , and 31 in the 18th Mechanized Brigade . Despite their heavy losses , the Egyptian forces in the bridgehead outnumbered Reshef 's force .
Early on the morning of October 15 , Adan moved his division from its positions in the north to a concentration area west of Tasa in preparation for the crossing . Sharon 's division had been in the central sector since its arrival at the Sinai Front , along with the crossing equipment and bridges since October 13 . Sharon had his headquarters in Tasa , 40 kilometers ( 25 mi ) east of the canal .
= = = Israeli plan and initial maneuvers = = =
After receiving his orders late on October 14 from Bar @-@ Lev , Sharon headed to his headquarters to prepare for the operation . His division incorporated Raviv 's Brigade , Colonel Amnon Reshef 's 14th Armored Brigade , and the ' Haim ' Brigade commanded by Colonel Haim Erez . Attached to his division was the 243rd Paratrooper Brigade commanded by Colonel Dani Matt .
Sharon planned for Raviv 's brigade to attack from the east , diverting Egyptian attention away from Deversoir . Erez was tasked with transporting a pre @-@ constructed roller bridge to the crossing area at Deversoir , while one of his tank battalions would be attached to the paratroopers . Colonel Reshef was given the most critical tasks of all . Accordingly , his brigade was heavily reinforced to incorporate four armored and three mechanized infantry battalions , in addition to the division 's reconnaissance battalion , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Yaov Brom . His brigade would conduct a turning maneuver at 6 : 00 AM on October 15 south of Akavish Road , move through the sand dunes to reach Fort Lakekan , before heading north to occupy Fort Matzmed . Reshef 's brigade would then split up to clear the Akavish and Titur Roads and seize the Chinese Farm , while occupying the crossing area and awaiting Matt 's brigade . Matt 's paratrooper brigade , containing an additional tank company and the armored battalion , would move south @-@ west via Akavish to reach Fort Matzmed . From there , it would continue on to the Yard and cross the canal at 11 : 00 PM , using rubber dinghies and rafts for the tanks .
Matt 's brigade began moving to Tasa at 4 : 30 PM on October 15 , before turning eastwards on Akavish . Heavy congestion on the roads made the brigade 's progress very slow . A little after midnight , the brigade left Akavish and moved westward to the Yard , an area 700 meters long and 150 meters wide surrounded by protective sand walls . The site had been made long before the war .
Reshef maneuvered his brigade as planned , entering into the previously discovered gap without any opposition . Leaving a combined recon and paratrooper force at the canal , he sent his tanks north and west to secure the flank of the projected crossing site and clear the Akavish and Tirtur roads from behind for the follow @-@ on bridging equipment . He seized the Lakekan and Matzmed fortifications without resistance . Reshef informed Sharon that the forts were under control and that Akavish was clear . Sharon in turn informed Southern Command of these successes , sending a wave of jubilation through the Israeli commanders , delighted that the operation had begun so smoothly .
= = Battle = =
Matt had been informed that the crossing area and its environs were clear of Egyptian forces , but out of caution , ordered his tank company to deploy at the Lexicon @-@ Tirtur junction to confront any Egyptian movements towards the crossing site , just 800 meters ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) south of the crossroads . The entire company was wiped out after it was ambushed by Egyptian infantry of the 16th Brigade . The company commander was killed and most of his men were casualties , unbeknownst to Matt . Meanwhile , Israeli artillery batteries opened fire on the landing site on the west bank , delivering around 70 tons of shells and ordnance . In fact , the opposite bank was completely clear of Egyptian troops . The crossing finally got underway at 1 : 35 AM , over five hours behind schedule . By 9 : 00 AM , 2 @,@ 000 paratroopers had crossed , along with a battalion of thirty tanks . The Israelis sent raiding parties attacking Egyptian SAMs on the west bank , while securing a 4 @-@ kilometer @-@ deep bridgehead ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) without facing resistance .
Tuvia Raviv 's armored brigade began its diversionary attack against the 16th Division 's bridgehead at 5 : 00 PM on October 15 , striking at the bridgehead 's center from the east , after a fire preparation . It was repulsed by the Egyptians , as had been expected , but succeeded in its purpose . When the 16th Division 's southern flank came under increasing Israeli attack , the Egyptians assumed that the Israeli objective was to roll up the Second Army 's right flank , not to open a corridor to the west bank for Israeli forces to cross the canal . For the next 24 hours , this remained the general impression among Egyptian commanders , and they reacted accordingly . Had they discovered the Israelis ' true intentions earlier , the Egyptians would almost certainly have been able to defeat the Israeli operation , in light of the greater strength of their forces and reserves near the Deversoir area , on the east and west banks of the Suez Canal .
= = = Lexicon @-@ Tirtur junction = = =
While the paratroopers prepared to cross , Reshef was informed that Akavish had been closed again by Egyptian infantry units soon after his passing . He sent one armored battalion to clear the road and committed his remaining three armored and three mechanized battalions to push northwards and secure Tirtur and the Chinese Farm .
An infantry battalion , forming the right flank of Abd el @-@ Hamid 's 16th Brigade , was in position to defend the Lexicon @-@ Tirtur crossroads . Initially , Reshef sent two armored battalions northward on Lexicon . As the Israeli tanks neared the infantry battalion , they were met by heavy fire from anti @-@ tank weapons . They lost 27 tanks during this engagement , although seven Israeli tanks managed to break through the battalion 's westernmost position on Lexicon and advance northwards to al @-@ Galaa ' . Thereafter , ' Abd el @-@ Hamid ordered tank @-@ hunting squads – groups of ten equipped with RPG @-@ 7 rockets and RPG @-@ 43 grenades – to deploy around al @-@ Galaa ' and destroy those tanks that broke through ; he also sent a tank company to reinforce the infantry battalion .
At night , Reshef moved with his remaining forces north along the canal bank . Bypassing the 16th Brigade 's positions , the Israelis soon found themselves in the center of a huge administrative area and vehicle park . Reshef 's brigade had stumbled into the command and supply bases of the Egyptian 16th and 21st Divisions . The base was located near the canal on the assumption that it was the safest location from Israeli attacks , which was expected to come from the east , where the defenses were the strongest , not from the south , where they were the weakest . Both sides immediately opened fire , inadvertently leading to the destruction of supply trucks and SAM launchers . The Egyptians managed to organize a counterattack by units of the 21st Division ; a battalion of the 14th Brigade and a battalion ( less one company ) of the 18th Brigade . The tanks repelled the Israelis , who sustained significant losses from vastly overwhelming opposing forces .
Brigadier General Hafez , commanding the 16th Infantry Division , planned to contain the Israeli attack from the south by having the 18th Mechanized Brigade occupy defenses north of the Chinese Farm , directly behind the 16th Infantry Brigade , but without its organic tank battalion , which was designated as part of the division 's reserve . The 1st Armored Brigade moved southward to occupy positions between Lateral Road and the canal on the right flank of the 18th Brigade . Upon the brigade 's arrival , it engaged Israeli armor from Reshef 's brigade in al @-@ Galaa ' ; Egyptian armor destroyed around 15 tanks and several half @-@ tracks . At around 1 : 00 PM , sorties of Egyptian Su @-@ 7s destroyed many Israeli tanks in ground @-@ attack missions over al @-@ Galaa ' village . The 1st Brigade countered a flanking attempt on its left at 2 : 00 PM by a tank battalion , thwarting the attack and destroying ten tanks . During its engagements on October 16 , the 21st Division managed to destroy over 50 Israeli tanks and APCs , while subjected to frequent Israeli air strikes and artillery barrages . The 1st Brigade accounted for most of the kills , while suffering fewer losses .
Meanwhile , one of Reshef 's mechanized battalions , commanded by Major Nathan Shunari , was reinforced with company @-@ sized remnants of the 40th Tank Battalion , now commanded by Captain Gideon Giladi after the previous battalion commander had been wounded . Shunari was ordered to seize the Lexicon @-@ Tirtur junction . He sent the tank company ahead first , which initially reported no Egyptian units . Shunari dispatched an infantry unit in six half @-@ tracks to the junction . Upon reaching it , they discovered that the tank company had already been destroyed and Giladi killed . Soon the vehicles began came under heavy fire , stopping their advance . The unit commander reported casualties , and Shunari ordered the remainder of his battalion to aid the pinned @-@ down men . Attempts to rescue the infantry failed , and the Egyptian battalion defending the junction directed heavy firepower against the area , aided by the brigade 's artillery . The Egyptian defenders had managed to catch the Israelis in a prepared killing zone . Shunari , whose troops lacked cover and were threatened with annihilation , regrouped some of his forces and managed to escape the area in vehicles , but the infantry half @-@ track unit first sent to the crossroads remained pinned down .
Reshef sent another tank company to rescue the infantrymen . The tanks advanced towards the Chinese Farm from the south . As they neared the farm and the village , a downpour of anti @-@ tank and artillery fire forced the company to retreat . Nathan kept pleading with Rehsef to send additional support , unaware he was facing superior Egyptian forces after entering the administrative bases of the Egyptian 16th and 21st Divisions . With no help coming , the unit commander had his men carry the wounded and attempted to leave the battlefield , tasking two sections of heavy machine guns with providing cover to the force . As the Israelis slowly made their way back to their lines , a group of Egyptian tanks intercepted and wiped out the Israeli force .
Despite the debacle , Reshef remained determined to seize the junction , giving the task to the division 's reconnaissance battalion attached to his brigade . To achieve surprise , the battalion maneuvered to attack at 3 : 00 AM from the west , as the Egyptians were preparing for further attacks from the south and east . As the Israelis attacked , Lieutenant Colonel Brom was killed barely thirty meters from Egyptian positions , disrupting his battalion 's assault . The Israelis sustained losses , but managed to retreat . Soon after , a tank company attacked the crossroads at 4 : 00 AM on October 16 , but also withdrew after losing three tanks .
By 4 : 00 AM on October 16 , Reshef 's brigade , which had begun the operation with 97 tanks , had lost 56 in just twelve hours of fighting , leaving only 41 remaining . Although seizing the crossing site had been accomplished easily , stiff resistance had prevented Reshef from achieving his remaining objectives , namely opening the routes to the canal and securing a corridor . Reshef 's force would further drop to just 27 tanks by noon . As a whole , Sharon 's division suffered some 300 killed and 1 @,@ 000 wounded that night . To help Reshef secure the corridor , Sharon supplied him with two tank battalions by 6 : 00 PM , propping his numbers up to 81 tanks .
Hearing reports of the heavy fighting taking place between the junction and the Chinese Farm , Dayan suggested withdrawing Matt 's brigade and canceling the operation . He voiced concerns that the paratroopers were threatened with annihilation and noted that all attempts to open a corridor for the bridges had failed . Gonen rejected the suggestion , stating that , " If we knew in advance this was going to happen we would not have started the crossing operation , but now that we have crossed then let us follow through to the bitter end . " Bar @-@ Lev concurred with Gonen , and Dayan decided not to press his suggestion . At around 6 : 00 AM , Golda Meir telephoned Dayan to inquire about the situation . Dayan informed her that the bridges had not yet been laid and that the Egyptians had closed the routes leading to Deveroir . He also stated there were high hopes that Egyptian resistance would be overcome and that the bridges would be laid during the morning . Dayan also told her that Matt 's paratrooper brigade had crossed to the west bank without encountering resistance and that Southern Command , as yet , had no intentions of withdrawing the brigade , even if the bridge @-@ laying was delayed .
Shortly after dawn , Reshef conducted a reconnaissance of the battlefield from a hilltop . He saw that the Egyptians had set up a strong blocking position defending the junction , composed of Egyptian tanks situated in hull @-@ down positions and infantrymen in foxholes and the now @-@ dry irrigation ditches of the Chinese Farm . The infantry were from the 16th Brigade 's right @-@ flank battalion and had the support of recoilless rifles , RPG @-@ 7s , and some manually guided AT @-@ 3 Sagger missiles . Reshef discovered that the Egyptians had mined both sides of Lexicon Road , to which he had lost several of his tanks .
Reshef decided to change tactics . He personally commanded the 40th Armored Battalions , after reinforcing it with tanks salvaged and repaired from the previous night 's fighting , and maneuvered to attack from the west – from the direction of the canal – hitting Egyptian positions in the flank , while a tank company and an infantry company attacked from south to north . Reshef 's forces engaged the Egyptians from long range , picking off defensive positions from afar , while using alternate fire and movement to advance to the crossroads . The defending infantry battalion , exhausted by continuous fighting and suffering from a severe lack of ammunition , soon withdrew allowing the Israelis to at last seize the junction .
In the meantime , other difficulties were surfacing . Sharon reported to Southern Command that one section of the roller bridge , being towed by Erez 's brigade , had been damaged and that the engineers needed a few hours to repair it . He also requested additional forces to help secure the corridor , noting the stiff resistance facing Reshef 's brigade . Sharon 's report prompted Bar @-@ Lev to alert Adan to prepare to open the corridor with his division . Sharon argued for Adan 's division to cross the canal on rafts and to proceed with Operation Abiray @-@ Lev without waiting for the bridges . Both Gonen and Bar @-@ Lev rejected Sharon 's suggestion since , without a secure corridor to the canal , Israeli forces on the west bank would be threatened with encirclement . Subsequently , Bar @-@ Lev ordered that no more Israeli forces or equipment would cross to the west bank until the bridges had been laid .
After receiving reinforcements , Reshef focused on clearing the Tirtur Road . He left a battalion of around 30 tanks between the junction and the western part of the Chinese Farm , and prepared to attack with two armored battalions provided by Sharon . He concentrated on the section of the Tirtur Road defended by an Egyptian battalion forming the left flank of the 16th Infantry Brigade . One of Reshef 's battalions attacked from the north @-@ east , the other from the west . The Egyptian battalion managed to halt the advance , aided by fire from tanks and anti @-@ tank weapons on the slopes of Missouri , a hill north @-@ west of the Chinese Farm , causing Reshef to break off his attack .
This last attempt left Reshef 's brigade in a desperate situation . He had 27 tanks remaining and was running short on ammunition and supplies . Reshef requested authorization from Sharon to withdraw his brigade to Fort Lakekan to regroup his forces and regain combat effectiveness .
= = = Israeli reinforcement = = =
The unexpected Egyptian resistance forced Israeli Southern Command to change its plans . Visiting Adan 's advance command post , Gonen noted that " Sharon has disappointed us " and handed Adan the task of moving the pontoon bridge to the canal . Adan was to prepare to clear the Akavish and Tirtur Roads to deploy the bridges . Gonen informed Sharon of Adan 's new orders and tasked Sharon with capturing the Chinese Farm and Egyptian positions near the farm and the canal . Needing to regroup his forces , Sharon suggested that he capture the farm once Adan had cleared the routes to the canal , and Gonen consented . In a later meeting with Dayan and Bar @-@ Lev , Gonen reiterated the latter 's statement that no more forces would cross until the bridges had been laid , and added that , should the situation worsen , the paratroopers could be withdrawn .
The 162nd Division , concentrated south of Tasa , had been standing by to cross the canal since dawn on October 16 . The division advanced towards the canal , but movement was hampered by the massive traffic jams on the roads leading to the canal . When Adan realized that Akavish was closed , he ordered a tank battalion to make a turning maneuver through the desert to reach Deversoir . When it arrived , Sharon contacted Adan , explaining Reshef 's difficult situation , and requested that the battalion be placed under his command . Adan accepted , and Sharon in turn authorized Reshef 's request to pull back and regroup , replacing his brigade with the tank battalion .
After receiving his new orders , Adan moved his division to occupy a series of positions opposite ' Abd el @-@ Hamid 's 16th Brigade . One of Adan 's armored brigades had been placed as a reserve force under Southern Command . ' Abd el @-@ Hamid 's left @-@ flank infantry battalion , blocking Tirtur , repelled Israeli tanks attacking westwards and thwarted Adan 's efforts to clear the road . Adan realized that , without infantry support , breaking through the Egyptian positions would prove costly . However , at 2 : 00 PM , Southern Command notified Adan that he was soon receive the 35th Paratrooper Brigade , which had been transported by helicopters from Ras Sudar on the Gulf of Suez to Refidem 80 kilometers ( 50 mi ) east of the canal . The brigade made its way to the canal in buses and was greatly delayed by the traffic on Akavish road . Adan had expected the unit to arrive well before dusk , but the brigade commander , Colonel Uzi Ya 'iri , only arrived at 10 : 00 PM . The rest of his brigade soon arrived , transported by helicopters after the buses had come to a complete standstill .
= = = Paratrooper effort = = =
Adan met Ya 'iri at Adan 's former command post . Adan briefly explained the situation and , in a short discussion , Ya 'iri laid out his plan . He was tasked with clearing Akavish and Tirtur . At 11 : 30 PM , the paratroopers began moving , with a battalion under Lieutenant Colonel Yitzhak Mordechai spearheading the advance . Ya 'iri , acting with a sense of urgency , had decided to go into action without awaiting sufficient intelligence , or performing adequate reconnaissance on Egyptian defenses . His unit lacked artillery observers and , rather than wait for one to arrive , it was agreed the paratroopers would request fire support of the 162nd Division 's command net . The brigade was acting without armor support .
After some time , Mordechai 's battalion had reached an area where Tirtur and Akavish were closest , the distance between them no wider than 2 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) . At around 2 : 45 AM , they came into contact with Abd el @-@ Hamid 's left @-@ flank battalion , positioned around Tirtur . The battalion directed effective artillery fire against the paratroopers , who were also receiving heavy machine @-@ gun and small @-@ arms fire from entrenched Egyptian infantry . The paratroopers attempted to assault the machine @-@ gun positions , in places advancing to within a few meters of Egyptian lines . The paratrooper companies spread out , but repeatedly failed to reach the defenses . Israeli artillery fire was ineffective . Egyptian infantry were able to suppress the paratroopers ' movement and thwart flanking attempts . Most company and platoon commanders were killed or wounded . Adan ordered Ya 'iri to narrow his brigade 's front and focus on clearing Akavish instead , but the lead paratrooper battalion was under such heavy fire that it was impossible to maneuver .
With dawn nearing , Adan realized that if the pontoon bridge could not be brought to the canal during the few remaining hours of dark , an entire day would pass without a bridge being laid across the canal , and in daylight , the paratroopers would sustain more casualties . He sent a half @-@ track company to reconnoiter Akavish at 3 : 00 . Half an hour later , the company reported it had reached the crossing site without encountering any resistance . The Egyptian battalion fighting the paratroopers had focused all their attention on the Israelis at Tirtur , ignoring activity on Akavish . Adan took a risky decision , sending the irreplaceable pontoons down Akavish to the canal . IDF bulldozers cleared the road of wreckage and debris , and the Israelis reached Fort Lakekan before turning northwards , finally reaching the crossing site . Bridge construction was started immediately by military engineers of the 143rd Division .
At dawn , Ya 'iri requested approval from Adan to withdraw his brigade , the paratroopers having thus far been unsuccessful in reaching Egyptian lines . Gonen denied the request , approving only medevac for the wounded . This was countermanded after Bar @-@ Lev visited Adan at his command post and realized the gravity of the paratroopers ' situation . An armored battalion was tasked with covering the paratroopers , but was unable to locate them . The paratroopers released red smoke to pinpoint their position , but this backfired as the Egyptians also spotted the smoke , directing accurate artillery fire against them and inflicting further casualties . The tanks assaulted the defenses , but suffered losses and fell back . It became evident that withdrawal could not be accomplished in the open ; APCs and half @-@ tracks were brought up to extract the paratroopers and the wounded — all the while under fire . The Israelis finally withdrew under cover of friendly tanks . In 14 hours of almost uninterrupted combat , the paratroopers suffered heavy casualties , with some 40 – 70 killed and 100 wounded . Ya 'iri would state that " We had suffered seventy casualties because we went into action too hastily , without proper intelligence on the enemy 's defenses . " Armored losses sustained during the withdrawal were also heavy .
= = = Egyptian withdrawal = = =
The Israeli armored brigades , principally those of Nir , Amir and Raviv , continued engaging the 16th Brigade after the paratroopers were withdrawn . The Israelis concentrated air and artillery attacks against 21st Division 's units from 5 : 00 AM . The Egyptians estimated there were upwards of 80 Israeli tanks attacking their positions . At around 7 : 00 AM on October 17 , the 21st Division received orders to evict Israeli armor from the vicinity of al @-@ Galaa ' village and capture Fort Matzmed , as part of a larger Egyptian effort to seal the Israeli penetration and destroy the bridgehead on the west bank . Since Oraby had the 18th Mechanized Brigade in defensive positions and stripped of its tank battalion , and the 14th Brigade defending other parts of the Egyptian bridgehead , he tasked the 1st Brigade to execute the attack with its remaining 53 tanks . At 8 : 00 AM , the Egyptians conducted an air and artillery strike on the area for some fifteen minutes , after which the attack commenced . Egyptian tanks managed to destroy Israeli armor near the village and reached the northern strongpoint of Fort Matzmed just after 9 : 00 AM in the face of heavy resistance . However , they were soon repelled by Israeli ground fire supported by air strikes . Israeli tanks then counterattacked and managed to advance significantly . The armored battle continued in a see @-@ saw fashion until 9 : 00 PM , by which time the 1st Brigade had restored its original lines . Meanwhile , an 5 : 00 PM attack by one of the 18th Brigade 's mechanized infantry battalions on al @-@ Galaa ' failed with heavy losses , and ten tanks were then allocated to the brigade . Israeli armor had occupied irrigation ditches around the farm and were entrenched in them , which significantly enhanced their defensive position . Egyptian attacks directed against the Israeli corridor or the bridgehead failed , with heavy losses .
The 1st Brigade had just 33 tanks remaining after losing 20 tanks . This prompted Second Army command to transfer a battalion of 21 tanks on October 18 from the 2nd Infantry Division to the north to reinforce the dwindling tank numbers in 16th Division 's bridgehead . As the battalion moved south , a large number of Israeli aircraft attacked the formation , forcing it to undertake evasive maneuvers , turning eastwards and fanning out in the desert terrain , thereby avoiding losses . The battalion was then attached to the 21st Division .
Abd el @-@ Hamid meanwhile reported the dire situation of his forces at 5 : 30 PM on October 17 . The 16th Brigade had been in heavy combat for three consecutive days – ammunition was becoming scarce , and the brigade was heavily outnumbered and outgunned due to its losses , including the destruction of its artillery units . Abd el @-@ Hamid received orders from 16th Division headquarters to retreat . His brigade abandoned its Chinese Farms positions and reinforced the lines of the 18th Mechanized Brigade to the north during the night of October 17 / 18 . This finally opened the Tirtur and Akavish roads to Israeli forces , ensuring Operation Abiray @-@ Lev would proceed . Missouri remained in Egyptian hands though , posing a threat to the Israeli corridor to the canal .
= = Aftermath = =
At around 4 : 00 PM on October 17 , the pontoon bridge had been fully assembled , opening the first Israeli bridge across the canal . The roller bridge was laid soon after at dawn on October 18 , and by afternoon , Adan 's division crossed to the west bank followed by Kalman Magen 's division . Adan , supported by Magen , would go on to reach Suez after the failure of a United Nations ceasefire , thereby cutting off two infantry divisions of the Egyptian Third Field Army . Sharon also crossed with part of his division , simultaneously trying to defend and expand the Israeli corridor to the Suez Canal — as well attacking northwards on the west bank to Ismailia in an attempt to similarly cut off the Second Army . His efforts bogged down , and he was unable to reach Ismailia ( see Battle of Ismailia ) , while attempts to seize critical positions and expand the Israeli corridor on the east bank saw little to no success .
While ultimately an Israeli victory , the Battle of the Chinese Farm has an especially infamous legacy among Israeli participants , and it is remembered as one of the most brutal battles of the war — and for the heavy losses incurred by both the Egyptians and Israelis . After the battle had ended , Dayan visited the area of the battlefield . Reshef , who accompanied him , said , " Look at this valley of death . " The minister , taken aback by the great destruction before him , muttered in an undertone , " What you people have done here ! " Later , Dayan would recount that : " I am no novice at war or battle scenes , but I have never seen such a sight , not in reality , or in paintings , or in the worst war movies . Here was a vast field of slaughter stretching as far as the eye could see . " Sharon would also provide his own poignant account of the aftermath : " It was as if a hand @-@ to @-@ hand battle of armor had taken place ... Coming close you could see the Egyptian and Jewish dead lying side @-@ by @-@ side , soldiers who had jumped from their burning tanks and died together . No picture could capture the horror of the scene , none could encompass what had happened there . "
The losses suffered by both the Egyptians and the Israelis in the battle were severe . Israeli units suffered heavy casualties in men and equipment ; Reshef 's armored losses during the first night of the battle alone were comparable to Egyptian armored losses on the disastrous October 14 offensive . For their part , the numbers of Egyptian armored forces within 16th Division 's bridgehead severely dwindled . As of 18 October the 21st Armored Division had no more than 40 tanks remaining of an original 136 tanks available at the start of the battle ( not counting 21 tanks received as reinforcements ) , while the 16th Infantry Division had just 20 tanks remaining in its organic tank battalion . This attrition served Egypt 's war strategy of inflicting maximum casualties on the Israelis , even though , from another perspective , the initiative had passed to the Israelis during the battle .
= = = Notable participants = = =
Among the participants of the battle were Mohamed Hussein Tantawi and Ehud Barak , then lieutenant colonels . Tantawi commanded an infantry battalion under the 16th Infantry Brigade . He engaged Reshef 's armor during October 16 and later Mordechai 's paratroopers during the night of October 16 / 17 , and was decorated for valor during the battle . Barak commanded an armored battalion during the battle and personally led the armored effort to extricate the Israeli paratroopers . Both men would later serve as Ministers of Defense in their respective nations and encounter each other again in that capacity .
|
= Homer Goes to College =
" Homer Goes to College " is the third episode of The Simpsons ' fifth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 14 , 1993 . In the episode , Homer 's lack of a college degree is revealed and he is sent to Springfield University to pass a nuclear physics class . Homer , who bases his perception of college on comedy films and TV shows , goofs around and is sent to a group of boys for tutoring . The boys , who are stereotypical nerds , try to help Homer , but he instead tries to help them party and decides to pull a prank on another college . They steal Springfield A & M 's mascot , but his friends are caught and expelled . Homer invites them to live with him , but his family soon become angered by their new housemates .
" Homer Goes to College " was directed by Jim Reardon and was the final episode of the show for which Conan O 'Brien received sole writing credit . O 'Brien would leave the series halfway through the production of the season to host his own show , Late Night with Conan O 'Brien . He had been working on this episode when he was informed that he had received the job and was forced to walk out on his contract .
The episode contains several references to the film Animal House as well as Monty Python and the Holy Grail , Star Trek and the song " Louie Louie " by The Kingsmen , which plays during the end credits .
= = Plot = =
During a surprise inspection of the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant from the Nuclear Regulatory Commission , Homer is placed in a test module van that simulates an emergency . He has no idea what to do and starts pressing buttons at random , somehow causing a nuclear meltdown even though there was no nuclear material inside the van . The NRC officials tell Mr. Burns that Homer 's job requires college training in nuclear physics , and that he must go back to college to keep his job . Homer is rejected by every college he applies to , but Burns helps him get into Springfield University .
Homer ignores his studies and instead focuses on his preconceived notions of college life through adolescent movies and TV shows , such as the fictional The School of Hard Knockers , which stereotype college life as pranks , partying and rigid deans . He also insults the college dean , Dean Peterson , believing him to be a crusty , conservative administrator . In reality , Peterson relates well with the students and is relatively young . Homer acts like a know @-@ it @-@ all in class and is asked to demonstrate how a proton accelerator operates ; consequently , he causes a nuclear meltdown in class . Dean Peterson takes him aside and recommends hiring a tutor . The tutors turn out to be three computer nerds named Benjamin , Doug , and Gary . The trio try to help Homer understand the material from his physics course , but he refuses to cooperate . Instead , he is determined to help them gain a social life by pulling a prank on rival college Springfield A & M University . The prank involves kidnapping the other school 's mascot , a pig named Sir Oinks @-@ a @-@ lot . However , Homer causes the pig to become very ill after feeding it malt liquor , and Benjamin , Doug , and Gary are blamed for the incident .
Dean Peterson is forced to expel the nerds , and a remorseful Homer immediately invites them to move in with his family . However , their presence quickly disrupts the normal family routine , and Marge orders Homer to evict them , leading him to try to get the three re @-@ admitted to the school . Homer 's plan involves an attempt to run down Dean Peterson with his car , but have the nerds push Peterson out of the way at the last moment , with the hope that Peterson would readmit the nerds out of gratitude for saving his life . But the plan backfires , and Homer winds up running down the dean , seriously injuring him . At the hospital , Homer admits he was fully responsible for the pranks , and asks that Benjamin , Doug , and Gary be reinstated . The dean agrees to reinstate them and does not punish Homer , agreeing to forget everything that has happened . The nerds thank Homer for his assistance and move back into their old dormitory room .
Unfortunately , having been preoccupied with the nerd situation , Homer is not prepared for his final exam . The nerds say the only way to pass is to cram for the final exam , which they help him do . However , despite Homer 's best attempts , he gets an F. To Homer 's delight , the nerds hack into the school 's student records and change his grade to an A + , but unfortunately , Marge finds out and forces Homer to take the course again in order to set a good example for Bart and Lisa . Homer 's next college experience is shown during the end credits , with college clichés such as hazing by a fraternity , Telephone Booth Stuffing , a food fight , and finally his graduation ceremony where Homer flashes the audience .
= = Production = =
" Homer Goes to College " was the final episode of the show for which Conan O 'Brien received sole writing credit ; his final writing credit altogether was for the episode " Treehouse of Horror IV " , which he co @-@ wrote with five other writers . O 'Brien would leave the series halfway through the production of the season to host his own show , Late Night with Conan O 'Brien on NBC . O 'Brien was informed that he had been hired by NBC not long before the recording session for this episode began , and he was forced to walk out on his contract . The concept of the episode was that Homer attends college , but bases his entire understanding of what college is on " bad Animal House rip @-@ off movies " . O 'Brien mentioned in the DVD commentary that the antics of the characters Benjamin , Doug , and Gary were based on three " incredible nerds " who lived in the same college dormitory as O 'Brien .
The Fox Network executives had wanted the season premiere to be " Homer Goes to College " because it was an Animal House parody . However , the writers felt that " Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " would be a better episode because of George Harrison 's involvement . During the episode , Homer sings " I am so smart ! S @-@ M @-@ R @-@ T ... I mean S @-@ M @-@ A @-@ R @-@ T ! " while he lights his high school diploma ( and the house ) on fire . During the recording session , Dan Castellaneta was singing the song and accidentally misspelled " smart " . The writers decided that it was much funnier that way , because it seemed like something Homer Simpson would do , so they left the joke in . The song has since become a fan favorite .
Jim Reardon directed the episode and has noted he remembers the episode for several scenes in which the action is viewed through windows , such as when Homer prank calls the dean . The animators were short on time , so for the design of Benjamin they took an earlier drawing of director Rich Moore and made it African @-@ American .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode contains several references to the film Animal House , including the song " Louie Louie " by The Kingsmen which plays throughout the film . The couch gag with the huge pink foot squashing the Simpsons is a reference to The Foot of Cupid of the television series Monty Python 's Flying Circus . The film Monty Python and the Holy Grail is also referenced when Benjamin , Doug , and Gary imitate the Knights who say Ni . They play Dungeons & Dragons , hold arguments over Star Trek , and their room number is 222 , a reference to the television series Room 222 . Homer has posters of Albert Einstein and W. C. Fields . The episode contains the first reference to the Internet on The Simpsons , as " computer signals " being sent between the Nerds and MIT . A picture in the dorm shows four men wearing silver dome hats resembles the ' 80s new wave band Devo . The phrases the nerds say when Homer greets them ( Intruder Alert ) , ( Get the Humanoid ! ) are from the 1980 arcade game Berzerk .
Mr. Burns asks Homer to " find the jade monkey " in a reference to the film The Maltese Falcon . He also offers the nuclear inspectors a washer and dryer or the contents of a mysterious box , which parodies the gameshow Let 's Make a Deal . Mr. Burns ' escape pod resembles the one used by R2 @-@ D2 and C @-@ 3PO in the first Star Wars film . Mr. Burns tries to get Homer into college by using violence and hitting one of the members of the admissions committee with a baseball bat , a reference to the film The Untouchables . The scene in which Homer is studying for the final exam contains a reference to the Ludovico technique from the movie A Clockwork Orange .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Homer Goes to College " finished 44th in ratings for the week of October 11 to October 17 , 1993 , with a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 3 , and was viewed in 10 @.@ 5 million households . It was tied with Beverly Hills , 90210 as the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week .
The episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote , " Homer at his most excruciatingly stupid in another superb episode — his attitude to the college 's ' stuffy old dean ' ( who was , in fact , bassist for The Pretenders ) is a joy . " Thomas Rozwadowski of the Green Bay Press @-@ Gazette listed Homer 's line " Curly , straight . Curly , straight " whilst he torments the pig as " instantly memorable " . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson commented that it did not " quite live up to its two predecessors " Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " and " Cape Feare " this year , but it remains a strong show nonetheless . Actually , it starts a little slowly but builds steam along the way . It includes some classic moments of a Homer idiocy — hard to beat him chasing squirrels with a stick — and one of the better visual gags via Burns ’ chair . Who can dislike a show in which Richard Nixon threatens Homer due to a drunken pig ? " The episode 's reference to The Untouchables was named the 13th greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film 's Nathan Ditum .
In 2014 , The Simpsons writers picked " Burning Down the Mouse " from this episode as one of their nine favorite " Itchy & Stratchy " episodes of all time .
|
= Hurricane Babe =
Hurricane Babe was the second named storm and the first to impact the United States during the below @-@ average 1977 Atlantic hurricane season . Forming out of a tropical wave on September 3 , Babe began as a subtropical cyclone in the eastern Gulf of Mexico . The storm gradually intensified as it tracked westward . On September 5 , the storm turned north and acquired enough tropical characteristics . Later that day , Babe intensified into a hurricane and attained its peak strength with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 995 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 38 inHg ) . Several hours later , the hurricane made landfall in Louisiana and quickly weakened . By September 6 , Babe had weakened to a tropical depression and later dissipated early on September 9 over North Carolina .
Hurricane Babe produced minimal impact throughout its path in the United States . The most significant impact occurred in Louisiana where the storm caused $ 10 million ( 1977 USD ; $ 39 million 2016 USD ) in damage , mainly from crop losses . An additional $ 3 million ( 1977 USD ; $ 11 @.@ 7 million 2016 USD ) in losses resulted from tornadoes spawned by Babe . Heavy rainfall in North Carolina , peaking at 8 @.@ 99 in ( 228 mm ) triggered flash flooding but little damage . No fatalities resulted from the hurricane . Coincidentally , a typhoon , also named Babe , existed at exactly the same time as Hurricane Babe .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Babe originated from a tropical wave that exited the western coast of Africa on August 23 . Tracking westward , the wave eventually entered the Gulf of Mexico on September 2 . Upon entering the gulf , a surface circulation developed ; however , convection associated with the system was not concentrated around the center . The newly formed system then interacted with an upper tropospheric cyclonic vortex situated near the Florida coastline . The following day , Convective banding features around the cyclone led to the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) upgrading the system to Tropical Storm Babe . Although classified a tropical storm , Babe was not fully tropical , it was later classified as a subtropical cyclone . The forward motion of Babe had slowed significantly from when it was a wave but maintained the westward direction .
By September 4 , the maximum winds were found closer to the center of circulation and the cyclone developed a warmer core , a main feature in tropical cyclones . An anticyclone also developed over Babe and later that day , the storm transitioned into a tropical cyclone . By this time , Babe had turned nearly due north and was near hurricane @-@ status . Around this time , reconnaissance missions into the storm found a closed eyewall with an eye measuring roughly 23 mi ( 37 km ) in diameter . Another reconnaissance flight that day found sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) ; however , these winds were located roughly 65 mi ( 100 km ) from the center and considered to be unrepresentative of the storm 's actual intensity .
Early on September 5 , reconnaissance found a central barometric pressure of 995 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 38 inHg ) , the lowest recorded in relation to the storm . Around this time , Babe also intensified into a hurricane , attaining maximum winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Later that day , Hurricane Babe made landfall near Cocodrie , Louisiana and quickly weakened to a tropical storm . By landfall , the eye of Babe had contracted to roughly 14 mi ( 23 km ) . On September 6 , the storm had weakened to a tropical depression and was moving northeast into Mississippi . The system continued this movement for the following two days . While crossing South Carolina , forecasters thought that the system would emerge into the Atlantic Ocean and regenerate into a tropical depression . However , the remnants of Babe dissipated shortly before crossing into North Carolina early on September 9 .
= = Preparations = =
Upon the storm 's formation on September 3 , gale warnings were issued for areas along the north @-@ central coast of the Gulf of Mexico . By September 5 , hurricane warnings were posted for areas between Vermilion Bay to the mouth of the Mississippi River in Louisiana . These warnings were later discontinued as the system moved over land . Ahead of the storm , up to 30 @,@ 000 residents in low @-@ lying parts of the state moved inland . However , press reports indicate that upwards of 45 @,@ 000 residents had evacuated from coastal regions prior to the storm . In Grand Isle , roughly 200 civil defense workers stayed behind in the town hall after the cities 2 @,@ 300 residents evacuated . In Cameron Parish , roughly 8 @,@ 000 residents evacuated inland . Emergency shelters were set up throughout Louisiana to house evacuees during the storm . As Hurricane Babe began to weaken over Louisiana , forecasters anticipated the formation of tornadoes and issued tornado watches for parts of Louisiana , Alabama , Mississippi , Georgia and Florida .
= = Impact = =
Prior to becoming a subtropical depression , Babe produced scattered rainfall in Florida , with peak amounts near 3 in ( 76 mm ) falling around Lake Okeechobee . Widespread rain fell in relation to Babe throughout the Southern United States . In Louisiana , rain was confined to eastern parts of the state , with up to 10 in ( 250 mm ) being measured near the Mississippi border . The remnants of the hurricane continued to produce heavy rain through its dissipation over North Carolina . A storm peak of 10 @.@ 99 in ( 279 mm ) fell in Lafayette , Georgia . Most of North Carolina received between 3 and 5 in ( 76 and 127 mm ) of rain with isolated areas exceeding 7 in ( 180 mm ) . A state maximum of 8 @.@ 99 in ( 228 mm ) fell in Lake Toxaway , North Carolina , 7 @.@ 05 in ( 179 mm ) in Caesars Head , South Carolina and 6 @.@ 62 in ( 168 mm ) in Chattanooga , Tennessee .
Upon making landfall , Babe produced a storm surge of 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) , leading to minor coastal flooding . Due to the storm 's quick deterioration after moving inland , the NHC presumed that hurricane @-@ force winds did not impact land . The highest wind gust was recorded in Grand Isle , Louisiana at 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and the highest sustained wind was recorded in Boothville , Louisiana at 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . In Jean Lafitte , Louisiana , overflow from the Fleming Canal produced flooding throughout the area . The most significant damage was to croplands inundated by flood waters . Flash flooding occurred throughout the path of the former hurricane in the eastern United States , particularly in North Carolina .
Hurricane Babe produced 14 tornadoes between September 5 and 7 along its track in several states . Louisiana recorded the most , with six touchdowns , including one F2 that injured one person and caused $ 2 @.@ 5 million ( 1977 USD ; $ 9 @.@ 76 million 2016 USD ) in damages near Hammond in Tangipahoa Parish . A country store sustained severe damage from the tornado , with most of the back of the store destroyed . Six wood @-@ frame homes were also knocked off their cinder block supports . Another F2 touched down in Tuscaloosa County , Alabama ; however , minimal damage was recorded along its 8 mi ( 13 km ) track . Another F2 briefly touched down in Harrison County , Mississippi on September 6 . It struck an unoccupied elementary school , wrecking six classrooms and leaving $ 500 @,@ 000 ( 1977 USD ; $ 1 @.@ 95 million 2016 USD ) in damages . Throughout the storm 's path , damages amounted to $ 10 million ( 1977 USD ; $ 39 million 2016 USD ) with an additional $ 3 million ( 1977 USD ; $ 11 @.@ 7 million 2016 USD ) from tornadoes . There was no loss of life due to Babe .
|
= Ganesha =
Ganesha ( / ɡəˈneɪʃə / ; Sanskrit : गणेश , Gaṇeśa ; listen ) , also known as Ganapati and Vinayaka , is one of the best @-@ known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon . His image is found throughout India , Sri Lanka and Nepal . Hindu sects worship him regardless of affiliations . Devotion to Ganesha is widely diffused and extends to Jains and Buddhists .
Although he is known by many attributes , Ganesha 's elephant head makes him easy to identify . Ganesha is widely revered as the remover of obstacles , the patron of arts and sciences and the deva of intellect and wisdom . As the god of beginnings , he is honoured at the start of rituals and ceremonies . Ganesha is also invoked as patron of letters and learning during writing sessions . Several texts relate mythological anecdotes associated with his birth and exploits and explain his distinct iconography .
Ganesha emerged as a distinct deity in the 4th and 5th centuries CE , during the Gupta period , although he inherited traits from Vedic and pre @-@ Vedic precursors . He was formally included among the five primary deities of Smartism ( a Hindu denomination ) in the 9th century . A sect of devotees called the Ganapatya arose , who identified Ganesha as the supreme deity . The principal scriptures dedicated to Ganesha are the Ganesha Purana , the Mudgala Purana , and the Ganapati Atharvashirsa .
= = Etymology and other names = =
Ganesha has been ascribed many other titles and epithets , including Ganapati ( Ganpati ) and Vighneshvara . The Hindu title of respect Shri ( Sanskrit : श ् री ; IAST : śrī ; also spelled Sri or Shree ) is often added before his name .
The name Ganesha is a Sanskrit compound , joining the words gana ( gaṇa ) , meaning a group , multitude , or categorical system and isha ( īśa ) , meaning lord or master . The word gaņa when associated with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaņas , a troop of semi @-@ divine beings that form part of the retinue of Shiva , Ganesha 's father . The term more generally means a category , class , community , association , or corporation . Some commentators interpret the name " Lord of the Gaņas " to mean " Lord of Hosts " or " Lord of created categories " , such as the elements . Ganapati ( गणपति ; gaṇapati ) , a synonym for Ganesha , is a compound composed of gaṇa , meaning " group " , and pati , meaning " ruler " or " lord " . Though the earliest mention of the word Ganapati is found in hymn 2 @.@ 23 @.@ 1 of the 2nd @-@ millennium BCE Rigveda , it is however uncertain that the Vedic term referred specifically to Ganesha . The Amarakosha , an early Sanskrit lexicon , lists eight synonyms of Ganesha : Vinayaka , Vighnarāja ( equivalent to Vighnesha ) , Dvaimātura ( one who has two mothers ) , Gaṇādhipa ( equivalent to Ganapati and Ganesha ) , Ekadanta ( one who has one tusk ) , Heramba , Lambodara ( one who has a pot belly , or , literally , one who has a hanging belly ) , and Gajanana ( gajānana ) ; having the face of an elephant .
Vinayaka ( विनायक ; vināyaka ) is a common name for Ganesha that appears in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras . This name is reflected in the naming of the eight famous Ganesha temples in Maharashtra known as the Ashtavinayak ( Marathi : अष ् टविनायक , aṣṭavināyaka ) . The names Vighnesha ( विघ ् नेश ; vighneśa ) and Vighneshvara ( विघ ् नेश ् वर ; vighneśvara ) ( Lord of Obstacles ) refers to his primary function in Hinduism as the master and remover of obstacles ( vighna ) .
A prominent name for Ganesha in the Tamil language is Pillai ( Tamil : பிள ் ளை ) or Pillaiyar ( பிள ் ளையார ் ) . A. K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying that pillai means a " child " while pillaiyar means a " noble child " . He adds that the words pallu , pella , and pell in the Dravidian family of languages signify " tooth or tusk " , also " elephant tooth or tusk " . Anita Raina Thapan notes that the root word pille in the name Pillaiyar might have originally meant " the young of the elephant " , because the Pali word pillaka means " a young elephant " .
In the Burmese language , Ganesha is known as Maha Peinne ( မဟာပိန ္ နဲ , pronounced : [ məhà pèiɴné ] ) , derived from Pali Mahā Wināyaka ( မဟာဝိနာယက ) . The widespread name of Ganesha in Thailand is Phra Phikanet . The earliest images and mention of Ganesha names as a major deity in present @-@ day Indonesia , Thailand , Cambodia and Vietnam date from the 7th- and 8th @-@ centuries , and these mirror Indian examples of the 5th @-@ century or earlier .
In Sri Lankan Singhala Buddhist areas he is known as Gana deviyo , and revered along with Buddha , Vishnu , Skanda and others .
= = Iconography = =
Ganesha is a popular figure in Indian art . Unlike those of some deities , representations of Ganesha show wide variations and distinct patterns changing over time . He may be portrayed standing , dancing , heroically taking action against demons , playing with his family as a boy , sitting down or on an elevated seat , or engaging in a range of contemporary situations .
Ganesha images were prevalent in many parts of India by the 6th century . The 13th century statue pictured is typical of Ganesha statuary from 900 – 1200 , after Ganesha had been well @-@ established as an independent deity with his own sect . This example features some of Ganesha 's common iconographic elements . A virtually identical statue has been dated between 973 – 1200 by Paul Martin @-@ Dubost , and another similar statue is dated c . 12th century by Pratapaditya Pal . Ganesha has the head of an elephant and a big belly . This statue has four arms , which is common in depictions of Ganesha . He holds his own broken tusk in his lower @-@ right hand and holds a delicacy , which he samples with his trunk , in his lower @-@ left hand . The motif of Ganesha turning his trunk sharply to his left to taste a sweet in his lower @-@ left hand is a particularly archaic feature . A more primitive statue in one of the Ellora Caves with this general form has been dated to the 7th century . Details of the other hands are difficult to make out on the statue shown . In the standard configuration , Ganesha typically holds an axe or a goad in one upper arm and a pasha ( noose ) in the other upper arm . In rare instances , he may be depicted with a human head .
The influence of this old constellation of iconographic elements can still be seen in contemporary representations of Ganesha . In one modern form , the only variation from these old elements is that the lower @-@ right hand does not hold the broken tusk but is turned towards the viewer in a gesture of protection or fearlessness ( abhaya mudra ) . The same combination of four arms and attributes occurs in statues of Ganesha dancing , which is a very popular theme .
= = = Common attributes = = =
Ganesha has been represented with the head of an elephant since the early stages of his appearance in Indian art . Puranic myths provide many explanations for how he got his elephant head . One of his popular forms , Heramba @-@ Ganapati , has five elephant heads , and other less @-@ common variations in the number of heads are known . While some texts say that Ganesha was born with an elephant head , he acquires the head later in most stories . The most recurrent motif in these stories is that Ganesha was created by Parvati using clay to protect her and Shiva beheaded him when Ganesha came between Shiva and Parvati . Shiva then replaced Ganesha 's original head with that of an elephant . Details of the battle and where the replacement head came from vary from source to source . Another story says that Ganesha was created directly by Shiva 's laughter . Because Shiva considered Ganesha too alluring , he gave him the head of an elephant and a protruding belly .
Ganesha 's earliest name was Ekadanta ( One Tusked ) , referring to his single whole tusk , the other being broken . Some of the earliest images of Ganesha show him holding his broken tusk . The importance of this distinctive feature is reflected in the Mudgala Purana , which states that the name of Ganesha 's second incarnation is Ekadanta . Ganesha 's protruding belly appears as a distinctive attribute in his earliest statuary , which dates to the Gupta period ( 4th to 6th centuries ) . This feature is so important that , according to the Mudgala Purana , two different incarnations of Ganesha use names based on it : Lambodara ( Pot Belly , or , literally , Hanging Belly ) and Mahodara ( Great Belly ) . Both names are Sanskrit compounds describing his belly ( IAST : udara ) . The Brahmanda Purana says that Ganesha has the name Lambodara because all the universes ( i.e. , cosmic eggs ; IAST : brahmāṇḍas ) of the past , present , and future are present in him . The number of Ganesha 's arms varies ; his best @-@ known forms have between two and sixteen arms . Many depictions of Ganesha feature four arms , which is mentioned in Puranic sources and codified as a standard form in some iconographic texts . His earliest images had two arms . Forms with 14 and 20 arms appeared in Central India during the 9th and the 10th centuries . The serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography and appears in many forms . According to the Ganesha Purana , Ganesha wrapped the serpent Vasuki around his neck . Other depictions of snakes include use as a sacred thread ( IAST : yajñyopavīta ) wrapped around the stomach as a belt , held in a hand , coiled at the ankles , or as a throne . Upon Ganesha 's forehead may be a third eye or the sectarian mark ( IAST : tilaka ) , which consists of three horizontal lines . The Ganesha Purana prescribes a tilaka mark as well as a crescent moon on the forehead . A distinct form of Ganesha called Bhalachandra ( IAST : bhālacandra ; " Moon on the Forehead " ) includes that iconographic element . Ganesha is often described as red in color . Specific colors are associated with certain forms . Many examples of color associations with specific meditation forms are prescribed in the Sritattvanidhi , a treatise on Hindu iconography . For example , white is associated with his representations as Heramba @-@ Ganapati and Rina @-@ Mochana @-@ Ganapati ( Ganapati Who Releases from Bondage ) . Ekadanta @-@ Ganapati is visualized as blue during meditation in that form .
= = = Vahanas = = =
The earliest Ganesha images are without a vahana ( mount / vehicle ) . Of the eight incarnations of Ganesha described in the Mudgala Purana , Ganesha uses a mouse ( shrew ) in five of them , a lion in his incarnation as Vakratunda , a peacock in his incarnation as Vikata , and Shesha , the divine serpent , in his incarnation as Vighnaraja . Mohotkata uses a lion , Mayūreśvara uses a peacock , Dhumraketu uses a horse , and Gajanana uses a mouse , in the four incarnations of Ganesha listed in the Ganesha Purana . Jain depictions of Ganesha show his vahana variously as a mouse , elephant , tortoise , ram , or peacock .
Ganesha is often shown riding on or attended by a mouse , shrew or rat . Martin @-@ Dubost says that the rat began to appear as the principal vehicle in sculptures of Ganesha in central and western India during the 7th century ; the rat was always placed close to his feet . The mouse as a mount first appears in written sources in the Matsya Purana and later in the Brahmananda Purana and Ganesha Purana , where Ganesha uses it as his vehicle in his last incarnation . The Ganapati Atharvashirsa includes a meditation verse on Ganesha that describes the mouse appearing on his flag . The names Mūṣakavāhana ( mouse @-@ mount ) and Ākhuketana ( rat @-@ banner ) appear in the Ganesha Sahasranama .
The mouse is interpreted in several ways . According to Grimes , " Many , if not most of those who interpret Gaṇapati 's mouse , do so negatively ; it symbolizes tamoguṇa as well as desire " . Along these lines , Michael Wilcockson says it symbolizes those who wish to overcome desires and be less selfish . Krishan notes that the rat is destructive and a menace to crops . The Sanskrit word mūṣaka ( mouse ) is derived from the root mūṣ ( stealing , robbing ) . It was essential to subdue the rat as a destructive pest , a type of vighna ( impediment ) that needed to be overcome . According to this theory , showing Ganesha as master of the rat demonstrates his function as Vigneshvara ( Lord of Obstacles ) and gives evidence of his possible role as a folk grāma @-@ devatā ( village deity ) who later rose to greater prominence . Martin @-@ Dubost notes a view that the rat is a symbol suggesting that Ganesha , like the rat , penetrates even the most secret places .
= = Associations = =
= = = Removal of Obstacles = = =
Ganesha is Vighneshvara or Vighnaraja or Vighnaharta ( Marathi ) , the Lord of Obstacles , both of a material and spiritual order . He is popularly worshipped as a remover of obstacles , though traditionally he also places obstacles in the path of those who need to be checked . Paul Courtright says that " his task in the divine scheme of things , his dharma , is to place and remove obstacles . It is his particular territory , the reason for his creation . "
Krishan notes that some of Ganesha 's names reflect shadings of multiple roles that have evolved over time . Dhavalikar ascribes the quick ascension of Ganesha in the Hindu pantheon , and the emergence of the Ganapatyas , to this shift in emphasis from vighnakartā ( obstacle @-@ creator ) to vighnahartā ( obstacle @-@ averter ) . However , both functions continue to be vital to his character .
= = = Buddhi ( Knowledge ) = = =
Ganesha is considered to be the Lord of letters and learning . In Sanskrit , the word buddhi is a feminine noun that is variously translated as intelligence , wisdom , or intellect . The concept of buddhi is closely associated with the personality of Ganesha , especially in the Puranic period , when many stories stress his cleverness and love of intelligence . One of Ganesha 's names in the Ganesha Purana and the Ganesha Sahasranama is Buddhipriya . This name also appears in a list of 21 names at the end of the Ganesha Sahasranama that Ganesha says are especially important . The word priya can mean " fond of " , and in a marital context it can mean " lover " or " husband " , so the name may mean either " Fond of Intelligence " or " Buddhi 's Husband " .
= = = Aum = = =
Ganesha is identified with the Hindu mantra Aum , also spelled Om . The term oṃkārasvarūpa ( Aum is his form ) , when identified with Ganesha , refers to the notion that he personifies the primal sound . The Ganapati Atharvashirsa attests to this association . Chinmayananda translates the relevant passage as follows :
( O Lord Ganapati ! ) You are ( the Trinity ) Brahma , Vishnu , and Mahesa . You are Indra . You are fire [ Agni ] and air [ Vāyu ] . You are the sun [ Sūrya ] and the moon [ Chandrama ] . You are Brahman . You are ( the three worlds ) Bhuloka [ earth ] , Antariksha @-@ loka [ space ] , and Swargaloka [ heaven ] . You are Om . ( That is to say , You are all this ) .
Some devotees see similarities between the shape of Ganesha 's body in iconography and the shape of Aum in the Devanāgarī and Tamil scripts .
= = = First chakra = = =
According to Kundalini yoga , Ganesha resides in the first chakra , called Muladhara ( mūlādhāra ) . Mula means " original , main " ; adhara means " base , foundation " . The muladhara chakra is the principle on which the manifestation or outward expansion of primordial Divine Force rests . This association is also attested to in the Ganapati Atharvashirsa . Courtright translates this passage as follows : " You continually dwell in the sacral plexus at the base of the spine [ mūlādhāra cakra ] . " Thus , Ganesha has a permanent abode in every being at the Muladhara . Ganesha holds , supports and guides all other chakras , thereby " governing the forces that propel the wheel of life " .
= = Family and consorts = =
Though Ganesha is popularly held to be the son of Shiva and Parvati , the Puranic myths give different versions about his birth . In some he was created by Parvati , in another he was created by Shiva and Parvati , in another he appeared mysteriously and was discovered by Shiva and Parvati or he was born from the elephant headed goddess Malini after she drank Parvati 's bath water that had been thrown in the river .
The family includes his brother , the god of war , Kartikeya , who is also called Skanda and Murugan . Regional differences dictate the order of their births . In northern India , Skanda is generally said to be the elder , while in the south , Ganesha is considered the first born . In northern India , Skanda was an important martial deity from about 500 BCE to about 600 CE , after which worship of him declined significantly . As Skanda fell , Ganesha rose . Several stories tell of sibling rivalry between the brothers and may reflect sectarian tensions .
Ganesha 's marital status , the subject of considerable scholarly review , varies widely in mythological stories . One pattern of myths identifies Ganesha as an unmarried brahmachari . This view is common in southern India and parts of northern India . Another pattern associates him with the concepts of Buddhi ( intellect ) , Siddhi ( spiritual power ) , and Riddhi ( prosperity ) ; these qualities are sometimes personified as goddesses , said to be Ganesha 's wives . He also may be shown with a single consort or a nameless servant ( Sanskrit : daşi ) . Another pattern connects Ganesha with the goddess of culture and the arts , Sarasvati or Śarda ( particularly in Maharashtra ) . He is also associated with the goddess of luck and prosperity , Lakshmi . Another pattern , mainly prevalent in the Bengal region , links Ganesha with the banana tree , Kala Bo .
The Shiva Purana says that Ganesha had begotten two sons : Kşema ( prosperity ) and Lābha ( profit ) . In northern Indian variants of this story , the sons are often said to be Śubha ( auspiciouness ) and Lābha . The 1975 Hindi film Jai Santoshi Maa shows Ganesha married to Riddhi and Siddhi and having a daughter named Santoshi Ma , the goddess of satisfaction . This story has no Puranic basis , but Anita Raina Thapan and Lawrence Cohen cite Santoshi Ma 's cult as evidence of Ganesha 's continuing evolution as a popular deity .
= = Worship and festivals = =
Ganesha is worshipped on many religious and secular occasions , especially at the beginning of ventures such as buying a vehicle or starting a business . K.N. Somayaji says , " there can hardly be a [ Hindu ] home [ in India ] which does not house an idol of Ganapati . ... Ganapati , being the most popular deity in India , is worshipped by almost all castes and in all parts of the country " . Devotees believe that if Ganesha is propitiated , he grants success , prosperity and protection against adversity .
Ganesha is a non @-@ sectarian deity . Hindus of all denominations invoke him at the beginning of prayers , important undertakings , and religious ceremonies . Dancers and musicians , particularly in southern India , begin art performances such as the Bharatnatyam dance with a prayer to Ganesha . Mantras such as Om Shri Gaṇeshāya Namah ( Om , salutation to the Illustrious Ganesha ) are often used . One of the most famous mantras associated with Ganesha is Om Gaṃ Ganapataye Namah ( Om , Gaṃ , Salutation to the Lord of Hosts ) .
Devotees offer Ganesha sweets such as modaka and small sweet balls called laddus . He is often shown carrying a bowl of sweets , called a modakapātra . Because of his identification with the color red , he is often worshipped with red sandalwood paste ( raktacandana ) or red flowers . Dūrvā grass ( Cynodon dactylon ) and other materials are also used in his worship .
Festivals associated with Ganesh are Ganesh Chaturthi or Vināyaka chaturthī in the śuklapakṣa ( the fourth day of the waxing moon ) in the month of Bhadrapada ( August / September ) and the Ganesh Jayanti ( Ganesha 's birthday ) celebrated on the cathurthī of the śuklapakṣa ( fourth day of the waxing moon ) in the month of magha ( January / February ) . "
= = = Ganesh Chaturthi = = =
An annual festival honours Ganesha for ten days , starting on Ganesha Chaturthi , which typically falls in late August or early September . The festival begins with people bringing in clay idols of Ganesha , symbolising Ganesha 's visit . The festival culminates on the day of Ananta Chaturdashi , when idols ( murtis ) of Ganesha are immersed in the most convenient body of water . Some families have a tradition of immersion on the 2nd , 3rd , 5th , or 7th day . In 1893 , Lokmanya Tilak transformed this annual Ganesha festival from private family celebrations into a grand public event . He did so " to bridge the gap between the Brahmins and the non @-@ Brahmins and find an appropriate context in which to build a new grassroots unity between them " in his nationalistic strivings against the British in Maharashtra . Because of Ganesha 's wide appeal as " the god for Everyman " , Tilak chose him as a rallying point for Indian protest against British rule . Tilak was the first to install large public images of Ganesha in pavilions , and he established the practice of submerging all the public images on the tenth day . Today , Hindus across India celebrate the Ganapati festival with great fervour , though it is most popular in the state of Maharashtra . The festival also assumes huge proportions in Mumbai , Pune , and in the surrounding belt of Ashtavinayaka temples .
= = = Temples = = =
In Hindu temples , Ganesha is depicted in various ways : as an acolyte or subordinate deity ( pãrśva @-@ devatã ) ; as a deity related to the principal deity ( parivāra @-@ devatã ) ; or as the principal deity of the temple ( pradhāna ) , treated similarly to the highest gods of the Hindu pantheon . As the god of transitions , he is placed at the doorway of many Hindu temples to keep out the unworthy , which is analogous to his role as Parvati ’ s doorkeeper . In addition , several shrines are dedicated to Ganesha himself , of which the Ashtavinayak ( Sanskrit : अष ् टविनायक ; aṣṭavināyaka ; lit . " eight Ganesha ( shrines ) " ) in Maharashtra are particularly well known . Located within a 100 @-@ kilometer radius of the city of Pune , each of the eight shrines celebrates a particular form of Ganapati , complete with its own lore and legend . The eight shrines are : Morgaon , Siddhatek , Pali , Mahad , Theur , Lenyadri , Ozar and Ranjangaon .
There are many other important Ganesha temples at the following locations : Wai in Maharashtra ; Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh ; Jodhpur , Nagaur and Raipur ( Pali ) in Rajasthan ; Baidyanath in Bihar ; Baroda , Dholaka , and Valsad in Gujarat and Dhundiraj Temple in Varanasi , Uttar Pradesh . Prominent Ganesha temples in southern India include the following : Kanipakam in Chittoor ; the Jambukeśvara Temple at Tiruchirapalli ; at Rameshvaram and Suchindram in Tamil Nadu ; at Malliyur , Kottarakara , Pazhavangadi , Kasargod in Kerala , Hampi , and Idagunji in Karnataka ; and Bhadrachalam in Andhra Pradesh .
T. A. Gopinatha notes , " Every village however small has its own image of Vighneśvara ( Vigneshvara ) with or without a temple to house it in . At entrances of villages and forts , below pīpaḹa ( Sacred fig ) trees ... in a niche ... in temples of Viṣṇu ( Vishnu ) as well as Śiva ( Shiva ) and also in separate shrines specially constructed in Śiva temples ... the figure of Vighneśvara is invariably seen . " Ganesha temples have also been built outside of India , including Southeast Asia , Nepal ( including the four Vinayaka shrines in the Kathmandu valley ) , and in several western countries .
= = Rise to prominence = =
= = = First appearance = = =
The symbolic form and identity of Ganesha , in his classic form , is generally accepted to have occurred between the 4th- to 5th @-@ century CE . Shanti Lal Nagar says that the earliest known iconic image of Ganesha is in the niche of the Shiva temple at Bhumra , which has been dated to the Gupta period . His independent cult was well established by about the 10th century . Narain summarizes the lack of evidence about Ganesha 's history before the 5th @-@ century as follows :
What is inscrutable is the somewhat dramatic appearance of Gaņeśa on the historical scene . His antecedents are not clear . His wide acceptance and popularity , which transcend sectarian and territorial limits , are indeed amazing . On the one hand there is the pious belief of the orthodox devotees in Gaņeśa 's Vedic origins and in the Purāṇic explanations contained in the confusing , but nonetheless interesting , mythology . On the other hand there are doubts about the existence of the idea and the icon of this deity " before the fourth to fifth century A.D. ... [ I ] n my opinion , indeed there is no convincing evidence [ in ancient Brahmanic literature ] of the existence of this divinity prior to the fifth century .
The evidence for more ancient Ganesha , suggests Narain , may reside outside Brahmanic or Sanskritic traditions , or outside geocultural boundaries of India . Ganesha appears in China by the 6th @-@ century , states Brown , and his artistic images in temple setting as " remover of obstacles " in South Asia appear by about 400 CE . He is , states Bailey , recognized as goddess Parvati 's son and integrated into Shaivism theology by early centuries of the common era .
= = = Possible influences = = =
Courtright reviews various speculative theories about the early history of Ganesha , including supposed tribal traditions and animal cults , and dismisses all of them in this way :
In this search for a historical origin for Gaņeśa , some have suggested precise locations outside the Brāhmaṇic tradition .... These historical locations are intriguing to be sure , but the fact remains that they are all speculations , variations on the Dravidian hypothesis , which argues that anything not attested to in the Vedic and Indo @-@ European sources must have come into Brāhmaṇic religion from the Dravidian or aboriginal populations of India as part of the process that produced Hinduism out of the interactions of the Aryan and non @-@ Aryan populations . There is no independent evidence for an elephant cult or a totem ; nor is there any archaeological data pointing to a tradition prior to what we can already see in place in the Purāṇic literature and the iconography of Gaņeśa .
Thapan 's book on the development of Ganesha devotes a chapter to speculations about the role elephants had in early India but concludes that , " although by the second century CE the elephant @-@ headed yakṣa form exists it cannot be presumed to represent Gaṇapati @-@ Vināyaka . There is no evidence of a deity by this name having an elephant or elephant @-@ headed form at this early stage . Gaṇapati @-@ Vināyaka had yet to make his debut . "
Some have noted the roots of Ganesha worship , dating back to 3 @,@ 000 BCE since the times of Indus Valley Civilization . In 1993 , a metal plate depiction of an elephant @-@ headed figure , interpreted as Ganesha , was discovered in Lorestan Province , Iran , dating back to 1 @,@ 200 BCE . First terracotta images of Ganesha are from 1st century CE found in Ter , Pal , Verrapuram and Chandraketugarh . These figures are small , with elephant head , two arms , and chubby physique . The earliest Ganesha icons in stone were carved in Mathura during Kushan times ( 2nd @-@ 3rd centuries CE ) .
One theory of the origin of Ganesha is that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the four Vinayakas ( Vināyakas ) . In Hindu mythology , the Vināyakas were a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties but who were easily propitiated . The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras . Krishan is one of the academics who accepts this view , stating flatly of Ganesha , " He is a non @-@ vedic god . His origin is to be traced to the four Vināyakas , evil spirits , of the Mānavagŗhyasūtra ( 7th – 4th century BCE ) who cause various types of evil and suffering " . Depictions of elephant @-@ headed human figures , which some identify with Ganesha , appear in Indian art and coinage as early as the 2nd century . According to Ellawala , the elephant @-@ headed Ganesha as lord of the Ganas was known to the people of Sri Lanka in the early pre @-@ Christian era .
= = = Vedic and epic literature = = =
The title " Leader of the group " ( Sanskrit : gaṇapati ) occurs twice in the Rig Veda , but in neither case does it refer to the modern Ganesha . The term appears in RV 2 @.@ 23 @.@ 1 as a title for Brahmanaspati , according to commentators . While this verse doubtless refers to Brahmanaspati , it was later adopted for worship of Ganesha and is still used today . In rejecting any claim that this passage is evidence of Ganesha in the Rig Veda , Ludo Rocher says that it " clearly refers to Bṛhaspati — who is the deity of the hymn — and Bṛhaspati only " . Equally clearly , the second passage ( RV 10 @.@ 112 @.@ 9 ) refers to Indra , who is given the epithet ' gaṇapati ' , translated " Lord of the companies ( of the Maruts ) . " However , Rocher notes that the more recent Ganapatya literature often quotes the Rigvedic verses to give Vedic respectability to Ganesha .
Two verses in texts belonging to Black Yajurveda , Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā ( 2 @.@ 9 @.@ 1 ) and Taittirīya Āraṇyaka ( 10 @.@ 1 ) , appeal to a deity as " the tusked one " ( Dantiḥ ) , " elephant @-@ faced " ( Hastimukha ) , and " with a curved trunk " ( Vakratuņḍa ) . These names are suggestive of Ganesha , and the 14th century commentator Sayana explicitly establishes this identification . The description of Dantin , possessing a twisted trunk ( vakratuṇḍa ) and holding a corn @-@ sheaf , a sugar cane , and a club , is so characteristic of the Puranic Ganapati that Heras says " we cannot resist to accept his full identification with this Vedic Dantin " . However , Krishan considers these hymns to be post @-@ Vedic additions . Thapan reports that these passages are " generally considered to have been interpolated " . Dhavalikar says , " the references to the elephant @-@ headed deity in the Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā have been proven to be very late interpolations , and thus are not very helpful for determining the early formation of the deity " .
Ganesha does not appear in Indian epic literature that is dated to the Vedic period . A late interpolation to the epic poem Mahabharata says that the sage Vyasa ( Vyāsa ) asked Ganesha to serve as his scribe to transcribe the poem as he dictated it to him . Ganesha agreed but only on condition that Vyasa recite the poem uninterrupted , that is , without pausing . The sage agreed , but found that to get any rest he needed to recite very complex passages so Ganesha would have to ask for clarifications . The story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of the critical edition of the Mahabharata , in which the twenty @-@ line story is relegated to a footnote in an appendix . The story of Ganesha acting as the scribe occurs in 37 of the 59 manuscripts consulted during preparation of the critical edition . Ganesha 's association with mental agility and learning is one reason he is shown as scribe for Vyāsa 's dictation of the Mahabharata in this interpolation . Richard L. Brown dates the story to the 8th century , and Moriz Winternitz concludes that it was known as early as c . 900 , but it was not added to the Mahabharata some 150 years later . Winternitz also notes that a distinctive feature in South Indian manuscripts of the Mahabharata is their omission of this Ganesha legend . The term vināyaka is found in some recensions of the Śāntiparva and Anuśāsanaparva that are regarded as interpolations . A reference to Vighnakartṛīṇām ( " Creator of Obstacles " ) in Vanaparva is also believed to be an interpolation and does not appear in the critical edition .
= = = Puranic period = = =
Stories about Ganesha often occur in the Puranic corpus . Brown notes while the Puranas " defy precise chronological ordering " , the more detailed narratives of Ganesha 's life are in the late texts , c . 600 – 1300 . Yuvraj Krishan says that the Puranic myths about the birth of Ganesha and how he acquired an elephant 's head are in the later Puranas , which were composed from c . 600 onwards . He elaborates on the matter to say that references to Ganesha in the earlier Puranas , such as the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas , are later interpolations made during the 7th to 10th centuries .
In his survey of Ganesha 's rise to prominence in Sanskrit literature , Ludo Rocher notes that :
Above all , one cannot help being struck by the fact that the numerous stories surrounding Gaṇeśa concentrate on an unexpectedly limited number of incidents . These incidents are mainly three : his birth and parenthood , his elephant head , and his single tusk . Other incidents are touched on in the texts , but to a far lesser extent .
Ganesha 's rise to prominence was codified in the 9th century , when he was formally included as one of the five primary deities of Smartism . The 9th @-@ century philosopher Adi Shankara popularized the " worship of the five forms " ( Panchayatana puja ) system among orthodox Brahmins of the Smarta tradition . This worship practice invokes the five deities Ganesha , Vishnu , Shiva , Devi , and Surya . Adi Shankara instituted the tradition primarily to unite the principal deities of these five major sects on an equal status . This formalized the role of Ganesha as a complementary deity .
= = = Scriptures = = =
Once Ganesha was accepted as one of the five principal deities of Brahmanism , some Brahmins chose Ganesha as their principal deity . They developed the Ganapatya tradition , as seen in the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana .
The date of composition for the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana — and their dating relative to one another — has sparked academic debate . Both works were developed over time and contain age @-@ layered strata . Anita Thapan reviews comments about dating and provides her own judgement . " It seems likely that the core of the Ganesha Purana appeared around the twelfth and thirteenth centuries " , she says , " but was later interpolated . " Lawrence W. Preston considers the most reasonable date for the Ganesha Purana to be between 1100 and 1400 , which coincides with the apparent age of the sacred sites mentioned by the text .
R.C. Hazra suggests that the Mudgala Purana is older than the Ganesha Purana , which he dates between 1100 and 1400 . However , Phyllis Granoff finds problems with this relative dating and concludes that the Mudgala Purana was the last of the philosophical texts concerned with Ganesha . She bases her reasoning on the fact that , among other internal evidence , the Mudgala Purana specifically mentions the Ganesha Purana as one of the four Puranas ( the Brahma , the Brahmanda , the Ganesha , and the Mudgala Puranas ) which deal at length with Ganesha . While the kernel of the text must be old , it was interpolated until the 17th and 18th centuries as the worship of Ganapati became more important in certain regions . Another highly regarded scripture , the Ganapati Atharvashirsa , was probably composed during the 16th or 17th centuries .
Ganesha Sahasranama is part of the Puranic literature , and is a litany of a thousand names and attributes of Ganesha . Each name in the sahasranama conveys a different meaning and symbolises a different aspect of Ganesha . Versions of the Ganesha Sahasranama are found in the Ganesha Purana .
One of the most important Sanskrit texts , that enjoys authority in Ganapatya tradition states John Grimes , is the Ganapati Atharvashirsa .
= = Beyond India and Hinduism = =
Commercial and cultural contacts extended India 's influence in Western and Southeast Asia . Ganesha is one of a number of Hindu deities who consequently reached foreign lands .
Ganesha was particularly worshipped by traders and merchants , who went out of India for commercial ventures . From approximately the 10th century onwards , new networks of exchange developed including the formation of trade guilds and a resurgence of money circulation . During this time , Ganesha became the principal deity associated with traders . The earliest inscription invoking Ganesha before any other deity is associated with the merchant community .
Hindus migrated to Maritime Southeast Asia and took their culture , including Ganesha , with them . Statues of Ganesha are found throughout the region , often beside Shiva sanctuaries . The forms of Ganesha found in the Hindu art of Java , Bali , and Borneo show specific regional influences . The spread of Hindu culture throughout Southeast Asia established Ganesha worship in modified forms in Burma , Cambodia , and Thailand . In Indochina , Hinduism and Buddhism were practiced side by side , and mutual influences can be seen in the iconography of Ganesha in the region . In Thailand , Cambodia , and among the Hindu classes of the Chams in Vietnam , Ganesha was mainly thought of as a remover of obstacles . Today in Buddhist Thailand , Ganesha is regarded as a remover of obstacles , the god of success .
Before the arrival of Islam , Afghanistan had close cultural ties with India , and the adoration of both Hindu and Buddhist deities was practiced . Examples of sculptures from the 5th to the 7th centuries have survived , suggesting that the worship of Ganesha was then in vogue in the region .
Ganesha appears in Mahayana Buddhism , not only in the form of the Buddhist god Vināyaka , but also as a Hindu demon form with the same name . His image appears in Buddhist sculptures during the late Gupta period . As the Buddhist god Vināyaka , he is often shown dancing . This form , called Nṛtta Ganapati , was popular in northern India , later adopted in Nepal , and then in Tibet . In Nepal , the Hindu form of Ganesha , known as Heramba , is popular ; he has five heads and rides a lion . Tibetan representations of Ganesha show ambivalent views of him . A Tibetan rendering of Ganapati is tshogs bdag . In one Tibetan form , he is shown being trodden under foot by Mahākāla , ( Shiva ) a popular Tibetan deity . Other depictions show him as the Destroyer of Obstacles , and sometimes dancing . Ganesha appears in China and Japan in forms that show distinct regional character . In northern China , the earliest known stone statue of Ganesha carries an inscription dated to 531 . In Japan , where Ganesha is known as Kangiten , the Ganesha cult was first mentioned in 806 .
The canonical literature of Jainism does not mention the worship of Ganesha . However , Ganesha is worshipped by most Jains , for whom he appears to have taken over certain functions of the god of wealth , Kubera . Jain ties with the trading community support the idea that Jainism took up Ganesha worship as a result of commercial connections . The earliest known Jain Ganesha statue dates to about the 9th century . A 15th @-@ century Jain text lists procedures for the installation of Ganapati images . Images of Ganesha appear in the Jain temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat .
|
= Trade route =
A trade route is a logistical network identified as a series of pathways and stoppages used for the commercial transport of cargo . The term can also be used to refer to trade over bodies of water . Allowing goods to reach distant markets , a single trade route contains long distance arteries , which may further be connected to smaller networks of commercial and noncommercial transportation routes . Among notable trade routes was the Amber Road , which served as a dependable network for long @-@ distance trade . Maritime trade along the Spice Route became prominent during the Middle Ages , when nations resorted to military means for control of this influential route . During the Middle Ages , organizations such as the Hanseatic League , aimed at protecting interests of the merchants , and trade became increasingly prominent .
In modern times , commercial activity shifted from the major trade routes of the Old World to newer routes between modern nation @-@ states . This activity was sometimes carried out without traditional protection of trade and under international free @-@ trade agreements , which allowed commercial goods to cross borders with relaxed restrictions . Innovative transportation of modern times includes pipeline transport and the relatively well @-@ known trade involving rail routes , automobiles , and cargo airlines .
= = Development of early routes = =
= = = Early development = = =
The period from the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE to the beginning of the Common Era saw societies in Western Asia , the Mediterranean , China and the Indian subcontinent develop major transportation networks for trade .
One of the vital instruments which facilitated long distance trade was portage and the domestication of beasts of burden . Organized caravans , visible by the 2nd millennium BCE , could carry goods across a large distance as fodder was mostly available along the way . The domestication of camels allowed Arabian nomads to control the long distance trade in spices and silk from the Far East to the Arabian Peninsula . Caravans were useful in long @-@ distance trade largely for carrying luxury goods , the transportation of cheaper goods across large distances was not profitable for caravan operators . With productive developments in iron and bronze technologies , newer trade routes — dispensing innovations of civilizations — began to rise .
= = = Maritime trade = = =
Evidence of maritime trade between civilizations dates back at least 90 millennia . Navigation was known in Sumer between the 4th and the 3rd millennium BCE , and was probably known by the Indians and the Chinese people before the Sumerians . The Egyptians had trade routes through the Red Sea , importing spices from the " Land of Punt " ( East Africa ) and from Arabia .
Maritime trade began with safer coastal trade and evolved with the manipulation of the monsoon winds , soon resulting in trade crossing boundaries such as the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal . South Asia had multiple maritime trade routes which connected it to Southeast Asia , thereby making the control of one route resulting in maritime monopoly difficult . Indian connections to various Southeast Asian states buffered it from blockages on other routes . By making use of the maritime trade routes , bulk commodity trade became possible for the Romans in the 2nd century BCE . A Roman trading vessel could span the Mediterranean in a month at one @-@ sixtieth the cost of over @-@ land routes .
= = = Visible trade routes = = =
The peninsula of Anatolia lay on the commercial land routes to Europe from Asia as well as the sea route from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea . Records from the 19th century BCE attest to the existence of an Assyrian merchant colony at Kanesh in Cappadocia ( now in modern Turkey ) . Trading networks of the Old World included the Grand Trunk Road of India and the Incense Road of Arabia . A transportation network consisting of hard @-@ surfaced highways , using concrete made from volcanic ash and lime , was built by the Romans as early as 312 BCE , during the times of the Censor Appius Claudius Caecus . Parts of the Mediterranean world , Roman Britain , Tigris @-@ Euphrates river system and North Africa fell under the reach of this network at some point of their history .
According to Robert Allen Denemark ( 2000 ) :
" The spread of urban trading networks , and their extension along the Persian Gulf and eastern Mediterranean , created a complex molecular structure of regional foci so that as well as the zonation of core and periphery ( originally created around Mesopotamia ) there was a series of interacting civilizations : Mesopotamia , Egypt , the Indus Valley ; then also Syria , central Anatolia ( Hittites ) and the Aegean ( Minoans and Mycenaeans ) . Beyond this was a margin which included not only temperate areas such as Europe , but the dry steppe corridor of central Asia . This was truly a world system , even though it occupied only a restricted portion of the western Old World . Whilst each civilization emphasized its ideological autonomy , all were identifiably part of a common world of interacting components . "
These routes - spreading religion , trade and technology - have historically been vital to the growth of urban civilization . The extent of development of cities , and the level of their integration into a larger world system , has often been attributed to their position in various active transport networks .
= = Historic trade routes = =
= = = Combined land and waterway routes = = =
= = = = Incense Route = = = =
The Incense Route served as a channel for trading of Indian , Arabian and East Asian goods . The incense trade flourished from South Arabia to the Mediterranean between roughly the 3rd century BCE to the 2nd century CE . This trade was crucial to the economy of Yemen and the frankincense and myrrh trees were seen as a source of wealth by the its rulers .
Ptolemy II Philadelphus , emperor of Ptolemaic Egypt , may have forged an alliance with the Lihyanites in order to secure the incense route at Dedan , thereby rerouting the incense trade from Dedan to the coast along the Red Sea to Egypt . I. E. S. Edwards connects the Syro @-@ Ephraimite War to the desire of the Israelites and the Aramaeans to control the northern end of the Incense route , which ran up from Southern Arabia and could be tapped by commanding Transjordan .
Gerrha - inhabited by Chaldean exiles from Babylon - controlled the Incense trade routes across Arabia to the Mediterranean and exercised control over the trading of aromatics to Babylon in the 1st century BCE . The Nabateans exercised control over the routes along the Incense Route , and their hold was challenged - without success - by Antigonus Cyclops , emperor of Syria . The Nabatean control over trade further increased and spread in many directions .
The replacement of Greece by the Roman empire as the administrator of the Mediterranean basin led to the resumption of direct trade with the East and the elimination of the taxes extracted previously by the middlemen of the south . According to Milo Kearney ( 2003 ) " The South Arabs in protest took to pirate attacks over the Roman ships in the Gulf of Aden . In response , the Romans destroyed Aden and favored the Western Abyssinian coast of the Red Sea . " Indian ships sailed to Egypt as the maritime routes of Southern Asia were not under the control of a single power .
= = = = Pre @-@ Columbian trade = = = =
Some similarities between the Mesoamerican and the Andean cultures suggest that the two regions became a part of a wider world system , as a result of trade , by the 1st millennium BCE . The current academic view is that the flow of goods across the Andean slopes was controlled by institutions distributing locations to local groups , who were then free to access them for trading . This trade across the Andean slopes — described sometimes as " vertical trade " — may have overshadowed the long distance trade between the people of the Andes and the neighboring forests . The Callawaya herbalists traded in tropical plants between 6th and the 10th centuries , while copper was dealt by specialized merchants in the Peruvian valley of Chincha . Long distance trade may have seen local elites resorting to struggle in order for manipulation and control .
Prior to the Inca dominance , specialized long distance merchants provided the highlanders with goods such as gold nuggets , copper hatchets , cocoa , salt etc. for redistribution among the locals , and were key players in the politics of the region . Hatchet shaped copper currency was produced by the Peruvian people , in order to obtain valuables from pre Columbian Ecuador . A maritime exchange system stretched from the west coast of Mexico to southernmost Peru , trading mostly in Spondylus , which represented rain and fertility and was considered the principal food of the gods by the people of the Inca empire . Spondylus was used in elite rituals , and the effective redistribution of it had political effect in the Andes during the pre @-@ Hispanic times .
= = = Predominantly overland routes = = =
= = = = Silk Road = = = =
The Silk road was one of the first trade routes to join the Eastern and the Western worlds . According to Vadime Elisseeff ( 2000 ) :
" Along the Silk Roads , technology traveled , ideas were exchanged , and friendship and understanding between East and West were experienced for the first time on a large scale . Easterners were exposed to Western ideas and life @-@ styles , and Westerners too , learned about Eastern culture and its spirituality @-@ oriented cosmology . Buddhism as an Eastern religion received international attention through the Silk Roads . "
Cultural interactions patronized often by powerful emperors , such as Kanishka , led to development of art due to introduction of a rich variety of influences . Buddhist missions thrived along the Silk Roads , partly due to the conducive intermixing of trade and cultural values , which created a series of safe stoppages for both the pilgrims and the traders . Among the frequented routes of the Silk Route was the Burmese route extending from Bhamo , which served as a path for Marco Polo 's visit to Yunnan and Indian Buddhist missions to Canton in order to establish Buddhist monasteries . This route - often under the presence of hostile tribes - also finds mention in the works of Rashid @-@ al @-@ Din Hamadani .
= = = = Grand Trunk Road = = = =
The Grand Trunk Road - connecting Chittagong in Bangladesh to Peshawar in Pakistan - has existed for over two and a half millennia . One of the important trade routes of the world , this road has been a strategic artery with fortresses , halting posts , wells , post offices , milestones and other facilities . Part of this road through Pakistan also coincided with the Silk Road .
This highway has been associated with emperors Chandragupta Maurya and Sher Shah Suri , the latter became synonymous with this route due to his role in ensuring the safety of the travelers and the upkeep of the road . Emperor Sher Shah widened and realigned the road to other routes , and provided approximately 1700 roadside inns through his empire . These inns provided free food and lodgings to the travelers regardless of their status .
The British occupation of this road was of special significance for the British Raj in India . Bridges , pathways and newer inns were constructed by the British for the first thirty @-@ seven years of their reign since the occupation of Punjab in 1849 . The British followed roughly the same alignment as the old routes , and at some places the newer routes ran parallel to the older routes .
Vadime Elisseeff ( 2000 ) comments on the Grand Trunk Road :
" Along this road marched not only the mighty armies of conquerors , but also the caravans of traders , scholars , artists , and common folk . Together with people , moved ideas , languages , customs , and cultures , not just in one , but in both directions . At different meeting places - permanent as well as temporary - people of different origins and from different cultural backgrounds , professing different faiths and creeds , eating different foods , wearing different clothes , and speaking different languages and dialects would meet one another peacefully . They would understand one another 's food , dress , manner , and etiquette , and even borrow words , phrases , idioms and , at times , whole languages from others . "
= = = = Amber Road = = = =
The Amber Road was a European trade route associated with the trade and transport of amber . Amber satisfied the criteria for long distance trade as it was light in weight and was in high demand for ornamental purposes around the Mediterranean . Before the establishment of Roman control over areas such as Pannonia , the Amber Road was virtually the only route available for long distance trade .
Towns along the Amber Road began to rise steadily during the 1st century CE , despite the troop movements under Titus Flavius Vespasianus and his son Titus Flavius Domitianus . Under the reign of Tiberius Caesar Augustus , the Amber Road was straightened and paved according to the prevailing urban standards . Roman towns began to appear along the road , initially founded near the site of Celtic oppida .
The 3rd century saw the Danube river become the principal artery of trade , eclipsing the Amber Road and other commercial routes . The redirection of investment to the Danubian forts saw the towns along the Amber Road growing slowly , though yet retaining their prosperity . The prolonged struggle between the Romans and the barbarians further left its mark on the towns along the Amber Road .
= = = = Via Maris = = = =
Via Maris , literally Latin for " the way of the sea , " was an ancient highway used by the Romans and the Crusaders . The states controlling the Via Maris were in a position to grant access for trade to their own citizens and collect tolls from the outsiders to maintain the trade route . The name Via Maris is a Latin translation of a Hebrew phrase related to Isaiah . Due to the biblical significance of this ancient route , many attempts to find its present @-@ day location have been made by Christian pilgrims . 13th @-@ century traveler and pilgrim Burchard of Mount Zion refers to the Via Maris route as a way leading along the shore of the Sea of Galilee .
= = = = Trans Saharan trade = = = =
Early Muslim writings confirm that the people of West Africa operated a sophisticated network of trade , usually under the authority of a monarch who levied taxes and provided bureaucratic and military support to his kingdom . Sophisticated mechanisms for the economic and political development of the involved African areas were in place before Islam further strengthened trade , towns and government in western Africa . The capital , court and trade of the region find mention in the works of scholar Abū ' Ubayd ' Abd Allāh al @-@ Bakrī ; the mainstay of the trans Saharan trade was gold and salt .
The powerful Saharan tribes , Berber in origin and later adapting to Muslim and Arab cultures , controlled the channels to western Africa by making efficient use of horse @-@ drawn vehicles and pack animals . The Songhai engaged in a struggle against the Sa 'di dynasty of Morocco over the control of the trans Saharan trade , resulting in damage on both sides and a weak Moroccan victory , further strengthening the uninvolved Saharan tribes . Struggles and disturbances continued till the 14th century , by which the Mandé merchants were trading with the Hausa , between Lake Chad and the Niger . Newer trade routes developed following extension of trade .
= = = Predominantly maritime routes = = =
= = = = Roman @-@ India routes = = = =
The Ptolemaic dynasty had initiated Greco @-@ Roman maritime trade contact with India using the Red Sea ports . The Roman historian Strabo mentions a vast increase in trade following the Roman annexation of Egypt , indicating that monsoon was known and manipulated for trade in his time . By the time of Augustus up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos to India , trading in a diverse variety of goods . Arsinoe , Berenice Troglodytica and Myos Hormos were the principal Roman ports involved in this maritime trading network , while the Indian ports included Barbaricum , Barygaza , Muziris and Arikamedu .
The Indians were present in Alexandria and the Christian and Jewish settlers from Rome continued to live in India long after the fall of the Roman empire , which resulted in Rome 's loss of the Red Sea ports , previously used to secure trade with India by the Greco @-@ Roman world since the time of the Ptolemaic dynasty .
= = = = Hanseatic trade = = = =
Shortly before the 12th century the Germans played a relatively modest role in the north European trade . However , this was to change with the development of Hanseatic trade , as a result of which German traders became prominent in the Baltic and the North Sea regions . Following the death of Eric VI of Denmark , German forces attacked and sacked Denmark , bringing with them artisans and merchants under the new administration which controlled the Hansa regions . During the third quarter of the 14th century the Hanseatic trade faced two major difficulties : economic conflict with the Flanders and hostilities with Denmark . These events led to the formation of an organized association of Hanseatic towns , which replaced the earlier union of German merchants . This new Hansa of the towns , aimed at protecting interests of the merchants and trade , was prominent for the next hundred and fifty years .
Philippe Dollinger associates the downfall of the Hansa to a new alliance between Lübeck , Hamburg and Bremen , which outshadowed the older institution . He further sets the date of dissolution of the Hansa at 1630 and concludes that the Hansa was almost entirely forgotten by the end of the 18th century . Scholar Georg Friedrich Sartorius published the first monograph regarding the community in the early years of the 19th century .
= = = = From the Varangians to the Greek = = = =
The trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks ( Russian : Путь " из варяг в греки " , Put iz varyag v greki , Swedish : Vägen från varjagerna till grekerna , Greek : Εμπορική Οδός Βαράγγων - Ελλήνων ) was a trade route that connected Scandinavia , Kievan Rus ' and the Byzantine Empire . The route allowed traders along the route to establish a direct prosperous trade with Byzantium , and prompted some of them to settle in the territories of present @-@ day Belarus , Russia and Ukraine .
The route began in Scandinavian trading centres such as Birka , Hedeby , and Gotland , crossed the Baltic Sea entered the Gulf of Finland , followed the Neva River into the Lake Ladoga . Then it followed the Volkhov River , upstream past the towns of Staraya Ladoga and Velikiy Novgorod , crossed Lake Ilmen , and up the Lovat River . From there , ships had to be portaged to the Dnieper River near Gnezdovo . A second route from the Baltic to the Dnieper was along the Western Dvina ( Daugava ) between the Lovat and the Dnieper in the Smolensk region , and along the Kasplya River to Gnezdovo . Along the Dnieper , the route crossed several major rapids and passed through Kiev , and after entering the Black Sea followed its west coast to Constantinople .
= = = = Maritime republics ' Mediterranean trade = = = =
The economic growth of Europe around the year 1000 , together with the lack of safety on the mainland trading routes , eased the development of major commercial routes along the coast of the Mediterranean . The growing independence of some coastal cities gave them a leading role in this commerce : Maritime Republics ( Italian " Repubbliche Marinare " ) of Venice , Genoa , Amalfi , Pisa and Republic of Ragusa developed their own " empires " in the Mediterranean shores . From the 8th until the 15th century , they held the monopoly of European trade with the Middle East . The silk and spice trade , involving spices , incense , herbs , drugs and opium , made these Mediterranean city @-@ states phenomenally rich . Spices were among the most expensive and demanded products of the Middle Ages . They were all imported from Asia and Africa . Muslim traders — mainly descendants of Arab sailors from Yemen and Oman — dominated maritime routes throughout the Indian Ocean , tapping source regions in the Far East and shipping for trading emporiums in India , westward to Ormus in Persian Gulf and Jeddah in the Red Sea . From there , overland routes led to the Mediterranean coasts . Venetian merchants distributed then the goods through Europe until the rise of the Ottoman Empire , that eventually led to the fall of Constantinople in 1453 , barring Europeans from important combined @-@ land @-@ sea routes .
= = = = Spice Route = = = =
As trade between India and the Greco @-@ Roman world increased spices became the main import from India to the Western world , bypassing silk and other commodities . The Indian commercial connection with South East Asia proved vital to the merchants of Arabia and Persia during the 7th and 8th centuries .
The Abbasids used Alexandria , Damietta , Aden and Siraf as entry ports to India and China . Merchants arriving from India in the port city of Aden paid tribute in form of musk , camphor , ambergris and sandalwood to Ibn Ziyad , the sultan of Yemen . Moluccan products shipped across the ports of Arabia to the Near East passed through the ports of India and Sri Lanka . Indian exports of spices find mention in the works of Ibn Khurdadhbeh ( 850 CE ) , al @-@ Ghafiqi ( 1150 ) , Ishak bin Imaran ( 907 ) and Al Kalkashandi ( 14th century ) . After reaching either the Indian or the Sri Lankan ports , spices were sometimes shipped to East Africa , where they were used for many purposes , including burial rites .
On the orders of Manuel I of Portugal , four vessels under the command of navigator Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope , continuing to the eastern coast of Africa to Malindi to sail across the Indian Ocean to Calicut . The wealth of the Indies was now open for the Europeans to explore ; the Portuguese Empire was one of the early European empires to grow from spice trade .
= = Modern routes = =
The modern times saw development of newer means of transport and often controversial free trade agreements , which altered the political and logistical approach prevalent during the Middle Ages . Newer means of transport led to the establishment of new routes , and countries opened up borders to allow trade in mutually agreed goods as per the prevailing free trade agreement . Some old trading route were reopened during the modern times , although in different political and logistical scenarios . The entry of harmful foreign pollutants by the way of trade routes has been a cause of alarm during the modern times . A conservative estimate stresses that future damages from harmful animal and plant diseases may be as high as 134 billion US dollars in the absence of effective measures to prevent the introduction of unwanted pests through various trade routes .
= = = Wagonway routes = = =
Networks , like the Santa Fe Trail and the Oregon Trail , became prominent in the United States with wagon trains gaining popularity as a mode of long distance overland transportation for both people and goods . The Oregon @-@ California routes were highly organized with planned rendezvous locations and essential supplies . The settlers in the United States used these wagon trains - sometimes made up of 100 of more Conestoga wagons - for westward emigration during the 18th and the 19th centuries . Among the challenges faced by the wagon route operators were crossing rivers , mountains and hostile Native Americans . Preparations were also made according to the weather and protection of trade and travelers was ensured by a few guards on horseback . Wagon freighting was also essential to American growth until it was replaced by the railroad and the truck .
= = = Railway routes = = =
The 1844 Railway act of England compelled at least one train to a station every day with the third class fares priced at a penny a mile . Trade benefited as the workers and the lower classes had the ability to travel to other towns frequently . Suburban communities began to develop and towns began to spread outwards . The British constructed a vast railway network in India , but it was considered to serve a strategic purpose in addition to the commercial purpose . The efficient use of rail routes helped in the unification of the United States of America .
The modern times saw nations struggle for the control of rail routes : The Trans @-@ Siberian Railway was intended to be used by the Russian government for control of Manchuria and later China ; the German forces wanted to establish Berlin @-@ Baghdad Railway in order to influence the Near East ; and the Austrian government planned a route from Vienna to Salonika for control of the Balkans . According to the Encyclopædia Britannica ( 2002 ) :
Railroads reached their maturity in the early 20th century , as trains carried the bulk of land freight and passenger traffic in the industrialized countries of the world . By the mid @-@ 20th century , however , they had lost their preeminent position . The private automobile had replaced the railroad for short passenger trips , while the airplane had usurped it for long @-@ distance travel , especially in the United States . Railroads remained effective , however , for transporting people in high @-@ volume situations , such as commuting between the centres of large cities and their suburbs , and medium @-@ distance travel of less than about 300 miles between urban centres .
Although railroads have lost much of the general @-@ freight @-@ carrying business to semi @-@ trailer trucks , they remain the best means of transporting large volumes of such bulk commodities as coal , grain , chemicals , and ore over long distances . The development of containerization has made the railroads more effective in handling finished merchandise at relatively high speeds . In addition , the introduction of piggyback flatcars , in which truck trailers are transported long distances on specially @-@ designed cars , has allowed railroads to regain some of the business lost to trucking .
= = = Modern road networks = = =
The advent motor vehicles created a demand for better use of highways . Roads evolved into two way roads , expressways , freeways and tollways during the modern times . Existing roads were developed and highways were designed according to intended use .
Trucks came into widespread use in the Western World during World War I , and quickly gained reputation as a means of long distance transportation of goods . Modern highways , such as the Trans @-@ Canada Highway , Highway 1 ( Australia ) and Pan @-@ American Highway allowed transport of goods and services across great distances . Automobiles continue to play a crucial role in the economies of the Industrialized countries , resulting in rise of businesses such as motor freight operation and truck transportation .
The emission rate for cars using highways has been on a decline between 1975 and 1995 due to regulations and the introduction of unleaded petrol . This trend is especially notable since there has been a growth in vehicles and vehicle miles traveled by automobiles using these highways .
= = = Modern maritime routes = = =
A consistent shift from land based trade to sea based trade has been recorded since the last three millennia . The strategic advantages of port cities as trading centers are many : they are both less dependent on vital connections and less vulnerable to blockages . Oceanic ports can help forge trading relationships with other parts of the world easily .
Modern maritime trade routes - sometimes in the form of artificial canals like the Suez Canal - had visible impact on the economic and political standing of nations . The opening of the Suez Canal altered British interactions with the colonies of the British Empire as the dynamics of transportation , trade and communication had now changed drastically . Other waterways , like the Panama Canal played an important role in the histories of many nations . Inland water transportation remained significantly important even as the advent of railroads and automobiles resulted in a steady decline of canals . Inland water transport is still used for the transportation of bulk commodities e.g. grains , coal , and ore .
Waterway commerce was historically important to Europe , particularly to Russia . According to the Encyclopædia Britannica ( 2002 ) : " Russia has been a significant beneficiary . Not only have inland waterways opened vast areas of its interior to development , but Moscow @-@ linked to the White , Baltic , Black , Caspian , and Azov seas by canals and rivers @-@ has become a major inland port . "
Oil spills are recorded both in case of maritime routes and pipeline routes to the main refineries . Oil spills , amounting to as much as 7 @.@ 56 billion liters of oil entering the oceans every year , occur due to damaged equipment or human error .
= = = Free trade areas = = =
Historically , many governments followed a policy of protection of trade . International free trade became visible in 1860 with the Anglo @-@ French commercial treaty , and the trend gained further momentum during the period after World War II . According to The Columbia Encyclopedia , Sixth Edition :
" After World War II , strong sentiment developed throughout the world against protection and high tariffs and in favor of freer trade . The results were new organizations and agreements on international trade such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ( 1948 ) , the Benelux Economic Union ( 1948 ) , the European Economic Community ( Common Market , 1957 ) , the European Free Trade Association ( 1959 ) , Mercosur ( the Southern Cone Common Market , 1991 ) , and the World Trade Organization ( 1995 ) . In 1993 , the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) was approved by the governments of Canada , Mexico , and the United States . In the early 1990s , the nations of the European Union ( the successor organization to the Common Market ) undertook to remove all barriers to the free movement of trade and employment across their mutual borders . "
In May 2004 the United States of America signed the American Free trade Agreement with five Central American nations .
= = = Air routes = = =
Air transport has become an indispensable part of modern society . People have come to use air transport both for long and middle distances , with the average route length of long distances being 720 kilometers in Europe and 1220 kilometers in the US . This industry annually carries 1600 million passengers worldwide , covers a 15 million kilometer network , and has an annual turnover of 260 billion dollars .
This mode of transportation links national , international and global economies , making it vital to many other industries . Newer trends of liberalization of trade have fostered routes among nations bound by agreements . One such example , the American Open Skies policy , led to greater openness in many international markets , but some international restrictions have survived even during the present times .
Express delivery through international cargo airlines touched US $ 20 billion in 1998 and , according to the World Trade Organization , is expected to triple in 2015 . In 1998 , 50 pure cargo @-@ service companies operated internationally .
Air transport particularly favors light , expensive and small products : electronic media rather than books , for example , and refined drugs rather than bulk food .
= = = Pipeline networks = = =
The economic importance of pipeline transport - responsible for a high percentage of oil and natural gas transportation - is often undermined by the general public due to the lack of visibility of this mode . Generally held to be safer and more economical and reliable than the other modes of transport , this mode has many advantages over rival modes , such as trucks and railways . Examples of modern pipeline transport include Alashankou @-@ Dushanzi Crude Oil Pipeline and Iran @-@ Armenia Natural Gas Pipeline . International pipeline transport projects , like the Baku @-@ Tbilisi @-@ Ceyhan pipeline , presently connect modern nation states — in this case , Azerbaijan , Georgia and Turkey — through pipeline networks .
In some select cases , pipelines can even transport solids , such as coal and other minerals , over long distances ; short distance transportation of goods such as grain , cement , concrete , solid wastes , pulp etc. is also feasible .
|
= A Child of Our Time =
A Child of Our Time is a secular oratorio by the British composer Michael Tippett ( 1905 – 98 ) , who also wrote the libretto . Composed between 1939 and 1941 , it was first performed at the Adelphi Theatre , London , on 19 March 1944 . The work was inspired by events that affected Tippett profoundly : the assassination in 1938 of a German diplomat by a young Jewish refugee , and the Nazi government 's reaction in the form of a violent pogrom against its Jewish population — called Kristallnacht . Tippett 's oratorio deals with these incidents in the context of the experiences of oppressed people generally , and carries a strongly pacifist message of ultimate understanding and reconciliation . The text 's recurrent themes of shadow and light reflect the Jungian psychoanalysis which Tippett underwent in the years immediately before writing the work .
The oratorio uses a traditional three @-@ part format based on that of Handel 's Messiah , and is structured in the manner of Bach 's Passions . The work 's most original feature is Tippett 's use of American spirituals , which carry out the role allocated by Bach to chorales . Tippett justified this innovation on the grounds that these songs of oppression possess a universality absent from traditional hymns . A Child of Our Time was well received on its first performance , and has since been performed all over the world in many languages . A number of recorded versions are available , including one conducted by Tippett when he was 86 years old .
= = Background and conception = =
Michael Tippett was born in London in 1905 , to well @-@ to @-@ do though unconventional parents . His father , a lawyer and businessman , was a freethinker , his mother a writer and suffragette . He received piano lessons as a child , but first showed his musical prowess while a pupil at Stamford School in Lincolnshire , between 1920 and 1922 . Although the school 's formal music curriculum was slight , Tippett received private piano tuition from Frances Tinkler , a noted local teacher whose most distinguished pupil had been Malcolm Sargent , himself a former pupil at Stamford . Tippett 's chance purchase in a local bookshop of Stanford 's book Musical Composition led to his determination to be a composer , and in April 1923 he was accepted as a student at the Royal College of Music ( RCM ) . Here he studied composition , first under Charles Wood ( who died in 1926 ) and later , less successfully , with Charles Kitson . He also studied conducting , first under Sargent and later under Adrian Boult . He left the RCM in December 1928 , but after two years spent unsuccessfully attempting to launch his career as a composer , he returned to the college in 1930 for a further period of study , principally under the professor of counterpoint , R. O. Morris .
In the economically depressed 1930s Tippett adopted a strongly left @-@ wing political stance , and became increasingly involved with the unemployed , both through his participation in the North Yorkshire work camps , and as founder of the South London Orchestra made up of out @-@ of @-@ work musicians . He was briefly a member of the British Communist Party in 1935 , but his sympathies were essentially Trotskyist , inimical to the Stalinist orientation of his local party , and he soon left . In 1935 he embraced pacifism , but by this time he was becoming overtaken by a range of emotional problems and uncertainties , largely triggered by the break @-@ up of an intense relationship with the painter Wilfred Franks . In addition to these personal difficulties he became anxious that the political situation in Europe was leading inexorably towards war . After meeting the Jungian psychoanalyst John Layard , Tippett underwent a period of therapy which included self @-@ analysis of his dreams . According to Tippett 's biographer Geraint Lewis , the outcome of this process was a " rebirth , confirming for Tippett the nature of his homosexuality while ... strengthening his destiny as a creative artist at the possible expense of personal relationships " . The encounter with Layard led Tippett to a lifelong interest in the work and teaching of Carl Jung , an influence carried through into many of his subsequent compositions .
In the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1930s several of Tippett 's early works were published , including his String Quartet No. 1 , Sonata No. 1 for piano , and Concerto for Double String Orchestra . Among his unpublished output in these years were two works for voice : the ballad @-@ opera Robin Hood , written for performance at the Yorkshire work camps , and A Song of Liberty based on William Blake 's " The Marriage of Heaven and Hell " . As his self @-@ confidence increased , Tippett felt increasingly driven to write a work of overt political protest . In his search for a subject he first considered the Dublin Easter Rising of 1916 : he may have been aware that Benjamin Britten had written incidental music to Montagu Slater 's play Easter 1916 . However , events towards the end of 1938 turned his attention away from Irish matters . Tippett had made several visits to Germany , and had acquired a love for its literature and culture . He became increasingly distressed by reports of events in that country and , in particular the persecution of its Jewish population . In November 1938 the assassination in Paris of a German diplomat , Ernst vom Rath , by Herschel Grynszpan , a 17 @-@ year @-@ old Jewish refugee , precipitated the " Kristallnacht " pogrom across Germany . Over several days of violence synagogues were burned , Jewish homes and businesses attacked and destroyed , thousands of Jews were arrested , and some Jews were stoned or beaten to death . Reports from Germany of these events affected Tippett profoundly , and became the inspiration for his first large @-@ scale dramatic work .
= = Creation = =
= = = Libretto = = =
Having found his subject , Tippett sought advice on the preparation of the text from T. S. Eliot , whom he had met recently through a mutual friend , Francis Morley . The musicologist Michael Steinberg comments that , given his anti @-@ Semitism , Eliot may have been an inappropriate choice of collaborator , though Tippett considered the poet his spiritual and artistic mentor , and felt that his counsel would be crucial . Tippett writes : " I plucked up courage and asked him if he would write it . Eliot said he would consider the matter as long as I provided him with a precise scheme of musical sections and an exact indication of the numbers and kinds of words for each stage " . When Tippett produced his detailed draft , Eliot advised the composer to write his own libretto , suggesting that his own superior poetry would either distract attention from the music , or otherwise would be " swallowed up by it " . Either way , there would be a mismatch . Tippett accepted this advice ; henceforth , he records , he always wrote his own texts .
Tippett resolved that his work would be an oratorio rather than an opera . He chose the title from Ein Kind unserer Zeit , a contemporary protest novel by the Austro @-@ Hungarian writer , Ödön von Horváth . The text that Tippett prepared follows the three @-@ part structure used in Handel 's Messiah , in which Part I is prophetic and preparatory , Part II narrative and epic , Part III meditative and metaphysical . In A Child of Our Time the general condition of oppression is defined in the first part , the narrative elements are confined to the second part , while the third part contains interpretation and reflection on a possible healing . Tippett perceived the work as a general depiction of man 's inhumanity to man , and wanted Grynszpan 's tragedy to stand for the oppressed everywhere . To preserve the universality of the work , Tippett avoids all use of proper names for people and places : thus , Paris is " a great city " , Grynszpan becomes " the boy " , the soprano is " the boy 's mother " , vom Rath is " the official " .
Commentators have identified numerous works as textual influences , including Eliot 's Murder in the Cathedral and Ash Wednesday , Goethe 's Faust and Wilfred Owen 's poem " The Seed " . Tippett 's biographer Ian Kemp equates the ending of the oratorio to the closing pages of Part I of John Bunyan 's Pilgrim 's Progress , in which Christian and Hopeful end their journey by crossing a deep and wide river to reach their heavenly home . The influence of Jungian themes is evident in the recurrent images of darkness and light , and the recognition and balancing of opposites . In a recent analysis of the work , Richard Rodda finds A Child of Our Time " rooted in the essential dialectic of human life that Tippett so prized in Jung 's philosophy — winter / spring , darkness / light , evil / good , reason / pity , dreams / reality , loneliness / fellowship , the man of destiny / the child of our time ... "
= = = Composition = = =
Tippett completed his Jungian psychoanalysis on 31 August 1939 . Three days later , on the day that Britain declared war on Germany , he began composing A Child of Our Time . His grounding in the traditions of European music guided him instinctively towards the Passions of Bach as his basic musical model . Thus the building blocks of the work are familiar : recitatives , arias , choruses and ensembles , with a male soloist acting as a narrator and the chorus as full participants in the action . Tippett also introduced two other formal number types : the operatic scena and the orchestral interlude , the latter allowing time for reflection on significant events . Tippett wished to punctuate his work with an equivalent to the congregation chorales which recur in Bach 's Passions ; however , he wanted his work to speak to atheists , agnostics and Jews as well as to Christians . He considered briefly whether folk @-@ songs , or even Jewish hymns , could provide an alternative , but rejected these because he felt that , like the chorales , they lacked universality . A solution was suggested to him when he heard on the radio a rendering of the spiritual " Steal away " . In particular he was struck by the power of the words " The trumpet sounds within @-@ a my soul " . This led him to recognise spirituals as carrying an emotional significance far beyond their origin as slave songs in 19th @-@ century America and as representing the oppressed everywhere .
Having found his substitute for the chorales , Tippett wrote off to America for a collection of spirituals . When this arrived , " I saw that there was one for every key situation in the oratorio " . He chose five : " Steal Away " ; " Nobody Knows the Trouble I See , Lord " ; " Go Down , Moses " ; " O , By and By " ; and " Deep River " . The first , fourth and fifth of these are placed at the ends of the oratorio 's three parts , " Deep River " as the finale expressing , according to Tippett , the hope of a fresh spring after a long , dark winter . Kenneth Gloag , in his detailed analysis of the oratorio , writes : " As well as constructing the pathway through the dramatic narrative , the five spirituals also combine to provide moments of focus and repose ... giving shape to both the musical and literary dimensions of the work " . Tippett felt that the work encapsulated all his current political , moral and psychological preoccupations .
= = Synopsis and structure = =
According to Tippett 's description , " Part I of the work deals with the general state of oppression in our time . Part II presents the particular story of a young man 's attempt to seek justice by violence and the catastrophic consequences ; and Part III considers the moral to be drawn , if any . " He later extended his summary to the following :
Part I : The general state of affairs in the world today as it affects all individuals , minorities , classes or races that are felt to be outside the ruling conventions . Man at odds with his Shadow ( i.e. the dark side of personality ) .
Part II : The " Child of Our Time " appears , enmeshed in the drama of his personal fate and the elemental social forces of our day . The drama is because the forces which drive the young man prove stronger than the good advice of his uncle and aunt , as it always was and always will be .
Part III : The significance of this drama and the possible healing that would come from Man 's acceptance of his Shadow in relation to his Light .
= = Conscientious objector = =
After the outbreak of war in September 1939 , Tippett joined the Peace Pledge Union — with which he had been informally associated since 1935 — and applied for registration as a conscientious objector , although his case was not considered by the tribunal until February 1942 . In October 1940 he became director of music at Morley College , where the previous April he had conducted the South London Orchestra in the premiere of his Concerto for Double String Orchestra . After completing the composition of A Child of Our Time in 1941 , Tippett worked on other projects , feeling that the oratorio 's pacifist message was out of touch with the prevailing national mood . Walter Goehr , who conducted the Morley College orchestra , advised delaying its first performance until a more propitious time . In February 1942 Tippett was assigned by the tribunal to non @-@ combative military duties . Following his appeal , this was changed to service either with Air Raid Precautions ( ARP ) , with the fire service or on the land . He felt obliged to refuse these directions , and as a result was sentenced in June 1943 to three months ' imprisonment , of which he served two months before his early release for good behaviour .
= = Performance history and reception = =
= = = Premiere = = =
After his release from prison in August 1943 , with encouragement from Britten and the youthful music critic John Amis , Tippett began to make arrangements for the oratorio 's first performance . Goehr agreed to conduct , but overrode the composer 's initial view that Morley College 's orchestra could handle the work and insisted that professionals were needed . Tippett records that " somehow or other the money was scraped together to engage the London Philharmonic Orchestra " . Morley College Choir 's choral forces were augmented by the London Regional Civil Defence Choir . Britten 's connection with Sadler 's Wells Opera brought three soloists to the project : Joan Cross ( soprano ) , Peter Pears ( tenor ) , and Roderick Lloyd ( bass ) . The fourth singer , Margaret MacArthur ( alto ) , came from Morley College . The premiere was arranged for 19 March 1944 , at London 's Adelphi Theatre . Before this event Amis introduced the work in an article for the February 1944 issue of The Musical Times , in which he predicted a noteworthy musical occasion : " The general style of the oratorio is simple and direct , and the music will , I think , have an immediate effect on both audience and performers " .
Later writers would state that A Child of Our Time placed Tippett in the first rank of the composers of his generation , and most of the early reviews were favourable . Among these , The Times 's critic called the work " strikingly original in conception and execution " , and wrote that Tippett had succeeded quite remarkably in writing an effective tract for the times . A second Times review , written a few days after the premiere , suggested that the oratorio had articulated a key contemporary question : " How is the conflict of the inevitable with the intolerable to be resolved ? " It pointed to the hope expressed in the final spiritual , " Deep River " , and concluded that despite some weak passages the work created a successful partnership between art and philosophy . William Glock in The Observer was laudatory : " The most moving and important work by an English composer for many years " . Glock found that the spirituals suited the themes of the oratorio perfectly , and had been arranged " with a profound sense of beauty " .
In The Musical Times Edwin Evans praised Tippett 's text : " simple and direct ... he has wisely resisted any temptation to use quasi @-@ biblical or ' Pilgrim 's Progress ' language . " Evans was uncertain whether the music was truly reflective of the words : " ... the emotion seemed singularly cool under the provocations described in the text " . Unlike Glock , Evans was unconvinced by the case for the inclusion of the spirituals : " [ T ] he peculiar poignancy they have in their traditional form tends to evaporate in their new environment " . Eric Blom , in Music & Letters , thought the idea of using spirituals " brilliant " , and the analogy with Bach 's chorales convincing . Blom was less enthusiastic about the text , which he found " very terse and bald – rather poor , really " — though he thought this preferable to the pomposities such as those that characterise libretti written for Handel . In his autobiography , Tippett makes only muted references to the premiere , noting that the event " had some mixed reviews " , but in a letter to his friend Francesca Allinson he professed himself delighted with the breadth of response to the work : " It 's got over not only to the ordinary listeners but even to the intellectuals like [ Mátyás ] Seiber , who has written to me of some of the ' lovely texture of some of the numbers ' " .
= = = Early performances = = =
The generally positive reception of the premiere persuaded Arthur Bliss , then serving as the BBC 's director of music , to arrange a broadcast performance of the work . This took place on 10 January 1945 shortly after which , in February , Tippett conducted the work at the Royal Albert Hall . The radio broadcast had been heard by Howard Hartog , a music writer and publisher who just after the war was in Occupied Germany , attempting to re @-@ establish the North German Radio Symphony Orchestra in Hamburg . As part of this endeavour he decided to mount a performance of A Child of Our Time , with Hans Schmidt @-@ Isserstedt conducting . Because of his pacifism and record as a conscientious objector , Tippett was not allowed into the occupied zone and thus missed the performance . However , in 1947 he was able to travel to Budapest where his friend , the Hungarian composer Mátyás Seiber , had organised a performance by Hungarian Radio . The local singers ' problems with the English text meant that the work was sung in Hungarian , which Tippett , who conducted , described as " a very odd experience " .
In the early 1950s Tippett attended a performance of the oratorio at the Radio Hall in Brussels , after which members of the audience expressed to him their gratitude for the work which , they said , exactly represented their wartime experiences . In December 1952 he travelled to Turin for a radio performance , conducted by Herbert von Karajan and with operatic stars Elisabeth Schwarzkopf and Nicolai Gedda among the soloists . He records that during the rehearsals the bass soloist , Mario Petri , had problems singing his recitatives , and that despite some coaching from the composer , was still " at sea " during the performance . Karajan asked Tippett if he would object to an extra interval in Part II , to which Tippett replied that he would mind very much . Karajan nevertheless imposed the break , thus presenting a four @-@ part version of the work .
= = = Wider audience = = =
In May 1962 A Child of Our Time received its Israel premiere in Tel Aviv . Tippett says that this performance was delayed because for a while there were local objections to the word " Jesus " in the text . When it came about , among the audience was Herschel Grynszpan 's father who , Tippett wrote , was " manifestly touched by the work his son 's precipitate action 25 years earlier had inspired . " The performance , by the Kol Yisrael Orchestra with the Tel Aviv Chamber Choir , was acclaimed by the audience of 3000 , but received mixed reviews from the press . The Times report noted contrasting opinions from two leading Israeli newspapers . The correspondent for Haaretz had expressed disappointment : " Every tone is unoriginal , and the work repeats old effects in a most conventional manner " . Conversely , according to the Times report , HaBoker 's critic had " found that the composition had moved everyone to the depths of his soul ... no Jewish composer had ever written anything so sublime on the theme of the Holocaust . "
Despite its successes in Europe A Child of Our Time did not reach the United States until 1965 , when it was performed during the Aspen Music Festival , with the composer present . In his memoirs Tippett mentions another performance on that American tour , at a women 's college in Baltimore , in which the male chorus and soloists were black Catholic ordinands from a local seminary . The first significant American presentations of the work came a decade later : at Cleveland in 1977 where Prince Charles , who was visiting , delayed his departure so that he could attend , and at Carnegie Hall , New York , where Colin Davis conducted the Boston Symphony Orchestra and the Tanglewood Festival Chorus . Reviewing this performance for The New York Times , Donal Henahan was unconvinced that the work 's " sincerity and unimpeachable intentions add [ ed ] up to important music " . The spirituals were sung with passion and fervour , but the rest was " reminiscent of a familiar pious sermon " in which the words were only intermittently intelligible . Meanwhile , the work had achieved its African debut , where in 1975 Tippett observed a performance with an improvised orchestra which incorporated the Zambian Police Band . The Zambian president , Kenneth Kaunda , was present , and entertained the composer afterwards .
= = = Later performances = = =
In October 1999 , in the year following Tippett 's death , A Child of Our Time received a belated New York Philharmonic premiere , at the Avery Fisher Hall . The New York Times reviewer , Paul Griffiths , expressed some astonishment that this was the orchestra 's first attempt at the work . As part of the celebrations for the centenary of the composer 's birth in January 2005 , English National Opera staged a dramatised performance of the work , directed by Jonathan Kent — coincidentally , the first performance fell in the week of the 60th anniversary of the liberation of the death camps at Auschwitz . Anna Picard , writing in The Independent , recognised the work 's sincerity but found the dramatisation of its pacifist message wholly inappropriate : " Do we really need to see a dozen well @-@ fed actors and singers stripped and led into a smoking pit in order to understand the Holocaust ? " Anthony Holden in The Observer was more positive , commenting that " If you must stage a work intended for concert performance ... it is hard to imagine a more effective version than Kent 's , shot through with heavy symbolism of which Tippett would surely have approved . " Nevertheless , Holden found the overall result " super @-@ solemn , lurching between the over @-@ literalistic and the portentous " . The 2005 Holocaust Days of Remembrance ( 1 – 8 May ) were marked at the Kennedy Center in Washington DC by a special performance of A Child of Our time , in which the Washington Chorus was directed by Robert Shafer . The piece was performed at the BBC Proms 2016 on 23rd July by the BBC National Orchestra and Chorus of Wales .
A Child of Our Time has survived periods of indifference , particularly in America , to be ranked alongside Britten 's War Requiem as one of the most frequently performed large @-@ scale choral works of the post @-@ Second World War period . According to Meirion Bowen , Tippett 's long @-@ time companion and a champion of his music , the work 's particular quality is its universal message , with which audiences all over the world have identified . In his notes accompanying the performance at the 2010 Grant Park Music Festival in Chicago , Richard E. Rodda summarises the work 's continuing appeal : " [ I ] t deals with issues as timeless as civilization itself — man 's inhumanity to man , the place of the individual who confronts ruthless power ... the need for learning the lessons of history and for compassion and understanding and honesty and equality in our dealings with each other , whatever our differences may be . Tippett 's Child still speaks profoundly to us in our own deeply troubled time " .
= = Music = =
Kemp describes Tippett 's central problem in composing A Child of Our Time as integrating the language of the spirituals with his own musical style . Tippett was , in Kemp 's view , entirely successful in this respect ; " O by and by " , he says , sounds as if it could almost have been composed by Tippett . To assist the process of integration the composer had obtained recordings of American singing groups , especially the Hall Johnson Choir , which provided him with a three @-@ part model for determining the relationships between solo voices and chorus in the spirituals : chorus , soloists , chorus . Tippett 's instructions in the score specify that " the spirituals should not be thought of as congregational hymns , but as integral parts of the Oratorio ; nor should they be sentimentalised but sung with a strong underlying beat and slightly ' swung ' " .
The brief orchestral prelude to Part I introduces the two contrasting moods which pervade the entire work . Kemp likens the opening " snarling trumpet triad " to " a descent into Hades " , but it is answered immediately by a gently mournful phrase in the strings . In general the eight numbers which comprise this first part each have , says Gloag , their own distinct texture and harmonic identity , often in a disjunctive relationship with each other , although the second and third numbers are connected by an orchestral " interludium " . From among the diverse musical features Steinberg draws attention to rhythms in the chorus " When Shall The Usurer 's City Cease " that illustrate Tippett 's knowledge of and feel for the English madrigal . What Kemp describes as " one of the supreme moments in Tippett 's music " occurs towards the end of the Part , as the soprano 's aria melts into the spiritual " Steal away " : " a [ transition ] so poignant as to set off that instant shock of recognition that floods the eyes with emotion ... although the soprano continues to grieve in a floating melisma , the spiritual comes as a relief as well as a release " .
Because of its large number ( 17 ) of generally short components , Part II is the most diffuse of the three parts , texturally and harmonically . The narrative is driven largely by alternating choruses and comments from the Narrator , with two brief operatic scenas in which the four soloists participate . Kemp finds in one of the choruses an allusion to " Sei gegrüsset " from Bach 's St John Passion , and hears traces of Elgar in the soprano 's solo " O my son ! " which begins the first scena . The narrative climax is reached with the " Spiritual of Anger " : " Go Down , Moses " , which Tippett arranges in the form of a chorale . This is followed by three short meditations from tenor , soprano and alto soloists , before a possible redemption is glimpsed in the spiritual which ends the Part , " O by and by " , with a soprano descant which Steinberg describes as " ecstatic " . Part III consists of only five numbers , each rather more extensive than most of those in the earlier sections of the oratorio . The Part has , on the whole , a greater unity than its predecessors . The musical and emotional climax to the whole work is the penultimate ensemble : " I Would Know my Shadow and my Light " . Kemp writes : " The whole work has been leading to this moment ... the ensemble flows into a rapturous wordless benediction [ before ] a modulation leads into ' Deep River ' " . In this final spiritual , for the first time the full vocal and instrumental resources are deployed . The oratorio ends quietly , on an extended pianissimo " Lord " .
The total vocal and instrumental resources required for the oratorio are a SATB chorus with soprano , alto , tenor and bass soloists , and an orchestra comprising two flutes , two oboes , English horn , two clarinets , two bassoons , contrabassoon , four horns , three trumpets , three trombones , timpani , cymbals and strings . According to the vocal score , the approximate duration of the work is 66 minutes .
= = Recordings = =
The first recording of A Child of Our Time was issued in 1958 , and remained the only available version for 17 years . Sir Colin Davis made the first of his three recordings of the work in 1975 . Tippett himself , at the age of 86 , conducted a recording of the work with the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra and Chorus in 1991 .
|
= Tyldesley =
Tyldesley ( / ˈtɪlzliː / or / ˈtɪlsliː / ) is a town in the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan in Greater Manchester , England . It is north of Chat Moss near the foothills of the West Pennine Moors , 7 @.@ 7 miles ( 12 @.@ 4 km ) east @-@ southeast of Wigan and 8 @.@ 9 miles ( 14 @.@ 3 km ) west @-@ northwest of Manchester . At the United Kingdom Census 2001 , Tyldesley including the outlying areas of Astley , Shakerley , Mosley Common and New Manchester , had a population of 34 @,@ 000 . In 2011 the Tyldesley ward of Wigan Council had a population of 14 @,@ 341 .
Historically in Lancashire , Tyldesley and its surroundings have provided evidence for the remains of a Roman road passing through the township on its ancient course between Coccium ( Wigan ) and Mamucium ( Manchester ) . Following the Anglo @-@ Saxon invasion of Britain , Tyldesley was part of the manor of Warrington , until the Norman conquest of England , when the settlement constituted a township called Tyldesley @-@ with @-@ Shakerley in the ancient parish of Leigh .
The factory system , and textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution , triggered a process of population growth and urbanisation such that by the early @-@ 20th century it was said that the newly emerged mill town was " eminently characteristic of an industrial district whose natural features have been almost entirely swept away to give place to factories , iron foundries , and collieries " . After industrial activity declined in the late @-@ 20th century , land reclamation and post @-@ war residential developments have altered the landscape and encouraged economic activity along Elliott Street — Tyldesley 's central commercial area and main thoroughfare .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
Tyldesley meaning " Tilwald 's clearing " is derived from the Old English ( OE ) personal name Tilwald ( or Tīlwald ) and leăh a " wood , clearing " , suggesting what is now open land was once covered with forest . The name was recorded as Tildesleiha in 1210 . Alternative spellings include Tildeslei , Tildeslege , Tildeslegh and Tildesley . Tyldesley is situated at the edge of the Lancashire Plain north of Chat Moss and the Banks is a sandstone ridge where the foothills of the Pennines begin and gave the town its early name of Tildsley Banks . The land rises from 100 feet ( 30 m ) at the foot of the banks to 250 feet ( 76 m ) at the highest point . Tyldesley is pronounced " Til @-@ slee " , and locally known as " Bongs " . In local pronunciation " Banks " was corrupted to " Bongs " . The old name for Mosley Common was the " Hurst " or " Tyldesleyhurst " , the suffix " hyrst " means a wooded hill ( OE ) .
= = = Earliest history = = =
The remains of a Roman road serving camps at Coccium ( Wigan ) and Mamucium ( Manchester ) passed through the area . It ran from Keeper Delph in Boothstown crossing Mort Lane north west of Cleworth Hall and south of Shakerley Old Hall . The road continued towards the Valley at Atherton where coins have been found , and on towards Gibfield and Wigan .
In 1947 , two urns containing about 550 Roman bronze coins , minted between AD 259 and AD 278 , were found near the old Tyldesley – Worsley border . The coins are in the British Museum . After the end of Roman rule in Britain and into the history of Anglo @-@ Saxon England , nothing was written about Tyldesley . Evidence for the presence of Saxons is provided by place names incorporating the Old English suffix leah , such as Tyldesley , Shakerley , and Astley .
= = = Manor houses = = =
The manor house was Astley Hall which , in 1212 , was home to Hugh Tyldesley , Lord of the Manors of Astley and Tyldesley . It is just inside the Tyldesley boundary but has been associated with Astley since the death of Henry Tyldesley in 1301 , when the manor was divided among three sons . The Tyldesleys had a " reputation for lawlessness and who had frequent disputes with their neighbours " . One exception was Hugh Tyldesley , Hugh the Pious , who endowed Cockersand Abbey with land in Shakerley before his death in 1226 . The moated New Hall in the Park of Tyldesley , close to the old manor house was in existence before 1422 when it belonged to Thomas Tyldesley .
The new manor , known as the Garrett , was owned by John Tyldesley in 1505 . The timber @-@ framed Garrett Hall remained with the Tyldesleys until 1652 when Lambert Tyldesley died leaving no heir . The new owners , the Stanleys , leased it to tenant farmers . In 1732 it was sold to Thomas Clowes who also leased the property to tenants . In 1829 the estate was bought by the Bridgewater Trustees .
The township had several other significant houses . Generations of the Shakerley family lived in Shakerley Old Hall , close to the Shakerley Brook and Roman road . In medieval times they paid rent to Cockersand Abbey and dues of " one pair of white gloves at the feast of Easter " to Adam Tyldesley . Chaddock Hall was home to a family of yeomen farmers . Its name was variously recorded as Chaydok , Chaidoke and Chaidok , the last syllable probably meaning " oak " . It was surrounded by a hamlet in the east of the township . The Chaddocks , like the Tyldesleys and Shakerleys , had a reputation for lawlessness .
The tenants of the Tyldesley , Shakerley and Chaddock lands were summoned for military service . Archers from Chaddock fought at Crécy in 1346 and at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 . In 1360 , William Chaddock was described as an archer on foot , " potens de corpore et bonis " . A muster roll described Hugh Tyldesley as an archer on horseback and Hugh Chaddock and Richard Tyldesley were foot @-@ archers drawing daily pay for service from 22 July to 21 October 1391 .
Cleworth Hall , recorded as Cluworth in 1333 , was part of the Tyldesley lands on higher ground north of the high road . It passed to Nicholas Starkie of Huntroyde by his marriage to Anne Parr in 1578 and in 1594 was associated with witchcraft . Two children , John and Anne Starkie became " possessed of evil spirits " . A well @-@ known " conjurer " or wise man , Edmund Hartley , was asked to cure them , which he apparently did before demanding money which was refused . Hartley threatened trouble and Starkie denounced him and Hartley was taken for trial to Lancaster Castle in 1597 where he was tried and found guilty of witchcraft . He was hanged , twice , as the rope broke at the first attempt .
= = = Banks Estate = = =
In the early 18th century Tyldesley was a collection of cottages and farms around the halls scattered across the township with no church or inn . Thomas Johnson , a Bolton merchant bought the Banks Estate in 1728 , land from the Stanleys of Garrett Hall in 1742 and Davenports in the west of the township in 1752 . He died in 1764 leaving his estate to his grandson with the same name . Thomas " Squire " Johnson developed the town of Tildsley Banks . His name lives on in Squires Lane and Johnson Street . The last quarter of the 18th century marked the beginning of a building boom and the grid plan of the town centre is from this date .
John Aikin described the area in 1795 in his book A Description of the Countryside from 30 to 40 Miles around Manchester :
The Banks of Tildesley , in the Parish of Leigh , are about one mile and a half in length , and command a most beautiful prospect into seven counties : the springs remarkably clear and most excellently adapted to the purposes of bleaching . The land is rich , but mostly in meadow and pastures , for milk , butter , and the noted Leigh cheese . The estate had , in the year 1780 , only two farm houses and eight or nine cottages , but now contains 162 houses , a neat chapel , and 976 inhabitants , who employ 325 looms in the cotton Manufactories ...
Tyldesley 's first inns were the Flaming Castle built in 1778 and the Green Dragon of 1781 . Fulwell House in Squires Lane was built in 1792 and occupied by local industrialists but was demolished in 1935 . Towards the end of the 18th century rows of two @-@ storey brick terraced houses were built at the west end of the town to house workers who had migrated there to work in the new factories .
= = = Industrial Revolution = = =
Until the Industrial Revolution , Tyldesley was rural , agriculture and cottage spinning and weaving , mainly muslin and fustian , were the chief occupations before 1800 . Silk weaving became an important cottage industry after 1827 when silk was brought from Manchester .
In 1772 Thomas Johnson opened the " Little Factory " for carding and spinning cotton . " The Great Leviathon " powered a steam @-@ driven mill for woollen spinning on Factory Street in 1792 . More cotton mills were built close to the Hindsford and Shakerley Brooks which provided water for steam power . In 1823 , after a strike for increased wages and lockout by the millowners at New Mills , owned by J & G Jones in Factory Street , the workforce was sacked and new hands hired to replace them . The scab labourers , knobsticks had to be protected from assault by the dismissed workers . Joseph Wilson built Hope Mill in James Street . By 1838 James Burton owned most of the town 's mills . He lived in Charles Street surrounded by his workers ' houses . His company owned 74 cottages and 57 cellars , a house in Elliot Street and the King 's Arms public house . Burton died in 1868 . In 1883 a fire at Burton 's mills caused £ 15 @,@ 000 damage ( equivalent to £ 1 @.@ 4 million in 2016 ) and by 1920 his mills were demolished . Caleb Wright owned Barnfield Mills which had a workforce of about 800 . The last of his mills , Barnfield No 6 on Shuttle Street , was built in 1894 on the site of Resolution Mill which was destroyed by fire in 1891 . Barnfield No 6 was a concrete @-@ floored multi @-@ storey mill for spinning , powered by an external engine house via a rope race . The mill was demolished in the 1990s and the site is occupied by a supermarket .
Coal had been got in Shakerley since at least 1429 when a dispute was recorded between the Shakerleys and the Tyldesleys over the stealing of " seacoals " . Shakerley Colliery on Shakerley Common was in existence in 1798 . Shakerley was a centre for making nails , but was in decline by 1800 .
After the railway was completed in 1864 , coal mining became the dominant industry and the town was surrounded by collieries for more than 100 years until the industry declined after the Second World War . Bridgewater Collieries , Tyldesley Coal Company , Shakerley Collieries and Astley and Tyldesley Collieries were among the local mine owners . Gin Pit Colliery closed in 1955 , Cleworth Hall in 1963 , Nook two years later , and Mosley Common in 1968 . Tyldesley Miners Association , established in 1862 , built the Miner 's Hall in 1893 and the Astley and Tyldesley Miner 's Club opened at Gin Pit in 1927 .
The worst mining disaster in the town occurred at Yew Tree Colliery on 11 December 1858 when an explosion of firedamp caused by a safety lamp cost 25 lives , the youngest victim was 11 , and the oldest , 35 years of age . Some of the victims are buried in the churchyard at St George 's Church . Another explosion on 6 March 1877 at Great Boys Colliery cost eight lives and on 2 October 1883 , six men died when the cage rope broke at Nelson Colliery in Shakerley . On 1 October 1895 five men including the colliery manager and undermanager died at Shakerley Colliery after an explosion of firedamp .
Grundy 's Foundry was another important employer . Its founder , John Grundy invented a warm air heating system that was used in churches and halls . He built a foundry close to the railway in Lower Elliot Street .
Industry declined after the Second World War and subsequent land reclamation and new housing developments have changed the face of the town , but its centre retains the atmosphere of a bustling market town , with a refurbished market square . The steep terraces branching off the main streets give the town a distinctive character .
= = Governance = =
Historically , Tyldesley formed part of the Hundred of West Derby , a judicial division of southwest Lancashire . Tyldesley cum Shakerley was one of the six townships or vills that made up and predated the ancient parish of Leigh . It was the largest of the townships at 2 @,@ 610 acres ( 1 @,@ 060 ha ) : Tyldesley having an area of 1 @,@ 970 acres ( 800 ha ) and Shakerley 520 acres ( 210 ha ) .
Under the terms of the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 the townships formed part of the Leigh Poor Law Union comprising an area covering the whole of the ancient parish of Leigh and part of Winwick , established on 26 January 1837 . A workhouse in Tyldesley was replaced by Leigh Union workhouse at Atherleigh in the 1850s . Tyldesley was constituted a civil parish in 1866 . In 1863 the Local Government Act 1858 was adopted and the township was governed by a local board of health . The first Tyldesley Local Board was formed after elections on 24 October 1863 . Among those elected were mill owners , Caleb Wright and Oliver Burton , and colliery owners , William Ramsden and George Green , a mixture of Tories and Liberals . The Local Board took over the gas works in 1865 , built the first swimming baths and opened Tyldesley Cemetery in 1876 and built sewage works at Morleys Hall in Astley in 1884 . The local board offices were in Lower Elliot Street , where it had a fire station and depot . Under the Public Health Act 1875 the local board gained additional powers as an urban sanitary district and under the Local Government Act 1894 Tyldesley @-@ with @-@ Shakerley became an urban district with an elected council . Tyldesley Town Hall , originally the township 's Liberal Club , opened in 1881 , and was taken over by Tyldesley Urban District Council as its headquarters in 1924 . Tyldesley UDC opened Tyldesley Park in 1902 , the Carnegie Library officially opened in 1909 , and after World War I council housing was built at Sale Lane and Mosley Common and after World War II in Shakerley .
In 1933 , Lancashire County Council reorganised districts in the county , with reference to the Local Government Act 1929 . A new Tyldesley Urban District was formed by amalgamating Tyldesley with Shakerley Urban District and the civil parish of Astley from the abolished Leigh Rural District . The urban district was abolished in 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972 , when the area became part of the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan , a local government district of the metropolitan county of Greater Manchester .
Tyldesley is an electoral ward of the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan electing three councillors to the 75 @-@ member metropolitan borough council , Wigan 's local authority . As of 2015 , two ward councillors represent the Labour Party and one is an Independent .
The Boundary Commission recommended Tyldesley should be part of the Leigh constituency at the 2010 general election . At the 2010 General Election , Andy Burnham retained the Leigh seat for the Labour party with 24 @,@ 295 votes and a majority of 15 @,@ 011 , representing 51 @.@ 3 % of the vote . Burnham was re @-@ elected MP for the Leigh constituency in 2015 with 24 @,@ 312 votes which was 53 @.@ 9 % of the total vote cast .
= = Geography = =
At 53 ° 30 ′ 59 ″ N 2 ° 28 ′ 0 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 5166 ° , − 2 @.@ 4668 ° ) , and 170 miles ( 274 km ) northwest of central London , Tyldesley is situated 7 @.@ 7 miles ( 12 @.@ 4 km ) east @-@ southeast of Wigan and 8 @.@ 9 miles ( 14 @.@ 3 km ) west @-@ northwest of the city of Manchester , and at the eastern end of the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan . Tyldesley and Shakerley cover 2 @,@ 490 @-@ acre ( 1 @,@ 010 ha ) Topographically Tyldesley is situated the edge of the Lancashire Plain just to the north of Chat Moss and the Banks of Tyldesley are where the foothills of the Pennines begin . The land rises from about 100 ft ( 30 m ) at the foot of the banks to 250 ft ( 76 m ) at the highest point . The banks , a sandstone escarpment with the scarp slope facing south and the gentler dip to the north , are about one and a half miles long . The underlying rocks are the coal measures of the Manchester Coalfield covered with boulder clay . Streams drain the area including the Shakerley and Hindsford Brooks which flow towards the Glaze Brook a tributary of the River Mersey .
Heavily industrialised during the 19th century , Tyldesley has become a residential area since the demise of the coal industry and closure of its cotton mills . The main road through Tyldesley is the A577 which runs on the high ground along the ridge on which the town centre is situated .
= = Demography = =
At the 2001 UK census , Tyldesley had a population of 34 @,@ 022 and a population density of 13 @,@ 789 inhabitants per square mile ( 5 @,@ 324 / km2 ) , with a female @-@ to @-@ male ratio of 100 to 97 @.@ 4 . Of those over 16 years old , 27 @.@ 3 % were single ( never married ) , 47 @.@ 8 % married and 8 @.@ 2 % divorced . Although the proportion of divorced people was similar to that of Wigan and England , the rates of those who were single and married were significantly different from the national and Wigan averages ( Wigan : 42 @.@ 4 % single , 36 @.@ 6 % married ; England : 44 @.@ 3 % single , 34 @.@ 7 % married ) . Tyldesley 's 13 @,@ 621 households included 24 @.@ 0 % one @-@ person , 46 @.@ 1 % married couples living together , 10 @.@ 2 % were co @-@ habiting couples , and 9 @.@ 0 % single parents with their children . Of those aged 16 – 74 , 27 @.@ 0 % had no academic qualifications , lower than 28 @.@ 9 % in all of England and much lower than the 35 @.@ 3 % for the Wigan borough .
= = = Population change = = =
In 2001 Wigan Council 's Tyldesley ward had a population of 13 @,@ 459 . In 2011 the ward population had increased to 14 @,@ 341 .
= = Economy = =
According to the United Kingdom Census 2001 , the industry of employment of residents aged 16 – 74 was 18 @.@ 1 % retail and wholesale , 16 @.@ 5 % manufacturing , 12 @.@ 1 % property and business services , 10 @.@ 9 % health and social work , 7 @.@ 4 % education , 7 @.@ 1 % transport and communications , 7 @.@ 6 % construction , 5 @.@ 8 % public administration , 5 @.@ 0 % finance , 4 @.@ 1 % hotels and restaurants , 0 @.@ 8 % energy and water supply , 0 @.@ 5 % agriculture , 0 @.@ 1 % mining , and 4 @.@ 2 % other . Compared with national figures , the town had a relatively low percentage working in agriculture . The census recorded the economic activity of residents aged 16 – 74 , 2 @.@ 6 % students were with jobs , 3 @.@ 2 % students without jobs , 4 @.@ 7 % looking after home or family , 6 @.@ 7 % permanently sick or disabled , and 2 @.@ 1 % economically inactive for other reasons .
The main concentrations of employment are at Chaddock Lane between Astley and Mosley Common and at Parr Brow to the north of Mosley Common .
= = Landmarks = =
For many years Tyldesley 's landscape was dominated by factory chimneys and pit headgear . Since the closure of the mines and demolition of the factories , St George 's Church — one of the few structures in the town built of stone , with a spire rising to 150 feet ( 46 m ) in height — and Top Chapel in the Market Square have become the chief landmarks ; both are Grade II listed buildings . Tyldesley 's built environment is almost uniformly constructed of brick .
Among the listed buildings in Tyldesley are Chaddock Hall and Damhouse , both Grade II listed . Chaddock Hall is a private residence and Damhouse or Astley Hall is a heritage centre having previously been used as the office block for Astley Hospital .
= = Transport = =
Edward Entwistle , the driver of the first inter @-@ city scheduled passenger train in the world , was born in Tyldesley in 1815 . He drove the passenger service on the Liverpool to Manchester railway .
In 1861 the London and North Western Railway revived powers granted to the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway to build a railway from Eccles to Wigan through the town . Tyldesley railway station was to the east of the junction of the branch to Kenyon Junction on the Liverpool to Manchester Line via Leigh and Pennington . The Earl of Ellesmere cut the first sod at Worsley on 11 September 1861 and the line opened to traffic on 1 September 1864 . The Tyldesley Loopline closed on 3 May 1969 as a result of the Beeching Axe .
In 1900 , a Bill authorising South Lancashire Tramways to construct more than 62 miles ( 100 km ) of tramway in southern Lancashire was given Royal Assent . However , by November 1900 the South Lancashire Electric Traction and Power Company had acquired the shares . The first section of tramway opened on 20 October 1902 between Lowton and Four Lanes Ends via Leigh and Atherton and on 25 October 1902 a branch from Atherton to Tyldesley was opened and Tyldesley got its first tram . The company got into financial difficulty and in turn became Lancashire United Tramways later Lancashire United Transport . In August 1931 trams were replaced by trolley buses . Because of Tyldesley 's narrow streets trams and trolley buses had to follow a one @-@ way system ; eastbound trams ran along Shuttle Street and Milk Street and westbound used Elliot Street and Castle Street , a system now used by all traffic . Tyldesley is connected to neighbouring towns by bus services operated by Diamond Bus North West of Atherton and First Greater Manchester .
The former trackbed of the Tyldesley Loopline route to the A580 , within the Wigan MBC area was reserved in the Unitary Development Plan in case the rail route could be reinstated . A guided busway was built on the former trackbed but the proposal was not universally popular . After consultations work started on the 4 @.@ 5 @-@ mile busway from Leigh to Ellenbrook in 2013 . It has four stops , Cooling Lane , Astley Street , Hough Lane and Sale Lane and one of its three park and ride sites in Tyldesley . A pathway for walkers , cyclists and horse riders runs alongside it .
= = Education = =
George Ormerod gave a site for a national school near St George 's Church , it catered for all age groups when it opened in 1827 . A day school was opened in the old Wesley Chapel in 1856 and in 1864 was replaced by new school which lasted until 1912 . A church school opened in Johnson St in 1872 and closed the 1960s . The British School in Upper George Street opened in 1902 . Its premises are now the Community Life Centre . The Mission School or Central C of E School in Darlington Street opened in 1892 . A board school opened in Lower Elliott Street in 1913 which was used for girls ' secondary education after 1935 . Garrett Hall Boys Secondary School opened in 1935 .
St George 's Central Primary School , built in the late 1990s is an amalgamation of the historical St George 's C of E and Central C of E School . Other primary schools are Tyldesley Primary School and Garrett Hall Primary . Until 2007 there was a school in Shakerley but this has closed . Kingshill Special School occupying the old girls ' secondary school , has closed .
The main school for secondary education in Tyldesley is Fred Longworth High School , which was awarded Arts College status in 1998 . Children in Tyldesley also attend other high schools in the area including , St Mary 's Catholic High School in Astley , the only Catholic high school and sixth form in the area .
= = Religion = =
John Wesley preached in Shakerley four times , between 1748 and 1752 , laying the foundations for a place of worship . In the 1780s George Whitfield who worked with Wesley early in his ministry also preached there . Tyldesley 's first place of worship , Top Chapel was built in the Square in 1789 for the Countess of Huntingdon 's Connexion which had broken from the Church of England . Thomas Johnson , gifted the site on the highest point of Tyldesley and Lady Huntingdon , a supporter of Wesley supplied money for building materials . The chapel became known as Top Chapel from its geographical location .
Before 1825 Tyldesley had no established church , and lay within the ancient parish of Leigh in the Diocese of Chester . The diocese divided in 1847 , when the present Diocese of Manchester was created . For ritual baptisms , marriages and burials , the population , had to travel to churches outside of the township 's boundaries , Leigh Parish Church or its daughter churches , Astley Chapel or Atherton Chapel or to Deane or Eccles .
The St George 's Church a chapel of ease to Leigh , St Mary 's , was built in 1825 on land donated by Thomas Johnson . It was a Commissioners ' Church , paid for by money from the parliament of the United Kingdom raised by the Church Building Act 1818 , said to be a celebration of Britain 's victory in the Battle of Waterloo . Robert Smirke an official architect to the Office of Works , advised the Parliamentary Commissioners on the building of new churches from 1818 onwards , including St George 's . The chapel was consecrated on 19 September 1825 , dedicated to England 's patron saint . The church could seat 1 @,@ 100 people , it is 112 feet ( 34 m ) in length , 60 feet ( 18 m ) in width and its spire , a local landmark is 150 feet ( 46 m ) in height . George Ormerod gave the land for the churchyard and also six bells which were cast at Downham Market .
There were chapels of the Congregational , Primitive Methodist , Wesleyan Methodist , Baptist , Welsh Congregational , Welsh Calvinistic and Independent Methodist connexions . Welsh chapels served the Welsh people who migrated toto the town after the opening of the railway in 1864 .
= = Sport = =
The idea for a public swimming baths came from millowner , Caleb Wright . The Local Board built the baths in Union Street at a cost of £ 1 @,@ 300 ( £ 110 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) and they opened to great celebrations in 1876 . Tyldesley Swimming Club was formed as soon as the baths opened . The baths closed on health grounds in 1960 and the closed Majestic Cinema on Castle Street was converted into public baths in 1964 . The pool is now the Pelican Centre .
Before the 1895 schism in English rugby , John Berry played rugby union for England , and Tyldesley FC which was founded in 1881 . After the schism , the club was a founder member of the Northern Rugby Football Union ( now Rugby League ) and played for five seasons from 1895 – 96 to 1899 – 1900 finishing 6th of 22 in the initial combined league . The club rejoined the Rugby Football Union in 1911 playing at Well Street for many years before moving to St George 's Park on Astley Street in November 2001 . In 2008 / 09 season the 1st XV lost 8 – 7 to Cullompton in the Senior Vase Final at Twickenham .
Long @-@ distance runner Fred Norris worked underground at Cleworth Hall Colliery and competed in the 1952 Helsinki and 1956 Melbourne Olympics .
Tyldesley was the birthplace of professional wrestler , Lord James Blears .
= = Culture = =
Tyldesley 's wealth as an industrial town resulted in outlets for the entertainment of its population , including cinemas and public houses . Films were shown in Tyldesley Miners ' Hall from 1908 . Three cinemas were built in the town , the Theatre Royal in John Street opened in 1909 , the Carlton on Johnson Street in 1911 , and the Majestic in Castle Street in 1923 . In 1902 the council acquired land for a public park on Astley Street . A public library was built in 1908 with the aid of an Andrew Carnegie grant , on the site of the old Temperance Hall and Mechanics Institute on Stanley Street built in 1851 .
Founded in 1877 , Tyldesley Good Templars Band was the town 's first brass band . Tyldesley Band is a member of the North West Brass Band Association and meets in the chapel on Milk Street . Tyldesley Little Theatre in Lemon Street is home to an amateur dramatic society , members of the Greater Manchester Drama Federation . The auditorium is a small 150 @-@ seat theatre with a traditional proscenium arch stage , stalls and balcony seating . The town 's industrial landscape was recorded in the 1960s and 1970s in the paintings and prints of artist Roger Hampson .
= = Public services = =
Tyldesley is policed by the Greater Manchester Police force from Atherton Police Station , which covers Atherton , Tyldesley , Astley and Mosley Common . The statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the Greater Manchester Fire and Rescue Service , from Leigh and Atherton fire stations . Health services in the Wigan borough are provided by the Wigan Borough Clinical Commissioning Group . Hospital services are provided by the Wrightington , Wigan and Leigh NHS Foundation Trust , which provides an Accident and Emergency service at Wigan Hospital and outpatient clinics at Leigh Infirmary .
Waste management is co @-@ ordinated by Wigan Metropolitan Council , which is a statutory waste disposal authority in its own right . Tyldesley 's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is Electricity North West . United Utilities manage Tyldesley 's drinking and waste water .
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.